UC-NRLF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL; THE WHOLE METHODICALLY ARRANGED AND AMPLY ILLUSTRATED; WITH OP CORRECTING AND OF PAUSING, IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, EXAMPLES FOR I*A: BSnoiffl FOB EXAMINATION. EXKFICI.SES FOH WHITING, OBSERVATIONS THE ADVANCED STl'DI-AT. DECISIONS AND I'ROuKS FOR THE SETTLl-MJiJH OF DISPUTED*- POINTS, OCCASIONAL STRICTURES AND DEFENCES, AN EXHIBITION OF TILE SEVERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS, AND A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: TO WHICH ARE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES, PERTAINING SEPARATELY TO THE FOUR PARTS OF GRAMMAR. BY GOOLD BROWN, FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF AN ES'.I.:-H ABB '-V YORK; AUTHOR OF TBZ IKBTITDTE8 OF UKAMMAR, THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ETC. .t authors have their due, that Time, who Is the author of authors, be not deprived of hia due, which i*, farther and farther to discover truth."- I.uiiu 11 XEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY SAMt'KL S. & WILLIAM WOOD, No. 261 PEARL STREET, 1851. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, BY GOOLD BROWN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. BOSTON: PRINTED BY DAMRELL & MOORE, No. 16 DEVONSHIRE STREET, 1850 and 1851. PREFACE. The present performance is, so far as the end could be reached, the fulfillment of a design, formed about twenty-seven years ago, of one day presenting to the world, if I might, some- thing like a complete grammar of the English language ; not a mere work of criticism, nor yet a work too tame, indecisive, and uncritical ; for, in books of either of these sorts, our libraries already abound ; not a mere philosophical investigation of what is general or universal in grammar, nor yet a minute detail of what forms only a part of our own phi- lology ; for either of these plans falls very far short of such a purpose ; not a mere gram- matical compend, abstract, or compilation, sorting with other works already before the public ; for, in the production of school grammars, the author had early performed his part ; and, of small treatises on this subject, we have long had a superabundance rather than a lack. After about fifteen years devoted chiefly to grammatical studies and exercises, during most of which time I had been alternately instructing youth in four different languages, thinking it practicable to effect some improvement upon the manuals which explain our own, I pre- pared and published, for the use of schools, a duodecimo volume of about three hundred pages ; which, upon the presumption that its principles were conformable to the best usage, and well established thereby, I entitled, "the Institutes of English Grammar." Of this work, which, it is believed, has been gradually gaining in reputation and demand ever since its first publication in 1823, there is no occasion to say more here, than that it was the result of diligent study, and that it is, essentially, the nucleus, or the groundwork, of the present volume. AVith much additional labour, the principles contained in the Institutes of English Gram- mar, have here been not only reaffirmed and rewritten, but occasionally improved in ex- pression, or amplified in their details. New topics, new definitions, new rules, have also been added ; and all parts of the subject have been illustrated by a multiplicity of new examples and exercises, which it has required a long time to amass and arrange. To the main doctrines, also, are here subjoined many new observations and criticisms, which are the results of no inconsiderable reading and reflection. Regarding it as my business and calling, to work out the above-mentioned purpose as circumstances might permit, I have laid no claim to genius, none to infallibility ; but I have endeavoured to be accurate, and aspired to be useful ; and it is a part of my plan, that the reader of this volume shall never, through my fault, be left in doubt as to the origin of any thing it contains. It is but the duty of an author, to give every needful facility for a fair estimate of his work ; and, whatever authority there may be for anonymous copying in -works on grammar, the precedent is always bad. The success of other labours, answerable to moderate wishes, has enabled me to pursue this task under favourable circumstances, and with an unselfish, independent aim. Not with vainglorious pride, but with reverent gratitude to God, I acknowledge this advantage, giving thanks for the signal mercy which has upborne me to the long-continued effort. Had the case been otherwise, had the labours of the school-room been still demanded for my support, the present large volume would never have appeared. I had desired some leisure for the completing of this design, and to it I scrupled not to sacrifice the profits of my main employment, as soon as it could be done without hazard of adding an other chap- ter to " the Calamities of Authors." The nature and design of this treatise are perhaps sufficiently developed in connexion with the various topics which are successively treated of in the Introduction. That method of teaching, which I conceive to be the best, is also there described. And, in the Gram- M559419 IV PREFACE. mar itself, there will be found occasional directions concerning the manner of its use. I have hoped to facilitate the study of the English language, not by abridging our grammat- ical code, or by rejecting the common phraseology of its doctrines, but by extending the former, improving the latter, and establishing both ; but still more, by" furnishing new illustrations of the subject, and arranging its vast number of particulars in such order that every item may be readily found. An other important purpose, which, in the preparation of this work, has been borne con- stantly in mind, and judged worthy of very particular attention, was the attempt to settle, so far as the most patient investigation and the fullest exhibition of proofs could do it, the multitudinous and vexatious disputes which have hitherto divided the sentiments of teachers, and made the study of English grammar so uninviting, unsatisfactory, and unprofitable, to the student whose taste demands a reasonable degree of certainty. " Whenever labour implies the exertion of thought, it does good, at least to the strong : when the saving of labour is a saving of thought, it enfeebles. The mind, like the body, is strengthened by hard exercise : but, to give this exercise all its salutary effect, it should be of a reasonable kind ; it should lead us to the perception of regularity, of order, of prin- ciple, of a law. When, after all the trouble we have taken, we merely find anomalies and confusion, we are disgusted with what is so uncongenial : and, as our higher faculties have not been called into action, they are not unlikely to be outgrown by the lower, and over- borne as it were by the underwood of our minds. Hence, no doubt, one of the reasons why our language has been so much neglected, and why such scandalous ignorance prevails con- cerning its nature and history, is its unattractive, disheartening irregularity : none but Satan is fond of plunging into chaos." Philological Museum, (Cambridge, Eng., 1832,) Vol. i, p. 666. If there be any remedy for the neglect and ignorance here spoken of, it must be found in the more effectual teaching of English grammar. But the principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influence over any person's manner of speaking or writing, till by some process they are made so perfectly familiar, that he can apply them with all the readiness of a native power ; that is, till he can apply them not only to what has been said or written, but to whatever he is about to utter. They must present themselves to the mind as by intuition, and with the quickness of thought ; so as to regulate his language before it proceeds from the lips or the pen. If they come only by tardy recollection, or are called to mind but as contingent after-thoughts, they are altogether too late ; and serve merely to mortify the speaker or writer, by reminding him of some deficiency or inaccuracy which there may then be no chance to amend. But how shall, or can, this readiness be acquired? I answer, By a careful attention to such exercises as are fitted to bring the learner's knowledge into practice. The student will therefore find, that I have given him something to do, as well as something to learn. But, by the formules and directions in this work, he is very carefully shown how to proceed ; and, if he be a tolerable reader, it will be his own fault, if he does not, by such aid, become a tolerable grammarian. The chief of these exercises are the parsing of what is right, and the correcting of what is wrong ; both, perhaps, equally important ; and I have intended to make them equally easy. To any real proficient in grammar, nothing can be more free from embarrassment, than the performance of these exercises, in all ordinary cases. For grammar, rightly learned, institutes in the mind a certain knowledge, or process of thought, concerning the sorts, properties, and relations, of all the words which can be presented in any intelligible sentence ; and, with the initiated, a perception of the construction will always instantly follow or accompany a discovery of the sense : and instantly, too, should there be a perception of the error, if any of the words are misspelled, misjoined, misapplied, or are, in any way, unfaithful to the sense intended. Thus it is the great end of grammar, to secure the power of apt expression, by causing the principles on which language is constructed, if not to be constantly present to the mind, at least to pass through it more rapidly than either pen or voice can utter words. And where this .power resides, there cannot but be a proportionate degree of critical skill, or of ability to judge of the language of others. Present what you will, grammar directs the mind immediately to a consideration of the sense ; and, if properly taught, always creates a discriminating taste which is not less offended by specious absurdities, than by the common blunders of clownishness. Every one who has any pretensions to this art, knows that, to parse a sentence, is but to resolve it according to one's understanding of its import ; and it is equally clear, that the power to correct an erroneous passage, usually demands or implies a knowledge of the author's thought. But, if parsing and correcting are of so great practical importance as our first mention of them suggests, it may be well to be more explicit here concerning them. The pupil who cannot perform these exercises both accurately and fluently, is not truly prepared to per- form them at all, and has no right to expect from any body a patient hearing. A slow and faltering rehearsal of words clearly prescribed, yet neither fairly remembered nor under- standingly applied, is as foreign from parsing or correcting, as it is from elegance of diction, Divide and conquer, is the rule here, as in many other cases. Begin with what is simple ; PREFACE. V practise it till it becomes familiar ; and then proceed. No child ever learned to speak by any other process. Hard things become easy by use ; and skill is gained by little and little. Of the whole method of parsing, it should be understood, that it is to be a critical exer- cise in utterance, as well as an evidence of previous study, an exhibition of the learner's attainments in the practice, as well as in the theory, of grammar ; and that, in any toler- able performance of this exercise, there must be an exact adherence to the truth of facts, as they occur in the example, and to the forms of expression, -which are prescribed as models, in the book. For parsing is, in no degree, a work of invention ; but wholly an exercise, an exertion of skill. It is, indeed, an exercise for all the powers of the mind, ex- cept the inventive faculty. Perception, judgement, reasoning, memory, and method, are indispensable to the performance. Nothing is to be guessed at, or devised, or uttered at random. If the learner can but rehearse the necessary definitions and rules, and perform the simplest exercise of judgement in their application, he cannot but perceive what he must say in order to speak the truth in parsing. His principal difficulty is in determining the parts of speech. To lessen this, the trial should commence with easy sentences, also with few of the definitions, and with definitions that have been perfectly learned. This difficulty being surmounted, let him follow the forms prescribed for the several praxes of this work, and he shall not err. The directions and examples given at the head of each exercise, will show him exactly the number, the order, and the proper phraseology, of the particulars to be stated; so that he may go through the explanation with every advantage which a book can afford. Tacre is no hope of him whom these aids will not save from " plunging into chaos." " Of all the works of man, language is the most enduring, and partakes the most of eter- nity. And, as our own language, so far as thought can project itself into the future, seems likely to be coeval with the world, and to spread vastly beyond even its present immeas- urable limits, there cannot easily be a nobler object of ambition than to purify and better it." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 665. It was some ambition of the kind here meant, awakened by a discovery of the scandal- ous errors and defects which abound in all our common English grammars, that prompted me to undertake the present work. Now, by the bettering of a language, I understand little else than the extensive teaching of its just forms, according to analogy and the general custom of the most accurate writers. This teaching, however, may well embrace also, or be combined with, an exposition of the various forms of false grammar by which inaccurate writers have corrupted, if not the language itself, at least their own style in it. With respect to our present English, I know not whether any other improvement of it ought to be attempted, than the avoiding and correcting of those improprieties and unwar- rantable anomalies by which carelessness, ignorance, and. affectation, are ever tending to debase it, and the careful teaching of its true grammar, according to its real importance in education. What further amendment is feasible, or is worthy to engage attention, I will not pretend to say ; nor do I claim to have been competent to so much as was manifestly desirable within these limits. But what I lacked in ability, I have endeavoured to supply by diligence ; and what I could conveniently strengthen by better authority than my own, I have not failed to support with all that was due, of names, guillemots, and references. Like every other grammarian, I stake my reputation as an author, upon " a certain set of opinions," and a certain manner of exhibiting them, appealing to the good sense of my readers for the correctness of both. All contrary doctrines are unavoidably censured by him who attempt? to sustain his own ; but, to grammatical censures, no more importance ought to be attached than what belongs to grammar itself. He who cares not to be ac- curate in the use of language, is inconsistent with himself, if he be offended at verbal criti- cism ; and he who is displeased at finding his opinions rejected, is equally so, if he cannot prove them to be well founded. It is only in cases susceptible of a rule, that any writer can be judged deficient. I can censure no man for differing from me, till I can show him a principle which he ought to follow. According to Lord Kames, the standard of taste, both in arts and in manners, is " the common sense of mankind," a principle founded in the universal c eviction of a common nature in our species. (See Elements of Criticism, Chap, xxv, Vol. ii, p. 3 >J.) If this is so, the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any thing about whio.h criticism may concern itself. But, to the discerning student or teacher, I owe an apology for the abundant condescen- sion with which I have noticed in this volume the works of unskillful grammarians. For men of sense have no natural inclination to dwell upon palpable offences against taste and scholarship ; nor can they be easily persuaded to approve the course of an author who makes it his business to criticise petty productions. And is it not a fact, that grammatical authorship has sunk so low, that no man who is capable of perceiving its multitudinous errors, dares now stoop to notice the most flagrant of its abuses, or the most successful of its abusers ? And, of the quackery which is now so prevalent, what can be a more natural effect, than a very general contempt for the study of grammar ? My apology to the reader therefore is, that, a-j the honour of our language demands correctness in all the manuals VI PREFACE. prepared for schools, a just exposition of any that are lacking in this point, is a service due to the study of English grammar, if not to the authors in question. The exposition, however, that I have made of the errors and defects of other writers, is only an incident, or underpart, of the scheme of this treatise. Nor have I anywhere ex- hibited blunders as one that takes delight in their discovery. My main design has been, to prepare a work which, by its own completeness and excellence, should deserve the title here chosen. But, a comprehensive code of false grammar being confessedly the most ef- fectual means of teaching what is true, I have thought fit to supply this portion of my book, not from anonymous or uncertain sources, but from the actual text of other authors, and chiefly from the works of professed grammarians. " In what regards the laws of grammatical purity," says Dr. Campbell, " the violation is much more conspicuous than the observance." See Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 190. It there- fore falls in with my main purpose, to present to the public, in the following ample work, a condensed mass of special criticisms, such as is not elsewhere to be found in any language. And, if the littleness of the particulars to which the learner's attention is called, be reck- oned an objection, the author last quoted has furnished for me, as well as for himself, a good apology. " The elements which enter into the composition of the hugest bodies, are sub- tile and inconsiderable. The rudiments of every art and science exhibit at first, to the learner, the appearance of littleness and insignificancy. And it is by attending to such re- flections, as to a superficial observer would appear minute and hypercritical, that language must be improved, and eloquence perfected." Ib. p. 244. GOOLD BROWN. LYNN, MASS., 1851. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Chapter I. Of the Science of Gram- mar : Chapter II. Of Grammatical Authorship ; Chapter III. Of Grammatical Success and Fame ; Chapter IV. Of the Origin of Language ; Chapter V. Of the Power of Language ; Chapter VI. Of the Origin and History ofthe English Language ; . . . . PAGE. 1. 11. 20. 37. 46. 56. PAGE. Chapter VII. Changes and Specimens of the English Language; 63. Chapter VIII. Of the Grammatical Study of the English Language ; . 76. Chapter IX. Of the Best Method of Teaching Grammar; 8-5! Chapter X. Of Grammatical Definitions ; 99. Chapter XI. Brief Notices of the Schemes of certain Grammars ; . . 114. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. Introductory Definitions, and General Divison of the Subject; PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Chapter I. Of Letters; . . . . I. Names of the Letters ; . . . II. Classes of the Letters ; . . III. Powers of the Letters; . . IV. Forms of the Letters; . . Rules for the use of Capitals ; . . Errors concerning Capitals ; . . Promiscuous Errors of Capitals ; Chapter II. Of Syllables; . . . Diphthongs and Triphthongs ; . Rules for Syllabication; . . . Observations on Syllabication ; . Errors concerning Syllables ; . . 134. 136. 141. 14o. 152. 1,53. 161. 167. 169. 169. 170. 170. 173. Chapter III. Of Words; Rules for the Figure of Words ; Observations on Figure of Words ; . On the Identity of Words; .... Errors concerning Figure ; . . . . Promiscuous Errors in Figure ; . . . Chapter IV. Of Spelling; Rules for Spelling; Observations on Spelling ; . . . . Errors in Spelling ; Promiscuous Errors in Spelling ; . . Chapter V. Questions on Orthography ; Chapter VI. Exercises for Writing ; . PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Introductory Definitions; 213. Chapter I Of the Parts of Speech 213. Observations on Parts of Speech ; 214. Examples for Parsing, 1'r.ixis I ; 216. Chapter II. Of the Articles; . . 218. Observations on the Articles ; . 219. Examples for Parsing, Praxis II; 225. Errors concerning Articles; . . 227. Chapter III. Of Nouns; 230. Classes of Nouns; 231. Modifications of Nouns; 231. Persons; 231. Numbers; 233 Genders; 214. Cases; 217. The Declension of Nouns; .... 253. >'\:imples for I'iirsinz, Praxis III; . 2o3. Errors concerning Nouns ; . . . . 2-55. Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; .... 2)7. Classes of Adjectives ; 2->8. Modifications of Adjectives; . . , . 26-5. Regular Comparison ; . . . . Comparison by Adverbs ; . . . Irregular Comparison ; . . . Examples for Parsing, Praxis IV ; Errors concerning Adjectives ; Chapter V. Of Pronouns; . . . Classes of the Pronouns ; . . . Modifications of the Pronouns; . The Declension of Pronouns; Examples for Parsing, Praxis V ; . Errors concerning Pronouns; Chapter VI. Of Verbs ; . . . . Clis-os of Verbs ; Modifications of Verbs ; . . . . Moods; Tenses ; Persons and Numbers ; . . . The Conjugation of Verbs ; . . I. Simple Form, Active or Neuter First Kxumple, the verb LOVE ; Second Example, the verb SEE ; 131. 174. 17o. 176. 177. 179. 182. 184. 184. 188. 19-5. 203. 204. 206. 271. 271. 273. 277. 280. 282. 284. 294. 296. 311. 314. 316. 316. 322. 322. 326. 328. 344. 349. 349. 353. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Third Example, the verb BE; . . . 355. ' ; II. Compound or Progressive Form ; . 358. Fourth Example, to BE READING ; 358. Observations on Compound Forms ; . 360. III. Form of Passive Verbs ; . . . . 368. Fifth Example, to BE LOVED; . . 368. IV. Form of Negation ; 370. V. Form of Question ; 371. VI. Form of Question with Negation; 371. Irregular Verbs, with Obs. and List ; . 373. Redundant Verbs with Obs. and List ; 377. Defective Verbs, with Obs. and List ; . 383. Examples for Parsing, Praxis VI ;. . 385. Errors concerning Verbs ; 388. Chapter VII. Of Participles ; . . . . 390. Classes of Participles; 3 2. Examples for Parsing, Praxis VII ; . 397. Errors concerning Participles ; . . . 399. Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs ; . . . . 401. PAGE. Classes of Adverbs; 402. Modification of Adverbs ; 405. Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII ; . 407. Errors concerning Adverbs ; . . . . 409. Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions ; . . . 409. Classes of Conjunctions ; 411. List of the Conjunctions ; 411. Examples for Parsing, Praxis IX; . . 413. Errors concerning Conjunctions ; . . 415. Chapter X. Of Prepositions ; . . . . 416. List of the Prepositions ; . . . . . 421. Examples for Parsing, Praxis X ; . . 424. Errors concerning Prepositions ; . . . 426. Chapter XL Of Interjections ; . . . . 427. List of the Interjections; ..... 428. Examples for Parsing, Praxis XI ;. . 429. Errors concerning Interjections ; . . 431. Chapter XII. Questions on Orthography; 431. Chapter XIII. Exercises for Writing; . 436. PART III. SYNTAX. Introductory Definitions ; .... Chapter I. Of Sentences; .... The Rules of Syntax ; General or Critical Obs. on Syntax ; The Analyzing of Sentences^ . The several Methods of Analysis ; Observations on Methods of Analysis ; * Examples for Parsing, Praxis XII Chapter II. Of the Articles ; . . Rule I. Syntax of Articles ; . . Observations on Rule I ; . . . Notes to Rule I ; 17 of them ; . False Syntax under Notes to Rule I Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns ; Rule II. Of Nominatives ; . . Observations on Rule II ; ... False Syntax under Rule II ; . Rule III. Of Apposition; . . Observations on Rule III ; . . False Synax under Rule III; . Rule IV. Of Possessives ; . . Observations on Rule IV; Notes to Rule IV ; 5 of them ; . . . False Syntax under Notes to Rule IV ; Rule v. Of Objectives after Verbs; Observations on Rule V ; Notes to Rule V ; 8 of them ; . . . False Syntax under Rule V ; . , . . Rule VI. Of Same Cases; . . . . Observations on Rule VI ; .... Notes to Rule VI ; 2 of them ; , . . False Syntax under Rule VI ; . . . Rule VII. Of Objectives after Prep- ositions ; Observations on Rule VII ; . . . . Note to Rule VII; 1 only; . . . False Syntax under Rule VII; . . . Rule VIII. Of Nominatives Absolute ; Observations on Rule VIII ; . . . . False Syntax under Rule VIII; . . . Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; Rule IX. Of Adjectives ; Observations on Rule IX ; Notes to Rule IX; 16 of them; . . . False Svntax under Rule IX ; . . . Chapter V. Of Pronouns ; Rule X. Pronoun and Antecedent ; . Observations on Rule X ; Notes to Rule X; 16 of them; . . . False Syntax under Rule X ; . . . . Rule XI. Pronoun & Collective Noun; Observations on Rule XI ; Notes to Rule XI ; 2 of them ; . . . False Syntax under Rule XI ; . . . Rule XII. Pronoun after AND ; . . . 439. 439. 440. 441. 449. 450. 452. 45.1 462. 462. 463. 466. 468. 473. 473. 474. 476. 477. 477. 481. 482. 482. 492. 493. 495. 495. 500. 501. 504. 504. 507. 508. 510. 510. 512. 513. 513. 514. 516. 516. 516. 517. 520. 522. 527. 527. 528. 533. 535. 541. 541. 542. 542. 543. Observations on Rule XII ; . . . . False Syntax under Rule XII; . . . Rule XIII. Pronoun after OR or NOR ; Observations on Rule XIII ; . . . . False Syntax under Rule XIII ; . . . Chapter VI. Of Verbs ; Rule XIV. Verb and Nominative ; . Observations on Rule XIV ; . . . . Notes to Rule XIV; 10 of them; . . False Syntax under Rule XIV ; . . . Rule XV. Verb and Collective Noun; Observations on Rule XV ; Note to Rule X V ; 1 only; . . . . False Syntax under Rule XV ; . . . Rule XVI. The Verb after AND ; . . Observations-on Rule XVI ; . . . . Notes to Rule XVI ; 7 of them ; . . False Syntax under Rule XVI ; . . . Rule XVII. The Verb with OR or NOR; Observations on Rule XVII ; . . . . Notes to Rule XVII ; 15 of them ; . False Syntax under Rule XVII ; . . Rule XV III. Of Infinitives with To ; Observations on Rule XVIII ; . . . False Syntax under Rule XVIII ; . . Rule XIX. Of Infinitives without To; Observations on Rule XIX ; . . . . False Syntax under Rule XIX; . . . Chapter VII. Of Participles; . . . . Rule XX. Syntax of Participles ; . . Observations on Rule XX ; . . . . Notes to Rule XX ; 13 of them ; . . False Syntax under Rule XX ; . . . Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs ; . . . . Rule XXL Relation of Adverbs; . . Observations on Rule XXI ; . . . . Notes to Rule XXI ; 10 of them ; . . False Syntax under Rule XXI; . . . Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions ; . . . Rule XXII. Use of Conjunctions; . Observations on Rule XXII ; . . . . Notes to Rule XXII; 8 of them; . . False Syntax under Rule XXII ; . . Chapter X. Of Prepositions ; . . . . Rule XXIIL Use of Prepositions ; . Observations on Rule XXIII ; . . . Notes to Rule XXIII ; 5 of them ; . . False Syntax under Rule XXIII ; . . Chapter XI. Of Interjections ;. . . . Rule XXIV. For Interjections; . . Observations on Rule XXIV ; . . . False Syntax Promiscuous ; . . . . Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIII ; . Chapter XII. General Review; . . 543. 644. 544. 544. 545. 546. 546. 546. 55L 553. 560. 560. 563. 563. 564. 565. 670. 571. 575. 575. 579. 581. 587- 587. 596. 597. 597- 603. 603, 603. 604. 619. 621. 628. 628. 629. 636. 637- 639. 640. 640. 646. 648. 651. 651. 651. 655. 656. 658. 659. 659. 664. 667- 672. TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX False Syntax for a General Review; Chapter X III. General Rule of Syntax ; Critical Notes to the General Rule ; General Observations on the Syntax ; . False .Syntax under the General Rule ; TAGE. 673. 687. 687. 690. False Syntax under the Critical Notes ; Promiscuous Examples of False Syn- tax ; Chapter XtV. Questions on Syntax; Chapter XV. Exercises for Writing ; . PA OR. 702. 718. 722. 732. PART IV. PROSODY. Introductory Definition and Obs. ; . . . 742 Chapter I. Punctuation ; 743. Obs. on Pauses, Points, Names, &c. ; . 743. Section I. The Convna ; its 17 Rules ; 74f>. Errors concerning the Comma ; . . . 7 "> ' Section II. Tne Semicolon ; its 3 Rules ; 7-53. Errors concerning the Semicolon ; . . 759. Mixed Examples of Error ; . . . . 761. Section III. The Colon ; its 3 Rules ; 760. Errors concerning the Colon; . . . . 761. Mixed Examples of Error; .... 762. Section IV. The Period ; its 3 Rules ; 763. Observations on the Period; .... 763. Errors concerning the Period ; . . . 76-). Mixed Examples of Error; 766. Section V. The Dash ; its 3 Rules ; . 766. Observations on the Dash ; .... 767. Errors concerning the Dash ; . . . . 767. Mixed Examples of Error ; 768. Section VI. The Eroteme ; its 3 Rules ; 768. Observations on the Eroteme ; . . . 769. Errors concerning the Eroteme ; . . . 770. Mixed Examples of Error ; 770. Section VII. The Ecphoneme; its 3 Rules ; 771. Errors concerning the Ecphoneme; . 771. Mixed Examples of Error; 772 Section VIII. The Curves ; and their 2 Rules ; 773. Errors concerning the Curves ; . . . 773. Mixed Examples of Error ; 77 1. Section IX. The Other Marks ; . . . 774. Mixed Examples of Error; 776. Bad English Badly Pointed; .... 777. Chapter 1 1. Of Utterance; 779. Section I. Of Articulation; .... 779. Article I. Of the Definition :. . . 779. Article IT. Of Good Articulation ; . 779. Section II. Of Pronunciation; . . . 780. Article I. Powers of Letters; . . . Article I [.Of Quantity ; . . . . Article III Of Accent; Section IK. Of Elocution; . . . . Article I. Of Emphasis ; . . . . Article II. Of Pauses; Article III. Of Inflections; . . . Article IV. Of Tones ; Chapter III. Of Figures; Section I. Figures of Orthography ; . Section II. Figures of Etymology ; . Section III. Figures of Syntax ; . . Section IV. Figures of Rhetoric ; . . Section V. Exam, for Parsing, Praxis XIV; f . . . Chapter IV. Of Versification ; . . . . Section!. Of Verse; Definitions and Principles; . . . . Observations on Verse ; Section II Of Accent and Quantity , . Section III. Of Poetic Feet; . . . Critical Observations on Theories ; . . Section IV. Of the Kinds of Verse . . Order I. Iambic Verse ; its 8 Measures ; Order" II. Trochaic Verse ; its Nature ; . Observations on Trochaic Metre ; . . Trochaics shown in their 8 Measures ; . Order III. Anapestic Verse ; its 4 Meas- ures ; Observations on the Short Anapestics ; Order IV. Dactylic Verse ; its 8 Meas- ures ; Observations on Dactylics ; Order V. Composite Verse; Observations on Composites ; . . . . Section V. Improprieties for Correc- tion ; Chapter V. Questions on Prosody ; . . Chapter VI. Exercises for Writing; . . 780. 780. 781. 782. 782. 782. 78-3. 784. 785. 785. 783. 786. 790. 793. 798. 798. 798. 799. 801. 812. 814. 822. 823. 833. 834. 835. 847. 852. 8,52. 855. 857. 853. 862. 86*. 867. KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES. THE KEY. -PART I. -ORTHOGRAPHY. Chapter I Of Letters; Capitals ; . . 875. Corrections un ier each of the 16 Rules ; 875. Promiscuous corrections of Capitals ; . 879. Chapter II. Of Syllables; 881. Corrections of False Syllabication ; . . 881. Chapter III. Of the Fig'ure of Words ; . 881. Corrections under each of the 6 Rules ; 881. Promiscuous corrections of Figure ; . 883. Chapter IV. Of Spelling ; 881. Corrections under each of the 15 R-iles ; 884. Promiscuous corrections of Spelling ; . 889. THE KEY. PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech ; . . 890. Remark concerning False Etymology ; 890. Chapter II. Of Articles; 5 Lessons; .' . 899. Chapter III. Of Nouns; 3 Lessons; . . 892. Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; 3 Lessons; 894. Chapter V. Of Pronouns; 3 Lesson*; . 895. Chapter VI. Of Verbs ; 3 Lessons ; . . Chapter VII. Of Participles; 3 Lensons; Chapter VIII. Of A Iverbs; 1 Lesson; . Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions ; 1 Lesson ; Chapter X. Of Prepositions; 1 Lesson; Chapter XI. Of Interjections ; 1 Lesson ; Chapter I. Of Sentences ; Remark ; . . Chapter II. Of Article. Corrections under the I" Notes to Rule I ; . Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns ; Cor. under Rule II ; of Nominatives ; Cor. under Rule III ; of Apposition ; Cor. under Rule IV; of Posse*- Cor. under Rule V ; of Objectives ; . THE KEY. PART III. SYNTAX. 902. Cor. under Rule VI; of Same Cases; . Cor. under Rule VII; of Objectives ; . Cor. under Rule VIII; of Norn. Abso- lute 902. 906. 906. 909. 900. 900. 901. 911. 912. 913. Chapter IV. Of Adjectives. Corrections under the 16 Notes to Rules IX ; . . 913. Chapter V. Ot Pronouns. Corrections under Rule X and its Notes ; . . . 917. TABLE OP CONTENTS. PAGB. Corrections under Rule XI; of Pro- nouns ; 922. Cor. under Rule XII ; of Pronouns ; . 922. Cor. under Rule XIII; of Pronouns; . 923. Chapter VI. Of Verbs. Corrections un- der Rule XIV and its 10 Notes ; . . 923. Cor. under Rule XV and its Note ; . . 928. Cor. under Rule XVI and its 7 Notes ; 929. Cor. under Rule XVII and its 15 Notes ; 931. Cor. under Rule XVIII ; of Infinitives ; 936. Cor. under Rule XIX ; of Infinitives ; . 936. Chapter VII. Of Participles. Correc- tions under the 13 Notes to Rule XX ; 937. Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs. Corrections under the 10 Notes to Rule XXI ; . 942. Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions. Correc- tions under the 8 Notes to Rule XXII ; 944. Chapter X. Of Prepositions. Corrections under the 5 Notes to Rule XXIII ; . 947. Chapter XI. Promiscuous Exercises. Corrections of the 3 Lessons ; . . Chapter XII. General Review. Correc- tions under all the preceding Rules and Notes ; 18 Lessons; Chapter XIII. General Rule. Correc- tions under the General Rule ; 16 Lessons ; 963. Corrections under the Critical Notes ; . 972. Promiscuous Corrections of False Syntax ; 5 Lessons, under Various Rules ; . 981. 949. 951. THE KEY. PART IV. PROSODY. Chapter I. Punctuation; 985. Section I. The Comma; Corrections under its 17 Rules ; 985. Section II. The Semicolon ; Correc- tions under its 3 Rules ; 990. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 991. Section III. The Colon ; Corrections under its 3 Rules ; 991. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 992. Section IV. The Period; Corrections under its 3 Rules ; 992. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 993. Section V. The Dash ; Corrections un- der its 3 Rules ; 994. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . 994. Section VI. The Eroteme ; Correc- tions under its 3 Rules ; 994. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 995. Section VII. The Ecphoneme; Cor- rections under its 3 Rules ; , . 995. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 995. Section VIII. The Curves ; Correc- tions under their 2 Rules ; . . . . 996. Mixed Examples Corrected ; . . . . 996. Section IX. All Points ; Corrections ; 996. Good English Rightly Pointed ; . . . 997. Chapter II. Utterance ; no Correc- tions ; 999. Chapter III. Figures ; no Corrections ; 999. Chapter IV. Versification. False Prosody, or Errors of Metre, Cor- rected: 999. APPENDIX I. Of the Sounds of the Letters ; 1001. APPENDIX II. Of the Derivation of Words ; . . . . 1010. APPENDIX III. Of the Qualities of Style; 1021. APPENDIX IV. Of Poetic Diction; 1025. DIGESTED CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GKAMMARS AND GRAMMARIANS, WITH SOME COLLATERAL WORKS AND AUTHORITIES, ESPECIALLY SUCH AS ABE CITED THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL.D. ; " Latin and Eng- lish Grammar :" Edinburgh, 1772; Boston, 1803. ADAMS, JOHN Q., LL.D. ; " Lectures on Rhet- oric and Oratory ; " 2 vols., 8vo : Cambridge, N. E., 1810. ADAMS, Rev. CHA"RLES, A. M. ; English Gram- mar; 12mo, pp. 172: 1st Edition, Boston, 1838. ADAMS, DANIEL, M. B. ; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 103: 3d Edition, Montpelier, Vt., 1814. ADAMS, E.; English" Grammar ; 18mo,pp. 143: Leicester, Mass., 1st Ed , 1806; 5th Ed. 1821. AICKIN, JOSEPH ; English Grammar, 8vo : London, 1693. AINSWOKTH, ROBERT; Latin and English Dic- tionary, 4to: 1st Ed., 1736; revised Ed., Lend., 1823. AINMVOKTH, LUTHER; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 144 : 1st Ed., Providence, R. I., 1837. AU>I:N, ABNER, A. M. ; "Grammar Made ;" 12mo,pp. 180: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811. AI.DI.N, Rev. TIMOTHY, Jun. ; English Gram- mar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811. AT.KX VNIIKK, CALEB, A. M. ; (1.) " Grammati- i-;il Elements," published before 1794. (2.) "A Grammatical Institute of the Latin Lan- guage;" 12mo, pp. 132: Worcester, (3.) " A Grammatical System of the language;" 12mo, pp. 96; written at Hen Ion, Mass.. 17'.i.-, : loth Kd.,Keene,N. II., 1S11. Also, (4.) "An Introduction to Lat- in," 1795; and, (5.) "An Introduction to the Speaking and Writing of English." STDBK, S\MI ). i.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 216: 4th Edition, London, 1832. vii, Jun., A. M. ; "Abridgment of Murray's E. Gram.," &c. ; 18mo, pp. I'Jii ; D.-ton, 1821 and 1842. K--V. \VII.I.I\M, M. A.; "Grammar of the English Language," &c. ; 18mo : Lon- don. Also, " The Elements of English Gram- mar," &c. ; 12nio, pp. 4J7: London, 1813; 2d Ed., 1824. 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CORBET, JOHN ; English Grammar ; 12mo : Shrewsbury, England, 1784. CORNELL, WILLIAM M. ; English Grammar ; 4to, pp. 12: 1st Edition, Boston, 1840. CRANE, GEORGE ; " The Principles of Lan- tuage;" 12mo, pp. 264: 1st Ed., London, CROCKER, ABRAHAM ; E. Gr., 12mo : Lond.. 1772. CROMBIE, ALEXANDER, LL.D., F. R. S. ; "A Treatise on the Etymology and Syntax of the English Language;" 8vo, pp. 425: London, 2d Ed., 1809 ; 4th Ed., 1836. CUTLER, ANDREW, A. M. ; " English Gram- mar and Parser;" 12mo, pp. 168: 1st Ed., Plainfield, Ct., 1841. DALE, W. A. T.; a small "English Gram- mar;" 18mo, pp. 72 : 1st Ed., Albany, N. Y., 1820. D ALTON, JOHN ; " Elements of English Gram- mar;" 12mo, pp. 122: London, 1st Ed. ,1801. DAVENPORT, BISHOP ; " English Grammar Simplified;" 18mo, pp. 139: 1st Ed., Wil- mington, Del., 1830. DAVIDSON, DAVID ; a Syntactical Treatise, or Grammar ; 12mo : London, 1823. DAVIS, Rev. JOHN, A. M. ; English Grammar ; 18mo, pp. 188 : 1st Ed., Belfast, Ireland, 1832. 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SYLVESTRE, Baron ; "Princi- ples of General Grammar; " translated from the French, by D. Fosdick, Jun. ; 12mo, pp. 156 : 1st American, from the 5th French Edi- tion ; Andover and New York, 1834. "DESPAUTER, JOHN, a Flemish grammarian, whose books were, at one time, in great re- pute ; he died in 1520." Univ. Biog. Diet. Despauter's Latin Grammar, in Three Parts, Etymology, Syntax, and Versification, - comprises 858 octavo pages. Dr. Adam says, in the " Preface to the Fourth Edition" of his Grammar, " The first complete edition of Despauter's Grammar was printed at Cologne, anno 1522 ; his Syntax had been published anno 1509." G. Brown's copy is a "com- plete edition," printed partly in 1517, and partly in 1518. DEVIS/ELLEN ; E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 130: London and Dublin; 1st Ed., 1777; 17th Ed., 1825. igg^Devis's Grammar, spoken of in D. Blair's Preface, as being too " compre- hensive and minute," is doubtless an olher and much larger work. DHUMMOND, JOHN ; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1767. DYCHB, THOMAS; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 10: London, 1st Ed., 1710 ; 12th Ed., 1765. EARL, MARY ; English Grammar; ISmo, pp. 36 : 1st Ed., Boston, 1816. EDWARDS, Mrs. M. C. ; English Grammar; 8vo : Brentford, England, 1796. EGELSHEM, WELLS ; English Grammar ; 12mo : London, 1781. ELMORE, D. W., A. M. ; " English Grammar ;" 18mo, pp. 18: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1830. A mere trifle. ELPHINSTON, JAMES; on the English Lan- guage; 12mo, pp. 298 : 1st Ed., Lond., 1766. EMERSON, BENJAMIN D. ; " The National Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 168: Boston, 1828. EMKHY, J., A. B. ; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 39: 1st Ed., Wellsborough, Pa,, 1829. EMMONS, S. B. ; " The Grammatical Instruc- ter ; " 12mo, pp. 160 : 1st Ed., Boston, 1832. Worthless. ENSELL, G. ; "A Grammar of the English Language;" in English and Dutch; 8vo, pp. 612: Rotterdam, 1797. EVEREST, Rev. CORNELIUS B. ; "An English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 270: 1st Ed., Nor- wich, Ct., 1835. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown. EVERETT, ERASTUS, A.M.; "A System of English Versification ;" 12mo, pp. 198: 1st Ed., New York, 1848. FARNUM, CALKJJ, Jun., A. M. ; "Practical Grammar ; " 12mo, pp. 124 : 1st Edition, (suppressed for petty larcenies from G. Brown,) Providence, R. I., 1842; 2d Edition, CATALOGUE OF ORAMMAR3 AND GRAMMARIANS. XV { altered to evade the charge of plagiarism,) Boston, 1843. FAKKO, DANIEL; "The Iloyal British Oram- mar and Vocabulary;" Izmo, pp. 344: 1st Ed., London, 1754. Fr.i.ni, W. ; "A Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: 1st Edition, Boston, 1837. This author can see others' faults better than his own. FKI.TOX, OLIVER C. ; "A Concise Manual of Knglish Grammar; " 12mo, pp. 145 : Salem, Mass., 1843. FENNIN<;, DANIEL ; English Grammar ; 12mo, pp. 224 : 1st Ed., London, 1771. FINWHK, JOHN; a 12mo Gram.: London, 1811. FISH EH, A. ; "A Practical New Grammar ; " 12mo, pp. 176: London-, 1st Ed., 1753; 28th Kd., 17')o ; " aNw Ed., Enlarged, Improved, and Corrected," (used by G. B.,) 1800. I-'ISK, ALLEN; (1.) Epitome of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 124: Hallowell, Me., 1821; 2d Ed., 1828. (2.) "Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified ; " 8vo, pp. 190: New York, 1822; 2d Ed., 1824. (3.) "Murray's English Grammar Simplified; " 8vo, pp. 178: IstEd., Troy, N. Y., 1822. FLEMisa, CALEB ; a 12mo Gram. : Lond., 1765. iiEK, LKVI ; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 83: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1834. Fi,r/r< -IIKU, Rev. W. ; English Gram. ; 18mo,pp. 175 : London ; 1st Ed., 1828 ; 2d Ed., 1833. FLINT, ABEL, A. M., and D. D.; "Murray's English Grammar Abridged;" 12mo, pp. 1M1: Hartford, Ct. ; 1st Ed., 1807; 6th Ed., pp. 214, 1826. FLINT, JOHN; "First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 107: IstEd., New York, 1834. FLOWER, M. and W. B. ; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 170 : 1st Ed., London, 1844. FOLKI-K, JOSEIMI ; "An Introduction to E. Grain. ; " 12mo, pp. 34: Savannah, Ga., 1821. IM.HMKY, M., M. D., S. E., &e., &c. ; "Ele- mentary Principles of the Belles-Lettres ; " " Translated from the French, by the late Mr. Sloper Fonnan ; " 12mo, pp. 224: Glas- gow. 177. FOWLE, WIM.IVM BENTLEY; (1.) "The True English Grammar," [Parti;] 18mo, pp. 180 : Uost.Mi, 1827. (2.) "The True English Gram- mar, Part II ; " 18mo, pp. 97: Boston, 1829. <3.) "The Common School Grammar, Part I;" 12iuo, pp 4(: Boston, IS 12. f4.) "The Ciiiunion School Grammar, Part II; " 12mo, pp. 108: Boston, IS 12. FOWLEK, WILLIAM C. ; "English Grammar; " 8vo, pp. 117.") : 1st Edition, New York, 18-10. Fi; v/.i.r.. K v. 15i;Ai>roui>; "An Improved Grammar:" 12mo, pp. 192: Philad., ISH: Ster. Kd., is M. i. D'Aiicv A. ; Engl'sh Grammar; 12mc, pp. KiS: Baltimore, 1st Kd., 1S:51. FUOST, .Joii\. A. M.; (1.) " Kb-mcnts of Kng- lish (ii aiumar: " 18mo, pp. 108: IstEd ton, 1S2.I. (_'.) "A Practical Knglish Gram- nur;" (with 8!) 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Ed., 1832. HAMMOND, SAMUEL; E. Gram.; 8vo : Lond., 1744. HARRIS, JAMES, Esq.; " Hermes, or a Philo- sophical Inquiry concerning Universal Gram- mar;" 8vo, pp. 468: London, 1751: 6th Ed., 1806. HARRISON, Mr. ; " Rudiments of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 9th American Ed , Philad., 1812. HARRISON, Rev. MATTHEW, A. M. ; " The Rise, Progress, and Present Structure of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 393: Preface dated, Basingstoke, Eng., 1848; 1st Ameri- can Ed., Philadelphia, 1850. HART, JOHNS., A.M.; " English Grammar ;" 12mo, pp. 192; 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1845. HARVEY, J. ; English Grammar : Lond., 1841. HAZEN, EDWARD, A. M. ; "A Practical Gram- mar of the E. Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: New York, 1842. HAZLITT, WILLIAM ; English Grammar ; 18mo, pp. 205 : London, 1810. HENDRICK, J. L., A. M. ; "A Grammatical Manual ;" 18mo, pp. 105 : 1st Ed., Syracuse, N. Y., 1844. HEWES, JOHN, A. M. ; E. Gram. ; 4to : Lon- don, 1624. HEWETT, D. ; English Grammar ; folio, pp. 16 : 1st Edition, New York, 1838. HIGGINSON, Rev. Tt E. ; E. Gram. ; 12mo : Dublin, 1803. HILEY, RICHARD; "A Treatise on English Grammar," &c. ; 12mo, pp. 269: 3d Ed., London, 1840. Hiley's Grammar Abridged ; ISmo, pp. 196: London, 1843: 4th Ed., 1841. HILL, J. H.; "On the Subjunctive Mood;" 8vo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1834. HODGSON, Rev. ISAAC; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 1st Ed., London, 1770. HOME, HENRY, Lord Kames ; " Elements of Criticism;" 2 volumes 8vo, pp. 836: (3d American, from the 8th London Ed. :) New York, 1819. Also, "The Art of Thinking ;" 12mo, pp. 284 : (from the last London Ed. :) New York, 1818. HORXSEY, JOHN ; English Grammar ; 12mo, pp. 144: York, England, 1793; 6th Ed., 1816. HORT, W. JILLARD; English Grammar ; 18mo, pp. 219: 1st Ed., London, 1822. HOUGHTON, JOHN ; E. Gram., 8vo : London, 1766. HOUSTON, SAMUEL, A. B. ; English Gram- mar; 12mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1818. HOWE, S. L. ; English Grammar; 18mo : 1st Eel., Lancaster, Ohio, 1838. UNWELL, JAMES; E. Gram., 12mo: London, 1662. HULL, JOSEPH HERVEY ; " E. Gram., by Lec- tures ;" I2mo, pp. 72 : 4th Ed., Boston, 1828. HUMPHREY, ASA; (1.) "The English Pros- ody ;" 12mo, pp. 175 : 1st Ed!, Boston, 1847. (2.) "The Rules cf Punctuation;" with " Rules for the Use of Capitals ;" 18nio, pp. 71 : 1st Ed., Boston, 1847. HURD, S. T.; E. Gram. ; 2d Ed., Boston, 1827. HUTIIERSAL, JOHN; E. Gram.; 18mo : Ens., 1814. INGERSOLL, CHARLES M. : " Conversations on English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 296: New York, 1821. JAMIESON, ALEXANDER; "A Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Literature;" 12mo, pp. 345 : " The first American, from the last Lon- don Edition ; " Newhaven, 1820. JAUDON, DANIEL; "The Union Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 216: Philadelphia; 1st Ed., 1812; 4th, 1828. JENKINS, AZARIAH; English Grammar ; 12mo, pp. 256 : 1st Ed., Rochester, N. Y., 1835. JOEL, THOMAS ; English Grammar ; 12mo, pp. 78: 1st Ed., London, 1775. 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KIRKHAM, SAMUEL; "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures; " 12mo, pp. 144228: 2d Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1825; 12th Ed., New York, 1829. KNOWLES, JOHN; " The Principles of English Grammar;" 12mo : 3d Ed., London, 1794. KNOWLTON, JOSEPH; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 84: Salem, Mass., 1818; 2d Ed., 1832. LATHAM, R. G., A. M. ; (1.) "The English Language ; " 8vo, pp. 418: 1st Ed., London, 1841. (2) "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 214: 1st Ed., London, 1843. LEAVITT, DUDLEY ; English Grammar ; 24to, pp. 60: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1826. LENNIE WILLIAM ; " The Principles of Eng- lish Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142: 5th Ed., Edinburgh, 1819; 13th Ed., 1831. LEWIS, ALONZO ; " Lessons in English Gram- mar ; " 18mo, pp. 50 : 1st Ed., Boston, 1822. LEWIS, JOHN ; English Grammar ; ISmo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., New York, 1828. LEWIS, WILLIAM GREATHEAD; English Gram- mar ; ISmo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., London, 1821. 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LANGUAGE, in the proper sense of the term, is peculiar to man ; so that, without a miraculous assumption of human powers, none but human beings can '.onls the vehicle of thought. An imitation of some of the articulate sounds employed in speech, may be exhibited by parrots, and sometimes by domesticated and we know that almost all brute animals have their peculiar natural voices, by which they indicate their feelings, whether pleasing or painful. But language an attribute' of reason, and differs essentially not only from all brute voices, but even from all the chattering, jabbering, and babbling of our own species, in which - not an intelligible meaning, with division of thought, and distinction of 2. Speech results from the joint exercise of the best and noblest faculties of utnan nature, from our rational understanding and our social affection ; and is, in e proper use of it, the peculiar ornament and distinction of man, whether we compare him with other order* in tin- creation, or view him as an individual 'rii-iit among his fellows. Hence that science which makes known the nature h. and immediately concerns the correct and elegant use of language, while it ML 1 the conceptions of the stupid or unlearned, and < nothing that can seem desirable to the sensual and grovelling,!, trinsi-- vliirh hiirhly commends it to all person- >, and rite with the nnt gifted minds. That Bcieooe is Grammar. And though the 1 . \vlin :iH''<-t tn df-pi-e the trammel- of grammar lies, to whom it mu- led thaf many things which have been unskillfully Dr. Adam ivmarks, that, iv. 1 .-HI ol -it importance bythe i in all ages." /'/v/l/fv tn I.nt'irt liable to such an objection; and either this brief term, or some other of like import, (as, "with correctness" "with propriety.") is still usually employed to tell what grammar is. But can a boy learn ] viiat it is, tn aju'ttt: nml ?//// grammatically 1 In one sense, I in another, he cannot, lit.' may derive, from any of the.-e terms, some 'iimar as distinguished from other arts ; but no >imple definition of this, or of any other art. can cummunicate to him that learns it. the skill of an artist. 9. B ///*' rilntion of words to each other in sen- uiting in his v'n-w the most essential part of grammar; and as 1 1> . parts, was as follows : " Grammar is the art of true and well* (peaking a language : the writing is but . | , . , . | flu- triii- nutation of words, raxe, ( * ls | tin- ri.-ht ..r.U-rinu' -f '!. A word is a part of speech or note, wberebv a thing Ls known or railed ; and consisteth of one or more irnliviMMe part of a syllnMc, whose prosody, or right sounding, is perceived by the power ; the orth< nut parts of grammar, but diffused, like blood and spirits, through the -Jonsons Gram. Book I. 4 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. I. being a point very much overlooked, or very badly explained, by grammarians in general. His censure is just. And it seems to be as applicable to nearly all the grammars now in use, as to those which he criticised a hundred and thirty years ago. But perhaps he gives to the relation of words, (which is merely their dependence on other words according to the sense,) an earlier introduction and a more prominent place, than it ought to have in a general system of grammar. To the right use of language, he makes four things to be necessary. In citing these, I vary the lan- guage, but not the substance or the order of his positions. First, That we should speak and write words according to the significations which belong to them : the teaching of which now pertains to lexicography, and not to grammar, except inci- dentally. " Secondly, That we should observe the relations that words have one to another in sentences, and represent those relations by such variations, and particles, as are usual with authors in that language." Thirdly, That we should acquire a knowledge of the proper sounds of the letters, and pay a due regard to accent in pronunciation. Fourthly, That we should learn to write words with their proper letters, spelling them as literary men generally do. 10. From these positions, (though he sets aside the first, as pertaining to lexi- cography, and not now to grammar, as it formerly did,) the learned critic deduces first his four parts of the subject, and then his definition of grammar. " Hence," says he. " there arise four parts of grammar ; Analogy, which treats of the several parts of speech, their definitions, accidents, and formations ; Syntax, which treats of the use of those things in construction, according to their relations ; Orthography, which treats of spelling ; and Prosody, which treats of accenting in pronunciation. So, then, the true definition of grammar is this : Grammar is the art of expressing the relations of things in construction, with due accent in speaking, and orthog- raphy in writing, according to the custom of those whose language we learn." Again he adds : " The word relation has other senses, taken by itself; but yet the relation of words one to another in a sentence, has no other signification than what I intend by it, namely, of cause, effect, means, end, manner, instrument, object, adjunct, and the like ; which are names given by logicians to those relations under which the mind comprehends things, and therefore the most proper words to explain them to others. And if such things are too hard for children, then grammar is too hard ; for there neither is, nor can be, any grammar without them. And a little experience will satisfy any man, that the young will as easily appre- hend them, as gender, number, declension, and other grammar-terms." See R. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, p. 4. 11. It is true, that the relation of words by which I mean that connexion between them, which the train of thought forms and suggests or that dependence which one word has on an other according to the sense lies at the foundation of all syntax. No rule or principle of construction can ever have any applicability be- yond the limits, or contrary to the order, of this relation. To see what it is in any given case, is but to understand the meaning of the phrase or sentence. And it is plain, that no word ever necessarily agrees with an other, with which it is not thus connected in the mind of him who uses it. No word ever governs an other, to which the sense does not direct it. No word is ever required to stand imme- diately before or after an other, to which it has not some relation according to the meaning of the passage. Here then are the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences ; and these make up the whole of syntax but not the whole of grammar. To this one part of grammar, therefore, the relation of words is central and fundamental ; in the other parts also, there are some things to which the consideration of it is incidental ; but there are many more, like spelling, pronunciation, derivation, and whatsoever belongs merely to letters, syllables, and the forms of words, with which it ha*, in fact, no connexion. The relation of words, therefore, should be clearly and fully explained in its proper place, under the head C^AP. I.] OF THE SCIENCE OP GRAMMAR. 5 of syntax ; but the general idea of grammar will not be brought nearer to truth, by making it to be " the art of '-.////> >',/y //,, ,-, A///O//.V of tiling.-," &c. 1'J. The trim yrnnumtr i> derived from the Greek word ;(/'<," .", a letter. The art or science t which this term is applied, had its origin, not in cursory >pe, -ch, but it) tt: >f writing; and sjteeeh, which is n'i>t in the order of nature, is la>t with ivWeiu-e to "ram mar. The matter or common subject of grammar, is lun- ueral; which, being of two kinds, spoken and written, consists of certain combinations either of sounds or of visible signs, employed for the expres- sion of thought. Letters and sounds, though often needlessly confoanded in the definitions njven of vowels, consonants, &c.,are, in their own nature, very different thing-. Th'-y address themselves to different senses ; the former, to the sight ; the r, to the hearing. Yet, by a peculiar relation arbitrarily established between them, and in consequence of an almost endless variety in the combinations of either, they coincide in a most admirable manner, to effect the great object for which lan- guage was bestowed or invented ; namely, to furnish a sure medium for the communication of thought, and the preservation of knowledge. Ul languages, however different, have many things in common. There are points of a philosophical character, which result alike from the analysis of ciny laniM'a-c. and are founded on the very nature of human thought, and that of the sounds or other signs which are used to express it. When such principle- alone are I 5'ject of inquiry, and are treated, as they sometimes have been, wit! i to any of the idioms of particular languages, they constitute what is called General, Philosophical, or Universal Grammar. But to teach, with Lindley Murray and some others, that " Grammar may be considered as const at imj of two rniversal and Particular," and that the latter merely "applies those ral principles to a particular language," is to adopt a twofold absurdity at the it.* For every cultivated language has its particular grammar, in which what- soever is universal, is necessarily included ; but of which, universal or general prii: n only a part, and that comparatively small. We find therefore in grammar no " two species " of the same genus; nor is the science or art, as com- monly defined and understood, susceptible of division into any proper and distinct ' pt with reference to different languages as when we speak of Greek, Latin, French, or Knglish grammar. 14. There i<. however, as T have suggested, a certain science or philosophy of lan^iiau''. which, has been denominated Universal Grammar ; being made up of th"id in sonic , h<> ha-J :i much ; ; r.t\ 's 1 implicit,,, - it in . De to a; ml or no principles of Syntax at all, whatever else it u;i> hare which Particular Grammar c&ii assume and apply. 6 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. I. grammatically. But the pleasure of such contemplations is not the earliest or the most important fruit of the study. The first thing is, to know and understand the grammatical construction of our own language. Many may profit by this acquisi- tion, who extend not their inquiries to the analogies or the idioms of other tongues. It is true, that every item of grammatical doctrine is the more worthy to be known and regarded, in proportion as it approaches to universality. But the principles of all practical grammar, whether universal or particular, common or peculiar, must first be learned in their application to some one language, before they can be distinguished into such classes ; and it is manifest, both from reason and from experience, that the youth of any nation not destitute of a good book for the purpose, may best acquire a knowledge of those principles, from the grammatical study of their native tongue. 15. Universal or Philosophical Grammar is a large field for speculation and inquiry, and embraces many things which, though true enough in themselves, are unfit to be incorporated with any system of practical grammar, however compre- hensive its plan. Many authors have erred here. With what is merely theoretical, such a system should have little to do. Philosophy, dealing in generalities, resolves speech not only as a whole into its constituent parts and separable elements, as anatomy shows the use and adaptation of the parts and joints of the human body; but also as a composite into its matter and form, as one may contemplate that same body in its entireness, yet as consisting of materials, some solid and some fluid, and these curiously modelled to a particular figure. Grammar, properly so called, requires only the former of these analyses ; and in conducting the same, it descends to the thousand minute particulars which are necessary to be known in practice. Nor are such things to be despised as trivial and low : ignorance of what is common and elementary, is but the more disgraceful for being ignorance of mere rudiments. "Wherefore," says Quintilian, " they are little to be respected, who represent this art as mean and barren ; in which, unless you faithfully lay the foundation for the future 'orator, whatever superstructure you raise will tumble into ruins. It is an art, necessary to the young, pleasant to the old, the sweet companion of the retired, and one which in reference to every kind of study has in itself more of utility than of show. Let no one therefore despise as inconsiderable the elements of grammar. Not because it is a great thing, to distinguish consonants from vowels, and afterwards divide them into semivowels and mutes ; but because, to those who enter the interior parts of this temple of science, there will appear in many things a great subtilty, which is fit not only to sharpen the wits of youth, but also to exer- cise the loftiest erudition and science." De Instititione Oratoria, Lib. i, Cap. i 1G. Again, of the arts which spring from the composition of languagi Here the art of logic, aiming solely at conviction, addresses the understanding with cool deductions of unvarnished truth ; rhetoric, designing to move, in some particular direction, both the judgement and the sympathies of men, applies itself to the affections in order to persuade ; and poetry, various in its character and tendency, solicits the imagination, with a view to delight, and in general also to instruct. But grammar, thougli intimately connected with all these, and essential to them in practice, is still too distinct from each to be identified with any of them. In regard to dignity and interest, these higher studies seem to have greatly the advantage over particular grammar ; but who is witling to be an ungrammatical poet, orator, or logician ? For him I do not write. But I would persuade my readers, that an acquaintance with that grammar which respects the genius of their vernacular tongue, is of primary importance to all who would cultivate a literary taste, and is a necessary introduction to the study of other languages. And it may here be observed, for the encouragement of the student, that as grammar is essentially the same thing in all languages, he who has well mastered that of his own, has overcome more than half the difficulty of learning an other ; and he CHAP. I.] OP THE SCIENCE OF GRAMMAR. 7 whose knowledge of words is the most extensive, has the fewest obstacles to encoun- ter in proceeding further. 17. It was the " original design " of grammar, says Dr. Adam, to facilitate " the acquisition of languages; " and, of all practical treatises on the subject, this is still the main purpose. In those books which are to prepare the learner to translate from one tongue into an other, seldom is any tiling else attempted. In those also which profess to explain the right use of vernacular speech, must the same purpose be ever paramount, and the " original design " be kept in view. But the grammarian may teach many things incidentally. One cannot learn a language, without learning at the same time a great many opinions, facts, and principles, of some kind or other, which are necessarily embodied in it. For all language proceeds from, and is addressed to, the understanding ; and he that per- ceives not the meaning of what he reads, makes no acquisition even of the lan- guage itself. To the science of grammar, the nature of the ideas conveyed by casual examples, is not very essential : to the learner, it is highly important. The best thoughts in the best diction should furnish the models for youthful study and imitation ; because such language is not only the most worthy to be remembered, but the most easy to be understood. A distinction is also to be made between use and abuse. In nonsense, absurdity, or falsehood, there can never be any gram- matical authority ; because, however language may be abused, the usage which gives law to speech, is still that usage which is founded upon the common sense of mankind. 1*. (irammar appeals to reason, as well as to authority ; but to what extent it should do so, has been matter of dispute. " The knowledge of useful arts," 3ancttU8, "is not an invention of human ingenuity, but an emanation from the Deity, descending from above for the use of man, as Minerva sprung from the brain of Jupiter. Wherefore, unless thou give thyself wholly to laborious re- search into the nature of things, and diligently examine the causes and reasons of the art thou teachest, believe me, thou shalt but see with other men's eyes, and hear with other men's ears. But the minds of many are preoccupied with a cer- tain perverse opinion, or rather ignorant conceit, that in grammar, or the art of speaking, there are no causes, and that reason is scarcely to be appealed to for any thing ; than which idle notion, I know of nothing more foolish ; nothing can be thought of which is more offensive. Shall man, endowed with reason, do, say, or contrive any thing, without design, and without understanding? Hear the philosophers; who positively declare that nothing comes to pass without a cause. Hear Plato himself; who aflirms that names and words subsist by nature, and contends that language is derived from nature, and not from art." i'.. " T know," says he, " that the Aristotelians think otherwise ; but no one will doubt that names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of things. But the instrument of any art is so adapted to that art, that for any other purpose it must seem unfit; thus with an auger we bore, and with a saw we cut wood ; but we split stones with wedges, and wedges are driven with heavy mauls. We cannot therefore but believe that those who first gave names to things, did it with dciL r n : and this, 1 imagine, Aristotle himself understood when he said, ad pla~ cifinn iioiniitd sif/mji.-nr.-. For those who contend that names were made by chance, are no less audacious than if they would endeavour to persuade us, that the whole order of the universe was frame. 1 together fortuitously." 'J<>. " You will see," continues he, " that in the first lan<>nir>i with the Saviour and his apostles. Quintilian lived in \\\Q first century of our era, and before he wrote his most celebrated book, taught a school year.- in Home, and received from the state a salary which made him rich. This eon.-ummate guide of wayward youth," as the poet Martial called him, neither ignorant of what had been done by others, nor disposed to think it a liu'ht task to proscribe the right use of his own language, was at first slow to un- dertake the work upon which his fame now reposes ; and, after it was begun, diligent to execute it worthily, that it might turn both to his own honour, and to the real advancement of learning. it the comnicncfiiient of his book : " After I had obtained a quiet from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as an in- r of youth, certain pcr.-ons familiarly demanded of me, that I should com- Miething concerning the proper manner of speaking ; but for a long time I <1 their solicitations, because [knew there were, already illustrious authors _-. 1 v whom many things which might pertain to such a work, had l-'-'Mi very diligently written, and left to posterity. But the reason which I 1 would obtain for me an ea.-ier cxru.-c, did but excite the more earnest en- thfl various opinions of earlier writers, some of whom even conn-tent with then the choice had become difficult; so that my friends seemed to have a right to enjoin upon me, if not the labour of Q9W in.-truetions, at least that of judging concerning the old. But Miaded not -o much by the hope of supplying what was 06 of refusing. ie matter opened it. -elf before . of my own accord a much greater task than had been im- ; that while I should ti. -ood friends bv a fnll I, I might not enter ;i common path and tread only in the foot.-: : - who have treated of the art of :-peaking, have led in -ndi a manner as if upon adept- in every other kind of doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence ; either de.-pi.-ing as little thing.- the studies which we first learn, or thinking them not to fall to their share in the divi- 10 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. I. sion which should be made of the professions ; or, what indeed is next to this, hoping no praise or thanks for their ingenuity about things which, although neces- sary, lie far from ostentation : the tops of buildings make a show, their foundations are unseen." Quintiliani de Inst. Or at., Procemium. 26. But the reader may ask, " What have all these things to do with English Grammar? " I answer, they help to show us whence and what it is. Some ac- quaintance with the history of grammar as a science, as well as some knowledge of the structure of other languages than our own, is necessary to him who pro- fesses to write for the advancement of this branch of learning and for him also who would be a competent judge of what is thus professed. Grammar must not forget her origin. Criticism must not resign the protection of letters. The na- tional literature of a country is in the keeping, not of the people at large, but of authors and teachers. But a grammarian presumes to be a judge of authorship, and a teacher of teachers ; and is it to the honour of England or America, that in both countries so many are countenanced in this assumption of place, who can read no language but their mother tongue ? English Grammar is not properly an indigenous production, either of this country or of Britain ; because it is but a branch of the general science of philology a new variety, or species, sprung up from the old stock long ago transplanted from the soil of Greece and Rome. 27. It is true, indeed, that neither any ancient system of grammatical instruction nor any grammar of an other language, however contrived, can be entirely applica- ble to the present state of our tongue ; for languages must needs differ greatly one from an other, and even that which is called the same, may come in time to differ greatly from what it once was. But the general analogies of speech, which are the central principles of grammar, are but imperfectly seen by the man of one language. On the other hand, it is possible to know much of these general prin- ciples, and yet be very deficient in what is peculiar to our own tongue. Real im- provement in the grammar of our language, must result from a view that is neither partial nor superficial. " Time, sorry artist," as was said of old, " makes all he handles worse." And Lord Bacon, seeming to have this adage in view, suggests : " If Time of course alter all things to the worse, and Wisdom and Counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall be the end ? " Bacon's Essays, p. 64. 28. Hence the need that an able and discreet grammarian should now and then appear, who with skillful hand can effect those corrections which a change of fashion or the ignorance of authors may have made necessary ; but if he is properly qual- ified for his task, he will do all this without a departure from any of the great prin- ciples of Universal Grammar. He will surely be very far from thinking, with a certain modern author, whom I shall notice in an other chapter, that, " He is bound to take words and explain them as he finds them in his day, without any regard to their ancient construction and application." Kirkham's Gram. p. 28. The whole history of every word, so far as he can ascertain it, will be the view under which he will judge of what is right or wrong in the language which he teaches. Etymology is neither the whole of this view, nor yet to be excluded from it. I concur not therefore with Dr. Campbell, who, to make out a strong case, extrav- agantly says, "It is never from an attention to etymology, which would fre- quently mislead us, but from custom, the only infallible guide in this matter, that the meanings of words in present use must be learnt." Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 188. Jamieson too, with an implicitness little to be commended, takes this passage from Campbell ; and, with no other change than that of " learnt" to ** learned," publishes it as a corollary of his own. Grammar of Rhetoric, p. 42. It is folly to state for truth what is so obviously wrong. Etymology and custom are seldom at odds ; and where they are so, the latter can hardly be deemed infallible. CHAP. II.] OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. 11 CHAPTER II. OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. " Respondeo, dupliciter aliquem dici grammaticum, art* et profcssione. Grammatici vera arte paurissimi iunt:(>: iii suut, ut patuit : lies mm vitupcrant Minimi viri ; quia ip?e Plinius cjusmodi _'r;imni!it.ii-a UbeUofl edidit, Kr (ici'in- v.-r.-t- i:r.umii:i'H-:p fuit diligeutissimu3 doctor: - IB. Alii sunf _Tauim:iri< i [.. t--~ione, efii plerunique sunt iueptissiiui ; quia scribiinua hanr sihi artem vindicat : hos mastigias multis probris docti ammo jure insectantur." DESPAUTER. Synt.fol. 1. 1. It is of primary importance in all discussions and expositions of doctrines, of any sort, to ascertain well the principles upon which our reasonings are to be founded, and to see that they be such as are immovably established in the nature of tilings ; for error in first principles is fundamental, and he who builds upon an uncertain foundation, incurs at least a hazard of seeing his edifice overthrown. The lover of truth will be, at all times, diligent to seek it, firm to adhere to it, willing to submit to it, and ready to promote it ; but even the truth may be urged unseasonably, and important facts are easily liable to be misjoined. It is proper, therefore, for every grammarian gravely to consider, whether and how far the prin- f his philosophy, his politics, his morals, or his religion, ought to influence, or actually do influence, his theory of language, and his practical instructions re- rting the n-rht use of words. In practice, grammar is so interwoven with all that is known, believed, learned, or spoken of among men, that to determine its own peculiar principles with due distinctness, seems to be one of the most dif- ficult points of a grammarian's duty. '2 From misapprehension, narrowness of conception, or improper bias, in rela- tion to this point, many authors have started wrong ; denounced others with in- temperate /eal ; departed themselves from sound doctrine ; and produced books which are disgraced not merely by occasional oversights, but by central and radical I lence, too, have sprung up, in the name of grammar, many unprofitable us, ami whimsical systems of teaching, calculated rather to embarrass than to inform the student. Mere collisions of opinion, conducted without any acknowledged standard to guide the judgement, never tend to real improvement. Grammar is unquestionably a branch of that universal philosophy by which the thoroughly educated mind is enlightened to see all things aright; for philosophy, in this sense of the term, is found in everything. Yet, properly speaking, the true grammarian is not a philosopher, nor can any man strengthen his title to the former character by claiming the latter ; and it is certain, that a most disheartening C portion of what in our language has been published under the name of Phi- iphio Grammar, ia equally remote from philosophy, from grammar, and from common s 3 True Dammar is founded on the authority of reputable custom ; and that . on the use which men make of their reason. The proofs of what is right are accumulative, and on many points there can be no dispute, because our proofs from the l.e-t 089 >th obvious and innumerable. On the other hand, the evidence of what i- wmnir is rather oVmonstrative ; for when we would expose a particular error, we exhibit it in contrast with the established principle which it lie who formed the erroneous sentence, has in this case no alternative, but either to acknowledge th i, or to deny the authority of the rule. Then- are disputable principles in grammar, as there are moot points in law; but this circumstance affects no settled usqge in either ; and every person of sense 12 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. II. and taste will choose to express himself in the way least liable to censure. All are free indeed from positive constraint on their phraseology ; for we do not speak or write by statutes. But the ground of instruction assumed in grammar, is similar to that upon which are established the maxims of common law, in juris- prudence. The ultimate principle, then, to which we appeal, as the only true standard of grammatical propriety, is that species of custom which critics de- nominate GOOD USE ; that is, present, reputable, general use. 4. Yet a slight acquaintance with the history of grammar will suffice to show us, that it is much easier to acknowledge this principle, and to commend it in words, than to ascertain what it is, and abide by it in practice. Good use is that which is neither ancient nor recent, neither local nor foreign, neither vulgar nor pedantic ; and it will be found that no few have in some way or other departed from it, even while they were pretending to record its dictates But it is not to be concealed, that in every living language, it is a matter of much inherent diffi- culty, to reach the standard of propriety, where usage is various ; and to ascertain with clearness the decisions of custom, when we descend to minute details. Here is a field in which whatsoever is achieved by the pioneers of literature, can be appreciated only by thorough scholars ; for the progress of improvement in any art or science, can be known only to those who can clearly compare its ruder with its more refined stages ; and it often happens that what is effected with much labour, may be presented in a very small compass. 5. But the knowledge of grammar may retrograde ; for whatever loses the vital principle of renovation and growth, tends to decay. And if mere copyists, compilers, abridgers, and modifiers, be encouraged as they now are, it surely will not advance. Style is liable to be antiquated by time, corrupted by innovation, debased by ignorance, perverted by conceit, impaired by negligence, and vitiated by caprice. And nothing but the living spirit of true authorship, and the appli- cation of just criticism, can counteract the natural tendency of these causes. English grammar is still in its infancy ; and even bears, to the imagination of some, the appearance of a deformed and ugly dwarf among the liberal arts. Treatises are multiplied almost innumerably, but still the old errors survive. Names are rapidly added to our list of authors, while little or nothing is done for the science. Nay, while new blunders have been committed in every new book, old ones have been allowed to stand as by prescriptive right ; and positions that were never true, and sentences that were never good English, have been published and republished under different names, till in our language grammar has become the most un- grammatical of all studies ! " Imitators generally copy their originals in an inverse ratio of their merits ; that is, by adding as much to their faults, as they lose of their merits." KNIGHT, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 117. " Who to the life an exact piece would make, Must not from others' work a copy take." Cowley. 6. All science is laid in the nature of things ; and he only who seeks it there, can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his predecessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had eyes to see them ! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsupported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship which has produced so many gram- mars without originality ? Shall he who cannot write for himself, improve upon him CHAP. II.] OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. 13 who can ? Shall he who cannot paint, retouch the canvass of Guido ? Shall mod- est in-- unity be allowed only to imitators ami t> thieves? How many a prefatory argument i>Mies virtually in this ! It is not deference to merit, but impudent pre- tence, prac!i>in^ on tin- credulity of ignorance ! Commonness alone exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it ha,s, is but the wages of its own worth!- To rend and he informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learning ; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and .stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man. <: 'Tis true, the ancients we may rob with ease ; But who with that mean shift himself can please ? " Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham. 7. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or 1"- ited, it might be expected that a book written pro- lly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would >cem that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of speaking and writing well ; so that correctness of Ian- m*' and neatness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in othei books. Nay, I have before suggested that in no other science are the principles of good writing so frequently and so shamefully violated. The code of false embraced in the following work, will go far to sustain this opinion. or, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object -,!i worthy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English imiar. But these, with scarcely any exception, have executed their inade- quate d.-H'/ns, not as men engaged in their proper calling, but as mere literary aim "iiding for a day from their loftier purposes, to perform a service, I. and therefore approved, but very far from supplying all the aid that is requisite to a thorough knowledge of the subject. Even the most meritori- ous hi ye left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to greater labour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward ; and to those who were best qualified to write, the sub- ject could offer no adequate motive for diligence. 8. Unlearned men, who neither make, nor can make, any pretensions to a knowl- edge of grammar as a study, if they show themselves modest in what they profess, are by no means to be despised or undervalued for the want of such knowledge. They are subject to no criticism, till they turn authors and write for the public. And even then they are to K .:"ntly, if they have any thing to communicate, which is worthy to be accepted in a homely dress. Grammatical inaccuracies are to be kin 1, in all those from whom nothing better can be expected ; for people are often under a >!' appearing as speakers or writers, before they can hav ! write or vaniinatieally. 'j'he body is more to be regarded th:m raiment ; and the "fan int'-restin-j: message, may make the manner of it a little tiling. Men of high purpose^ naturally rint ; < : :hat the design of his preaching <'d. had li 'he orator, and turned his attention to e " ex'-'dleii'-y ." or "wisdom of words." But this view of things piv-,..|f- n.i more -round for uninar, and making coarse and v our model of - : ian tor ne^l.s^in- j making bai/e and ihorts Timothy to hold fast the f.irm of sound wordt" \vhi-h he himself had taught him. Nor can it be de- nied that there is an nhlijjnr upon all men, to use speech fairly and un- derstandingly. But let it be remembered, that all those upon whose opinions or 14 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. II. practices I am disposed to animadvert, are either professed grammarians and philos- ophers, or authors who, by extraordinary pretensions, have laid themselves under special obligations to be accurate in the use of language. "The wise in heart shall be called prudent; and the sweetness of the lips increaseth learning." Prov. xvi, 21. " The words of a man's mouth are as deep waters, and the well- spring of wisdom [is] as a flowing brook." Ib. xviii, 4. ' A fool's mouth is his destruction, and his lips are the snare of his soul." Ib. xviii, 7. 9. The old maxim recorded by Bacon, " Loquendum ut vidgus, sentiendum ut sapientes " " We should speak as the vulgar, but think as the wise," is not to be taken without some limitation. For whoever literally speaks as the vulgar, shall offend vastly too much with his tongue, to have either the understanding of the wise or the purity of the good. In all untrained and vulgar minds, the ambition of speaking well is but a dormant or very weak principle. Hence the great mass of uneducated people are lamentably careless of what they utter, both as to the matter and the manner ; and no few seem naturally prone to the constant imita- tion of low example, andsome, to the practice of every abuse of which language is susceptible. Hence, as every scholar knows, the least scrupulous of our lexi- cographers notice many terms but to censure them as " low" and omit many more as being beneath their notice. Vulgarity of language, then, ever has been, and ever must be, repudiated by grammarians. Yet we have had pretenders to gram- mar, who could court the favour of the vulgar, though at the expense of all the daughters of Mnemosyne. 10. Hence the enormous insult to learning and the learned, conveyed in the following scornful quotations : " Grammarians, go to your tailors and shoemakers, and learn from them the rational art of constructing your grammars ! " Neef's Method of Education, p. 62. " From a labyrinth without a clew, in which the most enlightened scholars of Europe have mazed themselves and misguided others, the author ventures to turn aside." CardeWs Gram. 12 mo, p. 15. Again: "The nations of unlettered men so adapted their language to philosophic truth, that all physical and intellectual research can find no essential rule to reject or change." Ibid, p. 91. I have shown that " the nations of unlettered men " are among that portion of the earth's population, upon whose language the genius of grammar has never yet condescended to look down ! That people who make no pretensions to learning, can furnish better models or instructions than " the most enlightened scholars," is an opinion which ought not to be disturbed by argument. 11. I regret to say, that even Dr. Webster, with all his obligations and pre- tensions to literature, has well-nigh taken ground with Neef and Cardell, as above cited ; and has not forborne to throw contempt, even on grammar as such, and on men of letters indiscriminately, by supposing the true principles of every lan- guage to be best observed and kept by the illiterate. What marvel then, that all his multifarious grammars of the English language are despised V Having sug- gested that the learned must follow the practice of the populace, because they cannot control it, he adds : " Men of letters may revolt at this suggestion, but if they will attend to the history of our language, they will find the fact to be as here stated. It is commonly supposed that the tendency of this practice of unlettered men is to corrupt the language. But the fact is directly the reverse. I am prepared to prove, were it consistent with the nature of this work, that nineteen-twentieths of all the corruptions of our language, for five hundred years past, have been introduced by authors men who have made alterations in particular idioms which they did not understand. The same remark is applicable to the orthography and pronun- ciation. The tendency of unlettered men is to uniformity to analogy ; and so strong is this disposition, that the common people have actually converted some of our irregular verbs into regular ones. It is to unlettered people that we owe the disuse of holpen, bounden, sitten, and the use of the regular participles swelled, helped, worked^ in place of the ancient ones. This popular tendency is not to be CHAP. II.] OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. 16 contemned and disregarded, as some of the learned affect to do ; [this verb 'do ' is wronu r , Because ' to be contemned ' is passive ;] for it is governed by the natural, primary j>rt //'/,/, s of all laiH/nnr/es, to which we owe all their regularity an;l all their melody ; vi/.., a love of uniformity in weirds of a like character, and a preference of an easy natural pronunciation, and a desire to express the most ideas with the smallest number of words and syllables It is a fortunate thing for Ian ^uaire, that these nafi'ml prim-ijiles generally prevail over arbitrary and arti- ficial ruli's." \Vflmf cr's J'/tf/onop/n'cal Grain, p. 119; Improved Gram. p. 78. & much for unlettered erudition .' \'l. If every thing that has been taught under the name of grammar, is to be considered as belonging to the science, it will be impossible ever to determine in what estimation the study of it ought to be held ; for all that has ever been urged either for or against it, may, upon such a principle, be proved by reference to different authorities and irreconcilable opinions. But all who are studious to know, ami content to follow, the fashion established by the concurrent authority of the l-'irned* may at least have some standard to refer to ; and if a grammarian's rules be based upon this authority, it must be considered the exclusive privilege of the unlearned to despise them as it is of the unbred, to contemn the rules of civility. But who shall determine whether the doctrines contained in any given treatise are, or arc not, based upon such authority? Who shall decide whether the contribu- tions which any individual may make to our grammatical code, are, or are not, consonant with the best usage ? For this, there is no tribunal but the mass of of whom few perhaps are very competent judges. And here an author's itation for erudition and judgement, may be available to him : it is the public voice in his favour. Yet every man is at liberty to form his own opinion, and to alter it whenever better knowledge leads him to think differently. 13. But the great misfortune is, that they who need instruction, are not quali- fied to choose their instructor ; and many who must make this choice for their I children, have no adequate means of ascertaining either the qualifications of such as offer themselves, or the com] tarative merits of the different methods by which they profess to teach. Hence this great branch of learning, in itself too compre- hensive for the genius or the life of any one man. has ever been open to as various and worthless a set of quacks and plagiaries as have ever figured in any other. There always have been some who knew this, and there may be many who know it now ; but the credulity and ignorance which expose so great a majority of man- kind to deception and error, are not likely to be soon obviated. With every indi- vidual who is so fortunate as to receive any of the benefits of intellectual culture, I the whole prooeai of education must be^in anew; and, by all that sober minds can credit, the vision of human perfectibility is far enough from any national consum- mation. 1 I. Whatever any may think of their own ability, or however some might flout to find their . ired or their pretensions disallowed ; whatever improvement may actually have been made, or however fondly we may listen to boasts and I felicitations on that topic ; it is pre-irmed, that the general ignorance on the subject of grammar, . is t><> ubvious to be denied. W hat then is the remedy ? and t.i whom must our appeal lie made'.' Knowledge cannot be imposed by power, nor is there any domination in the republic of letters. The remedy lies solely in that zeal whieh ean provoke to a jrem-rmis emulation in the cause of literature ; and the appeal, whieh has recourse to the learning of the learned, and to the common * " A very good judsro ha inion .-md di-t.-nnination in this matter ; that he { would take for hifl rule in : <> be the faulty caprii-,- i.f the multitude, but the consent and agree- 'Ijuiltfe" here spoken of. is (Juinrilian : whose. ''--.irimn >-*t jinliriuiii. i-im-fr iicndiuii'iiir imprimis id i|>.-um i(iiiil .-it. i >.vmu~. In loqoeodo, non, si quid vitio.-r muUi- regula sermoDis, ac- cipiendum est Ki%ro ronsu.'tudinem sermonia, Tocabo consensum ervditorum ; sicut vivendi, conaensum bonorum." Jnst. Orat., i, 6. 16 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. II. sense of all, must be pressed home to conviction, till every false doctrine stand refuted, and every weak pretender exposed or neglected. Then shall Science honour them that honour her ; and all her triumphs be told, all her instructions be delivered, in " sound speech that cannot be condemned." 15. A generous man is not unwilling to be corrected, and a just one cannot but desire to be set right in all things. Even over noisy gainsayers, a calm and dignified exhibition of true doctrine, has often more influence than ever openly appears. I have even seen the author of a faulty grammar heap upon his corrector more scorn and personal abuse than would fill a large newspaper, and immediately afterwards, in a new edition of his book, renounce the errors which had been pointed out to him, stealing the very language of his amendments from the man whom he had so grossly vilified ! It is true that grammarians have ever disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who, in elementary treatises, have meddled much with philological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham : " The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 16. Thus, then, as I have before suggested, we find among writers on grammar two numerous classes of authors, who have fallen into opposite errors, perhaps equally reprehensible ; the visionaries, and the copyists. The former have ventured upon too much originality, the latter have attempted too little. " The science of philology," says Dr. Alexander Murray, " is not a frivolous study, fit to be con- ducted by ignorant pedants or visionary enthusiasts. It requires more qualifications to succeed in it, than are usually united in those who pursue it : a sound penetrating judgement ; habits of calm philosophical induction ; an erudition various, extensive, and accurate; and a mind likewise, that can direct the knowledge expressed in words, to illustrate the nature of the signs which convey it. l ' Murray's History of European Languages, Vol. ii, p. 333. 17. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is manifestly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to invent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their history will give no encourage- ment to future innovators. 18. Again : While some have thus wasted their energies in excentric flights, vainly supposing that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories ; others, with more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into our schools, cannot but desire to see them all dis- placed by some abler and better work, more honourable to its author and more useful to the public, more intelligible to students and more helpful to teachers. Books professedly published for the advancement of knowledge, are very frequently to be reckoned among its greatest impediments; for the interests of learning are no less injured by whimsical doctrines, than the rights of authorship by plagiarism. Too many of our grammars, profitable only to their makers and venders, are like weights attached to the heels of Hermes. It is discouraging to know the history of this science. But the multiplicity of treatises already in use, is a reason, not for silence, but for offering more. For, as Lord Bacon observes, the number of ill- CHAP. II.] OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. 17 written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious.* 19. I have said that some grammars have too much originality, and others too little. It may be added, that not a few are chargeable with both these faults at once. They are original, or at least anonymous, where there should have been given other authority than that of the compiler's name; and they are copies, or, at best, poor imitations, where the author should have shown himself capable of writing "I sryle of his own. What then is the middle ground for the true grammarian V What is the kind, and what the degree, of originality, which are to be commended in works of this sort ? In the first place, a grammarian must be a writer, an author, a man who observes and thinks for himself; and not a mere compiler, abridger, modifier, copyist, or plagiarist. Grammar is not the only subject upon which we allow no man to innovate in doctrine ; why, then, should it be the only one upon which a man may make it a merit, to work up silently into a book of his own, the best materials found among the instructions of his predecessors and rivals ? Some definitions and rules, which in the lapse of time and by frequency of use have become a sort of public property, the grammarian may perhaps be allowed to use at his pleasure ; yet even upon these a man of any genius will be apt to set some impress peculiar to himself. But the doctrines of his work ought, in general, to be ex- i in his own language, and illustrated by that of others. With respect to quotation , he has all the liberty of other writers, and no more ; for, if a grammarian makes " use of his predecessors' labours," why should any one think with Murray, " it is s'-arcely necessary to apologize for " this, " or for omitting to insert their names'.''' Introd. to L. Murray's Gram. p. 7. J<>. The author of this volume would here take the liberty briefly to refer to his own procedure. His knowledge of what is technical in grammar, was of course chiefly derived from the writings of other grammarians ; and to their concurrent Opinions and practices, he has always had great respect; yet, in truth, not a line has he ever copied from any of them with a design to save the labour of composition. For, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which he at first proposed to himself. Nor is there in all the present volume a single sentence, not regularly quoted, the authorship of which he supposes may now be ascribed to an other more properly than to himself. Where either authority or acknowledgement was requisite, :a\c lic.-n inserted. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quotations from others, but mo>t examples made for the occasion, are marked with guillemots, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to almost every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or reference is added. For those citations, however, which there was occasion to repeat in different parts of the work, a single referenee h;^ >onieiimes been thought sufficient. This remark refers chiefly to the correction-; in the Key, the references being given in the Exercises. Jl. Though the theme is not one on which a man may hope to write well with little reflection, it i< true that the parts of this treatise which have cost the author the mo.-t lalior, are those which "consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of oth e, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the ancient grammarians, ouiiht to lie taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our moilern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers, that the an. -lent exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many phra-e- and .-entcnccs, either original with the writer, or common to every body, will therefore be found among the illustrations of the following work ; for it * " Tho opinion of vcr^t. tho r.nusos of want : and the pnvat quantity of books maketh a show rather of superfluity than l':i'-k : which furehU|, BflYertheta '^' making no more ic by making iim;, -ni.'lif Jevour the serpents of the Defaulter*." Bacon. In point of Miip is here deficient ; and he haa also mixed and marred the figure which he uses. But the idea is a good one. 2 18 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. II. was not supposed that any reader would demand for every thing of this kind the authority of some great name. Anonymous examples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them ; and elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 22. It is obvious enough, that no writer on grammar has any right to propose himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common property of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against the caprices of individuals ; and especially against that presumption which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary definitions and rules. " Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist of Salamanca, " is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason, and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, ' Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language.' " Sanctii Minerva, Lib. ii, Cap. 2. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language. 23. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as they become competitors for the same prize ; but in competition there is nothing dishonourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology ; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having " done all that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of English grammarians; and he who begins with saying, that " little can be expected " from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted, when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be accepted and honoured under the name. 24. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical authorship has been reduced, in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, even for an indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence ! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a professed compiler ; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation ! What marvel is it, that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to improve upon this most happy design ; while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our language ? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bring his " most useful matter " before the world under better auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an " humble drudge " or, like CHAP. II.] OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP. 19 Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar ? 25. The first edition of the " Institutes of English Grammar," the doctrinal parts of which arc embraced in the present more copious work, was published in the year 18:23 ; since which time, (within the space of twelve years,) about forty new compends, mostly professing to be abstracts of Murray, with improvements, have been added to our list of English grammars. The author lias examined as many as thirty of them, and seen advertisements of perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be variously estimated ; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have committed upon his earlier text, were it not possible, that by such a frittering-away of his work, he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the production of the books which bear his name, far more has been done for the grammar of our language than any single hand had before achieved within the scope of practical philology, and that with perfect fairness towards other writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whatever el.-e may befall ; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following pages. :M. Tin mrre rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed ; and a multitude of minute things must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task but he that is personally interested ? Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth ; and even of some things within their reach, the majority seem content to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred ; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But nunmon sense might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or cted by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. '11 . The fortune of a grammar is not always an accurate test of its merits. The goddess of the plenteous horn stands blindfold yet upon the floating prow ; and, under her capricious favour, any pirate-craft, ill stowed with plunder, may sometimes speed as well, as larges richly laden from the golden mines of science. Far more are now afloat, and more are stranded on dry shelves, than can be here reported. But what this work contains, is candidly designed to qualify the reader to be himself a judge of what it shoulil contain ; and I will hope, so ample a report as this, being thought sufficient, will also meet his approbation. The favour of one discerning mind that comprehends my subject, is worth intrinsically more than that of half the nation : 1 mean, of course, the half of whom my gentle reader is not one. " They praise and they admire they know not what, And kiow not whom, but as one leads the other." MiUon. 20 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. CHAPTER III. OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. " Non is ego sum, cui aut jucundum, aut adeo opus sis, de aliis detrahere, et hac via ad famam contendere. Melioribus artibu.s lauloin parare didici. Itaque nou libeuter dico, quod praesens institutum dicere cogit/' Jo. AUGUSTI ERNESTI Pref. ad GrtKcum Lexicon, p. vii. 1. The real history of grammar is little known ; and many erroneous impres- sions are entertained concerning it : because the story of the systems most generally received has never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion was never worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying : " Unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abun- dance ; but from him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talent are to be taken into the account ; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity. 2 It is an ungrateful task to correct public opinion by showing the injustice of praise. Fame, though it may have been both unexpected and undeserved, is apt to be claimed and valued as part and parcel of a man's good name ; and the dissenting critic, though ever-so candid, is liable to be thought an envious detrac- tor. It would seem in general most prudent to leave mankind to find out for themselves how far any commendation bestowed on individuals is inconsistent with truth. But, be it remembered, that celebrity is not a virtue ; nor, on the other hand, is experience the cheapest of teachers. A good man may not have done all things ably -ind well ; and it is certainly no small mistake to estimate his character by the current value of his copy-rights Criticism may destroy the reputation of a book, and not be inconsistent with a cordial respect for the private worth of its author. The reader will not be likely to be displeased with what is to be stated in this chapter, if he can believe, that no man's merit as a writer, may well be en- hanced by ascribing to him that which he himself, for the protection of his own honour, has been constrained to disclaim. He cannot suppose that too much is alleged, if he will admit that a grammarian's fame should bo thought safe enough in his own keeping. Are authors apt to undervalue their own performances ? Or because proprietors and publishers may profit by the credit of a book, shall it be thought illiberal to criticise it V Is the author himself to be disbelieved, that the extravagant praises bestowed upon him may be justified ? " Superlative commen- dation," says Dillwyn, " is near akin to detraction." (See his Reflections, p. 22.) Let him, therefore, who will charge detraction upon me, first understand wherein it consists. I shall criticise, freely, both the works of the living, and the doctrines of those who, to us, live only in their works ; and if any man dislike this freedom, let him rebuke it, showing wherein it is wrong or unfair. The amiable author just quoted, says again : " Praise lias so often proved an impostor, that it woul I be well, wherever we meet with it, to treat it as a vagrant." Ih. p. 100. I go not so far as this ; but that eulogy which one knows to be false, he cannot but reckon impertinent. 3. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than WILLIAM LILY and LINDLEY MURRAY. Others have left better monuments of their learning and tal- ents, but none perhaps have had greater success and fame. The Latin grammar CHAP. III.] OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 21 which was for a long time most popular in England, has commonly been ascribed to the one ; and what the Imperial Review, in 1805, pronounced "the best Eng- lish grammar, beyond all comparison, that has yet appeared," was compiled by the other. And doubtless they have both been rightly judged to excel the generality of those which they were intended to supersede ; and both, in their day, may have been highly serviceable to the cause of learning. For all excellence is but com- parative ; and to grant them this superiority, is neither to prefer them now, nor to ju>tity the praise which has been bestowed upon their authorship. As the science of grammar can never be taught without a book, or properly taught by any book which is not itself grammatical, it is of some importance both to teachers and to students, to make choice of the best. Knowledge will not advance where gram- mar- hold rank by prescription. Yet it is possible that many, in learning to write and sjieak, may have derived no inconsiderable benefit from a book that is neither accurate nor complete. 4. With respect to time, these two grammarians were three centuries apart ; during which period, the English language received its most classical refinement, and the relative estimation of the two studies, Latin and English grammar, became in a great measure reversed. Lily was an Englishman, born at Odiham,* in Hampshire, in 14<'><>. "When he had arrived at manhood, he went on a pilgrimage to .Jerusalem; and while abroad studied some time at Rome, and also at Paris. On his return he was thought one of the most accomplished scholars in England. In 1 fill i. ]>r. John Colet, dean of St. Paul's church, in London, appointed him the first high master of St. Paul's School, then recently founded by this gentleman's munificence. In this situation, Lily appears to have taught with great credit to himself till 1;VJ'J, when he died of the plague, at the age of 56. For the use of this school, he wrote and published certain parts of the grammar which has since borne his name. Of the authorship of this work many curious particulars are stated in the preface by John Ward, which may be seen in the edition of 1793. Lily had able rivals, as well as learned coadjutors and friends. By the aid of the latter, he took precedence of the former; and his publications, though not volumi- nous, soon gained a general popularity. So that when an arbitrary king saw fit to silence competition among the philologists, by becoming himself, as Sir Thomas Elliott says, "thechiefe authour and setter-forth of an introduction into grammar, for the childrene of his lovynge subjects," Lily's Grammar was preferred for the i the standard. Hence, after the publishing of it became a privilege patented by the crown, the book appears to have been honoured with a royal title, and to have 1 cen familiarly called King Henry's Grammar. f>. Prefixed to this book, there appears a very ancient epistle to the reader, which while it shows the reasons for this royal interference with grammar, shows -.hat is worthy of remembrance, that guarded and maintained as it uas, even royal interference was here ineffectual to its purpose. It neither piodm-ed uniform- ity in the methods of teaching, nor, even for induction in a dead language, en- tirely prevented the old manual from becoming diverse in its different editions. i-o may serve to illustrate what I have elsewhere said about the duties of a modern urammarian. " As for the diversitie of grammars, it is well and profitably taken awaie by the Kind's Majesties wiadmej who, foreseeing the in- eonvenicTice, and favorably providing the remedie. caused one kind of grammar by sundry learned men to be diligently drawn, and M> to be -et out. only every wh.eie to hi' taught, for the use of learners, and for the hurt in changing l>lhnm.\ plain p*bire," an the I'titom! Hif.prai >hical Dictionary ha* it; for Oldkam is in Lancashire, and the n&be of Lily's birthplace baa sometimes been spelled 22 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. fore judge th that the most sufficient waie, which he seeth to be the readiest meane, and perfectest kinde, to bring a learner to have a thorough knowledge therein." The only remedy for such an evil then is, to teach those who are to be teachers, and to desert all who, for any whim of their own, desert sound doctrine. 6. But, to return. A law was made in England by Henry the Eighth, com- manding Lily's Grammar only, (or that which has commonly been quoted as Lily's,) to be everywhere adopted and taught, as the common standard of gram- matical instruction.* Being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry, directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, (" because," says one of the patentees, " he had so considerable a hand in the composition,) was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. And of the other half, it has been incidentally as- serted in history, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says : " The Ital- ians in a short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age ; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar, written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th of January, 1474 ; from whom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his Grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, without paying any regard to the memory of this author. ' ' The histo- rian then proceeds to speak about types. See also the same thing in the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar which bears upon its title page : " Quam solam Regia Majestas in omnibus scholis docendam prcecipit." 7. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in orig- inal thought and critical skill he fell far below most of " the authors to whom," he confesses, " the grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its materials ; namely, Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and Campbell." Introd. to Lindley Murray's Gram. p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon his task with a very insufficien preparation. His biography, which was commenced by himself and completed ^ one of his most partial friends, informs us, that, " Grammar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time previous to the publication of his first work on that subject ;" that, " His Grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, was completed in rather less than a year ; " that, " It was begun in the spring of 1794, and published in the spring of 1795 though he had an intervening illness, which, for several weeks, stopped the progress of the work ; " and that, " The Exercises and Key were also composed in about a year." Life of L. Murray, p. 188. From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public. t He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that " little can be expected " from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) " from a new compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the * There are other Latin grammars now in use in England ; but what one is most popular, or whether any regard is still paid to this ancient edict or not, I cannot say. Dr. Adam, in his preface, dated 1793, speaking of Lily, savs : u His Grammar was appointed, by an act which is still in force, to be taught in the established schools of England." I have somehow gained the impression, that the act is now totally disregarded. G. Brown. t For this there is an obvious reason, or apology, in what his biographer states, as " the humble origin of his Grammar;" and it is such a reason as will go to confirm what I allege. This famous compilation was product*d at the request of two or three yoitu^ tfarhers, who had charge of a swill frntnlc school in the neighbourhood of the author's residence ; and nothing could have been more unexpected to their friend and instructor, th;m that he, in consequence of this service, should become known the world over, as Murray the Grammarian. " In preparing the work, ami consenting to its publication, he had on expectation that it would be used, except by the school for which it was designed, and two or three othef^ chools conducted by persons who were also his friends/' Life of L'. Murray, p. 260. CHAP. III.] OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 23 understanding, and the gradual progress of learners." Infrod. to L. Murray's Grain. vo, p. 5 ; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his own art to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's business ! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them ! 8. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught; for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their hot account, he seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his notion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the sake of doing good ; and, taken in any other than as a forced apology for his own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors whom he copied. To justify himself> he ungenerously places them, in common with others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfection of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure, is absurd. He says, " The greater part of an English grammar must necessarily be a compilation; " and adds, with reference to his own, " originality belongs to but a small portion of it. This I have acknowledged ; and I trust this acknowledgement will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assumptions." This quotation is from a letter addressed by Murray to his American publishers, in IS 11, after they had informed him of certain complaints respecting the liberties which he had taken in his work. See " The friend," vol. iii, p. 34. 9. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies, does not appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was, however, at some period, introduced into his short preface, or " Introduction," in the following well-meant but singularly sophistical terms : " In a icork which professes itself to be a r',m/>i/itti't/i, ami which, from f/- nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names. From the alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes f/ to witom the passages originally belonged, the insert!' -n of names ron/t/ seldom be made with propriety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this nature w no advantage from if, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references. It is, however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its matcri;:' ris, -Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, l>eattie, Sheridan, Walker, ami Toote." Introd. 1> a. p. 4; Octavo, p. 7. 10. The fallacy, or absurdity, of this language sprung from necessity. An imp< it. For compilation, though ever so fair, is not grammatical authorship, But some of the commenders of Murray have not only professed them with this general acknowledgement, but have found in it a can-lour ami a liberality, a modesty ami a diffidence, which, as they allege, ought to protect him from all animadversion. Are they friends to learning ' Let them calmly con-ider what I reluctantly offer for its defence and promotion. In one of the recommendations appended to Murray's grammars, it is said, " They have nearly superseded every thing el>e of the kind, by concentrating the remarks of the best authors on the subject." But, in truth, with sevi-ril of th-- grammars published previously to his own, Murray appears to have been totally 24 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. unacquainted. The chief, if not the only school grammars which were largely copied by him, were Lowth's and Priestley's, though others perhaps may have shared the fate of these in being " superseded " by his. It may be seen by inspection, that in copying these two authors, the compiler, agreeably to what he says above, omitted all riames and references even such as they had scrupulously inserted : and, at the outset, assumed to be himself the sole authority for all his doctrines and illustrations ; satisfying his own mind with making, some years afterwards, that general apology which we are now criticising. For if he so mutilated and altered the passages which he adopted, as to make it improper to add the names of their authors, upon what other authority than his own do they rest ? But if, on the other hand, he generally copied without alteration ; his examples are still anonymous, while his first reason for leaving them so, is plainly destroyed : because his position is thus far contradicted by the fact. 11. In his later editions, however, there are two opinions which the compiler thought proper to support by regular quotations ; and, now and then, in other instances, the name of an author appears. The two positions thus distinguished, are these : First, That the noun means is necessarily singular as well a- plural, BO that one cannot with propriety use the singular form, mean, to signify that by which an end is attained; Second, That the subjunctive mood, to which he himself had previously given all the tenses without inflection, is not different in form from the indicative, except in the present tense. With regard to the latter point, I have shown, in its proper place, that he taught erroneously, both before and after he changed his opinion ; and concerning the former, the most that can be proved by quotations, is, that both mean and means for the singular number, long have been, and still are, in good use, or sanctioned by many elegant writers ; so that either form may yet be considered grammatical, though the irregular can claim to be so, only when it is used in this particular sense. As to his second reason for the suppression of names, to wit, "the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged," to make the most of it, it is but partial and relative ; and, surely, no other grammar ever before so multiplied the difficulty in the eyes of teachers, and so widened the field for commonplace authorship, as has the compilation in question. The origin of a sentiment or passage may be uncertain to one man, and perfectly well known to an other. The embarrassment which a compiler may happen to find from this source, is worthy of little sympathy. For he cannot but know from what work he is taking any particular sentence or paragraph, and those parts of a grammar, which are new to the eye of a great grammarian, may very well be credited to him who claims to have written the book. I have thus disposed of his second reason for the omission of names and references, in compilations of grammar. 12. There remains one more : "A work of this nature ivould derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references." With regard to a small work, in which the matter is to be very closely condensed, this argument has considerable force. But Murray has in general allowed himself very ample room, especially in his two octavoes. In these, and for the most part also in his duodeeimoes, all needful references might easily have been added without increasing the size of his volumes, or injuring their appearance. In nine cases out of ten, the names would only have occupied what is now blank space. It is to be remembered, that these books do not differ much, except in quantity of paper. His octavo Grammar is but little more than a reprint, in a larger type, of the duodecimo Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key. The demand for this expensive publication has been comparatively small ; and it is chiefly to the others, that the author owes his popularity as a grammarian. As to the advantage which Murray or his work might have derived from an adherence on his part to the usual custom of compilers, that may be variously estimated. The remarks of the best grammarians, or the CHAP. III.] OP GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 25 sentiments of the best authors, are hardly to be thought the more worthy of acceptance, for being concentrated in such a manner as to merge their authenticity in the fame of the copyist. Let me not be understood to suggest that i\}\< good man sought popularity at the expense of others ; for I do not believe that either fame or interest was his motive. But the right of authors to the credit of their writing, is a delicate point; and, surely, his example would have been worthier of imitation, had he left no ground for the foregoing objections, and carefully barred the way to any such inference. 13. But let the first sentence of this apology be now considered. It is hero suggested, that because this work is a compilation, even such an acknowledgement as the author makes, is " scarcely necessary." This is too much to say. Yet one may readily admit, that a compilation, " from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly " nay, wholly " of materials selected from the writings of others." But what able grammarian would ever willingly throw himself upon the horns of sm-li a dilemma? The nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, are matters for which the author alone is answerable ; but the nature and design of fjrnintnar, are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by Murray in his work of compilation. It is the express purpose of this practical science, to enable a man to write well himself. He that cannot do this, exhibits no excess of modesty when he claims to have " done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this nature." L. Murray's Gram. Jntrtxl. p. {). He that sees with other men's eyes, i- peculiarly liable to errors and inconsistencies : uniformity is seldom found in 'work, or accuracy in secondhand literature. Correctness of language is in the mind, rather than in the hand or the tongue ; and, in order to secure it, some originality of thought is necessary. A delineation from new surveys is not the original because the same region has been sketched before ; and how can he be the ablest of surveyors, who, through lack of skill or industry, does little more than transcribe the field-notes and copy the projections of his predecessors? 11. This author's oversights are numerous. There is no part of the volume more accurate than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty para- graphs; and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the hot practical notes were taken from Priestley; yet it was he, at whose doctrines wen- pointed most of those " positions and discussions." which alone the author claims as original. To some of these reasonings, however, his own alterations may have given ri>c ; for, where he " persuades himself he is not destitute of originality," lit- i< often ariruing against the text of his own earlier editions. Webster's well- known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair ; and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are itii-eraldy deficient in both. On the law of language, there are tifteen page> from ( 1 ampl>ell ; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the -anie as Walker's : the third one, however, is a gross blunder : and the fourth, a needless repetition. I."). \Vere this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the olxervance of the learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those- who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it Who will pretend that Flint, Alder,. Comly. Jaudon, Kussell, Bacon. Lyon, Miller. Alger, Malthy. Ingersoll, Fi>k, n>ideral>le decree, if at all, "a compilation ;" nay, on such a theme, and in " the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all, ii" iably implies not conscious "ability," generously doing honour to rival merit nor " exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own but inadequate skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can ju-tify. ill . Among the professed copiers of Murray, there is not one to whom the fore- remarks do not apply, as forcibly as to him. For no one of them all has INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. attempted any thing more honourable to himself, or more beneficial to the public, than what their master had before achieved ; nor is there any one, who, with the same disinterestedness, has guarded his design from the imputation of a pecuniary motive. It is comical to observe what they say in their prefaces. Between praise to sustain their choice of a model, and blame to make room for their pretended amendments, they are often placed in as awkward a dilemma, as that which was contrived when grammar was identified with compilation. I should have much to say, were I to show them all in their true light.* Few of them have had such success as to be worthy of notice here ; but the names of many will find frequent place in my code of false grammar. The one who seems to be now taking the lead in fame and revenue, filled with glad wonder at his own popularity, is SAMUEL KIRKHAM. Upon this gentleman's performance, I shall therefore bestow a few brief observations. If I do not overrate this author's literary importance, a fair exhibition of the character of his grammar, may be made an instructive lesson to some of our modern literati. The book is a striking sample of a numerous species. 22. Kirkham's treatise is entitled, " English Grammar in Familiar Lectures, ac- companied by a Compendium'' that is, by a folded sheet. Of this work, of which I have recently seen copies purporting to be of the " sixty- seventh edition," and others again of the " hundred and fifth edition," each published at Baltimore in 1835, I can give no earlier account, than what may be derived from the " second edition, enlarged and much improved," which was published at Harrisburg in 1825. The preface, which appears to have been written for his frst edition, is dated, " Fredericktown, Md., August 22, 1823." In it, there is no recognition of any obligation to Murray, or to any other grammarian in particular ; but with the modest assumption, that the style of the " best philologists," needed to be retouched, the book is presented to the world under the following pretensions : " The author of this production has endeavoured to condense all the most important subject-matter of the whole science, and present it in so small a compass that the learner can become familiarly acquainted with it in a short time. He makes but small preten- sions to originality in theoretical matter. Most of the principles laid down, have been selected from our best modern philologists. If his work is entitled to any degree of merit, it is not on account of a judicious selection of principles and rules, but for the easy mode adopted of communicating these to the mind of the learner." Kirkham's Grammar, 1825, p. 10. 23. It will be found on examination, that what this author regarded as " all the most important subject-matter of the whole science " of grammar, included nothing more than the most common elements of the orthography, etymology, and syntax, of the English tongue beyond which his scholarship appears not to have extended. Whatsoever relates to derivation, to the sounds of the letters, to prosody, (as punctuation, utterance, figures, versification, and poetic diction,) found no place in his " comprehensive system of grammar; " nor do his later editions treat any of these things amply or well. In short, he treats nothing well ; for he is a bad writer. Commencing his career of authorship under circumstances the most for- bidding, yet receiving encouragement from commendations bestowed in pity, he proceeded, like a man of business, to profit mainly by the chance ; and, without ever acquiring either the feelings or the habits of a scholar, soon learned by expe- rience that, " It is much better to write than [to] starve." Kirkham's Gram, stereotyped, p. 89. It is cruel in any man, to look narrowly into the faults of an author who peddles a school-book for bread. The starveling wretch whose de- fence and plea are poverty and sickness, demands, and must have, in the name of humanity, an immunity from criticism, if not the patronage of the public. Far be it from me, to notice any such character, except with kindness and charity. Nor * " Grammatici namque auctoritas per se nulla est ; quum ex sola doctissimorum oratorum, historicorum. poetarum. et aliorum ideonorum Rcriptorum observatione, constet ortam esse vcram grammaricam. Alulta dicrnda forent, si grammatistarum ineptias refellere vellem : sed nulla est gloria prseterire asellos." TBRH Pref. Art. Versif. fol. iii, 1517. CHAP. III.] OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 29 need I be told, that tenderness is due to the "young ;" or that noble results some- times follow unhopeful beginnings. These tilings an; understood and duly appre- ciated. The gentleman was young once, oven as. b md I, his equal in years, was then, in authorship, as young though, it were to be hoped. not quite so immature. But, as circumstances alter ca lame ; and then, pen-hance, by contrast of circumstances, grow con- ceited and arrogant, from the fortune of the undertaking? Let us see what we can find in Kirkhanfs Grammar, which will iro to answer these questions. Take first from one j.a^e ..f his M hundred and fifth edition," a few brief quotations, as a sample of hi-- thoughts and style : a i E "They, however, who intrmK /7,/W, , /,;;// from the analogy and philosophy of a Ian.. ._; the number of those who form thut A///y/w',v, and have power t <-nirol it." " Piuvrii-u:. A principle in u'rammar is a, > >n of the laniiua^c, sanctioned by u r " A dciinition in grammar is a print > Hi u:. A rule desrri >iliar construction or rircum-tantial relation ot words, which custom has established for our observance." Kirk/tarn's (ii-n,iii>ir, p. 18. Now, as " a rule describes a peculiar construction," and " a principle is a pe- culiar construction," and " a definition is a principle ;" how, according to this gram- marian, do a principle, a definition, and a rule, differ each from the oth-r> 'i From the rote here imposed, it is certainly not easier for the learner to conceive of all 30 INTRODUCTION. [OHAP. III. these things distinctly, than it is to understand how a departure from philosophy may make a man deservedly " conspicuous." It were easy to multiply examples like these, showing the work to be deficient in clearness, the first requisite of style. 26. The following passages may serve as a specimen of the gentleman's taste, and grammatical accuracy ; in one of which, he supposes the neuter verb is to express an action, and every honest man to be long since dead ! So it stands in all his editions. Did his praisers think so too ? " It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats ; but we cannot say, The man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not r Because the man is here represented as the possessor, and dog, the property, or thing possessed ; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to the 2)ossessor, the thing which he is represented as possessing, the possessor shall take a particular form to show ITS case, or relation to the property." Ib. p. 52. THE PRESENT TENSE. " This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of per- sons long since dead; as, 'Seneca reasons and moralizes well; An HONEST MAN is the noblest work of God. ' ' Ib. p. 138. PARTICIPLES. "The term Participle comes from the Latin word part icipio,* which signifies to partake." "Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. Ing signifies the same as the noun being. When postfixed to the noun- state of the verb, the compound icord thus formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is being continued." Ib. p. 78. "All participles are compound in their meaning and office." Ib. p. 79. VERBS. "Verbs express, not only the state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the different actions and movements of all creatures and things, whether animate or inani- mate." Ib. p. 62. "It can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions ; but they are intrinsically the mere NAMES of actions." Ib. p. 37. PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. " I have thought proper to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the head of Philosophical Notes, 1 an entire system of grammat- ical principles as deduced from ichat appears f to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations." Ib. p. 36. "Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, ivould have been laughed at, had they essayed to thrust any thing like our modernized philo- sophical grammar down the throats of their coternporaries." Ib. p. 143. Is it not a pity, that '* more than one hundred thousand children and youth " should be daily poring over language and logic like this ? 27. For the sake of those who happily remain ignorant of this successful em- piricism, it is desirable that the record and exposition of it be made brief. There is little danger that it will long survive its author. But the present subjects of it are sufficiently numerous to deserve some pity. The following is a sample of the gentleman's method of achieving what he both justly and exultingly supposes, that Johnson, or Blair, or Lowth, could not have effected. He scoffs at his own grave instructions, as if they had been the production of some other impostor. Can the fact be credited, that in the following instances, he speaks of what he him- self teaches?" of what he seriously pronounces "most rational and consis- t en t 2 of what is part and parcel of that philosophy of his, which he declares, " will in general be found to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of his work? " See Kirkham's Gram. p. 36. " Call this ' philosophical parsing, on reasoning principles, according to the original laws of nature and of thought,' and the pill will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable." Kirkham's Gram. p. 144. "For the satis- faction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adoption, too, a modernized philo- sophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so conve- nient and useful as the old one ,they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being new ; and, moreover, it sounds large, and will make the commonalty stare. Let it be distinctly understood that you teach [Kirkham's] philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common sense,' and you will pass for a very learned man, and * The Latin word for participle is participium, which makes participio in the dative or the ablative case ; but the Latin word for partake teparticipo, and not "participio." G. BROWN. t This sentence is manifestly bad English : either the singular verb " appears " should be made plural, or the plural noun "investigations " should be made singular. G. BBOWN. CHAP. III.] OP GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 31 make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid inarch of intellect, and the vast im- provements of the age." Ib. p. 141. 28. The pretty promises with which these " Familiar Lectures " abound, are also worthy to be noticed here, as being among the peculiar attractions of the perform- ance. The following may serve as a specimen : " If you prw>cd according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of Grammar ma short time." Kirkham's Gram. p. 49. "If you have sufficient vou will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply to them ; and, in a fete icctks, be able to speak and write accurately." Ib. p. 62. " You will please to turn back and read over again the whole Jif . You must exercise a little patience." Ib. p. 82. "By studying these lectures with attention, )-ou will acquire mor<- firammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in tim yearn." Ib. p. 82. " I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress." Ib. p. 133. "The supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into afeir hours of pleasant pastime." Ib. p. 142. " By examining carefully the conjuga- tion of the verb through this mood, you will find it very easy." Ib. p. 147. " By pursu- :ie following direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb." Ib. p. 147. " Although this mode of procedure may, at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is .1 trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your persever- . induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate your progress." Ib. p. 148. ~'J. The grand boast of this author is, that he has succeeded in " pleasing himsolf and the public." He trusts to have " gained the latter point," to so great an extent, and with such security of tenure, that henceforth no man can safely ion the merit of his performance. Happy mortal I to whom that success which is the ground of his pride, is also the glittering agis of his sure defence ! To this he points with exultation and self-applause, as if the prosperity of the wicked, or the popularity of an imposture, had never yet been heard of in this clever world I Upon what merit this success has been founded, my readers may judge, when I shall have finished this slight review of his work. Probably no other grammar was ever so industriously spread. Such was the author's perseverance in his measures to increase the demand for his book, that even the attainment of such accuracy as he was capable of, was less a subject of concern. For in an article rued " toward off some of the arrows of criticism," an advertisement which, from the eleventh to the *' one hundred and fifth edition," has been promising " to the p'iblick an nf/n-r ology to his credit. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen criticks and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage, which, he would by no means, be willing to avow." Kirkham's Gram. (Adv. of 1829,) p. 7. 30. Now, to this painful struggle, this active contention between business and the vapours, let all credit be given, and all sympathy be added ; but, as an aid to the " What ! a book hare no merit, and yet be calle-1 for at the rate of sixty thousand eopiet a year! What a land. D rhe [.iiMic tasto '. What an insult to the understanding and dis<-rhiiina'i<>ii of the good -t be fools, i, and that man b GOOLD '-;;:. p. 361. Well n. ' to be called a slanderer of the public taste," and an insulter of the ondentandlilf.' 1 if both the merit of this vaunted book and the wisdom of its purchasers are to . author's profit*, or the publishers' account of sales! But, possibly, between the Sntrin.-ir merit ami the market value of some books there may be a ditlcn-ncv. l/ord 1!\ run n-< i-ived from Murray his bookseller, nearly ten dollars a line for the fourth canto of Childe Harold, or about as much for . .is Milton obtained for the whole of Paradise Lost. Id tub the true ratio of the merit of these authors, or of the wisdom of the different ages in which thej lived ? 32 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. studies of healthy children, what better is the book, for any forbearance or favour that may have been won by this apology ? It is well known, that, till phrenology became the common talk, the author's principal business was, to commend his own method of teaching grammar, and to turn this publication to profit. This hon- ourable industry, aided as himself suggests, by " not much less than one thousand written recommendations," is said to have wrought for him, in a very few years, a degree of success and fame, at which both the eulogists of Murray and the friends of English grammar may hang their heads. As to a " compromise" with any critic or reviewer whom he cannot bribe, it is enough to say of that, it is morally impossible. Nor was it necessary for such an author to throw the gauntlet, to prove himself not lacking in " self-confidence." He can show his " moral cour- age" only by daring do right. 31. In 1829, after his book had gone through ten editions, and the demand for it had become so great as "to call forth twenty thousand copies during the year," the prudent author, intending to veer his course according to the trade-wind, thought it expedient to retract his former acknowledgement to " our best modern philologists," and to profess himself a modifier of the Great Compiler's code. Where then holds the anchor of his praise? Let the reader say, after weighing and comparing his various pretensions : " Aware that there is, in the piiblick mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines con- tained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work ; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propen- sity to tigure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another." * Kirkham's Gram., 1829, p. 10. 32. Now these statements are either true or false ; and I know not on which supposition they are most creditable to the writer. Had any Roman grammatist thus profited by the name of Varro or Quintilian, he would have been filled with constant dread of somewhere meeting the injured author's frowning shade ! Surely, among the professed admirers of Murray, no other man, whether innovator or copyist, unfortunate or successful, is at all to be compared to this gentleman for the audacity with which he has " not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture, the text of that able writer." Murray simply intended to do good, and good that might descend to posterity ; and this just and generous intention goes far to excuse even his errors. But Kirkham, speaking of posterity, scruples not to disavow and renounce all care for them, or for any thing which a coming age may think of his character : saying, " My pretensions reach not so far. To the present generation only, I present my claims. Should it lend me a listening ear, and grant me its suffrages, the height of my ambition will be attained." Advertisement, in his Elocution, p. 346. His whole design is, therefore, upon the very face of it, a paltry scheme of present income. And, seeing his entered classes of boys and girls must soon have done with him, he has doubtless acted wisely, and quite in accordance with his own interest, to have made all possible haste in his career. 33. Being no rival with him in this race, and having no personal quarrel with * Kirkham's real opinion of Murray cannot be known from this passage only. How able is that writer who is chargeable with the greatest want of taste and discernment ? " In regard to the application of the final pause in reading blank verse, nothing can betray a greater want of rhetorical taste, and philosophical acumen, than the directions of Mr. Murray."- -Kirkham's Elocution, p. 145. Kirkham is indeed uo judge either of the merits, or of the demerits, of Murray's writings ; nor is it probable that this criticism originated with himself: But, since it appears in his name, let him have the credit of it, and of representing the compiler whom he calls " that able writer " and " that eminent philologist J' as an untasteful dunce, and a teacher of nonsense: *' To say that, unless we ' make every line sensible to the ear,' we mar the melody, and suppress the numbers of the poet, is all nonsense." Ibid. See Murray's Grammar, on Poetical Pauses," 8vo, p. 260 ; 12mo, 210. CHAP. III.] OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 33 him on any account, I would, for his sake, fain rejoice at his success, and withhold my critiri-ms : 1 -ause he is said to have been liberal with his gains, and because he has not, like some others, copied me in stead of Murray. But the vindication of a greatly injured and perverted science, constrains me to say, on this occasion, that pretensions k>-s consistent with themselves, or less sustained by and scholarship, have seldom, if ever, been promulgated in the name of grammar. I have, certainly, no intention to say more than is due to the uninformed and the misguided. For some who are ungenerous and prejudiced themselves, will not be unwilling to think me so ; and even this freedom, backed and guarded as it is, by facts and proofs irrefragable, may still be ingeniously ascribed to an ill motive. To two thirds of the community, one grammar is just as good as an other; hey neither know, nor wish to know, more than may be learned from the very worst. An honest expression of sentiment against abuses of a literary nature, is little the fashion of these times ; and the good people who purchase books upon the recommendations of others, may be slow to believe there is no merit where so much has been attributed. But facts may well be credited, in opposition to courteous flattery, when there are the author's own words and works to vouch for them in the face of day. Though a thousand of our great men may have helped a copier's weak copyist to take "some practical advantage" of the world's credulity, it is safe to aver, in the face of dignity still greater, that testimonials more fallacious have seldom mocked the cause of learning. They did not read his book. Not withstanding the author's change in his professions, the work is now itiully the same as it was at first ; except that its errors and contradictions have been greatly multiplied, by the addition of new matter inconsistent with the old. He evidently cares not what doctrines he teaches, or whose ; but, as various theories are noised abroad, sci/>s upon different opinions, and mixes them together, that his In ..lies may contain something to suit all parties. " A System of Philosophical Grammar," though but an idle speculation, even in his own account, and doubly rd in him, as being flatly contradictory to his main text, has been thought worthy of insertion. And what his title-page denominates " A New System of Pui " though mostly in the very words of Murray, was next invented to supply a deficiency which he at length discovered. To admit these, and some other additions, the "comprehensive system of grammar" was gradually extended from 144 small duodecimo pages, to 228 of the ordinary size. And, in this compass, it was finally stereotyped in 1829 ; so that the ninety-four editions published since, have nothing new for history. 35. But the publication of an other work designed for schools, " An Essay on Elocution" shows the progress of the author's mind. Nothing can be more radically opposite, than are some of the elementary doctrines which this gentleman .v teaching; nothing, more strangely inconsistent, than are some of his declara- tions and pmtVssir.ns. For instance: "A consonant is a letter that cannot be xmndrd without the help of a vowel." A'irMam's Gram. p. 19. ; n : "A consonant is not only capable of being perfectly sounded without the "f a vnwi'l, but, moreover, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable." ' Take a second example. He makes " AP.TKCTIVE PRO^ and IfdiiiiHj fif/f. in treating of the pronouns r ; defines the term in a manner peculiar to himself; prefers and uses it in all his parsinir ; and yet, by the third sentence of the story, the learner is conducted to this just conclusion : ' Hem-.-, such a thing as an at/ji'/'ftrc-jn'ttnonn cannot exist." G raw mar. p. 1 .">. < )n.-e m-.rc. !"j...n his own rules, or such as he had borrowed, he comments thus, and comments truly, because he had either written them badly or made an ill choice : "But some of these rules are foolish, trifling, and unimportant." Hlnmtlon, p 97. Again : " Rules 10 and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the principles of the language." 3 34 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. III. Grammar, p. 59. These are but specimens of his own frequent testimony against himself! Nor shall he find refuge in the impudent falsehood, that the things which I quote as his, are not his own.* These contradictory texts, and scores of others which might be added to them, are as rightfully his own, as any doctrine he has ever yet inculcated. But, upon the credulity of ignorance, his high-sounding certificates and unbounded boasting can impose any thing. They overrule all in favour of one of the worst grammars extant; of which he says, "It is now studied by more than one hundred thousand children and youth ; and is more ex- tensively used than all other English grammars published in the United States." Elocution, p. 347. The booksellers say, he receives from his publishers ten cents a copy, on this work, and that he reports the sale of sixty thousand copies per annum. Such has of late been his public boast. I have once had the story from his own lips, and of course congratulated him, though I dislike the book. Six thousand dollars a year, on this most miserable modification of Lindley Murray's Grammar ! Be it so or double, if he and the public please. Murray had so little originality in his work, or so little selfishness in his design, that he would not take any thing ; and his may ultimately prove the better bargain. 36. A man may boast and bless himself as he pleases, his fortune, surely, can never be worthy of an other's envy, so long as he finds it inadequate to his own great merits, and unworthy of his own poor gratitude. As a grammarian, Kirkham claims to be second only to Lindley Murray ; and says, " Since the days of Lowth, no other work on grammar, Murray's only excepted, has been so favourably received by i\\Qpublick as his own. As a proof of this, he would mention, that within the last six years it has passed through fifty editions." Preface to Elocution, p. 12. And, at the same time, and in the same preface, he complains, that, " Of all the labours done under the sun, the labours of the pen meet with the poorest reward." Ibid. p. 5. This too clearly favours the report, that his books were not written by himself, but by others whom he hired. Possibly, the anonymous helper may here have penned, not his employer's feeling, but a line of his own experience. But I choose to ascribe the passage to the professed author, and to hold him answerable for the inconsistency. Willing to illustrate by the best and fairest examples these fruitful means of grammatical fame, I am glad of his present success, which, through this record, shall become yet more famous. It is the only thing which makes him worthy of the notice here taken of him. But I cannot sympathize with his com- plaint, because he never sought any but " the poorest reward ; " and more than all tie sought, he found. In his last "Address to Teachers," he says, "He may silver; nor he that loveth abundance, with increase." Let him remember this. f He now announces three or four other works as forthcoming shortly. What these will achieve, the world will see. But I must confine myself to the Grammar. 37. In this volume, scarcely any thing is found where it might be expected. " The author," as he tells us in his preface, " has not followed the common ' artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors ;' yet he has endeavoured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, ' the order of the under- standing? " Grammar, p. 12. But if this is the order of his understanding, he is greatly to be pitied. A book more confused in its plan, more wanting in method, more imperfect in distinctness of parts, more deficient in symmetry, or * " Now, in these instances, I should be fair game, were it not for the triflins; difference, that I happen to present the doctrines and notions of other writers, and NOT my own, as stated by my learned censor." Kirkham, in thf, Knickerbocker, Oct. 1837, p. 360. If the instructions above cited are not his own, there is not, within the lids of either book, a penny's worth that is. His fruitfulj copy-rights are void in law : the " learned censor's " pledge shall guaranty this issue. Q. B. 183S. t I am sorry to observe that the gentleman, Phrenologist, as he professes to be, has so little reverence in his crown. He could not read the foregoing suggestion without scoffing at it. Biblical truth is not powerless, though the scornful may refuse its correction. Q B. 1838. CHAP. TTI.] OP GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME. 35 more difficult of reference, shall not easily be found in stereotype. Let the reader try to follow us here. Bating twelve pages at the heginning, occupied by the title, recommendations, advertisement, contents, preface, hints to teachers, and advice to lecturers; and fifty-four at the end, embracing syntax, orthography, orthoi ; ]>v. provincialisms, prosody, punctuation, versification, rhetoric, figures of speech, and a Key, all in the sequence here given ; the work consi.-ts of fourteen chapters of grammar, absurdly called " Familiar Lectures.*' The first treats, of sundries, under half a dozen titles, but chiefly of Orthography ; and the last is three pages and a half, of the most common remarks, on Derivation. In the remaining twelve, the Etymology and Syntax of the ten parts of speech are com- mingled ; and an attempt is made, to teach simultaneously all that the author judged important in either. Hence he gives us, in a strange congeries, rules, remarks, illustrations, false syntax, systematic parsing, exercises in parsing, two different orders of notes, three different orders of questions, and a variety of other titles merely occasional. All these things, being additional to his main text, are to be connected, in the mind of the learner, with the parts of speech successively, in some new and inexplicable catenation found only in the arrangement of the lectures. The author himself could not see through the chaos. He accordingly made his table of contents a mere meagre alphabetical index. Having once attempted in vain to explain the order of his instructions, he actually gave the ip in despair ! 38. In length, these pretended lectures vary, from three or four pages, to eight- and-thirty. Their subjects run thus : 1. Language, Grammar, Orthography; 2. Nouns and Verbs; 3. Articles; 4. Adjectives; 5. Participles; 6. Adverbs; 7. Prepositions ; 8. Pronouns; 9. Conjunctions; 10. Interjections and Nouns; 11. 31 Is and Tenses; 12. Irregular Verbs; 13. Auxiliary, Passive, and Defective Verbs; 14. Derivation. Which, now, is " more judicious," such con- fu>ioii as this, or the arrangement which has been common from time immemorial? AY ho that has any respect for the human intellect, or whose powers of mind rve any in return, will avouch this jumble to be " the order of the understand- ing ? " Are the methods of science to be accounted mere hinderances to instruction ? Has grammar really been made easy by this confounding of its parts ? Or are we lured by the name, "Familiar Lectures" a term manifestly adopted as a mere decoy, and, with respect to the work itself, totally inappropriate V If these chapters have ever been actually delivered as a series of lectures, the reader must have he. MI employed on some occasions eight or ten times as long as on others ! - Dr. Johnson, " have now-a-days got a strange opinion that every thing should be taught by lectures. Now, 1 cannot see that lectures can do so much '_ r <""l as a private reading of the books from which the lectures are taken. I know of nothing that can be best taught by lectures, except where experiments bo be shown. You may teach chymistry by lectiuv> you might teach the makii:. j by lectures." JSosu-ilfs Life of Johnjon. \Yitli singuhir ignorance and untruth, this gentleman claims to have invented a better method of analysis than had ever been practised before. Of other grammars, his preface rivers, " They have till o/v/'/Wv,/ what the author considers a very important object; namely, ion his masterly preface, " that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymolo- gy, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands, we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar ? With great sacrifices, both of pleasure and of in- terest, I have humbly endeavoured to supply this desideratum ; and it remains for other men to determine, and other times to know, what place shall be given to these my labours, in the general story of this branch of learning. Intending to develop not only the principles but also the history of grammar, I could not but speak of its authors. The writer who looks broadly at the past and the present, to give sound instruction to the future, must not judge of men by their shadows. If the truth, honestly told, diminish the stature of some, it does it merely by clearing the sight of the beholder. Real greatness cannot suffer loss by the dissi- pating of a vapour. If reputation has been raised upon the mist of ignorance, who but the builder shall lament its overthrow ? If the works of grammarians are often unurammatieal, whose fault is this but their own? If all grammatical fame is little in itself, how can the abatement of what is undeserved of it be much ? If the errors of some have long been tolerated, what right of the critic has been lost by nonuser? If the interests of Science have been sacrificed to Mammon, what rebuke can do injustice to the craft ? Nay, let the broad-axe of the critic hew up to the line, till every beam in her temple be smooth and straight. For, " certainly, next to commending good writers, the greatest service to learning is, to expose the bad, who can only in that way be made of any use to it."* And if, among the makers of grammars, the scribblings of some, and the filchings of others, are dis- creditable alike to themselves ami to their theme, let the reader consider, how great must be the intrinsic worth of that study which still maintains its credit in spite of all these abuses ! CHAPTER IV. OF THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. "Tot fallaciis obrutnm, tot halluchiationit.us .U-nu-rsum, tot adhuc tenehris circumfuRim fturtium bocce mihi vi-uni eet, ut i.ihil -atis tuto in hac mati-riu jTjr.-fiiri pops* arbitratun eim, nisi noTa quudaiii arte critica " S.CIPIO MAJmus : Cassiod. L'oi/ . xxx. 1. The origin of things is, for many reasons, a peculiarly interesting point in their history. Amon^ tliose who have thought lit to inquire into the prime of speech, it has been matter uf dispute, whether we ought to consider it a ~ift from Heaven, or an ac<|ui>itinn of industry a natural endowment, or an artifi- ial invention. Nor is any thing that lias ever yet been said upon it. suflieient to the question permanently at rest. That there is in some words, and perhaps in * See Notes to Pope's Dunciad, Book II, rer. 140. 38 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IV. some of every language, a natural connexion between the sounds uttered and the things signified, cannot be denied ; yet, on the other hand, there is, in the use of words in general, so much to which nature affords no clew or index, that this whole process of communicating thought by speech, seems to be artificial. Under an other head, I have already cited from Sanctius some opinions of the ancient gram- marians and philosophers on this point. With the reasoning of that zealous in- structor, the following sentence from Dr. Blair very obviously accords : " To sup- pose words invented, or names given to things, in a manner purely arbitrary, with- out any ground or reason, is to suppose an effect without a cause. There must have always been some motive which led to the assignation of one name rather than an other." Rhet., Lect. vi, p. 55. 2. But, in their endeavours to explain the origin and early progress of language, several learned men, among whom is this celebrated lecturer, have needlessly per- plexed both themselves and their readers, with sundry questions, assumptions, and reasonings, which are manifestly contrary to what has been made known to us on the best of all authority. What signifies it* for a man to tell us how nations rude and barbarous invented interjections first, f and then nouns, and then verbs, j and finally the other parts of speech ; when he himself confesses that he does not know whether language " can be considered a human invention at all ; " and when he believed, or ought to have believed, that the speech of the first man, though prob- ably augmented by those who afterwards used it, was the one language of the earth for more than eighteen centuries? The task of inventing a language de novo, could surely have fallen upon no man but Adam ; and he, in the garden of Para- dise, had doubtless some aids and facilities not common to every wild man of the woods. 3. The learned Doctor was equally puzzled to conceive, "either how society could form itself, previously to language, or how words could rise into a language, previously to society formed." Blair's Rhet., L. vi, p. 54. This too was but an idle perplexity, though thousands have gravely pored over it since, as a part of the study of rhetoric ; for, if neither could be previous to the other, they must have sprung up simultaneously. And it is a sort of slander upon our prime ancestor, to suggest, that, because he was " the first" he must have been " the rudest " of his race ; and that, " consequently, those first rudiments of speech," which alone the supposition allows to him or to his family, must have been poor and nar- row." Blair's Rhet. p. 54. It is far more reasonable to think, with a later author, that, " Adam had an insight into natural things far beyond the acutest philosopher, as may be gathered from his giving of names to all creatures, accord- ing to their different constitutions." Robinson's Scripture Characters, p. 4. 4. But Dr. Blair is not alone in the view which he here takes. The same thing has been suggested by other learned men. Thus Dr. James P. Wilson, of Philadelphia, in an octavo published in 1817, says : " It is difficult to discern how communities could have existed without language, and equally so to discover how language could have obtained, in a peopled world, prior to society." Wilson 's Essay on Gram. p. 1. I know not how so many professed Christians, and some of them teachers of religion too, with the Bible in their hands, can reason upon this subject as they do. We find them, in their speculations, conspiring to repre- sent primeval man, to use their own words, as a " savage, whose ' howl at the ap- pearance of danger, and whose exclamations of joy at the sight of his prey, reit- * A morlern namesake of the Doctor's, the Tt?r. Da'-iil Blair, has the following conception of the utility of thosu speculations : ik To enable children to comprehend the abstract idea that all the words in a language consist bin <\f nint /-'"'/.. i* will he f'ni'i 1 useful r,o explain h,>\v xm-n^p. ,'r/V.v, WHO tian'n^ nn langUagi . would first invent one. beginning with int."rjecrion< ;md nouns, and proceeding from one part of speech to another, as their introduction mu'ln successively be called for by necessity or luxury." Blair's Prart. Gram. Pref. p. vii. t *' Interjections, T shewed, or passionate exclamations, were the first elements of speech. - Dr. Hugh Blair'* Lectures^ p ~>~. J " Tt is certain that the verb was invented before the noun, in all the languages of which a tolerable account has been procured, either in ancient or modern times." Dr. Alex. Murray's History of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 326. CHAP. IT.] OF THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 39 ernted, or varied with the change of objects, were probably the origin of language.' ]><><>tli's An/ticv/Y- n< /' t M. ric <>f' Xnd't-r, p. 31. Here (iardim-r quotes Booth with approbation, and the latter, like Wilson, may have borrowed his ideas from Blair. Thus are we taught by a multitude of guessers, irrave, learned, and on-.cular, that the last of the "ten parts of speech was in fact the first: "Jittcrjrcffons are exceedingly interesting in one respect. They are, there can be little doubt, the oldest words in all languages; and may be considered the elements of speech." Buckets 6Y"> 'in. p. TS. On this point, however. Dr. Blair seems not to be quite consistent with himself: "Those exclamations, therefore, which by grammarians an- called ////< uttered in a strong and passionate manner, were, beyond (/i m /if, the first elements or beginnings of speech." Rhet., L. vi, p. 55. "The natiu's of sensible objects were, in t&kmmMgm, the words most early introduced." R/iet., L. xiv, p. 135. " The //*///ut of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam, to see what he would call them : and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowls of the air, and to every beast of the field ; but for Adam there was not found a help meet for him." Gen. ii, 19, 20. This account of the first naming of the other creatures by man, is apparently a :ithesi< in the story of the creation of woman, with which the second chapter of ( ' Deludes. But, in the preceding chapter, the Deity is represented not only as calling all things into existence by his Word ; but as speaking to the first human pair, with reference to their increase in the earth, and to their dominion over it. and over all the living creatures formed to inhabit it. So that the order of the events cannot be clearly inferred from the order of the narration. The manner of this communication to man, may also be a subject of doubt. Whether it was, or was not, made by a voice of words, may be questioned. But, surely, that Being who, in creating the world and its inhabitants, manifested his own infinite wi- ;il power, and godhead, does not lack words, or any other means of Yication, if he will use them. And, in the inspired record of his work in the 'uning, he is certainly represented, not only as naming all things imperatively, when he spoke them into being, but as expressly calling the light Day, the dan ' '7, the firmament //<'ftr/e entered the world by divine '.ttitm. without the aid of which, man bad not been a rational or religious tare." v ,/,/,/ ,,/*// ,v/-///^/r, vol. i, p. 4. " Plato attributes the primitive words of the ./'>. n. a .livim- ..riiiin ;" and Dr. Wilson remarks, "The transition from silence to speech, implies an rftfirt of the understanding too great for man." l-Isaay i>n <>'rays, " Mankind must have spoken in all agos. the young constantly learning to speak by imitating those who were older; and, if so, our fii>t parents must have reeeived this art, as well as some others, by inspiration." M< ,-, p. *1~ . \ Innie Tooke says. "I imagine that it is, in .-. .,/* /'///-Ay/, vol. ii, p. '20. Again: is true, is nlv from ancient books. The inflections which now compose the declen- sions and conjugations of the dead languages, and which indeed have ever constituted the peculiar characteristics of those forms of speech, must remain forever as they are. 9. When a nation changes its language, as did our forefathers in Britain, producing by a gradual amalgamation of materials drawn from various tongues a new one differing from all, the first stages of its grammar will of course be chaotic and rude. Uniformity springs from the steady application of rules ; and polish is the work of taste and refinement. We may easily err by following the example of our early writers with more reverence than judgement ; nor is it possible for us to do to the grammarians, whether early or late, without a knowledge both of the history and of the present state of the science which they profess to teach. I therefore think it proper rapidly to glance at many things remote indeed in time, yet nearer to my present purpose, and abundantly more worthy of the student's consideration, than a thousand matters which are taught for grammar by the authors of treatises professedly elementary. 10. As we have already seen, some have supposed that the formation of the first language must have been very slow and gradual. But of this they offer no proof, and from the pen of inspiration we seem to have testimony against it. Did Adam give names to all the creatures about him, and then allow those names to be immediately forgotten? Did not both he and his family continually use his original nouns in their social intercourse? and how could they use them, without other parts of speech to form them into sentences? Nay, do we not know from t!i" I'ihle, that on several occasions our prime ancestor expressed himself like an intelligent man, and used all the parts of speech which are now considered '/// ? What did he say, when his fit partner, the fairest and loveliest work of < li id, was presented to him ? " This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh : she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." And again : Had he not other words than nouns, when he made answer concerning his 11 : "I heard thy voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked ; and I hid myself? " What is it, then, but a groundless assumption, to make him and his immediate descendants ignorant savages, and to affirm, with Dr. Blair, that " their speech must have been poor and narrow? " It is not possible now to ascertain what degree of perfection the oral communication of the first age exhibited. But, as languages are now known to improve in proportion to the improvement of society in civilization and intelligence, and as we cannot reasonably suppose the first inhabitants of the earth to have been savages, it seems, I think, a plausible conjecture, that the primeval tongue was at least sufficient for all the ordinary intercourse of civilized men, living in the simple manner ascribed to our early ancestors in Scripture ; and that, in many instances, human speech subse- quently declined tar below its original standard. 11. At any rate, let it be remembered that the first language spoken on earth, r it was. originated in Eden before the fall; that this "one language" whirh all men u- until the dispersion, is to be traced, not to the cries of hunters, echoed through the wilds and glades where Nimrod planted Babel, .11 garden rf (lod's own planting, wherein grew "every tree that to the sight and good for food ; " to that paradise into which the Lord God put the new-created man, "to dress it and to keep it." It was here that Adam and his partner learned to speak, while yet they stood blameless and blessed, entire and wanting nothing ; free in the exercise of perfect faculties of body and mind, capable of acquiring knowledge through observation and experience, and also 42 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IV. favoured with immediate communications with their Maker. Yet Adam, having nothing which he did not receive, could not originally bring any real knowledge into the world with him, any more than men do now : this, in whatever degree attained, must be, and must always have been, either an acquisition of reason, or a revelation from God. And, according to the understanding of some, even in the beginning, " That was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural; and afterward that which is spiritual." I Cor. xv, 46. That is, the spirit of Christ, the second Adam, was bestowed on the first Adam, after his creation, as the life and the light of the immortal soul. For, " In Him was life, and the life was the light of men ;" a life which our first parents forfeited and lost on the day of their transgression. " It was undoubtedly in the light of this pure influence that Adam had such an intuitive discerning of the creation, as enabled him to give names to all creatures according to their several natures." Phipps on Man, p. 4. A lapse from all this favour, into conscious guilt and misery ; a knowledge of good withdrawn, and of evil made too sure ; followed the first transgression. Abandoned then in great measure by superhuman aid, and left to contend with foes without and foes within, mankind became what history and observation prove them to have been ; and henceforth, by painful experience, and careful research, and cautious faith, and humble docility, must they gather the fruits of knowkdge ; by a vain desire and false conceit of which, they had forfeited the tree of life. So runs the story " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our wo, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat." 12. The analogy of words in the different languages now known, has been thought by many to be sufficiently frequent arid clear to suggest the idea of their common origin. Their differences are indeed great ; but perhaps not greater, than the differences in the several races of men, all of whom, as revelation teaches, sprung from one common stock. From the same source we learn, that till the year of the world 1844, " The whole world was of one language, and of one speech."-^ Gen. xi, 1. At that period, the whole world of mankind consisted only of the descendants of the eight souls who had been saved in the ark, and so many of the eight as had survived the flood one hundred and eighty-eight years. Then occur- red that remarkable intervention of the Deity, in which he was pleased to confound their language ; so that they could not understand one an other's speech, and were consequently scattered abroad upon the face of the earth. This, however, in the opinion of many learned men, does not prove the immediate formation of any new languages. 13. But, whether new languages were thus immediately formed or not, the event, in all probability, laid the foundation for that diversity which subsequently obtained among the languages of the different nations which sprung from the dispersion ; and hence it may be regarded as the remote cause of the differences which now exist. But for the immediate origin of the peculiar characteristical differences which distinguish the various languages now known, we are not able with much certainty to account. Nor is there even much plausibility in the specu- lations of those grammarians who have attempted to explain the order and manner in which the declensions, the moods, the tenses, or other leading features of the languages, were first introduced. They came into use before they could be gen- erally known, and the partial introduction of them could seldom with propriety be made a subject of instruction or record, even if there were letters and learning at hand to do them this honour. And it is better to be content with ignorance, than to form such conjectures as imply any thing that is absurd or impossible. For CHAP. IV.] OP THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 43 in-tance : Neilson's Theory of the Moods, published in the Classical Journal of 1819, though it exhibits ingenuity and learning, is liable to this strong objection; that it proceeds on the supposition, that the moods of English verbs, and of several other derivative tongues, were invented in a certain order by persons, not speaking a lannuaire learned chiefly from their fathers, but uttering a new one as necessity prompted. But when or where, since the building of Babel, has this ever hap- pened '! That no dates are given, or places mentioned, the reader regrets, but he cannot marvel. 14. By what successive changes, our words in general, and especially the minor part- 'i, have become what we now find them, and what is their original and proper signification according to their derivation, the etymologist may often show to our entire satisfaction. Every word must have had its particular origin and history ; and he who in such things can explain with certainty what is not commonly known, may do some service to science. But even here the utility of his curious inquiries may be overrated ; and whenever, for the sake of some favourite theory, he ventures into the regions of conjecture, or allows himself to be seduced from the path of practical instruction, his errors are obstinate, and his guidance is peculiarly deceptive. Men fond of such speculations, and able to support them with some show of learning, have done more to unsettle the science of grammar, and to divert ingenious teachers from the best methods of instruction, than all other visionaries put together. Etymological inquiries are important, and I do not mean to censure or discourage them, merely as such ; but the folly of supposing that in our language words must needs be of the same class, or part of speech, as that to which they may be traced in an other, deserves to be rebuked. The words the and an may be articles in English, though obviously traceable to something else in Saxon; and a learned man may, in my opinion, be better employed, than in contending that if, though, and although, are not conjunctions, but verbs ! :uage is either oral or written ; the question of its origin has conse- quently two parts. Having suggested what seemed necessary respecting the origin tfsprerJi, I now proceed to that of writing. Sheridan says, " We have in use two kinds of language, the spoken and the written : the one, the gift of God ; the other, the invention of man." Elocution, p. xiv. If this ascription of the two things to their sources, were as just as it is clear and emphatical, both parts of our question would seem to be resolved. But this great rhetorician either forgot his own doctrine, or did not mean what he here says. For he afterwards makes the firmer ';ind of language as much a work of art, as any one will suppose the latter to have been. In his sixth lecture, he comments on the gift of speech thus : " But still we are to observe, that nature did no more than furnish the power and means ; she di ///, Ituigimgi-, as in the case of the passions, but left it to the indu-try of men, to find out and agree upon such articulate sounds, as they should choose t. make tin- symbols of their ideas." Ib. p. 147. He even goes farther, and - rtain ftnn-s <>f tin' ><>!,< to be things invented by man : "Accordingly, as she did not furnish the trurt/s. which were to lie the symbols of his ideas ; neither did B , which were to manifest, and communicate by their own virtue, the internal exertions and emotions, of such of his nobler faculties, as chiefly distinguish him from the brute species ; but left them also, like words, to the care and invention of man." Ibidem. On this branch of the subject, enough has dln-ady been ]> K'. !Jy most authors, alphabetic writing is not only considered an artificial invention, but supposed to have been wholly unknown in the early Hires of the world. Its antiquity, however, is great. Of this art, in which the science of grammar originated, we an- not able to trace the commencement. Different nations have claimed the honour of the invention ; and it. is not decided, among the learned, to whom, or to what country, it lu-longs. It probably originated in Egypt. For, 11 The Egyptians," it is said, " paid divine honours to the Inventor of Letters, 44 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IV. whom they called TTieuth : and Socrates, when he speaks of him, considers him as a god, or a god-like man." British Gram. p. 32. Charles Bucke has it, " That the first inventor of letters is supposed to have been Memnon ; who was, in consequence, fabled to be the son of Aurora, goddess of the morning." Buckets Classical Gram. p. 5. The ancients in general seem to have thought Phoenicia the birthplace of Letters : " Phoenicians first, if ancient fame be true, The sacred mystery of letters knew ; They first, by sound, in various lines design'd, Express'd the meaning of the thinking mind ; The power of words by figures rude conveyed, And useful science everlasting made.'* Howe's Lucan, B. iii, 1. 334. 17. Some, however, seem willing to think writing coeval with speech. Thus Bicknell, from Martin's Physico-Grammatical Essay: "We are told by Moses, that Adam gave names to every living creature ; * but how those names were written, or what sort of characters he made use of, is not known to us ; nor indeed whether Adam ever made use of a written language at all ; since we find no men- tion made of any in the sacred history." Bicknell's Gram. Part ii, p. 5. A certain late writer on English grammar, with admirable flippancy, cuts this matter short, as follows, satisfying himself with pronouncing all speech to be natural, and all writing artificial : " Of how many primary kinds is language? It is of two kinds; natural or spoken, and artificial or written." Oliver B. Peirce's Gh-am. p. 15. " Natural language is, to a limited extent, (the representation of the passions,) common to brutes as well as man ; but artificial language, being tha work of invention, is peculiar to man." Idem, p. 16. 18. The writings delivered to the Israelites by Moses, are more ancient tha:i any others now known. In the thirty-first chapter of Exodus, it is said, that God "gave unto Moses, upon Mount Sinai, two tables of testimony, tables of stone, written with the fnger of God.''' And again, in the thirty-second : " The tables were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, graven upon the tables." But these divine testimonies, thus miraculously written, do not appear to have been the first writing ; for Moses had been previously commanded to write an account of the victory over Amalek, "for a memorial in a book, and rehearse It in the ears of Joshua." Exod. xvii, 14. This first battle of the Israelites occurred in Rephidim, a place on the east side of the western gulf of the Red Sea, at or near Horeb, but before they came to Sinai, upon the top of which, (on the fiftieth day after their departure from Egypt,) Moses received the ten command- ments of the law. 19. Some authors, however, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, suppose that in this instance the order of the events is not to be inferred from the order of the record, or that there is room to doubt whether the use of letters was here intended ; and that there consequently remains a strong probability, that the sacred Decalogue, which God himself delivered to Moses on Sinai, A. M. 2513, B. C. 1491, was " the first writing in alphabetical characters ever exhibited to the world." See Clarke's Succession of Sacred Literature, vol. i, p. 24. Dr. Scott, in his General Preface to the Bible, seems likewise to favour the same opinion. "Indeed," says he, " there is some probability in the opinion, that the art of writing was first com- municated by revelation, to Moses, in order to perpetuate, with certainty, those facts, truths, and laws, which he was employed to deliver to Israel. Learned men find no traces of literary, or alphabetical, writing, in the history of the nations, till long after the days of Moses ; unless the book of Job may be regarded as an exception. The art of expressing almost an infinite variety of sounds, by the * t B ho uld be, " to all living creatures ; " for each creature had, probably, but one name. G. BROWK, CHAP. IV.] OP THE ORIGIN OP LANGUAGE. 45 interchanges of a few letters, or marks, seems more like a discovery to man from heaven, than a human invention ; and its beneficial effects, and almost absolute y, fur the preservation and communication of true religion, favour the conjecture." Scott's Preface, p xiv. 20 Tin- time at which Cadmus, the Phoenician, introduced this art into Greece, cannot I.-.- precisely ascertained. There is no reason to believe it was antecedent to the time of Moses; some chronologists make it between two and three centuries later. Nor is it very probable, that Cadmus invented the sixteen letters of which -aid to have made use. His whole story is so wild a fable, that nothing certain can be inferred from it. Searching in vain for his stolen sister his sister Europa, carried off by Jupiter he found a wife in the daughter of Venus! Sowing the teeth of a dragon, which had devoured his companions, he saw them spring up to his aid a squadron of armed soldiers! In short, after a series of wonderful achievements and bitter misfortunes, loaded with grief and infirm with age, he prayed the gods to release him from the burden of such a life ; and, in pity from above, both he and his beloved Hermione were changed into serpents ! History, however, has made him generous amends, by ascribing to him the inven- tion of letters, and accounting him the worthy benefactor to whom the world owes all the benefits derived from literature. I would not willingly rob him of this honour. But I must confess, there is no feature of the story, which I can conceive any countenance to his claim ; except that as the great progenitor of the race of authors, his sufferings correspond well with the calamities of which that unfortunate generation have always so largely partaken. Jl. T i. "iii-fits of this invention, if it may be considered an invention, are certainly very great. In oral discourse the graces of elegance are more lively and attractive, but well- written books are the grand instructors of mankind, the most enduring monuments of human greatness, and the proudest achievements of human intellect. " The chief glory of a nation," says Dr. Johnson, "arises from its authors." Literature is important, because it is subservient to all objects, even those of the very highest concern. Religion and morality, liberty and govern- ment, fame and happiness, are alike interested in the cause of letters. It was a Faying of Pope Pius the Second, that, " Common men should esteem learning as silver, noblemen value it as gold, and princes prize it as jewels." The uses of learning arc seen in every thing that is not itself useless.* It cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted ; and whenever that occurs, the remedy is to be sought by opposing learning to learning, till the truth is manifest, and that which is repre- hen>ihl". i- made to appear so. 2'2. I have said, learning cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted. But men may differ in their notions of what learning is ; and, consequently, of what is, or is not, a perversion of it. And so far as this point may have reference to v. ami the things of God, it would seem that the Spirit of God alone can fully shuvv- as it- hearings. If the illumination of the Spirit is necessary to an ;d ti reception of scriptural truth, is it not by an inference more erudite than n-i^malilr. that some trn-at men have presumed to limit to a verbal medium the communications of Him who is everywhere his own witness, and who still _iiivt- to hi< own holy oracles all their p-i-uli-ir significance and authority? Some seem to think th- Almighty has never given to men any notion of himself, except bywords. "Man j the celebrated K'lmnnd Burke, "have never been at all presented to the senses of any men but by words, as God,f nrope owes a principal share of it" enlightened and moml state to the restoration of ! the advantages which have accrue*! tn hi-tory. n-li^ri "n, tin- philosophy of the mind, and the pr H>fit< which haver. <;r.-ek and Ionian tJisto in short..-' -V (111 till' pi"' ;hron,ih the medium of philology. "--Dr. Miimi f " The i I'M <>f (Joil is :\ develoi.Tnenf fr":n within, and a matter of faith, not an induction from without, vnd a matUT of proof \Vhcn Chr prim-iplr-s wir|,j;, \\,. rh.-n \? e find evidences of its truth everywhere : nature i full of thMii : hut we cannot ftnd them before, simply because we oYe no eye to find them with." II. N. iluDBon : Dem. Rev. May, 1845. 46 INTRODUCTION. , [OHAP. V. angels, devils, heaven, and hell, all of which have however a great influence over the passions." On the Sublime and [the] Beautiful, p. 97. That God can never reveal facts or truths except by words, is a position with which I am by no means satisfied. Of the great truths of Christianity, Dr. Wayland, in his Elements of Moral Science, repeatedly avers, " All these being facts, can never be known, except by language, that is, by revelation." First Edition, p. 132. Again : " All of them being of the nature of facts, they could be made known to man in no other way than by language." Ib. p. 136. But it should be remembered, that these same facts were otherwise made known to the prophets; (1. Pet. i, 11;) and that which has been done, is not impossible, whether there is reason to expect it again or not. So of the Bible, Calvin says, " No man can have the least knowledge of true and sound doctrine, without having been a disciple of the Scrip- ture." Institutes, B. i, Ch. 6. Had Adam, Abel, Enoch, Noah, and Abraham, then, no such knowledge? And if they had, what Scripture taught them? We ought to value the Scriptures too highly to say of them any thing that is unscrip- tural. I am, however, very far from supposing there is any other doctrine which can be safely substituted for the truths revealed of old, the truths contained in the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments : " Left only in those written records pure, Though not but by the Spirit understood."* Milton. CHAPTER V. OF THE POWER OF LANGUAGE. " Quis huic studio literarum, quod profitentur ii, qui grammatici vocantur, penitus se dedidit, quin omnen. illarum artium pane infinitam vim et materiam scientiae cogitatione comprehenderit?" CICERO. De Oratore. Lib. i, 3. 1. The peculiar power of language is an other point worthy of particular consid- eration. The power of an instrument is virtually the power of him who wields it :; and, as language is used in common, by the wise and the foolish, the mighty and the impotent, the candid and the crafty, the righteous and the wicked, it may perhaps seem to the reader a difficult matter, to speak intelligibly of its peculiar power. I mean, by this phrase, its fitness or efficiency to or for the accomplish- ment of the purposes for which it is used. As it is the nature of an agent, to be the doer of something, so it is the nature of an instrument, to be that with which something is effected. To make signs, is to do something, and, like all other actions, necessarily implies an agent ; so all signs, being things by means of which other things are represented, are obviously the instruments of such representation. Words, then, which represent thoughts, are things in themselves; but, as signs, they are relative to other things, as being the instruments of their communication or preservation. They are relative also to him who utters them, as well as to those who may happen to be instructed or deceived by them. " Was it Mirabeau, Mr. * So far as mind, soul, or spirit, is a subject of natural science, (under -whatever name,) it may of course be known naturally. To say to what extent theology may be considered a natural science, or how much knowl- edge of any kind may have been opened to men otherwise than by words, is not now in point. Dr. Campbell says, k< Under the general term [physiology] I also comprehend natural theology and psychology, which, in my opinion, have been most unnaturally disjoined by philosophers. Spirit, which here comprises only the Supreme Being and the human soul, is surely as much included under the notion of natural object as a body is, and is knowable to the philosopher purely in the same way, by observation and experience." Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 60. 1 1 is quite unnecessary for the teacher of languages to lead his pupils into any speci ou this subject. It is equally foreign to the history of grammar and to the philosophy of rhetoric. CHAP. V.] OP TUB POWER OP LANGUAGE. 47 President, or what other master of the human passions, who has told us that words are things V They are indeed things, and things of mighty influence, not only in addresses to the passions and high-wrought fouling- of mankind, but in the dis- cuv-qnn of legal and political questions also; because a just conclusion is often avoided, or a false one readied, l>v the adroit substitution of one phrase or one word for an other." Daniel Webster, in Congress, ls:;.'J. J To speak, is a moral action, the quality of which depends upon the motive, and for which we are strictly accountable. " But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement ; for by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be con- demn .-d." .Unit, xii, 3G, 37. To listen, or to refuse to listen, is a moral action also ; and there is meaning in the injunction, " Take heed what ye hear." Mark, iv. '2 4. But why is it, that so much of what is spoken or written, is spoken or written in vainY Is language impotent? It is sometimes employed for purposes witli respect to which it is utterly so ; and often they that use it, know not how insignificant, absurd, or ill-meaning a thing they make of it. What is said, with whatever inherent force or dignity, has neither power nor value to him who does not understand it ;* and, as Professor Duncan observes, " No word can be to any man the sign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real existence in his mind." L'>f/fr, p. (j'2. In instruction, therefore, speech ought not to be regarded as the foundation or the essence of knowledge, but as the sign of it ; for knowledge has : in in in the power of sensation, or reflection, or consciousness, and not in that of IT communicating thought. Dr. Spurzheim was not the first to suggest, " It is time to abandon the immense error of supposing that words and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exercise." ifiins Trt'dfinc on E'lncutloii, p. 94. );it to this it may be replied, When God wills, the signs of knowledge are knowledge; and words, when he gives the ability to understand them, may, in some sense, become " spirit and life." See John, vi, 63. Where competent intellectual faculties exist, the intelligible signs of thought do move the mind to think ; and to think sometimes with deep feelings too, whether of assent or dissent, of admiration or contempt. So wonderful a thing is a rational soul, that it is hard to say to what ends the language in which it speaks, may, or may not, be sufficient. Let determine. We are often unable to excite in others the sentiments which we would : words succeed or fail, as they are received or resisted. But let a scornful expression be addressed to a passionate man, will not the words " call int.-mal feelings" into action V And how do feelings differ from thoughts ?f Hear Dr. James Rush : " The human mind is the place of representation of all the of nature which are brought within the scope of the senses. The repr called ideas. These ideas are the simple passive pictures of things, or [else] they exist with an activity, capable of so affecting the physical organ- as to inducr : the continuance of that which produces them, or to avoid it. This active or vivid class of ideas comprehends the passions. The ' '' 'io-,v Mier. That which serves to express the former. 1 call the lanes: i:ui_'iiage of emotions. Wunl- .ire the signs of the one ; tones, of the other. U'i'li .IK rhf use of these two sort* of language, it i.- imi>-Mble to communicate through the ear, all that passes in the mind of mau. :; Sfuridan'i Art o/Readuig; JSiair'a Lectures, p. 333. 48 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. V. functions of the mind here described, exist then in different forms and degrees, from the simple idea, to the highest energy of passion : and the terms, thought, sentiment, emotion, feeling, and passion, are but the verbal signs of these degrees and forms. Nor does there appear to be any line of classification, for separating thought from passion : since simple thoughts, without changing their nature, do, from interest or incitement, often assume the colour of passion." Philosophy of the Human Voice, p. 328. 4. Lord Kames, in the Appendix to his Elements of Criticism, divides the senses into external and internal, defining perception to be the act by which through the former we know outward objects, and consciousness the act by which through the latter we know what is within the mind. An idea, according to his definition, (which he says is precise and accurate,) is, " That perception of a real object which is raised in the mind by the power of memory." But among the real objects from which memory may raise ideas, he includes the workings of the mind itself, or whatever we remember of our former passions, emotions, thoughts, or designs. Such a definition, he imagines, might have saved Locke, Berkley, and their followers, from much vain speculation ; for with the ideal systems of these philosophers, or with those of Aristotle and Des Cartes, he by no means coincides. This author says, "As ideas are the chief materials employed in reasoning and reflecting, it is of consequence that their nature and differences be understood. It appears now that ideas may be distinguished into three kinds : first, Ideas derived from original perceptions, properly termed ideas of memory ; second, Ideas com- municated by language or other signs ; and third, Ideas of imagination. These ideas differ from each other in many respects ; but chiefly in respect to their proceeding from different causes. The first kind is derived from real existences that have been objects of our senses ; language is the cause of the second, or any other sign that has the same power with language ; and a man's imagination is to himself the cause of the third. It is scarce [ly] necessary to add, that an idea, originally of imagination, being conveyed to others by language or any other vehicle, becomes in their mind an idea of the second kind ; and again, that an idea of this kind, being afterwards recalled to the mind, becomes in that circumstance an idea of memory."^, of Or it. Vol. ii, p. 384. 5. Whether, or how far, language is to the mind itself the instrument of thought, is a question of great importance in the philosophy of both. Our literature contains occasional assertions bearing upon this point, but I know of no full or able discus- sion of it.* Cardell's instructions proceed upon the supposition, that neither the reason of men, nor even that of superior intelligences, can ever operate indepen- dently of words. "Speech," says he, "is to the mind what action is to animal bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who gave it." Essay on Language, p. 3. Again : " An attentive investigation will show, that there is no way in which the individual mind can, within itself, to any extent, combine its ideas, but by the intervention of words. Every process of the reasoning powers, beyond the immediate perception of sensible objects, depends on the structure of speech; and, in a great degree, according to the excellence of this chief instrument of all mental operations, will be the means of personal improvement, of the social transmission of thought, and the elevation of national character. From this, it may be laid down as a broad principle, that no individual can make great advances in intellectual improvement, beyond the bounds of a ready-formed language, as the necessary means of his progress." Ib. p. 9. These positions might, easily be offset by contrary speculations of minds of equal rank ; but I submit them to the reader, with the single suggestion, that the author is not remarkable for that sobriety of judgement which gives weight to opinions. * " Language is the great instrument, by which all the faculties of the mind are brought forward, moulded, polished, and exerted." Sheridan's Elocution, p. xiy. CHAP. V.] OP THE POWER OP LANGUAGE. 49 6. We have seen, among the citations in a former chapter, that Sanctius says, " Names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of things" But what he meant by " utstnnncnta rernm" is not very apparent. Dr. Adam says, "The principles of grammar may be traced from the progress of the mind in the acquisi- tion of language. Children first express their feelings by motions and gestures of the body, by cries and tears. This is* the language of nature, and therefore universal. It ftly represents^ the quickness of sentiment and thought, which are as the impression of light on the eye. Hence we always express our stronger feelings by these natural signs. But when we want to make known to others the particular conceptions of the mind, we must represent them by parts, we must divide and analyze them. We express each part by certain signs, % and join these together, according to the order of their relations. Thus words are both ml N/'////.V of the division of thought." Preface to Latin Gram. 7. The utterance of words, or the making of signs of any sort, requires time:|| but it is here suggested by Dr. Adam, that sentiment and thought, though suscep- tible of being retained or recalled, naturally flash upon the mind with immeasurable quickness.^ If so, they must originate in something more spiritual than language. The Doctor does not affirm that words are the instruments of thought, but of the >n of thought. But it is manifest, that if they effect this, they are not the only instruments by means of which the same thing may be done. The deaf and dumb, though uninstructed and utterly ignorant of language, can think ; and can, by rut) ' their own inventing, manifest a similar division, corresponding to tin- individuality of things. And what else can be meant by " the division of ht" than our notion of objects, as existing severally, or as being distin- i'lo into parts? There can, I think, be no such division respecting that which is porfectly pure and indivisible in its essence; and, I would ask, is not simple continuity apt to exclude it from our conception of every thing which with uniform coherence? Dr. Beattie says, "It appears to me, that, as all things are individuals, all thoughts must be so too." Moral Science, Chap, i, Sec. 1. If, then, our thoughts are thus divided, and consequently, as this author infers, have not in themselves any of that generality which belongs to the signifi- cation of common nouns, there is little need of any instrument to divide them further : the mind rather needs help, as Cardell suggests, " to combine its ideas."** tar as language is a work of art, and not a thing conferred or imposed Bfl by nature, there surely can be in it neither division nor union that was net first in the intellect for the manifestation of which it was formed. First, with to generalization. " The human mind," says Harris, " by an energy as * It should be. " Thfxr are.Q. B. t It should be, They fitly represent." Q. B. 4 to his own ! has but one sign. It should be, $ It would bebett, : <}. BROWX. -peakers do i :i>l of time ; and generally only two and it-a is also coi. from Dr. Campbell : " Whatever regards the U h'r ni'r^i's. must In a great philosopher baa given it as his ' that v, by signs as well as speak by them." Ib. p. 284. To reconcile these two position* each >t suppose ti -^. or words, is a process infinitely more rapid than speech. ITW to similar thinyrs a common name, is certainly no labori- l !>< any mil individual by means rstanding, and I know not must be atten- d. that all terms run from a general to a parti till he - Thi- is in lr ondei assertion that man i he had "f the natural man had b* " : :il world, 1" natural varieties of th "* * * Th< ied such :he signs ; yet it were ab.-urd to suppose that the sign was 1, till the sense demanded it."-/6. p. 389. 4 50 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. V. spontaneous and familiar to its nature, as the seeing of colour is familiar to the eye, discerns at once what in many is one, what in things dissimilar and different is similar and the same." Hermes, p. 362. Secondly, with respect to division. Mechanical separations are limited: "But the mind surmounts all power of concretion ; and can place in the simplest manner every attribute by itself ; convex without concave ; colour without superficies ; superficies without body ; and body without its accidents : as distinctly each one, as though they had never been united. And thus it is, that it penetrates into the recesses of all things, not only dividing them as wholes, into their more conspicuous parts, but persisting till it even separate those elementary principles which, being blended together after a more mysterious manner, are united in the minutest part as much as in the mightiest whole."- Harris's Hermes, p. 307. 9. It is remarkable that this philosopher, who had so sublime conceptions of the powers of the human mind, and who has displayed such extraordinary acuteness in his investigations, has represented the formation of words, or the utterance of language, as equalling in speed the progress of our very thoughts ; while, as we have seen, an other author, of great name, avers, that thought is " as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye." Philosophy here too evidently nods. In showing the advantage of words, as compared with pictures, Harris says, "If we consider the ease and speed with which words are formed, an ease which knows no trouble or fatigue, and a speed which equals the progress of our very thoughts* we may plainly perceive an answer to the question here proposed, Why, in the common intercourse of men with men, imitations have been rejected, and symbols preferred." Hermes, p. 336. Let us hear a third man, of equal note : " Words have been called winged ; and they well deserve that name, when their abbrevia- tions are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inventions ; but, compared with the rapidity of thought, they have not the smallest claim to that title. Philosophers have calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light ; but who will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought ! " Home Tooke's Epea Pteroenta, Vol. i, p. 23. 10. It is certain, that, in the admirable economy of the creation, natures subordinate are made, in a wonderful manner, subservient to the operations of the higher ; and that, accordingly, our first ideas are such as are conceived of things external and sensible. Hence all men whose intellect appeals only to external sense, are "prone to a philosophy which reverses the order of things pertaining to the mind, and tends to materialism, if not to atheism. " But " to refer again to Harris " the intellectual scheme which never forgets Deity, postpones every thing corporeal to the primary mental Cause. It is here it looks for the origin of intel- ligible ideas, even of those which exist in human capacities. For though sensible objects may be the destined medium to awaken the dormant energies of man's understanding, yet are those energies themselves no more contained in sense, than the explosion of a cannon, in the spark which gave it fire. In short, all minds that are, are similar and congenial ; and so too are their ideas, or intelligible forms. Were it otherwise, there could be no intercourse between man and man, or (what is more important) between man and Grod." Hermes, p. 393. 11. A doctrine somewhat like this, is found in the Meditations of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, though apparently repugnant to the polytheism commonly admitted by the Stoics, to whom he belonged: " The world, take it all together, is but one ; there is but one sort of matter to make it of, one Grod to govern it, and one law to guide it. For, run through the whole system of rational * Dr. Alexander Murray too, in accounting for the frequent abbreviations of words, seems to suggest the possibility of giving them the celerity of thought : " Contraction is a change which results from a propensity to make the signs as rapid as the thoughts which they express. Harsh combinations soon suffer contraction. Very long words preserve only the principal, that is, the accented part. If a nation accents its words on the last syllable, the preceding ones will often be short, and liable to contraction. If it follow a contrary practice, the terminations are apt to decay," History of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 172. CHAP. V.] OP THE POWER OP LANGUAGE. 51 beings, and you will find reason and truth but single and the same. And thus beings of the same kind, and endued with the saint- icax-n, are made happy by the same exercises .f it." Book vii, Sec. 9. Again: "Let your soul receive the J >rit v as your blood does the air ; for the influences of the one are no le^s vital, than those of the other. This correspondence is very practicable : for there is an ambient omnipresent Spirit, which lies as open and pervious to your mind, as the air you breathe, dors to your lungs : but then you must remember to be disposed to draw it." Book viii, Sec. 54; Collier's Translation. 1 Agreeably to these views, except that he makes a distinction between a natural and a supernatural idea of God, we find Barclay, the early defender of the Quakers, in an argument witli a certain Dutch nobleman, philosophizing thus : " If the Scripture then be true, there is in men a supernatural idea of God, which altogether differs from this natural idea I say, in all men ; because all men are capable of salvation, and consequently of enjoying this divine vision. Now this capacity consisteth herein, that they have such a supernatural idea in themselves.* For if there were no such idea in them, it were impossible they should so know God ; for whatsoever is clearly and distinctly known, is known by its proper idea; neither can it otherwise be clearly and distinctly known. For the ideas of all are divinely planted in our souls ; for, as the better philosophy teacheth, they are not begotten in us by outward objects or outward causes, but only are by ntward things excited or stirred up. And this is true, not only in super- natural ideas of God and things divine, and in natural ideas of the natural principles of human understanding, and conclusions thence deduced by the strength of human ; but even in the ideas of outward objects, which are perceived by the outward senses : as that noble Christian philosopher Boethius hath well observed ; tu which also the Cartesian philosophy agreeth." I quote only to show the concurrence of others, with Harris's position. Barclay carries on his argument with much more of a similar import. See SeweVs History, folio, p. 620. 13. But the doctrine of ideas existing primarily in God, and being divinely 1 in our souls, did not originate with Boethius : it may be traced back a thousand years from his time, through the philosophy of Proclus, Zeno, Aristotle.f Plato. S >crates, Parmenides, and Pythagoras. It is absurd to suppose any production or effect to be more excellent than its cause. That which really produces motion, cannot itself be inert; and that which actually causes the human mind to think anil IVUNHI. cannot iteelf be devoid of intelligence. "For knowledge can produce knowledge. "J A doctrine apparently at variance with this, has recently been taught, with great confidence, among the professed discoveries of Pld-( noloijtj. How much truth there may be in this new " science" as it is called, I am not j in-pared to say ; but, a.s sometimes held forth, it seems to me not only to chi-h with some of the most important principles of mental philosophy, but to make tin; power of thought the resultof that which is in itself inert and unthinking. iuii that the primitive faculties of the human understanding have not been known in earlier times, it professes to have discovered, in the physical organization of the brain, their proper source, or essential condition, and the true index to their , number, and retribution. In short, the leading phrenologists, by acknowledging no spiritual substance, virtually deny that ancient doctrine, "It is not in flesh to think, or bones to reason, " and make the mind either a material substance, or a mere mode without substantial being. " We cannot form a distinct idea of any moral or intellfrtimf <;""''''/ unless we find some trace of it in ourc ;-.. -lap. IT, No 424. t " Aristotle tells us that tin- <: transcript of those ideas which are in the mind of the first Beinjr. ami that thos ideas whirl. mind of man, are a transcript of the world. To this we may words are the trai i,],-a.- vhi-h .-ire in the mind of man, and that writing or printing 'J64. i See this passage it Human Lift-." ;.. 106 a \vork feigned to be a compend of Chinese i all\ understood u> , ritten or compiled by Robert DocJiUy, an eminent and ingenious bookseller in London. 52 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. V. 14. "The doctrine of immaterial substances" says Dr. Spurzheim, "is not sufficiently amenable to the test of observation ; it is founded on belief, and only supported by hypothesis." Phrenology, Vol. i, p. 20. But it should be remem- bered, that our notion of material substance, is just as much a matter of hypothesis. All accidents, whether they be qualities or actions, we necessarily suppose to have some support ; and this we call substance, deriving the term from the Latin, or hypostasis, if we choose to borrow from the Greek. But what this substance, or hypostasis, is, independently of its qualities or actions, we know not. This is clearly proved by Locke What do we mean by matter ? and what by mind f Matter is that which is solid, extended, divisible, and movable. Mind is that which thinks, and wills, and reasons, and worships. Here are qualities in the one case ; operations in the other. Here are two definitions as totally distinct as any two can be ; and he that sees not in them a difference of substance, sees it no-where : to him all natures are one ; and that one, an absurd supposition. 15. In favour of what is urged by the phrenologists, it may perhaps be admitted, as a natural law, that, " If a picture of a visible object be formed upon the retina, and the impression be communicated, by the nerves, to the brain, the result will be an act of perception." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 4. But it does not follow, nor did the writer of this sentence believe, that perception is a mere act or attri- bute of the organized matter of the brain. A material object can only occasion in our sensible organs a corporeal motion, which has not in it the nature of thought or perception ; and upon what principle of causation, shall a man believe, in respect to vision, that the thing which he sees, is more properly the cause of the idea con- ceived of it, than is the light by which he beholds it, or the mind in which that idea is formed? Lord Kames avers, that, "Colour, which appears to the eye as spread upon a substance, has no existence but in the mind of the spectator." Elements of Criticism, i, 178. And Cicero placed the perception, not only of colour, but of taste, of sound, of smell, and of touch, in the mind, rather than in the senses. " Illud est album, hoc dulce, canorum illud, hoc bene olens, hoc asperuin : animo jam hsec tenemus comprehensa, non sensibus." Ciceronis Acad. Lib. ii, 7. Dr. Beattie, however, says : " Colours inhere not in the coloured body, but in the light that falls upon it ; * * * and the word colour denotes, an external, thing, and never a sensation of the mind." Moral Science, i, 54. Here is some difference of opinion ; but however the thing may be, it does not affect my argu- ment ; which is, that to perceive or think is an act or attribute of our immaterial substance or nature, and not to be supposed the effect either of the objects perceived or of our own corporeal organization. 16. Divine wisdom has established the senses as the avenues through which our minds shall receive notices of the forms and qualities of external things ; but the sublime conception of the ancients, that those forms and qualities had an abstract preexistence in the divine mind, is a common doctrine of many English authors, as Milton, Cowper, Akenside, and others. For example : " Now if Ensprim&H be the cause of entia a primo, then he hath the Idea of them in him : for he made them by counsel, and not by necessity ; for then he should have needed them, and they have a parhelion of that wisdom that is in his Idea." Richardsoris Logic, p. 16 : Lond. 1657. " Then the Great Spirit, whom his works adore, Within his own deep essence view'd the forms, The forms eternal of created things." AKEXSIDE. Pleasures of the Imagination, Book i. " And in the school of sacred wisdom taught, To read his wonders, in whose thought the world, Fair as it is, existed ere it was." COWPEH. Task: Winter Morning Walk, p. 150. CHAP. Y.] OP THE POWER OP LANGUAGE. 53 " Thence to behold this new-created world, The addition of his empire, how it show'd In prospect from his throne, how good, how fair, Answering his great idea." MILTON. Paradise Lost, Book vii, line 554. 17. " Original Truth,"* says Harris, " having the most intimate connection with the Supreme Intelligence, may be said (as it were) to shine with unchangeable splendor, enlightening thoughout the universe every possible subject, by nature susceptible of its benign influence. Passions and other obstacles may prevent indeed its efficacy, as clouds and vapours may obscure the sun ; but itself neither admits diminution, nor change, because the darkness respects only particular percipients. Among these therefore we must look for ignorance and error, and for that subordination ofintellige nee which is their natural consequence. Par- tial views, the imperfections of sense; inattention, idleness, the turbulence of passions; education, local sentiments, opinions, and belief; conspire in many instances to furnish us with ideas, some too general, some too partial, and (what is worse than all this) with many that are erroneous, and contrary to truth. These it behoves us to correct as far as possible, by cool suspense and candid examination. Thus by a connection perhaps little expected, the cause of Letters, and that of 'in-, appear to coincide ; it being the business of both, to examine our ideas, and to amend them by the standard of nature and of truth." See Hermes, p. 406. 18. Although it seems plain from our own consciousness, that the mind is an active self-moving principle or essence, yet capable of being moved, after its own manner, by other causes outward as well as inward ; and although it must be ob- vious to reflection, that all its ideas, perceptions, and emotions, are, with respect to itself, of a spiritual nature bearing such a relation to the spiritual substance in , which alone they appear, as bodily motion is seen to bear to material substances ; yet we know, from experience and observation, that they who are acquainted with words, are apt to think in words-* that is, mentally to associate their internal con- ceptions with the verbal signs which they have learned to use. And though I do not conceive the position to be generally true, that words are to the mind itself the necessary instruments of thought, yet, in my apprehension, it cannot well be denied, that in some of its operations and intellectual reaches, the mind is greatly assisted by its o\\n contrivances with respect to language. I refer not now to the com- munication of knowledge ; for, of this, language is admitted to be properly the instrument. But there seem to be some processes of thought, or calculation, in which the mind, by a wonderful artifice in the combination of terms, contrives to prevent embarrassment, and help itself forward in its conceptions, when the objects before it are in themselves p-rh:ips infinite in number or variety. l!. \Ve have an instance of thlB in numeration. No idea is more obvious or simple than that of unity, or one. By the continual addition of this, first to itself to make two, and then to each higher combination successively, we form a .-cries of different numbers, which may go on to infinity. In the consideration of these, the mind would not be able to p far without the help of words, and those peculiar- ly fitted to the purpose. The understanding; would lose itself in the multiplicity, were it not aided by that curiou> concatenation of name>. which has been contrived for the several parts of the >ucccion. As far as tu-i-h-i- we make use of simple unrelated terms. Thenceforward we apply derivatives and compounds, formed * ' Thox- philosopher* whose ill- -< are derived from body and senvition, have & hor '/ii/i'.s thii)j_'. ' which come.-' and jrw. j t; which ii, re tin latf 'hi in ! According loth: i hav not i : .1 multituil' : -. who imi h:il VIT\ dilTiTi'iif : i ruth not as the last, but as tht first no r:ill it immutable, eternal, omniprtst nt ; attributes that all indicate something more than human." Harris's Hermes, p. 403. 54 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. V. from these in their regular order, till we arrive at a hundred. This one new word, hundred, introduced to prevent confusion, has eight hundred and ninety-nine dis- tinct repetitions in connexion with the preceding terms, and thus brings us to a thousand. Here the computation begins anew, runs through all the former com- binations, and then extends forward, till the word thousand has been used nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand times ; and then, for ten hundred thousand, we introduce the new word million. With this name we begin again as before, and proceed till we have used it a million of times, each combination denoting a number clearly distinguished from every other ; and then, in like manner, we begin and proceed, with billions, trillions, quadrillions, quintillions, &c., to any extent we please. 20. Now can any one suppose that words are not here, in some true sense, the instruments of thought, or of the intellectual process thus carried on ? Were all these different numbers to be distinguished directly by the mind itself, and denomi- nated by terms destitute of this artificial connexion, it may well be doubted whether the greatest genius in the world would ever be able to do what any child may now effect by this orderly arrangement of words ; that is, to distinguish exactly the several stages of this long progression, and see at a glance how far it is from the beginning of the series. " The great art of knowledge," says Duncan, '" lies in managing with skill the capacity of the intellect, and contriving such helps, as, if . they strengthen not its natural powers, may yet expose them to no unnecessary fatigue. When ideas become very complex, and by the multiplicity of their parts grow too unwieldy to be dealt with in the lump, we must ease the view of the mind by taking them to pieces, and setting before it the several portions separately, one after an other. By this leisurely survey we are enabled to take in the whole ; and if we can draw it into such an orderly combination as will naturally lead the attention, step by step, in any succeeding consideration of the same idea, we shall have it ever at command, and with a single glance of thought be able to run over all its parts." Duncan's Logic, p. 37. Hence we may infer the great importance of method in grammar ; the particulars of which, as Quintilian says, are infinite.* 21 . Words are in themselves but audible or visible signs, mere arbitrary symbols, used, according to common practice and consent, as significant of our ideas or thoughts. f But so well are they fitted to be made at will the medium of mental conference, that nothing else can be conceived to equal them for this purpose. Yet it does not follow that they who have the greatest knowledge and command of words, have all they could desire in this respect. For language is in its own nature but an imperfect instrument, and even when tuned with the greatest skill, will often * Of the best method of teaching grammar, I shall discourse in an other chapter. That methods radically different must lead to different results, is no more than every intelligent person will suppose. The formation of just methods of Instruction, or true systems of science, is work for those minds which are capable of the most accurate and comprehensive views of the things to be taught. He that is capable of " originating and produc- ing " truth, or true " ileus," if any but the Divine Being is so, has surely no need to be trained into such truth by any factitious scheme of education. In all that he thus originates, he is himself a No rum Organ on of knowl- edge, and cap ible of teaching others, especially those officious men who would help him with their second hand authorship, and their paltry catechisms of common-places. I allude here to the fundamental principle of w'r -.'>,)ks is called " The Prorhtct-irf Si/stem nf Instruction,'' and to those schemes of grammar which are professedly founded on it. We are told that, " The leading principle of this system, is that which its name indicates that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an agent capabli <>f collecting, mvl oriifin'iti.m,', >m>l. /irinliir.in^ most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when prt sented n-iih the oVjcrl-s or the facts from which they may be derived." Smith's New Gram. Pn'f. p. 5 : Amer. Journal of Education, Nfir S net. Vol. I, No. 6, Art. 1. It ought to be enough for any teacher, or for any writer, if he finds his readers or his pupils ready recipients of the ideas which he aims to convey. What more they know, they can never owe to him, unless they learn it from him against his will : and what they happen to lack, of understanding or believing him, may very possibly be more his fault than theirs. t Lindley Murray, anonymously "opying somebody, I know not whom, says : <: Words derive their meaning from the consent and practice of tho<(> who use f hein. There is no necessary connexion between ?"o/v/.s- ,md idens. The association between tin- sign and the tiling signified, is purely arbitrary." Octavo G-rrtm. i, p. 139. The second assertion here mad<-. is very far from being literally true. However arbitrary may be the use or application of words, their connexion with ideas is so necessarv, that they cannot be words without it. Signification, as I shall hereafter prove, is a part of the very essence of a word, the most important element of its nature. And Murray himself says, " The understanding and language have a strict connexion." Ib. i, p. 356. In this, he changes without amendment the words of Blair : " Logic and rhetoric have here, as in . many other cases, a strict connexion." Blair's Rhet. p. 120. CHAP. V.] OF THE POWER OF LANGUAGE. 55 be found inadequate to convey the impression with which the mind may labour. Cie<-ro. that i:reat master of eloquence, frequently confessed, or declared, that words failed him. Tins, however, may be thought to have been uttered as a mere figure h ; and some may say, that the imperfection I speak of, is but an incident of the common weakness or ignorance of human nature ; and that if a man always knew what to say to an other in order to persuade or confute, to encourage or terrify him, lie would always succeed, and no insufficiency of this kind would ever be felt or imagined. This also is plausible ; but is the imperfection less, for being sometimes traceable to an ulterior source ? Or is it certain that human languages u>ed by perfect wisdom, would all be perfectly competent to their common purpose? And if some would be found less so than others, may there not be an insufficiency in the very nature of them all ? li'J. If there is imperfection in any instrument, there is so much the more need of care and skill in the use of it. Duncan, in concluding his chapter about words s of our ideas, says, " It is apparent, that we are sufficiently provided with the means of communicating our thoughts one to another ; and that the mistakes uently complained of on this head, are wholly owing to ourselves, in not sufficiently defining the terms we use, or perhaps not connecting them with clear and determinate ideas." Logic, p. 69. On tjje other hand, we find that some of the best and wisest of men confess the inadequacy of language, while they also deplore its misuse. But, whatever may be its inherent defects, or its culpable it i- still to be honoured as almost the only medium for the communication of thought and the diffusion of knowledge. Bishop Butler remarks, in his Analogy . ( a most valuable work, though defective in style,) " So likewise the is attending the only method by which nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts to each other, are innumerable. Language is, in its suire. inadequate, ambiguous, liable to infinite abuse, even from negligence; liable to it from design, that every man can deceive and betray by it." Part ii, Chap. 8. Lord Kames, too, seconds this complaint, at least in part : *' Lamentable is the imperfection of language, almost in every particular that falls not under external sense. I am talking of a matter exceedingly clear in the 'ion, and yet I find no small difficulty to express it clearly in words." Elements of CV/V/V/.s///, i, p. 86. "All writers," says Sheridan, "seem to be under the influence of one common delusion, that by the help of words alone, they can communicate all that passes in their minds." Lectures on Elocution, p. xi. J:J. Addix-n also, in apologizing for Milton's frequent use of old words and foreign idi< ; ''I may further add, that Milton's sentiments and ideas were so wonderfully sublime, that it would have been impossible for him to have repre- sented them in their full strength and beauty, without having recourse to these r. Johnson seems to regard as a mere compliment to : for of Milton he says, " The truth is, that both in prose and verse, he yle by a ]>cr\ei>e and pedantick principle." But the grandeur of his thou f denied by the critic; nor is his language censured without qualification. " Whatever be the faults of his diction, he cannot want the praise of ro] Md variety : he was master of his language in its full extent ; and iious words with such, diligence, that from his book alone the Art of English 1 t ]>.- learned." Jbknton'tlAfeofMUton: Lirrs. p. '.*'2. J 1 A- \\< r la absta 1 are empty and vain, being in their nature whii-h derive all their value from the ideas and feelings which 'lent that he who would either speak or write well, m furnished with something more than a knowledge of sounds and letters. Words fitly spoken are indeed both j.i >. beautiful " like* apples of gold in pic- tures of silver." But it is not for him whose soul is dark, whose designs are 56 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VI. selfish, whose affections are dead, or whose thoughts are vain, to say with the son of Amram, " My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the dew ; as the small rain upon the tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass." Deut. xxxii, 2. It is not for him to exhibit the true excellency of speech, because he cannot feel its power. It is not for him, whatever be the theme, to convince the judgement with deductions of reason, to fire the imagination with glowing imagery, or win with graceful words the willing ear of taste. His wisdom shall be silence, when men are present ; for the soul of manly language, is the soul that thinks and feels as best becomes a man. CHAPTER VI. OP THE OBIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. " Non medicares enim tenebrae in sylva, ubi haec captanda : neque eo, quo pervenire volumus semitae tritae : neque non in tramitibus quaedam objecta, quae euntem retinere possent." VARRO. De Lingua Latina. Lib. iv, p. 4. __.__ 1. In order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those who, in former times, gave particular attention to the culture of the English language, and that we may the better judge of the credibility of modern pretensions to further improvements, it seems necessary that we should know something of the course of events through which its acknowledged melioration in earlier days took place. For, in this case, the extent of a man's knowledge is the strength of his argument. As Bacon quotes Aristotle, " Qui respiciunt ad pauca, de facili pronunciant." He that takes a narrow view, easily makes up his mind. But what is any opinion worth, if further knowledge of facts can confute it ? 2. Whatsoever is successively varied, or has such a manner of existence as time can affect, must have had both an origin and a progress ; and may have also its particular history, if the opportunity for writing it be not neglected. But such is the levity of mankind, that things of great moment are often left without memo- rial while the hand of Literature is busy to beguile the world with trifles or with fictions, with fancies or with lies. The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, till the genius of Grammar arise to their rescue, are among those transi- tory things which unsparing time is ever hurrying away, irrecoverably, to oblivion. Tradition knows not what they were ; for of their changes she takes no account. Philosophy tells us, they are resolved into the variable, fleeting breath of the suc- cessive generations of those by whom they were spoken ; whose kindred fate it was, to pass away unnoticed and nameless, lost in the elements from which they sprung. 3. Upon the history of the English language, darkness thickens as we tread back the course of time. The subject of our inquiry becomes, at every step, more difficult and less worthy. We have now a tract of English literature, both ex- tensive and luminous ; and though many modern writers, and no few even of our writers on grammar, are comparatively very deficient in style, it is safe to affirm that the English language in general has never been written or spoken with more propriety and elegance, than it is at the present day. Modern English we read with facility ; and that which was good two centuries ago, though considerably anti- quated, is still easily understood. The best way, therefore, to gain a practical knowledge of the changes which our language has undergone, is, to read some of CHAP. VI.] OP THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY 0? THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 57 our older authors in retrograde order, till the style employed at times more and more remote, becomes in some degree familiar. Pursued in this manner, the study will be less difficult, and the labour of the curious inquirer, which may be suspended or resumed at pleasure, will be better repaid, than if he proceed in the order of history, and attempt at first the Saxon remains. 4. The value of a language as an object of study, depends chiefly on the character of the books which it contains ; and, secondarily, on its connexion with others more worthy to be thoroughly known. In this instance, there are several circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage research. As our language took its rise during the barbarism of the dark ages, the books through which its early history must be traced, are not only few and meagre, but, in respect to grammar, unsettled and diverse. It is not to be expected that inquiries of this kind will ever engage the attention of any very considerable number of persons. Over the minds of the reading public, the attractions of novelty hold a much greater influence, than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk of antiquity. All old books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words, and antiquated modes of expression, which puzzle the reader, and call him too frequently to his glossary. And even the most common terms, when they appear in their ancient, unsettled orthography, are often so disguised as not to be readily recognized. 5. These circumstances (the last of which should be a caution to us against innovations in spelling) retard the progress of the reader, impose a labour too great for the ardour of his curiosity, and soon dispose him to rest satisfied with an ignorance, which, being general, is not likely to expose him to censure. For these ancient authors are little read ; and the real antiquary is considered a man of odd habits, who, by a singular propensity, is led into studies both unfash- Me and fruitless a man who ought to have been born in the days of old, that he might have spoken the language he is so curious to know, and have appeared in the costume of an age better suited to his taste. ! lut Learning is ever curious to explore the records of time, as well as the regions of space ;, and wherever her institutions flourish, she will amass her id spread them before her votaries. Difference of languages she easily i nes ; but the leaden reign of unlettered Ignorance defies her scrutiny. . of one period of the world's history, she ever speaks with horror that " long \," during which, like a lone Sibyl, she hid her precious relics in solitary cells, and fleeing from degraded Christendom, sought refuge with the ea-ti-rn caliphs. " This awful decline of true religion in the world carried with it aliim.-t every vestige of civil liberty, of classical literature, and of scientific knowl- and it will generally be found in experience that they must all stand or fall ir." Hints <>n Toleration, p. 263. In the tenth century, beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the English language as now written, this mental darkness appears to have gathered to its deepest obscuration ; and, at that period, Kugland was sunk as low in ignorance, superstition, and depravity, as any other part of Europe. he English language gradually varies as we trace it back, and becomes at length identified with the Anglo-Saxon ; that is, with the dialect spoken by the Saxons after their settlement in England. These Saxons were a fierce, warlike, unlettered iV'nn ili-rmany ; whom the ancient Britons had invited to their assistance again>t ilie 1'icts and Scots. Cruel and ignorant, like their Gothic kindred, who had but lately overrun the Roman empire, they came, not for the good of others, but to accommodate t. . They accordingly sei/ed the country; destroyed or en-laved the ancient inhabitants ; or, more probably, drove the remnant of them into the mountain.- of Wales. Of Welsh or ancient British words, Charles Burke, who says in his grammar that he took great pains to be accurate in his "f derivation, enumerates but one hundred and eleven, as now found in our language ; and Dr. Johnson, who makes them but ninety-five, argues from their 58 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VI. paucity, or almost total absence, that the Saxons could not have mingled at all with these people, or even have retained them in vassalage. 8. The ancient languages of France and of the British isles are said to have pro- ceeded from an other language yet more ancient, called the Celtic ; so that, from one common source, are supposed to have sprung the present Welsh, the present Irish, and the present Highland Scotch.* The term Celtic Dr. Webster defines, as a noun, "The language of the Celts;" and, as an adjective, " Pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south and west of Europe, or to the early inhabi- tants of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Britain." What unity, according to this, there was, or could have been, in the ancient Celtic tongue, does not appear from books, nor is it easy to be conjectured. f Many ancient writers sustain this broad application of the term Celtce or Celts ; which, according to Strabo's etymology of it, means horsemen, ,and seems to have been almost as general as our word Indians. But Caesar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed by the people who, in his day, lived in France between the Seine and the Garonne, and who by the Romans were called Gatti, or Gauls. 9. The Celtic tribes are said to have been the descendants of Gomer, the son of Japhet. The English historians agree that the first inhabitants of their island owed their origin and their language to the Celtce, or Gauls, who settled on the opposite shore. Julius Caesar, who invaded Britain about half a century before the Christian era, found the inhabitants ignorant of letters, and destitute of any history but oral tradition. To this, however, they paid great attention, teaching every thing in verse. Some of the Druids, it is said, spent twenty years in learning to repeat songs and hymns that were never committed to writing. These ancient priests, or diviners, are represented as having great power, and as exercising it in some respects beneficially ; but their horrid rites, with human sacrifices, provoked the Romans to destroy them. Smollett says, " Tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in Gaul ; and Claudius destroyed the Druids of that country ; but they subsisted in Britain till the reign of Nero, when Paulus Suetonius reduced the island of Anglesey, which was the place of their retreat, and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and sudden destruction, that all their knowledge and tradi- tion, conveyed to them in the songs of their predecessors, perished at once." Smollett's Hist, of Eng. 4to, B. i, Ch. i, 7. 10. The Romans considered Britain a province of their empire, for a period of about five hundred years ; but the northern part of the island was never entirely subdued by them, and not till Anno Domini 78, a hundred and thirty-three years after their first invasion of the country, had they completed their conquest of England. Letters and arts, so far at least as these are necessary to the purposes of war or government, the victors carried with them ; and under their auspices some knowledge of Christianity was, at a very early period, introduced into Britain. But it seems strange, that after all that is related of their conquests, settlements, * " The language which is, at present, spoken throughout Great Britain, is neither the ancient primitive speech of the island, nor derived from it; but is altogether of foreign origin. The language of the first inhabitants of our island, beyond doubt, was the Celtic, or Gaelic, common to them with Gaul ; from which country, it appears, by many circumstances, that Great Britain was peopled. This Celtic tongue, which is said to be very expressive and copious, and is, probably, one of the most ancient languages in the world, obtained once in most of the western regions of Europe. It was the language of Gaul, of Great Britain, of Ireland, and very probably, of Spain also ; till, in the course of those revolutions which by means of the conquests, first, of the Romans, and afterwards, of the northern nations, changed the government, and, in a manner, the whole face of Europe, this tongue was gradunffy obliterated ; and now subsists only in the mountains of Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, and among the wild Irish. For the Irish, the Welsh, and the Erse, are no other than different dialects of the same tongue, the ancient Celtic." Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. IX, p. 85. t With some writers, the Celtic language is the. Welsh ; as may be seen by the following extract : " By this he requires an Impossibility, since much the greater Part of Mankind can by no means spare 10 or 11 Years of their Lives in learning those dead Languages, to arrive at a perfect Knowledge of their own. But by this Gentleman's way of Arguing, we ought not only to be Masters of Latin and Greek, but of Spanish, Italian, High-Dutch. Low-Dutch, French, the Old Sa,xon, Welsh, Runic, Got/nc,and IslamJic; since much the greater number of Words of common and general Use are derived from those. Tongues. Nay, by the snme way of Itea- sonin^r we may prove, that the Romans and Greeks did not understand their own Tongues, because they were not acquainted with the Welsh, or ancient Celtic, there being above 020 radical Greet Words derived from the Celtic, and of the Latin a much greater Number." Preface to Brightland's Grammar, p. v. CHAP. VI.] OF THK ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59 cities, fortifications, buildings, seminaries, churches, laws, &c., they should at last have left the Britons in so helpless, degraded, and forlorn a condition. They did not sow fimotnf them the seeds of any permanent improvement. 11. The Roman government, being unable to sustain itself at home, withdrew its forces finally from Britain in the year 446, leaving the wretched inhabitants rage as it found them, and in a situation even less desirable. Deprived of their native resources, their ancient independence of spirit, as well as of the laws, customs, institutions, and leaders, that had kept them together under their old dynasties, and now deserted by their foreign protectors, they were apparently left at the mercy of blind fortune, the wretched vicissitudes of which there was none to foresee, none to resist. The glory of the Romans now passed away. The mighty fabric of their own proud empire crumbled into ruins. Civil liberty gave place to barbarism ; Christian truth, to papal superstition ; and the lights of science were put out by both. The shades of night gathered over all ; settling and condensing, " till almost every point of that wide horizon, over which the Sun of id diffused his cheering rays, was enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of old descended upon rebellious Pharaoh and the callous sons of Ham." Hints on Toleration, p. 810. 1 '1 The Saxons entered Britain in the year 449. But what was the form of f that time, cannot now be known. It was a dialect of the Gothic ich is considered the parent of all the northern tongues of Europe, some few of Sclavonian origin. The only remaining monument of the "pyof the (i os] ids. translated by Ulphilas ; which is pi' I railed, from its embellishments, the Sih-er Book. This old work has times printed in England. We possess not yet in America all the advantage's which may be enjoyed by literary men in the land of our ancestors ; t the stores of literature, both ancient and modern, are somewhat more familiar han is there supposed; and the art of printing is fast equalizing, to all that cultivate learning, the privilege of drinking at its ancient fountains. 13. It is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the intellectual or the moral condition of any remote age or country, merely from our own ignorance of It is true, we can derive from no quarter a favourable opinion of the state of .gland after the Saxon invasion, and during the tumultuous and bloody govern- : the heptarchy. But I will not darken the picture through design. If \\vre done to the few names to (Jildas the wise, the memorialist of his country '< sutP -rings and censor of the nation's depravity, who appears a solitary star in the night of tin- sixth century to the venerable Bede, the greatest theologian, :olar, and only historian of the seventh to Alcuin, the abbot of Canterbury, the luminary of the eighth to Alfred the great, the glory of the ninth, great as a M in the evening twilight of an age in which i not read ; if justice were done to all such, we might find sometlv i irk and rugged times, if not to soften the grimness of distinctness of feature. 14. Tn tracing the history of our 1 Dr. Johnson, who does little more than give examples, eites as IIH tir- :i of ancient English, a portion of kin_' Alfred's pa: in imitation ,,f Uni'-thins. Hut this lan-jungf of Alfred's is not Knfrli^h ; but rather, as the learned doctor himself considered it, an example 11 in its highest state of purity. This dialect was first changed by admixture with w< d from the Danish and the Norman; and, still being comparatively rude and meagre, afterwards received large accessions from in, the 1-Yeiich. the Greek, the Dutch till, by gradual changes, which the ologigt may exhibit, the Vn-.'th produced a lai:-_ r u:!g.- bearing a sufficient mblance to the pi- to be called Kngli>h at this day. 1"). The formation of our lan-jurnr' 1 cannot with propriety be dated earlier than the thirteenth century. It was then that a free and voluntaVy amalgamation of its etvniol i* 60 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VI. chief constituent materials took place ; and this was somewhat earlier than we date the revival of learning. The English of the thirteenth century is scarcely intelligible to the modern reader. Dr. Johnson calls it " a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English ; " and says, that Sir John Gower, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century, was " the first of our authors who can be properly said to have written English." Contemporary with Gower, the father of English poetry, was the still greater poet, his disciple Chaucer ; who embraced many of the tenets of Wickliffe, and imbibed something of the spirit of the reformation, which was now begun. 16. The literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full of interest ; for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and obvious improvement. The reformation of religion and the revival of learning were nearly simultaneous. Yet individuals may have acted a conspicuous part in the latter, who had little to do with the former ; for great learning does not necessarily imply great piety, though, as Dr. Johnson observes, " the Christian religion always implies or produces a certain degree of civility and learning." Hist. Eng. Lang, before his 4to Diet. " The ordinary instructions of the clergy, both philosophical and religious, gradually fell into contempt, as the Classics superseded the one, and the Holy Scriptures expelled the other. The first of these changes was effected by the early gramma- rians of Europe ; and it gave considerable aid to the reformation, though it had no immediate connexion with that event. The revival of the English Bible, however, completed the work : and though its appearance was late, and its progress was retarded in every possible manner, yet its dispersion was at length equally rapid, extensive, and effectual." Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 75 17. Peculiar honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances human happiness. And, surely, our just admiration of the character of the reformers must be not a little enhanced, when we consider what they did for letters as well as for the church. Learning does not consist in useless jargon, in a multitude of mere words, or in acute speculations remote from practice ; else the seventeen folios of St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelical doctor of the thirteenth century, and the profound disputations of his great rival, Duns Scotus the subtle, for which they were revered in their own age, had not gained them the contempt of all posterity. From such learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers delivered the halls of instruction. The school divinity of the middle ages passed away before the presence of that which these men learned from the Bible, as did in a later age the Aristotelian philosophy before that which Bacon drew from nature. 18. Towards the latter part of the fourteenth century, WicklifFe furnished the first entire translation of the Bible into English. In like manner did the Germans, a hundred and fifty years after, receive it in their tongue from the hands of Luther ; who says, that at twenty years of age, he himself had not seen it in any language. WicklifFe 's English style is elegant for the age in which he lived, yet very different from what is elegant now. This first English translation of the Bible, being made about a hundred years before the introduction of printing into England, could not have been very extensively circulated. A large specimen of it may be seen in Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language. Wickliffe died in 1384. The art of printing was invented about 1440, and first introduced into England, in 1468 ; but the first printed edition of the Bible in English, was executed in Germany. It was completed, October 5th, 1535. 19. "Martin Luther, about the year 1517, first introduced metrical psalmody into the service of the church, which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of the reformers, but formed a rallying point for his followers. This practice spread in all directions ; and it was not long ere six thousand persons were heard singing together at St. Paul's Cross in London. Luther was a poet and musician ; but the same talent existed not in his followers. Thirty years afterwards, Sternhold versified fifty-one of the Psalms ; and in 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he CHAP. VI.] OF THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 61 completed the Psalter. These poetical effusions were chiefly sung to German melodies, which the good taste of Luther supplied : but the Puritans, in a subse- quent age. nearly destroyed these germs of melody, assigning as a reason, that ,1 he so simplified as to suit all persons, and that all may join." Gn,n-rx Musir of X"frr, p. 283. Jn. " The schools and colleges of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centu- re not governed by a system of education which would render their students ninent either as scholars or as gentlemen : tind the monasteries, which were linaries, even until the reformation, taught only the corrupt Latin used ies. The time however was approaching, when the united efforts ihridge, Linacre, Sir John Cheke, Dean Colet, Erasmus, William Lily, ! Mam, &c., were successful in reviving the Latin tongue in all its purity ; and even in exciting a taste for Greek in a nation the clergy of which opposed its introduction with the same vehemence which characterized their enmity to a reformation in religion. The very learned Erasmus, the first who undertook the teaching of the Greek language at Oxford, met with few friends to support him; notwithstanding Oxford was the seat of nearly all the learning in England." MttceBtmy, Vol. xx, p. 146. 21. " The priests preached against it, as a very recent invention of the arch- enemy ; and confounding in their misguided zeal, the very foundation of their faith, with the object of their resentment, they represented the New Testament itself as * an ii: lanirerous book,' because it was written in that heretical language. ; 'ter the accession of Henry VIII., when Erasmus, who had quitted Oxford returned under his especial patronage, with the support of several 'lolars and powerful persons, hia progress was still impeded, and the 1. The University was divided into parties, called Greeks and latter being the strongest, from being favoured by the monks ; and "ks were driven from the streets, with hisses and other expressions of It was not therefore until Henry VIII and cardinal Wolsey gave it eir positive and powerful protection, that this persecuted language was allowed idly studied, even in the institutions dedicated to learning." Ib. p. 147. curious extracts are adduced to show the spirit of the times, and then to be surmounted in the cause of learning. This popular k, did not spring from a patriotic design to prefer and encourage literature ; for the improvement of this was still later, and the great '' it were all of them classical scholars. They wrote in English, not rhey preferred it, but because none but those who were bred in colleges, ml'l read any thing else ; and, even to this very day, the grammatical study of i< shamefully neglected in what are called the higher insti- M'^. In alleging this neglect, I speak comparatively. Every 'ii cut. Ting upon the practical business of life, will find it of far more H-e to him, to be skillful in the language of his own country than to be for any knowledge which the learned only can appreciate. " Will k and Latin, or [the] translating [of] these i f o Knirli-h. avail for the Purpose of acquiring an elegant English we know just the Reverse from woeful Kxperionce ! And, as Mr. . Men who have threshed hard at Greek and t-n or eleven yea; r. are very often deficient in their own Luii- P <>n. 8vo, 1784, p. xxi. That the progress of English literature in early times was slow, will not >in wonderful to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress of other arts, : mediately connected with the comforts of life. " Down to the reiini of !i, the greater part of the hon^c^ in considerable towns, had no chimneys: kindl'-l against, the wall, and the smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. The houses were mostly built of 62 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VI. wattling, plastered over with clay ; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects ; for, in Henry the Eighth's time, we h'nd directions, ' to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no daggers might be concealed therein.' A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were * marvellously altered for the worse in England ; ' the multi- tude of chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treen platters into 'pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and tin ; and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was employed in the building of houses." REV. ROYAL BOBBINS : Outlines of History, p. 377. 24. Shakspeare appeared in the reign of Elizabeth ; outlived her thirteen years ; and died in 1616, aged 52. The English language in his hands did not lack power or compass of expression. His writings are now more extensively read, than any others of that age ; nor has any very considerable part of his phraseology yet become obsolete. But it ought to be known, that the printers or editors of the editions which are now read, have taken extensive liberty in modernizing his orthography, as well as that of other old authors still popular. How far such liberty is justifiable, it is difficult to say. Modern readers doubtless find a conve- nience in it. It is very desirable that the orthography of our language should be made uniform, and remain permanent. Great alterations cannot be suddenly introduced ; and there is, in stability, an advantage which will counterbalance that of a slow approximation to regularity. Analogy may sometimes decide the form of variable words, but the concurrent usage of the learned must ever be respected, in this, as in every other part of grammar. 25. Among the earliest of the English grammarians, was Ben Jonson, tho poet ; who died in the year 1637, at the age of sixty-three. His grammar, (which Home Tooke mistakingly calls " the first as well as the best English grammar,") is still extant, being published in the several editions of his works. It is a small treatise, and worthy of attention only as a matter of curiosity. It is written in prose, and designed chiefly for the aid of foreigners. Grammar is an unpoetical subject, and therefore not wisely treated, as it once very generally was, in verse. But every poet should be familiar with the art, because the formal principles of his own have always been considered as embraced in it. To its poets, too, every language must needs be particularly indebted ; because their compositions, being in general more highly finished than works in prose, are supposed to present tho language in its most agreeable form. In the preface to the Poems of Edmund Waller, published in 1690, the editor ventures to say, "He was, indeed, tho Parent of English Verse, and the first that shewed us our Tongue had Beauty and Numbers in it. Our Language owes more to Him, than the French does to Cardinal Richelieu and the whole Academy. * * * * The Tongue came into His hands a rough diamond : he polished it first ; and to that degree, that all artists since him have admired the workmanship, without pretending to mend it." British Poets, Vol. ii, 1800 : Waller's Poems, p. 4. 26. Dr. Johnson however, in his Lives of the Poets, abates this praise, that he may transfer the greater part of it to Dryden and Pope. He admits that, " After about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre, some advances towards nature and harmony had been already made by Waller and Denham ;" but, in distributing the praise of this improvement, he adds, " It may be doubted whether Waller and Denham could have over-born [overborne'} the prejudices which had long prevailed, and which even then were sheltered by the protection of Cowley. The new versification, as it was called, may be considered as owing its establishment to Dryden ; from whose time it is apparent that English poetry has had no tenden- cy to relapse to its former savageness." Johnson '$ Life of Dryden: Lives, p. 206. To Pope, as the translator of Homer, he gives this praise : " His version may be said to have tuned the English tongue ; for since its appearance no writer, CHAP. VII.] CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF TIIE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 63 however deficient in other powers, has wanted melody." Life of Pope : Lives, p. 507. Such was the opinion of Johnson ; but there are other critics who object to the versification of Pope, that it is " monotonous and cloying." See, in Leigh Hunt's Feast of the Poets, the following couplet, and a note upon it : " But ever since Pope spoiFd the ears of the town With his cuckoo-song verses half up and half down." 27. The unfortunate Charles I, as well as his father James I, was a lover and promoter of letters. lie was himself a good scholar, and wrote well in English, for his time : he ascended the throne in 1G25, and was beheaded in 1G4S. Nor was Cromwell himself, with all his religious and military enthusiasm, wholly ile to literary merit. This century was distinguished by the writings of Milton, Dryden, Waller, Cowley, Denham, Locke, and others; and the reign of Charles II, which is embraced in it, has been considered by some " the Augustan age of English literature." But that honour, if it may well be bestowed on any, belongs rather to a later period. The best works produced in the eighteenth century, are so generally known and so highly esteemed, that it would be lavish of the narrow space allowed to this introduction, to speak particularly of their merits. jrammatieal errors may be found in almost all books ; but our language was, nil, written with great purity and propriety by Addison, Swift, Pope, Johnson, Luwth, Hume, Home, and many other celebrated authors who flourished iry. Nor was it much before this period, that the British writers took any great pains to be accurate in the use of their own language : " Late, very late, correctness grew our care, When the tir'd nation breath'd from civil war." Pope. 28. English books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth century ; and, as soon as a taste for reading was formed, the press threw open the flood-gates of general knowledge, the streams of which are now pouring forth, in a copious, increasing, but too often turbid tide, upon all the civilized nations of the earth. This mighty engine afforded a means by which superior minds could act more .'tliricntly and more extensively upon society in general. And thus, by the genius adorned with learning, our native tongue has been made the >li>hed vehicle of the most interesting truths, and of the most important discov- aini has Uvoiiie a language copious, strong, refined, and capable of no lerablo degree of harmony. Nay, it is esteemed by some who claim to be competent judges, to l>e t'n at, the richest, the most elegant, and the most :ible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world. CHAPTER VII. [AXi'.ES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. M Quot enlm verba, et nonnunquam in deterius, hoc, quo yivimus, wrculo, partim aliqua, partim nulM eeeaaitate cogcuto, mutata suut ?" ROB. AINSWORTH : Lat. Diet. 4*o, Pref. p. zi. 1. In the use of language, every one chooses his words from that common stock which he has learned, and applies them in practice according to his own hah' notions. If the style of different writers of th< _'ceptiMe, had certainly no alliance with these additional syllables The long s< c 'ings which constitute the declensions and conju- gations of the !;-ed languages, and which seem to chime so well with the sublimity of 'i th- majesty of the Latin, the sweetness of the Italian, the dignity of the Spanish, or the pollSO of the; !'n och, /" ccrhml any place in English. n to onr words never embraced any other vowel power than that of the short e or i ; and even this we are inclined to dispense with, whenever we can; so that ;r grammatical inflections are, to the ear, nothing but consonants blended with the final syllables of the words to which they are added. Ing for the fh>t participle, cr for the comparative degree, and est for the superlative, are indeed ;;! bole syllables; but the ; or erf for preterits and perfect participles, s or es for the plural number of nouns, or for the third person singular of verbs, and st or est for the second person singular of verbs, nine times in ten, fall into the sound or syllable with which the primitive word terminates. o\\ commonly used, run through their entire conju- gation without acquiring a single syllable from inflection, except sometimes when the sound of d, s, or st cannot be added to them. 5. This simplicity, so characteristic of our modern English, as well as of the Saxon tongue, its proper parent, is attended with advantages that go far to comj r all that is oonaeqnently lost in euphony, or in the liberty of trans- position. Our for i the moods and tenses, by means of a few separate auxiliaries and mostly without inflection, is not only simple and easy, but beautiful, chaste. and strong. In my opinion, our grammarians have shown far more affection tir the obsolete or obsolescent terminations en^ eth, est, and filst. than tl:< v really deserve. Till the beginning of the sixteenth century, en w mark the plural number of verb-. a>. they sayen for they say ; after which, it appears t. . q dropped. Before the beginning of the seventeenth ite with t/i or i-f/t the right of forming the third person a> the Bible and other grave books used only the latter, v/een the solemn and the familiar style, which well known at this day. Thus we have. He runs, walla, ricks, .i in-lli, ii'iilkvth. rnk'tft, reac/teth, &c., for the Aboii' earlier, the use of the second person tded in polite convert institution of the plural ."tin ; and, when used ii. it was often contracted, so as to In old hook.s, all id participles that were voimnciati'.n. weiv << ntnict* d alVo, in some way, by the v ffy'st, ast'ritSsf. rrifdst ; " " tost, able.* All these, and Mich as are like - ial!y write dilii-n-n: : 'led, tt-d, finished. 'ther noticed in the Grammar. I. 1 : cr TILK MNhTKKNTli CENTURY. 6. '. ? Language may sufficiently shew. < >ur Term-* uijxjltte Literature prove, that this came from Gr< S'-jrms in itutic and /'? //. 16. Reign of Georn I. 17-J7 >,.& to 1714. K.cnmph wriifsn about 1718. " There is a certain CM ildness and indifference in the phrases of our European languages, when they .'re - .-r.nred withtho Orient;/ eech : and it happens very hi- ; - that the Hebrew idioms run into li tongue, with a particular grace and beauty. Our I and imp; :rom infusion of to it out of the ; \oly writ. T!' '.rni and ai that are to be met with in our tongu"." "fc/joe, p. 68 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VII. 17. Reign of Queen Anne, 1714 to 1702. Example written in 1708. " Some by old words to Fame have made pretence, Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense ; Such labour' d nothings, in so strange a style, Amaze th' unlearn'd, and make the learned smile." " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; Alike fantastick, if too new or old : Be not the first by whom the new are try'd, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." ALEXANDER POPE : Essay on Criticism, 1. 324 336. HI. ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. - 18. Reign of William III, 1702 to 1689. Example published in 1700. " And when we fee a Man of Milton's Wit Chime in with fuch a Herd, and Help on the Cry againft Hirelings ! We find How Eafie it is for Folly and Knavery to Meet, and that they are Near of Kin, tho they bear Different Afpects. Therefor since Milton has put himfelf upon a Level with the Quakers in this, I Mill let them go together. And take as little Notice of his Buffoonry, as of their Dulnefs againft Tythes. Ther is nothing worth Quoting in his Lampoon againft the Hirelings. But what ther is of Argument in it, is fully Coniider'd in what follows." CHARLES LESLIE : Divine Right of Tithes, Pref. p. xi. 19. Reign of James II, 1689 back to 1685. Example written in 1685. " His conversation, wit, and parts, His knowledge in the noblest useful arts, Were such, dead authors could not give ; But habitudes of those who live ; Who, lighting him, did greater lights receive : He drain' d from all, and all they knew ; His apprehension quick, his judgment true : That the most learn' d with shame confess His knowledge more, his reading only less." JOHN DBYDEN : Ode to the Memory of Charles II ; Poems, p. 84. 20. Reign of Charles II, 1685 to 1660. Example from a Letter to the Earl of Sunderland, dated, "Philadelphia, 28^ bth mo. July, 1683." " And I will venture to say, that by the help of God, and such noble Friends, I will show a Province in seven years, equal to her neighbours of forty years planting. I have lay'd out the Province into Countys. Six are begun to be seated ; they lye on the great river, and are planted about six miles back. The town platt is a mile long, and two deep, has a navigable river on each side, the least as broad as the Thames at Woolwych, from three to eight fathom water. There is built about eighty houses, and I have set- tled at least three hundred farmes contiguous to it." WILLIAM PENN : The Friend, vii. 21. From an Address or Dedication to Charles II. Written in 1675. " There is no [other] king in the world, who can so experimentally testify of God's providence and goodness ; neither is there any [other], who rules so many free people, so many true Christians : which thing renders thy government more honourable, thyself more considerable, than the accession of many nations filled with slavish and supersti- tious souls." KOBERT BARCLAY : Apology, p. viii. 22. The following example, from the commencement of Paradise Lost, first published in 1667, has been cited by several authors, to show how large a proportion of our language is of Saxon origin. The thirteen words in Italics are the only ones in this passage, which seem to have been derived from any other source. " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden ; till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, In the beginning, how the Heav'ns and Earth Rose out of Chaos." MILTON : Paradise Lost, Book I. CHAP. VII.] CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 69 23. Esamplrs written fbmny CromwetTs Protectorate, 1660 to 1650. " The Quccne was pleased to shew me the letter, the scale bcinge a Roman eagle, having- characters about it almost like the Grecke. This day, in the afternoone, the vicc-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours with me ; in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates." WiUTr.i.ooK.i: : Baches Class. Gram., p. 140. " I am yet heere, and have the States of Holland intra^ed in a more than ordnary manor, to procure me audience, of tli ver happen, the effects must ncedes be good.' '- \M>: Biickes Classical Gram., p. 149. "24. Reign of Charles /, 1648 to 1625. Example from Ben Jonson's Grammar, written about 1634; but the orthography is more modcr " The second and third person singular of the present are made of the first, by adding est and cth ; which last is sometimes shortened into s. It seemeth to have been poetical licence which first introduced this abbreviation of the third person into use ; but our immarians have condemned it upon some occasions, though perhaps not to be absolutely banished the common and familiar style." " The persons plural keep the termination of the first person singular. In former times, till about the reign of Henry the eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding en ; thus, foven, sayen, complainen. But now (whatever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I dare not presume to set this afoot again : albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered, will be found a great blemish to our tongue. For seeing lime and person be, as it were, the riu'ht and left hand of a verb, what can the maiming bring else, but a lameness to the whole body ? " Book i, Chap. xvi. ;a of James I, 1625 to 1603. From an Advertisement, dated 1608. "Isvppose it altogether needlcsse (Christian Reader) by commending M. William . the Author of this booke, to wooe your holy affection, which either himselfe in his life time by his Christian conversation hath woon in you, or sithence his death, the neucr-dying memorie of his excellent knowledge, his great humilitie, his sound religion, his painefull labours, in the Church of God, doe most iustly challenge at your hands : onely in one word, I dare be bold to say of him. as in. times past JN 'azianzen spake of At', 3 a good definition of a true minister and preacher of the Gospell." The Printer to the Reader. Examples written about the end of Elizabeth' s reign 1603. " Some say, That euer 'gainst that season comes Wherein our Saviour's Birth is celebrated, The Bird of Dawning singeth all night long; And then, say they, no Spirit dares walk abroad : The nights are wholsom, then no Planets strike, ! 'airy takes, nor Witch hath pow'r to charm ; So hallow'd and so gracious is the time." SHAKSPEARE : Hamlet. " The sea, with such a storme as his bare head In hcll-blacke ni^ht indur'd, would haue buoy'd up And quench' d the stellecl mart, he holpe the hcucns toraine. If w. ilues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time, Thou shouldst haue said, Good porter, turne the key." SHAKSPEARE : Lear. ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. of A7/0//W/,. 1003 back to 1558. Example written in 1592. "As for the soule, it is no accidcntaric qualitie, but a spirituall and inuisible essence or natti- h pluinely appeares in that the soules of men haue bei-ing and continu ;i forth of the bodies of men as in the same ; and are as wel subicet to torments as the bodie is. And whereas we can and doe put in practise sunclric actions of li. .<>tion, vnderstamlin:;, we doe it onely by the power and vcrtue of the soule. II. lithe difference bctwecne the s.m'lrs of men, and :nen are sub>t;mces : but : .[' other creatures >eeme not to they haue no beeing out of the bodies in which they are." WILLIAM PEKKINS : Thi-ul. ll'urks, folio, p. L;-}. 70 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VII. 28. Examples written about the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. 1558. " Who can perswade, -vvh.cn treason is aboue reason ; and mighte ruleth righte ; and it is had for lawfull, whatsoever is lustfull ; and commotioners are better than commis- sioners ; and common woe is named common weale ?" SIR JOHN CHEKE. "If a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and dedes, will veriesone be over like." ROGER ASCHAM. 29. Reign of Mary the Bigot, 1558 to 1553. Example written about 1555. " And after that Philosophy had spoken these wordes the said company e of the musys poeticall beynge rebukyd and sad, caste downe their countenaunce to the grounde, and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes, and went out of the dores. But I (that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng, so that I knew not what woman this was hauyng soo great aucthoritie) was amasyd or astonyed, and lokyng downeward, towarde the ground, I began pryvyle to look what thyng she would saye ferther." COLVELLE : Version from Botthius : Johnson's Hist, of E. L., p. 29. 30. Example referred by Dr. Johnson to the year 1553. * Pronunciation is an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce, countenaunce, and all the whole bodye, accordynge to the worthines of such woordes and mater as by speache are declared. The vse hereof is suche for anye one that liketh to haue prayse for tellynge his tale in open assemblie, that hauing a good tongue, and a comelye countenaunce, he shal be thought to passe all other that haue not the like vtteraunce : thoughe they have muche better learning." DR. WILSON : Johnson's Hist. E. L., p. 45. 31. Reign of Edward VI, 1553 to 1547. Example written about 1550. " Who that will folio we the graces manyfolde Which are in vertue, shall finde auauncement : Wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde, Ensue ye wisdome, and leaue your lewde intent, Wisdome is the way of men most excellent : Therefore haue done, and shortly spede your pace, To quaynt your self and company with grace." ALEXANDER BARCLAY : Johnson's Hist. E. L. t p. 44. 32. Reign of Henry VIII, 1547 to 1509. Example dated 1541. " Let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges, that like as he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym : and if he so be, than shall that anger be to hym displeasant, and stere hym more to be angrye." SIR THOMAS ELLIOTT : Castel of Helthe. 33. Example of the earliest English Blank Verse ; written about 1540. The supposed author died in 1541, aged 38. The piece from which these lines are taken describes the death of Zoroas, an Egyptian astronomer, slain in Alexander's first battle with the Persians. "The Persians waild such sapience to foregoe ; And very sone the Macedonians wisht He would have lived ; king Alexander selfe Demde him a man unmete to dye at all ; Who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre, As for stoute men in field that day subdued, Who princes taught how to discerne a man, That in his head so rare a jewel beares ; But over all those same Camenes,* those same Divine Camenes, whose honour he procurde, As tender parent doth his daughters weale, Lamented, and for thankes, all that they can, Do cherish hym deceast, and sett hym free, From dark oblivion of devouring death." Probably written by SIR THOMAS WYAT. * Camenes, the Muses, whom Horace called Camancr. The former is an English plural from the latter, or from the Latin word camena, a muse or song. These lines are copied from Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language ; their orthography is, in some respects, toe modtrn for the age to which they are assigned. CHAP. VII.] CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 71 34. A Letter written from prison, with a coal. The writer, Sir Thomas More, whose works, both in prose and verse, were considered models of pure and elegant style, had been Chancellor of England, and the familiar confidant of Henry VIII, by whose order he was beheaded in 1 535. " Myne own good doughter, our Lorde be thanked I am in good helthe of bodye, and in good quiet of minde : and of worldly thynges I no more desyer then I haue. beseche hym make you all mery in the" hope of heaucn. And such thynges as I somewhat longed to talke with you all, concerning the worlde to come, our Lorde put theim into your myndes, as I truste he doth and better to by hys holy spirite : who blesse you and preserue you all. Written wyth a cole by y our 'tender louing father, who in hys pore prayers forgetteth none of you all, nor your babes, nor your nources, nor your <:ood husbandes, nor your good husbandes shrewde wyucs, nor your fathers shrewde wyfe neither, nor our other frendes. And thus fare ye hartely well for lacke of paper. THOMAS MORE, knight." Johnson's Hist. E. Lang., p. 42. 35. From More' s Description of Richard III. Probably written about 1520. " Richardc the third sonne, of whom we nowe entreate, was in. witte and courage egall with either of them, in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them bothe, little of stature, ill fetured of limmes, croke backed, his left shoulder much higher than his right, hard fauoured of visage, and such as is in states called warlye, in other menne otherwise, he "was malicious, wrathfull, enuious, and from afore his birth euer frowarde. * * * Hee was close and secrete, a deep dissimuler, lowlye of counteynaunce, arrogant of heart dispitious and crucll, not for euill will alway, but after for ambicion, and either for the suretie and encreasc of his estate. Frende and foo was muche what indifferent, where his aduauntage grew, he spared no mans deathe, whose life withstoode his purpose. He slew with his owne handesking Henry the sixt, being prisoner in the Tower." SIB THOMA .''thnsons History of the English Language, p. 39. 36. Prom his description of Fortune , written about the year 1500. "Fortune is stately, solemne, prowde, and hye : And rychesse geueth, to haue seruyce therefore. The nedy begger catcheth an half peny : Some manne a thousande pounde, some lesse some more. But for all that she kepeth euer in store, From cuery manne some parcell of his wyll, That he may pray therfore and serve her sty 11. Some manne hath good, but chyldren hath he none. Some manne hath both, but he can get none health. Some hath al thre, but vp to honours trone, (.'an he not crepe, by no manor of stclth. To some she sendeth chyldren, ryches, welthe, Honour, woorshyp, and reuerence all hys lyfe : But yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewde wife." SIB THOMAS MOBB. V. ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 37 . Example for the reign of Henry VII, who was crowned on Bosworth field, 14S"). andwko died in 1509. " \Vhercfor and forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif, and for our derrest moder, to come unto us, and that we wold have your advis and counsail also in soche matters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the rebelles, we praie you, that, yeving your due attcndaunee vppon our said derrc^t wit' and lady moder, ye come with thaym unto us; not tailing hcrof as ye purpose to doo us plaisir. Yeven undre our signett, at our Ca>t,< -11 .if Kenelworth, the xiij claie of Maye." HKXBY VII : Letter to the Earl of Ormond: lluck>' ''//////., p. 147. 38. Kmwfh-f'.r the short reign of Richard III, from 1485 to 1483. "Right n-vei-.-iid fader in God, rijjht trusty and right wel-belovcd, we grete yow wele, and wol and eharge you that under oure greate scale, being in your warde, ye do make in all haist our lett: imation severally to be directed unto the shirrefs of everie countie within this oure royaumc." RICHAKU III : Letter to his Chancellor. 39. Reign of Edward IV. from 1483 to 1461. Example written tn!364. " Forasmoche as we by divers meanes bene credebly cnformed and undarstand for certyne, that owr greate adversary Henry, naminge hyui'selfe kynge of England, by the 72 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VII. maliceous counseylo and exitacion of Margaret his wife, namynge hir selfe queane of England, have conspired," &c. EDWARD IV: Letter of Privy Seal. 40. Examples for the reign of Henry VI, from 1461 back to 1422. " When Nembroth [i. e. Nimrod] by Might, for his own Glorye, made and incorporate the first Realme, and subduyd it to hymself by Tyrannye, he would not have it governyd by any other Rule or Lawe, but by his own Will ; by which and for th' accomplishment thereof he made it. And therfor, though he had thus made a Realme, holy Scripture denyd to cal hym a Kyng, Quiet Rex dicitar a Regendo Whych tliyng he did not, but oppressyd the People by Myght." SIR JOHN FORTESCUE. 41. Example from Lydgate, a poetical Monk, who died in 1440. " Our life here short of wit the great dulnes The heuy soule troubled with trauayle, And of memorye the glasyng brotelnes, Drede and vncunning haue made a strong batail With worines my spirite to assayle, And with their subtil creping in most queint Hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint." JOHN LYDGATE : Fall of Princes, Book III, Prol. 42 Example for the reign of Henry V,from 1422 back to 1413. "I wolle that the Due of Orliance be kept stille withyn the Castil of Pontefret, with owte goyng to Robertis place, or to any other disport, it is better he lak his disport then we were disceyved. Of all the remanant dothe as ye thenketh." Letter of HENRY V. 43. Example for the reign of Henry IV, from 1413 lack to 1400. " Right heigh and myghty Prynce, my goode and gracious Lorde, I recommaund me to you as lowly as I kan or may with all my pouer hert, desiryng to hier goode and gracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare." LORD GREY : Letter to the Prince of Wales: Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 145. VI. ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 44. Reign of Richard II, 1400 back to 1377. Example written in 1391. " Lytel Lowys my sonne, I perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte to lerne scyences, touching nombres and proporcions, and also well consydre I thy besye prayer in especyal to lerne the tretyse of the astrolabye. Than for as moche as a philosopher saithe, he wrapeth hym in his frende, that condiscendeth to the ryghtfull prayers of his frende : therefore I have given the a sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont, compown- ed after the latitude of Oxenforde : vpon the whiche by meditacion of this lytell tretise, I purpose to teche the a certaine nombre of conclusions, pertainynge to this same in- strument." GEOFFREY CHAUCER: Of the Astrolabe. 45. Example written about 1385 to be compared with that 0/1555, on p. 70. "And tlvus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward to the yerth, and shewing by rednesse their shame, thei passeden sorowfully the thresholde. And I of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked, so that I ne might not know what that woman was, of so Imperial aucthoritie, I woxe all abashed and stonicd, and cast my sight doune to the yerth, and began still for to abide what she would doen afterward." CHAUCER: Version from Boethius: Johnson' s Hist, of E. L., p. 29. 46. Poetical Example probably written before 1380. " O Socrates, thou stedfast champion ; She ne might nevir be thy turmentour, Thou nevir dreddist her oppression, Ne in her chere foundin thou no favour, Thou knewe wele the disceipt of her colour, And that her moste worship is for to lie, I knowe her eke a false dissimulour, For finally Fortune I doe defie." CHAUCER. 47. Reign of Edward III, 1377 to 1327. Example written about 1360. "And eke full ofte a littell skare Vpon a bankc, er men be ware, Let in the streme, whiche with gret peine, If any man it shall restreine. Where lawe failleth, errour groweth ; He is not wise, who that ne troweth." SIR JOHN GOWE. CHAP. VII. J CIIAN'IK- AND SPECIMENS OP TIIE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 73 48. / 7 '/'/'?///>>, the English trar,>Ucr wriftrn in 1356. 44 And this sterrc that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the lode stcrre, ne ap- perethe not to hem. For whit-he cause, men may wel pereeyve, that the lond and the see ben of rowivle sehapp and forme. For the partie of the firmament schewethe in o contree. . not in another contree. And men may well proven be experi- ence a-. -nt of wytt, that /if a man ton 1 be schippes, that wolde go to serehen the world, men mighte go be schippe all aboute the world, and abovcn then. The whiehe thing I prove thus, aftre that I have scyn. * * * Be the whiehe I rteynly, that men may envirowne alle the erthe of alle the world, as wel mi'l 'ii, and turnen a/en to his contree, that hadde companye ml eonduyr : and alle weyes he scholde fynde men, londes, and ylea, als wel as in this contree." SIK JOHN M.VNDUVIU.K : .Inltmon's Hist, of E. L. t p. 26. 49. JZxample from the Visions of Pierce Ploughman, 1350. "In the soin When hot w;is the Sun, I shope me into shroubs, As I a s hope were ; In habit as an harmet, Vnholy of werkes, Went wyde in this world. Wonders to heare." 50. / ><>/ . / ', I If. 1-272 to 1216. Es.nnjilc from an old ballad en- titled Richard of Alin't>sfer, the l)nrtor riv-s us more than two hundred liu->; 1'Ut ho date- tln-m no further than to wiy. that the author "is placed by the criti<- : :- in the thirteenth century." Hist, nf Rug. Lang., p. U4. nble man, as in the tier of ^ace he nom Ired and syxty and tiielue the kyndom. Ar-t In me ybe, and, vor y> . c bcforan Gode, ganiremle on callum his be- bodum and rihtwisnessum, butan wrohte. 7. And hi<* ntefdon nan bearn, forth am the Elizabeth wa?s unberende ; and hy on hyra dagum butu forth-eo- dun. 8. Sothlice wses geworden Zai -lianas hys sacerd- a-cac on his gewrix- endebyrdnesse beforan Gode, Kftcr gewunan thus Baeerdhades hlotes, he code that he his offrunge sette, tha he on Godes tempel eode. 10. Eall werod tha?s folces W8B8 ute gebiddende on thaere offrunge timan. 11. Tha aetywde him Driht; standi-nde on tli:i-s wcoibdes swithran hcalfe. 12. Tha weard Zacharias -conde, and onhreas. 13. Tha cwieth s> indni'd thu the . tortham tliin ben gehvred, and thin wif i/.abfth the sunu centh, d thu nemst liys naman Johannes." Saxon Gospels. English. 14th Century. LTJK, CHAP. I. "5. In the dayes of Er- oude kyng of Judec ther was a prest Zacarye by name, of the sort of Abia : and his \vyi' was of the doughtris of Aaron, and hir name was Elizabeth. 6. And bothe weren juste bifore God, goynge in alle the maundementis and justi- fy in gis of the Lord, with- outen playnt. 7. And thei haddcn no child, for Elizabeth was bar- eyn ; and bothe weren of greet age in her dayes. 8. And it befel that whanne Zacarye schould do the office of presthod in the ordir of his course to fore God, 9. Aftir the custom of the presthood, he wente forth by lot, and entride into the temple to encensen. 10. And al the multitude of the puplc was without forth and preyede in the our of encensying. 11. And an aungel of the Lord apperide to him, and stood on the right half of the auter of encense. \'2. And Zacarye seyin^e was afrayed, and drede fel upon him. 13. And the aungel sayde to him, Zacarye, dredc thou not; for thy preier is herd, and Elizabeth thi wif schal '"re to thee a sone, and his name sehal be elcpid Jon." ''s Bible, 1380. English. 17th Century. LUKE, CHAP. I. " 5. There was in the days of Herod the king of Judea, a certain priest named Zach- arias, of the course of Abia : and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth. 6. And they were both righteous before God, walk- ing in all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord, blameless. 7. And they had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren ; and they both were now well stricken in years. 8. And it came to pass, that while he executed the priest's office before God in the order of his course, 9. According to the cus- tom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he went into the temple of the Lord. 10. And the whole multi- tude of the people were praying without at the time of incense. 11. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord, standing on the right side of the altar of incense. 12. And when Zaehariae saw him, he was troubled, and i'rar fell \ipon him. 13. But the angel said un- to him, Fear Tint, /arharias; for thy prayer is heard, and thy wife Elisabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shalt call his name John." Common Bible, 1610. See Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, in his Quarto Dictionary. The Snxon characters being known nowadays to but very few readers I have thought proper to gubstitute in th> latter ^.fdinuis of thfc chapter, the Roman ; and, as the old use of colons and periods for the niaHe*t pauses, is liable to mislead a common observer, the punctuation too hu here been modernized. 76 INTRODUCTION. [CIIAP. VIII. X. ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KING ALFRED. 61. Alfred the Great, was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred, in the year 871, being then twenty-two years old. He had scarcely time to attend the funeral of his brother, before he was called to the field to defend his country against the Danes. After a reign of more than twenty-eight years, rendered singularly glorious by great achievements under difficult circumstances, he died universally lamented, on the 28th 1 of October, A.D. 900. By this prince the university of Oxford was founded, and provided with able teachers from the continent. His own great proficiency in learning, and his earnest efforts for its promotion, form a striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailed before. " In the ninth cen- tury, throughout the whole kingdom of the West Saxons, no man could be found who was scholar enough to instruct the young king Alfred, then a child, even in the first elements of reading : so that he was in his twelfth year before he could name the letters of the alphabet. When that renowned prince ascended the throne, he made it his study to draw his people out of the sloth and stupidity in which they lay ; and became, as much by his own example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men, the great restorer of arts in his dominions." Life of Bacon. 62. The language of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement : it does not usually present things in their due proportions. How far the foregoing quota- tion is true, I will not pretend to say ; but what is called " the revival of learning," must not be supposed to have begun at so early a period as that of Alfred. The following is a brief specimen of the language in which that great man wrote ; bur, printed in Saxon characters, it would appear still less like English. " On threre tide the Gotan of Siththiu msogthe -with llomana rice gewin upahofori. and mith heora cyningum. Rsedgota and Eallerica wseron hatne. Romano buri? abrajcon. and eall Italia rice that is betwux tham muntxim and Sicilia tham ealondc in anwald gerehton. and tha segter tham. foresprecenan cyningum Theodric feng to thai i ilcan rice se Theodric waes Amulinga. he wses Cristen. theah he on tham Arrianisca i gedwolan durhwunode. He gehet Romanum his freondscype. swa that hi mostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon." KING ALFRED: Johnson's Hist, of E. L. t 4to Diet. p. 17. CHAPTEK VIII. OF THE GRAMMATICAL STUDY OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAG " Grammatica quid est? ars recte scribendi recteque loquendi ; poetarum enarrationem continens; omnium scientiarum fons uberrimus. * * * Nostra aetas parum perita veterum, nimis brcvi gyro grammaticum sepsit : at apud antiques olim tantum auctoritas hie ordo habuit, ut censores essent et judices scriptorum omnium soli grammatici : quos ob id etiam Criticos vocabant." DESPAUTEB. Prezf. ad Synt. fol. 1. 1. Such is the peculiar power of language, that there is scarcely any subject so trifling, that it may not thereby be plausibly magnified into something great ; nor are there many things which cannot be ingeniously disparaged till they shall seem contemptible. Cicero goes further : " Nihil est tarn incredibile quod non dicendo fiat probabile ;" " There is nothing so incredible that it may not by the power of language be made probable." The study of grammar has been often overrated, and still oftener injuriously decried. I shall neither join with those who would lessen in the public esteem that general system of doctrines, which from time im- memorial has been taught as grammar; nor attempt, either by magnifying its prac- CHAP. VIII.] GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 77 tical results, or by decking it out with my own imaginings, to invest it with any artificial or extraneous importance. J. I shall not follow the footsteps of Neef, who avers that, "Grammar and incongruity are identical things," and who, under pretence of reaching the same end by letter means, scornfully rejects as nonsense every tiling that others have taught under that name; he-cause 1 am convinced, that, of all met] ''hing, none gees farther than his, to prove the reproachful as>ertion true. Nor shall I imitate the declamation of Oardell; who, at the commencement of recom- :al study of language on earth, from the coiiMderation that, "The faculty of >peech is the medium of social bliss for superior intelligences in an eternal world;"* and who, when he has exhausted censure in condemning the practical ions of others, thus lavishes praise, in both his grammars, upon that form- ill, and incomprehensible theory of his own: " This application of words," says he, " in their endless u>e, by one plain rule, to all things which nouns can name, in>fead of being the fit subject of blind cavil, is the most sublime theme pre- > f n. h is the practical i.tti rmnrse of the soul, at once U'if/i ifs f.i'i'd, ami irit/i all parts of his works!" Carddl's Cram, llimo, p. 87; Gram. ISmo, p. 49. 3 Here, indeed, a wide prospect opens before us; but he who traces science, and teaches what is practically useful, must check imagination, and be content with sober truth. r apt the mind or fancy is to rove Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end." MILTON. ithin its proper limits, and viewed in its true light, the practical science iimar has an intrinsic dignity and merit sufficient to throw back upon any iiiun who dares il it, the lasting stigma of folly and self-conceit. It is of men are fallible, and many opinions are liable to be re- : but what has been long established by the unanimous concurn-ni-c of the learned, it can hardly be the part of a wise instructor now to dis- pute. The literary reform. ; who, with the last named gentleman, imagines "that iie civilized world have looked up for instruction in language, ;i the main points,"! intends no middle course of reformation, and i. D eiiher of great merit, or of little modesty. I. i -iy now be regarded as the common inheritance of about fifty millions <-f peoj ! : \\ho are at least as highly distinguished for virtue, . and i-nk-rpri- other equal portion of the earth's population. All tli- i in the purity, permanency, and ri;ht use of that la: i e, not only the medium of mental intercourse v.-ith other- for them and their children, but the vehicle of all they value, in the ir. i-r in the transmission of their own. It is even im- pertinent, to lability, that the study of this his native lan- uee and inu-re.-t : if be does not, from these 1 it to be so, the suggestion will be less likely to convince him, than t . as conveying an implicit censure. 5. K\< v person v* : y ambition to appear K'.-pcctal'i" among people of education, whether ii .in correspondence, in public speaking, or in print, nm>t la- awar mpctent knowledge of the language in which he attempt.- H hi.> "thoughts. Mnnv a ludicrou- -e words of which they did not know the York, 1S26. p. 2. This writfr was a ^rcat admirer of ' und of whoM MnMtionJ) only words are the repreeenutires." Diversions oj Purity, Vol. ii, p. 9. 78 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VIII. proper application ; many a ridiculous blunder has been published to the lasting disgrace of the writer ; and so intimately does every man's reputation for sense depend upon his skill in the use of language, that it is scarcely possible to acquire the one without the other. Who can tell how much of his own good or ill success, how much of the favour or disregard with which he himself has been treated, may have depended upon that skill or deficiency in grammar, of which, as often as he has either spoken or written, he must have afforded a certain and constant evidence '?* 6. I have before said, that to excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists ; and, as this excellence, whether in the thing itself, or in him that attains to it, is merely comparative, there seems to be no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. In speaking or writing to different persons, and on different subjects, it is necessary to vary one's style with great nicety of address ; and in nothing does true genius more conspicuously appear, than in the facility with which it adopts the most ap- gropriate expressions, leaving the critic no fault to expose, no word to amend, uch facility of course supposes an intimate knowledge of all words in common use. and also of the principles on which they are to be combined. 7. With a language which we are daily in the practice of hearing, speaking, reading, and writing, we may certainly acquire no inconsiderable acquaintance, without the formal study of its rules. All the true principles of grammar were presumed to be known to the learned, before they were written for the aid of learners ; nor have they acquired any independent authority, by being recorded in a book, and denominated grammar. The teaching of them, however, has tended in no small degree to settle and establish the construction of the language, to improve the style of our English writers, and to enable us to ascertain with more' clearness the true standard of grammatical purity. He who learns only by rote, may speak the words or phrases which he has thus acquired ; and he who has the genius to discern intuitively what is regular and proper, may have further aid from the analogies which he thus discovers; but he who would add to sucl acquisitions the satisfaction of knowing what is right, must make the principles ol' language his study. 8. To produce an able and elegant writer, may require something more than a knowledge of grammar rules ; yet it is argument enough in favour of those rules, that without a knowledge of them no elegant and able writer is produced. Who that considers the infinite number of phrases which words in their various combina- tions may form, and the utter impossibility that they should ever be recognized individually for the purposes of instruction and criticism, but must see the absolute necessity of dividing words into classes, and of showing, by general rules of formation and construction, the laws to which custom commonly subjects them, or from which she allows them in particular instances to deviate ? Grammar, or the art of writing and speaking, must continue to be learned by some persons ; because it is of indispensable use to society. And the only question is, whether children and youth shall acquire it by a regular process of study and method of instruction, or be left to glean it solely from their own occasional observation of the manner in which other people speak and write. 9. The practical solution of this question belongs chiefly to parents and guard- ians. The opinions of teachers, to whose discretion the decision will somednies be left, must have a certain degree of influence upon the public mind ; and the popular notions of the age, in respect to the relative value of different studies, will doubtless bias many to the adoption or the rejection of this. A consideration of the point seems to be appropriate here, and I cannot forbear to commend the study to the favour of my readers ; leaving every one, of course, to choose how much he will be influenced by my advice, example, or arguments. If past experience and * " Quoties dicimus. totits de nob is judicature Cicero. "As often &s we speak, so often are we judged." CHAP. VIII.] GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 79 the history of education be taken for guides, the study of English grammar will not be neglected ; and the method of its inculcation will become an object of particular inquiry and solicitude. The English language ought to be learned at school or in colleges, as other languages usually are ; by the study of its grammar, accompanied with regular exercises of parsing, correcting, pointing, and >-anning ; and by the perusal of some of its most accurate writers, accompanied with >tated exercises in composition and elocution. In books of criticism, our language IB already more abundant than any other. Some of the best of these the student should peruse, as soon as he can understand and relish them. Such a course, pursued with regularity and diligence, will be found the most direct way of acquir- ing an English style at once pure, correct, and elegant. 10. If any intelligent man will represent English grammar otherwise than as one of the most useful branches of study, he may well be suspected of having formed his conceptions of the science, not from what it really is in itself, but from some of those miserable treatises which only caricature the subject, and of which it is rather an advantage to be ignorant. But who is so destitute of good sense as to deny, that a graceful and easy conversation in the private circle, a fluent and agreeable delivery in public speaking, a ready and natural utterance in reading a pure and elegant style in composition, are accomplishments of a very high r.rd.-r? And yet of all these, the proper study of English grammar is the true foundation. This would never be denied or doubted, if young people did not find, under -.me other name, better models and more efficient instruction, than what was practised on them for grammar in the school-room. No disciple of an able grammarian can ill of grammar, unless he belong to that class of knaves who vilify what they despair to reach. 11. By taking proper advantage of the ductility of childhood, intelligent parents and judieious teachers may exercise over the studies, opinions, and habits of youth \% and salutary control ; and it will seldom be found in experience, that those who have been early taught to consider grammatical learning as worthy and manly, will change their opinion in after life. But the study of grammar is not so enticing that it may be disparaged in the hearing of the young, without injury. What would be the natural effect of the following sentence, which I quote from a late well- written religious homily? " The pedagogue and his dunce may exercise their wits correctly enough, in the way of grammatical analysis, on some splendid argument, or burst of eloquence, or thrilling descant, or poetic rapture, to the strain and soul of which not a fibre in their nature would yield a vibration." ^ >c- Obsen-cr, Vol. ix, p. 73. 12. Would not the bright boy who heard this from the lips of his reverend minister, be apt the next day to grow weary of the parsing lesson required by his schoolmaster? And yet what truth is there in the passanv '.' One can no more "f the fitness of language, without regard to the meaning conveyed by it, :' a suit of clothes, without knowing for whom they were \ to tin- proper application of ill syntactical rules, is the y roiiip<,>ition '^ faulty which does not rightly deliver the author's ition of a woi-,1 ,r s.'ntenee i~ v erroneous, in which t!i;tt Il; -i'ully noticed and literally preserved. To parse rightly "d tY understand rightly >!-iin fuliv is well expressed, it is a shame either to misunderstand or >ret. ly conducted and liltenillv he be a man of refined literary .'. an I write his native lan^u;i-i- gnmi ticalljl \ndwho will deny tint ev -ry < mbelliM the \V'M ni;d uatu. :-o many distiuct and separable agents, which are usually brought into . 80 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VIII. by one ; and even if they were, there might be found, in a judicious prosecution of this study, a healthful employment for them all. The imagination, indeed, has nothing to do with the elements of grammar ; but in the exercise of composition, young fancy may spread her wings as soon as they are fledged ; and for this exercise the previous course of discipline will have furnished both language, taste, and sentiment. 14. The regular grammatical study of our language is a thing of recent origin. Fifty or sixty years ago, such an exercise was scarcely attempted in any of the schools, either in this country or in England.* Of this fact we have abundant evidence both from books, and from the testimony of our venerable fathers yet living. How often have these presented this as an apology for their own deficien- cies, and endeavoured to excite us to greater diligence, by contrasting our opportunities with theirs ! Is there not truth, is there not power, in the appeal ? And are we not bound to avail ourselves of the privileges which they have provided, to build upon the foundations which their wisdom has laid, and to carry forward the work of improvement V Institutions can do nothing for us, unless the love of learning preside over and prevail in them. The discipline of our schools can never approach perfection, till those who conduct, and those who frequent them, are strongly actuated by that disposition of mind, which generously aspires to all attainable excellence. 15. To rouse this laudable spirit in the minds of our youth, and to satisfy its demands whenever it appears, ought to be the leading objects with those to whom is committed the important business of instruction. A dull teacher, wasting time in a school-room with a parcel of stupid or indolent boys, knows nothing of the satis- faction either of doing his own duty, or of exciting others to the performance of theirs. He settles clown in a regular routine of humdrum exercises, dreading as an inconvenience even such change as proficiency in his pupils must bring on ; and is well content to do little good for little money, in a profession which he honoms with his services merely to escape starvation. He has, however, onu merit : he pleases his patrons, and is perhaps the only man that can ; for they must needs be of that class to whom moral restraint is tyranny, disobedience to teachers, as often right as wrong ; and who, dreading the expense, even of a school-book, always judge those things to be cheapest, which cost the least and last the longest. What such a man, or such a neighbourhood, may think of English grammar, I shall not stop to ask. 16. To the following opinion from a writer of great merit, I am inclined to afford room here, because it deserves refutation, and, I am persuaded, is not so well founded as the generality of the doctrines with which it is presented to the public. ' Since human knowledge is so much more extensive than the opportunity of individuals for acquiring it, it becomes of the greatest importance so to economize the opportunity as to make it subservient to the acquisition of as large and as valuable a portion as we can. It is not enough to show that a given branch of education is useful : you must show that it is the most useful that can be selected. Remembering this, I think it would be expedient to dispense with the formal study of English grammar, a proposition which I doubt not many a teacher will hear with wonder and disapprobation. We learn the grammar in order that we may learn English ; and we learn English whether we study grammars or not. Espe- cially we shall acquire a competent knowledge of our own language, if other departments of our education were improved." 17. " A boy learns more English grammar by joining in an hour's conversation with educated people, than in poring for an hour over Murray or Home Tooke. CHAP. VIII.] GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 81 If he is accustomed to such society and to the perusal of well-written hooks, he will learn English grammar, though he nc\ word al>out syntax ; and if he i> H'.T :;e.-n>rnmed to such society and such reading, the ' grammar honks ' at a r boarding-school will not teach it. Men loam their own language by habit, and not by rata : ami this is just what we might expect ; for the grammar of a language is itself formed from the prevalent habits of speech and writing. A compiler of grammar thv thoe habits, and then makes his rules : but if a person is hiniM-lf familiar with the habits, why study the rules? I say nothing of grammar as a general science; because, although the philosophy of language be a valuable branch of human knowledge, it were idle to expect that school-boys should under- stand it. The objection is, to the system of attempting to teach children formally that which they will learn practically without teaching." JONATHAN UYMOND : Essay* nn Mnntlity.y. \ !.">. Iv This opinion, proceeding from a man who has written upon human affairs with o much ability and practical good sense, is perhaps entitled to as much respect as any that has ever been urged against the study in question. And so far as the Objection bears upon those defective methods of instruction which experience has shown to be inefficient, or of little use, I am in no wise concerned to remove it. The reader of this treatise will find their faults not only admitted, but to a great extent purpo- d : while an attempt is here made, as well as in mv earlier grammars, to introduce a method which it is hoped will better reach the end proposed. Hut it may easily ! : that thisauthor's proportion to dispense with the formal rhsfa '.rrammar is founded upon an untenable assumption. "Whatever may I Mirer habr- -h, which the young naturally ac M of faulty sentences from the pen of this very able writer him- here can be no mistake in the opinion, that in exact proportion a? T :imiar are unknown or ne-leeted in any country, will corruptions and improprieties of Ian. -in-iv multiplied. The " general science" of gram- mar, or the philosophy of language,'* the author seeius to exempt, and in some sort to commend ; and at the same time \\\< proposition of exclusion i> applied not M-hool-grammars. but a fnrtinri to this science, under the notion that I 'nit why should any principle of irrammar be account of the extent of its application? Will a boy pre- tend that lie r.-muMt understand a rule of English grammar, because he i< v>id that i* !' '' :i " ' :m j Ancient etymologies, and other facts in literary ing upon the cn-ditof him who states them : but irrammar are to the learner the easiest and th- most im- portant principles of the Ami I know of nothing ! the true phii, -<.|,!iyof gu.-o.:.'. which, by ]. roper definitions and examples, may not be mi -lli- M" MM principle.- of most other M-iences. The dihVulry of iii'jr youth in any thing that pertain^ to laniruaire. lies not so much in'the ct that its philosophy their rompreh,'n>i.,n. a> in our own i-imrance of n.jiiiry : in the -rear multiplicity of verbal signs; the frequent contrariety of practice; the in;id.-,|uacv of memory; tiie invi vracy of ill habi> ; and th- little interest that is felt when WO speak m'erely of v. .natical >tudy of our Luigr, ; rly and strongly recommended * INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. VIII. by Locke,* and other writers on education, whose character gave additional weight to an opinion which they enforced by the clearest arguments. But either for want of a good grammar, or for lack of teachers skilled in the subject and sensible of its importance, the general neglect so long complained of as a grievous imper- fection in our methods of education, has been but recently and partially obviated. " The attainment of a correct and elegant style," says Dr. Blair, "is an object which demands application and labour. If any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear, or acquire it by the slight perusal of some of our good authors, they will find themselves much disappointed. The many errors, even in point of grammar, the many offences against purity of language, which are committed by writers who are far from being contemptible, demonstrate, that a careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly." Rhetoric, Lect ix, p. 91. 21. "To think justly, to write well, to speak agreeably, are the three great ends of academic instruction. The Universities will excuse me, if I observe, that both are, in one respect or other, defective in these three capital points of education. While in Cambridge the general application is turned altogether on speculative knowledge, with little regard to polite letters, taste, or style ; in Oxford the whole attention is directed towards classical correctness, without any sound foundation laid in severe reasoning and philosophy. In Cambridge and in Oxford, the art of speaking agreeably is so far from being taught, that it is hardly talked or thought of. These defects naturally produce dry unaffecting compositions in the one ; superficial taste and puerile elegance in the other ; ungracious or affected speech in both." DR. BROWN, 1757 : Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 44. 22. "A grammatical study of our own language makes no part of the ordinary method of instruction, which we pass through in our childhood ; and it is very seldom we apply ourselves to it afterward. Yet the want of it will not be effec- tually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever. Much practice in the polite world, and a general acquaintance with the best authors, are good helps ; but alone [they] will hardly be sufficient : We have writers, who have enjoyed these advan- tages in their full extent, and yet cannot be recommended as models of an accurate style. Much less then will, what is commonly called learning, serve the purpose ; that is, a critical knowledge of ancient languages, and much reading of ancient authors : The greatest critic and most able grammarian of the last age, when he came to apply his learning and criticism to an English author, was frequently at a loss in matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own vernacular idiom." DR LOWTH, 1763: Pref.to Gram. p. vi. 23. " To the pupils of our public schools the acquisition of their own language, whenever it is undertaken, is an easy task. For he who is acquainted with several grammars already, finds no difficulty in adding one more to the number. And this, no doubt, is one of the reasons why English engages so small a pro- portion of their time and attention. It is not frequently read, and is still less frequently written. Its supposed facility, however, or some other cause, seems to have drawn upon it such a degree of neglect as certainly cannot be praised. The students in those schools are often distinguished by their compositions in the learned languages, before they can speak or write their own with correctness, elegance, or fluency. A classical scholar too often has his English style to form, * " To Write and Speak correctly, give" a Grace, and .sains a favourable Attention to what one has to say ' And since 'tis English, that an English Gentleman will have constant use of, that is the Language he should chiefly Cultivate, and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his Stile. To speak or write better Latin than English, may make a Man be talk'd of, but he would find it more to his purpose to Express himself well in his own Tongue, that he uses every moment, than to have the vain Commendation of others for a very insignificant quality. This I find universally neglected, and no care taken any where to improve Young Men in their own Language, that they may thoroughly understand and be Masters of it. If any one among us have a faciliiy or purity more than ordinary in his Mother Tongue, it is owing to Chance, or his Genius, or any thing, rather than to his Education or any care of his Teacher. To Min I what English his Pupil spi:;iks or wiitws is below the Dignity of one bred up amongst Greek and Latin, though he have but little of them himself. These are the learned Languages fit only for learned Men to meddle with and teach : English, is the Language of the illiterate Vulgar." Locke, on Education, p. 339; Fourth Ed., London, 1699. CTIAP. mi.] ;RAMMATTCAL STUDY OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 83 when ho should communicate his acquisitions to the world. In some instances it is never formed with success ; and the defects of his expression either deter him from ing before the public at all, or at least counteract in a great d<"_rrce the mfinenee of \\\* work, and bring ridicule upon the author. Surely these evils >r diminished." 1>R. BARROW : AW/y.s* on Education, London, 1S04; Philad.. 1^:,, p. 87. '24. "It is also said that those who know Latin and Greek Generally express with more clearness than those who do not receive a liberal education. It is inured natural that those who cultivate their mental powers, write with more clearnen than the uncultivated individual. The mental cultivation, however, may take place in the mother tongue as well as in Latin or Greek. Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is declared to be superior to that of the modern. I allow this to be the case ; but I do not find that the English style is improved by learning Greek. It is known that literal translations are miserably bad, and yet Smii-jr scholars are taught to translate, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries, those who do not make a peculiar study of their own language, will not improve in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the KriL'li-h languaL" 1 , though they proposed double the salary to the latter ''. Who i- that the Greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquain- vith foreign languages ; or, is it not obvious, on the other hand, that they icm in their mother tongue? " DR. SPURZHEIM : 1 v;-j, p. 107. \vere compiled, which comprised all the words, together with 1 definitions, or the sense each one expresses and conveys to the mind. ra analyzed and cla-s d according to their essence, attributes, and made a rudiment leading to the principles of all thoughts, and teaching by simple examples, the general classification of words and their subdivisions in expressing the various conceptions of the mind. Grammar is then the key to the perfect understanding of languages ; without which we are left to wander all our lives in an intricate labyrinth, without being able to trace back again any part of our way." (..'hn~ - nj on the Teaching of Languages, :ain : " Had it not been for his dictionary and his grammar, which taught him T nf all languages, and the natural subdivision of their com- ponent parts, he might have spent a life as long as Methuselah's, in learning words, without being able to attain to a degree of perfection in any of the languages." lb- p- i-'od, it is not easy to say, to what degree, and in how many different memory and judgement may be improved by an intimate acquaintance with grammar ; which i< therefore, with good reason, made the first and funda- j.art of literary education. 'I . the most elegant scholars, and th i men of business, that have appeared in the world, of whom T need only mention ( \-rsar and Cicero, were not only studious of grammar, rued grammarians."' DR. UKATTM: : M^nil >''/< //. Vol. i, p. 107. .f my work, I havo chosen to be liberal of of composition, but to give thor authority than my own. In commend- .rammar, I do not mean to discountenance that d ntion which in this country is paid to other 1:, but merely to ' carry forward a work of improvement, which, in my opinion, has been \vi n, but not sufneiontly sustained. In consequence of tin- vent, the study of grammar, which was once prosecuted chiefly through the medium of the d rhe proper busings of th<>^' only who were t > ; -ted in Latin and (i reek, is now thought to be an appropriate exercise for children in elementary schools. And the 84 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. Tin. sentiment is now generally admitted, that even those who are afterwards to learn other languages, may best acquire a knowledge of the common principles of speech from the grammar of their vernacular tongue. This opinion appears to be confirmed by that experience which is at once the most satisfactory proof of what is feasible, and the only proper test of what is useful. 27. It must, however, be confessed, that an acquaintance with ancient and foreign literature is absolutely necessary for him who would become a thorough philologist or an accomplished scholar ; and that the Latin language, the source of several of the modern tongues of Europe, being remarkably regular in its inflec- tions and systematic in its construction, is in itself the most complete exemplar of the structure of speech, and the best foundation for the study of grammar in general. But, as the general principles of grammar are common to all languages, and as the only successful method of learning them, is, to commit to memory the definitions and rules which embrace them, it is reasonable to suppose that the language most intelligible to the learner, is the most suitable for the commencement of his grammatical studies. A competent knowledge of English grammar is also in itself a valuable attainment, which is within the easy reach of many young persons whose situation in life debars them from the pursuit of general literature. 28. The attention which has lately been give'n to the culture of the English language, by some who, in the character of critics or lexicographers, have la- boured purposely to improve it, and by many others who, in various branches of knowledge, have tastefully adorned it with the works of their genius, has in a great measure redeemed it from that contempt in which it was formerly held in the halls of learning. But, as I have before suggested, it does not yet appear to be sufficiently attended to in the course of what is called a liberal education. Compared with other languages, the English exhibits both excellences and defects ; but its flexibility, or power of accommodation to the tastes of different writers, is great ; and when it is used with that mastership which belongs to learning and genius, it must be acknowledged there are few, if any, to which it ought on the whole to be considered inferior. But above all, it is our own ; and, whatever we may know or think of other tongues, it can never be either patriotic or wise, for the learned men of the United States or of England to pride themselves chiefly upon them. 29. Our language is worthy to be assiduously studied by all who reside where it is spoken, and who have the means and the opportunity to become critically acquainted with it. To every such student it is vastly more important to be able to speak and write well in English, than to be distinguished for proficiency in the learned languages and yet ignorant of his own. It is certain that many from whom better things might be expected, are found ntiserably deficient in this respect. And their neglect of so desirable an accomplishment is the more remarkable and the more censurable on account of the facility with which those who are acquainted with the ancient languages may attain to excellence in their English style. " What- ever the advantages or defects of the English language be, as it is our own language, it deserves a high degree of our study and attention. * * * Whatever knowledge may be acquired by the study of other languages, it can never be communicated with advantage, unless by such as can write and speak their own language well." DR. BLAIR: Rhetoric, Lect. ix, p. 91. 30. I am not of opinion that it is expedient to press this study to much extent, if at all. on those whom poverty or incapacity may have destined to situations in which they will never hear or think of it afterwards. The course of nature can- not be controlled ; and fortune does not permit us to prescribe the same course of discipline for all. To speak the language which they have learned without study, and to read and write for the most common purposes of life, may be education enough for those who can be raised no higher. But it must be the desire of CHAP. IX.] OP THE BEST METHOD OP TEACHING GRAMMAR. 85 every benevolent and intelligent man, to see the advantages of literary, as \vcll moral culture, extended as far as possible among the people. And it is manir'e-r. that in proportion as the precepts of the divine Redeemer are obeyed by the nations that profess his name, will all distinctions arising merely from the inequality of fortune be lessened or done away, and better opportunities be offered for the children of indigence to adorn themselves with thctreasures of knowledge. 31. We may not be able to effect all that is desirable ; but, favoured as our country is, with great facilities for carrying forward the work of improvement, in every thing which can contribute to national glory and prosperity, I would, in conclusion of . this topic, submit that a critical knowledge of our common language is a subject worthy of the particular attention of all who have the genius and the opportunity to attain it that on the purity and propriety with which American authors write this language, the reputation of our national literature greatly depends that in the preservation of it from all changes which ignorance may admit or affectation invent, we ought to unite as having one common interest that a fixed and settled orthography is of great importance, as a means of pre- serving the. etymology, history, and indentity of words that a grammar freed from errors and defects, and embracing a complete code of definitions and illustrations, rules and exercises, is of primary importance to every student and a great aid to teachers that as the vices of speech as well as of manners are contagious, it becomes those who have the care of youth, to be masters of the language in its purity and elegance, and to avoid as much as possible everything that is reprehen- sible either in thought or expression. CHAPTER IX. OF THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. " Quomo.ln .lift-runt grammaticus et grammatista ? Grammaticus eat qui diligenter, aouU-, sclenterque posait f 'li'.-v -.ctpoctasenarrarc : Mnn lin-ratus dici cui abusus pro < is Lutinaui dat etymologiam, Dtol'AUIEK. %H/. fol. 1. , , "f 'li'.-v -.ctpoctasenarrarc : Mnn lin-ratus dicitur. Grammatista est qui barbaris litoris ol. sin-pit, , et totus hi uugis eat: Latino dicitur literator." 1 . It is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear conviction of the best method of doini: a ihirig. who shall not first have acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done. Arts must be taught by artists ; sciences, by learned men ; and, if Grammar is the science of words, the art of writing and speaking well, the best speakers and writers will be the best tra-her< i.f it, if they ehoose to direct their attention to so humble an employment. For, without disparagement of the many worthy men whom choice or necessity has made schoolmasters, it may !* admitted that the low estimation in which school- keeping is commonly held, does mostly exclude from it the first order of talents, and the highest acquirements of scholarship. It is one strong proof of this, that we have heretofore been content tn receive mir digests of English grammar, either from men who had had no practical experience in the labours of a school-room, or from miserable mndilii-rs and al.ridgers, destitute alike of learning and of industry, of judgement and of skill. '2. But, to have a correct and adequate notion of English grammar, and of the be>t method of learning r teaching it, is no light attainment. The critical knowledge of this subject lies in no narrow circle of observation ; nor are there any precise limits to possible improvement. The simple definition in which the 86 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IX. general idea of the art is embraced, " Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly," however useful in order to fix the learner's conception, can scarcely give him a better knowledge of the thing itself, than he would have of the art of painting, when he had learned from Dr. Webster, that it is " the art of repre- senting to the eye, by means of figures and colors, any object of sight, and some- times emotions of the mind." The first would no more enable him to write a sonnet, than the second, to take his master's likeness. The force of this remark extends to all the technical divisions, definitions, rules, and arrangements of grammar ; the learner may commit them all to memory, and know but very little about the art. 3. This fact, too frequently illustrated in practice, has been made the basis of the strongest argument ever raised against the study of grammar ; and has been particularly urged against the ordinary technical method of teaching it, as if the whole of that laborious process were useless. It has led some men, even of the highest talents, to doubt the expediency of that method, under any circumstances, and either to discountenance the whole matter, or to invent other schemes by which they hoped to be more successful. The utter futility of the old accidence has been inferred from it, and urged, even in some well-written books, with all the plausibility of a fair and legitimate deduction. The hardships of children, compelled to learn what they did not understand, have been bewailed in prefaces and reviews ; incredible things boasted by literary jugglers, have been believed by men of sense ; and the sympathies of nature, with accumulated prejudices, have been excited against that method of teaching grammar, which after all will be found in expe- rience to be at once the easiest, the shortest, and the best. I mean, essentially, the ancient positive method, which aims directly at the inculcation of principles. 4. It has been already admitted, that definitions and rules committed to memory and not reduced to practice, will never enable any one to speak and write correctly. But it does not follow, that to study grammar by learning its principles, or to teach it technically by formal lessons, is of no real utility. Surely not. For the same admission must be made with respect to the definitions and rules of every practical science in the world ; and the technology of grammar is even more essential to a true knowledge of the subject, than that of almost any other art. " To proceed upon principles at first," says Dr. Barrow, " is the most compendious method of attaining every branch of knowledge ; and the truths impressed upon the mind in the years of childhood, are ever afterwards the most firmly remembered, and the most readily applied." Essays, p. 84. Reading, as I have said, is a part of grammar ; and it is a part which must of course precede what is commonly called in the schools the study of grammar. Any person who can read, can learn from a book such simple facts as are within his comprehension and we have it on the authority of Dr. Adam, that, " The principles of grammar are the first abstract truths which a young mind can comprehend." Pref. to Lot. Gram, p 4. 5. It is manifest, that, with respect to this branch of knowledge, the duties of the teacher will vary considerably, according to the age and attainments of his pupils, or according to each student's ability or inclination to profit by his printed guide. The business lies partly between the master and his scholar, and partly between the boy and his book. Among these it may be partitioned variously, and of course unwisely ; for no general rule can precisely determine for all occasions what may be expected from each. The deficiencies of any one of the three must either be supplied by the extraordinary readiness of an other, or the attainment of the purpose be proportionably imperfect. What one fails to do, must either be done by an other, or left undone. After much observation, it seems to me, that the most proper mode of treating this science in schools, is, to throw the labour of its acquisition almost entirely upon the students ; to require from them very accurate rehearsals as the only condition on which they shall be listened to ; and to refer them to their books for the information which they need, and in general for the CHAP. IX.] OP TIIE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 87 solution of all their doubts. But then the teacher must see that he does not set them to iiT'-pi- their way through a wilderness of absurdities, lit- must know that they have a hook, which not only contains the requisite information, but arranin B it so that every item of it may be readily found. That knowledge may n .:- -.nably be required at their recitations, which culpable negligence alone could have prevented them from obtaining. 6. Most grammars, and especially those which are designed for the senior class of students, to whom a well-written book is a sufficient instructor, contain a large proportion of matter which is merely to be read by the learner. This is commonly distinguished in type from those more important doctrines which constitute the frame of the edifice. It is expected that the latter will receive a greater degree of attention. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever afterwards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smoothe the way, and facilitate the labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal expe- rience. Nor will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult ; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory and strengthen all the faculties of the mind. 7. The objection drawn from the alleged inefficiency of this method, lies solely against the practice of those teachers who disjoin the principles and the exercises of the art ; and who, either through ignorance or negligence, impose only such tasks as leave the pupil to suppose, that the committing to memory of definitions and rules, constitutes the whole business of grammar.* Such a method is no less* absurd in itself, than contrary to the practice of the best teachers from the very origin of the study. The epistle prefixed to King Henry's Grammar almost three centuries ago, and the very sensible preface to the old British Grammar, an octavo reprinted at Boston in 17x4, give evidence enough that a better method of teaching has long been known. Nay, in my opinion, the very best method cannot be essentially different from that which lias been longest in use, and is probably most known. But there is everywhere ample room for improvement. Perfection was never attained by the most learned of our ancestors, nor is it found in any of our schemes. English grammar can be better taught than it is now, or ever has been. Better scholarship would naturally produce this improvement, and it is easy to suppose a race of teachers more erudite and more zealous, than either we or they* 8. Where invention and discovery are precluded, there is little room for novelty. I have not laboured to introduce a system of grammar essentially new, but to im- prove the old and free it from abuses. The mode of instruction here recommended Ls the result of long and Mn-.-e^l'ul experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis ; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other A late author. in upr.KM/imr fur his choiro in nublMiinjr a trrammar without forms of praxis, (that is. without any provision for a Kal ; . ijilrs b\ tin- lian.rr.) il.-.-cri) i-s the wlnl' n of tin- .U^io-a' ( .f a tViv j.ar'.- ' be only ' a finical .mar, .-ij)|ili( il iii any way to practice, could not fail .mug in _ unking this Miprr.-. .Ie > mem Of tli. > as.~ Tie. I in l':irk!iurflt ! !i the d.ilil a definition at tlu> out-et. i-= bei:ini.iiv_'at the ttn ->i;if. li with rc<| e<-r to nil rlia' px> under the name of c'\iiiol.i.'v in -niiiunai-. ir i- learned chiefly by practice in parsing, and scarcely at all by the aid of definitions.' 1 1'nfnce, pp. Sand 6. 88 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IX. more rational or more easy. This book itself will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practice what it teaches ; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest means of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. A hope is also indulged, that this work will be particularly useful to many who have passed the ordinary period allotted to education. Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And per- haps there are few, however learned, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 9. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantlj remember that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well ; an art which can no more be acquired without practice, than that of dancing or swimming And each should ever be careful to perform his part handsomely without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and the system will be found well calculated to effect that object ; because it demands of him, not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, and have learned the art of attention, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much and in general he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; give the word to the next when any one errs ; and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradu- ally correct the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 10. Without oral instruction and oral exercises, a correct habit of speaking our language can never be acquired ; but written rules, and exercises in writing, are perhaps quite as necessary, for the formation of a good style. All these should therefore be combined in our course of English grammar. And, in order to accomplish two objects at once, the written doctrines, or the definitions and rules of grammar, should statedly be made the subject of a critical exercise in utter- ance ; so that the boy who is parsing a word, or correcting a sentence, in the hearing of others, may impressively realize, that he is then and there exhibiting his own skill or deficiency in oral discourse. Perfect forms of parsing and correcting should be given him as models, with the understanding that the text before him is his only guide to their right application. It should be shown, that in parsing any particular word, or part of speech, there are just so many things to be said of it, and no more, and that these are to be said in the best manner : so that whoever tells fewer, omits something requisite ; whoever says more, inserts something irrelevant ; and whoever proceeds otherwise, either blunders in point of fact, or impairs the beauty of the given expression. I rely not upon what are called "Parsing Tables" but upon the precise forms of expression which are given in the book for the parsing of the several sorts of words. Because the questions, or abstract directions, which constitute the common parsing tables, are less intelligible to the learner than a practical example ; and more time must needs be consumed on them, in order to impress upon his memory the number and the sequence of the facts to be stated. 11. If a pupil happen to be naturally timid, there should certainly be no aus- terity of manner to embarrass his diffidence ; for no one can speak well, who feels afraid. But a far more common impediment to the true use of speech, is carelessness. CHAP. IX.] OF THE BEST METHOD OP TEACHING GRAMMAR. 89 He who speaks before a school, in an exercise of this kind, should be made to feel that he is bound by every consideration of Aspect for himself, or for those who hear him, to proceed with his explanation or rehearsal, in a ready, clear, and intel- ligible manner. It should be strongly impressed upon him, that the grand object of the whole business, is his own practical improvement ; that a habit of speaking clearly and agreeably, is itself one half of the great art of grammar ; that to be slow and awkward in parsing, is unpardonable negligence, and a culpable waste of time ; that to commit blunders in rehearsing grammar, is to .-peak i ;:lijjht manner in which the c. ; .*o a drunken man can run. though he cannot walk or stand still." Gardiner's Music of \aturr, p. 30. " To think rifrhtly, is of knowledfre : to speak fluently, is of nature ; To read with profit, is of care ; but to write aptlv, is of practice." Book of Thoughts, p. 140. t " There i* nothing more becoming [to] a Grntlnnnn. or more useful in all the occurrences of life, than to be able, (.n n:u oeearioo, to speak well, and to tin- pnrpOM." lodt*, n E'/i/rntinn, ( 171 " !'' think I in many, who live upon tli. h the n.-mi< . dhoal 1 ' ' : much -Iv and perMi-isivHy in any business. Thi* I think not to be FO much their f ':.* of their edii.'.ri n Tli.-y have be. bat yet never teaght how to expresa them*elv< floiuely with their cMi-.-ue- o r p.-n in t '' ..y are al\\:i - if the namM Of the flgOM that (mi -'ios who uii in:, were the very rt and skill of peaking but bit K.\ rnth.fr P \TTF.RNS, //// hnlit* nr, ;.',;/. nn-': J 189. The for orrecting which the following woi "patt'rnt." fur the per;""rn::in< e "f thee pnn ' -ught to be implicitly followed, by every one who means to be a ready and correct speaker on the&e subjects. - 90 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. published by earlier writers, are chargeable ; adapting the code of instruction to the present state of English literature, without giving countenance to any innova- tion not sanctioned by reputable use ; labouring at once to extend and to facilitate the study, without forgetting the proper limits of the science, or debasing its style by puerilities. 14. These general views, it is hoped, will be found to have been steadily adhered to throughout the following work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has not laboured to sub- vert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. That which is excellent, may not be perfect ; and amendment may be desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known; and has content- ed himself with attempting little more than to supply the deficiencies of the sys- tem, and to free it from the reproach of being itself ungrammatical. This indeed was task enough ; for, to him, all the performances of his predecessors seemed meagre and greatly deficient, compared with what he thought needful to be done. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines anew ; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. 15. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the objects above referred to, might be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself, that, however this work may yet fall short of possible completeness, the improvements here offered are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean to conceal in any degree his obligations to others, or to indulge in censure without discrimination. He has no disposition to depreciate the labours, or to detract from the merits, of those wl have written ably upon this topic. He has studiously endeavoured to avail hii self of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. With a view to furth( improvements in the science, he has also resorted to the original sources of grami ical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has seen or heard our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some diligence the analogies of speec in the structure of several other languages. If, therefore, the work now furnishec be thought worthy of preference, as exhibiting the best method of teaching grai mar ; he trusts it will be because it deviates least from sound doctrine, while, b] fair criticism upon others, it best supplies the means of choosing judiciously. 16. Of all methods of teaching grammar, that which has come nearest to wl is recommended above, has doubtless been the most successful ; and whatev( objections may have been raised against it, it will probably be found on examine tion to be the most analogous to nature. It is analytic in respect to the doctrines of grammar, synthetic in respect to the practice, and logical in respect to both. It assumes the language as an object which the learner is capable of conceiving to be one whole ; begins with the classification of all its words, according to certain grand differences which make the several parts of speech ; then proceeds to divide further, according to specific differences and 'qualities, till all the classes, properties, and relations, of the words in any intelligible sentence, become obvious and determinate : and he to whom these things are known, so that he can see at a glance what is the construction of each word, and whether it is right or not, is a good grammarian. The disposition of the human mind to generalize the objects of thought, and to follow broad analogies in the use of words, discovers itself early, and seems to be an inherent principle of our nature. Hence, in the language of CHAP. IX.] OP THE LEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 91 children and illi; ';>le, many words are regularly inflected even in opposi- tion to the most common u- 17. It has unfortunately become fashionable to inveigh against the necessary lab-air of learning by heart the essential principle* df grammar, MS a u-c]<- and intolerable drudgery. And this notion, with the vain hope of effecting the same purpose in an easier way, is giving countenance to modes of teaching well calcu- lated to make superficial scholars. When those principles are properly defined, dis|io>ed. and exemplified, the labour of learning them is far less than has been i ; and the habits of application induced by such a method of studying grammar, are of the utmost importance to the learner. Experience shows, that -k may be achieved during the years of childhood ; and that, by an early habit of study, the memory is so improved, as to render those exercises easy and familiar, which, at a later period, would be found very difficult and irksome. his plan, and perhaps upon every other, some words will be learned before the id- nted by them are fully comprehended, or the things spoken of are fully understood. But this seems necessarily to arise from the order of nature in the development of the mental faculties; and an acquisition cannot be lightly .-d, which has signally augmented and improved that faculty on which the pupil's future progress in knowledge depends. The memory, indeed, should never be cultivated at the expense of the understand; when the former is tasked with ill-devised lessons by which the latter is misled and bewildered. But truth, whether fully conipre- i or not, has no perplexing inconsistencies. And it is manifest that that which does not in some respect surpass the understanding, can never enlighten it can never awaken the spirit of inquiry or satisfy research. How often have men of ob.-ervation profited by the remembrance of words which, at the time they heard them, they did not " prrfi-rtly understand! " We never study anything of which we imagine our knowledge to be perfect. To learn, and, to understand, are, with respect to any science or art, one and the same thing. With respect to difficult or unintelligible phraseology alone, are they different. He who by study has oncfe stored his memory with the sound and appropriate language of any important doctrine, can never, without some folly or conceit akin to madness, repent of the acquisition. Milton, in his academy, professed to teach tilings rather than words; and many others have made plausible profession of the same thing But it does not appear, that even in the hands of Milton, the attempt was crowned with any remarkable success. See Dr. Barrow's Essays, p. 85. l^. The vain pretensions of several modern simplifiers, contrivers <>f machines, charts, tallies, diagrams, vincula, pictures, dialogues, familiar lectures, ocular : ular compendium*, inductive exercises, productive systems, intellect- ual methods, and various new theories, for the purpose of teaching grammar, may the ignorant, to amuse the visionary, and to excite (lie admiration of the <-n-dulous ; but none ,,f these things has any favourable relation to that improvement which may justly be boasted as having taken phu-e within the memory of the present generation. The definitions and rules which constitute the doctrines of grammar, may he variously expressed, arranged, illustrated, and applied ; and in the expre>Mon, arrangement, illustration, and application of them, lie amendment ; but no contrivance can ever relieve the pupil from the ni-.-i-->ity of committing them thoroughly to memory. The expe- "f all antiquity isadded to our own, in confirmation of this ; and the judicious teacher, though he will not shut his eyes to a real improvement. iriU 1 6 Cautious of renouncing the practical lessons of hoary experience, for the futile notions of a vain projector. -0. Some have been beguiled with the idea, that great proficiency in grammar was to be made by means of a certain fanciful method of inunction. But if the scheme does not communicate to those who are instructed by it, a better knowledge 92 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IX. of grammar than the contrivers themselves seem to have possessed, it will be found of little use.* By the happy method of Bacon, to lead philosophy into the common walks of life, into the ordinary business and language of men, is to improve the condition of humanity ; but, in teaching grammar, to desert the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis, and pretend to lead children by philosophic induction into a knowledge of words, is to throw down the ladder of learning, that boys may imagine themselves to ascend it, while they are merely stilting over the low level upon which its fragments are cast. 21. The chief argument of these inductive grammarians is founded on the prin- ciple, that children cannot be instructed by means of any words which they do nofc perfectly understand. If this principle were strictly true, children could never be instructed by words at all. For no child ever fully understands a word the first time he hears or sees it ; and it is rather by frequent repetition and use, than by any other process, that the meaning of words is commonly learned. Hence most people make use of many terms which they cannot very accurately explain, just as they do of many things, the real nature of which they do not comprehend. The first perception we have of any word, or other thing, when presented to the ear or the eye, gives us some knowledge of it. So to the signs of thought, as older persons use them, we soon attach some notion of what is meant ; and the difference between this knowledge, and that which we call an understanding of the word or thing, is, for the most part, only in degree. Definitions and explanations are doubtless highly useful, but induction is not definition, and an understanding of words may be acquired without either ; else no man could ever have made a dictionary. But, granting the principle to be true, it makes nothing for this puerile method of induc- tion ; because the regular process by definitions and examples is both shorter and easier, as well as more effectual. In a word, this whole scheme of inductive grammar is nothing else than a series of leading questions and manufactured answers ; the former being generally as unfair as the latter are silly. It is a remarkable tissue of ill-laid premises and of forced illogical sequences. 22. Of a similar character is a certain work, entitled, " English Grammar on the Productive System : a method of instruction recently adopted in Germany anc Switzerland." It is a work which certainly will be "productive " of no good any body but the author and his publishers. The book is as destitute of taste, of method; of authority, as of originality. It commences with "the indvctii process," and after forty pages of such matter as is described above, becomes "productive system," by means of a misnamed " RECAPITULATION ; " which jumble together the etymology and the syntax of the language, through seventy-six pages more. It is then made still more "productive" by the appropriation of a like space to a reprint of Murray's Syntax and Exercises, under the inapproprir*" title, "GENERAL OBSERVATIONS." To Prosody, including punctuation and t use of capitals, there are allotted six pages, at the end ; and to Orthography, foi lines, in the middle of the volume ! (See. p. 41.) It is but just, to regard the titl of this book, as being at once a libel and a lie ; a libel upon the learning and gooi sense of Woodbridge ;f and a practical lie, as conveying a false notion of the origii of what the volume contains. 23. What there is in Germany or Switzerland, that bears any resemblance this misnamed system of English Grammar, remains to be shown. It would be prodigal of the reader's time, and inconsistent with the studied brevity of this work, to expose the fallacy of what is pretended in regard to the origin of this new method, Suffice it to say, that the anonymous and questionable account of the " Productive * The principal claimants of " the Inductire Method " of Grammar, are Richard W. Green, Roswell C. Smith, John L. Parkhurst, Dyer H. Sanborn, Bradford Frazee, and Solomon Barrett, Jr. ; a set of writers, differing indeed iu their qualifications, but in general not a little deficient in what constitutes an accurate t William C. Woodbridge edited the Journal, and probably wrote the article, from which the author of " English Grammar on the Productive System " took his " Preface." CHAP. IX.] OP THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 93 System of Instruction," which the author has borrowed from a " valuable periodical,'* to save himself the trouble of writing a preface, and, as he says, to " assist [the reader] in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of the system" is not onlv destitute of all authority, but is totally irrelevant, except to the whimsical nn me of his book. If every word of it be true, it is insufficient to give us even :t-on to suppose, that any thing analogous to his production ever had nee in either of those countries; and yet it is set forth on purpose to convey the idea that such a system " nmr jti-i'dnmimiti-s " in the schools of both. (See Pref. p. 5.) The infidel Neef, whose new method of education has been tried in our country, and with its promulgator forgot, was an accredited disciple of this productive school ;" a zealous coadjutor with Pestalozzi himself, from - halls lie emanated to "teach the offspring of a free people" to teach them the nature of tilings sensible, and a contempt for all the wisdom of books. And whnt similarity is there between his method of teaching and that of Roswell Q. '". except their pretence to a common parentage, and that both are worthless? '1\. The success of Smith's Inductive and Productive Grammars, and the fame perhaps of a certain " Grammar in Familiar Lectures," produced in 1-SM a rival work from the hands of a gentleman in New Hampshire, entitled, " An Analytical Grammar of the English Language, embracing the Inductive and Productive '.uls of Ti<-Iti)Kj, with Fiiniilitir Er/,l,i,ii(t!oits in the Lecture Style" &c. This is a fair-looking duodecimo volume of three hundred pages, the character and pretensions of which, if they could bo clearly stated, would throw further light up'n the two fallacious schemes of teaching mentioned above. For the writer says, " Thi- grammar pi botn the In>lnctir<> and Product', ,-, methods of imparting instruction, of which much has been said within a few years past" >. p. iv. And again : " The inductive and productive methods of instruo- itain the essence of modern improvements." Gram. p. 139. In what D improvements con>ist. he does not inform us; but, it will be seen, n he himself claims the rojti/rit/bt of ft/I the improvements which he allows to / since the appearance of Murray in 1795. More than two hundred pretenders to such improvements, appear however within the time ; nor is the grammarian of lIoidtraTe the least positive of the claimants. This new purveyor for the public taste. dislikes the catering of his predecessor, who poached l^lds of .Murray ; and, with a tacit censure upon his productions, has honestly bou/lit nie raivties which he has served up. In this he has the advantage. He tier writer ton than some who make grammars; though no adept at compo- .ud a total stranirer to method. To call his work a " $i/sf<-//t," is a palpable mi-iioi: ! what it is, an impossibility. It is a grammatical chaos, heaiing dilance to Smith's or Kirkham's as one mass of confusion naturally i an oth<-r, yet di tiering from both in almost every thing that looks like in any of the three. J."). Tli" claimant of the combination says, " this new system of English gram- >. the public, embruees tin- principles of a ' Systematic Introduction mar,' by Ji-lm L. I'arkhur-t : and \\\v prwnt "-?i')>>i rinlil of 1'arkhurst's Grammar ha- ! '>! purchased by the writer of this, who alone is responsible for the present application of its Parkhi induction to English tJrammar has through two editions, and i- improved system of Knglish grammar fcl ton- the publi-- boon published, some in En pi ami, some in America, and Bonn mtrirs: and amon^r ilu-c v- !: re. I think, a few in which a little improvement has In most, however, nothing of thr kin-l ''. pie. the seven paj;> more than one '. n paragi a man Form : rosed in tin- ] < ir;i'_T;ip!i above: while HUTS] "-. and .Tinted. In lieu of forms of expi r protirabh tai an experienced . for the ignorant pupil to toul btins Lord B ' aJ.tr f B you in rh.- of t-i - are the models fun vi could not fully c \ I'rii'-tir.-il Grammar of the I!; dish Lan- pp. 4'J to 57. I rannot consent to nuota ;i : 4'.- contain. Yet the author is d, m\ soul! -: i - >. Of tin- 1 to, ! must r i "7. The itnper- 'nd has no >i. author should !>.' . found in the e, several it. ^t inuc M, flu ' ,,',. :r: 1 other ;-.te autu-.rs 96 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IX. the parts of speech, ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them become perfectly familiar ; and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what alone will be true for the full description of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits ; and, on account of this omis- sion, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably deficient.* 31. Secondly from his syntactical parsing : " Vice degrades us." Here his form for the word Vice is " Vice is a common substantive, of the third person, in Hie singular number, and the nominative case." Mur. Gram. 8vo, ii, p. 9. Now, when the learner is told that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, that to advance from the ety- mology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely, to omit the gender this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then ? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological? Never. But Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves making, or pretending to make, a necessary distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said ** Vice is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case : and is the subject of degrades; according to the rule which says, ' A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is vice degrades" This is the whole description of the word, with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 82. Thirdly from his " Mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences : " Take his first example: "The man is prudent which speaks little." (How far silence is prudence, depends upon circumstances : I waive that question.) The learner is here taught to say, " This sentence is incorrect ; because which is a pro- nSaS- *0f Dr. Bullions's forms of parsing, as exhibited in his English Grammar, which is a modification of Die's Grammar, it is difficult to say, whether they are most remarkable for their deficiencies, their redui cies, or their contrariety to other teachings of the same author or authors. Both Lennie and Bullions adopt the rule, that, " An ellipsis is not nUowab'f when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended witli an impropriety." L. p. 91 ; B. p. 130. And the latter strengthens this doctrine with several additional observations, the first of which reads thus: " In general, no word shonld br oinittul that is nei sary to the full and correct construction, or even harmony of a sentence." Bullions, E. Gr. 130. Now parsing above alluded to, has been thought particularly commendable for its brevity a quality certai desirable, so far as it consists with the end of parsing, or with the more needful properties of a good sty clearness, accuracy, ease, and elegance. But, if the foregoing rule and observation are true, the models fu Dished by these writers are not commendably brief, but miserably defective. Their brevity is, in fact, sue as renders them all bad Eitx/ish : and not only so, it makes them obviously inadequate to their purpose, as bringing into use but a part of the principles which the learner has studied. It consists only in the omission of what ought, to have been inserted. For example, this short line, "/ lean H/KHI tin Lorrf," ia parsed by both of these gentlemen thus: "I, the first personal pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, tin nomina- tive lean, a verb, -m ut/r, first person singular, present, indicative upon, a .proposition ////, an article, the definite Lord, a noun, masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by i(pon.)"--J^ nun';- /';////// /, \ o /'Eng- lish Grain, p. 51 ; Bullions's, 74. This is a little sample of their etymological parsing, in which exercise they generally omit nor, only all the definitions or " reasons " of the various terms applied, bur also all the following particulars : first, the verb is, and certain definitives and connerlin-s, which are '' necessary to the full and correct construction " of their sentences ; secondly, the distinction of nouns as proper or common; thirdly, the />erxon of n r. and case, which are and construction of certain words used ; fifthly, the distinction of adjectives as belonging to iHJ/'trtiit. classes; sixthly, the division of verbs as being r^n/nror imi>;iilar, rrrfimdaiit or r/,f : seventh- ly, sometimes, (Lennie excepted.) the division of verbs as n/th-e, pasxire, or neuter; eighthly, the words mood and tense, which Bullions, on page 131. pronounces " quite unnecessary," and inserts in his own formule on page 132 ; ninMih , the distinction of adverbs as expressing tim> , /i/m-f, degree, or wanner ; tenthly. the ri-tino- hstly, the distinction of interjections as indicating emotions. All these things does their completest specimen of etymological parsing lack, while it i< urossly en- cumbered \vi;h parentheses of syntax, which "///.sV I," <,iitt/d till the pupil got thv ndf* of syn;ax " /.untie., p. ;"1. It is also vitiated with several absurdities, contradictions, and improper changes of expression: as, "7/ ; .s, the tl,lfil -,1111111 : (B. ]>. &{ :) tin . tin first p> rsoiial pro/ionn ; "' ( Id. 74 :) " .!. The in- definite article ;" ( /'/. 13;) "c/, an article, the 'indefinite : ''(Id. 74:)" \Vhen the * t* passive, parse thus: xtive, in the p,i>~ive voice, regular, irregular J c." Bid.Ho/is, p. 131. In stead of leaching sufficiently, as elements of etymological paring, the definitions which belong to this exercise, and then dismissing them for the prim- \. Dr. Bullions enemnhers hi- method of syntactical parsing with sue;, ;i series of ety- mologic;! urera a-- e.-umot. but, make it one of the slowest, longes;, amd most tiresome ever invented, lie thinks that the pupil, after parsing any word syntactically, " M d to axxi'xn a 'i:i>ii it/.''- Pr/ni pi s nf't''. (1 raiiiniar. p 131. And the teacher fa Juch i- tin- p.ir-ing of a text-book which has ln-en pronounced ' superior to any other, for vise in our common schools ; ' ' a ct>mj>li t, grammar of the 1 I ncaiLa- ble for eviry purpose, for which Mr. Brown's can possibly be used. ;! Ralph A. Finch's LLtport, p. 12. CUM'. IX.] OP THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 97 noun f f/,r nnitcr vender, an>f t/or$ not agree in gender with its antecedent man, whirl) is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its 'antecedent in gender, &c. :i to the fifth rule of syntax. Wln'rh should therefore be -ic/to, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man ; and the sentence ,-hould stand t!i , - ::ian is prudent >//<'/ speaks little.' " Murray's (Jrfaro Gram. ii, p. l x ; A'./v/Wv.s, I'Jmo, p. xii. Again: "'After 1 visited Kurope, 1 re- tunu'd t-i America.' This sentence," says Murray, " is not cornH ; U cause the verl in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned, to which it re- K\ the thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense >iild therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing th- action of riaiting, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of returning. Tin orrected would stand tl>us :\ "After I had visited Europe, I returned to AiiM : ; < ..' " Or. ii, p. 19 ; and A'.r. r2mo, p. xii. These are the first two ex- amples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, in his iinjiron jnj- righted edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is ..ntation palpably raise ! In the former, truly, which should be who; but not because ir/ii'c/t is " of the neuter gender ; " but because the application of that rcla" is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use which, and never i; ir if H'/iirh muvt needs he iH'i't^r, the world is wrong in this. As for the i uple, it is right as it stands: and the correction is, in some sort, tautological. The conjunctive adverb ai't<-r makes one of the actions subsequent >'/('/ all the priority that is signified by the plu- -ited Europe," is equivalent to " When I had visited The whole argument is therefore void.* These few brief illustrations, out of thousands that might be adduced in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly intro- duced. to vhow that even in the most popular books, with all the pretended ira- revisers, the grammar of our language has never been treated with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be supposed that men unu>ed to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in re tmmar, the consciousness of failure is constantly inducing changes from one system to an other, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as nd in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve *'!'!: 1>ci Irs Murriv ati.l Al^or, who ?of>m not to have observed the Importof I ir. I5uilii.il--. on P.-IL:.' l:i:trh of hi-; Ki,_ I the 1 William Harvey Wells, i.ove cited. :nis thus : In "''< u,ti . ' <, we : thus, in- stead of 8o we BC I he 1C." ioiw, vbe un iifttr J_A'ni-/H'/ the letter."" soon aj't:r i: f 98 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. IX. themselves to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require. 34. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may express them with neatness and perspicuity their importance alone can commend them to notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples have been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following pages. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is especially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intellectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculca- tion of any principle which may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they instruct. In preparing this treatise for publication,* the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader ; and of the several thousands of quotations introduced for the illustration or application of the principles of the science, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the senti- ments they contain. 35. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality which are to be com- mended in works of this sort. What these are, according to his view, he has sufficiently explained in a preceding chapter. And, though he has taken the liberty of a grammarian, to think for himself and write in a style of his own, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language. In criticising the critics and grammatists of the schools, he has taken them upon their own ground showing their errors, for the most part, in contrast with the common principles which they themselves have taught ; and has hoped to escape censure, in his turn, not by sheltering himself under the name of a popular master, but by a diligence which should secure to his writings at least the humble merit of self-consistency. His progress in composing this work has been slow, and not unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarie- ties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate object the production of a work which should show, both extensively and accurately, what is, and what is not, good English. 36. The great art of meritorious authorship lies chiefly in the condensation of much valuable thought into few words. Although the author has here allowed himself ampler room than before, he has still been no less careful to store it with such information as he trusted would prevent the ingenious reader from wishing its compass less. He has compressed into this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials in comparison with which the book is still exceedingly small. The effort to do this, has greatly multiplied his own labour and long delayed the promised publication ; but in proportion as this object has been reached, the time and patience of the student must have been saved. Adequate compensation for this long toil, has never been expected. Whether from this performance any profit shall accrue to the author or not, is a matter of little consequence ; he has neither written for bread, nor on the credit of its proceeds built castles in the air. His ambition was, to make an acceptable book, by which the higher class of stu- dents might be thoroughly instructed, and in which the eyes of the critical would find little to condemn. He is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge in any confident anticipa- CHAP. X.] OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 99 tions of extraordinary success : yet he will not deny that his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot feardisappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of these pages. 37. A grammar should speak for itself. In a work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet if some small errors shall have escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to compose and print, with perfect accuracy, a work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness sometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject ; but there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason alluring. "Quo difiicilius, hoc prseclarius," says Cicero; "The more difficult, the more honourable." The merit of casting up a high-way in a rugged land, is proportionate not merely to the utility of the achievement, but to the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an asssiduity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. CHAPTER X. OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. " Foientiam autem nupquam ease censebant, nisi in animi motionibus atque rationibus: qua de causi dfftnitiones rerum probabant, et haa ad omnia, de quibus disceptabatur, adhibebant." CICERONIS Aea- demica, Lib. i, 9. _^^ 1. " The first and highest philosophy," says Puffendorf, " is that which delivers the most accurate and comprehensive definitions of things." Had all the writers on English grammar IM-CH adepts in this philosophy, there would have been much k-s complaint of the difficulty and uncertainty of the study. " It Murray, "to advance plausible objections against almost every definition, rule, and arrangement of grammar." Gram. 8vo, p. 59. But, if this i-s true, as regards his, or any other work, the reason, I am persuaded, is far less inherent in the nature of the subject than many have supposed.* Objection- able definitions and rules are but evidences of the ignorance and incapacity of him Samuel Kirk ham, whose grammar is briefly described in the third chapter of this introduction, boldlj lays th<- blaiiH- of sill his philological faults, upon our noble language itself '; and even conceives, that a well- written ami faultless grammar cannot be a good one, because it will not accord with that reasonless jumble which he takes every .-xiMing language to be! How diligently he laboured to perfect his work, and with what /x-al for truth ami an-iiracy. may be gue^ed from the following citation : " The truth is, after all which can be d-ine to render the definitioi.s and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when cikically examine 1 l>\ men of learning and science, nn>rf or bss exceptionable. Thtse exceptiont ami im perfections are the unavoidable cotiM-quence of the imperfection* of the language. Language as well as -ver> tiling else of human tni-fntinn, will always be imperfect. Consequently, a perfect system of grammat- ical principles, tcoiudmot suit it. A perfect grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language ; and a perfi-ct language will not be constructed, until tome sitpj>tion- aU'.^Kirkham's Grammar, p. 66. The un plausible i sophistry of these strange remarks, and the palliation they afford to the multitudinous defects of the book which contains them, may be left, without further comment, to the judgement of the reader. 100 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. X. who frames them. And if the science of grammar has been so unskillfully treated that almost all its positions may be plausibly impugned, it is time for some attempt at a reformation of the code. The language is before us, and he who knows most about it, can best prescribe the rules which we ought to observe in the use of it. But how can we expect children to deduce from a few particulars an a'-curate notion of general principles and their exceptions, where learned doctors have so often faltered 'i Let the abettors of grammatical " induction " answer. 2. Nor let it be supposed a light matter to prescribe with certainty the princi- ples of grammar. For, what is requisite to the performance ? To know certainly, in the first place, what is the best usage. Nor is this all. Sense and memory must be keen, arid tempered to retain their edge and hold, in spite of any difficul- ties which, the subject may present. To understand things exactly as they are j to discern the differences by which they may be distinguished, and the resemblances by which they ought to be classified ; to know, through the proper evidences of truth, that OUL- ideas, or conceptions, are rightly conformable to the nature, properties, and relations, of the objects of which we think ; to see how that which is complex may be resolved into its elements, and that which is simple may enter into combination ; to observe how that which is consequent may be traced to its cause, and that which is regular be taught by rule ; to learn from the custom of speech the proper connexion between words and ideas, so as to give to the former a just application, to the latter an adequate expression, and to things a just description ; to have that penetration which discerns what terms, ideas, or things, are definable, and therefore capable of being taught, and what must be left to the teaching of nature : these are the essential qualifications for him who would form good definitions ; these are the elements of that accuracy and comprehensiveness of thought, to which allusion has been made, and which are characteristic of "the first and highest philosophy." 3. Again, with reference to the cultivation of the mind, I would add : To observe accurately the appearances of things, and the significations of words ; to learn first principles first, and proceed onward in such a manner that every new truth may help to enlighten and strengthen the understanding ; and thus to comprehend gradually, according to our capacity, whatsoever may be brought within the scope of human intellect : to do these things, I say, is, to ascend by sure steps, so far as we may, from the simplest elements of science which, in fact, are our own, original, undefinable notices of things towards the very topmost height of human wisdom and knowledge. The ancient saying, that truth lies hid, or in the bottom of a well, must not be taken without qualification ; for " the first and highest philosophy " has many principles which even a child may understand. These several suggestions, the first of which the Baron de Puffendorf thought not unworthy to introduce his great work on the Law of Nature and of Nations, the reader, if he please, may bear in mind, as he peruses the following digest of the laws and usages of speech. 4. "Definitions," says Duncan, in his Elements of Logic, "are intended to make known the meaning of words standing for complex ideas ;* and were we always careful to form those ideas exactly in our minds, and copy OUF definitions from that appearance, much of the confusion and obscurity complained of in '.ges might be prevented." P. 70. Again he says : " The writings of the mathematicians are a clear proof, how much the advancement of human knowledge depends upon a right use of definitions." P. 72. Mathematical science has been supposed to be, in its own nature, that which is best calculated to develop : '*The jihrnap complex ideas, or compound i>/nts, has been used for the notions which we have of things consist! : > .is to i-'iilirac-e some sort of plur.ilir , : f-'.uis our ideas of Complex or compound. in which //// sv. pleasi t, &c. But some writers have contended, that ftu: a),///s speech is emphatically tin- of reasi'/t. I ;iin persuaded, that had the grammarians 1 een equally char ;mcl logical in tlu-ir instrnetioife, ilicir M-ience would never hav. 'inted inferior in thN respect, llrammnr i- perhaps the most comprehensive of aii studies ; hut it i- chietlv ouing to the imskiilfnlness of instructors, and to the eirors and d> of the - . that it is commonly regarded as the most dry and difVcul'. 5. " 1'oor Scalier (who well knew what a definition should he) from hi melancholy experience exclaimed l ^'ilnl hifi-li<-hm yniintii'itii'n < Nothing is more unhappy than the grammatical definer." 7Wr\s Isin rsli-ns, i, p. '238. Nor do our later appear to have heen more fortun, tc in this matter. A majority of all the, definitions and rules contained in the great multitude of Knirli>h grammars which I have examined, are, in .-me n-.peet or other, erro- neous. The nature of their multitudinous faults. I must in general leave to the diseernment of the reader, except the pas.-ages he such as may he suitably .-elected for examples of false syntax. Enough, however, will be exhibited, in the course of this volume, to make the foregoing allegation credible ; and of the rest a more accurate judgement may perhaps he formed, when they shall have i ecu compared with what this work will present as substitutes. The importance of wiving correct definitions t<> philological terms, and of stating with perfect ; iat-oever is to he te 'ioctrin*'. has never heen duly appreciated. The grand source of the disheartening difficulties encountered by boys in the study of grammar, lie- in their ignorance ( ,f th meaning of words. This cause of end arrassmiMit is not to be shunned and left untouched ; but, as far a? possible, it ought to be re- moved. In teaching grammar, or indeed any other science, we cannot avoid the u-' of many term< to which young learners may have attached no ideas. Being little inclined or accustomed to reflection, they often hear, read, or even rehearse fiom mennry. the phdnest language thatcan be uttered, and yet have no very distinct ap- prehension of what it mean-. What marvel then, that in a study abounding with terms taken in a peculiar or technical sense, many of which, in the common manuals, are either left undefined, or are explained but loosely or erroneously, they should often he .jreatly pux/led. and sometimes totally discouraged'.' I*. >'''//, y re derived, not from teaching, but from sensation or con- SciouMie ; but com jilr.r itirffs. or the notions which we have of such tilings as con- f variou- tand in any known relations, are deh'i.able. A .11 have no better definition of heat, or of motion, than what he will natu- rally get bv iiHii'iiuj towards a Jire. Not so of our complex or general ideas, which eonstim The proper objects of scientific induction con-i.-t in ptions of pure mind, which form the true meaning of generic names, or common nouns ; and he who is properly qualified to teach, can for the dily tell what should be understood by such words. Hut are not many teacher- : a boy commencing the process [dilation, i> iir-t told. that. " Arithmetic is the art of computing bv numbers,'* which .-enteiice he partly urid'-ivand.- : bu' should 'he ;.-;; hi- teacher, " What is a iiniitlx'r. in arithmetic V what < ': Were (i.old Brown so d. he would Dimply Bay, -- . I ///////// /// 'ir'thinrtlr, is an r./y//v.*.v/./// ////// fells h">r jinmii : " for every expression 'hat tells how many, is a number in arithmetic, and nothing el-e i-. But a- r,n smdi detinition is c.ntained in tin- bonks* there are ten chanc 'hat. simple as the matter is, the readie-t n I hall find, will give an the tea. her r-houltl Bay, " That is a \\\\\\-\\ 1 have not tl . turn to your dictionary." The 1 "y n ads * I>il\v ! he does not express it as a defi: an I things. T!: onf. Angu- lar. \\Lat does the word singular mean? Smith's iV'ir Gram. p. 7. 102 INTRODUCTION. [dlAP. X. from Dr. Webster : " NUMBER the designation of a unit in reference to other units, or in reckoning, counting, enumerating." "Yes," replies the master, " that is it ; Dr. Webster is unrivalled in giving definitions." Now, has the boy been in- structed, or only puzzled? Can he conceive how the number Jive can be a unit? or how the word^ye, the figure 5, or the numeral letter V, is " the designation of a unit ?" "He knows that each of these is a number, and that the oral monosyl- lable Jive is the same number, in an Other form ; but is still as much at a loss for a proper answer to his question, as if he had never seen either schoolmaster or dictionary. So is it with a vast number of the simplest things in grammar, 7. Since what we denominate scientific terms, are seldom, if ever, such as stand for ideas simple and undefinable ; and since many of those which represent general ideas, or classes of objects, may be made to stand for more or fewer things, accord- ing to the author's notion of classification ; it is sufficiently manifest that the only process by which instruction can effectually reach the understanding of the pupil and remove the difficulties spoken of, is that of delivering accurate definitions. These are requisite for the information and direction of the learner ; and these must be thoroughly impressed upon his mind, as the only means by which he can know exactly how much and what he is to understand by our words. The power which we possess, of making known all our complex or general ideas of things by means of definitions, is a faculty wisely contrived in the nature of language, for the increase and spread of science ; and, in the hands of thg skillful, it is of vast avail to these ends. It is " the first and highest philosophy," instructing mankind, to think clearly and speak accurately ; as well as to know definitely, in the unity and permanence of a general nature, those things which never could be known or spoken of as the individuals of an infinite and fleeting multitude. 8. And, without contradiction, the shortest and most successful way of teaching the young mind to distinguish things according to their proper differences, and to name or describe them aright, is, to tell in direct terms what they severally are. Cicero intimates that all instruction appealing to reason ought to proceed in this manner: " Omnis enim quae a ratione suscipitur de re aliqua institutio, debet & deftnitione proficisci, ut intelligatur quid sit id, de quo disputetur. Off. Lib. i, p. 4. Literally thus : " For all instruction which from reason is undertaken con- cerning any thing, ought to proceed from a definition, that it may be understood what the thing is, about which the speaker is arguing." Little advantage, how- ever, will be derived from any definition, which is not, as Quintilian would have it, " Lucida et succincta rei descriptio" a clear and brief description of the thing. 9. Let it here be observed that scientific definitions are of things, and not merely of words ; or if equally of words and things, they are rather of nouns than of the other parts of speech. For a definition, in the proper sense of the term, consists not in a mere change or explanation of the verbal sign, but in a direct and true answer to the question, What is such or such a thing? In respect to its extent, it must with equal exactness include every thing which comes under the name, and exclude every thing which does not come under the name : then will it perfectly serve the purpose for which it is intended. To furnish such definitions, (as I have before suggested,) is work for those who are capable of great accuracy both of thought and expression. Those who would qualify themselves for teaching any particular branch of knowledge, should make it their first concern to acquire clear and accurate ideas of all things that ought to be embraced in their instructions. These ideas are to be gained, either by contemplation upon the things themselves as they are presented naturally, or by the study of those books in which they are rationally and clearly explained. Nor will such study ever be irksome to him whose generous desire after knowledge, is thus deservedly gratified. 10. But it must be understood, that although scientific definitions are said to be of things, they are not copied immediately from the real essence of the things, but are formed from the conceptions of the author's mind concerning that essence. CHAP. X.] OP GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 103 Hence, as Duncan justly remarks, "A mistaken idea never fails to occasion a mistake also in the definition." Hence, too, the common distinction of the logicians, between definitions of the name and definitions of the thing, seems to have little or no foundation. The former term they applied to those definitions which describe the objects of pure intellection, such as triangles, and other geomet- rical figures ; the latter, to those which define objects actually existing in external nature. The mathematical definitions, so noted for their certainty and completeness, have been supposed to have some peculiar preeminence, as belonging to the former class. But, in fact the idea of a triangle exists as substantively in the mind, as that of a tree, if not indeed more so ; and if I define these two objects, my description will, in either case, be equally a definition both of the name and of the thing ; but in neither, is it copied from any thing else than that notion which I have conceived, of the common properties of all triangles or of all trees. 11. Infinitives, and some other terms not called nouns, may be taken abstractly or substantively, so as to admit of what may be considered a regular definition ; thus the question, " What is it to read?" is nearly the same as, " What is reading?" " What is it to be wise ? " is little different from, " What is wisdom ? " and a true answer might be, in either case, a true definition. Nor are those mere translations or explanations of words, with which our dictionaries and vocabularies abound, to be dispensed with in teaching : they prepare the student to read various authors with facility, and furnish him with a better choice of terms, when he attempts to write. And in making such choice, let him remember, that as affectation of hard words makes composition ridiculous, so the affectation of easy and common ones may make it unmanly. But not to digress. With respect to grammar, we must sometimes content ourselves with such explications of its customary terms, as cannot claim to be perfect definitions ; for the most common and familiar things are not always those which it is the most easy to define. When Dr. Johnson was asked, " What is poetry?' 1 he replied, "Why, sir, it is easier to tell what it is not. We all know what light is : but it is not easy to tell what it is." BoswelVs Life of Johnson, Vol. iii, p. 402. This was thought by the biographer to have been well and ingeniously said. 1*2. But whenever we encounter difficulties of this sort, it may be worth while to seek for their cause. If we find it, the understanding is no longer puzzled. Dr. Johnson seemed to his biographer, to show, by this ready answer, the acuteness of his wit and discernment. But did not the wit consist in adroitly excusing himself, by an illusory comparison V What analogy is there between the things which he compares? Of the difficulty of defining poetry, and the difficulty of defining light, the reasons are as different as are the two things themselves, poetry and liyht. The former is something so various and complex that it is hard to distinguish its essence from its accidents; the latter presents an idea so perfectly simple and unique that all men conceive of it exactly in the same way, while none can show wherein it essentially consists. But is it true, that, "We all know what tight is?" Is it not rather true, that we know nothing at all about it, but what it is just as easy to tell as to think ? We know it is that reflexible medium which enables us to see ; and this is definition enough for all but the natively blind, to whom no definition perhaps can ever convey an adequate notion of its u><- in respect to sight. 13. If a person cannot tell what a thing is, it is commonly considered to be a fair inference, that he does not know. Will any grammarian say, " I know well enough what the thing is, but I cannot tell?" Yet, taken upon this common principle, the authors of our English grammars, (if in framing their definitions they have not been grossly wanting to themselves in the exercise of their own art,) may be charged, I think, with great ignorance, or great indistinctness of apprehen- sion ; and that, too, in relation to many things among the very simplest elements of their science. For example : Is it not a disgrace to a man of letters, to be 104 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. X. unable to tell accurately what a letter is? Yet to say, with Lowth, Murray, Churchill, and a hundred others of inferior name, that, "A letter is the first .principle or least part of a word," is to utter what is neither good English nor true doctrine. The two articles a and the are here inconsistent with each other. "A letter "is one letter, any letter; but " the first principle of a word" is, surely, not one or any principle taken indefinitely. Equivocal as the phrase is, it must mean either some particular principle, or some particular first principle, of a word ; and, taken either way, the assertion is false. For it is manifest, that in no sense can we affirm of each of the letters of a word, that it is " the first principle " of that word. Take, for instance, the word man. Is m the first principle of this word? You may answer, " Yes; for it is the first letter " Is a the first principle? "No; it is the second." But n too is a letter; and is n the first principle ? "No; it is the last!" This grammatical error might have been avoided by saying, "Letters are the first principles, or least parts, of words.'* But still the definition would not be true, nor would it answer the question, What is a letter? The true answer to which is: "A letter is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of human articulation, or speech." 14. This true definition sufficiently distinguishes letters from the marks used in punctuation, because the latter are not alphabetic, and they represent silence, rather than sound ; and also from the Arabic figures used for numbers, because these are no part of any alphabet, and they represent certain entire words, none of which consists only of one letter, or of a single element of articulation. The same may be said of all the characters u>ed for abbreviation ; as, & for and, $ for dollars, or the marks peculiar to mathematicians, to astronomers, to druggists. &c. None of these are alphabetic, and they represent significant words, and not single elementary sounds : it would be great dullness, to assume that a word and an elementary sound are one and the same thing. But the reader will observe that this definition embraces no idea contained in the faulty one to which I arn objecting ; neither indeed could it, without a blunder. So wide from the mark is that notion of a letter, which the popularity of Dr. Lowth and his copyists has made a hun- dred fold more common than any other !* According to an other erroneous defi- nition given by these same gentlemen, " Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas" Murray's Gram. p. 22; Kirkham's, 20 ; IrtgersoWs, 7 ; Algers, 12 ; Russell's, 7 ; Merchant's, 9 ; Fisk's, 11 ; Green- leafs, 20 ; and many others. See Lowth's Gram. p. 6 ; from which almost all authors have taken the notion, that words consist of " sounds " only. But letters are no principles or parts of sounds at all ; unless you will either have visible marks to be sounds, or the sign to be a principle or part of the thing signified. Nor are they always principles or -parts of words : we sometimes write what is not a- word; as when, by letters, we denote pronunciation alone, or imitate brute voices. If words were formed of articulate sounds only, they could not exist in books, or be in any wise known to the deaf and dumb. These two .primary definitions, then, are both false ; and, taken together, they involve the absurdity of dividing things acknowledged to be indivisible. In utterance, we cannot divide consonants from their vowels ; on paper, we can. Hence letters are the least, parts of written lan- guage only ; but the least parts of spoken words are syllables, and not letters. Every definition of a consonant implies this. 15. They who cannot define a letter or a word, may be expected to err in ex- plaining other grammatical terms. In my opinion, nothing is well written, that *It is truly astonishing that so great a majority of our grammarians could have been so blindly misled, as they have been, in this matter ; and the more so. because a very good definition of a Letter was both published and repuhlished. about the time at which Lowth's first appeared: viz.. " What is a letter? A Letter is the Sign, Mark, or Character of a simple or uncompounded Sound. Are Letters Sounds? No. Letters are only the Sij^ns or Svmbols of Sounds, not the Sounds themselves." The British Grammar, p. 3. See the very same words on the second page of Buchanan's (i English Syntax," a work which was published as early as 1767. CHAP. X.] OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 105 can possibly bo misunderstood ; and if any definition be likely to suyyrst a wrong idea, this alone i- enough to condemn it: nor does it justify the phfttoeology, to say, that a more reasonable construction can be put upon it. By Murray and others, tin- young learner is told, that, "A min-l is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly "//'/"// //// //Wr';" as if a vowel were nothing but a sound, and that a sort of echo, which can utter itm-lf ; and next, that, "A consonant \< an articu- late son ml, which cannot be perfectly uttei'G(\ without the help of a vowel." Now, by their own showing, every letter is either a vowel or aconsonant; hence, accord- ing to the>e definitions, all the letters are articulate sounds. And, if so, what is a " silent letter? " It is a silent artic.nhitp. sound! Again : ask a boy, " What is a triphtlnii. He answers in the words of Murray, Weld, Pond, Smith, A. Kirkham, Merchant, Ingersoll. Bacon, Alger, and others : " A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner : as eau in beau, iew in view." He accurately cites an entire paragraph from his grammar, but does he well conceive how the three vowels in beau or view are " pronounced in like man- ' '' Again : "A $yl\ is a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. *2'2. This definition resolves syllables into v*//Ws ; whereas their true elements are letters. It also mis- takes the participle ('/// < 17. Nor can this objection be neutralized by saying, it is a mere matter of opin- ion a mere prejudice originating in rivalry. For, though we have ample choice of tenus, and may frequently assign to particular words a meaning -and an explana- tion which are in >om- decree arbitrary ; yet whenever we attempt to define things under the name which cu.-tom has jm.-itivclv ii\-d upon them, we are no longer left to arbitrary explications ; but are bound to think and to say that only which shall commend itself to the understanding of others, as being altogether true to nature. When a won! is well under- note a particular object or class of objects, the detiniiion of it ought to be in strict conformity to what is known of the real being and properties of the thing or things contemplated. A definition of this kind is a proposition susceptible of proof and illustration; and therefore whatso- ever is erroneou-ly assumed to be the proper meaning of such a term, may be refuted. But those prr-otis who take every thing upon trust, and choose both to learn and to teach mechanically, often become so slavishly habituated to the pecu- liar phraseology of their text-books, that, be the absurdity of a particular expres- 106 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. X. sion what it may, they can neither discover nor suspect any inaccuracy in it. It is also very natural even for minds more independent and acute, to regard with some reverence whatsoever was gravely impressed upon them in childhood. Hence the necessity that all school-books should proceed from skillful hands. Instruction should tell things as they are, and never falter through negligence. 18. I have admitted that definitions are not the only means by which a general knowledge of the import of language may be acquired ; nor are they the only means by which the acquisition of such knowledge may be aided. To exhibit or point out things and tell their names, constitutes a large part of that instruction by which the meaning of words is conveyed to the young mind ; and, in many cases, a mere change or apposition of terms may sufficiently explain our idea. But when we would guard against the possibility of misapprehension, and show precisely what is meant by a word, we must fairly define it. There are, however, in every language, many words which do not admit of a formal definition. The import of all definitive and connecting particles must be learned from usage, trans- lation, or derivation ; and nature reserves to herself the power of explaining the objects of our simple original perceptions. "All words standing for complex ideas are definable ; but those by which we denote simple ideas, are not. For the perceptions of this latter class, having no other entrance into the mind, than by sensation or reflection, can be acquired only by experience." Duncari s Logic, p. 63. "And thus we see, that as our simple ideas are the materials and founda- tion of knowledge, so the names of simple ideas may be considered as the element- ary parts of language, beyond which we cannot trace the meaning and signification of words. When we come to them, we suppose the ideas for which they stand to be already known ; or, if they are not, experience alone must be consulted, and not definitions or explications." Ibid. p. 69. 19. But this is no apology for the defectiveness of any definition which might be made correct, or for the defectiveness of our English grammars, in the frequent omission of all explanation, and the more frequent adoption of some indirect form of expression. It is often much easier to make some loose observation upon what is meant by a given word or term in science, than to frame a faultless definition of the thing; because it is easier to refer to some of the relations, qualities, offices, or attributes of things, than to discern wherein their essence consists, so as to be able to tell directly and clearly what they are. The improvement of our gramrnatu code in this respect, was one of the principal objects which I thought it needful attempt, when I first took up the pen as a grammarian. I cannot pretend to hai seen, of course, every definition and rule which has been published on this subject but, if I do not misjudge a service too humble for boasting, I have myself framed greater number of new or improved ones, than all other English grammariar together. And not a few of them have, since their first publication in 1823, ' complimented to a place in other grammars than my own. This is in keeping with the authorship which has been spoken of in an other chapter ; but am constrained to say, it affords no proof that they were well written. If it did, the definitions and rules in Murray's grammar must undoubtedly be thought the most correct that ever have been given : they have been more frequently copied than any others. 20. But I have ventured to suggest, that nine tenths of this author's definitions are bad, or at least susceptible of some amendment. If this can be shown to the satisfaction of the reader, will he hope to find an other English grammar in which the eye of criticism may not detect errors and deficiencies with the same ease ? My object is, to enforce attention to the proprieties of speech ; and this is the very purpose of all grammar. To exhibit here all Murray's definitions, with criticisms upon them, would detain us too long. We must therefore be content to take a part of them as a sample. And, not to be accused of fixing only upon the worst, we will take a series. Let us then consider in their order his definitions of the ^ 3 CHAP. X.] OP GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 107 nine parts of speech ; for, calling the participle a verb, he reduces the sorts of words to that number. And though not one of his nine definitions now stands exactly as it did in his early editions, I think it may be said, that not one of them is now, if it ever has been, expressed grammatically. 21*. FIRST DEFINITION: "An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point themout, and to show how far their* signification extends." Murray, and others, from Lowth' s Gram. p. 10. This is obscure. In what manner, or in what respect, does an article point out substantives Y To point them out as such, or to show which words are substantives, seems at first view to be the meaning intended ; but it is said soon after, "A or an is used in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate ; as, ' Give me a book ' ; ' Bring me an apple.' " Lowth, p. 11 ; Murray, p. 31. And again : " It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 170. Now, to point out nouns among the parts of speech, and to point out things as individuals of their class, are very different matters ; and which of these is the purpose for which articles are used, according to Lowth and Murray? Their definition says the former, their explanations imply the latter ; and I am unable to determine which they really meant. The term placed before would have been better than ' ' prefixed ; " because the latter common- ly implies junction, as well as location. The word " indeterminate " is not a very easy one for a boy ; and, when he has found out what it means, he may possibly not know to which of the four preceding nouns, it ought to be referred : " in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indetermi- nate." What is this " vague sense ? " and what is it, that is " indeterminate? " 22. SECOND DEFINITION : "A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion. " Murray, and others. According to his own syntax, this sentence of Murray's is wrong ; for he himself suggests, that when two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each Of clauses connected like these, this is true. He should therefore have said, "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we have any notion." His rule, however, though good against a text like this, is utterly wrong in regard to many others, and not very accurate in taking two for a "series," thus: " Whatever relative is used, in one of a series of clauses relating to the same antecedent, the same relative ought, generally to be used in 'em all. In the following sentence, this rule is violated: ' It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.' The clause ought to have been, 'and which in the very beginning.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 155. But both the rule and the example, badly as they correspond, were borrowed from Priestley's Grammar, p. 102, where the text stands thus: " Whatever relative be used, in one of a series of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in thrm all. ' It is remarkable, that Holland,' " &c. 23. THIRD DEFINITION : "An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to express its quality." Lowth, Murray, Bullions, Pond, and others. Here we have the choice of two meanings ; but neither of them is according to truth. It seems doubtful whether " t ts quality" is the adjective's quality, or the substan- tive's ; but in either sense, the phrase is false ; for an adjective is added to a noun, not to express any quality either of the adjective or of the noun, but to express some quality of the thing signified by the noun. But the definition is too much restricted ; for adjectives may be added to pronouns as well as to nouns, nor do they always express quality. - \ FOURTH DEFINITION : "A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to aroid the too frequent repetition of the same word." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 25; In Murray's octaro Grammar, thia word IB the in the first chapter, and their in the eecond : in the duodecimo, it is their in both places. 108 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. X. Murray's, 28 and 50; Feltorfs, 18; Alger's, 13; Bacon's, 10; and others. The latter part of this sentence is needless, and also contains several errors. 1. The verb avoid is certainly very ill-chosen ; because it, implies intelligent agency, and not that which is merely instrumental. 2. The article the is misemployed for a ; for, " the too frequent repetition," should mean some particular too frequent repetition an idea not intended here, and in itself not far from absurdity. 3. The phrase, " the same word," may apply to the pronoun itself as well as to the noun: in saying, "/came, /saw, /conquered," there is as frequent a repetition of the same word, as in saying, "Caesar came, Ocesar saw, Ccesar conquered." If, therefore, the latter part of this definition must be retained, the whole .should be written thus : "A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it." 25. FIFTH DEFINITION : "A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer." Lowth, Murray, and others. NOTE: "A verb may generally be distinguished by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it." Murray, and others. It is confessedly difficult to give a perfect definition of a verb ; and if, with Murray, we will have the participles to be verbs, there must be no small difficulty in forming one that shall be tolerable. Against the foregoing old explanation, it may be objected, that the phrase to suffer, being now understood in a more limited sense than formerly, does not well express the nature or import of a passive verb. I have said, "A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." Children cannot readily understand, how every thing that is in anyway acted upon, may be said to suffer. The participle, I think, should be taken as a distinct part of speech, and have its own dc6nition. The note added by Murray to his definition of a verb, would prove the participle not to be included in this part of speech, and thus practically contradict his scheme. It is also objectionable in respect to construction. The phrase "by its making sense " is at least very questionable English ; for " its making " supposes making to be a noun, and " making sense " supposes it to be an active participle. But Lowth says, " Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its own construc- tion." Nay, the author himself, though he therein contradicts an other note of his own, virtually condemns the phrase, by his caution to the learner against, treating words in ing, "as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 193. 26. SIXTH DEFINITION : "An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verl an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some quality or circi stance respecting it." Murray's Gram. p. 28 and 114. See Dr. Ash's Grc ?. 47. This definition contains many errors; some of which are gross blundei . The first word, "An," is erroneously put for The: an adverb is one advei not the whole class; and, if, "An adverb is a part of speech," any and eyei adverb is a part of speech ; then, how many parts of speech are there? 2. word "joined" is not well chosen; for, with the exception of cannot, the advc is very rarely joined to the word to which it relates. 3. The want of a conn before joined, perverts the construction ; for the phrase, " speech joined to verb," is nonsense ; and to suppose joined to relate to the noun part, is not. mu better. 4. The word " and" should be or ; because no adverb is ever added three or four different terms at once. 5. The word " some, times " should be omitted ; because it is needless, and because it is inconsistent with the only conjunction which will make the definition true. 6. The preposition "to" should either be inserted before " an adjective," or suppressed before the term which follows ; for when several words occur in the same construction, uniformity of expression is desirable. 7. For the same reason, (if custom may be thus far conformed to analogy,) the article " an " ought, in cases like this, if not always, to be separated from the word other ; thus, "An adverb is a word addded to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb." Were the eye not familiar with it, another g CHAP. X.] OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 109 would be thought as irp-irular a- theother. 8. The word " quality" is wwn; ; for no adverb ever ex| y f/ntt/iti/, as such ; qualities arc expressed by mlji'c- //. Ti.- prnoun i f - according to Murray's second rule of syntax, ought to be thi-r.' inds in his own early editions; but if and be changed to or, as 1 luvc said it should be, the pronoun it will be right. '11. SKVKNTII DKFIXITIOX : " JVp^itions serve to connect w, K with one words thrown in bef.n'*',-n the parts r emotions of > Virtue ! how an:; .'" .I////-/-.///. Tlii> definition, which iimar, and committed to memory millions of tim- is, and directly contradicted by the example. Interjec- of a f/ixnnirse, are very ran-iv "thrown iii <>fe." They more fr i- ur at the ' ; and, in v do not :i:iiti(in. The author, at the head of his chapter on mition t\\ both >f which con my fri-ud." "Alas! I fe::r :! as in ive of the emotions of ti; han of tit 30. I have thus exhibited, with all intentional fairness of criti entire 110 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. X. series of these nine primary definitions ; and the reader may judge whether they sustain the praises which have been bestowed on the book,* or confirm the allega- tions which 1 have made against it. He will understand that my design is, here, as well as in the body of this work, to teach grammar practically, by rectifying, so far as I may, all sorts of mistakes either in it or respecting it ; to compose a book which, by a condensed exposition of such errors as are commonly found in other grammars, will at once show the need we have of a better, and be itself a fit substitute for the principal treatises which it censures. Grammatical errors are universally considered to be small game for critics. They must therefore be very closely grouped together, to be worth their room in this work. Of the tens of thousands who have learned for grammar a multitude of ungrammatical definitions and rules, comparatively few will ever know what I have to say of their acquisi- tions. But this I cannot help. To the readers of the present volume it is due, that its averments should be clearly illustrated by particular examples ; and it is reasonable that these should be taken from the most accredited sources, whether they do honour to their framers or not. My argument is only made so much the stronger, as the works which furnish its proofs, are the more esteemed, the more praised, or the more overrated. 31. Murray tells us, "There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas." Octavo Gram i, 139. Though this, as I before observed, is not alto- gether true, he doubtless had very good reason to distinguish, in his teaching, " between the sign and the thing signified." Yet, in his own definitions and ex- planations, he frequently confounds these very things which he declares to be so widely different as not even to have a " necessary connexion " Errors of this kind are very common in all our English grammars. Two instances occur in the following sentence ; which also contains an error in doctrine, and is moreover ob- scure, or rather, in its literal sense, palpably absurd : " To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; and they are all of the third person when spoken of, and of the second person when spoken to." Murray's Gram. 38 ; Alger's Murray, 16 ; Merchant's, 23 ; Bacon's. 12 ; Maltby's, 12 ; Lyon's, 1 ; Guy's, 4 ; Inger- soll's, 26 ; S Putnam's, 13 ; T. H Miller's, 17 ; Rev. T. Smith's, 13. Who, but a child taught by language like this, would ever think of speaking to a noun ? or, that a noun of the second person could not be spoken of ? or, that a noun cannot be put in the first person, so as to agree with lor we? Murray himself once taught, that, " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person ; " and he departed from a tn and important principle of syntax, when he altered his rule to its present form. But I have said that the sentence above is obscure, or its meaning absurd. Wl does the pronoun "they " represent? "Substantives" according to the author' intent ; but " gender, number, and case" according to the obvious construction c the words. Let us try a parallel : "To scriveners belong pen, ink, and paper and they are all of primary importance when there is occasion to use them, and .none at all when they are not needed." Now, if this sentence is obscure, other is not less so ; hut, if this is perfectly clear, so that what is said is obviousb and only what is intended, then it is equally clear, that what is said in the former, is j^ross absurdity, and that the words cannot reasonably be construed into the sense which the writer, and his copyists, designed. 32 All Murray's grammars, not excepting the two volumes octavo, are as in- complete as they are inaccurate ; being deficient in many things which are of so great importance that they should not be excluded from the very smallest epitome. For example : On the subject of the numbers, he attempted but one definition, and that is a fourfold solecism. He speaks of the persons, but gives neither definitions * " The 'Iffnitions and the rules throughout the Grammar, are expressed with neatness and perspicuity. They are a" short and comprehensive ;is the nature of the subject would admit: and they are well adapted both to the understanding and the memory of young persons." Lift of L. Murray, p 245. " It may truly be said, that the language in every part of the work, is simple, correct, and perspicuous." Ib. p. 246. CHAP. X.J OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. Ill nor explanations. In treating of the genders, he gives but one formal definition. Hi> MTtiun on the cases contains no regular definition. On the comparison of adjectives, and on the moods and tenses of verbs, he is also satisfied with a very loose mode of teaching. The work as a whole exhibits more industry than literary ta>te. more benevolence of heart than distinctness of apprehension; and, like all its kindred and progeny, fails to give to the principles of grammar that degree of clearness of which they are easily susceptible. The student does not know this, but he fuels the effects of it, in the obscurity of his own views on the subject, and in the conscious uncertainty with which he applies those principles. In grammar, the term- jicrsnn, number, gender, case, mood, tense, and many others, are used in a technical and peculiar sense ; and, in all scientific works, the sense of technical terms should be clearly and precisely defined. Nothing can be gained by substi- tuting other names <>f modern invention ; for these also would need definitions as much as the old. We. want to know the things themselves, and what they are most appropriately called. We want a book which will tell us, in proper order, and in tho plainest manner, what all the elements of the science are. .'!'! What does he know of grammar, who cannot directly and properly answer such qnc>tions as the>e ? " What, are numbers, in grammar ? What is the singu- lar number? What is the plural number? What are persons, in grammar? What is the first person ? What is the second person ? What is the third per- son ? What are genders, in grammar What is the masculine gender? What is the feminine gender ? What is the neuter gender ? What are cases, in grammar ? What is the nominative case ? What is the possessive case? What is the ob- jective case '.' " And yet the most complete acquaintance with every sentence or word of Murray's tedious compilation, may leave the student at a loss for a proper an.-wer, not only to each of these questions, but also to many others equally simple and elementary ! A boy may learn by heart all that Murray ever pub- lished on the subject of grammar, and still be left to confound the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic, or the persons in grammar with persons in civil life ! Nay. there are among the professed improvers of this system of r.-mmiar. mm who have actually confounded these things, which are so totally itierent in their natures ! In " Smith's New Grammar on the Productive System," a work in which Murray is largely copied and strangely metamorphosed, there is an abundance of surh confusion For instance: "What is the meaning of the word number? Number means a sum that maybe counted." R. C. Smith's 'nun j. 7. I'Yom this, by a tissue of half a dozen similar absurdities, called iiif/nrtiniia. the novi.-.- i> brought to the conclusion that the numbers are <> as it' then: were in nature but two sums that might be counted ! There is no .1 to the sickening detail of such blunders. How many grammars tell us, that, " Tin- fir-t p-rson is the /n'rxnn >r/f<> sjn-nks ; " that, " The second person is the < // tn ; " ami that, " the third pfixui is the person spoken of! " As if the three jter>on> of a verb, or other part of speech, were so many intelligent beings ! As if. by exhibiting a word in the three persons. (nsgo,goest,gocs,) we put it tii>t info then into tin- limrrr, ami then into somebody else! Nothing can be more abhorrent to grammar, or to MM, than such ronfu>ion. The things which are identified in each of the>e three definitions, are as unlike as Socrates and moonshine 1 The one i^ a thinking being ; the other, a mere form peculiar to cer- tain words Hut Chandler, of Philadelphia, (" the Grammar King," forsooth!) without mistaking the grammatical persons for rational souls, lias contrived to crowd into hi* definition of person more errors of conception and of language, more in-ult to nmmion V,MI>C. than one could have believed it pos.-ible to put together in such space And this ridiculous old twaddle, after six and twenty he ha< deliberately re-written and lately republished as something "adapted to the schools of Ameriea." It stands thus : "/W\o// is n distinction which is in hi /. Many otl grammarians have attempted to define number ; with what success a few examples will show : (1.) Numl is the distinction of one from many." Allen's Gram. p. 40 ; Merchant's School Gram. 28 ; Greenlfaf's 22; Nutting's, 17 ; Picket's, 19 ; D. Adams's, 31. (2.) '-Number is the distinction of one from umn-."- Fisher's Gram. 51 ; Alrtm's, 1 (3.) " Number is the distinction of one from several or many." Coar's Gram. p. 24. (4.) " Number is the distinction of one from more than one/' Sanborn's Gram. p. 24 : J Flint's, 27; Wrl>s's,i)2. (5.) '' Number i< the distinction of one from more than one, or many. Grant's /. (6.) ''What is number? Number is the Distinction of one, from two, or many " British Grain, p 8' Buchanan's, li. (7.) "You inquire, ' What is number?' Merely this : the tiistinction of one from t\ or man v. Greek substantives have three numbers." Bucke's Classical Gram.p 38. All these authors sayj tint., in Kngli-h, " there are tn:t>. numbers, the singular and the plurril." According to their explanations, then, we have tn-a " dis.'^n-tinns of one from tiro, st-rrrnL man-, or many : " and the Greeks, by adding a dual number, have ///// / .' Which, then, of the two or three modifications or forms, do they mean, when they say, ' Number is lit" distinction." c.? Or, if none of them, what flw is meant? All these definitions had their origin in an old I.aiin one, which, although it is somewhat better, makes doubtful logic in its application: " NuMERUS es;. unius et multorum distinotio. Numeri i<^itur sunt duo ; Singulariset Pluralis." R>'<-' p 21 This means : (8 ) Number is a distinction of one and many. The mini) the Singular and the Plural" But we have yet other examples : as, (9.) "Number is the distinction of M one <>r more." Kirkliam's Gram. p. 39. "The distinction ot obj " is very much like u the ron^'d< r/iiinn of nn obj (10.) "Number distinguishes" more." f'/>,,/,,r'* Mmrm/. ]}. 21 : Practical G/-(t>>>. p IS. That is, number makes the plural to be ei'h<>r plu- ral or singulir fr distinction's sake ! (11.) " Number is the distinct-ion- b regard to th< signified, us uti'- r .,. Min;-ni/, p. 19. Here, too, number has ' regai >me confusion ; while, by a gross error, is distinction " is confined to " nouns ' only ! (12.) ; ' Number i~ f a unit, i i i ni one." Bullions' x E. Grtim.p. 12; Aimt-r. G Here again number i- united to " n noun : " and is said to be one sign of two. or eirher of two, ii.cmu|,;,:il,|,. i! a ! (13 > "Number shows hoiv itiantr.irc meant, whether one or more." >//,/V /<'.-> New Gram. p. 4". Tni-. is not a d'Jii/it.ion, but a faKe assertion, in which Smith again confounds arithmetic, with grammar! \\'/i/at and <>n!s are of different numbers ; but neither ol' these numbers " means a sum that may be counted," or really " bhows Iww many are meant." So of " Man in general, Horses in general, &c." CHAP. X.] OP GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 113 this short sentence, as I have before suggested, is a fourfold solecism. First, the word " nn/iili'i' " is wrong; because those modifications of language, which dis- tinguish unity and plurality, cannot be jointly signified by it. Secondly, the word " consideration " is wrong ; because HHIH/MT is not consideration, in any sense which can be put upon the terms : condition, constitution, configuration, or any other word beginning with con, would have done just as well. Thirdly, " the consideration of .) Number is a modification of nouns and verbs, &c. ace" ' Vmg -poken of i< represented, as, one or more, with regard to number." Burn's Gram. p. 32. . which I leave to the discernment of the reader. (16.) " What is number? Number fiioirs the i/istinrtion of one from many " \Vileojc'* Gram. p. 6. This is no answer to the question asked: besides, it is obviously worse than the first form, which has " is, " for "sAou?5." (17.) " What ia Number? It is the representation of objects with respect to Mn^lem^s, or plurality.'' O. B. Pfirre's, Gram. ' t" there are two numbers, they are neither of them properly described in this definition, or in any of the preceding ones. Then- i- a grott beoo0*ptioe, in taking each or either of them to be an alternate repre- rt of error is far from being confined to the present subject ; It runs tiir"U_'h a vast number of the various definitions contained in our grammars. (18.) ' A'.v.v ' indicate one object or more than nne. Or. of unity or of more than uni p. 14. How hard this author laboured to think what number is, ;md could not! (l!>.) " Number is the >n. p.40. U'hv ,- r. tinrtinn . " the numbers, or ili\'i>i'-tinns, bt-in-,' twn ' (-'>.) Number is tk- rti/>,irit,/ of nouns to represent g M m-T- rhan one object."/ Gram, p 40. (21.) "Number is a property of the (22.) " Number is n nioriificatinn ot whether meant, or more than one." Butler's Gram. p. 1'.). Mam" c.f the 'hough they speak of both ilar and the ; rhaps sometime* apply the term mimbfr to th> hich is in each: .i.i-y from plurality ; and of the plural, to dis- " uniry. Am 'tni< silent, are Lily. Colet, llrightland. ll.mH, Liiell, A. lam. CouM, lUrii-on. Comlv. .lau.lon, Webster, Webber, Churchill, . Cobb, A. Flint, Feleh, (Juy. Hall, and S. \V. Clark. Adam and GouM. ho. v.-r. in .xpl lining the properties of verbs, say : "Number marks how many we suppose to be, to ct, or to suffer." 4.80; < 114 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. XI. CHAPTER XL BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. " Sed ut perveniri ad gumma nisi ex principiis non potest : ita, procedente jam opere, minima incipiunt esse quae prima sunt." QUINTILIAN. Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 660. 1. The history of grammar, in the proper sense of the term, has heretofore been made no part of the study. I have imagined that many of its details might be profitable, not only to teachers, but to that class of learners for whose use this work is designed. Accordingly, in the preceding pages, there have been stated numerous facts properly historical, relating either to particular grammars, or to the changes and progress of this branch of instruction. These various details it is hoped will be more entertaining, and perhaps for that reason not less useful, than those explanations which belong merely to the construction and resolution of sentences. The attentive reader must have gathered from the foregoing chapters some idea of what the science owes to many individuals whose names are connected with it. But it seems proper to devote to this subject a few pages more, in order to give some further account of the origin and character of certain books. 2. The manuals by which grammar was first taught in English, were not properly English Grammars. They were translations of the Latin Accidence ; and were designed to aid British youth in acquiring a knowledge of the Latin language, rather than accuracy in the use of their own. The two languages were often combined in one book, for the purpose of teaching sometimes both together, and sometimes one through the medium of the other. The study of such works doubtless had a tendency to modify, and perhaps at that time to improve, the English style of those who used them. For not only must variety of knowlcd_ have led to copiousness of expression, but the most cultivated minds woul naturally be most apt to observe what was orderly in the use of speech, language, indeed, after its proper form is well fixed by letters, must resist al introduction of foreign idioms, or become corrupted. Hence it is, that Dr. Johnson avers, " The great pest of speech is frequency of translation. No was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting something its native idiom ; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation. "- Pref. to Joh. Diet. 4to, p. 14. Without expressly controverting this opinion, offering any justification of mere metaphrases, or literal translations, we may wel assert, that the practice of comparing different languages, and seeking the m( appropriate terms for a free version of what is ably written, is an excercij admirably calculated to familiarize and extend grammatical knowledge. 3. Of the class of books here referred to, that which I have mentioned in other chapter, as Lily's or King Henry's Grammar, has been by far the rm celebrated and the most influential. Concerning this treatise, it is stated, that it parts were not put together in the present form, until eighteen or twenty yeai after Lily's death. " The time when this work was completed," says the preface of 1793, " has been differently related by writers. Thomas Hayne places it in the year 1543, and Anthony Wood, in 1545. But neither of these accounts can be right ; for I have seen a beautiful copy, printed upon vellum, and illuminated, anno 1542, in quarto. And it may be doubted whether this was the first edition." John Ward, Pref. p. vii. In an Introductory Lecture, read before the University of London in 1828, by Thomas Dale, professor of English literature, I find the following statement: "In this reign," the reign of Henry VIII, " the study of grammar was reduced to a system, by the promulgation of many CHAP. XI.] BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCEEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. 115 grammatical treatises ; one of which was esteemed of sufficient importance to be honoured with a royal name. It was called, ' The Grammar of King Henry the Eighth ; ' and to this, ' with other works, the young Shakspeare was probably indebted for some learning and much loyalty.' But the honour of producing the ^lish grammar is claimed by William Bullokar, who published, in the year !;>'. % A Bref Grammar for English,' being, to use his own words, ' the first Grammar for English that ever waz, except my Grammar at large.' ' 4. Ward's preface to Lily commences thus : " If we look back to the origin of our common Latin Grammar, we shall find it was no hasty performance, nor the work of a single person ; but composed at different times by several eminent and learned men, till the whole was at length finished, and by the order of King Henry VI II [,] brought into that form in which it has ever since continued. The '/ introduction was written by the reverend and learned Dr. John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for the use of the school he had lately founded there ; and was dedicated by him to William Lily, the first high master of that school, in the year 1510 ; for which reason it has usually gone by the name of Paul's Accidence. The substance of it remains the same, as at first ; though it has been much altered in the manner of expression, and sometimes the order, with other improvements. The Enijliah syntax was the work of Lily, as appears by the title in the most ancient editions, which runs thus : Gulielmi Lilii Angli Rudimenta. But it has been greatly improved since his time, both with regard to the method, and an enlargement of double the quantity." 5. Paul's Accidence is therefore probably the oldest grammar that can now be found in our language. It is not, however, an English grammar; because, though written in antique English, and embracing many things which are as true of our language as of any other, it was particularly designed for the teaching of Latin. It begins thus : "In speech be these eight parts following : Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, declined ; Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection, undeclined." This is the old platform of the Latin grammarians ; which differs from that of the Greek grammars, only in having no Article, and in separating the Interjection from the class of Adverbs. Some Greek grammarians, however, separate the Adjective from the Noun, and include the Participle with the Verb : thus, " There are in Greek eight species of words, called Parts of Speech ; viz. Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction." Aiitlinn^ I d f />y, p. 18. With respect to our language, the plan of the Latin Accidence is manifestly inaccurate ; nor can it be applied, without some variation, to the Greek. In both, as well as in all other languages that have Articles, the best amendment of it, and the nearest adherence to it, is, to make the Parts of Speech /-// ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. . Tht Latin grammarians admit that the Adjective ought not to be called a Noun ; and the best Greek grammarians, that the Interjections ought not to be inclu*: Adverbs. Witli respect to I 'articiples, a vast majority of gram- marians in general, make them a distinct species, or part of speech; but, on this point, the Kii'ili.-h <i<-s. increased the number: first, to the conjunctions were added nrtirlfs ; afterwards, prepositions ; to nouns, was added the appellation ; then tin- in'nnnnn ; afterwards, as belonging to each verb, the participle ; and, to verbs in common, adverbs. Our language [i.e. the Latin] does not require article-^, wherefore they are scattered among the other parts of speech ; but there is addi'd to the foregoing the inter/rr/in/i. But some, on the authority of good authors, make the parts only eight ; as Aristarchus, and, in our day, Palsemon ; who have include 1 :'n - vocable, or appellation, with the noun, as a species of it. But they who make the noun one and the vocable an other, reckon nine. But there are al< some who divide the vocable from the appellation ; making the former to signify any thinjr manifest to sight or touch, as house, bed ; and the latter, any thing to which either or both are wanting, as wind, heaven, god, virtue. They have also added the assert'rntinn and the attrectation, which I do not approve. Whether the vocable or appellation should be included with the noun or not, as it is a matter of little consequence, I leave to the decision of others." See Quintil. delnst Ornt. Lib. i, Cap. 4, :M. 11. Several writers on English grammar, indulging a strange unsettlement of plan, seem not to have determined in thuir own minds, -how many part.- of vpeech . w in'lifipr of V - : as a merit, " (tit rtjftin pnrta \.'W i ninf t > 'n: -s,Prfposi- 1 p. 9. t Quiiitilhn i Me recognized four parts of speech ; verbs, uouus, conjuiictious, and articles. See Aristot. hi/ of the voluiii iz not uniform. The reezon iz, that many of the essays hav been published before, in the common orthography, and it would hav been a labo- isk to copy the whole, for the sake of changing the spelling. In the essays \ ithin the last yeer. a considerable change of spelling iz introduced by way of experiment. This liberty wa/ taken by the writers before the age of queen Elizabeth, and to this we are indebted for the preference of modern spelling over < lower and Chaucer. The man who admits that the change of housbonde, ////"/?, mimrtlt into /ms/H/m/, mind, gone, month, izan improovment, must 50 the riting of hrffh. l>r<'th, rong, tung, munth, to be an improov- re iz no alternativ. Every possible reezon that could over be offered for altering the spelling of wiirds, stil exists in ful force ; and if a gradual reform should ii"t he maile in our language, it wil proov that we are less under the influ- ence df ree/.nn than our ancestors." Noah Webster's Essays, Pref. p. xi. It'.. IJut let us return, with our author, to the question of the parts of speech. ! AH that if we do not mean to adopt some less convenient scheme, we lint them fr. WcWer should come at last to the same conclusion. not very far from it in l^'J*. a< may be shown by his own testimony, which to record. I will give his own words on the point : " There ! it difficulty in devising a correct ela.-.-ifieation of the several sorts of words j ainl probably no classification that shall be simple and at the same time philo- sophically C ; !" invented. There aiv BOOM words that do not strictly fall under any description of any cla yt d -vi-i.-d. Many attempts have been made and are still making to remedy this evil ; but such schemes as I have seen, do not, in my apprehension, correct the defects of the old schemes, nor simplify the subject. 120 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. On the other hand, all that I have seen, serve only to obscure and embarrass the subject, by substituting new arrangements and new terms which are as incorrect as the old ones, and less intelligible. I have attentively viewed these subjects, in all the lights which my opportunities have afforded, and am convinced that the distri- bution of words, most generally received, is the best that can be formed, with some slight alterations adapted to the particular construction of the English lan- guage." 17. This passage is taken from the advertisement, or preface, to the Grammar which accompanies the author's edition of his great quarto Dictionary. Now the several schemes which bear his own name, were doubtless all of them among those which he had " seen ; " so that he here condemns them all collectively, as he had previously condemned some of them at each reformation. Nor is the last exempted. For although he here plainly gives his vote for that common scheme which he first condemned, he does not adopt it without " some slight alterations; " and in con- triving these alterations he is inconsistent with his own professions. He makes the parts of speech eight, thus: "1. The name or noun; 2. The pronoun or substitute ; 3. The adjective, attribute, or attributive ; 4. The verb ; 5. The ad- verb ; 6. The preposition ; 7. The connective or conjunction ; 8. The exclama- tion or interjection." In his Rudiments of English Grammar, published in 1811, " to unfold the true principles of the language," his parts of speech were seven; "viz. 1. Names or nouns; 2. Substitutes or pronouns ; 3. Attributes or adjec- tives; 4. Verbs, with their participles ; 5. Modifiers or adverbs ; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives or conjunctions." In his Philosophical and Practical Grammar, published in 1807, a book which professes to teach "the only legitimate princi- ples, and established usages," of the language, a twofold division of words is adopted; first, into two general classes, primary and secondary ; then into "seven species or parts of speech," the first two belonging to the former class, the other five to the latter ; thus : "1. Names or nouns ; 2. Verbs ; 3. Substitutes ; 4. Attributes; 5. Modifiers; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives." In his "Im- proved Grammar of the English Language," published in 1831, the same scheme is retained, but the usual names are preferred. 18. How many different schemes of classification this author invented, I know not ; but he might well have saved himself the trouble of inventing any ; for, so far as appears, none of his last three grammars ever came to a second edition. In the sixth edition of his " Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language," a work which his last grammatical pre- face affirms to have been originally fashioned " on the model of Lowth's," the parts of speech are reckoned "six; nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and abbreviations or particles." This work, which he says " was extensively used in the schools of this country," and continued to be in demand, he voluntarily suppressed ; because, after a profitable experiment of four and twenty years, he found it so far from being grounded on " true principles," that the whole scheme then appeared to him incorrigibly bad. And, judging from this sixth edition, printed in 1800, the only one which I have seen, I cannot but concur with him in the opinion. More than one half of the volume is a loose Appendix composed chiefly of notes taken from Lowth and Priestley ; and there is a great want of method in what was meant for the body of the work. I imagine his several editions must have been different grammars with the same title ; for such things are of no uncommon occurrence, and I cannot otherwise account for the assertion that this book was compiled " on the model of LowtKs, and on the same principles as [those on which] Murray has constructed his." Advertisement in Webster's quarto Diet. 19. In a treatise on grammar, a bad scheme is necessarily attended with incon- veniences for which no merit in the execution can possibly compensate. The first thing, therefore, which a skillful teacher will notice in a work of this kind, is the arrangement. If he find any difficulty in discovering, at sight, what it is, he will CHAP. XI-] BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. 121 be sure it is bad ; for a lucid order is what he lias a right to expect from him who pretends to improve upon all the English grammarians. J>r. Webster is not the only reader of the EPEA PTEROENTA, who has been thereby prompted to meddle with the common scheme of grammar; nor is he the only one who lias attempted to simplify the subject by reducing the parts of speech to six. John Dalton of Manchester, in 1801, in a small grammar which he dedicated to Home Tooke, made them six, but not the same six. He would have them to be, nouns, pro- nouns, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. This writer, like Bright- land, Tooke, Fisher, and some others, insists on it that the articles are adj< Priestley, too, throwing- them out of his classification, and leaving the learner to go through his book in ignorance of their rank, at length assigns them to the same class, in one of his notes. And so has Dr. Webster fixed them in his late valuable, but not faultless, dictionaries. But David Booth, an etymologist perhaps equally learned, in his " Introduction to an Analytical Dictionary of the English Language," declares them to be of the same species as the pronouns ; from which he thinks it strange that they were ever separated ! P. 21. 2<). Now, what can be more idle, than for teachers to reject the common classi- fication of words, and puzzle the heads of school-boys with speculations like these? It is easy to admit all that etymology can show to be true, and still justify the old arrangement of the elements of grammar. And if we depart from the com- mon scheme, where shall we stop ? Some have taught that the parts of speech are only /''' : as did the latter stoics, whose classes, according to Priscian and liar- articles, nouns appellative, nouns proper, verbs, and conjunctions. Others have made them four ; as did Aristotle and the elder stoics, and, more recently, Milnes, Brightland, Harris, Ware, Fisher, and the author of a work on Universal Grammar, entitled Enclytica. Yet, in naming the four, each of these contrives to differ from nil flu- rest ! With Aristotle, they are, "nouns, verbs, articles, and conjunctions : " with Milnes, " nouns, ad nouns, verbs, and particles ; " with Brightland, "names, qualities, affirmations, and particles;" with Harris, ' sult:tntives, attributives, definitives, and connectives; " with Ware, " the name, the word, the assistant, the connective ; " with Fisher, " names, qualities, verbs, and particles ; " with the author of Knclytica, " names, verbs, modes, and connectives." But why make the classes so numerous as four? Many of the ancients, Greeks, Hebrews, and Arabians, according to Quintilian, made them three ; and these thrc's according to A'os.-iu.-. were nouns, verbs, and particles. "Veteres Arabes, Ilel r.-i-i. ft (ineci, tres, non amplius, clas>es faciebant ; 1. Nomen, 2. Verbum, 8. Particula sen IHctio.' 1 I 'ass. de Anal. Lib. i, Cap. 1. '1\ N-ir is this number, thn-i'. quite destitute of modern supporters; though most of these come at it in an other way. D St. Qnenlin, in his Kudiments of General Grammar, published in lSll>, di\ides words into the "three general classes" last nientioiH-d ; vi/., "1. Nouns, 2. Verbs, 3. Particles." P. 5. Booth, who pub- lished the second edition of his i-tymological work in 1814, examining severally the ten part.x of speech, and finding what he supposed to be the true origin of aU the words in some of the olaeees, was led to throw one into an other, till he had destroyed seven of them. Thru, resolving that each word ought to be cla.-cd according to the meaning which its etymology ii.xes upon it, he refers the number of elaes to iinhin-, thus : " If, then, each [word] has a mcatumj, and is capable of raising an idea in the mind, that idea must have its prototype in nature. It must either denote an f./v/v//,//, and is therefoie a verb; or a tjunllty. and is. in that MSB, an adjective i or it im ,//////..nie individual obj.-ct. and is, on thi. suppo.-i'ion, the mi me of such object, or a //<"///. * * * We have thus given an account of the different divisions of words, and have found that the whole n.ay 1 nder the three ln-ads of Names. Dualities, and Actions; or Noun.-, Adjectives, and Verbs." Litrod. to Analyt. Diet. p. '2'2. 122 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. XI. 22. This notion of the parts of speech, as the reader will presently see, found an advocate also in the author of the popular little story of Jack Halyard. It appears in his Philosophic Grammar published in Philadelphia in 1827. Whether the writer borrowed it from Booth, or was led into it by the light of " nature," I am unable to say : he does not appear to have derived it from the ancients. Now, if either he or the lexicographer has discovered in " nature " a prototype for this scheme of grammar, the discovery is only to be proved, and the schemes of all other grammarians, ancient or modern, must give place to it. For the reader will observe that this triad of parts is not that which is mentioned by Vossius and Qnintilian. But authority may by found for reducing the number of the parts of speech yet lower. Plato, according to Harris, and the first inquirers into language, according to Home Tooke, made them two ; nouns and verbs : which Crombie, Dalton, McCulloch, and some others, say, are the only parts essentially necessary for the communication of our thoughts. Those who know nothing about grammar, regard all words as of one class. To them, a word is simply a word ; and under what other name it may come, is no concern of theirs. 23. Towards this point, tends every attempt to simplify grammar by suppressing any of the ten parts of speech. Nothing is gained by it ; and it is a departure from the best authority. We see by what steps this kind of reasoning may descend ; and we have an admirable illustration of it in the several grammatical works of William S. Cardell. I shall mention them in the order in which they appeared ; and the reader may judge whether the author does not ultimately arrive at the conclusion to which the foregoing series is conducted. This writer, in his Essay on Language, reckons seven parts of speech ; in his New- York Grammar, six ; in his Hartford Grammar, three principal, with three others subordinate ; in his Philadelphia Grammar, three only nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here he alleges, " The unerring plan of nature has established three classes of perceptions, and consequently three parts of speech." P. 171. He says this, as if he meant to abide by it. But, on his twenty-third page, we are told, " Every adjective is either a noun or a participle." Now, by his own showing, there are no participles : he makes them all adjectives, in each of his schemes. It follows, therefore, all his adjectives, including what others call participles, are nouns. And this reduces his three parts of speech to two, in spite of " the unerring plan of nature ! " But even this number is more than he well believed in ; for, on the twenty-fir page of the book, he affirms, that, " All other terms are but derivative forms anc new applications of nouns." So simple a thing is this method of grammar ! But Neef, in his zeal for reformation, carries the anticlimax fairly off the brink ; an declares, " In the grammar which shall be the work of my pupils, there shall be found no nouns, no pronouns, no articles, no participles, no verbs, no preposition no conjunctions, no adverbs, no interjection's, no gerunds, not even one single supine. Unmercifully shall they be banished from it." Neef's Method of Edi cation, p. 60. 24. When Cardell's system appeared, several respectable men, convinced by " his powerful demonstrations," admitted that he had made " many things in the established doctrines of the expounders of language appear sufficiently ridicu- lous ; "* and willingly lent him the influence of their names, trusting that his admirable scheme of English grammar, in which their ignorance saw nothing but new truth, would be speedily "perfected and generally embraced."! Being invited by the author to a discussion of his principles, I opposed them in his pres- ence, both privately and publicly; defending against him, not unsuccessfully, those doctrines which time and custom have sanctioned. And, what is remarkable, that candid opposition which Cardell himself had treated with respect, and parried in vain, was afterwards, by some of his converts, impeached of all unfairness, and even accused of wanting common sense. " No one," says Niebuhr, " ever over- * The Friend, 1829, Yol. ii, p. 117. t The Friend, Vol. ii, p. 105. CHAP. XI.] BRIKF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. 123 threw a literary idol, without provokingthe anger of its worshiper*."- Philological Museum. Vol. i, p. 489. The certificates given in commendation of this " set of Opinions," though they had no extensive effect on the public, showed full well that the signers knew little of the history of grammar ; and it is the continual repetition of such things, that induces me now to dwell upon its history, for the information of tho.-e who are so liable to be deceived by exploded errors repub- lished M> novelties. A eulogist says of Cardell, "He had adopted a set of opin- ions, which, to most of his readers, appeared entirely new." A reviewer proved, that all his pretended novelties are to be found in certain grammars now forgotten, or seldom read. The former replies, Then he [Cardell,] is right and the man is no less stupid than abusive, who finds fault ; for here is proof that the former " had high!-. Me authority for almost every thing he has advanced ! " See The Frieii'L Vol. ii, pp. 105 and 116, from which all the quotations in this para- graph, except one, are taken. 25. The reader may now be curious to know what these doctrines were. They ummed up by the reviewer, thus : "Our author pretends to have drawn principally from his own resources, in making up his books ; and many may have supposed there is more mn-clfy in them than there really is. For instance: 1. He classes the articles with adjectives; and so did Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, Dalton, and Welter. 2. He calls the participles, adjectives; and so did Brightland and Tooke. 3. He makes the pronouns, either nouns or adjectives ; and so did Adam, Dalton, and others. 4. He distributes the conjunctions among the other part.- of speech; and so did Tooke. 5. He rejects the interjections; did Valla, Sanctius, and Tooke. 6- He makes the possessive case an ami so did Brightland. 7. He says our language has no cases ; and did Harris. 8. He calls case, position ; and so did James Brown. 9. He Ijectives to two classes, defining and describing ; and so did Dalton. . He declares all verbs to be active ; and so did Harris, (in his Hermes, Book Chap, ix,) though he admitted the expediency of the common division, and t to our author the absurdity of contending about it. Fisher also rejected the of neuter verbs, and called them all active. 11. He reduces the moods to and the h-nscs to three ; and so did Dalton, in the very same words. Fisher also made t' three, but said there are no moods in English. 12. He t he impi'rntii'e mood always future ; and so did Harris, in 1751. Nor did the doctrine originate with him ; for Brightland, a hundred years ago, [about ascribed it to some of his predecessors. 13. He reduces the whole of our syntax to about thirty li/ics ; and two thirds of these are useless ; for Dr. Johns-m expressed it quite as fully in ten. But their explanations are both good nothing ; and Wallis, more wisely, omitted it altogether." The Friend, Vol. -' Dr. V, . ~. in a marginal note to the preface of his Philosophical ininar, " Since the days of Wftl/is. who published a drammar of the English M Latin, in the reign of Charles II. [,] from which Johnson and Lowth borrow, d m<>-f "I their rules, little improvement has been made in Knuli.-h gram- mar. Lowth supplied MM valuable criticisms, mo-t of which however respect ; bur many of his criticisms are extremely erroneous, and they have had an ill effect, in perverting the true idioms of our lauiMia-r. IY furnished a number of new and useful observations on the peculiar phrases of the En ( trli.-li lan-na^e. To which may be added some good remarks of Blair and Campbell, interspersed with many errors. Murray, not having mounted to the original >>urcr> "t' inform;. Vet and nuance the rules has furnished little or nothing new. Of the numerous compilations of inferior character, it may be affirmed, that they have added nothing to the stock of grammatical knowledge." And the concluding sentence of this work, as well as of his Improved Grammar, published in 1831, 124 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. XI. extends the censure as follows : " It is not the English language only whose history and principles are yet to be illustrated ; but the grammars and dictionaries of all other languages, with which I have any acquaintance, must be revised and corrected, before their elements and true construction can be fully understood." In an ad- vertisement to the grammar prefixed to his quarto American Dictionary, the Doctor is yet more severe upon books of this sort. " I close," says he, " with the single remark, that from all the observations I have been able to make, I am convinced the dictionaries and grammars which have been used in our seminaries of learning for the last forty or fifty years, are so incorrect and imperfect that they have in- troduced or sanctioned more errors than they have amended ; in other words, had the people of England and of these States been left to learn the pronunciation and construction of their vernacular language solely by tradition, and the reading of good authors, the language would have been spoken and written with more purity than it has been and now is, by those who have learned to adjust their language by the rules which dictionaries prescribe." 27. Little and much are but relative terms ; yet when we look back to the period in which English grammar was taught only in Latin, it seems extravagant to say, that " little improvement has been made " in it since. I have elsewhere expressed a more qualified sentiment. " That the grammar of our language has made considerable progress since the days of Swift, who wrote a petty treatise on the subject, is sufficiently evident ; but whoever considers what remains to be done, cannot but perceive how ridiculous are many of the boasts and felicitations which we have heard on that topic."* Some further notice will now be taken of that progress, and of the writers who have been commonly considered the chief promo- ters of it, but especially of such as have not been previously mentioned in a like connexion. Among these may be noticed William Walker, the preceptor of Sir Isaac Newton, a teacher and grammarian of extraordinary learning, who died in 1684. He has left us sundry monuments of his taste and critical skill : one is his " Treatise of English Particles," a work of great labour and merit, but useless to most people now-a-days, because it explains the English in Latin ; an other, his "Art of Teaching Improv'd," which is also an able treatise, and apparently well adapted to its object, " the Grounding of a Young Scholar in the Latin Tongue." In the latter, are mentioned other works of his, on " Rhetorick, and Logick" which I have not seen. 28. In 1706, Richard Johnson published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, entitled, " Grammatical Commentaries ; being an Apparatus to a New National Grammar : by way of animadversion upon the falsities, obscurities, redundancies and defects of Lily's System now in use." This is a work of great aeuteness, labour, and learning ; and might be of signal use to any one who shoul( undertake to prepare a new or improved Latin grammar : of which, in my opinion, have yet urgent need. The English grammarian may also peruse it with advantage, if he has a good knowledge of Latin and without such knowledge he must be ill prepared for his task. This work is spoken of and quoted by some of the early English grammarians ; but the hopes of the writer do not appear to have been realized. His book was not calculated to supply the place of the common one; for the author thought it impracticable to make a new grammar, suitable for boys, and at the same time to embrace in it proofs sufficient to remove the prejudices of teachers in favour of the old. King Henry's edict in support of Lily, was yet in force, backed by all the partiality which long habit creates ; and Johnson's learn- ing, and labour, and zeal, were admired, and praised, and soon forgot. 29. Near the beginning of the last century, some of the generous wits of the reign of Queen Anne, seeing the need there was of greater attention to their vernacular language, and of a grammar more properly English than any then in * See tho Preface to my Compendious English Grammar in the American edition of the Treasury of Knowl- edge, Vol. i, p. 8. CHAP. XI.] BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. 125 use, produced a book with which the later writers on the same subjects, would have done well to have made themselves better acquainted. It is entitled "A Grammar of the English Tongue ; with the Arts of Logick, Rhetorick, Poetry, &c. Illus- trated witli u-efiii Notes ; giving the Grounds and Reasons of Grammar in General. The Whole making a Compleat System of an English Education. Published by JOHN Hi;i;iLTLAND, for the Use of the Schools of Great Britain and Ireland." It is ingfniously recommended in a certificate by Sir Richard Steele, or the Tattler, under the fictitious name of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., and in a poem of forty-three lines, by Nahum Tate, poet laureate to her Majesty. It is a duodecimo volume of three hundred pages ; a work of no inconsiderable merit and originality ; and written in a style which, though not faultless, has scarcely been surpassed by any English grammarian since. I quote it as Brightland's :* who were the real authors, does not appear. It seems to be the work of more than one, and perhaps the writers of the Tattler were the men. My copy is of the seventh edition, London, printed for Henry Lintot, 1746. It is evidently the work of very skillful hands ; yet is it not in all respects well planned or well executed. It unwisely reduces the parts of speech to four ; gives them new names ; and rejects more of the old system than the schools could be made willing to give up. Hence it does not ap- pear to have been very extensively adopted. 30. It is now about a hundred aud thirty years, since Dr. Swift, in a public remonstrance addressed to the Earl of Oxford, complained of the imperfect state of our language, and alleged in particular, that " in many instances it offended against every part of grammar "1 J'ifty years afterward, Dr. Lowth seconded this com- plaint, and pressed it home upon the polite and the learned. " Does he mean," says the latter, " that the English language, as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and a< it stands in the writings of the most approved authors, often offends against every part of grammar '( Thus far, I am afraid the chary e is true" Lowth' s Gram. /V//. p. iv. Yet the learned Doctor, to whom much praise has been justly ascribed for the encouragement which he gave to this neglected study, attempted nothing more than "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;'* which, he says, " was calculated for the learner even of the lowest class: " and those who would enter more deeply into the subject, he referred to Harris; whose work is not an English grammar, but "A Philosophical Inquiry concerning Uni- ' Grammar." Lowth's Grammar was first published in 1758. At the com- mencement of his preface, the reverend author, after acknowledging the enlarge- ment, polish, and refinement, which the language had received during the preced- ing two bundled years, ventures to add, "but, whatever other improvements it may have received, it hath made no advances in grammatical accuracy." I do not ijiiute this a-.-'.-rtimi to aiVinn it literally true, in all its apparent breadth; but there i- -r of the correctness even now attained, than to believe that the writers <>n irrammar are not the authors who have in general come nearest * Soni'' .-htlaml himself was the writer of this grammar ; but to suppose him the sole author, hardly r..mpor'- to the Queen, hy her " im.-t ol.edient and Dutiful Sut>j,cts, the Authors;" or with the manner in which these are spoken of, in the following lines, by the laureate : .hat Thank.-, what l'rai-e< mu^t attend . who Mill- could condescend ! Skill, that to An'- -uMime-t Orh e.m reach, Km i ich! we know To mine Their Country's Fame they stoop'd so low." TATE. Ml, in hi> Philosophy of l!het..ric. pnire l. r ,*th, makes a difficulty respecting the meaning of thia cites it as an r 'pplioafion of the term i^nnnrnnr ; and supposes tin- v.rir.-r's notion >in_' to h;i\e |,eeii. ot grammar in the :it..-t i:\i-t. ,1,1 uni ver.-al arhe;\pe b\ which the particular r-iofali l" And add.-. If this wa* hi- i< not Pay he is in the right or in the wrong, in this ac- nsation. I acki -if to !'< entirely ignorant this ideal grammar." It would be more fair to suppo-e that Dr. Swift meant by " t;rnt/itniir," ! the rules .iiul principles according to whi--h the Kngli-h language ought to bespoken and "written ; and. (as I shall Hereafter show.) it is i. .'let.. atVirm, tha- every part of the code nay, well -nigh e\ery one of :hese rules and principle- i-, in many instances, violated, if not hv what may be called the language itself, it least by those speakers and writers who are under the strongest obligations to know and observe its true use. 126 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. XI. to it in practice. Nor have the ablest authors always produced the best compends for the literary instruction of youth. 31. The treatises of the learned doctors Harris, Lowth, Johnson, Ash, Priestley, Home Tooke, Crombie, Coote, and Webster, owe their celebrity not so much to their intrinsic fitness for school instruction, as to the literary reputation of the writers. Of Harris's Hermes, (which, in comparison with our common grammars, is indeed a work of much ingenuity and learning, full of interesting speculations, and written with great elegance both of style and method,) Dr. Lowth says, it is " the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis, that has been exhibited since the days of Aristotle." Pref. to Gram. p. x. But these two authors, if their works be taken together, as the latter intended they should be, supply no sufficient course of English grammar. The instructions of the one are too limited, and those of the other are not specially directed to the subject. 32. Dr. Johnson, who was practically one of the greatest grammarians that ever lived, and who was very nearly coetaneous with both Harris and Lowth, speaks of the state of English grammar in the following terms : "I found our speech copious without order, and eriergetick without rules : wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated." Pref. to Diet. p. 1. Again : " Having therefore no assistance but from general grammar, I applied myself to the perusal of our writers ; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary." Ibid. But it is not given to any one man to do every thing; else, Johnson had done it. His object was, to compile a dictionary, rather than to compose a grammar, of our language. To lexicography, grammar is necessary, as a preparation ; but, as a purpose, it is merely incidental. Dr. Priestley speaks of Johnson thus : " I must not conclude this preface, without making my acknowl- edgements to Mr. Johnson, whose admirable dictionary has been of the greatest use to me in the study of our language. It is pity he had not formed as just, and .as extensive an idea of English grammar. Perhaps this very useful work may still be reserved for his distinguished abilities in this way." Priestley's Gram. ip. xxiii. Dr. Johnson's English Grammar is all comprised in fourteen pages, and HJ done, at least it so appears to him, preparatory to Language. All our efforts of this kin. I -eern to have been "oMonH : one of which is, that our Verbs age bath no Syntax." Wiute't English, Verb, p. viii. 128 INTRODUCTION. [CHAP. XI. was left unfinished by its lamented author ; but it will remain a monument of erudition never surpassed, acquired in spite of wants and difficulties as great as diligence ever surmounted. Like Tooke's volumes, it is however of little use to the mere English scholar. It can be read to advantage only by those who are acquainted with several other languages. The works of Orombie and Ooote are more properly essays or dissertations, than elementary systems of grammar. 36 The number of English grammars has now become so very great, that not even a general idea of the comparative merits or defects of each can here be given. I have examined with some diligence all that I have had opportunity to obtain ; but have heard of several which I have never yet seen. Whoever is curious to examine at large what has been published on this subject, and thus to qualify himself to judge the better of any new grammar, may easily make a collection of one or two hundred bearing different names. There are also many works not called grammars, from which our copyists have taken large portions of their compilations. Thus Murray confessedly copied from ten authors ; five of whom are Beattie, Sheri- dan, Walker, Blair, and Campbell. Dr. Beattie, who acquired great celebrity as a teacher, poet, philosopher, and logician, was well skilled in grammar ; but he treated the subject only in critical disquisitions, and not in any distinct elementary work adapted to general use. Sheridan and Walker, being lexicographers, confined themselves chiefly to orthography and pronunciation. Murray derived sundry prin- ciples from the writings of both ; but the English Grammar prepared by the latter, was written, I think, several years later than Murray's. The learned doctors Blair and Campbell wrote on rhetoric, and not on the elementary parts of grammar. Of the two, the latter is by far the more accurate writer. Blair is fluent and easy, but he furnishes not a little false syntax ; Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric is a very valuable treatise. To these, and five or six other authors whom I have noticed, was Lindley Murray " principally indebted for his materials." Thus far of the famous contributors to English grammar. The Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, delivered at Harvard University by John Quincy Adams, and published in two octavo volumes in 1810, are such as do credit even to that great man ; but they descend less to verbal criticism, and enter less into the peculiar province of the grammarian, than do most other works of a similar title. 37. Some of the most respectable authors or compilers of more general systems of English grammar for the use of schools, are the writer of the British Grammar, Bicknell, Buchanan, William Ward, Alexander Murray the schoolmaster, Mennye, Fisher, Lindley Murray, Fenning, Allen, Grant, David Blair, Lennie, Guy, Churchill. To attempt any thing like a review or comparative estimate of the would protract this introduction beyond all reasonable bounds ; and still other would be excluded, which are perhaps better entitled to notice. Of mere modifit and abridgers, the number is so great, and the merit or fame so little, that I will n< trespass upon the reader's patience by any further mention of them or their works. Whoever takes an accurate and comprehensive view of the history and present state of this branch of learning, though he may not conclude, with Dr Priestley, that it is premature to attempt a complete grammar of the language, can scarcely forbear to coincide with Dr. Barrow, in the opinion that among all the treatises heretofore produced no such grammar is found. " Some superfluities have been expunged, some mistakes have been rectified, and some obscurities have been cleared ; still, however, that all the grammars used in our different schools, public as well as private, are disgraced by errors or defects, is a complaint as just as it is frequent and loud." Barrow's Essays, p. 83. 38. Whether, in what I have been enabled to do, there will be found a remedy for this complaint, must be referred to the decision of others. Upon the probability of effecting this, I have been willing to stake some labour ; how much, and with what merit, let the candid and discerning, when they shall have examined for themselves, judge. It is certain that we have hitherto had, of our language, no CHAP. XI.] BRIEF NOTICES OP THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS. 129 complete grammar. The need of such a work I suppose to be at this time in no small degree felt, especially by those who conduct our higher institutions of learn- ing ; and my ambition has been to produce one which might deservedly stand along side of the Port-Royal Latin and Greek Grammars, or of the Grammaire des Grammaires of Girault du Vivier. If this work is unworthy to aspire to such rank, let the patrons of English literature remember that the achievement of my design is still a desideratum. We surely have no other book which might, in any sense, have been called " the Grammar of English Grammars ;" none, which, either by excellence, or on account of the particular direction of its criticism, might take such a name. I have turned the eyes of Grammar, in an especial manner, upon the conduct of her own household ; and if, from this volume, the reader acquire a more just idea of the ynnnttmr which is displayed in English grammars, he will dis- cover at least one reason for the title which has been bestowed upon the work. Such as the book is, I present it to the public, without pride, without self-seeking, and without anxiety : knowing that most of my readers will be interested in estimating itjxsfly ; that no true service, freely rendered to learning, can fail of its end ; and that no achievement merits aught with Him who graciously supplies all ability. The opinions expressed in it have been formed with candour, and are offered with submission. If in any thing they are erroneous, there are those who can detect their faults. In the language of an ancient master, I invite the correction of the candid : " Nos quoque, quantumcunque diligentes, cum a candidis tiim a lividis carpemur : a candidis interdum juste ; quos oro, ut de erratis omnibus amice me admoneant erro nonnunquam quiahomo sum." Despauter. GOOLD BROWN. New York, 1836. THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. GRAMMAR, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisition, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is the practical science which teaches the right use of language. ir is a book which professes to explain the nature and structure of the English language ; and to show, on just authority, what is. :ui I what i< not, good English. K\>;LISII GRAMMAR, in itself, is the art of reading, writing, and speaking the English language correctly. It implies, in the adept, such knowledge as enables him to avoid improprieties of speech ; to correct any errors that may occur in literary compositions ; and to parse, or explain grammatically, whatsoever is rightly written. To read is to perceive what is written or printed, so as to understand the words, and be able to utter them with their proper sounds. To write is to express words and thoughts by letters, or characters, made with a pen or other instrument. To fsj-'t/c i< to utter words orally, in order that they may be heard and understood. f Grammar, like every other liberal art, can be properly taught only by a regular analysis, or systematic elucidation, of its component parts or prim-, pies ; and these parts or principles* must be made known chiefly by means of definitions and examples, rules and exercises. A j if any thing or class of things is such a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every thing else, by briefly telling n'iuit it is. An H a particular instance or model, serving to prove or illus- trate sonic given proposition or truth. A /-//A "/' iirmnmnr is some law, more or less general, by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of language. An is some technical performance required of the learner in order to bring his knowledge and skill into practice. LAN in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only vocal ex- pression, or human speech uttered by the mouth ; but after letters were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, spoken 132 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. and written ; so that the term, language, now signifies, any series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expression of thought. Of the composition of language we have also two kinds, prose and verse ; the latter requiring a certain number and variety of syllables in each line, but the former being free from any such restraint. The least parts of written language are letters ; of spoken language, syllables ; of language significant in each part, words ; of language com- bining thought, phrases ; of language subjoining sense, clauses ; of language completing sense, sentences. A discourse, or narration, of any length, is but a series of sentences ; which, when written, must be separated by the proper points, that the meaning and relation of all the words may be quickly and clearly per- ceived by the reader, and the whole be uttered as the sense requires. In extended compositions, a sentence is usually less than a paragraph ; a paragraph, less than a section ; a section, less than a chapter ; a chapter, less than a book ; a book, less than a volume ; and a volume, less than the entire work. The common order of literary division, then, is ; of a large work, into volumes ; of volumes, into books ; of books, into chapters ; of chapters, into sections ; of sections, into paragraphs ; of paragraphs, into sentences ; of sentences, into clauses ; of clauses, into phrases ; of phrases, into words ; of words, into syllables ; of syllables, into letters. But it rarely happens that any one work requires the use of all these divisions ; and we often assume some natural distinction and order of parts, naming each as we find it; and also subdivide into articles, verses, cantoes, stanzas, and other portions, as the nature of the subject suggests. Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. Etymology treats of the differentials of speech, with their classes and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. In the Introduction to this work, have been taken many views of the study, or general science, of grammar ; many notices of its history, with STindry criti- cisms upon its writers or critics ; and thus language has often been presented to the reader's consideration, either as a whole, or with broader scope than belongs to the teaching of its particular forms. We come now to the work of analyzing our own tongue, and of laying down those special rules and principles which should guide us in the use of it, whether in speech or in writing. The author intends to dissent from other grammarians no more than they are found to dissent from truth and reason ; nor will he expose their errors further than is necessary for the credit of the science and the information of the learner. A candid critic can have no satisfaction merely in linding fault with other men's performances. But the facts are not to be concealed, that many pretenders to grammar have shown themselves exceedingly superficial in their knowl- edge, as well as slovenly in their practice ; and that many vain composers of books have proved themselves d^jtlm-rs of this study, by the abundance of their inaccuracies, and the obviousness of their solecisms. OBS. 2. Some grammarians have taught that the word language is of much broader signification, than that which is given to it in the definition above. I confine it to speech and writing. For the propriety of this limitation, and against those authors who describe the thing otherwise, I appeal to the common sense of mankind. One late writer defines it thus : " LANGUAGE is any means by which one person communicates his TUB GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 133 to another." Sanders' Spelling -Book, p. 7. Dr. Webster goes much further, and says ''LANGUAGE, in ite most extensive sense, is the instrument or means of commu- nicating ideas ami (tjfi-efiotts of the mind and body, from one animal to another. In this sense, brutes possess the power of language ; for by various inarticulate sounds, they make known their wants, desires, and sufferings." Philosophical dram.\). 11 ; Imj>rorcd dram. p. ";. This latter definition the author of that vain book, "//// Dint rid School" has adopted in his chapter on Grammar. Sheridan, the celebrated actor and orthoi'pist, though he --ei ms to confine language to the human s])eeies. gives it such an extension as to make- words no necessary part of its essence. " The first thought," says he, " that would occur to every one, who had not properly considered the point, is, that language is compo-i-d of words. And yet, this is so far from being an adequate idea of language, that the point in which most men think its very essence to consist, is not even a necessary property of language. For language, in its full extent, means, any way or method whatsoever, by which all that y/^ssr.s /// the mind of one man, may be manifested to another. "Sheriilans Lectures on F.lwution, p. 129. Again : "I have already xhoint, that words are, in their own nature, no essential part of language, and arc only considered so through custom." Ib. p. 135. OKS. :;. According to S. Kirkham's notion, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, . implies those signs by which men and brutes, communicate to each other their thoughts, ;ions and desires." Kirkhum's Kiigliah drain, p. 16. Again: " The language f bruffft consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts Ib. To me it seems a shameful abuse of speech, and a vile descent from the dignity of grammar, to make the voiqes of "brutes" any part of language, as taken in a literal sense. NYe might with far more propriety raise our conceptions of it to the spheres above, and construe literally the metaphors of David, who ascribes to the starry heavens, both "speech" said " lungn " and " words" daily " uttered " and everywhere " h'-ard." See I'talm xix. ;. l!ut, strange as it may seem, Kirkham, commencing his instructions with the definition of language, proceeds to divide it, agreeably to this notion, into two '/(if and artificial and affirms that the former " is common both to man and brute," and that the language which is peculiar to man, the language which, consists of altogether an artificial invention : * thereby contradicting at once a host of the I grammarians and philosophers, and that without appearing to know it. llur thisil rranuv, since he immediately forgets his own definition and division iecr, and as plainly contradicts himself. Without limiting the term at all, without excluding his fanciful "language of brutes" he says, on the next leaf, " Lan- , and not only inceiited, but, in its progressive advancement, raried ..raetieul cunrcnience. Hence it assumes any and ever;/ form which those who make u^e of it, choose to give it." Kir!; hum's dram. p. 18. This, though scarcely more rational than his " nafnral Ian-; ,md brufen," plainly annihilates thatques- tioi. _nimmatical science, whether brutal or human, by making all lan- a ihiiiLr conventional" and " inn-ntnl." In short, it leaves no ground at all for any grammatical science of a positive character, because it resolves all forms of language into the irresponsible will of those who utter any words, sounds, or n ( )u>. '>. Nor ix this gentleman more fortunate in his explanation of what may really be called I On one pa^r, \\<- B8 / lannuage, or tij>eech, is made up of articulate w,,nmU uttered by the human voice." Kirkham's dram. p. 1". On the next, "The mo-t important use of that facnltij called xjieci-h, is, to convey our thoughts to other>." /'-. ]>. IS. Thus the irrammarian who, in the same short paragraph, seems to Miiity of man to give his words any other meaning than that which he . ]>. 1!). ) eitlu r \\ -rites so badly as to make any ordinary trivial, or actually conceives man tube the inventor of one of his own t make man the contriver of that "natural language 1 " which union with the Unites:" a lanu r uau r e " '/'//,- )ne. m tliat in \\hirli .1 ;!>!>. talked ;i langu.T_'i- (juirt On the <.tlier hand, that Mkicli is couij /o. only, aud not of letters, includes but a mere fractiou of the :-deuce. 134 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. noticed these things, had not the book which teaches them, been made popular by a thousand imposing attestations to its excellence and accuracy. For grammar has nothing at all to do with inarticulate voices, or the imaginary languages of brutes. It is scope enough for one science to explain all the languages, dialects, and speeches, that lay claim to reason. We need not enlarge the field, by descending " To beasts, whom * God on their creation-day Created mute to all articulate sound." Milton.^ PART I. OKTHOGRAPHY. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. CHAPTER L-OF LETTERS. A Letter is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of the human voice. An elementary sound of the human voice, is one of the simple sounds which compose a spoken language. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power : when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be silent or mute. The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six ; the simple sounds which they represent, are about thirty-six. A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these four sorts of things ; their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or engraved, in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes ; and yet are always the same, because their names and powers do not change. The following are some of the different sorts of types, or letters, with which every reader should be early acquainted : 1. The Roman : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Zz. 2. The Italic : A a, B b, O c, D d, E e, F f, G- g, Eh, li, Jj, Kk, LI, Mm, Nn, o, P p, Q q, Rr, S s, T t, U u, Vv, Ww, X x, Yy,Zz. 3. The Script: ^ 4. The Old English: 31 a, JJ I), (S C, b, < e, J f, g, f) Ij, J t, 3 ], K If, C 1, iH m, N n, o, fl p, q, K r, S\ a t, H n, i) , IB nj, X *, 8 a, 2 }. * The pronoun whom is not properly applicable to beasts, unless they are personified : the relative which would therefore have been preferable here. G. B. f'The great difference between men and brutes, in the utterance of sound by the mouth, consists in the power of articulation in man, and the entire want of it in brutes." Websttrs Improved Gram. p. 8. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. 135 OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. A letter consists not in the figure only, or in the power only, but in the figure and power united ; as an erabassador consists not in the man only, or in the commission only, but in the man commissioned. The figure and the power, therefore, are neces- sary to constitute the letter ; and a name is as necessary, to tell what it is. The class of a letter is determined by the nature of its power, or sound ; as the embassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise, according to the extent of his commission. To all but the deaf and dumb, written language is the representative of that which is spoken ; so that, in the view of people in general, the powers of the letters are habitually identified witli their sounds, and are conceived to be nothing else. Hence any given sound, or modification of sound, which all men can produce at pleasure, when abitrarily asso- ciated with a written sign, or conventional character, constitutes what is called a . Thus we may produce the sounds of a, e, o, then, by a particular compression of the organs of utterance, modify them all, into ba, be, bo, orfa,fe,fo; and we shall see that a, e, and o, are letters of one sort, and b and /, of an other. By elementary or arficuhtte sounds,* then, we mean not only the simple tones of the voice itself, but the modifying stops and turns which are given them in speech, and marked by letters : the real voices constituting vowels ; and their modifications, consonants. 2. A mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given, cannot be a letter; though it may, like the marks used for punctuation, deserve a name and a place in grammar. Commas, semicolons, and the like, represent silence, rather than sounds, and are therefore not letters. Nor are the Arabic figures, which represent entire words, nor again any symbols standing for things, (as the astronomic marks for the sun, the moon, the planets,) to be confounded with letters; because the representative of any word or number, of any name or thing, differs widely in its power, from the sign of a simple elementary sound : i. e. from any constituent part of a written word. The first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes stand for the whole, and is still a letter ; but . us being the first element of the word, and not as being the representative of the whole. :$. In their definitions of vowels and consonants, many grammarians have re- solved letters into sounds only ; as, "A Vowel is an articulate sound," &c. "A Conso- nant is an articulate sound," &c. L. Murray's Gram. p. 7. But this confounding of the M_ r us with the things which they signify, is very far from being a true account of either. Besides, letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which is independent of all sound, though speech, doubtless, is what they properly represent. In practice, almost all the letters may occasionally happen to be silent; yet are they not, in these cases, necessarily useless. The deaf and dumb also, to whom none of the express or represent 'sounds, may be taught to read and write understandingly. They even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented syllables, and to have some notion of quantity, or of something else equivalent to it ; for some of them, it is said, can compose verses according to the rules of prosody. Hence it would , that the powers of the letters are not, of necessity, identified with their sounds; the things being in some respect distinguishable, though the terms are commonly taken .us. The fact is, that a word, whether spoken or written, iS of itself ^///whether its corresponding form be known or not. Hence, in the one form, it perfectly intelligible to the illiterate, and in the other, to the educated deaf and dumb ; while, to the learned who hear and speak, either form immediately suggests the other, with the meaning common to both. l. ( hir knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by the ancieir md I'hu-nicians. Moses is supposed to have written in characters which were nearly the same as th-M- called Samaritan, but his writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular, called the Chaldee or Chaldaic, which is said to have been made by K/ra the scribe, when he wrote out a new copy of the law, after the rebuilding of the temple. Cadmus carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, where it was subsequently altered and enlarged. The small letters were not / is not a simple element of speech, but rather a complex one, . But our grammarians in general, have applied u'T'l, iinli-criniiiiiitely : for which reason, it seems i of a syllable consist* - a syllable." /.< .'/on, p. 62. If lit in tliis. i ra properly, none of them can singly represent The looseness induces me to add or pn-fer an other. "The i -ho come* as near as an the trut- definition "fa 1. li The si.mi'U UM-,I in language are call- u-i-1 in printing or an arliculat- ,,. p. '. \t, 1 A the in;i:k of a tfiund, or -rly railed . Is formed by the concourse of vowels and consonants, articulate sounds." Latin and Engluk Gram. p. 1 and 2. 136 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. invented till about the seventh, century of our era. The Latins, or Romans, derived most of their capitals from the Greeks ; but their small letters, if they had any, were made afterwards among themselves. This alphabet underwent various changes, and received very great improvements, before it became that beautiful series of characters which we now use, under the name of Roman letters. Indeed these particular forms, which are now justly preferred by many nations, are said to have been adopted after the invention of printing. " The Roman letters were first used by Sweynheim and Pannartz, printers who settled at Rome, in 1467. The earliest work printed wholly in this charac- ter in England, is said to have been Lily's or Paul's Accidence, printed by Richard Pinson, 1518. The Italic letters were invented by Aldus Manutius at Rome, towards the close of the fifteenth century, and were first used in an edition of Virgil, in 1501." Constable s Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 147. The Saxon alphabet was mostly Roman. Not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms. But the changes, though few, give to a printed page a very different appearance. Under William the Conqueror, this alphabet was superseded by the modern Gothic, Old English, or Black letter ; which, in its turn, happily gave place to the present Roman. The Germans still use a type similar to the Old English, but not so heavy. OBS. o. I have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an acquaint- ance with their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present what seems most worthy of the learner's atten- tion at first, and shall reserve for the appendix a more particular account of these im- portant elements. The most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in general most inquisitive. Hence many, who think themselves suf- ficiently acquainted with the letters, do in fact know but very little about them. If a person is able to read some easy book, he is apt to suppose he has no more to learn re- specting the letters ; or he neglects the minute study of these elements, because he sees what words they make, and can amuse himself with stories of things more interesting. But merely to understand common English, is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship, and especially for a teacher. For one may do this, and even be a great reader, without ever being able to name the letters properly, or to pronounce such syllables as ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, without getting half of them wrong. No one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has learned it ; and if we neglect the elements of grammar, our attainments must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial. I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and written in Eng- lish, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, G-ee, Aitch, I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Km, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy, Zee. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. With the learning and application of these names, our literary education begins ; with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling, it is for a long time carried on ; nor can ve ever dispense with them, but by substituting others, or by ceasing to mention the things thus named. What is obviously indispensable, needs no proof of its import- ance. But I know not whether it has ever been noticed, that these names, like those of the days of the week, are worthy of particular distinction, for their own nature. They are words of a very peculiar kind, being nouns that are at once both proper and common. For, in respect to rank, character, and design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical that is, it is ever one and the same ; yet, in an other respect, it is a com- prehensive sort, embracing individuals both various and numberless. Thus every B is a b, make it as you will ; and can be nothing else than that same letter b, though you make it in a thousand different fashions, and multiply it after each pattern innumerably. Here, then, we see individuality combined at once with great diversity, and infinite multipli- city ; and it is to this combination, that letters owe their wonderful power of transmitting thought. Their names, therefore, should always be written with capitals, as proper nouns ; and should form the plural regularly, as ordinary appellatives. Thus : (if we adopt the names now most generally used in English schools :) A, Acs ; Bee, Bees ; Cee Gees ; Dee, Dees ; E, Ees ; Eff, Effs ; Gee, Gees ; Aitch, Aitches ; I, les ; Jay, Jays ; Kay, Kays ; Ell, Ells ; Em, Ems ; En, Ens ; O, Oes ; Pee, Pees ; Kue, Kites ; Ar, Ars ; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ues ; Vee, Vees ; Double-u, Double-ues ; Ex, Exes ; Wy, Wies ; Zee, Zees. OBS. 2. The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages, are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power : for A, E, I, O, and U, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which CIIAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. - LETTERS. NAMES. 137 their names express. The simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insuffi- cient to form any name, and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, that did we not know how education has been tritied with, it would be hard to believe even Murray, when he says, "They are frequently confounded by writ- ers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the name, are often applied to explain the iHtfitfi' of a consonant ; and by this means the student is led into error and perplex- ity." /.. Murray** <'/"//!. Svo, p. 8. The confounding of names with the things for which they stand, implies, unquestionably, great carele.-sness in the use of speech, and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things ; yet so common is this error, that Murray himself has many times fallen into it.* Let the learner therefore be on his guard, remembering that grammar, both in its study and in its practice, requires the coastai: "f a rational discernment. Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accent- ed syllable; thus the names. A, E, /, O, U, are uttered with the sounds ^iven to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, JW, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, I'rim ; or in the lirst syllables of the common words, paper, pi-nal, pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, mo-t of whi<-h can never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their mibmed with other sounds more vocal ; as, Bee, Cee,Dee, Ell, Em, En, ."/, KKI-. lint in this respect the terms Aitch and Double- u are irregular; because they have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named. :5. Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of by their : nor can they be spoken of otherwise ; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substi- tuted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice. Our dictionaries, by a strange oversight or negligence, do not recognize them as words ; and writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either authority or analogy. What they are, or ought to be, has therefore been treated as a trifling question : and, what is still more surprising, several authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them ; while others, here at the very threshold of instruction, teach falsely giving "//<" for .!/>> tor an answer, as would most of our college tutors now, were they asked, by what M-ries of names the lloimui youth were taught to spell. Might not Quintilian or Yarro have obliged many, by recording these: As it is, \vc are indebted Of this sort of blunder, the foil 'fmi-ioi! j- .-m ii>st;n:tll letter, the. name of All this is ju-t as true of ft e which the writer? in- nt. to s.iy. tha- ir is a 1,-tter. and th:it rhe iM.uhin teaches, that tin- i. nines of all t: i'lirr which . : n. Ho-* ... ir oamee ' t A. r.. C, i>. K 1, .1. K -. 'I . i . \ . i> u )ii.-h of Hi- < arc . . [>. 7. If m\ \uirth\ friend K".. >, <,r ( ..n.-ido-cd u-ltat are tkt .itin.ar ih.-ni tliis. liii.il i>hr;i-f. "to u T . it/, to a tittle, a jut. an Briti.-h juH-t Cauihi.ru. liii ter, known how to write the name of " T," he would .-'1 it in the follow" ,:i'le tliat he ' T." British P of a D.,rie \i." /' The critical reader will gee that " seems " should be seem, to agree with its nominative " ruins." 138 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. to Priscian, a grammarian of the sixth. Century, for almost all we know about them. But even the information which may be had, on this point, has been strangely over- looked by our common Latin grammarians.* What, but the greater care of earlier writers, has made the Greek names better known or more important than the Latin ? In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must have established for the letters a certain set of names, which are the only true ones, and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local or unauthorized. In this, however, as in other things, use may sometimes vary, and possibly improve ; but when its decisions are clear, no feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them. Every parent, therefore, who would have his children instructed to read and write the English language, should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters as they are commonly named in English. A Scotch gentleman of good education informs me, that the names of the letters, as he first learned them in a school in his own country, were these : " A, Ib, EC, Id, E, Iff, Ig, Ich, I, Ij, Ik, 111, Im, In, O, Ip, Kue, Ir, Iss, It, U, Iv, Double-u, Ix, Wy, Iz ; " but that in the same school the English names are now used. It is to be hoped, that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage, and name the letters as they ought to be named ; and that the day will come, ,in which the regular English orthography of these terms, shall be steadily preferred, ignorance of it be thought a disgrace, and the makers of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a thousand times better known than their own. OBS. 5. It is not in respect to their orthography alone, that these first words in liter- ature demand inquiry and reflection : the pronunciation of some of them has often been taught erroneously, and, with respect to three or four of them, some writers have attempted to make an entire change from the customary forms which I have recorded. Whether the name of the first letter should be pronounced "Aye," as it is in England, "Ah," as it is in Ireland, or "Aw" as it is in Scotland, is a question which Walker has largely discussed, and clearly decided in favour of the first sound ; and this decision accords with the universal practice of the schools in America. It is remarkable that this able critic, though he treated minutely of the letters, neglected the names of them all, except the first and the last. Of. Zee, (which has also been called Zed, Zad, Izzard, Uz- zard,)-\- he says, " Its common name is izzard, which Dr. Johnson explains into s hard; if, however, this is the meaning, it is a gross misnomer : for the z is not the hard, but the soft * , j but as it has a less sharp, and therefore not so audible a sound, it is not im- possible but it may mean s surd. Zed, borrowed from the French, is the more fashionable name of this letter ; but, in my opinion, not to be admitted, because the names of the letters ought to have no diversity " Walker's Principles, No. 483. It is true, the name of a letter ought to be one, and in no respect diverse ; but where diversity has already obtained, and become firmly rooted in custom, is it to be obviated by insisting upon what is old-f dshioned, awkward, and inconvenient ? Shall the better usage give place to the worse ? Uniformity cannot be so reached. In this country, both Zed and Izzard, as well as the worse forms Zad and Uzzard, are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term Zee ; and whoever will spell aloud, with each of these names, a few such words as dizzy, mizzen, gizzard, may easily perceive why none of the former can ever be brought again into use. I give up all four ; Zed to the French, and the rest to oblivion. OBS. 6. By way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter, Walker observes, "Ifadiversityofnam.es to vowels did not confound us in our spelling, or declaring to each other the component letters of a word, it would he entirely needless to enter into so trifling a question as the mere name of a letter ; but when we find our- selves unable to convey signs to each other on account of this diversity of names, and that words themselves are endangered by an improper utterance of their component * Lily, reckoning without the H, J, or V, speaks of the Latin letters as " twenty-two ;" but says nothing concerning their names. Ruddinian, Adam, Grant, Gould, and others, who include the H. J, and V, rightly state the number to be " twf.nty-five. ; " but, concerning their name?, are likewise entirely silent. Andrews and Stoddard. not admitting the K, teach thus : ' ; The letters of the Latin language are twenty-font. They have the same names as the corresponding characters in English " Andrews and Stoddard's LatinCrram. p.l. A later author speaks thus : " The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, th? sam? in name and form as the English, but without the to." Bullions' s Latin Gram. p. 1. It would probably be nearer to the truth, to say, " The Latin Alphabet, like the French, has no \V ; it consists of twenty-five letters, which are the same in name and form as the French.' 1 '' Will it be pretended that the French names and the English do not differ 1 t "Z z, zed, more commonly called izzard or uzzard, that is, s hard.'" 1 Dr. Johnsqn's Gram. p. 1. u And how she sooth'd me when with study sad I labourd on to reach the final ///." Crabbers Borough, p. 228. t William Bolles, in his new Dictionary, says of the letter Z: ' Tts sound is uniformly that of a hard S." The IMOTI*, however. he pronounces as I do; though he writes it not '/.f.e but zc ; giving not the (trtimgra- phi/ of rhe n:inie. MS he should have done, but a mere imlcx of its pronunciation. U'alker proves by citations from Professor Ward and Dr. \Vallis, that these authors considered the sharp or hissing sound of s the " hard " sound ; and the/to sound, like that of z, its " soft " sound. See his Diet. 8vo, p. 53. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. NAMES. 139 parts, it seems highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point, which, in- significant as it may" seem, is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and regular pronun- ciation." Dirt, under A. It' diversity in this matter is so perplexing, what shall w to those who are attempting innovations without assigning reasons, or even pretending authority and if a knowledge of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation, what shall we think of him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write them ? He who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing, cannot deal honestly, if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement, to any estab- lished and undisturbed usage of the language ; for, in grammar, no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom. The best usage can never be that which is little known, nor can it be well ascertained and taught by him who knows little. Inquisitive minds are ever curious to learn the nature, origin, and causes of things ; and that instruction is the most useful, which is best calculated to gratify this rational curiosity. This is my apology for dwelling so long upon the present topic. ( ) H> . 7. The names originally given to the letters were not mere notations of sound, intended solely to express or make known the powers of the several characters then in u>e ; nor ought even the modern names of our present letters, though formed with special reference to their sounds, to be considered such. Expressions of mere sound, such as the notations in a pronouncing dictionary, having no reference to what is meant by the sound, do not constitute words at all; because they are not those acknowh s to which a meaning has been attached, and are consequently without that signifi- cance which is an essential property of words. But, in every language, there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical characters are commonly known in speech ; and which, as they are the acknowledged names of these particular objects, must be en- titled to a place among the words of the language. It is a great error to judge otherwise ; and a greater to make it a " trifling question " in grammar, whether a given letter shall be called by one name or by another. "Who shall say that Daleth, Delta, and Dee, are not thr i h equally important in the language to which it properly belongs ? ive always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated; and as the forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations, and have be- come dilferent in different languages, there has necessarily followed a change of the names. I:\ir. whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the diversity which has thence arisen, to name these elements in a set of foreign terms, 1 inconsistent with the genius of the lan_ learned, would surely be attended with a tenfold greater. \Ve derived our letters, and their names too, from the Romans ; but this is no good reason why the latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and pronounced in 1; 8. The names of the twenty-two letters in Hebrew, are, without dispute, pro; ;'.'e not only significant of the letters thus named, but have in gen.-ral. if not in every instance, some other meaning in that language. Thus themys- iiihers which the Kniilish reader meets with, and wonders over, as he reads the ll'.'th I'salm, may be resolved, according to some of the Hebrew grammars, as follows : {^ Aleph, A. an ox, or a leader; ^ Beth, Bee, a house; Jj Gimel, Gee, a camel ; "J i door ; ,-f He. K. she, or behold ; ^ Vau, U, a hook, or a nail; f Zain, .i'>ur:.n ( 'ht.-th, or Heth, Aiteh, a he. a la-is. or support ; y Ain, or Oin, O, an eye, ora well: I 1 . iVe. a lip, or month : y T/.addi, or Tsaclhe, Tee-zee, (i. e. tz, or ts,) a hunter's pole: p K..ph, Km-, nr Kay. an ape; ^ Kesri), or llesh, Ar, a head; & Schin, or Sin. K -aiteh. .r K-s. a tooth; j-\ Tan, or Thau, Tee, or Tee-aitch, across, or mark. if The Hebrew letters are written with much less uniformity than th there has been more dispute respecting their powers. Thi< i- .\..uld have expected; sinre the Hebrew na: iriginally than the letters, and the Greek are not. ,^inal pmnunci [s admitted to be lost, or involved in so much ohv.'iirity t -.vely affirmed about it; and yet, win known, gramma 1 .' 'ir; which are formed, named, and sounded, ti. A (i. Ali. hi. a: 15 3, I' y, (lamina. , Nu, n ; H , XI, x ; O o, Omicron, o short ; n TT, Pi. p ; P p, Rho, r ; 2 a- s, Sigma, s ; T r, Tau, t ; Y v, Upsilon, u ; $ <, Phi, ph ; X x, Chi, ch ; >//, Psi, ps ; Q o>, Omega, o long. Of these names, our English dictionaries explain the first and the last; and Webster lias denned Iota, and Zeta, but without reference to the meaning of the former in Greek. Beta, Delta, Lambda, and perhaps some others, are also found in the etymologies or de- finitions of Johnson and Webster, both of whom spell the word Lambda and its deriva- tive lambdoidal without the silent b, which is commonly, if not always, inserted by the authors of our Greek grammars, and which Worcester, more properly, retains. Oiis. 10. The reader will observe that the foregoing names, whether Greek or Hebrew, are in general much less simple than those which our letters now bear ; and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those languages, he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was gained when to each letter there was given a short name, expressive, as ours mostly are, of its ordinary power. This improvement appears to have been introduced by the Romans, whose names for the letters were even more simple than our own. But so negligent in respect to them have been the Latin grammarians, both ancient and modern, that few even of the learned can tell what they really were in that language ; or how they differed, either in orthography or sound, from those of the English or the French, the Hebrew or the Greek. Most of them, however, may yet be ascertained from Priscian, and some others of note among the ancient philologists ; so that by taking from later authors the names of those letters which, were not used in old times, we can still furnish an entire list, concerning the accuracy of which there is not much room to dispute. It is probable that in the ancient pronunciation of Latin, a was commonly sounded as in father ; e like the English a ; i mostly like e long ; y like i short ; c generally and g always hard, as in come and go. But, as the original, native, or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an understanding of when written, the existing nations have severally, in a great measure, accommodate themselves, in their manner of reading this and other ancient tongues. OBS. 11. As the Latin language is now printed, its letters are twenty-five. Like French, it has all that belong to the English alphabet, except the Double-u. But, the first Punic war, the Romans wrote C for G, and doubtless gave it the power as well the place of the Gamma or Gimel. It then seems to have slid into K ; but they used it also for S, as we do now. The ancient Saxons, generally pronounced C as Iv, but some- times as Ch. Their G was either guttural, or like our Y. In some of the early Englis 1 - grammars the name of the latter is written Ghee. The letter F, when first invented, w; called, from its shape, Digamma, and afterwards Ef. J, when it was first distinguish^ from I, was called by the Hebrew name Jod, and afterwards Je. V, when first tinguished from U, was called Yau, then Ya, then Ye. Y, when the Romans first bor- rowed it from the Greeks, was called Ypsilon ; and Z, from the same source, was calk " Zeta; and, as these two letters were used only in words of Greek origin. I know IK whethei they ever received from the Romans any shorter names. In Schneider's Latii Grammar, the letters are named in the following manner ; except Je and Ye, which ai omitted by this author : "A, Be, Ce, De, E, Ef, Ge, Ha, I, [Je,] Ka, El, Em, En, O, Pe, Cu, Er, Es, Te, U, [Ve,] Ix, Ypsilon, Zeta." And this I suppose to be the m proper way of writing their names in Latin, unless we have sufficient authority fc shortening Ypsilon into Y, sounded as short i, and for changing Zeta into Ez. OBS. 12. In many, if not in all languages, the five vowe.ls, A, E, I, O, U, name thei selves ; but they name themselves differently to the ear, according to the different way; of uttering them in different languages. And as the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also may be affected in the same manner. But in cvt language there should be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name the series ; and that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to th genius of the UOKJIKKJC. I do not say that the names above can be regularly declined ' Latin; but in English it is as easy to ^peak of two Dees as of two trees, of two Kays of two days, of two Exes as of two foxes, of two Effs as of two skiffs ; and there ought to be no more difficulty about the correct way of writing the word in the one case, than in the other. In Dr. Sam. Prat's Latin Grammar, (an elaborate octavo, all Latin, published in London, 1722,) nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes ; b, c, d, g, p, q, t, j, and \ ; and eight, semivowels ; f, 1, m, n, r, s, x, z. "All the mutes," says this author, " are named by placing c after them ; as, be, cc, dc, ge, except q, which ends in u." See p. 8. "The semivowels, beginning with e, end in themselves ; as, ef, ach, el, em, en, er, es, ex, (or, as Priscian will have it, ix,} eds." See p. 9. This mostly accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph ; and so far as it does not, I judge the author to be wrong. The reader will observe that the Doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete : Iv is a mute which is not enumerated, and the rule would make the name of it Ke, and not Ka H is not one of his eight semivowels, nor does CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. CLASSES. 141 the name . Irh accord with his rule or seem like a Latin word ; the name of Z, according to his principle, would be Kz and not " Edx," although the latter may better indicate the sound which was then given to this letter. 13. If the history of these names exhibits diversity, so does that of almost all n\\* ; and yet there is some way of writing every word with correctness, and cor- rectness tends to permanence. But Time, that establishes authority, destroys i when he fairly sanctions newer customs. To all names worthy to be known, it is natural to wish a perpetual uniformity ; but it' any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar, let him open the English Bible of the fourteenth century, and read a few viug the nan.i-s. For instance : " Forsothe whanne I'.i-o/tJr \vas to bring- . th hym, in that nigt l\'tir was slepynge bitwixe tweync knytis." Dedis, (i. e. that is to dcnnnue the quyke and deed." 2 Tim. iv, 1. Since this was written for English, our language has changed much, and at thr [uired, by means of the press, some aids to stability. I have recorded above the if the letters, as they are now used, with something of their history; and if there could be in human works any tiling unchangeable, I should wish, (with due defer- all schemers and fault-finders,) that these names might remain the same forever. 11. If any change is desirable in our present names of the letters, it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of 1> . Hut can we change th: known name? I imagine it would be about as easy to change Alpha, Upsilon, or o and perhaps it would be as useful. Let Dr. Webster, or any defender of his spelling, try it. He never named the English letters rightly ; long ago discarded the term D<> and is not yet tired of his experiment with "oo ; " but thinks still to make the vowel sound of this letter its name. Yet he writes his new name wrong ; has no authority for it but his own ; and is, most certainly, reprehensible for the innovation.* If IT is to - a vowel, it ought to . '. as other vowels do, and not to take two (h-s v ritten name. Who that knows what it is, to name a letter, can think of naming 1 hat it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this simple affair ot' naming the letters, may appear not only from the foregoing instance, but from \viim qu'Ta'ioii : "Among the thousand mismanagements of literary instruction, -e.t in the hornbook, thepret-n<-- 1<> rapr ./In/-// Noi/nds by sylla- 1 of two or more elements ; as, Be, Kti>/. Zed, Double-u, and Aitch. These onls arc used in infancy, and through life, as simpk- dcim-nts in the process of synthetic ilinu r . It' the definition of a con.vmiinf was made by the master from the practice ild, it might suggest pity for the pedagogue, but should not make us forget the f nature." Dr. Jla-t/i, un tin' l'//i/'^oji//i/ <>f tlu- llanian Voice, p. o'l. This is a ; lle^ation to come from such a source. If I bid a boy spell the word why, he ys, Doublc-u, Aitch, Wy, hwi ;" and knows that he has spelled and pronounced the correctly. But if he conceives that the five syllables which form the three words, . and Aitch, and H'v, are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronounc- the word irhy, it is not because the hornbook, or the teacher of the hornbook, ever v sueh blunder or "pretence ; " but because, like some great philosophers, he is capable of misconceiving very plain, things. Suppose he should take it into his head to follow Dr. Webster's books, and to say, " Oo, he. ye, luri ,- " who, but these doctors, would imagine, that such spelling was supported either by "the realities of nature," by the authority of custom r 1 shall retain both the old "definition of a consonant," d the usual names of the letters, notwithstanding the contemptuous pity it may excite the minds of such cri; II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS. The letters are div'nU-d into two general classes, vowels and consonants. \ ' ' is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone ; as, a, e. letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, >, c, rf.f The vowels are a, e, i, 0, w, and sometimes w and y. All the other letters are consonants. Dr. \\Yl.-it.-r rlic.l in 1M:J. Most of this work was written while he was yet in vigour, t This old cii-nnirioi 'tier it means, " Uiat the num- of such :i 1. . ;<>nr wi'h tin- utmost east . ly-,-i m -.v. )i. 1T4. He must bf oii'Mtf th<>-.- ino'lcrn ].' >,, d.-ii-rht to make muutfts of these voice- IMS elements, to show how much may be done without sound from the larynx. 142 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, whine ; ye, yet, youth : in all other cases, these letters are vowels ; as in Yssel, Ystadt, yttria ; newly, dewy, eyebrow. CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. The consonants are divided, with respect to their powers, into semivowels and mutes, A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted ; as, /, n, z, in al, an, az. A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath ; as, k, p, t, in ok, ap, at. The semivowels are/, h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c and g soft : but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ; and the sound of c,f, g, h,j, s, or x, can be protracted only as an aspirate, or strong breath. Four of the semivowels, I, m, n, and r, are termed liquids, on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others, v, w, y, and z, are likewise more vocal than the aspirates. The mutes are eight ; b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard : three of these, k, q, and c hard, sound exactly alike : b, d, and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, and, in re- spect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal authority ; yet if we ex- amine it minutely, either with reference to the various opinions of the learned, or with regard to the essential differences among the things of which it speaks, it will not per- haps be found in all respects indisputably certain. It will however be of use, as a basis for some subsequent rules, and as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the letters. A knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is implied in the faculty of speech. The power of producing these sounds with distinctness, and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is used, constitutes perfection of utterance. Had we a perfect alphabet, consisting of one symbol, and only one, for each elementary sound ; and a perfect method of spelling, freed from silent letters, and precisely adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words ; the process of learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated. And yet any attempt toward such a reformation, any change short of the introduction of some entirely new mode of writing, would be both unwise and imprac- ticable. It would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion ; because pronun- ciation is the least permanent part of language ; and if the orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard, their origin and meaning would, in many instances, be soon lost. We must therefore content ourselves to learn languages as they are, and to make the best use we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters ; and we may be the better satisfied to do this, because the deficiencies and redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained, as to make it certain what a perfect one would be. OBS. 2. In order to have a right understanding of the letters, it is necessary to enumerate, as accurately as we can, the elementary sounds of the language ; and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds are enunciated, as well as to the characters by which they are represented. The most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain differences in the sounds, as well as in the shapes, of the letters ; and yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed, or how many of them will fall under some particular name, it may occasionally puzzle a philos- opher to tell. The student must consider what is proposed or asked, use his own senses, and judge for himself. With our lower-case alphabet before him, he can tell by his own eye, which are the long letters, and which the short ones ; so let him learn by his own ear, which are the vowels, and which, the consonants. The processes are alike simple : and, if he be neither blind nor deaf, he can do both about equally well. Thus he may know for a certainty, that a is a short letter, and b a long one ; the former a vowel, the latter a consonant : and so of others. Yet as he may doubt whether t is a long letter or a short one, so he may be puzzled to say whether w and y, as heard in we and ye, are vowels or consonants : but neither of these difficulties should impair his con- fidence in any of his other decisions. If he attain by observation and practice a clear and CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. CLASSES. 143 perfect pronunciation of the letters, he will be able to class them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books. OBS. 3. Grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a vowel or a consonant ; and also that there are among the latter some semivowels, some mutes, some aspirates, some liquids, some sharps, some flats, some labials, some dentals, some nasals, some palatals, and perhaps yet other species ; but in enumerating the letters which belong to th >1 classes, they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their authority. I have adopted what I conceive to be the best aiithorized, and at the same time the most intelli- gible. He that dislikes the scheme, may do better, if he can. But let him with modesty determine what sort of discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters into vowels, , ami /nutm, and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. In the opinion of some neoterics, it has been reserved to our age, to detect the fallacy of this. But I would fain believe that the Stagirite knew as well what he was saying, as did Dr. James Rush, when, in 1827, he declared the doctrine of vowels and consonants to be " a misrepresentation." The latter philosopher resolves the letters into "tonics, subtonics, and atonies , " and avers that "consonants alone may form sylla- Indeed, I cannot but think the ancient doctrine better. For, to say that "con- sonants alone may form syllables," is as much as to say that consonants are not conso- nants, but vowels ! To be consistent, the attempters of this reformation should never speak of vowels or consonants, semivowels or mutes ; because they judge the terms inappropriate, and the classification absurd. They should therefore adhere strictly to their "tonics, subtonics, and atonies;" which classes, though apparently the same as vowels, semivowels, and mutes, are better adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements. Thus, by reforming both language and philosophy at once, they may miike what they will of either ! ()i\^. 4. Some teach that ic and y are always vowels: conceiving the former to be equivalent to oo. and the latter to i or e. Dr. Lowth says, " Y is always a vowel," and " M IN either a vowel or a diphthong." Dr. Webster supposes w to be always " a vowel, a simple sound ; " but admits that, " At the beginning of words, y is called an articula- tion or and with some propriety perhaps, as it brings the root of the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate, and nearly in the position to which the close y brings it." American Diet. Octavo. But I follow Wallis, Brightland, Johnson, Walker, Murray, Worcester, and others, in considering both of them sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. They are consonants at the beginning of words in English, their sounds take the article a, and not an, before them ; as, a wall, a yard, and not, an wall, an yard. But oo or the sound of e, requires an, and not a ; as, an eel, an oozy boy.* At the end of a syllable we know they are vowels ; but at the beginning, v so squcexeil in their pronunciation, as to follow a vowel without any hiatus, or difficulty of utterance; as, " O worthy youth! so young, so i>- (>i!>. .->. Murray's rule, " If and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels," which is found in Comly's book, Kirkham's, Merchant's, Ingerx >:!'-. 1'i-k's, Hart's, Hiley's, Alger's, Bullions's, Pond's, S. Putnam's, Weld's, and in sundry other gnynmars, is favourable to my doctrine, but too badly con- ceived to be quoted here as authority. It iinti<-sit/ncdly makes a consonant in urine, and a vowel in ////< , and y a consonant when it forms a syllable, as in deicy : for a letter that form* a syllable, " begins" it. But Kirkham has lately learned his letters anew; and, suppo>ing he had Dr. Hush on his side, has philosophically taken their names for their sounds. He now calls y a " diphthong." But he Ls wrong here by his :>\vn showing : he should rather have called it a triphthong. He says, " By pronouncing y de!i!>erate and perfectly natural manner, the letter y, (which is a dij>/t(Jttnit/,) udent will perceive, that the sound produced, is compound; being formed, at its opening, of the obscure sound of oo as heard in oo-zc, which sound rap- idly slides into that of /, and then advances to that of ee as heard in e-\c, and on which it iiradually passes orf into silence." Kirk/mm's Elocution, p. 7-3. Thus the " unpractised student" is taught that b-y spells bwy ; or, if pronounced "very deliberately, boo-i-ee!" * This test of what is, or is Dot. a vowel .--omul or a consonant sound, is often appealed to, and is generally admitted to be a just on- lirmr- in the application of on or a are not unfreijui nr, hut. they il<> not affect the argument. It canim' ! <\< >i, ami nut proper to use an, before tin- iiii'i.il .-ound of ir or y with a vowel follow -in.ir. k r d, whether the sound be express*.- .1 l\ tin -e partic- ular letters, or by others : as in the phrases, " a wonder, a or humour^ n yielding I int. I have heard it oonU .1 sounds, notwithstanding they require a; and that u' and y an- ;ih\ .iuse even a vowel sound (it was - a and not an, whenever an Dther vowel Found Immediately fol!o\\- it. of thi notion, the following examples are a sufficient refutation: an aeronaut, an (uriul ttnir. t .irt-s a. ami not an ; but those who call the y a vowel, say, it i- equivalent to tlu- unaccented long e. This does not seem to me to be exactly true ; because the letter eound requires an, and not a , as, " Athens, as well as Thebes, had an n/ t f. o!ervation, that I absolutely and unequivocally deny the position, that all the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are con>on;ints ; and, alter the most careful and minute iiiquiry, g my opinion, that of the twenty-two letters of which the Hebrew alphabet eon>i>ts, five are vowels and seventeen are consonants. The five vow- els by uuiue arc, Aleph, He, Vau, Yod, and Ain." )\'ikon's Heb. Gram. pp. 6 and 8. III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS. The powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent ; but letters formed into words, are capable of communicating thought independently of sound. The simple elementary sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than thirty-fix;* but they may be variously combined, so as to form words innumerable. Different vowel sounds, or vocal elements, are produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each ; I but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel power. The vowel somnh which form the basis of the English language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel. >oze, use, us, and that of u in bull. In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen, primary sounds may be joined tojcth* /. oil, out, "//7 ; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the same essen- tial sounds mav he changed into a new series of words by an f ; as, /ate, fat. tttifoldyj I, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many more with n j> ; as. pate, pat, }>ar, pall, peel, pell, pile, j> ill, pole. *Dr. Com.tock, by enumerating :i fli-nipntnry the sound r,f the diphthong OM, as in our, and the complex power of i-h. 11* in what, (which s-ounds ought not to l ..) makes the whole number of vocal elements in English to be 4l thirty-eight." See ComstocVs Elocution, p. 19. 10 146 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible : eigh, a, ah, awe, eh, e, eye, I, oh, o, oo, yew, u, u. Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may be, words ; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put. are commonly heard only in connexion with con- sonants ; except the first, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or a a sound sometimes given to the word a, perhaps most generally ; as in the phrase, " twice a day." The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty-two : they are marked by b, d,f, g hard, h, k, I, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, 'W, y, z, and zh. But zh is written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of s in pleasure, or z in azure. All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words : buy, die, fie, guy, high, He, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again : most of them may be repeated in the same word, if not in the same syllable ; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union* dizzies, vision. With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but complex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh ; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of Z ; as in Xerxes, xebec. The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of k. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y : thus the syllables, ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, are pro- nounced, ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter ; hence the syllables, sea, see, sci, sco, sen, scy, are sounded, ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the compound sound of tsh ; as in church. G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is al ways hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u; and generally soft, like^, be fore e, i, or y : thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga,je,ji, go, gu,jy.^ The possible combinations and mutations .of the twenty-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are un- pronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording of speech. Thus it is, that from principles so simple as about six and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of men in all ages. * This word is commonly heard in two syllables, yune'yun ; but if Walker is right in making it three, yu'iif-un, tin- sound of y consonant is heard in it but once. Worcester's notation is ki yun'yun." The long sound of M is yu; hence AValker calls it a " semi-consonant diphthong." CHAP. I.] 'ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. POWERS. . 147 OBSERVATIONS. 1. A knowledge of sounds can be acquired, in the first instance, only by the ear. No description <>i the manner of their production, or of the difference^ which dis- tingui-h them, can be at all intelligible to him who has not already, by the si ; hearing, acquired a knowledge of both. "NYhat I here say of the sounds ut the letters, must i)t course be addressed to those persons only who arc able both to speak and to read English. "Why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance and knowledge on the part of the pupil, must alike render useless: Ihavr -unc reader to have such an ac([uaintance with the powers of the letters, as is but loose and imp' licit ; sullicient for the accurate pronunciation of some words or syllables, but leav- ing them liable to mistakes in others; extending perhaps to all the sounds of the lan- ir not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them. Such persons may ] roiit by -< liption. of the powers of the letters, though no such description can equal the clear impression of the living voice. Teachers, too, whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young, and, by a patient inculcation of elementary principles, to lay the foundation of an accurate pronunciation, may derive some assistance from any nota- tion of these principles, which will help their memory, or that of the learner. The connexion between letters and sounds is altogether arhitrury ; but a few positions, being ::ucd and made known, in respect to some characters, become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of similar sound. _'. The importance of being instructed at an early age, to pronounce with dis- tinctue-is and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native language, has been so frequently urged, and is so obvious in itself, that none but those who have been them- iil be likely to disregard the claims of their children in this respect.* lint surely an accurate knowledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly union, \\ere there not much hereditary negligence respecting the manner in which these important rudiments are learned. The utterance of the illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent, but it is always more or less barbarous, because it is not aided by a k; I orthography. Eor pronunciation and orthography, however Ith' .. in our language especially, to be often at variance, are certainly correla- tive : a true knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both. Each of the letters -me one or more of the elementary sounds, exclusive of the rest; and cai h of the elementary sounds, though several of them are occasionally transferred, has some one or two letters to which it most properly or most frequently belongs. But borrowed, as our language has been, from a great variety of sources, to which it is desirable ever to retain the means of tracing it, there is certainly much apparent lack of "udenee between its oral and its written form. Still the discrepancies are few, when compared with the instances of exact conformity; and, if they are, as I suppose they art', unavoidable, it is as useless to complain of the trouble they occasion, as it is to think of forcing a reconciliation. The wranglers in this controversy, can never agree among ti. . whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation, or pronuncia- tion to orthography. Nor does any one of them well know how our language would either sound or look, were he himself appointed sole arbiter of all variances butween I our spelling and our speech. Uu-h, " was long ago analyzed into its alphabetic ele- ments. Wherever this analysis is known, the art of teaching language has, with the en conducted' upon the rudimental method." * * * "The art ot reading consists in having all the vocal elements under complete command, that they may be properly applied, for the vivid -ind elegant delineation of the sense and iiirse." /'///// sentiment of discourse." Philosophy of the I . Again, of " the pronunciation of the alphabetic element-. . '1 he hast deviation /,/,/ ///, '.,,>, lard con- mto the critic : and 1 am surely speaking within bounds when 1 say, that to: .-'-ailed element in (i;- inn words are lost to the 1. 1 an audience." /W. p. :;.",(). These quotations plainly imply both the lijility and the imp' I aching the pronunciation of our language ana- lytically by means ot its present orthography, ami agreeably to the- standard .'.-sinned by M of them affirms that it has been done, "with ti -." according to some ancient method of dividing the letters and explaining their sounds. And yet, both before and afterwards, we lind this same author c.mpiai: ; our alphabet and its .subdivisions, as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both; * " Children ought to be ncousfonied t< md to pronounce all possible sounds and articulations, urli foreign lali^U. n ; f. r :ihn.'M V.TV lali.L'ir ,\ii;
  • them. Accord- ingly, imiion.s lit> liaM- tli. 1- in tlu-ir >p.--|i. i.-;m, ace tlu.v know their articulations by having met with Minikir sounds in their own lan- guage.' \ mi on Education, p. 159. 148 'THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. and of our orthography, as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better : and, at the 8?me time, he speaks of softening his censure through modesty. "The deficiencies, re- dundancies, and confusion, of the system of alphabetic characters in this language, pre- vent the adoption of its subdivisions in this essay." Ib. p. 52. Of the specific sounds given to the letters, he says, " The first of these matters is under the rule of every body, and therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction. How can we hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language, when great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt, in so simple and useful a labour as the correction of its orthogra- phy ! " P. 256. Again : " I deprecate noticing the faults of speakers, in the pronuncia- tion of the alphabetic elements. It is better for criticism to be modest on this point, till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses, look more like the work of what is called wise and transcendent humanity : till the pardonable variety of pronunciation, and the true spelling by the vulgar, have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up the troubles of orthography for no other pxirpose, as one can di- vine, than to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education." Ib. p. 383. OBS. 4. How far these views are compatible, the reader will judge. And it is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts, from a consideration of the fact, that a great master of the "pen-craft" here ridiculed, a noted stickler for needless Kays and Ties now commonly rejected, while he boasts that his grammar, which he mostly copied from Murray's, is teaching the old explanation of the alphabetic elements to "more than one hundred thousand children and youth," is also vending under his own name an abstract of the new scheme of " tonicks, subtonicks, and atonicks ; " and, in one breath, bestowing superlative praise on both, in order, as it would seem, to monopolize all inconsistency. " Among those who have successfully laboured in the philological field, Mr. Lindley Murray stands forth in bold relief, as undeniably at the head of the list." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 12. " The modern candidate for oratori- cal fame, stands on very different, and far more advantageous, ground, than that occupied by the young and aspiring Athenian ; especially since a correct analysis of the vocal organs, and a faithful record of their operations, have been given to the world by Dr. James Rush, of Philadelphia a name that will outlive the unquairied marble of our mountains." Ibid. p. 29. "But what is to be said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution, and thoughtless friends undertake to support it ? The fraud must go on, till presumption quarrels, as often happens, with its own friends, or with itself, and thus dissolves the spell of its merits." Rush, on the Voice, p. 405. OBS. 5. The question respecting the number of simple or elementary sounds in our language, presents a remarkable puzzle : and it is idle, if not ridicxilous, for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our alphabet and orthography, who does not show himself able to solve it. All these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four lines upon almost any subject; and every one who can read, is familiar with them all, and with all the letters. Now it is either easy to count them, or it is difficult. If difficult, wherein does the difficulty lie ? and how shall he who knows not what and how many they are, think himself capable of reforming our system of their alphabetic signs ? If easy, why do so few pretend to know their number ? and of those who do pretend to this knowledge, why are there so few that agree ? A certain verse in the seventh chapter of Ezra, has been said to contain all the letters. It however contains no j ; and, with respect to the sounds, it lacks that of /, that of th sharp, and that of u in bull. I will suggest a few additional words for these ; and then both all the letters, and all the sounds, of the English language, will be found in the example ; and most of them, many times over : " And I, even I, Artaxerxes the king, do make a decree to all the treasurers' who ' axe beyond the river, that whatso- ever Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, shall require of you, it be done speedily' and faithfully, according to that which he shall enjoin." Some letters, and some sounds, are here used much more frequently than others ; but, on an average, we have, in this short passage, each sound five times, and each letter eight. How often, then, does a man speak all the elements of his language, who reads well but one hour ! OBS. 6. Of the number of elementary sounds in our language, different orthoepists repor; differently ; because they cannot always agree among themselves, wherein the ident ty or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, even of well-known sounds, consists ; or because, if each is allowed to determine these points for himself, no one of them adheres strictly to his own decision. They may also, each for himself, have some peculiar way of utterance, which will confound some sounds which other men distin- guish, or distinguish some which other men confound. For, as a man may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible, so he may utter many sounds improperly and CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. POWERS. 149 still be understood. One may, in this way, make out a scheme of the alphabetic elements, which shall be true of his own pronunciation, and yet have obvious- i an Its when tried by the best usage of English speech. It is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the In: obviously requires. And what that number is, it seems to m< difficult to ascertain ; at least, I think we may iix it with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. But let it be remembered, that all who have hitherto attempted the enu- im-ration, have deviated more or less from their own decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds; but, most commonly, it appear* to ha\. thought expedient to admit some exceptions concerning both. Thus the long or diph- , sounds of / and / ', are admitted by some, and excluded by others ; the sound of j, ckoned as simple by some, and rejected as compound by others ; so a part, if not all, of what are called the long and the short vowels, as heard in ale and teach, with lirightland. I>r. Johnson, L. Murray, and others, that, in English, a* in French, there is given to tin- vowel e & certain very ob*cure sound which approaches, but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it i> com- monly .*o n-garded by the writers of dictionaries. It may be exemplified in the words . * or in the unemphatic article the before a consonant, as in the sentence, " Take the nearest : " we do not hear it as "tht-e /teart-xt," nor n- " ///// but more ob*curely. There is also a feeble sound of i or y unaccented, which is equiv- alent to < uttered feebly, as in the word diri-rxift/. This is the most common sound i of y. The vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound of short u. <-f utterance depends much \ipon the preservation of this sound from siich obtn-em *-, perhaps Walker and others have done well to mark it as e in -//it- . though some suppose it to be peculiar, and others identify it with the short i in Jit. Thirdly, a distinction is made by some writers, between the vowel sounds heard in /Kite and bear, which Sheridan and Walker consider to be the same. The apparent different J m the following consonant r, which is apt to affect the sound of the vowel which precedes it. Such word* as omr, care, d,n; , >- nt, are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation, by tr>o broad a *ound of the c ; and, a* the multiplica- ;-tinetion* should be avoided, I do not approve of adding an other sound to a vowel which has already quite too many. Worcester, however, in hi* new Dictionary, and Wells, in his new (.frammar. give to the vo\\cl A xi.r sound* in lieu (-,\ four. ^iieiidan made the elements of his oratory tn-fntii-ciijlit ; Jones followed him implicitly, and adopted the same number ;f "Walker recogni/ed several more, but *If it be admitted that the two -emivowels /and n have vorality enough of their own to form a very it \\ill ptovV only that then- aie these execpiions to ;m important general rule. If the !{'i'i i on ro the rule of writing; hut ii is no part of The "|, -tun- M'ui.d of whidi I -peak, is sometimes improperly confounded with thiit of short, u ; thus a recent u liter. \\ho pmle-,-es -rent skill in re.-pect t<> such m.r "i:- of the uioat common sound.- in I'lir lali'.'iuiu'f is that of tin ;n t lu- word i/r;i, or O.S the diphthong 'fill the Ik. for which \\c have n<> < hararr.T. Writers have made various efT<>it< to 1 in Kirtk, hirh all tl.. ;;iinat.-l\ u-ed in turn.- O~ TA t. ;-.'% is thirty- tho>e element^ \<\ :ippi' : ,1 have thirf v-ci_'K ^ in our alphabet of twelTi ;> this imperfection, will he one of th T the human race." lh. p !'.. , ; i- hi.th n 'ivi- (', 9, and T. are re.-peetivel\ re] 1 the remai; .enters an employed to represent /t/r^-o/u elementary sii v'a School (jnim. 1st. Ed. p SO. 150 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. I know not whether he has anywhere told us how many ; Lindley Murray enumerates thirty-six, and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above. The eight sounds not counted by Sheridan are these : 1. The Italian a, as in. far, father, which he reckoned but a lengthening of the a in hat ; 2. The short o, as in hot, which he sup- posed to be but a shortening of the a in hall ; 3. The diphthongal i, as in isle, which he thought but a quicker union of the sounds of the diphthong oi, but which, in my opinion, is rather a very quick union of the sounds ah and eeinto ay, /;* 4. The long u, which is acknowledged to be equal to yu or yew, though perhaps a little different from you or yoorf the sound given it by Walker ; 5. The u heard in. pull, which he considered but a short- ening of oo ; 6. The consonant w, which he conceived to be always a vowel, and equiva- lent to oo ; 7. The consonant y, which he made equal to a short ee ; 8. The consonant h, which he declared to be no letter, but a mere breathing. In all other respects, his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that which is adopted in this work, and which is now most commonly taught. OHS. 9. The effect of Quantity in the prolationof the vowels, is a matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted. Quantity is simply the time of utterance, whether long or short. It is commonly spoken of with reference to syllables, because it belongs severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice, and to these only ; but, as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone, the notion of quantity is of course as applicable to them, as to any of the more complex sounds in which con- sonants are joined with them. All sounds imply time ; because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which temporarily agitate the air, an element that tends to silence. When mighty winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the Ocean is raised, he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a lony quantity ; the rolling billows, as they meet the shore, pronounce the long-drawn syllables of his majestic elocution. But see him again in gentler mood ; stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves : he will teach you short quantity, as well as long. In common parlance, to avoid tediousness, to save time, and to adapt language to circumstances, we usually utter words with great rapidity, and in compara- tively short quantity. But in oratory, and sometimes in ordinary reading, those sounds which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear, should be sensibly protracted, especially in emphatic words ; and even the shortest syllable, must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness : otherwise the performance will be judged defective. Q R8t 10. Some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than others ; but whether the former are naturally long, and the latter naturally short, may be doubted : the common opinion is, that they are. But one author at least denies it ; and says, " We must explode the pretended natural epithets short and long given to our vowels, independent on accent : and we must observe that our silent e final lengthens not its syllable, unless the preceding vowel be accented." Mackintosh's Essay on E. Gram. p. 232. The distinction of long and short vowels which has generally obtained, and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to establish between them, have al- ways been to me sources of much embarrassment. It would appear, that in one or two instances, sounds that differ only in length, or time, are commonly recognized as differ- ent elements ; and that grammarians and orthoepists, perceiving this, have attempted to carry out the analogy, and to find among what they call the long vowels a parent sound for each of the short' ones. In doing this, they have either neglected to consult the ear, or have not chosen to abide by its verdict. I suppose the vowels heard in pull and pool jsvould be necessarily identified, if 1 the former were protracted or the latter shortened ; and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in of and all, were they tried in the same way, though I am not sure of it. In protracting the e in met, and the i in. fthi.p, ignorance or carelessness might perhaps, with the help of our orthoepists, con- vert the former word into mate and the latter into sheep ; and, as this would breed con- fusion in the language, the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of e and i, to that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken. But to suppose, as some do, that the protraction of u in tun would identify it with the o in tone, surpasses any notion I have of what stupidity may misconceive. With one or two exceptions, therefore, it appears to me that each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature, that it may be readily recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone, though it be made as long or as short as it is possible for any sound of the hu- man voice to be. It is manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in ate, at, arm, all, *' ; \Vhen these sounds are openly pronounced, they produce the familiar assent ay: which, by the old English iram^tie Writers, was often expressed by '/." Walker. We still hear it so among the vulgar; as, " 1,1, sir, presently ! " for ' Ay, ay, sir, presently ! ;; Shakspeare wrote, " To sleepe, perchance to dreame ; I, there's the rub." Buckets Classical Gram. p. 148. t Walker pronounces yi'io and you precisely alike. " I/OD ; : ' but. certainly, fw is no: commonly equivalent to oo, though some make it so : thus Gardiner, in his scheme of the VOWete, sa>s. " > n- equals oo, as in neiu, noo." Music of Nature, p. 489. Noo for neiv is a vulgarism, to my ear. G. Brown. CIIAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LKTTKKS. POWERS. 151 rel, old, on-c, us, may ho protracted to the entire extent of a full breath slowly expended, and still he precisely the same one simple sound ;* and, on the contrary, that all hut one limy be 1 to the very minimum of vo:-ality, and still he severally known without danger of mistake. The prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utter- ance in that particular position which the sound of the letter requires, and then holds mi wed till we have given to it all the length we choose. ' 1. In treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels, Walker says, " The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vow- els, i> a long and a short sound, according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is that to which we annex r //// to amj <>th,-r ; and though the uue vowels have not iu our language been classed with sutticici. ra -v with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but little confusion, as vowt and short are always sufficiently distinguishable." I'l'/nr//,/,-*, No. 63. Again: "But though the terms long and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally uinh an accurate ear will easily perceive tlxat the>e terms do not always mean the long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied; for, if we choose to be i by the ear, in denominating vowels long or short, we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which have c.ractlij tin- name radical t<>it<-, and differ only in the long or short emission of that tone." Ih. No. i\\\. lie then proreed> to -.rate his opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus correspondent i //-,///, ir,t,if ; dn>rn, tjon<- ; tln'in,-, hint ; f, nearly tun ;/.. As to the IOHL: Bounds of / or //, and of ;/, these two being diphthongal, he suppo>e> the !i to be no other than the short sound of its latter element ee or oo. Now to me m i-t of tli - liugly unsatisfactory ; and I have shown why. \'l. If in. MI'S notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the clearest ideas they have in relation to the elein. >inos it to pass that of all the dis- putable points in grammar, this is the most perplexed with contrarieties of opinion r In Coming before the world as an author, no man intends to place himself clearly in the . on the simple powers of the letters, we have volumes of irreconcilable doc- trines. ';nois-.i-ur in things of this sort, who professes to have been long " in the habit of listening to sounds of every description, and that with more than ordinary atten- tion," declai Mt and expensive work, that " in every language we rind the vowels and, in order to give to " the simple elements of English utterance" a better explanation than others have furnished, he devotes to a new analysis of our Alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages, besides having several chap; subjects connected with it. And what do his twenty pages amount to r I will give the substance of them in ten lines, and the reader may judge. He does not tell us }>w inun /oo/ 'and/W; 10. II ro/7- and lair , 11. Y( like the first <' ) syntax and duff/. Dn-nnioM^ : 1 . / as !,-,; _'. I' ,. ()( as an-<>. CON '/, k or (/, j>, /, t/t x/iitr/i, .v// ,- '1. Liijuids, /, which has no corresponding , //, tit Jlat and,/, which severally correspond to the eight mutes in their order; :',. Suhliijuids, y hard, b, and d. See "Music of Nature," by II '////// \'-\. Dr. liu>h cnnics to the explanation of the powers of the letters as the confi- dent "!'- ! inana-enient and wisdom ; and Impe^ to have laid the foun- dation rion in reading and oratory, which, if adopted and pel " wil1 be-et asin. ,,,,1 t() poSSOSa an 6S which must grow into sure and iiTever>ihle fav >ur. "_/'////. f tin- Voiee t p. I'M. " \\ e Nilliv.g," li. ;>), /,; that 'nature is wi>e in ti trivaiu : now slum, iiy our \\orks of analysis, how she n sitnj>/i- unboinided combination.^." Ibid. }). II. Again: Kvery one, \\ith peculiar ilaction, thinks he reads well, and yet all read ditferently : there is. however, hut , A ell. "!!>. ji. ln:{. That one mode, >,.me say, his philosophy aln:e lea, -lies. Of that, Othen may judge. I shall only notice here \\ hat seems to bftltil fundamental j)ositiMi, that, on ail tl.. *" As harmony \s an inlii-rent i ui,,|. lu- car >li.nil.| I..- lir-r . :illr.l to flic nttei.tion of simple - Mini is a mix thret- j. urs." lh. p 152 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. elements of language, nature has stamped duplicity. To establish this extraordinary doctrine, he first attempts to prove, that " the letter a, as heard in the word day" com- bines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds ; that it is a compound of what he calls, with reference to vowels and syllables in general, " the radical and the vanishing move- ment of the voice," a single and indivisible element in which " two sounds are heard continuously successive," the sounds of and e as in ah and eve. He does not know that some grammarians have contended that ay in day is a proper diphthong, in which both the vowels are heard ; but, so pronouncing it himself, infers from the experiment, that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a. If this inference is not wrong, the word shape is to be pronounced sha-ejte ; and, in like manner, a multitude of other words will acquire a new element not commonly heard in them. Os. 14. But the doctrine stops not here. The philosopher examines, in some simi- lar way, the other simple vowel sounds, and finds a beginning and an end, a base and an apex, a radical and a vanishing movement, to them all ; and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all " into two parts," and to convert most of them into diphthongs, as well as to include all diphthongs with them, as being altogether as simple and elementary. Thus he begins with confounding all distinction between diph- thongs and simple vowels ; except that which he makes for himself when he admits " the radical and the vanish," the first half of a sound and the last, to have no difference in quality. This admission is made with respect to the vowels heard in ooze, eel, err, end, and in, which he calls, not diphthongs, but " monothongs." But in the, a of ale, he hears d'-ee ; in that of an, a'-e ; (that is, the short a followed by something of the sound of e in err ;) in that of art, ah'-e ; in that of all, awe'-t; in the i of isle, I'-ee ; in the o of old, o'-oo ; in the proper diphthong ou, ou'-oo ; in the oy of boy, he knows not what. After his explanation of these mysteries, he says, " The seven radical sounds with their vanishes, which have been described, include, as far as I can perceive, all the elementary diphthongs of the English language." Ib. p. 60. But all the sounds of the vowel u, whether diphthongal or simple, are excluded from his list, unless he means to represent one of them by the e in err ; and the complex vowel sound heard in voice and hot/, is con- fessedly omitted on account of a doubt whether it consists of two sounds or of three ! The elements which he enumerates are thirty-five ; but if oi is not a triphthong, they are to be thirty-six. Twelve are called "Tonics; and are heard in the usual sound of the separated Italics, in the following words : .4-11, -rt, a-n, a-le, ow-r, i-sle, o-ld, cr-1, oo-ze, e-rr, ^-nd, *-n." Ib. p. 53. Fourteen are called " Subtonics ; and are marked by the separated Italics, in the following words : J^-ow, rf-are, y-ive, r-ile, z-oi\e, y-e, w-o, th-en, a-^-ure, si-nfit l-ove, m-&.y, n-ot, r-oe." Ib. p. 5-i. Nine are called "Atonies; they are heard in the words, U-/>, ou-, ar-A-, i-/, ye-s, A-e, w,7i-eat, th-in, pu-s/i." Ib. p. 56. My opinion of this scheme of the alphabet the reader will have anticipated. IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. In printed books of the English language, the Roman characters are generally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, the (Dlfr (Snglisl) : but in handwriting, d%*fa fatet* are used, the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen. Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be needlessly mixed ; because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much upon the regularity of its letters. In the ordinary forms of the Roman letters, every thick stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right downwards, except the middle stroke in Z ; and every thin stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right upwards. Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words : in the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators. In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics ; a double line, for small capitals ; a triple line, for full capitals. In every kind of type or character, the letters have severally ttvo forms, bv which they are distinguished as capitals and small letters. Small let- ters constitute the body of every work ; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. FORMS. 153 The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, are printed wholly in capitals. Showbills, painted signs, and short inscriptions, com- monly appear best in full capitals. Some of these are so copied in books ; as, " I found an altar with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD." Acts, xvii. 2:J. " And thi'v set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF THE JEWS." Matt, xxvii, 37. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. RULE I. OF BOOKS. When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man " " the Book of Common Prayer " " the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments."* RULE II. FIRST WORDS. The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital; as, " Rejoice evermore. Pray with- out ceasing. In every thing give thanks : for this is the will of God in Christ 'oncoming you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings. Prove all tiling: holdfast that which is good." 1 T/tcss. v, 10 '21. " 14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 15 rtering large bodies of armed troops among us : in. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for murders: 17. Fur cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 18. For imposing taxes on us without our consent : " &c. Declaration of American Independence. RULE III. OF DEITY. All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals; as, "God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, the LordofSahaoth." " The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee." Moore. RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals ; as, t'T.ii>us, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand, the mes, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the Argonauts." RULE V. OP TITLES. Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals; as, " \\\< Majesty William the Fourth, Chief Justice Mar- shall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr. Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Se<-md, .lames the Less, St. Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., K RULE VI. ONE CAPITAL. Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without :i hyphen, should be so written, and have'but one capital : as, " Ka>tp<>rt, Eastville, Westborough, Wotfidd, Wottnwn, Whitehall, White-church, White- haven, Whiteplains, Mmmtniellirk, Mountpleasant, Germantown, Germanflats, * The titulary name of the \ in this r rul, in the hook r in dis- tinguished by a capital ; but, iu other works, it seems proper in general to write it so, by way of eminence. 154 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. Blackrock, Redhook, Kinder-hook, Newfoundland, Statenland, Newcastle, North- castle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb, Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson." RULE VII. Two CAPITALS. The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two ; as, " The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, Benchasker, Ben Golich, Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis." Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 311. Write Ben Chasker. So, when the word East, West, North, or South, as part of a name denotes relative position, or when the word New distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two capitals; as, " East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hamp- shire." RULE VIII. COMPOUNDS. When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital; as, "The United States, the Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green, Land's End, the Gold Coast." RULE IX. APPOSITION. When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appella- tive, with a small letter; as, "The prophet Elisha, Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city." RULE X. PERSONIFICATIONS. The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as, " Upon this, Fancy began again to bestir her- self." Addison. " Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." Thomson. RULE XI. DERIVATIVES. Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals; as, " Platonic, New- tonian, Greek, or Grecian, Romish, or Roman, Italic, or Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh : " so, perhaps, " to Platonize, Grecize, Romanize, Italicize, Latinize, or Frenchify." RULE XII. OF I AND 0. The words /and should always be capitals ; as, " Praise the Lord, Jeru- salem ; praise thy God, Zion." Psalm cxlvii. " wretched man that I am ! " " For that which I do, I allow not : for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I." Rom. vii, 24. and 15. RULE XIII. OF POETRY. Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital ; as, " Our sons their fathers' failing language see, And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." Pope. Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of examples ; as, " Happy the man whose tender care relieves the poor distress'd ! When troubles compass him around, the Lord shall give him rest." Psalms with Com. Prayer, N. T. 1819, Ps. xli. CI1AP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS FORMS. 155 RULE XIV. OF EXAMPLES. The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital; as, " Hi-member this maxim : ' Know thyself.' " " A'iriril suvs. ' Labour conquers all things.' " " Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law. 1 said, \ r e are gods V " John, x, 34. " Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother." Luke, xviii, 20. RULE XV. CHIEF WORDS. ( >rher words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals ; and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout : as, " In its application to the Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by Congress." ANUUKW JACKSON, 1835. RULE XVI. NEEDLESS CAPITALS. Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their : a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency; as, " Many a Noble Genius is. lost for want of Kilnnitlnn. Which wou'd then be Much More Liberal. As it was when the Church Eujoy'd her Possessions. And Learning in the Dark Ages, Preserv'd almost only among the Clergy" CHARLES LzSLIB, 1700; Divine Might of Tyf/ies, p. 228 OBSERVATIONS. >f the alphabet, read by their names, are equivalent to words. ;_ r ns, by which we may mark and particulari/e objects of . named or nameles> ; a-. "To say, therefore, that while A and B are both \ ,: e or less quadrangular than B, is absurd." Murray's Gram. 50. fence they air used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas, 'istrued both substantively and adjectively ; as, "In ascending from the note C I), the interval is equal to an inch ; and from D to E, the same." Music of Nafurf, "We have only to imagine the G clef placed below it." Ib. Any of their ms may hi- u-cd lor such purposes, but the custom of each science determines our | bra employs small Italics ; Music, Horn an capitals ; Geometry, for reck characters ; and Grammar, in some part or Then comes answer like an ABC book." Beauties of " Tiieu .// like an a, 6, c, book. Shaks^care" See A, B, C, in ./ Better : "like an A-Bce-Cee book." " For A, his magic pen evokes an O, And turns the tide of Europe on the foe." Young. -'. A lavish use of capita'.- :y purpose for which the letters were .i-hed in rank; and < to the- rules which govern them, may the -writer'- meaning. On many oecasiu: , their use or Mient and taste of authors and printers. This kind will, for the most part, concern <-lii,-f m ink, and come under the I Miiiar, the number of rules is increased ; but the fore- ' irate uniformity. They will however lesirable result ; and if doubts arise in their application, the difficulties will be in partieif. 1 not in the general principles of the rules. For our Bibl> d be thou, I.<>KI> God of Israel our fath- : and ever." Others say, "BleflSed be thou, LOKD God of I-r;.. T and ever." And others,' " ]',lc ed be thou, I Israel our Fathi .. The last is wrong, either in tl,< 1'. or for lack of a comma after /-/n French Bible. " EuXoy^rdf ct Kupu 6 Qtoi 'll TOV iiwvoj." Stptuagint. 156 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. OBS. 3. The innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals, which, to a greater or less extent, disgrace the very best editions of our most popular books, are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on thh point. In amending the rules for this purpose, I have not been able entirely to satisfy myself; and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the very critical reader. But the public shall have the best instructions I can give. On Rule 1st, concerning Books, it may be observed, that when particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real titles, the principle of the rule does not apply. Thus, one may call Paradise Lost, " Milton's great poem ; " or the Diversions of Purley, "the etymological investigations of Home Tooke." So it is written in the Bible, " And there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias." Luke, iv, 17. Because the name of Esaias, or Isaiah, seems to be the only proper title of his book. OBS. 4. On Rule 2d, concerning First Words, it may be observed, that the using of other points than the period, to separate sentences that are totally distinct in sense, as is sometimes practised in quoting, is no reason for the omission of capitals at the begin- ning of such sentences ; but, rather, an obvious reason for their use. Our grammarians frequently manufacture a parcel of puerile examples, and, with the formality of appa- rent quotation, throw them together in the following manner : " He is above disguise ; " " w r e serve under a good master ; " " he rules over a willing people ; " " we should do nothing beneath our character." Murray's Gram. p. 118. These sentences, and all others so related, should, unquestionably, begin with capitals. Of themselves, they are distinct enough to be separated by the period and a dash. With examples of one's own making, the quotation points may be used or not, as the writer pleases ; but not on their insertion or omission, nor even on the quality of the separating point, depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial capitals. For example : " The Future Tense is the form of the verb which denotes future time ; as, John will come, you shall go, they will learn, the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week." Frazees Improved Gram. p. 38 ; Old Edition, 35. To say nothing of the punctuation here used, it is certain that the initial words, you, they, the, and he, should have commenced with capitals. OBS. 5. On Rule 3d, concerning Names of Deity, it may be observed, that the words Lord and God take the nature of proper names, only when they are used in reference to the Eternal Divinity. The former, as a title of honour to men, is usually written with a capital ; but, as a common appellative, with a small letter. The latter, when used with reference to any fabulous deity, or when made plural to speak of many, should seldom, if ever, begin with a capital ; for we do not write with a capital any common name which we do not mean to honour : as, " Though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth as there be gods many, and lords many." 1 Cor. viii, 5. But a diversity of design or conception in respect to this kind of distinction, has pro- duced great diversity concerning capitals, not only in original writings, but also in re- prints and quotations, not excepting even the sacred books. Example : " The Lord is a great God, and a great King above all Gods." Gurney's Essays, p. 88. Perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods, that he may honour the one true God the more ; but the Bible, in four editions to which I have turned, gives the word gods no capital. See Psalms, xcv, 3. The word Heaven put for God, begins with a capital ; but when taken literally, it commonly begins with a small letter. Several nouns occasionally connected w"ith names of the Deity, are written with a very puzzling di- versity : as, "The Lord of Sabaoth;" "The Lord God of hosts;" "The God of armies ; " " The Father of goodness ; " " The Giver of all good ; " " The Lord, the righteous Judge." All these, and many more like them, are found sometimes with a capital, and sometimes without. Sabaoth, being a foreign word, and used only in this particular connexion, usually takes a capital ; but the equivalent English words do not seem to require it. For " Judge" in the last example, I would use a capital ; for "good" and "goodness," in the preceding ones, the small letter : the one is an eminent name, the others are mere attributes. Alger writes, "the Son of Man," with two capitals; others, perhaps more properly, " the Son of man," with one wherever that phrase occurs in the New Testament. But, in some editions, it has no capital at all. OBS. 6. On Rule 4th, concerning Proper Names, it may be observed, that the appli- cation of this principle supposes the learner to be able to distinguish between proper names and common appellatives. Of the difference between these two classes of words, almost every child that can speak, must have formed some idea. I once noticed that a very little boy, who knew no better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers, was sufficiently master of this distinction, to call many individuals by their several names, and to apply the common words, man, woman-, boy, girl, &c., with that generality which belongs to them. There is, therefore, some very plain ground for this rule. But not all is plain, and I will not veil the cause of embarrassment. It is only an act of imposture, to pretend that grammar is easy, in stead of making it so. Innu- CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. FORMS. 157 merable instances occur, in which the following assertion is by no means true : " The distinction between a common and a proper noun is very oiboioiu" Kirkh mil's (irain. p. 3J. Xor do the remarks of this author, or those of any other that I am acquainted with, remove my part of the difficulty. We are told by this gentleman, (in language incor- rigibly bad, ) that, V which denote the genus species, or variety of beings or are always common ; as tr,T, the genus ; nak, />//, <' T, different spe- , : >'a<-'; ,>uk, varieties." //;. p. :J2. Now, as it requires but one noitn to denote either a genus or a specie-*, I know not how to conceive of th--i*c "minus which dcnot - of things" except a.s of other confusion and nonsense ; and, as for the three varieties of oak, there are surely no " noun* " here to denote them, unless he will have m/, irl, '. to be nouns. But what shall we say of " the Red sea," the White sea, the BUck sea;" or, with two capitals, " Red Sea, White Sea, Black in 1 a thousand other similar terms, which are neither proper names unless they are written with capitals, nor written with capitals unless they are first judged to be proper inmes ? The simple phrase, "the united states," has nothing of the nature of a proper name ; but what is the character of the term, when written with two capi- tals, "the United States?" If we contend that it is not then a proper name, we make our country anonymous. And what shall we say to those grammarians who contend, that " // . l-'urf/i, Sun, and Moon, are proper names; " and that, as such, they should be written with capitals? See (fmrch ill's Gram. p. 380. 7. It would seem that most, if not all, proper names had originally some common signification, and that very many of our ordinary words and phrases have inverted into proper names merely by being applied to particular persons, places, or objects, and receiving the distinction of capitals. How many of the ocean . .-lands, m Mintains, states, counties, streets, institutions, buildings, ami other . which we constantly particularize, have no other proper name.- than sac i as are 111 perhaps, in many instances, essentially appellative ! The difficult. will be further noticed below. A proper noun is the particular individual, group, or people ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the . the Rninann, the Jwa, the .It-suits, the Clu-rokt't-s. This is as good a definition a> I can give of a proper noun or name. Thus we commonly distinguish the >f particular persons, j laces, nations, tribes, or sects, with capitals. Yet we i, the moon, the equator, and many other particular objects, without a cap- ital ; f >r the word /// may give a particular meaning to a common noun, without con- verting it into a proper name : but if we say .W, for the sun, or Limn, for the moon, we write it with a capital. With some apparent inconsistency, we commonly write the word (!<-ntili-s with a capital, but ji, lit Je\-, bc^inniiiL;', as . mr- mice did, in March. : >:i Ivule ."jth, concern] >nr, it may be observed, that names of office or rank, however high, do not require capitals merely as such ; for, when we use them alone in their ordina: .r simply place them in appo.-ition with proper . without intending any particular honour, we begin them with a .-mall letter: as, "the. -- our mighty sovereign, Abb. .vidthe King . " "Tidal kin- of nations ; " " Bminer, 1 ;- -ndon ; " " Tin pha/. the ti: intended to be shown : indeed down at the tirst time to buy food." r,Y//. xliii, l _0. " ( ) mjford, let thy 8< rvant, I prav . word in my h) -Gen. xliv, IS. The' Bible, which mak. - account of worldly ho: itals under this rule; but, in soyie editions, we find "Xehemiah th- .,[ Her.id tin- T, fmr, //," each with a i. capital. Murray, in whose illustrations the word kin-j occurs nearly one hundred times, seldom honours 1: [tal ; and, what is more, in all this ma%\kish men- tioning of royalty, nothing i ./// knotrimi. Example.-: "The Liny and the queen had put on their robes." M l/n -ai/'.s C,rn,n. \>. \.~>l. " The /./////, with IILS life-guard, has just passed through the village." //,,. l.iO. "Tin- Lin>i of (iieat Hritain's dominions." Ih. \.~y. ( )n a sudden appeared the kin. 146. "Long live the Kiinj ! " lh. MI;. On which side soever the hii,. " It is the kiiiy of Great Britain's." Ib. 176. " He desired to be their kiny."Ib. 181. " They desired 158 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. him' to be their king" Ib. 181. " He caused himself to be proclaimed king." Ib. 182. These examples, and thousands more as simple and worthless, are among the pretended quotations by which this excellent man, thought " to promote the cause of virtue, as well as of learning ! " OBS. 9. On llule 6th, concerning One Capital for Compounds, I would observe, that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar, than to find out, amidst all the di- versity of random writing, and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be written. For example : What in Greek was " ho Areios Pagos," the Martial Hill, occurs twice in the New Testament : once, in the accusa- tive case, "ton Areion Pagon," which is rendered Areopagus ; and once, in the genitive, " tou Areiou Pagou," which, in different copies of the English Bible is made Mars' Hill, Mars' hill, Mars' -hill, Marshill, Mars Hill, and perhaps Mars hill. But if Mars must needs be put in the possessive case, (which I doubt,) they are all wrong : for then it should be Mars' s Hill; as the name Campus Martins is rendered tl Mars' s Field," in Collier's Life of Marcus Antoninus. We often use nouns adjectively; and Areios is an adjec- tive : I would therefore write this name Mars Hill, as we write Bunker Hill. Again : Whitehaven and Fairhaven are commonly written with single capitals ; but, of .six or seven towns called Neivhaven or New Haven, some have the name in one word and some in two. Haven means a harbour, and the words, New Haven, written separately, would naturally be understood of a harbour : the close compound is obviously more suitable for the name of a city or town. In England, compounds of this kind 'are more used than in America ; and in both countries the tendency of common usage seems to be, to contract and consolidate such terms. Hence the British counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word shire ; as, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. But the best books we have, are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names, whether foreign or domestic ; as, " Ulswater is somewhat smaller. The handsomest is Derwentwater." Balbi's Geog. p. 212. " Ullswater, a lake of England," &c. " Dencent- Water, a lake in Cumberland," &c. Univ. Gazetteer. " Ulleswater, lake, Eng. situated partly in Westmoreland," &c. Worcester's Gaz. " Derwent Water, lake, Eng. in Cum- berland." Ibid. These words, I suppose, should be written Ullswater and Derwenttmter. OBS. 10. An affix, or termination, differs from a distinct word ; and is commonly understood otherwise, though it may consist of the same letters and have the same sound. Thus, if I were to write Stow Bridge, it would be understood of a bridge ; if Stowbridge, of a town : or the latter might even be the name of & family. So Belli- isle, is the proper name of a strait ; and Belle Isle of several different islands in France and America. Upon this plain distinction, and the manifest inconvenience of any violation of so clear an analogy of the language, depends the propriety of most of the corrections which I shall offer under Rule 6th. But if the inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek, a river, a harbour, or a bridge, and to think it officious in other men .to pretend to know better, they may do as they please. If between them and their correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer, it is for the literary world to deter- mine who is right. Important names are sometimes acquired by mere accident. Those which are totally inappropriate, no reasonable design can have bestowed. Thus a fan- cied resemblance between the island of Aquidneck, in Narraganset Bay, and that of Rhodes, in the vEgean Sea, has at length given to a state, or republic, which lies chicjh/ on the main land, the absurd name of Rhode Island ; so that now, to distinguish Aquidneck itself, geographers resort to the strange phrase, " the Island of 11 hode hland." Balbi. The official title of this little republic, is, the State of Rhode Inland and Proridcnce 1'lant- atio/m." But this name is not only too long for popular use, but it is doubtful in its construction and meaning. It is capable of being understood in four different ways. 1. A stranger to the fact, would not learn from this phrase, that the " Providence Planta- tions " are included in the " State of Rhode Island," but would naturally inter the con- trary. 2. The phrase, " Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," may be supposed to mean "Rhode Island [Plantations] and Providence Plantations." 3. It may be un- derstood to mean " Rhode Island and Providence [i. e. two] Plantations." 4* It may be taken for "Rhode Island" [i. e. as an island] and the "Providence Plantations." Which, now, of all these did Charles the Second mean, when he gave the colony this name, with his charter, in 1663? It happened that he meant the last; but I doubt whether any man in the state, except perhaps some learned lawyer, can parse the phrase, with any certainty of its true construction and meaning. This old title can never be used, except in law. To write the popular name Rhodcisland, as Dr. Webster has it,* would be some improvement upon it; but to make it Rhode/and, or simply Rhode, would be much more appropriate. As for Rhode Island, it ought to mean nothing but the island ; and it is, in fact, an abuse of language, to apply it otherwise. In one of his pars- * Webster's old American Spelling-Book, p. 121. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTERS. FORMS. 159 --.ns, S; mborn gives us for good English the following tautology : " Rhode Inland \ its name from the island of Rhode Jxlund." Aiiah/firal drum. p. 37. Think of that sentence ! ()I ;N . 11. () u Rules 7th and 8th, concerning Tiro Capiftih for Compounds,! would . with ;i general reference to t!. which iueh eonnnou words as may happen to be embraced in them, are to be ; compound proper names and written with capitals, or to be regarded as appellatives, requiring small letters according to linle '.th. Again the question may he, whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word, according to Rule 6th. Let the mil;. uples under these four rules he duly considered : for u- , h of them, i- diverse ; so much so, that we not unfrequently find it contra- dictory, in the very *ame page, paragraph, or even sentence. Perhaps we may reach some principles of uniformity and con-i-4ency, by observing the several diH'erent kinds of phrases thus used. 1. We often add an adjective to an old proper name to make a new one, or to serve the purpose of distinction: as, New York, New Orlean-. I, New Hedford ; North America, South America; Vppc-r Canada, Lower Can- B, Little Pedee ; Ka-t Cambridge, West Cambridge; Troy, West Troy. All names of this class require two capitals: except a few which are joined together ; iniinjiton, which is sometimes more analogically written \ortli //. \Ve sometimes use two common nouns with of between them ; as, ; Hope, the l>le of Man, the Isles of Shoals, the Lake of the Woods, the Mountains of the Moon. Such nouns are usually written with more than one capi- tal. I would therefore write "the Mount of Olives" in this manner, though it is not ily found so in the Bible. 4. We often use an adjective and a common noun; as, the Yellow sea, the Indian ocean, the White hills, Crooked lake, the Red river ; K ith two capitals, the Yellow Sea, the Indian Ocean, the White Hills, Crooked e, the Red River. In this class of names the adjective is the distinctive word, and is a capital; respecting the other term, usage is divided, but seems rather to ur two capitals. 5. We frequently put an appellative, or common noun, before or ^r a proper name ; as, New York city, Washington street, Plymouth county, Green- wich vilLige. " The Carondelet canal extends from the city of New Orleans to the bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi river." Balbi's . Thi> is apposition. In phrases of this kind, the common noun often has a capi- tal, but it seldom absolutely requires it ; and in general a small letter is more correct, iu >ome few instances in which the common noun is regarded as a permanent the name; as in Washington (V ''////. G. The words Mount, C'tpr, Lake, and Ha y, are now generally written with capital* when connected with their proper Mount Hope, Cape Cod, Lake Erie, Casco Bay. But they are not always written, even in modem books; and in the Bible we read of "" mount Horeb, ount Sinai, mount Zion, mount Olivet," and many others, always with a single pital. 1 2. In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used than : few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as :id then there is a manite-t propriety in inserting it. Thus the phrase, "the mlon l>ridge," can be understood only of a i.< in. London; anil if we tend by it a bri M London, \\ e i he Nc\\ -London Bridge." So properly a directory for New York, but a new direc- York. I tl book-- with titles which, for this reason, we: ret to the ancient Scripture name-;, of this cia-s, we lind, in : as in other books, many discrepancies The ader :; lir specimen of them, by compai. : \vo vocab- ker'a IM-V. lie %\ ill there meet with an abundance of example- like ' ih ; Talitha Cumi, Talithacumi ; Nathan M.-lech, N,r rholah; Ila/.el Llp.'.ni, Ila/eleponi ; Ax noth Tabor, otli- .il-hamon ; Ilamou < Jog, Ilamongog; liaal /. ul) ; Sht'-thar IJo/.'nai, Shether-b. r.'ulacli l!al adan, MiTodarh-bal adan." ing ineo;;- and many more, lias J)r. \\ ' yped from alker, in h ': tionary ! more need of the hyphen in such i. in in those of modern times. They ought, in some in>tan< -es, to be joined together ithout it; and, in others, to be written separately, with double capit,. -hould be had to the ancient text. The phrase, Talitha, cumi " i. e. " 1 ' is found in some Bibles, Talitha-cumi ; " but this form of it is no more correct 160 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. than either of those quoted above. See Mark, y, 41st, in Griesbach's Greek Testament, where a comma divides this expression. OBS. 13. On Rule llth, concerning Derivatives, I would observe, that not only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers, but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are frequently, if not generally, written with an. initial capital. Thus, from Greece, we have Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecize, Grecism, Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of " Latin- ized English ; " and, again, of style strictly " English, without Scotticisms or Gallicisms." Mur. Gram. p. 295 ; Blair's Lect. p. 93. But it is questionable, how far this principle re- specting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, gallicisms, anglicisms, Hebrician, latinize, latinized, judaized, and christianized, without capitals ; and the words Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms, and Frenchified, under like circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines Romanize, " To Latinize ; to conform to Romish opinions." In the examples of Johnson, there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, \vith respect to adjectives from proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals : no one will contend that the words American and Americans should be written with a small a. With respect to Americanism, Gallicism, and other similar words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these. And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, 1 would not stop here, but would write Americanize and A >merves, tlnit, ' 7V/K(TIX<; CAPITALS. $y- [Th" improprieties In the f.. 11.. win- ex imple- are to be corrected onlly bv the Iparn- - :.. lined from tlum with siu-h .-li- if.juiic. A e..met example \\ill oeoasiunallv he admitted fur r nitr.ist, or that . It \vill al- cupidity nd wake up. Lut a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in tin UNDKK HULK I. OF BOOKS. " Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles." G. B. !"(>er, because the words, biUe., acts, and apottltt, here begin wrii -mail nle l.-t, \\lieii par icular books are mentioned by their names the chief words in their n 1 t|,. other letters are small." Therefore, " Bible" should begin with a . ' ca< h with a large A.] " The sons O f Lei i. the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the chroni- S i i'> Bn;u: : A". //. xii, 'J3. " Are they not written in the book of the Solomon r " S< xi, 41. " Are they nut written in the book of the C'liruni.-li's of thekin^ of l>rael : " AI.CKII : 1 / " Are tliey not written in the hook of the chronii-lc* of the kin^s of Judah *: " SCOTT : ib. vir. 4o. Which i in the la\v of Mo-cs, and in the prophets, and in the psalms." . ;.. 41. " The narrative of wlii-hma;. i Jpsephus's ffistory of the ix. " Tliis history of the Jewish war was Josephus's . .lid publi-' A. I). 7~>." A -//'<.v. "! have re. id,' says . 'the chronology of Justus of Tiherias.' " /,. Jof. 1. 'hilosophical \ i-itten l>y James Harris, Esquire." M. " But (jod has hilile that it interprets itself." Ih. i, 78. " In Io(i2, with the help of Hop- kins, lie completed the psalter." M '/<-, p. -js:}. "(iardincr says this of . whom the universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia :hat he died in 1 ">!!>." .\nflir. "The title of a Book, to wit : ' English Grammar kc. Kirl;lnnn'K drum. p. '2. " We had not, at that time, S< Kirk!; .mar in familiar Lectures.'" Ib. p. 3. "When you parse, you may you." Ib. p. o3. "Whenever you parse, you may ," V>. p. 113. "Adc'.un.,' was the author of a grammatical and criti'-al dic-rionary of theOerman lau^ua^e. and other works." f '/>-. 'y, William, author of the poor man's li'trary,' and a translation of uch, died in 1-370." Ib. IiL'LK TF. OF KlKST WoHDS. \- : improve your time : !' : sins." Murrny's Gram. p. 61. (online il." Therefore, u Jiiipnive. ' .1 F.J 'uptin-4 ; t ; ;x Hon is bi)l-l." M,,r. dram. ,.iin : "It may : .1,1 walk; they should B above- dis- ' Ih. ]). J '.und with worse'illu -:.iiri- !-w of tli' ;my just abundant ; but : r. tlieu lc" : merit!. la his who could writ '." Author. ' i liri^lit boy: "pray, what arc rhnMr. Auth >r make ne\\ when he pi' i diem, but what ft] .. i/ - " tafSWl : : M of the ' ' -'lisname, . rheir torn.. h call them " if is a personal proiioun. of tlie third } . \lsr."Oomly' />/i. p. 4->. "He can no more impart or (to use lord Bacon's word,) transmit convictions." Kirkham's Eloc. p. 220. " I reside at lord Stonnont's, my old patron and Murray's Gram. p. 176. " We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the orna- ment of his country." Ib. p. 177. " Whose prerogative is it- It is the king of Great Britain''-;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of LandafFs nt book; " "The Lord mayor of London's authority." Ib. p. 176. " Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I say " See GKIESHACH : Luke, vi, 46. * And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles." SCOTT: Luke, vi, 13. i irthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him." See the M,iff. xxvi, i:>. " And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent." Luke, xvi, 30. UNDER RULE VI. OP ONE CAPITAL. " Fall Elver, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431." See Univ. Gaz. p. 416. . Not proper, because the name Fall River is here written in two parts, and with two capitals. Those compound proper name* which b> analogy incline to a uniou of their iinut ;i hjphen. should Lc so written, :u.d have but one capital." Therefore, FaUrivtr, as the name of a ton-it, should be oue word, and retain but one capital.] " !:-. Anderson died at West Hum. : in 1S08." Bioy. Diet. "Mad Kiver, i:ue of] two towns in Ulark and Champaign counties, < >liio." !' ..-icersal "White Creek, town of Washington county, N. York." Ib. " Salt Creek, :ue of four towm -nt part> of Ohio." ~Lb. " Salt Lick, a town of Fay - ette county, IVnnsylvania." Ib. " Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."//;. " White Clay, a hundred of N iuwaro." Ib. . and halfshire of Newcastle county, Delaware." Ib. " Siug-Sing, a village 01 county, New York, .-ituatcd in tho town of Mount Pleas- ant." Ib. M W< r, a county of New York; also a town in Westchester county." / hange county, New York." Ib. " White . a town of Hamilton county, Ohio." Ib. " Wluto Water Kiver, a considerable in Indiana, and tloui; .lithe Miami in Ohio." I',. B'-\ck Water, a village ..f II - Mid a town in Ireland." Ib. . Water, the- name of seven dinx-rent river>. in Kr^'and, Ireland, and the United States." Vi. "lied llo.k, a town of I)utciu-.-s county, New York, on the Hudson." Ib " Kinclcrh .hia conn: >rk, on the Hudson." Ib. ity, New York." Ib. "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county, Arkan- , the i-hi !' BOUTCe ut the Kcnnc- beck, in Ma mty of Illinois, jiopuhition (in 1830) Ib. p. 10S. " Me Donough, a county of Illinois, with a courthouse, at Maeomb." Ib. p. IS.";. " Half-Moon, M^, in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the V^ ; of other similar terms. But, according to Rule 7th, " The compounding of a name uiider one c:ipial should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." Therefore, " Ben Lomond " should be written with two capitals and no hyphen.] "The red granite of Bon-ncvis is said to be the finest in the world." Ib. ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea." Ib. 313. "The height of Bencleugh is 2,420 feet." Ib. " In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Or- mod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal." Ib. 311. " Benvracky is 2,756 feet high ; Ben-ledi, 3,00!) ; and Ben-voirlich, 3,300." Ib. 313. "The river Do- chart gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs." Ib. 314. " About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into Lochdochart." Geoy. al- tered. LAKES : " Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con, Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch- Lomond, Loch-Voil." Scott's Lady of the Lake. GLENS :" Glentinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen, Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire." Ib. MOUNTAINS : " Ben-an, Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes Benvenue." Ib. "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhab- itants of the Low-countries." Murray's Sequel, p. 322. "And Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king." SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Kings, xxiii, 34. "Those Avho seem so merry and well pleased, call her Good Fortune ; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, Bad-fortune." Collier's Tablet of Ccbes. UNDER RULE VIII. OF COMPOUNDS. " When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt." SCOTT : Ps. Ix, title. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the words valley and salt begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, " When any adjective or common noun is mule a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital. Therefore, " Valley " should here begin with a capital V, and " Salt," with a capital S.] "Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c. SCOTT: Acts, xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the mount of Olives." Luke, xxi, 37. " Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with Charlemagne." Univ. Biog. Diet. "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain coast from the Ivory coast." Diet, of Geog. p. 125. " The North. Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose." Ib. p. 232. " At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts." Ib. p. 233. "The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, ten miles further west." Balbis Geog. p. 65. " Washing- ton City, the metropolis of the United States of America." W.'s Univ. Gaz. p. 380. "Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826." Ib. p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new Hampshire, is called mount Wash- ington." Author. "Mount's buy, in the west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point." Id. " Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica." Diet, of Geog. " Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest -and most easterly of the Cyclacles." Ib. " But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red sea." BRUCE'S BIBLE : Ps. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the lied sea." SCOTT : Ps. cvi, 7.* UNDER RULE IX. OF APPOSITION. " At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus." ALGER : Matt, xiv, 1. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the word Trtmrrk begins with a capital letter. But, according to Hule 8th, " When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin wicii a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter." Therefore, " tetrarch " ehould here begin wich a small t.] " Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?" Author. "St. Luke, the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul." Id. " Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indul- gences." Id. " The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer : he died in 1440." Id. "The Grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years old." Id. "John Despauter, the great Giammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1,320." Id. " Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death." /(/. " Cicero the Orator, the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64." Id. *"Etirritaverunt ascendentcs in mare, Mare rubrum.' Latin Vulgate, folio, Psal. cy. 7- This,I think, should have beeu " Mare Rubrum," with two capitals. G. BROWN. CHAP, i.] ORTHOGRAPHY'. LETTKKS. ERRORS. 1G5 " Euripides, the Gre< k Tragedian, -\vas horn in the Island of Sal amis, B. 0. 470." Id. "I will say unto God my Knck, "Why hast thou forgotten mi- :" SCOTT : /'.v. xlii, 9. i Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City." l'i, i, King of Men, und the noble Achilles first separated." Colcrii.'ijt's Introd. ]>. "Hermes, his Patron-God, those gifts bestow'd, "Whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load." POPE : Odys. B. 19. UXDKK HULK X. OF I'KKSOMFICATIONS. "But wisdom is justified of all her children."- SCOTT, ALGEII: Luke, vii, 3o. [FORMI:LK. Not proper, because the word trinloni br^ii s \\itli a small letter. I'.ut. according to Kule 10th, DM of an oljict pcrsoi.ilied, win i n i>lt-a sirictls individual, s-huuld begin with a capital." Theiefoiv. u Wi.-d<'in " hln.nid lien- bc.uiu with a capital \V .] :une and the church are generally put in the feminine gender." Murray's :, ]). 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his dis- Jl/trtt.ric, p. \.~j~ : See also Murray's dram, i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory:" 1 Cor, xv, 55; Murray's Cram. p. 348 ; Litulish Rmdi-r, 31 ; Men-hunt's (iram. 212. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon." SCOTT, I'KII.NKS, J.T AI. : Matt, vi, 21. "Ye cannot serve God and mammon." IIJM-:M : Lnh- xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion herself had I the plan." See Key. "Poetry distinguishes herself from prose, by yielding to a musical law." E "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine in- structions : My name is religion. 1 am the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called su])orstition : she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear and sor- Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats; and .habit had so D eonx'ienee, if religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance." See J\i-y. In colleges and halls in ancient days. There dwelt a sage called discipline." }YaylancCs M. Sci. p. 368. UXDKK Huu: XL OF DERIVATIVES. l^nglish, I would have gallicisms avoided." FKI.TOX : Johnson's Diet. I here begins \\irh a small letfrr. But, according to Rul>- Hrh, * Words dcriv.-.l from ]>rp.-r intnifs, and having 'lin-cr n-lcKMicc to particular pt-ixms, places, uld Ix'tin with capitals.' 7 Therefore, " t.aliiciMns " should begin with a capital <;.J Mst was born in Ita; v before the Christian era.'' Murray's ,v A us not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful Christians, and Christian ministers." lit. .'519. "They corrupt their style with un- tutorc . is." Mn.ro.N : in Johnxtm's Dirt. "Albert of Stadc, author of a chronic!'' from the creation to US' 1 , a benedictine of the 13th century." I'ninrsnl "4." (n; r>/s :, i, t!u> jc-nit, uniformly decides in favour of the Koman writer^." The Koman poet and epicurean philosopher Lm-rctius has il c-alvini-tic, atticism, gothicunn, opicurism, je- suitisin, sabiani^m, sm inianisin, angli'-an, anglit i>m, an^lr-i/.f, vandalism, gallicism, roman. ,, 130-133. " The large ternate bat." \Vtbsler'* " Ckurch-ladden are not always mounted best By learned clerks, and latinists pruless'd." ( ' I'M.KU lln.K XII. OF I AND 0. " Fall back, fall back ; i have not room : o ! methinks i see a couple whom i should know." Lin-i,. [Four; ' : 1 /. whirh occur-; flin-o tiin<--. and th<> word O, wliich n.-cnrs onop, , tie ..ri, / and O should - i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these are to no id will not live, think, or love, as i d ,." " Whither, i rhc manner in wh ],,.,. <-all the sniail etue icttri*,'' or " itttt/s ,ij : 166 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. ! whither shall i fly ? o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa ! is this the consequence of thy generosity ?" Sallust, varied. " When i was a child, 1 spake as a child, i understood as a child", i thought as a child ; but when i became a man, i put away childish things." 1 Cor. xiii, 11 : varied. " And i heard, but i under- stood not : then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end of these things ? " Dan. xii, 8 : varied. " Here am i ; i think i am very good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in my life."' Few Days in Athens, varied. " Singular, Vocative, o master; Plural, Vocative, o masters." Bicknett's Gram. p. 30. " I, i am he ; o father ! rise, behold Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old ! " See Pope's Odyssey. UNDER RULE XIII. OP POETRY. " Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words health, peace, and competence ; but health consists with temperance alone, arid peace, O virtue ! peace is all thy own." Pope's Essay on Man, a fine London Edition. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the last three lines of this example hegin with small letters. But, accord- ing to Rule 13th, " Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, " Lie," "But," and " And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the capitals L, B, and A.] " Observe the language well in all you write, and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense displease us, if ill English give offence : a barbarous phrase no reader can approve ; nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write can never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking, never work in haste ; and value not yourself for writing fast." SeeDryden's Art of Poetry : British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 74. UNDER RULE XIV. OF EXAMPLES. "The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality : as, ' she is rather profuse in her expenses.' " Murray's Gram. p. 47. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the word she begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 14th, " The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the word " She " should here begin with a capital S.] " Neither imports not either ; that is, not one nor the other : as, ' neither of my friends was there. '" Murray's Gram. p. 56. "When we say, 'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather." Ib. p. 47. "We more readily say, ' A million of men,' than ' a thousand of men.' " Ib. p. 169. " So in the instances, ' two and two are four ; ' ' the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'" Ib. p. 124. "The adjective may freqiiently either precede or follow it [the verb] : as, ' the man is happy ; ' or, ' happy is the man :' 'The interview was delightful;' or, ' delif/hfful was the interview.' " Ib. p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a pen,' 'they ran the river,' ' the tower fell the Greeks,' ' Lambeth is Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly ;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word : as thus, ' He writes with a pen ; ' they ran towards the river ; ' ' the tower fell icpon the Greeks ; ' ' Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey.'" Ib. p. 118. "Let me repeat it; he only is great, who has the habits of greatness." Murray's Key, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times ; but, until seventy times seven." See Matt, xviii, 22. "The Panther smil'd at this ; and when, said she, Were those first councils disallow'd by me ? " Dryden, p. 95. UNDER RULE XV. OF CHIEF WORDS. " The supreme council of the nation is called the divan." Balbi's Geog. p. 360. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the word riii-n.n begins with a small letter. But, according to Hule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distin- gui.sb.ed by capitals." Therefore, " Divan " should here begiu with a capital D.J "The British parliament is composed of king, lords, and commons." Murray's Key, p. 184. " A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases." See Campbell's llhet. p. 169 ; Murray's Gram. 364. CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. LETTtllS. KRRORS. 1G7 The house of lords ; ' and, in stead of ' The commons' vote,' to say, ' The votes of the commons.' " See ih. p. 177, 4th Ann-r. I'd. also 1'n t. p. 69. "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." Murra ;/'.<> drum. Svo, p. !.?_': '. ^3. " Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great < _ ures of words, and figures of thought. The former, figures of words, are commonly called I'Ju-t. p. 132. " Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution." 76. p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength." Ib. p. 120. " The word is then depos'd, and in this view, You rule the scripture, not the scripture you." Dryden, p. 95. ' UNDER RULE XVI. OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS. " Be of good cheer : It is I ; be not afraid." ALGER : Matt, xiv, 27. I.E. Not proper, because the word It begins with a capital /, for which their appears to be neither r D. But, according to Rule 16th, "Capitals are improper whi-n-vi-r then* is i.ot some f-pecial rule or reason for their use." Therefore, ' it' should here begin with a small letter, as Dr. Scott has it.] " Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth." Murray's Key, p. 240. ' Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events ? " Ib. p. 242. " The last edition was carefully compared with the Original M. S." Ib. p. 239. And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews ? " ALGER : Matt, xxvii.'ll. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, Aha!" FKIEXDS' BH-.I.K : I'*. Ixx. 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of -lame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!" IB.: Ps. xl, 15. " What think ye of :> is he : They say unto him, The Son of David. He saith unto them, IIo\v then doth David in Spirit call him Lord : " SCOTT : Matt, xxii, 42, 43. " Among all Things in the Universe, direct your Worship to the Greatest : And which is that ? T is that Being which Manages and Governs all the Rest." Meditations of M. AurcHus Antnm - \- i'..r Mmlesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they have left thi> wi<-krd World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that can keep you here:" Ib. p. 81. 44 If Pulse of Verse, a Nation's Temper shows, In keen Iambics English Metre flows." Brightiand's Gram. p. 151. PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS. LESSON I. MI.XKD. ae, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come." Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 411. _ Ix-L'ins vithasmall letter. But, according to Rul tli. 'II. v nni- 8 an iirl *. fr which there appears to be nei- ther ru!< iiii|,ro|n.T whcnewr thi-re is not some -houlil here lM-gin with a .-mall letter.] uling the lives of the Twelve Ca'sars." '. " In th< : Henry the fourth, by father Daniel, we axe 7 at not finding him . m." /V -/. \i. \~>l. " In the history ry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man." Murray' 9 Gram. p. i .'.)'.. "Do not those san. and the Wedge, and many other instruments ? "M'i, wh<> -vcctator, is int- ! speaking by the contu . ]>. l-")7. "You cannot deny, that the great mover and author of na" ;;tly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the - ' ich have no similitude, or connexion, -with the things 1." lit-r!- r. p. 1^9. "The name of this letter is double 1", its form, that of a double V." U7/w//'.v F.sxay on dram, p. 19. " Murray, in his spelling book, wrote ' Charles-Town ' with a Hyphen and two Capital-." See p. 101. " He also wrote enropean ' without a capital." See p. 86. " They profess themselves be heard and not imitated." <' . p. 55. " 1 >r. Webster wrote- both ' Xewhaven ' and ' Xewyork ' with single capita' . p. 111. " Gayhead, the west point of Martha's Vineyard." ' "Write " Craborchard, Eggh arbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littfeoompton, Xewpaltz, Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal, Portobello, and Portorico." U'cbafn-'n Anu-ri^m Spelling-Book, 127-140. the names of the months : "janxiary, february, march, april, may, June, July, September, October, novcmber, december." Cobb's Standard Sj>d Una- Book, 21-10. AVrite the following names and words properly: " tuesday, Wednesday, thursday, friday. Saturday, saturn ; christ, Christian, Christmas, Christendom, michael- mas. indian, bacchanals ; Ivisthampton, omega, Johannes, aonian, levitical, deutero- nomy, enropean." Cobb's Standard SpMing-Bwk, sundry places. " Kight Letters in some Syllables we find, And no more Syllables in Words are joined." Uriyhtlantts Gram. p. 61. CHAPTER II. -OF SYLLABLES. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound ; and is either a word, or a ]>art of a word: as, a, an, ant. In every word there arc as many syllables as there are distinct sounds ; in. A word of one sylluMe is called a monosyllable; or word of two syllaM' /'//''. ; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable ; and a .-d f f.)ur or more syllables, a pol>/ syllable. . may form a syllable of itself ; but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs ; and without a vowel no syllable can be formed. DIPIITIIOXGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A lijj l tltny is t v. g joined in one syllable ; as, ea in beat, ou in tound. a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded ; An ' a di'ph thong in which only one of the vowels ; as. vn in / A tr>'j./tt; :ion'-xot<, a-m-ricc, c-cc-ri/, (j-rtin-tii-.s, -i/i-cine, re-pre-sent, re-so-lu-tion," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error re- specting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words ; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries : the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymol- l pronunciation ; but they disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with themselves. _'. The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four: 1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them ; 2. To show the derivation or composition of words ; 3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of words ; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines. "With respect to the first of these objects, Walker* observes, " When a child has made certain advances in rc-ulinir, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants coming together must be divided. 1 t/ian f/ii,s it would be absurd to go with a child." Walker s Principles, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An Abridgment of Walk- er's Kulcs on the Sounds of the Letters," an Abridgement, which, he says in his preface, " will be found to contain, it is believed, all the important rules that are established by. Walker, and to carry his prinei; r than he himself has done " befooled the ' to, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise men of it, into the notion that English pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some three or four hundred rules of which, the folio \\ -ing is a specimen : " RULE 282. When a single consonant is preceded by a owcl under the preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is suc- M;mt, it belongs to the accented vowel." Mulkey's Abridgement of *, p. 34. .A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication which I -t quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It censures "the prin- id down and illustrated by Walker," as "so elaborate and so verbose as to be ae to the scholar and useless to the child; " and yet declares them to be, "for ic most part, the true rules of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the lan- -Mulkei/'s Preface, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and "simplification principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children; and, at tion the v -t eharactcr. It is to be observed that the author teaches nothing reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables ; nothing simple fractions of the great science of grammar: and, for this purpose, he mluct the learner through the following particulars, and have him remember all : }; I Cation and organic, formation of l ( 't' fr "the sounds of the vowels, according to their Ml of "the different sounds of the diph- r"the sounds of the consonants, according to posi- * ; ''n." hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. r dividing words into syllables." 7. Thirty-three " additional her promiscuoiuly, b.-.-ausi ho could not class them. .//r.vof irri-gu:. forming particular exceptions to the foregoing . Twenty-eight . \tnu-ti-d from Walker's Dictionary, and very itily called "Tl. - of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children ! L Sueh is a brief sketch of Mulke\ of orthoepy; a work in which "lie claims to have device I what has heretofore be. : ///)< a mode by irh children in our common schools may be taught ///,.- rub* for the pronunciation o*f eir mother tongue." , -1. The faults of the book are so exceedingly nu- 1-ous. that to point them out, would be more toil, than to write a volume of twice the 1 is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis Kiuland, in that proud centre of arts and - :ul in the proudot halls of learnini; and of legislation: Examine the gentlen. v.tials, and take your choice between the adoption of his plan, as a great improvement in the management of Bi 172 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [rART I. syllables, and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them. Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme ; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November 14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoepy to the seceraliitstructers of the public schools, and that the sum of live hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund." See Mulkey' s Circular. OBS. 5. Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book ; a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. *With regard to the first of the abovenamcd purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at the pro- nunciation of words, till positive instruction conies in to give assurance ; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not pronunciation, must here govern the division ; and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as, ort/to-graphy, theo-logy. But when we divide for the third purpose, and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible, divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recom- pose the word, when put together again ; as, or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy. This being the most common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a gen- eral preference ; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing of spelling- books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines. OBS. 6. Dr. Lowth says, " The best and easiest rule, for dividing the syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation ; with- out regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable." Lowth' s Gram. p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle, with respect to the third purpose mentioned above : "This," says that celebrated ortho- epist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound, by giving distinctly every part ; and, when this is the object of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rn.le is certainly to be followed." Walker's Principles, No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For example : the words colonel, venison, transition, propitious, cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as acid, magic, pacify, legible, liquidate, it may not be best tc follow the rule, because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first sylla- bles of these words with c, g, and q, especially at the end of a line. The rule for termi- nations may also interfere with this, called " Lowth's ; " as in sizable, rising, dranith. OBS. 7. For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules, which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as general principles ; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their application, or the settling of their con- flicting claims to attention, these may be left to tho judgement of each writer. The old principle of dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected ; and, with it x all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose. " The divis- ions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be the same in written, as in spoken language ; otherwise the learner is misguided, and seduced by false re; tations into injurious errors." Wilson s Essay on Gram. p. 37. Through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform ; and it may perhaps be reason- ably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of syllabication, and a proper ex- position of the occasional errors of ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the scholar who had learned their rules should " strictly conform to them ; and that he should industriously avoid that random Mvikid f dividing by the Ear, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different Counties." Britis/i Grammar, p. 47. OBS. 8. Trie important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed igno- rance of the scholar; and the latter is still more frequently allowed to huiry through the process, without putting the .syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes, without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce a' word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling ; a mode in CHAP, ii.] ORTiioon APIIY. SVLLMSLI-:?. KKHORS. 173 far more is lo^t in respect to accuracy of speech, than is u r .ii"-''d in respect to time. !(' not only bo distinctly formed an 1 pr.r -hould say. " Dee I. d" ; Veo I Ivs, vi/. do-vi/ ; I, '.11, bil. do-vi/-o-bil ; I. de-vi/-e-h : ]-e ; '!'< \\'y. t , l"-vi/-o-bil-e-te." Again : . < Aitch I. *he; (> A. ka. *he-ka : En E Ar. nur. she-ka-nur; -ka-mir-' : advantages of oral >]>'.! 'ing, i> its tendency to i : and thi> end it will reach, in proportion, to the care and >ki'l with whi<-h it is conducted, lint oral snelliu-j; should not ho r-'lied on as the sole m -hinu r orthography. It will not be found sufficient. The method of .vords for ]irfictic;d spelling on slates or paper, or of reading something which ,-ain by the learner, is much to be commended, as a means of exer- ci/, ^-c., are written with the fol- Hir. afc.-.' - ' nan t a should .vcN or di|> iflionx-i which they modify in utterance." Therefore, these words '-our, cop-y, &c.] the division of the following words of three syllables: "be-ne-fit, bi-iut. ca-nis-tor, ca-ta-logue. cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty, co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi- ihant, e-vi- r-grecn, fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vem-ess, -ty, ka-len-dar, la-ven-dor, lo-ve-ret, li-be-rai, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter, iy, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy. pa ra-dise, ]>o-ver-ty, pre-si-nt-ly, pro-vi-dence, r-ly, ]>ri-son-er, ra-v<>n-ou>, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral. so-]ia-ratc, tra-vel-ler, va-ga- ; e-m-si-der, con-ti-nuo, do-H-vor, dis-co-ver, dis-ii-gnre, dis-ho-ne>r, dis-tri- -)ia-bit. mo-clui-nic, what-e-ver ; re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, rc-pri-mand." the division of the following words of four syllables : " ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-blo. di-li-gent-ly, mi-so-ra-ble. ])r.)-Ht-a-ble, to-le-ra-l)le ; be-ne-vo-lent, con- i-mi-nn-tive, ox-DO-ri-meiit. ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par- -cn-lar, ])ros-pf-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-l'u<, siu-co-ri-ty ; (lo-mon-stra-tion, e-du-ca-tion, e-mii-la-tioTi. . ma-nn-fac-ture, me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, .-ten-tial, ro->ig-na-tion, ion, se-mi i CO-lon." Murray : ib. p. 84- 1 -rrcct the >f the following wor'l -yllahles: " a-bo-mi-na-ble, w . . ; roper names: " Ke-lon, Leo-nard, Phi-lip, -rah, Do-ro-thy, . Ly-di-si, Xi-cho-Ia-. ::ui-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-m n, l^ar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-xa-bf tha-ni-el, IN -ne-lo-pe, Thf-o-phi-lu*." .V -101. II. MlXKD. 1. Correct the division of cap-rice, cs-teem, dis- . mat-ron, !, trait-or, tu-noli-er, rb-cr, bnrn-ish. garu-i-li. tarn-i^h, varn-ish, mark-ct, musk-et, j-amjili-let ; })r . ave-r; 'le-ry, hri lii-canc-ry, ina-diine-ry, -lum, hor-i-/,on, fi-n-ui-cier, ho-ro-i ir-ril-ous, com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or." tj-B)oks. 174 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. 2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d : " oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate ; am-bro-sia, cha-mcl-ion, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry ; an-nun- ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate, li-cen- tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate, sub-stan-tiate." Webster: Old Spelling-Book, 8691; Neto, 121128. 3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d : " dres-ser, has-ty, pas- try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-vmg, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy." Cobb's Standard Spelling -Book. Again : " eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy." Webster. 4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th: " aw-ry," Webster's Old Book, 52; " ath-wart," Ib. 93; " pros-pect-ive," Ib. 66; "pa-renth-e-sis," Ib. 93; "res-ist-i-bil-i-ty," Webster's New Book, 93; " hem-is-pher-ic," Ib. 130; "mo- nos-tich, he-mis-tick,"* Walkers Diet. 8vo; Cobb, 33; "tow-ards," Cobb, 48. 5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th : " E'n-gland," Murray's Spelling -Book, p. 100 ; " a-no-ther," Ib. 71 ; " a-noth-er," Emerson, 76 ; " Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra," Webster, 141; Cobb, 159. LESSON III. MIXED. 1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their derivation : " ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per, craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy, gus-ty, han-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-tcd, thrif-ty, ves-ture." Cobb's Standard Spelling -Book. 2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et, cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn- ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y, port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al, di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al, pa-tern- al." Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book. 3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong idea of their pronunciation : " ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry, eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, frip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry, his-to-ry, liv-e-ry, lot-te-ry, mock- e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry, pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry." J3/41-42. 4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to n before k the sound of ng : " ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le, crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey, port-ress, prick-le, poult-ice, punch- con, qua- drant, qua-drate, squa-dron, rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le." Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book. 5. Correct the division of the following words, w r ith a proper regard to rules 1st and 3d : " a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry, eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken, hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar- shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty, pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty, thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy." Emerson's Spelling- Book, 17-44. CHAPTER III.- OF WORDS. A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as prim- itive, or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their species ; the latter, their figure. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected. *This word, like distich and monostich, is from the Greek stichos, a Terse ; and is improperly spelled by Walker with a final k. It should be hemistich, with the accent on the first syllable. See Webster, Scott, Perry, Worcester, and others. CHAP. III.] ORTHOGRAPHY. WORDS. FIGURE. 175 A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words ; as, watch, man, hoiiM, tower. 'lie, less. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words ; as, watchman, watchhouse, VHttchtower, nevertheless. Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, bookseller, schoolmaster : others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hy- phen ; as, good-natured, negrwnerchcmt. RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS. ( RULE I. COMPOUNDS. t> "\Yonls regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as compounds, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, steamboat, railroad, red-hot, wi'll-liring. m-ic-roitied, are preferable to the phrases, steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined ; and toward its is better than the old phrase, to us ward. Hi LE II. SIMPLES. When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the compound instead is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, in stead of, is exactly like the other pi !>< of, in place of, in room of, in which we write no coin- pound . RULE III. THE SENSE. lae liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written !y, as the sense and construction may happen to require. Thus, & glass a house made of glass, but a glasshouse is a house in which glass is made ; pro UK rrJtant is a coloured trader, but a negro-merchant is a man who buys and Mlla negn- RULE IV. ELLIPSES. "When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be spilt to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, " six or seventeen " should not he said for " sixteen or seventeen ; " nor ought we to say, " calf, goat, $} " for " calf tkint, goatskin*, and shecjiskins." In the latter in- noe, however, it might be right to separate nil the words; as in the phrase, 'offee, and tea houses." Liberator, x, 40. , V. THE HYPHKN. When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to-day, to-night, to- morrotr ; or when each retain- il accent, so that the compound has more than "lie, or one that is moval>l> '//*, hn/ti/i-r-on, laughter-loving, garlic- er, butterjl>/-t}u>ll, the hyphen should be inserted between them. Hi I.K VI. No HYPHEN. When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as watchword, km, gentleman, and tin; parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen >huld b.- inser: m th.-m. Churchill, after much attention to ject, writes thus: " The practical instruction of the countinghouse imparts t Inn nigh knowledge of bookkeeping, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere schoolbook, however carefully constructed to suit particular pur- Xi'ir !\s> ////<>. The writer of this did not men:!, " / / Friday ." and it is absurd for the Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean. L In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to express our meaning as briefly as possible ; but legal phraseology is always full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov. 24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837 ;" but a conveyancer will have it, " On the twenty-fourth day of November, one : 1 (ij,ht hundred and thirty-seven" or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty- seven." \ \ve find that, in common daily use, all the names of the months, except "-, and J/y, are abbreviated; thus. Jan., /'r., Aug., Sept., And sometimes even the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter: :7; or 1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in con.t ruciing tables of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple ; a-, 8. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days, are perhaps still m - ; ent. For, if we please, we may put the simple Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add d for day, and mo. for month: as, 1 d. 2 d. 3 d. &c. ; i mo. &c. But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expres- sion of these things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great brevity and too great prolixity ; and, therefore, it is best to make it a general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures written in full. o. In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled with a curiou^ speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry, concerning the principle of thctr iil'-mity. We often speak of "tin- sum/- /r/W.v," and of " dijf\ //. or musick, connexion or <\i,t/i<'<-fis;irily ha\f some property peculiar to itself, by which it may be -igui>hed from every other. Were it not so, lang\iage would be unintelligible. But it is so; and, therefore, t > mistake one word for an other, is uni- .'.ly tii'Hiuht to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes are by no me.in- of uu-Mimnou occurn that the question about the identity of words is not a iay appear from the fact, that the learned often disagree about it in practice ; as when one grammarian will have an and a to be two words, and an other will atlinn them t<> be only different forms of one and the same word. 5. Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can lind that principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled. Now, although different words do generally differ in Orthography, in pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a si'_;n a^reein^ with an other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every word from every other, lies in neither 178 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. extreme : it lies in a narrower compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a word, are different words ; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same word. Conse- quently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we add a difference of signifi- cation everybody will immediately say, that we speak or write different words, and not the same : thus dear, beloved, and deer, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same ; and, in like manner, use, advantage, and use, to employ, will readily be called different words. Upon this principle, an and a are different words ; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the same article, though I have no- where expressly called them the same word. But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pro- nunciation, and only one ; one just orthography, and only one ; and some proper signi- fication, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or pronounced alike, not to main- tain the second point of difference, against the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so. OBS. 7. In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in that which relates to the figure of words. It is a point of which modern writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin grammarians, reckoned both spe- cies and figure among the grammatical accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech ; and accordingly noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of compounding w r ords in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation. No use appears to have been made of the hyphen, in joining the words of those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning "under one." The com- pounding of words is one principal means of increasing their number ; and the arbitra- riness with which that is done or neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others, have little need of definition ; and when new things are formed, it is very natural and proper to give them new names of this sort : as, steamboat, railroad. The propriety or impro- priety of these additions to the language, is not to be determined by dictionaries ; for that must be settled by usage before any lexicographer will insert them. And so nu- merous, after all, are the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right way of spelling it ; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. Railroads are of so recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary ; and that one is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong, in keeping the words separate because Johnson did not compound them. But is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write railroad, or rail-road, or rail road, which we cannot learn from any of our dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write rocklo, or roquelo, or roqiielaur, or roquelaure, which, in some form or other, is found in them all ? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his cloak is out of fashion. OBS. 8. No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above, should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen : for, in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other ; and they ought to be kept as distinct as possible.* But, when a whole phrase takes the relation of an adjective, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen becomes necessary ; as, "An inexpressibly apt bottle -of -small-beer comparison." Peter Pindar. The occasions for the compounding of words, are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to be said ; but, as we compound words, -sometimes with the hyphen, and sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in :aseertaining when to use this mark, and when to omit it. " Some settled rule for the use of the hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange predilection for it ; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L. Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to countenance this practice ; which is, no 'doubt, convenient enough for those who do not like trouble. His words are : ' A * According to Aristotle, the compounding of terms, or the writing of them as separate words,"must needs be a matter of great importance to the sense. For he will have the parts of a compound noun, or of a com- pound verb, to be, like other syllables, destitute of any distinct signification in themselves, whatever may be their meaning when written separately. See his definitions of the parts of speech, in his Poetics, Chapter 20th -of the Greek ; or Goulston's Version in Latin, Chapter 12th. CHAP. III.] ORTHOGRAPHY. FIGURE OF WORDS. ERRORS. 179 Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words : as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pro-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples, John- son, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without any separation between the syllables, lapdoij, prccxifitcnce ; his second and fifth as two distinct words each, (fa ji >'. '(> inrratc ; and his sixth as three words, mot /in- in lau- : so that only his fourth has the sanction of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, ness, .'//, and the rest."CJwrckifft dram. p. 374. (j,, s . '.. Again : " While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as precxisteit.ce, cooperate, and reottcr] ; it would unqxiestionably be advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson, alms-basket, ////.*-///>//-, with the hy- phen ; we have alin*d>-c'l, al/nshouse, almsman, without : and many similar examples of an unsettled praetiee might be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplex- ity, is not the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language, every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some particular sylla- ble. Some very long words indeed admit a,secondary accent on an other syllable ; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one leading accent prominent : as in expos' tulatory. Accordingly, when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as MpAfcop, bed'stead, broadsword, the two words have coalesced completely into one, and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the radical words has an accent, a,s Christ tan- name', broad' -shoul'dered, I think the hyphen should be used. Good'-na'tured is a compound epithet with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen : in y<><> . -lond trill, and similar expressions, good is used simply as an adjective, and of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is u>ed adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies ; as, a ijold rin(j, a sitcer buckle. AVhen two numerals are employed to express a number, with- out a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them by a hyphen ; as, twc-nty- fooe, fi. p. 8-1. "The mail is opened at the post office." Ib. p. 151. "The error Id." tinhorn's (li-aiii. p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand." U ', ,iok, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the tiu'uiv- on a mile stone." Ib. p. 88. " A grange i-* a farm and farm house." Ib. p. 118. " It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than money." Ib. p. 118. "The awl is a tool uM-d by shoemakers, and harness makers." Ib. p. 150. " Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar." Ib. p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at York was a terrible di*a-ter." lh. p. .VI. "The elders also, and the bringers up of the children, sent to Jehu." SCOTT: 2 AV/I//.S-, x, 5. "Not with eye >ervice, as men pleasers." llic!.< /-.s/<7//, <>n l'r,nj,-r, p. 04. "A good natured and equitable con- struction of 08060." i /. p. 138. "And purify your hearts, ye double minded." Gurney's ]'<>/" ><(?$, p. Ho. " It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean spirited action." (lranr nf Al>.c. Murray, the schoolmaster, p. 12 i. " There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the subjunctive 180 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. mood of the Latin tongue." Booth's Introd. to Diet. p. 71. "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life." Philological Museum, i, p. 459. " The com- mon place, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced." Ib. i, p. 494. "She formed a very singular and unheard of project." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "lie had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited enemies." ROBERTS YAUK : The. Friend^ vii, p. 74. " These old fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c. Music of Nature, p. 292. " This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony." 76. p. 398. "So we are assured from Scripture it self." Harris's Hermes, p. 300. "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling." R. Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com. "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them." Beacon, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGEU, FRIENDS: John, xx, 23. "Tarry we our selves how we will." Walk.r's English Particles, p. 161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor want a voucher." Collier's Antoninus, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys any of the above named sentiments." Rush, on the Voice, p. 424. " I go on horse back." Guy's Gram. p. 54. "This requires purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words." Adam's Gram. p. 242 ; Gould's, 234. " May the Plough share shine." White's Eng. Verb, p. 161. " Which way ever we consider it." Locke, on Ed. p. 83. " W r here e'er the silent (e) a Place obtains, The Voice foregoing, Length arid softness gains." Brightland's Gr. p. 15. UNDER RULE II. OF SIMPLES. "It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed." Kirkham's Gram. p. 83. [FORMULE Not proper, because abovenamed is here unnecessarily made a compound. But, according to Rule 2d, " When the s-imple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compound- ing of any of them ought to be avoided." Therefore, above and named should here have been written as two words ] " After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude." Fox's Journal, i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give in." Collier's Meditations of Antoninus, p. 94. "They stared awhile in silence one upon another." Passelas, p. 73. " After passion has for awhile exercised its tyrannical sway." Murray's Gram, ii, 135 and 267. "Though set within the same general-frame of intonation." Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. " Which do not carry any of the natural vocal signs of expression." Ib. p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few associable constituents." Ib. p. 343. " Before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic-word." Ib. p. 364. " One should not think too favourably of oneself." See Murray's Gram, i, p. 154. " Know ye not your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you." Barclay's Works, i, p. 355. " I judge not my ownself, for I knew nothing of my ownself." Way land's Moral Science, p. 84. " Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry awhile." Josephus, v, p. 179. "A instead of an is now used before words beginning with u long."- Murray's Gram. p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's day." Murray's Gram. p. 82. " A new-year's-gift is a present made on the first day of the year." See Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al. " When he sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts." STILLINGFLEET, in Johnson's Diet. " St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives' -fables." Author. " The world, take it altogether, is but one." Collier's Antoninus, B. vii, Sec. 9. " In writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense." Murray's Gram.p. 298. "A male-child, A female-child. Male-descendants, Fe- male-descendants." Goldsburi/s C. S. Gram. p. 13 ; Rev. T. Smith's Gram. p. 15. " Male- servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations." Felton's Gram. p. 15. " Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim, My muse e'er sought to blast another's fame." Lloyd, p. 162. UNDER RULE III. THE SENSE. " Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instincts." Rush, on the Voice, p. 291. [Forrmde. Not proper, because the term four footed is made two words, as if the instincts were four and footed. But. according to Kule 3d, " Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or wrktetj separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require." Therefore, four-fooled, as it here means <{uail raped, or having four feet, should be One word ] "Tie is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his table." Goldsmith's Greece,, ii, p. 128. "To the sho'rt seeing eye of man, the progress may appear little. "- The Friend, ix, p. 377. " Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual distinction." Town's Analysis, p. 5. " A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels." Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 44. " The beams of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists." Ib. p. 39. " What you mean by future tense adjective, I can CHAP. III.] ORTHOGRAPHY. FIGURE OF WORDS. ERRORS. 181 easily understand." Tooke's Diversions, ii, p. 450. " The town has been for several days very well behaved." S/n-rfafor, Xo. 532. "A rounce is the handle of a printing pre . " r'a !)'.; also /."/. Spi-Htuy-Ii >>!;, p. 118. "The phraseology we call th,.-i- ami thnuiwj is not in so common use with us, as the tutoyant among the French." \Yalk-.r s / Th>/. " Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued." Balbi's (!--S: Matt, xi, us. " (iod so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son to save it." Barclay's Works, i, p. 71 ; Scott's Bible, John, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and was spared." A". 1". Observer, x, p. 90. "These are well pleading to God, in all ranks and relations." Barclay's Works, i, p. 73. "Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle." Numb, xvii, 13. "The words po when they have a long established association." Murray's Gram. p. 169. "Open to me the gates of right I will go in to them." OLD 13nu.r: : /'*. cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of Uod coining into him." See Acts, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light." Wayland's Moral St-ii-nce, p. 108. \Ve commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold, without a hyphen; and, afrer that, we use one." Author. Sec Matt, xiii, 8. "When the first mark i- . he cries turn ! the glass holder answers d nie ! " Bowditch's Nav. p. 128. " It is a kind of familiar shaking hands with all the vices." MafHrin's Si-rmon.s, p. 170. " She is a i^ood natured woman ; " " James is self opinionated ; " " He is broken hearted." kfj Gram. ]>. 147. " These three examples apply to ihcpresent tense construction only." Ih. p. 65. " So that it was like a game of hide and go seek." Edward's First Lessons in Grammar, p. 90. " That lowliness is young ambition's ladder, Whereto the climber upward turns his face." Bucke's Gram. p. 97. UNDER RULE IV. OF ELLIPSES. " This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house." [ FOR-.: ' roj !-. ln-1'au-o the compound word xchooliiimxi- is hero divided to avoid a repetition of the Kiir, iierordiiii; to Kule 4tli, u \Vheii two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of . make nn ellipsis of half a wurJ." Therefore, " AcAoo/" should be " sclioulliouse ; : ' thus, ' This luiil lin n ' MTV. s \-t tor a schoolhouse and a meeting-house." ] - and mi>tresses of honest friends [are] to be encouraged." N". E. xv. " We never assumed to ourselves a faith or worship-making-power." . i. ]). 83. " Pot and pe.ul ashes are made from common ashes." ll'cb- , p. 69. " Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics." ''rant. \>. \'2\. " 1 say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c." Dr. clves skilful, have trie,lf trthe mastery in two or four horse chariots." '/.">i'>bia,\, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and beaded, running through the streets." Castle Rackrcnt, p. (18. Is have tin- entire control of the school and dwelling-houses." The Friend, vii, p. '2 "> 1 . ' The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the iirst month, at the last in mil M) on." Ib. ]). 107. " M' i tings for worship arc held at the same hour on lir.-t and fourth days." Ib. p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with gold leaf." Ib. p. 401. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last '. h'i'tb, eighth, and eleventh month." Ib. p. 87. "Trenton held on the third lifth day in each month, at ten o'clock ; meet- -hip at the same hour on first and fifth days." Ib. p. 231. " Ketch, a vessel with t\. . main and mi/./.en-mast." \Vvbstrr' s Diet. "I only mean to suggest a cnlistel hrre n>ed for ]i:]:er anil fullingmillH, they beat thiir hemp." MOKTIMKK : /// ,/n/i/isfn/i'.r.>- names or noun*."i:m-tytica t p. 16. ;. where highest woods, impenetrable t sun-light, spread their umbrage broad." Milton. I.K V. THE Hvi'iiKN. " l-'.ri/f/iin kiny ; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle C number;" Xc. ChurrlnH'x (i,-me> a >ubstantive." BriuUt-y's Gram. p. 104. " It is very plain, I consider man as vi>itcd a new." Barclay's Works, iii, p. 331. " Xor do I any where say, as he falsely insinuates." Ib. p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where, no where." Alex. Mum/', '\ t irii in. p. ~)~). "The world hurries off a pace, and time is like a rapid river." i .f. 58. " But to new model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism." Brniri,' . i, p. 102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce rain." IT, v, p. 369. " North west winds from the high lands produce cold clear weather." Ib. "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to English men." /'/// sVAy'.s dram. p. 155. "The ground floor of the east wing of Mulberry street meeting house wax filled." The Friend, vii, 232. " Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the glass houses." Red Book, p. 131. " The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife Gives all the strength and colour of our life." Murray's Gram. p. 54 ; Fish's, 65. LESSON II. MIXED. " In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven days in Tir/ah." ', ;. \~t. "In the thirty and first year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel." Ih. xvi, 23. " lie cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three sum." ' Quarterly Review. " The best cod e known under the name of Isle of Shoals dun tish." BalbCs Geoff, p. 26. " The soldiers, with down ( i med to beg for mercy." Goldsmith's Greece, ii, p. 142. " lli-^ ivercd with a coarse worn out piece of cloth." Ib. p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy armed Spartans." Ib. p. 38. " But he laid them by unopened ; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.' " -tor monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following md second day." The Friend, vii, p. 124. " Eggharbour monthly* meeting is held the first second day." Ib. p. 124. " Little Eu r g Harbour Monthly Meeting is held \"i-t.on on the second fifth day in each month." Ib. p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the 2 Ith of eleventh month, 1834," &c. Ib. p. 64. " In less than one- fourth part of the time usually devoted." Kirkham's Gram. p. 4. "The pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much." Ib. p. 11. "The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage." Ib. p. 28. " In an ancient English version iinent." Ib. p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed.'' Red Book, p. ! :ie man, being a little >hort sighted, did not immediately know him." Ib. p. 40. 'id." Ib. p. 44. "The park keeper killed one of the l>>. p. H. "The fox was killed near the brick kiln." Ib. p. 46. " Here comes . with her milk pail." Ib. p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us." Ib. p. 60. A tine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill. Ib. p. 65. "If their private interests should be ever s > little ati'erted." If,, p. 73. " Unios are fresh water shelU, vulgarly called fre-h water clams." 1/>. p. 102. " Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom, !ed by pedants out of elbow room." Lloyd, p. 163. LESSON III. MIXED. "The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains." Puiou : in Johnson's I- :w that the hand writing agreed with the contents of the letter." . ir. Unnil. " They have put me in a silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool'- ID.: ih. ir. .y/v//' .-,'. Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has aved that rlod-patrd. numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from min, and all his family?" Aunrr!i\' . A noble, thai i-. -i\ -hillinizs and eicrht- . ia, and usually hath been paid." li\ birds thick d and with full-sum: ." Howi ., FuU-snninii-iL "Tomorrow. This is an idiom of the same ki;i mean originally morniny : as, to night, to day." Juhn^.jn's Diet. 4to. " To-day goes away 184 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. and to-morrow comes." Id. ib. w. Go, No. 70. "Young children, who are tried in go carts, to keep their steps from sliding." PRIOR : ib. w. Go-cart. " Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward." SHATC. : ib. w. Goer. " Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent." CRASHAW : ib. 10. Golden. " My penthouse eye-brows and my shaggy beard offend your sight." DRYDEN : ib. in. Penthouse. " The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh." I/ESTRANGE : ib. w. Nag. " A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful head." fuelling's Gift, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three stringed lute." Ib. p. 42. " They magnify a hundredfold an author's merit." Ib. p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened door." Ib. p. 10. " Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou art bound to vice." DRYDEN : in Johnson's Diet. w. Gloss. " Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms." BACON : ib. w. Charge. " This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sun-shine." NEWTON : ib. iv. Rainbow. " Not but there are, who merit others palms ; Hopkins and Stem hold glad the heart with Psalms." British Poets, Lond. 1800, Vol. vi, p. 405. CHAPTER IV.-OF SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules ; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage. The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity : many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to be accurate. RULES FOR SPELLING. RULE I. FINAL F, L, OR S. Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as staff, mill, pass muff, knell, gloss off, hiss, puss. EXCEPTIONS. The words clef, if, and of, are written with single/; and as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, MS, pus, and thus, with single s. So bid, for the flounder ; mil, for no, in law ; sol, for son or sun; and sal, for salt, in chemistry, have but the single /. OBS. Because sal, salts, in Latin, doubles not the /, the chemists write salify, sal/fable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous, saliniform, salify ing, c., with single /, contrary to Rule 3d. But in gas they ought to double the s ; for this is a word of their own invent- ing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form gases and gaseous with the s still single ; for so they make it violate two general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written gass, the plural should nevertheless be gasses, and the adjective should be gasseotis, according to llule 3d. RULE II. OTHER FINALS. "Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not double the final let- ter; as, mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz. EXCEPTIONS. We double the consonant in abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg, ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr, and some proper names. But we have also ab (from) and ad (to) for prefixes ; and jay, rag, in, bur, and but, are other words that conform to the rule. CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. RULES. 185 RULE III. DOUBLING. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their final c< nxuiimt before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel : as, rob, r :./ ; 7', f'>/tjn's/t, /'YY"'/'.'/ ,* aqnat, squatter, squatting ; thin, tlimn-r, lit! niit'xt ; .- miner, i>n-i mini mj ; commit, cnminiHcth, . 1. X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled: thus, from mix, we ha\ . <>/////, and miser. 2. "NVhen the derivative retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, prefer 1 ', preference, preferable ; '<", or refer 'rible ; infer', in'ference, in'ferable, or infer'rible ; transfer 1 , 'i.'e. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain, .iia; appeal, appel'lant ; argil, argil'lous, argil/a 'ceous ; cavil, car'Ulwis, . excellence ; inflame', inflam'mable, iiiflamma'tion. See Obser- vations 9 and 10, p. 190. RULE IV. No DOUBLING. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the ac- cent is nut on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable : a< t fif. /*///////; oil. oil;/ ; risit, visited; differ, differing; peril, perilous ; viol, . r,-nli~,', realist ; dial, dialing, dialist ; equal, equalize, equality ; 'riolnte. MOV-;. 1. The final / of words ending in , and derivative nouns, of the few verbs ending in al, il, or ol, unaccented, namely, ipur'-f/(ifl<-d, hot'spurred, . '"iff-icitfi'd. So, compromittcd and manumitted; but benefited is different. RULE V. FINAL CK. ml Knuli.-h vt -*rbs end not with c, but take ck for double c: as, to ' funii-li,^ a C ,M.-.,H : L '.iiii>f iii- own practice of uMng a single p v.i.r-l ;ip pears to have been wtorthscypr. But words rui.l th.-ivf.. r .' th,.\ .'. ,-ui to belong to the rule, rather p. 68. \\ lii-ii .. <..,,,, bffoi ) rappOMd to do BO, or \M 'iie letters is "f tin- .-an,. .-LUt, skillns; full, "'// And, as bnrg< ^ i, 1 uoi compound*, think tlu-y ought to follow the same priuciple, and be written burgess/tip, hotttsship, mutresship. The proper 186 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, squally, shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, still- ness, shrillness, feline ss, smallness, drollness,freencss, grassless, passless, careless- ness, recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable. EXCEPTIONS. 1. Certain irregular derivatives in t, from verbs ending in II 01 ss, as dwelt from dwell, spelt from spell, shalt from shall, wilt from will, blest from bless, past from pass, are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word pontiff is properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule ; for they are seve- rally spelled with one : as, pontific, pontifical, pontificate, &c. 3. The words skillful, skill- fully, willful, willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness, and fullness, have generally been allowed to drop the second /, though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster. RULE VII. RETAINING. "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes : as, see, foresee ; feoff, enfeojf ; pass, re- pass ; press, depress ; miss, amiss; call, recall; stall, forestall ; thrall, inthrall ; spell, misspell; tell, foretell ; sell, undersell; add, superadd ; snuff, besnujf ; swell, overswell. OBSERVATION. The words enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall, reinstall, disin- thrall, fulfill, and twibill, are very commonly written with one /, and made exceptions to this rule ; but those authors are in the right who retain the double letter. RULE VIII. FINAL LL. Final II is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few deriva- tives formed from such roots by prefixes ; consequently, all other words that end in 1, must be terminated with a single /: as, cabal, logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal, rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul. OBSERVATION. The words annul, until, distil, extil, and instil, are also properly spelled with one I ; for the monosyllables null, till, and still are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions of later growth. Webster, however, prefers distill, extill, and instill with II ; and some have been disposed to add the other two. RULE IX. FINAL E. The final e of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, remove, re- moval; rate, ratable ; force, forcible; true, truism; rave, raving; sue, suing; eye, eying ; idle, idling ; centre, centring. EXCEPTIONS. 1. Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g : as, trace, traceable ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 2. So, from shoe, we write shoeing, to preserve the sound of the root ; from hoe, hoeing, by apparent analogy ; and, from singe, singeing ; from swinge, swingeing ; from tinge, tingeing ; that they may not be confounded with singing, swinging, and tinging. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent, the rule does not apply ; and final ee remains double, by Rule VI, as in disagreeable, disagreeing. RULE X. FINAL E. The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termi- nation beginning with a consonant : as, pale, paleness ; edge, edgeless ; judge, judgeship ; lodge, lodgement; change, changeful; infringe, infringement. form of gall-less is perhaps more doubtful. It ought not to be gallless, as Dr Webster has it ; and gnlless< the analogical form, is yet, so far as I know, without authority. But is it not preferable to the hyphened form, with three Ells, which has authority ? > ' GALL-LESS, a. Without gall or bitterness. Cleat-eland.'" Chalmers. Bottes, Worcester. " Ah ! mild and gall-less dove, Which dost the pure and candid dwellings love, Canst thou in Albion still delight ? "Cotvley's Odes. Worcester's Dictionary has also the questionable word "bellless." Treen,for trees, or for an adjective meaning a tree's, or made of a tree, is exhibited in several of our dictionaries, and pronounced as a monosyl- lable : but Dr Beattie, in his Poems, p. 84, has made it a dissyllable, with three like letters divided by a hyphen, thus : "Plucking from tree-en bough her simple food." CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. RULES. 187 EXPIATION*. 1. When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted ; as in dull/, tnil, . rf; but much more frequently retained ; as in diteness, triteness,* ///'. rueful, dm-ful, xhnt-h -.s,v, eyeless. 2. The word wholly is also an exception to the rule, for nobody wxitaa it idml.ly. 3. Some will have jmlij ment, abridgment, and ac- kinnrl,:tcnnilcns, and pennyworth ; scttrriness, and scurry-grass ; &C. But /n>i'>/*/'u'ii vaA. goody hip, being unlike sccretarislnp and suretyship ; handicraft and handi- , * unlike handyyripe and h a ndy stroke ; habyship and babyhood, unlike stateliness and likelihood; the distinction between derivatives and compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed. 2. Before ing or ish, the y is retained to prevent the doubling of i: as, pity, pity ing ; baby, babyish. 3. Words ending in ie, drop- tin' by Rule 9th, change the i into y, for the same reason : as, die, dying ; vie, lie, lying. RULE XII. FINAL Y. The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before any additional termination : as, day, days ; key, keys ; guy, : rulli'i/. vti1Ii>ys; coy, coyly ; cloy, cloys, cloyed; boy, boyish, boyhood; an- . "nii'iijnnce ; /"// joyless, joyful. . 1. From lay, pay, say, and stay, are formed laid, paid, said, and staid ; t the regular words, layrd, payed, stayed, are sometimes used. 2. Raiment, contracted from in r written with the y. 3. Daily is more common than the regular "rm dayly ; but gayly, gaycty, and (jay ness, are justly superseding gaily and gaiety. RULE XIII. IZE AND ISE. ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take H- r in nil such as arc es.-vntially formed by means of the termination; and the s in mnnnsyllabk's. and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, f/nninf/ii/f'~ f ', nh(jize, brnt, canonize, pilyriniize, philosophize, cauterize, ana'lo n/>/fi:<', aympnthlze. disort/miizc, with z ; f rise, arise, disguise, advise, . rii-i'innrisi", despise, surmise, surprise, comprise, compromise, . with s. itechise, chastise, criticise,^, exercise, exorcise, and merchandise. <>Ar ; firurr's Bible ; Harrison's Gram. p. 83 "And the fir- Bible; Harrison's Gram, p 103. . TII, ination izf, afterwards assumes a prefix, to make ii-f. In such ;i - must of .1 .r i.riiiinry fnnuatioii of both fnuii tlie \vcr.l organ ie, and the like, are e->entially or nnizt, and recognize, lioh I have noted am t,v \\Iii.-li method we ought to suppose \cl'.-fii f.n '..-.irl\ -all OCben, ti ! f erj j.l-iin , an. I though ' I'-r fi.un.li: .!, n rule as the forep-ii'^. the v<.ice ..f general custom in this as in iu"-t .;her j.i.Mits or |.riiuiiilc> <>i' orthography, aud, surely, some rule in this case is rvatlv i - >; <. i< tli- orthography of Johnson. Walker, Webster, .Tone?, Prott. flolle?, Chalmers, Cohb, ipell i' in liN ((.nipn-h.-n-iv.- Dictionarj <>f 1-:)1. hut. in his fniversal rrott it "Hi r. a- ,ii,i Bailey in his folio, about a hundred years ago. the z conforms to the foregoing rule, and the s does not. 188 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. are most commonly written with s ; and size, assize, capsize, analyze, oi-rrprize, dctonize, and r.-cognize, with 2. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult to say. 2. Prise, a thing taken, and prize, to esteem ; apprise, to inform, and apprize, to value, or appraise, are often written either way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3. The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words variable, Avhich ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle. RULE XIV. COMPOUNDS. Compounds generally retain the Orthography of the simple words which compose them : as, wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep, kneedgrass, kneading- trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill. EXCEPTIONS. 1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which they are not the roots, the words fall and all drop one I ; as, 'handful, careful, fulfill, always, although, icithal : in temporary compounds, they retain both; as, full-eyed, chock-full,* all-ioisc, save-all. 2. So the prefix mis (if from miss, to err,) drops one s; but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "mispcll" and "mispeiid,' for misspell and misspend. 3. In the names of days, the word mass also drops one s ; as, Christinas, Candlemas, Lammas. 4. The possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in herdsman, kitesfoot. 5. One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together : as, Rosshire, chaffinch ; or else a hyphen is used : as, Ross-shire, ill-looking, still-life. 6. Chilblain, welcome, and welfare, drop one /. 7. Shepherd, wherever, and whosever, drop an e ; and wherefore and therefore assume one. RULE XV. USAGE. Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned : as, " The brewer grinds his malt before he brues his beer." Red Book, p. 38. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1 . The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation of our orthography ; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate its chief difficul- ties. .Being made variable by the ignorance of some writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uni- formity and consistency can be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and principles ; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their num- ber or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides ; because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and uncertain. That errors and inconsis- tencies abound, even in the books which are proposed to the world as standards of English orthography, is a position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more weight than particular examples to the con- trary. " The right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation, its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to which it belongs." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 647. OBS. 2. I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our lexicogra- phers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with himself, destroys his own : for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as the criterion of what is right or wrong in spelling ; but it would seem that no one man's learning is sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely relied on to furnish a standard by which we may in all cases be governed. Johnson was generally right ; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong. He erred sometimes in his principles, or in their application ; as when he adopted the k in such words as rlietorick and dcmoniack ; or * Like this, the compound brim-full ought to be written with a hyphen and accented on the last syllable ; but all our lexicographers have corrupted it into brim '/;//, and, contrary to the aurhoiiries they quote, ac- cented it on tho first. Tiitir noun brimfulnest, with a like accent, is also a corruption: and the text of Shakspeare. which they quote for it, is nonsense, unless brim be there made a separate adjective : " With ample and brimfulnff* of his force. 1 ' Johnson's Diet, et al. " With ample and brim fullness of his force," would be better. CHAP. IV. J ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. RULES. 189 when he inserted the in such words as t//,r- rnovr, irarriour, stipcriour. Neither of generally adopted, in any tiling like the number of words to which lie applied them ; or ever will be ; though some indiscreet compilers are still /onlously end. avou'.'hig to impose them upon the public, as tlie true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes />>/ ri<;-t',l,'//>. or oversight; a.s when he spelled thus : " i\-<-.~ . '' and d, ,,i e- not venture to correct it ! See Johnson's Diction - . :ir>t American edition, quarto: Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word /////, and his Rhyming Dictionary, Introd. p. xv. ;. " Dr. Johnson's Dictionary " has been represented by some as having " nearly fixed the external form of our language." lint Murray, who quotes this from Dr. Nares admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a great number of Knglish word-,, is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction." Gram. p. 25. And, after commending this work of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it i> ear- be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be temptod to innovate," he adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical inconsis- tencies which ought to be rectified : such a<, immovable, moreable ; c/iasfcly, clnt.^ fi'rtt / . si mess, slyly ; fearlessly, fcarl-esncts ; needfasntss, needlesly." Ib. In respe-Tt to the final ck and our, he also i/>tc>i('<>/>/ departs fruin Tin: STA.VDAIM) irhii-Ji he thus .erring, in that, the authority of ll'al^r's Rhipni.i'f Dictfumiri/, from which lie borrowed liis rules for spelling. For, against the use of k at the end of words from the learned lan^uuges, and au:iiii-t tl:e it in many words in which Johnson n the authority, not only of general usage now, but of many grammari- ans who were contemporary with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient (U iniong whom is Walker himself. In. this, therefore, Murray's prac- - commended standard dictionary, wrong. Oil'. 4. Of words ending in or or our, we have about three hundred and twenty ; of which not more than forty cm i,ow with any propriety be written with the latter tc rmination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day, I insert in >o many of these- words as now seem most familiar to the eye when so written ; but I have no partiality for any letters that can well be spared ; and if this book should ever, by any good fortune, happen to be reprinted, after honour, labour, favour, bchaciour, and . -hall have become as unfashionable as authour, crruur, fervour, and CIHJJC- rnirr, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated appearance. OBS. o. I h te I the above-mentioned imperfections in Dr. Johnsons ortho- graphy, merely to justify the liberty which 1 take of spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of Dr. II, ^ /, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a more correct stnnrli.trd. For the latter author, though right in some things in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erro- neous and ineon.-i.stcnt. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he has spelled many hundreds of words in .such a variety of ways, that he knows not at la-t which of them i- 1 which are wroiu'. But in respect to dfjiuiti-n^, he has done tforl service to our literature ; nor have his critics been sufficiently just respecting ill hi- i.m n iti >.i-." * To omit the k from su.-ii words as publtck t or the ** fr' , ''>n; it is but ignorance that censures the general practice, under that name. Tlie I . ;.>r Johnson and opponents of iter, \\ho are now so /.ealously stickling for the / and the u in these cases, ought to know tnat they are contending for what was obsolete, or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson ^ OHS. i\. I h; ed that some of the grammarians who were contempo- rary with Johnson, did not adopt hi> pr.i:-ti-e respivtins the k or the u, in jnib.'ii-k, . And iml -c I 1 a-n not sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was birn in lied in 17SL lint Brightland's Grammar, which MM.- written durisi-j th. r. :i Amu-, who die I in 171 1, in treating of the letter [f in any Word the harder Sound p., . k /), or (i/), (/,-) is cither added or put in its I'l ., \-ul tho' the a.ldiiionul (/,-) in the fore, in.,' Word be an old M",/ / ,^tly left off, .ur- nuous Lettor ; I-T ( ) at the Ivi .ition, Lond. 17-i !, ]). Ous. 7. Tlie -lev, an. I Lnvth, all appeared, in their See Cobb'fl Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster 190 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. first editions, about one time ; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1758 ; and none of these learned doctors, it would seem, used the mode of spelling now in question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this : " Italics, public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick ; error, superior, warrior, authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772 : "Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapaestic, monosyllabic, electric, public, critic ; author, emperor's, superior ; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured, vigour, endeavour ; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control, travelling." In Lowth, of 1799 : " Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic ; author, favor, favored, endeavored, alledging, foretells." Now all these are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster con- tradict each other ; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole, be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of grammar. OBS. 8. The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution, and even before " the Learned Mr. Samuel Johnson " was doctorated, though it thus respect- fully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the spelling of which I am treat- ing. On the contrary, it abounds with examples of words ending in ic and or, and not in ick and our, as he wrote them ; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former orthography has continued to be more common than his. Walker, the orthoepist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the k, and ended about four hundred and fifty words with c in his Rhyming Dictionary ; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, " It has been a custom, within these twenty years, to omit the k at the end of words, when preceded by c. This has introduced a novelty into the language, which is that of ending a word with an unu- sual letter," &c. "This omission of k is, however, too general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson ; but it is to be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages." Walker's Principles of Pronunciation, No. 400. The tenth edition of Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit k after c at the end of dissyllables and trissyllables, &c. as music, arithmetic, logic ; but the k is re- tained in monosyllables ; as, back, deck, rick, &c." P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had been five American editions in 1792, added no k to such, words; as didactic, critic, classic, of which he made frequent use ; and though he wrote honour labour, and the like, with u, as they are perhaps most generally written now, he insertec. no u in error, author, or any of those words in which that letter would now be inconsis- tent with good taste. OBS. 9. Bickiiell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter k, says, "And for tho same reason we have dropt it at the end of words after c, which is there always hard ; at; in publick, logick, &c. which are more elegantly written public, logic." Part ii, p. 13, Again : " It has heretofore joined with c at the end of words ; as publick, logick ; but, as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left out." Ib. p. 16. Horno Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth : " Formerly a k was added, as, rustick, politick, Arith- metick, &c. but this is now in disuse." Booth's Introd. to Diet. Lond. 1814, p. SO. OBS. 10. As the authors of many recent spelling-books Cobb, Emerson, Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others are now contending for this "superfluous letter" in spite of all the authority against it, it seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words : "In regard to k after c at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its omission has never been attempted, except in a small portion of the cases where it occurs ; and that it tends to an erroneous pronunciation of derivatives, as in mimick, mimicking, where, if the k were omitted, it would read mimicing ; and as c before i is always sounded like s, it must be pronounced mi/nising. Now, since it is never omitted in monosyllables, where it most frequently occurs, as in block, clock, &c., and can be in a part only of polysyllables, it is thought better to preserve it in all cases, by which we have one general rule, in place of several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial omission." 'Bolles' s Spelling -Book, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language eighty-six monosyllables which end with ck, and from them about fifty compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation, such as huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack, knapsack, Jwllyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hommock, bullock, roebuck. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six ; attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick, and physick ; and these, unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and properly written with final c, are about four hundred and fifty in number, and are all of them cither adjec- tives or nouns of regular derivation from the learned languages, being words of more CHAP. IV.] ORTIIOGRAPHY. SPELLING. RULES. 191 than one syllabic, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the doubling otV by /.-, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives, to do with all these L' foreign origin : For the reason of the matter, we might as well double the /, as our an . in natural/. ti'tp<>ra//, spiritual/, Nrc. 11. The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a duplication, while some others are doubled but seldom, and some, never. Thus, among the vowels, ee and oo occur frequently ; an i* used sometimes; ii, never except in certain Latin words, ( wherein the v<> naratcly uttered,) such as Horatii, I'rii, iidt-m, //////. A'^iin, tlie doubling of is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter called ', which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the form for u was /-. So, among the consonants,/, /, and s, incline more to duplication, than any others. These letters arc double, not only at the end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, . mill, pass; but also under some other circumstances. According to general .::ial/ i> doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases ; as in bailiff, caitiff, plain- ////','. sheriff, tariff, mastiff: yet not in calif, which is perhaps better written caliph. Final /. by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this ; but, by ; it ions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant would be ; as in trin-rlliiiii, ;/>< -,-//iny ; unless, (contrary to the opinion of Lowth, Walker, and Web- ster,) we will \M\\vJilUpping, gossipping, and icorshipping, to be needful exceptions also. 1'2. Final * sometimes occurs single, as in alas, atlas, bias; and especially in Latin upetus ; and when it is added to form plurals, as verse, verses : but this letter, too, is generally doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syl- lable ; as in i-iiri-ti-xfi, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, r//' / //-/v/.v.v. On the contrary, the other uts are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule 3d. The letter p, i , is commonly doubled, in some words, even when it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th ; as in the derivatives from fillip, gossip, and perhaps also worship. This letter, too, was very frequently doubled in Greek ; whence we have, from the name of Philip of Macedon, "the words Pk&ppie and I'hilippizr, which, if spelled according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like galloped and i/ail >] r, sirup, il and siruptj, have but We find them so written in some late dictionaries. But if Ji Hipped, gossippccl, and worshipped, with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary excep- i Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a much stronger reason, il scholar will think. In our language, or in words purely English, the ',J\ k, *' "> x, andy, are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the form- of compounds, it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two uble-ucs, or Wies shall come together; as in withhold, brickkiln, slowworm, bay-yarn, r.-. 13. There are some words as those which come from metal, medal, coral, . tranquil, pupil, papil in which the classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by doubling the letter I, because he remembers the // of their foreign roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if a knowledge of etymology may be shown, by spelling metallic, metalliferous, metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion, crystallixe, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary, cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and pupillary, with double /, ignorance of it must needs DO implied in spelling metaline, metal^t, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous, coralinc, coralite, coralinitc, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilitc, argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well double the / in the former, and not in the latter \v<.nl>. II. r< is a choice of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthogra- y. But what etymology r our own, or that which is foreign: If we say, both, they ; and the mere English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by tin diminutive, as papilla from papula or papa, pupillus from ptipus, or nautilus from (runs and t/itirtnx, happen to double an /, must we forever cling to the re- uplication, and that, in spite of our own rules to the contrary: Why is it more objec- tionable to change pupillaris to pupilary, than pupilltts to jnijiil f or, to change tramjuillitas I'ilify, than traiujiiillus to tranquil f And since pajti/nns, jinjiiltti/f, and trmxjuilize are formed from the English \vords, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write them with double /, as to write y,< rilous, vassalage, and c'ivili:c, in the 14. If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the English rule : >hould incline to the opinion, that all the words which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single /. Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for coral in four forms, and the (Jreek word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the gle ; the others double it. He also spells " corn/if ind perilous; but he has in general no mure uniformity than Johnson, in respect to the doubling of / final, lit also, in some instances, accents similar words variously ; as, cor'nlliform, upon the first ay liable, metal liform, upon the second; cav'noiis and jif>'illous, upon the first, argil'lous, upon the second ; ax'illar, upou tU first. . - dul'lar, upon the second. Sec \\'eb*ter's Octaro Diet. I Perry wrote cri/stati.ne, crystalize, cr totalization, metaline, metalist, metalurgist, and metftlurgy and thcs,. forms, as well as crystalogrupliy, mi-talic, mttalograpky, and metaliferous, are noticed and preferred by the authors of the Red Book, on pp. 268 and 802. " But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering." Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 24 ; Walker's Rlujni. Di.t. lutrod. p. ix. CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. RULES. 193 dellcr, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller, gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lam- cllarly, lamclliibrm, and spineUane, he has written the / double, while he has grossly corrupted many other similar words by forbearing the reduplication ; as, traveler, grov- eling, t, marvelous, and the like. In cases of such dithculty, we can never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to principles, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the English scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules ami exceptions which I have laid down, let him. study the subject till he can fur- nish the schools with better. On-. 17. We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives ending in (Ale or ible, as affable, arable, tolerable, admissible, credible, infallible, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to the proper form and signification of some of these, there oivurs no small difficult}. Able is a common English w T ord, the meaning of which is much better understood than its origin. Home Tooke supposes it to have come from the Gothic noun abal, signifying xtfen>/th ; and consequently avers, that it " has nothing to do with the Latin adjective habilis,fit, or able, from which our etymologists erroneous- ly derive it." Diversions of Purley, ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dis- pute with him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that able, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to verbs for most of the worda formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in bills, have, or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he reives them, of " potential pass iv<: adjectives ; " a signification in which the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus dis'soluble or dissoh-'able does not mean able to . but capable of being dissolved ; and divisible or dividable does not mean able to divide t but /, tuff ft!. Ai;ain, of such as hard-hearted, good-natured, cold-blooded, we indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same principle, the formation of such words as actionable, companionable, exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable, and so forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analo- gous to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly attached to the words amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable, peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable, and some others, would never be guessed frojn their formation. Thus, suitable means fitting or suiting, and not able to suit, or capable of being suited. 19. Though all words that terminate in able, used as a suffix, are properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than in the latter ; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey nn-anin^s so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into disuse : as, accustomablc, chanceablc, concord- able, co ', bekoovable, leixurahle, nuilicinable, personable, powcrable, razorablc, shapab' , ' critabk. Still, there arc several others, yet currently em- \\ hit h mi;*ht better perhaps, for the same reason, give place to more regular terms : . t >r ///r//<7/i/or kiml ; churitabb; for benevolent or liberal; colourable, for apparent \ruithustil' '', , far pleasing Qi delightful ; profo- : gainful or lucrative ; sociable, for social or a/fubf- ,><>, for rational or Just. 20. In respect to the orthography of words ending in able or ible, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought to be preferred ; as whether we ought to write /enable or - or reversible, addable or a-ldible. In Latin, the termi- nation is bilis, and the preceding vowel is determined by the conjugation to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first conjugation, it is a ; as, from ararc, to plough, c.rabilix, arablr, tillable. For the second conjugation, it is i; as, from doclre, to teach, c'ocibilis or docllis, docibk or docile, teachable. For the third conjugation, it is i; &s t irom rt'Hdfff, to soil, rnulibif, . . salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is t; f-s, from si-iirlii-,', to bu;-\ . - 1 ible *, buriable. But from solvo and volvo, of the third conjugation, we have ubilis, ublc ; as,solubilis, sol'uble, solvible or solvable ; volubilis, rol'n'iU; Tollable. Hence the English words, rev oluble rcs'oluble, irr^'oltMe, d&sokMe, '"hi", and insol'ublc. Thus the Latin verbals in bills, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are traceable to them ; but the mere English scholar Johnson, Walker, and Webster, all spell this word srp ilihle ; which is obviously wrong; Mis Johnson's derivation of it from se^io, to hedge in. Sfpio would make, not this word, but sepibilis and sepibU, hedgeable. 13 194 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. cannot avail himself of this aid ; and of this sort of words we have a mnch greater num- ber than were ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French : as, tenable, capable, preferable, convertible ; and these we write as they are written in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin verbals in ibilis ; as forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible : and others are made by simply adding the suffix able ; as traceable, pronounceable , manageable, advisable, returnable. The last are purely English ; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin verbals in abilis. OBS. 21. From these different modes of formation, with the choice of different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning ; as, divisible and divi'dable, despicable and despi'sable, refera- ble and refer'ribk, mis'cible and mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible, and dissol'vable. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each, perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation ; as, peaceable and forcible, impierceable and coercible, marriageable and corrigible, damageable and eligible, changeable and tangible, chargeable and frangible, fencible and defensible, preferable and referrible, conversable and reversible, defendable and descendible, amendable and extendi- ble, bendable and vendible, dividable and corrodible, returnable and discernible, indispensable and responsible, advisable and fusible, respectable and compatible, delectable and collectible, taxa- ble and flexible. OBS. 22. The American editor of the Red Book, to whom all these apparent incon- sistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and "Walker with having written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner, " without any apparent reason ! " He boldly avers, that, " The perpetual contradictions of the same or like words, in all the books, show that the authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong ; " and ignorantly imagines, that, *' The use of ible rather than able, in any case, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of c and g, in the derivatives ; and if ible was confined to that use, it would be an easy and simple rule." Red Book, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to write peacible for peaceable, tracible for traceable, changible for changeable, managible for manageable; and so for all the rest that come from words ending in ce or ge. But, what- ever advantage there might be in this, his " easy and simple rule " would work a revolu- tion for which the world is not yet prepared. It would make audible audable, fallible fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable, &c. No tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all. And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have said in the preceding observation, may con- Bole themselves with the reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics. The rule given by John Burn, for able and ible, is less objectionable ; but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions. OBS. 23. As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember, that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and that some of them termin- .ate words much more frequently than others. Thus, in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter a ends about 220 words ; b, 160 ; c, 450 ; d, 1550 ; e, 7000 ; /, 140 ; g, 280 ; h, 400 ; i, 29 ; ./, none ; k, 550 ; I, 1900 ; m, 550 ; n, 3300 : o, 200 ; p, 450 ; g, none ; r, 2750 ; *, 3250 ; t, 3100 ; u, 14 ; v, none ; w, 200 ; x, 100 ; y, 5000 ; z, 5. We have, then, three consonants, j, q, and v, which never end a word. And why not ? With respect to j and v, the reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified with i and u, which are not terminational letters. The vowel i ends no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital/; and the few words which end with u are all foreign, except thou and you . And not only so, the letter j is what was formerly called i consonant; and v is what was called u consonant. But it was the initial i and u, or the i and u which preceded an other vowel, and not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants,/ and v. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a vowel : except that v is joined with r in a few words of French origin, as livre, manoeuvre ; or with I in some Dutch names, as Watervleit. Q ends no English word, because it is always followed by u. The French termination cue, which is commonly retained in pique, antique, critique, opaque, oblique, burlesque, and grv igue, is equivalent to k; hence we write packet, lackey, checker, risk, m^k, and mosk, rather than paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque, and mosque. And some uuthors write burlesk and grotesk, preferring k to que. OBS. 24. Thus we see that j, q, and v, are, for the most part, initial consonants only. Hen co there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to the ear the division of such words as maj-es-ty, proj-ect, traj-ect, eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-chcq-ucr. But v, in a similar situa- CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. ERRORS. 195 tion, has now become familiar ; as in ci'-er-y, er-i-dcncc : and it may also stand -with I or r, in the division of such words as .s.,/y-//Y/ and \, rr-///y. Of words ending in foe, Walker exhibits four hundred and fifty exactly the same number that he spells with ic. And Home Tooke, who derives ire from the Latin irus, ( q. d. vis, ) and ic from the Greek tai*;, ( q. d. in/r;, ) both implying //'>"-/, has well observed that there is a general cor- respondence of meaning between these two classes of adjectives both being of " a po- tential active signification ; as j oomitive t op . i cathartic, emetic, ene 1 * &c." Din-r.sions of Purley, ii, p. 11-;. I have before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without the final k ; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of striking the final < from the former. '!'>. In Dr. "Webster's "Collection of Essays and Fugitiv Peeces," published iij 1790, we find, among other equally ingenious improvements of our orthography, a gen- eral omission of the final e of all words ending in ive, or rather of all words ending in preceded by a short vowel; as, " primitir, derirativ, extensi?, positio, dc* proov, luv, har, f/iv, !i>:." This mode of spelling, had it been adopted by other learned men, would not only have made r a very frequent final consonant, but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament, as being subject to reduplication. For he that will write har, yiv, and lir, must also, by a general rule of grammar, write ha i- : ng. And not only so, there will follow also, in the solemn style of the Bible, a change of givest, livcst, giceth, and liceth, into givvest, livrest, givreth, and livteth. From all this it may appear, that a silent final e is not always quite so u- a tl. me may imagine. With a levity no less remarkable, does the author of the Red Book propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of such wnr . i,t,uni(je(ibl<; and so forth; in one of which, the letter j would be br<> ; new position, and subjected sometimes to reduplication. "It would be a useful improvement to change this c into \, and g into j ; " as, piersable, manajable, &c. " ( )r they illicit assume i ;" as, pi< , . . &c. Red Book, p. 170. Now would not this " useful improvement " u r ive us such a word as allejjabfo ( and would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present exceptions to Rule 9th Out upon all such tampering with orthography ! y thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling reformers, it rould be the history of former attempts to effect improvements similar to theirs. With every one would do well to acquaint himself, before he proceeds to words by placing their written elements in any new predicament. If the rhography of the English language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now :hibits, the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition either to ite its present detects, or to undertake too much. Regard must be had to the origin, well as to the sounds, of words. To many people, all silent letters seem superfluous; id all indirect modes of spelling, absurd. Hence, as the learner may perceive, a very irge proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling, are such as refer to the silen" I hieh are retained by some writers and omitted by others. It is desir- able tha - , a- should be always omitted ; and such a- useful and regular always retained. The rules which I have laid down as principles : imination, are such as almost evry reader will know to be generally true, an-l renu f 'f them have never before been printed in any grammar. Their application will strike out some letters which are often written. and rctair some which >mitted ; but, if they err on either hand, I am confident rhan any other set ol . yet formed for the same purpose. Walker, Loin Murray borrowed his rule> for spelling, declares for an expul-ion of the sec- ond / from traveller, . . . ;: np an / in . , i, and drollness, than to retain both in vnall ness, fullness, ' : om which Johnson dropped it, than to drop it from the ten similar words in which that author retained it ! And not only so, he argues against the principle of his own aphorism : and sa; .-rtainly to'ln- feared that, if this pruning of our words of all '.led, should be much farther indulged, we shall quickly antiqua'.c our most respectable authors, and irreparably maim our lann Toleration, p. xvi. "Dr. Webster noded, when he wrote 'knit, kniter, and knitiiignecdlc ' without doubling the t." See ill. Spelling-Book, 1st Ed. p. 136. _; should have wit enough to know when other wags are qui/ing him." G. Brown. " Bon'y, handsome, beautiful, merry." Walker's Rhym. Dirt. " Coquetish, practieing coquetry ; after the manner of a jilt." Webster's Diet. "Potage, a species of food, made of meat" and vegetables boiled to softness in water." See ib. "Potager, from potato, a porringer, A small vefsel for children's food." See ib. and Worcester's. " Compromit, compromited, compromiting ; manumit, manumitted, manumitting." Webster. " Infer- iblc ; that may be inferred or deduced from premises." Red Book, p. 228. " Acids are either solid, liquid, or gaseous." Gregory's Diet. art. Chemistry. " The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the gases." Ib. "Do we sound gases and gaseous like eases and caseous f No : they are more like glasses and osse- ous."- . "I shall not need here to mention Siciming, when he is of an age able to learn." Locke, on Ed. p. 12. " Why do lexicographers spell thinnish and man- : .?h two Ens, and dimis/i and ///*/< with one Em, each?" See Joh. and It rms the plural regularly, gases." O. B. 1'eiree'n dram. p. 38. " Singular, Gas ; Plural, Gases." N. If. Clark's Gram. p. 47. "These are contractions from sheded, burst- ed." /. "a mar, p. 45. "The Present Tense denotes what is occuring at the present time." Day's dram. p. 30, and p. 61. "The verb ending in et h is of the solemn or antiquated style ; as, he loveth, he walketh, he runeth." P. Daris's Gram. p. 34. " Thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings, Degrading nobles and controling kings." Murray's Sequel, p. 292. UNDER RULE IV. No DOUBLING. " A bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared." Broicn's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 78. [ FORMCLE. Not proper, because the final t of bigot is here doubled in " bigotted." But, according to Rule 4th, u A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, orwhen the accent is not on the last sylla- ble, should remain single before an additional syllable." Therefore, this t should be single; thus, bigoted.] " Jacob worshipped his- Creator, leaning on the top of his staff." Key in Merchant's Gram. p. is."). " For it is all marvelously destitute of interest." Merchant's Critirisms. >x, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, rebusses." Murray' a Gram. 1 2mo, p. 42. " Gossipping and lying go hand in hand." Old Maxim. " The sub- stance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, gossip- ped by the present precious secretary of war, in Payne the bookseller's shop." See Key. \Y.r~hip muke-i worshipped, worshipper, worshipping ; gossip, gossipped, gossipper, gossipping ; fillip, iillipped, iillipper, tillipping." p. 72. "I became as fidgetty as a tly in a milk-jug." /M/oV'/w/'.v M/.v. p. :>Ci. li Whose mind iz not biassed by ,1 attachments to a sovereign." Ih. p. 318. " Laws against usury originated in a bigotted prejudi the Jews." Ib. p. 315. " The most criticcal period of life iz UMially lu-tween thirteen and seventeen." 76. p. 388. " Generallissimo, the chief com- maiuler of an army or military force." See ill. *] 11 ing-book, p. 93. "Tranquillize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful." Ib. p. 133. " Pommeled, beaten, bruised ; having 10, as a sword or da^u'i-r." HVA.x/, / and Chalmers. "From what a height does the jeweler look down upon his shoemaker ! " Red Book, p. 108. " You will have a verb- al account from my friend and fellow traveler." Ib. p. 155. " I observe that you have written the word aiunxi-ti-d with one / only." Ib. p. 173. " They were offended at such as combatted these notions." ]>'<,' rfsun's Annriea, ii, p. 437." " From libel, come libeled, . libi-lini,', libelous ; from grovel, groveled, groveler, groveling; from gravel, . Woolim-ss. the state of being woolly." Ib. " V Celled cliapiK-lling, bordeller, medallist, metalline, metallist, metallize, elavellateil, \c. with //, contrary to his rule." <'<>!>b's Rcricir of Webster, p. 11. "Again, he lias spelled eancelation and snively with single /, and cupellation, pannellation, wittolly, with //." Ib. "Oilly, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib." Wujmii; 44 Medalli>t, one eurious in medals ; Metalllst, one skilled in metals." Jlm- litted." . //<'>ird is generally omitted before an additional termination begin- ning with a Towel." Therefore, this e should be omitted ; thus, improvable.} "Their mildness and hospitality are ascriboablc to a general administration of religious ordinances." \V, -fjsf.r's tesays, p. 336. "Ik-trench as much as possible with- out obtcureing the sense." ././/,. <;rv< ,ble, blameable, worthy of reprehension." Wttlb-r's />/./. "Moveable and Immovable, Movcably and Immov- ably, Movrables nnd K' Is here written with z in the last syllable, in lieu of 5. But, according Word* ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the #, in in uid all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes.' 1 Therefore, this z should be s; thu?, / ' It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised English." Murray's Gram. p. _' '). (ioverned by the success or the failure of an enterprize." Ib. ii, pp. 128 and 'I'M. " Who have patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors." Ib. pp. 9 1 and 228 ; M< rehat, p. 199. "Yet custom authorises this use of it." Priestley's Gram. p. 148. "They surprize myself, * * and I even think the writers themselves will be stirpri/ed." 1/>. 1'ref. p. xi. "Let the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained." Ii ^tys, -p. 310. "To determin what interest shall arize on the use of money." Ib. p. 313. "To direct the popular councils and check a rizing oppo- sition." Ib. p. 33o. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercize of the office." Ib. p. 340. " No man ever offers himself [as] a candidate by advertizing." Ib. p. 344. '* They arc honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of enterprize." Ib. p. 347. " I would however advize you to be cautious." Ib. p. 404. " "SVe are accountable for whatever we patronise in others." Murray's Key, p. 175. " After he was baptised, and was solemnly admitted into the office." 1'crki tits' s Works, p. 732. " He will find all, or most of them, comprized in the Exercises." l>riti*h Gram. Pref. p. v. "A quick and ready habit of methodising and regulating their thoughts." Ib. p. xviii. " To tyrannise over the time and patience of his reader." Kirklnnn'x Worufimt, p. iii. " Writers of dull books, however, if patronised at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts." Ib. p. v. "A little reflection, will show the reader the propriety and the reason for empha.>i>ing the words marked." Ib. p. Ki3. " The English Chronicle contains an account of a sur- pri/in.,' cure." / . til. "Dogmatise, to assert positively; Dogn.atizer, an . a magisterial teacher." Clta! '. " And their inflections might now have bei-n easily analysed." Murray's Gram. 8vo, i, p. 113. "Authorize, disauthorise, and unauthorized ; Temporize, contemporise, and extemporize." Walker's Diet. " Legal- . methodi- .i/e, \vomani-e, humanize, patronise, cantonize, glut- . phlebotomise, sain .-tuarise, characterize, synonymise, recog- nise, dctonize, colonise." Ibid. "This P. - always must comprize, Which from the Subject, well exprcss'd will rl^."Brightlan^s Gr.p. 164. TM.KR llru: XIV. OF COMI-I..I " The glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward." COMMON BIBLES : Isa. Iviii, 8. [FORM; has not here the orthography of the two .::i to Rule 14th, Compounds generally retain ipOM rln-iii.' And. the accent being here unfixed, a hyphen 10 proper. Hi. n tore, thLs word should Iw spelled thus, rear-ward.] "A mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master." Toola's Dirrr*inn* t i, 49. " The ])arti-eoloured shutter appeared to come close up before him." Kirk/tarn's When the day broke upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits." Ih. p. 24->. " If, upon a plumbtree, peaches and apricots are ingrafted, no body will say they are the natural growth of the plumbtree." Berklei/' I'/ii/os. p. 45. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of Bellisle." 202 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. Worcester's Gaz. " There being nothing that more exposes to Headach." * Locke, on Education, p. 6. "And, by a sleep, to say we end the heartach." SHAK.: in Joh. Diet. " He that sleeps, feels not the toothach." ID. ibid. "That the shoe must fit him, be- cause it fitted his father and granfather." Philological Museum, i, p. 431. " A single word, mispelt, in a letter, is sufficient to show, that you have received a defective education." Bucke's Gram. p. 3. " Which mistatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory." Professors' Reasons, p. 14. "Then he went through the Banquetting-House to the scaffold." Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 345. " For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and skoolmaster/' Webster's Essays, p. 355. "They however knew that the lands were claimed by Pensylvania." Ib. p. 357. " But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid farewel to argument." Red Book, p. 80. " Whom resist stedfast in the faith." SCOTT : 1 Peter, v, 9. " And they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine." Acts, ii, 42. " Beware lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness." 2 Peter, iii, 17. " Galiot, or galliott, a Dutch vessel, carrying a main-mast and a mizen-mast." Web. Diet. "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, overflown." Cobbett's E. Gram. (1818,) p. 61. " After they have mispent so much precious Time." British Gram. p. xv. " Some say, two handsfutt ; some, two handfulls ; and others, two handfutt." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 106. " Lapfull, as much as the lap can contain." Webster's Octavo Diet. " Darefull, full of defiance." Walker's Rhym. Diet. " The road to the bliss- full regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 167. " Mis- spel is mis-spelt in every Dictionary which I have seen." Barnes's Red Book, p. 303. " Downfal ; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state." Johnson's Diet. " The whole legis- lature likewize acts az a court." Webster's Essays, p. 340. "It were better a milstone were hanged about his neck." Perkins's Works, p. 731. "Plum-tree, a tree that pro- duces plums ; Hog-plumbtree, a tree." Webster's Diet. "Trisyllables ending in re or fe, accent the first syllable." Murray's Gram. p. 238. " It happen'd on a summer's holiday, That to the greenwood shade he took his way." Churchill's Gr. p. 135. UNDER RULE XV. OP USAGE. "Nor are the modes of the Greek tongue more uniform." Murray's Gram. p. 112. [FoRMCLE. Not proper, because the word "worfes'Ms here written for moods, which is more common among the learned, and usually preferred by Murray himself. But, according to Rule 15th, " Any word for th<> spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is mos j common among the learned." Therefore, the latter form should be preferred ; thus, moods, and not modes. \ "If we analize a conjunctive preterite, the rule will not appear to hold." Priestley'* Gram. p. 118. "No landholder would have been at that expence." Ib. p. 116. " I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths." Ib. p. 125. " This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing." Ib. p. 82. "The king of Israel, and Jehosophat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne." Mur. Gram. p. 165, ticice ; Mer- chant's, 89 ; Churchill's, 300. " The king of Israel, and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne." Lotcth's Gram. p. 90 ; Harrison's, 99 ; Churchill's, 138 ; Wright's, 148. "Lisias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father, never to abandon them." Mur- ray's Gram, ii, 121 and 253. " Some, to avoid this errour, run into it's opposite." Church- ill's Gram. p. 199. "Hope, the balm of life, sooths us under every misfortune." Mer- chant's Key , p. 204. " Any judgement or decree might be heerd and reversed by the leg- islature." Webster's Essays, p. 340. " A pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any knave." Ib. p. 341. "For the same reezon, the wimen would be improper judg- es." Ibid. " Every person iz indulged in worshiping az he pleezes." Ib. p. 345. " Most or all teechers are excluded from genteel company." Ib. p. 362. " The Kristian religion, in its purity, iz the best institution on erth." Ib. p. 364. " Neether clergymen nor hu- man laws hav the leest authority over the conscience." Ib. p. 363. " A gild is a society, fraternity, or corporation." Red Book, p. 83. "Phillis was not able to unty the knot, and so she cut it." Ib. p. 46. " An aker of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches." Ib. p. 93. " Oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal." Ib. p. 96. " Genii, when denoting serial spirits : Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius." Mur.'s Gram. i. p. 42. " Genii, when denoting acriel spirits ; Geniuses, when signifying per- sons of genius." Frost's Gram. p. 9. " Genius, Plu. geniuses, men of wit ; but genii, aerial beings." Nutting's Gram. p. 18. " Acrisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was Danac." Classic Tales, p. 109. " Phaeton was the son of Apollo and Clymene." Ib. p. 152. " But, after all, I may not have reached the intended Gaol." Bu- chanan's Syntax, Pref. p. xxvii. " Pitticus was offered a large sum." Better : A large sum was offered to Pitticus.' " Kirkham's Gram. p. 187. " King Missipsi charged his * Ache, and its plural, aches, appear to have been formerly pronounced like the name of the eighth letter, with its plural, Aitch, and Aitch.es ; for the old poets made u aches " two syllables. But Johnson says of ache, a pain, it is " now generally written akf., and in the plural akes, of one syllable." See his ({narto Diet. So Walker : " It is now almost universally written ake and akes." See Walkers Principles, No. 355. So Webster : " Ake, less properly written acAe." See his Octavo Diet. But Worcester seems rather to prefer ache. G. B. CHAP. IV.] OKTHOGRAPHY. SPELLING. ERRORS. 203 sons to respect the senate and people of Rome." See ib. p. 161. " For example : Gallileo invented the telescope." Ib. pp. 54 and 67. "Cathmor's warriours sleep in death." Ib. p. 34. " For parsing will enable you to detect and correct errours in composition." Ib. p. 50. " O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain, Extends thy uncontroul'd and boundless reign." Dry den. PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN SPELLING. LESSON I. MIXED. "A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick." POPE: Johnsons Diet. w. Former. "Produce a single passage superiour to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, de- livered to Lord Dunmore, when governour of Virginia." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 247. " We have none synonimous to supply its place." Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 48. " There is a probability that the effect will be accellerated." Ib. p. 48. " Nay, a regard to sound hatli fontrouled the public choice." Ib. p. 46. " Though learnt from the uninterrupt- ed use of gutterel sounds." Ib. p. 5. " It is by carefully filing off all roughness and ine- quuletics, that languages, like metals, must be polished." Ib. p. 48. "That I have not mi>pent my time in the service of the community." Buchanans Syntax, Pref. xxviii. 44 The leaves of maix are also called blades." Webster s El. Sidling -Book, p. 43. " Who :ut they know what is past, and can foretel what is to come." Robertson 8 Amcr. i, p. 360. " Its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities." Abbott's /, p. 18. " Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian fullness and swell." .////. p. 130. " The privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and pro- lixity." Kirkham's Monition, p. iv. "But in poetry this characteristick of dulness at- tains its full growth." Ib. p. 72. " The leading characteriatick consists in an increase of the force and fullness." Ib. p. 71. " The character of this opening fulness and feebler vanish." Ib. p. 31. " Who, in the fullness of unequalled power, would not believe him- self the favourite of heaven " Ib. p. 181. "They marr one another, and distract him." 'in, i, p. 433. " Let a deaf worshipper of antiquity and an English pro- sotli.st settle this." Rush, on the voice, p. 140. "This phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence." Merchant's Criticisms. "We here saw no inuendoes, no new sophistry, no falsehoods." lh. " A witty and humourous vein has often produced ene- Murray's Key, p. 173. " Cry holla ! to thy tongue, I pr'ythee : it curvetts un- :bly." Shak. " I said, in my slyest manner, 'Your health, sir.' " Blackicood's , ]>. ( ''7!'. And attornies also travel the circuit in pursute of business." RedBook t L83. " Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du m the inhabitants." Webster's Essays, p. 361. "They were called the court of as- sistants, and exereixed all powers legislativ and judicial." Ib. p. 340. "Arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors." Murray's dram. 8vo, p. 288. " Most of the inflec- tions may be analysed in a way somewhat similar." Ib. p. 112. epithets allots emphatic state, Whilst principals, ungrac'd, like lacquies wait." C. Churchill's Ros. p. 8. LESSON II. MIXED. " Hence it [less] is a privative word, denoting destitution; as, fatherless, faithless, pennyle>s." H ', inter's l>i>-t. ir. J.es.s. "Bay; red, or redish, inclining to a chesnut col- or." >" Ib. " Counterroll, a Counterpart or copy ot 'the rolls; Counterrolment, a counter account." Ih. " Millenium, the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound." //;. " Millenial, pertaining to the millenium, or to a thousand years." Ib. " Thraldom ; , hondag. . itude." See Johnxm* Diet. " Brier, a prickly bush ; . rough, prickly, full of brier- ; Sweetbriar, a fragrant shrub." See Johnson, Walk- er, ('/" " Will, in the seeond and third Persons, barely fore- ItritixJi c,r>. p. ix. " All Motion is in Time, and therefor, where-ever it exists, implies Time as its Concommitant." //;. p. 140. " And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blameable spelling." lh. Tret. p. xiv. "They wil always be ignorant, and of ruf uncivil man- It'). "This bet wil hardly be beleeved in the northern 7. " The province however wax harra^ed with disputes." Ib. p. 352. " So little concern ha/ the legislature i'or the : ruing." Ib. p. 341). "The gen- tlemen wil not admit that a skoo'.ma>ter can be a gentleman." Ib. p. 362. " Such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided." Churchill' n (ir. What is it, to irritc ? 7. What is it, t<> jtf they represent? 0. In what does a knowledge of the letters con- si. Wh r i:ul rJi ? 17. What sounds has the consonant g ? 18. In how many different way-i <~IH the letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters ? N- IV. CAPITALS. 1. Whnt characters are employed in Kn^li-h: 2. Why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are Italics chiefly u. In preparing a manuscript, how do we mark th< >r the printer ? d. What distinction of form belongs to each of the letter-: 7. What i> >aid of Miiall letters ': and why are capitals used : >S. What things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals ? !). How many rules for capitals are given in ti uid what are their titles 10. What says Rule 1st of books? 11. What Kulr I'd <>t' AV.s/ 12. What says link- 3d of names of Deity f 13. What says Rule 4th ' 14. What says Rule .Jth of titles f ' lo. What says Rule 6th of o ' 7th of fir., mjntals? 17. What says Rule 8th of OMM;- Rule 9th of qftMritioaf 19. What says Rule loth of /wr- Rule llth of 1/,-rirnfirr.i' 21. What says Rule 12th of / ttmdOl 22. \N : at say- Rule 13th of i*try f 23. What says Rule l"lth of .,-,. ,, V jfef 24. What says Rul< . What says Rule liith of / >alsf [Now turn o the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules ] LESSON V. STLLAHM <. 1. What is a syllabic : 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ? 3. T'ndcr what names are words clMMd aivonlin:/ to the number of their syllables ? 4. Which of the 1 'tt^r- can form syllables of themselves ? and which cannot r" 5. What is a diphthong ? 6. What is a proper diphthong 7. What is an improper diphthong "\Vhatisa triphthong? 9. What is a proper triphthong? 10. What is an improper 206 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. triphthong ? 11. How many and what are the diphthongs in English ? 12. How many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How many and what are the proper diphthongs ? 14. How many and what are the improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language? 16. How many and Avhat are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we for divid- ing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of consonants? 20. What says Rule 2d of vowels f 21. What says Rule 3d of terminations? 22. What says Rule 4th of prefixes f 23. What says Rule 5th of compounds ? 24. What says Rule 6th of lines full? [ Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the prac- tical application of these rules.] LESSON VI. WORDS. 1. What is a word ? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to species oxio. figure? 3. What is a primitive word ? 4. What is a derivative word ? 5. What is a simple word ? 6. What is a compound word ? 7. How do permanent compounds differ from others ? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are given in this book ? and what are their titles, or sub] ects? 0. What says Rule 1st of compounds? 10. What says Rule 2d of simples? 11. What says Rule 3d of the sense ? 12. What says Rule 4th of ellipses f 13. What says Rule 5th of the hyphen? 14. What says Rule 6th of no hyphen? [ Now turn to* the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.] LESSON VII. SPELLING. 1. What is spelling ? 2. How is this art to be acquired ? and'why so ? 3. Why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately ? 4. Is it then any disgrace to spell words erro- neously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling ? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book ? and what are their titles, or subjects ? 7. Wha'S says Rule 1st of final f, I, or s? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to thin rule ? 9. What says Rule 2d of other finals ? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule ? 11. What says Rule 3d of the doubling of consonants ? 12. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th against the doubling of con- sonants ? 14. Under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed 15. What says Rule 5th of final ck? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with c only ? 17. What says Rule 6th of the retaining of double letters before af- fixes ? 18. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed ? 19. Wha: says Rule 7th of the retaining of double letters after prefixes ? 20. What observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule ? LESSON VIII. SPELLING. 21. What says Rule 8th of final II, and of final I singk? 22. What words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th ? and why ? 23d What says Rule 9th of final e omitted? 24. Under what three heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed ? 25. What says Rule 10th of final e retained? 26. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule llth of final y changed? 28. Under what three heads arc the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed ? 29. What says Rule 12th of final y unchanged? 30. Under what three heads are the excep- tions to this rule noticed ? 31. What says Rule 13th of the terminations ize and ise? 32. Under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed ? 33. What says Rule 14th of compounds? 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of usage, as a law of spelling ? [Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practi- cal application of these rules and their exceptions.] CHAPTER VI.-FOR WRITING, EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. yy [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and not explained in the general Key, that they may be corrected by the pupil in writing. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily discern wherein the err rs lie, and be able to make the necessary corrections.] EXERCISE I. CAPITALS. "Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus." Harrison's Gram. p. 68. " The words in italics are parsed in the same manner." Maltby's Gram. p. 69 . " It may be read by those who do not understand latin." Barclay's Works, iii, p. 262. "A roman s being added to a word in italics or small capitals." Churchill's Gram. p. 215. "This is not simply a gallicism, but a corruption of the French on ; itself a corruption." Ib. p. 228. CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 207 "The Gallicism, ' it M me,' is perpetually striking the ear in London." Ib. p. 316. " 'Almost nothing,' is a common Scotticism, equally improper: it should be, 'scarcely any thing.' " V>. p. 383. "To use learn for teach; is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully avoided." Sec ib. p. 261 . " A few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our Phiglish bible." MV/Var'.v Cram. p. 40. "The translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original arc uniformly kept distinct." Ib. p. 40. "More like heaven on earth, than the holy land would have been." Anti-Xhu-cry Mm], i. ]>. 72. ' There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of Pythagoras." Z>//////-/Vrr'. Dirt. " Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth and strengthen Nature's original Vigour." //arm's- //' -n>n-s, p. 295. " O that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence of brotherly love, all the distinctions of metho- dists, independents, baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, Unitarians, in the glori- ous name of christians." KNOX : r// *///// ///'* dram. p. 173. " Pythagoras long ago re- marked, 'that ability and necessity dwell near each other.' " Stio/fitt'* Manual, p. 285. The Latin Writers Decency neglect, But modern Readers challenge more Respect." Brighttand's Gram. p. 172. EXERCISE II. SYLLABLES. 1. Correct /WA.v, in the division of the following words : "Del-ia, Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, hei'^h-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly, mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous, tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar." !i'f,l; : New London, 1831. 2. Correct Star*) in the division of the following words : " A-quil-a, hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry. thor-ny, i)liil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry, re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti- on, au-spici-ous. fac-titi-ous, na-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on." Stand- New Haven, IvJ-;. 3. Correct 7i/v//"/, in the division of the following words : " Jes-ter, rai-ny, forg-e- ry, tin-e-ry, spie-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-c-ry, ler-riage, line-age; cri-ed, tri- L, forc-ed pledg-ed, sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed." \k : Windsor, 1815. in tin- division of the following words: " Boar-der, brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ti-n, glea-ncr, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy, fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-cr-all-y, lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti- oall-y, sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y, nesc-i- -ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on, suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned." *p<-Uin(i-n<)<>k : * Philadelphia, 1823. :nvt Iforatofl) in the division of the following words : " Trench-er, tninch-eon, is-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses, cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-vcr-smir, mois-ture, join-ture, qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem." \ <>rk, 1836. 6. Corn it i'.iiu-mon, in the division of the following words : "Dus-ty mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy spee-dy, drca-ry, fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, biand-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning, a-noth-er." A ////-// Sj,,-lli '/-liook: Boston,' 1828. "Two Yowrls nu'C'Ting. -ac}i with its full Sound, Always to make Two Syllables are bound." liny/eland's Gram. p. 64. :J ERCISE HI. FIGURE OF WORDS. I surprised by the return of my long lost brother." Parker's Exercises in En. p. _'". ' S t -lf conceit bla.-ts the prospects of many * youth." Ib. p. t a moment should elapse, without bringing some thing to A .school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into man camp." U>. p. 39. "Tin pupil may now write a description of the follow- A school room. A steaia boat. A writing desk. A dwelling hoi. .nceting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill." Ib. p. 45. "Every meta- * This M-ok has. pruhaMy. nu>r- n than any other of the sort. I have not patience to count hem accurately, but it would seem that timr* than a tht>u\anri of r. ! k-arneil have certified to the rorld, that they never before had seen so good a spelling-bock : Wkh pers<.nal knowle-l^e of more than fifty i IT-, c, It rft'iis'-'l to add his poor name, being ashamed of the mischievous facility with which very i^cpectable meu had loaned their signatures. 208 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. phor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking ; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered." Ib. p. 49. "I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance." Ib. p. 51. "The author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade." Ib. p. 60. "The all wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue." Ib. p. 74. " There is something of self denial in the very idea of it." Ib. p. 75. "Age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy." Ib. p. 76. " Pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes." Ib. p. 91. " Club, or crump, footed, Loripes; Rough, or feather, footed, Plumipes." Ainsworth's Diet. " The hoaey-bags steal from the humble bees, And for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs." SHAK.: Joh.'s Diet. w. Glowworm, " The honeybags steal from the humblebees, And for night tapers crop their waxen thighs." SHAK.: Joh.'s Diet. 10. Humblebee. "The honey bags -steal from the humble-bees, And, for night tapers crop their waxen thighs." Dodd's Beauties of Shaks. p. 51; EXERCISE IV .SPELLING. "His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers wainscoted." ADDISON : Johnson's Diet. w. Antechamber. " Nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks." LOCKE: ib. w. Quicksighted. "At the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinit) r ." L'ESTRANGE : ib. w. Blunderhead. " On the topmast, the yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly." SHAK.: ib. 10. Bowsprit. "This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody." ID. ib. to. Nobody. " Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man." ID. ib. w. Fulfraught. " Till blinded by some Jack o' Lanthorn sprite." Snetting's Gift, p. 62. "The beauties you would have me eulogise." Ib. p. 14. " They rail at me I gaily laugh at them." Ib. p. 13. "Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall." Josephus, v, p. 143. " The terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous." Rush, on the Voice, p. 336. " Lillied, adj. Embellished with lilies." Chalmers's Diet. " They seize the compendious blessing with- out exertion and without reflexion." Philological Museum, i, p. 428. " The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the cry that demands their blood." Ib. p. 433. "It meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised." Kirkham's Gram. p. 5. "Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound." Music of Nature, p. 270. "It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language." Ib. p. 200. " It is my father's will that I should take on me the hostess-ship of the day." SHAK.: in Johnson's Diet. "To retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht." Phil. Museum, i, p. 458. " The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons." Anti-Slavery Mag. i, p. 11. " Derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives." Davenport's Gram. p. 7. "The minister never was thus harrassed him- self." Nelson, on Infidelity, p. 6. " The most vehement politician thinks himself un- biassed in his judgment." Ib, p. 17. " Mistress-ship, n. Female rule or dominion." Webster's Diet. " Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embrace The scourge and ruin of my realm and race." POPE : Ash's Gram. p. 83. EXERCISE V. MIXED. " The quince tree is of a low stature ; the branches are diffused and crooked." MILLER : Johnson's Diet. " The greater slow worm, called also the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness of his eyes." GJIEW : ib. " Oh Hocus ! where art thou r It used to go in another guess manner in thy time." ARBUTHXOT : ib. " One would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation." ID. ib. "As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate who's the greatest plotter." DRYDEX : ib. w. Huff. "In like manner, Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their Patients." Harris's Hermes, p. 263. " These Sentiments are not unusual even with the Philosopher now a days." Ib. p. 350. " As if the Marble were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble." Ib. p. 353. " I would not be understood, in what I have said, to under value Experiment." Ib. p. 352. " How therefore is it that they approach nearly to Non-Entitys ? " Ib. p. 431. " Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise, barbarise, tyranise." Churchill's Gram. pp. 31 and 42. " Now fair befal thee and thy noble house ! " SHAK.: ib. p. 241. "Nor do I think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged, &c." Ash's Gram. p. 4. " The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public, &c." Ib. p. 7. "The Note of Admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression." Ib. p. 16. " It always has some respect to the power of the agent ; and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode." Ib. p. 29. " Both these are supposed to be synonomous expres- CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 209 sions." Ib. p. 105. " An expence beyond what my circumstances admit." DODDRIDOE : ib. p. 138. "There are four of them: the Full-Point, or Period; the Colon; the ,smt- Colon; the Comma." Co//< "'v E. dram. X. Y. 1818, p. 77. "There are many men, who have been at Latin- Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write sLx sentences in Eng- lish correctly." Ib. p. 39. "But, figures of rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too." Z5. p. 182. "The horsechesnut grows into a goodly standard." MORTIMER: Johnsons Diet. " "Whereever (/'is to be used." 0. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 175. " Peel'd, patch'd, and pyebald, linsey-woolsey brothers." POPE: Joh. Diet. w. Mummer. " Peel' d, patch' d, and piebald, linsey-woolsey brothers." ID. ib. w. Piebald. EXERCISE VI. MIXED ERRORS. "Pied, adj. [from pie.] Variegated; partycoloured." Johnson's Diet. "Pie, [pica, Lat.] A magpie ; a party-coloured bird." Ib. " Gluy, adj. [from glue.} Viscous ; te- nacious; glutinous." Ib. " Gluey, a. Viscous, glutinous. Glueyness, n. The quality of being gluey." H" bstt r't !>"'. " Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat* upon the muck-hill, returned in all haste, taking it for an ill sign." BUBTON : Johnson's Diet. " Wars are begun by hairbrainedf dissolute captains." ID. ib. "A carot is a well known garden root." Red Book, p. 60. "Natural philosophy, metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theolo- gy, and politicks, were familiar to him." Kirkhams Elocution, p. 209. " The words in Italicks and capitals, are emphatick." Ib. p. 210. "It is still more exceptionable ; Candles, Cherry s, 1'igs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by "Weight, and being Plurals." Johnsons lir.tm. Com. p. 135. " If the End of Grammar be not to save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good for." Ib. p. 161. " Caula, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular, according to Charisius." Ib. p. 194. " These busi-bodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults therof." Perkins's Work*, p. 711. " I think it every man's indispensible duty, to do all the service he can to his country." Locke, on Ed. p. 4. " Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or Having into a downright want of Appetite." Ib. p. 23. "And nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast." Ib. p. 23. " Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and al- ledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement, enlargement and acknowledgment." Svo. " Huckster, n. s. One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities ; a pedler." Johnson's Diet. -eeks bye-streets, and saves th' expensive coach." GAY : ib. w. Mortgage. " He seeks by-streets, and saves th' expensive coach." GAY : ib. w. By-street. EXERCISE VII. MIXED ERRORS. " Boys like a warm lire in a wintry day." Webster's El. Spell ing -Book, p. 62. "The lilly is a very pretty flower." Ib. p. 62. " The potatoe is a native plant of America." Ib. p. 60. " An anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the English." Ib. p. 136. " Black berries and raspberries grow on briars." Ib. p. 150. " You can broil a beef steak over the coals of tire." Ib. p. 38. "Beef-steak, n. A steak or slice of beef for broiling." I Voters Diet. "Beefsteak, s. a slice of beef for broiling." Treasury of Ki" - As he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding ^ain if merchandize rises." Wuiilmid's Moral Science, p. 258. "He is the worshipper <>!' an hour, but the worldling for life." Muturin's Sermons, p. 424. " Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men." Webster's Essays, p. 329. " Ti- by this therefore that I Define the Verb ; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is apply 'd to another, as to its Subject." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. - throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety." Kirk- , p. 178. "To eritici/e, i.s to discover errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele."- . p. 08. " The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is peculiarly aukward; as, he 1 .'.i Grammar, p. 125. 11 Tl. ::-ihle for their individual conduct." CartMfs El. Gram. p. 21. " An engine of >ixty horse power, is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty hoi /' H ; 5. "This, at fourpcnce per ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a 'irnls. one shilling and four pence a year." lh. p. 122. "The tru mcening . / a meeting of barons or peer.-.." II, >,*?, t -'s Essai/s, p. 27G. u > r< -il au- at leest to favor this opinion."/^, p. 277. " That iz, az I hav explained :he tru primitiv meening of the word." lh. p. 27'). " The lords are peers of the relm ; ;hat iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons." Ib. p. 274. I" Palshood is fully, and 't is just to own The fault committed ; this was mine alone." Pope, Odys. B. xxii, 1. 168. Serat, for scratch. The word Is now obsolete, and may be altered by taking eh in the correction. 'irmnt'li ntlj. This should rather be written harebrained ; unconstant, unsettled, wild as a hare." Johnson's Diet. Webt-ter writes it harebrained, as from hare and brain. Worcester, too, prefers this form. 210 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. EXERCISE VIII. MIXED ERRORS. " A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best superfluous." Church' ilFs Gram. p. 332. " Indicate it, by some mark opposite [to] the word misspelt." .46- bott's Teacher, p. 74. " And succesfully controling the tendencies of mind." Ib. p. 24. " It [the Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens -Play." [LESLIE'S] Right of Tythes, p. 236. " It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please those Fools and Knaves." Ib. Pref. p. vi. "And first I Name Milton, only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Consider'd his Performance against Tythes." Ib. p. iv. " His Fancy was too Predominant for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated Reasoning." Ib. p. iv. " He has thrown away some of his Railery against Tythes, and the Church then underfoot." Ib. p. v. " They Vey'd with one another in these things." Ib. p. 220. "Epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the The- bans." Cooper's New Gram.p. 27. " Whoever and. Whichever, are thus declined. Sing, and Plur. nom. whoever, poss. whosoever, obj. whomever. Sing, and Plu. nom. whichever, poss. whoseever, obj. whichever." Ib. p. 38. "WHEREEVER, adv. [where and ever.] At whatever place." Webster's Diet. "They at length took possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains." Dobson's Comp. Gram. p. 7. " Those Britains, who re- fused to submit to the foreign yoke, retired into Wales." Ib. p. 6. " Religion is the most chearful thing in the world." 75". p. 43. " Two means the number two compleatly, whereas second means only the last of two, and so of all the rest." Ib. p. 44. " Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose sirname is Peter." Ib. p. 96. (See Acts, x, 5.) " In French words, we use enter instead of inter ; as, entertain, enterlace, enterprize." Ib. p. 101. "Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or doubtful mean- ing." Ib. p. 103. "Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what! strange!" Ib. p. 109. " Names of the letters : ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you vee double u eks wi zed.'-' Rev. W. Allen's Gram. p. 3. " I, O, and U, at th' End of Words require, The silent (e), the same do's (va) desire." Brightland's Gram. p. 15. EXERCISE IX. MIXED ERRORS. " And is written for eacend, adding, ekeing." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Europ. Lang, i, p. 222. " The Hindus have changed ai into e, sounded like eimvhsrc." Ib. ii, p. 121. "And therefor I w r ould rather seethe cruelest usurper than the mildest despot." Philological Museum, i, p. 430. " Sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling." Ib. i, 477 . " Possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people." Smollett' v England, iii, p. 222. "He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers." Ib. p. 222. " The high fed astrology which it nurtured, in reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac." Cardell's Gram. p. 6. " Fulton was* an eminent engineer : he invented steam boats." Ib. p. 30. "Then, in comes the be- nign latitude of the doctrine of good-will." SOUTH : in Johnson's Diet. "Being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace." SrEC- TATOR : ib. " Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father." BACON : ib. w. Lowness. "The children will answer ; John's, or William's, or whose ever it may be." Infant School Gram. p. 32. " It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess work." Cardell's Gram. p. 91. "For between which two links could speech makers draw the division line ? " Ib. p. 50. " The won- derful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head." Ib. p. 56. "The brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine." Ib. p. 63. " A word of three syl- lables is termed a trisyllable." Murray's Gram. p. 23 ; Coar's, 17 ; Jaiidon's, 13 ; Comly's, 8; Coopers New Gr. 8; Kirkham's, 20; Picket's, 10; Alger's, 12; Blairs, 7; Guy's, 2; Bolles's Spelling- Book, 161. See Johnson's Diet. " A word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable." British Gram. p. 33 ; Comprehensive Gram. 23 ; Bicknell's, 17; Allen's, 31 ; John Peircz's, 149 ; Lennie's, 5 ; Maltby's, 8 ; Ingersoll's, 7 ; Bradley's, 66 ; Davenport's, 7 ; Bucke's, 16; Bolles's Spelling -Book, 91. See Littleton's Lat. Diet. (1.) " Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens : But in the second and third Persons, it barely foretels." British Gram. p. 132. (2.) " Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens ; but in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells." Buchanan's Gram. p. 41. (3.) " Will, in the first person, promises, engages, or threatens. ' In the second and third persons, it merely foretels." Jaiid r jn's Gram. p. 59. (4.) " Will, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens ; in the second and third persons, only foretells." Lowth's Gram. p. 41. (5.) " Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising ; in the second and third person, only foretels." Murray's Gram. p. 88 ; Ingersoll's, 136; Fish's, 78 ; A Flint's, 42; Bullions' s, 32 ; Ilamlin's, 41; Cooper's Abridg. 50. 1ST Murray's Second Edition has it "foretells." (6.) "Will, in the first person sin- gular and plural, expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only foretells." Comly's Gram. p. 38 ; E. Dwis's, 51 ; Lennie's, 22. (7.) "Will, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it simply foretels." Maltby's Gram. p. 24. (8.) " Will, in the first person implies resolution and promising ; in the CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 211 second and third, it foretells." Cooper's New Gram. p. 51. (9.) " JJ7//, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens ; in the second and third persons, only fore- >u the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens." Adam's Lot. and /://;/. dram. p. 83. (10.) "In the first person shall foretels, and will promises or threatens ; but in the second and third persons irill foretels, and shall promises or threatens." Blair's Gram, p. 65. " If Macvius scribble in Apollo's spight, There are who judge still worse than he can write." Pope. EXERCISE X. MIXED ERRORS. " I am liable to be chr.rged that I latinize too much." DRYDEN : in Johnson's Diet. " To mould him platonically to his own idea." WOTTOX : ib. " I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as Zobeide." Murray's E. Reader, p. 148. "I will m:\rry a wife, beautiful as the liouries." Wilcox's Gram. p. 6;3. "The words in italics are all in the imperative mood." Maltby's Gram. p. 71. " Words Italicised, arc emphatick, in various degrees." Kfrkham'.i Elocution, p. 173. " Wherever two gg's come together, they are both hard." Buchanan's Gram. p. 5. "But these are rather silent (o) 's than obscure (u) 's." Brightland's dram. p. 19. "That can be Guest at by us, only from the Consequences." Riyht of Tythes, p. viii. " He says he was glad that he had Baptized so few ; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of Paul? " Therefor he Charg'd the Clergy with the Name of Hirelings." Ib. p. viii. " On the fourth day before the first second day in each month." The Friend, vii, p. 230. " We arc not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which -tablished by our ancestors." Murray'* Gram. p. 140. " O ! learn from him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 104. " It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village." Music of Nature, p. 421. " By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner." Booth' a Introd. to Diet. p. 33. " Time as an abstract being i-entity." Ih. p. '20. "From the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combina- Ih. p. 19. "Drop those letters that are superfluous, as : handful, fore- ver/. Gram. p. 10. " Shall, in the first person, simply foretells." //;. p. .51. "And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with o act."//;, p. (iO. ' The man has been traveling for five years." Ib. p. 77. " I shall up time in combatting their scruples." Blair's Rhet. p. 320. " In several of e chorusses of Euripide- and Sophocles we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in indar." Ih. p. ,398. "Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their efforts in the human mind, rather than in loping its excressences, after it has been neg- lected." II '//., p. '!('>. "Where conviction could be followed only by a e in error." Ib. p. 78. "All the barons were entitled to a sect in the tional rouncii, in right of their baronys." Ib. p. 260. "Some knowlege of ari.thme- y lady." Ih. JK, 29. " Upon this, [the system of chivalry,] were ii'li .(! tho>o romances of night-errantry." Blair's lihet. p. 374. "The subject is, the iitchicvemcnts of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins." Ib. p. 374. "Aye, aye; to be sure outweighs the other." Blair's Header, p. 31. "In the common :i lilies /w.v.s- /////, it>fi. The phrase signifies, a good going, a pros- l is equivalent to fareu-ell." Webster's Diet. " Good-by, ado. a '/ i/mt a familiar way of bidding farewell." See Chalmers's Diet. OH' he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you." Blair 1 * ,'. 1<>. "It no 1' Ifl the notion of the action." Barnard's Gram, pu 69. " Good-nature and good-sense must ever join ; To err, is human ; to forgive, divine." I 'ope, Ess. on Crit. \ I. MIXED ERRORS. " The practices in the art of carpentry are called planrinir, sawing, mortising, scribing, moulding, &C." JB . ] is'. "With her left 'hand, she guides the >und rather round a spolc which goes on the spindle." Jf>. p. 13*. their honours claim." POPE : JnJt. . to. Much. } .urging dill."- '. " An, in old ir honor.'" ll'i-hstcr's Diet. " What, then, was il worth of these renoTmed .460. "Behold how ry form of human n.i by the self denying diligence of the benevolent." p. 111. " Reptiles ba- ; uf creatures jackalls, hyenas, and lions inhabit the 1 cavern*. . < ity." Ib. p/L'70. " ADAVS, a-lr. On or in . in the ])hrase, now uddi/s." II . :! .|. ;> one to whom a thing is to whom a transfer is made." Ib. " The Hospitallers ere an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims." Ib. " < > Tom, or Tnng, w:n the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers : he died in 1 120." Bioy. Diet. " I had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land." 212 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I. SHAK : in Johnsons Diet. " lie turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his servants." Psalms, cv, 25. " In Dryden's ode of Alexander's Feast, the line, Fain, fain, fain, fain,' represents a gradual sinking of the mind." Kames, El. of Grit, ii, p. 71. " The first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 117. " We have the nicely chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble still." Christian Sped, viii, p. 201. "Death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all." Bucke's Gram. p. 35. " Fear God. Honor the patriot. Respect virtue." Kirkham's Gram. p. 216. " Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee." Ib. 189. See Luke, iii, 1. " AUCTIONIER, n. s. The person that manages an auction." Johnson's Diet. " The earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes, to behold him." HOWEL : ib. " Musselman, not being a compound of man, is musselmans in the plural." Lennie's Gram. p. 9. " The absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of gram- mar rules." Burgh's Dignity, i, p. 147. "John was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder." ARBUTHNOT : Joh. Diet. " To set the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows projecting outward." Webster's Diet. " We almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun." Maunder' s Gram. p. 2. " This is all souls day, fellows ! Is it not r " SHAK. : in Joh. Diet. " The english physi- cians make use of troy- weight." Johnson's Diet. " There is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls." PEACHAM : ib. ic. Marquis. "How could you chide the young good natur'd prince, And drive him from you with so stern an air." ADDISON: ib. w. Good, 25. EXERCISE XII. MIXED ERRORS. " In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided." Sanborn's Gram. p. 75. " If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb." Ib. p. 53. "The preterite oiread is pronounced red." Ib. p. 48. " Humility opens a high way to dignity." Ib. p. 15. " What is intricate must be unraveled." Ib. p. 275. " Roger Bacon in- vented gun powder, A. D. 1280." Ib. p. 277. " On which ever word we lay the em- phasis." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. " Each of the leaders was appriz- ed of the Roman invasion." Nixon's Parser, p. 123. " If I say, ' I gallopped from Isling- ton to Holloway ; ' the verb is intransitive : if, ' I gallopped my horse from Islington to Holloway ; ' it is transitive." Churchill's Gram. p. 238. " The reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven." The Friend, iv, p. 240. " The promoters of paper money mak- ing reprobated this act." Webster's Essays, p. 196. "There are five compound person- al pronouns, which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable self ; as, my- self, thy-self, him-self, her-self, it-self." Perleys Gram. p. 16. "Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own, her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own." Ib. Declensions. "Thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou." Sanborn's Gram. p. 160. " How many right angles has an acute angled triangle ? " Ib. p. 220. " In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha." Ib. p. 148. " In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, Elisha, the pro- phet flourished." Ib. p. 133. "Lodgable, a. Capable of affording a temporary abode." Webster's Octavo Diet. "Win me into the easy hearted man." 'Johnson's Quarto Diet. "And then to end life, is the same as to dye." Milnes's Greek Gram. p. 176. "Those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood." SOUTH : Joh. Diet. " His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate." Nixon's Parser, p. 91. " This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent." Campbell's Rhet. p. 117. " When he comes to the Itali- cised word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require." Claggett's Expositor, p. vii. "Learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion." Adams's Rhetoric, Vol. i, p. 3 1. "To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the Americans." Ib. ii, 300. " Where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency." Ib. i, 31. " The uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory." Ib. i, 100. "The Brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator." Ib. i, 120. " The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium." Ib. i, 130. "You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage." Ib. i, 169. " In this lecture, you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize." Ib. i, 182. " He would have been stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was trav- eling out of the record." Ib. i, 289. " To tell them that which should befal them in the last days." Ib. ii, 308. " Where all is present, there is nothing past to recal." Ib. ii, 358. "Whose due it is to drink thebrimfull cup of God's eternal vengeance." Laio and Grace, p. 36. " There, from the dead, centurions see him rise, See, but struck down with horrible surprize ! " Savage. " With seed of woes my heart brimful is charged." SIDNEY : Joh. Diet. " Our legions are brimful, our cause is ripe." SHAKSPEARE : ib. CHAP. I.] ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH. DEFINITIONS. -1 PART II, ETYMOLOGY. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications. The Parts of Speech are the several kinds, or principal classes, into which words are divided by grammarians. Classes, under the parts of speech, are the particular sorts into which the several kinds of words are subdivided. Modifications are inflections, or changes, in the terminations, forms, or senses, of some kinds of words. CHAPTER I.- PARTS OF SPEECH. The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 1. THE ARTICLE. An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the stars ; an island, a ship. 2. THE NOUN. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, apple, truth. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are diligent. 4. THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them well. 5. THE VERB. A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon : as, I , I rule, I am ruled ; I love, thou lovest, he loves. 6. THE PARTICIPLE. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three parti- ciples, two simple and one compound; as, 1. rulinr/, '2. ruled, 3. having 7. THE ADVERB. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner : as. They are now here, studying very diligently. 8. THE CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construc- tion, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected : as, " Thou and he are happy, because you are good." Murray. 214 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. 9. THE PREPOSITION. A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pro- noun : as, The paper lies before me on the desk. 10. THE INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind : as, Oh ! alas ! ah ! poh ! pshaiu ! avaunt I aha ! hurrah ! OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part of grammar, is the dis- tribution of the words of the language into those principal sorts, or classes, which are denominated the Parts of Speech. This is a matter of some difficulty. And as no scheme which can be adopted, will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally falter in its application, the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to refer his pupils to the following simple explanations, which are designed to aid their first and most difficult steps. How can we know to what class, or part of speech, any word belongs ? By learning the defi- nitions of the ten parts of speech, and then observing how the word is written, and in what sense it is used. It is necessary also to observe, so far as we can, with what other words each particular one is capable of making sense. 1. Is it easy to distinguish an ARTICLE ? If not always easy, it is generally so : the, an, and a, are the only English words called articles, and these are rarely any thing else. Because an and a have the same import, and are supposed to have the same origin, the articles are commonly reckoned two, but some count them as three. 2. How can we distinguish a NOUN ? By means of the article before it, if there is one ; as, the house, an apple, a book : or, by adding it to the phrase, "/ mentioned; " as, " I mentioned peace " " I mentioned tear" " I mentioned slumber." Any word which thus makes complete sense, is, in that sense, a noun ; because a noun is the name of any thing which can thus be mentioned by a name. Of English nouns, there are said to be as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand. 3. How can we distinguish an ADJECTIVE? By putting a noun after it, to see if the phrase will be sense. The noun thing, or its plural thinys, will suit almost any adjective ; as, A. good thing A bad thing A little thing A great thing Few things Many things Some things-- Fifty things. Of adjectives, there are perhaps nine or ten thousand. 4. How can we distinguish a PKONOUN ? By observing that its noun repeated makes the same sense. Thus, the example of the pronoun above, " The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them well," very clearly means, " The boy loves the boy's book ; the boy has long lessons, and the boy learns those lessons well." Here, then, by a disagreeable repetition of two nouns, we have the same sense without any pronoun ; but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of expression, because they prevent this awkward repetition. The different pro- nouns in English are twenty-four ; and their variations in declension are thirty- two : so that the number of words of this class, is fifty-six. 5. How can we distinguish a VERB ? By observing that it is usually the principal word in the sentence, and that without it there would be no assertion. It is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the person or thing mentioned ; as, " Jesus ivept." " Felix trembled." " The just shall live by faith." It will make sense when inflected with the pronouns ; as, I write, thou wrifst, he writes ; we write, you icrite, they write. I walk, thou ivalkst, he icalks ; we walk, you walk, they walk. Of English verbs, some recent grammarians compute the number at eight thousand ; others formerly reckoned them to be no more than four thousand three hundred.* 6. How can we distinguish a PARTICIPLE ? By observing its derivation from the verb, and then placing it after to be or having; as, To be icriting, Having written To bo wcilking, Having walked To be weeping, Having wept To be studying, Having studied. Of simple participles, there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical verbs ; and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples, but they are much less frequently used. 7. How can we distinguish an ADVERB ? By observing that it answers to the question, When f Where? How much? or How? or serves to ask it ; as, " He spoke fluently." How did he speak ? Fluently. This \vordjluentfy is therefore an adverb : it tells how he spoke. Of adverbs, there are about two thousand six hundred ; and four fifths of them end in ly. 8. How can we distinguish a CONJUNCTION ? By observing what words or terms it joins to- gether, or to what other conjunction it corresponds; as, "Neither wealthnor honor can heal a * " The -whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4.300. See, in Dr. Ward's Essays on the English language, the catalogue of Knglish verbs. The wholn number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is about 176." LowMs Gram. Philad. 1799, p. 59. Lindley Murray copied the first and the last of the.hed, without danger of confusion. It is at least probable, that no distribution, suffi- ciently minute, can ever be made, of the parts of speech, which shall be wholly free from all ob- jection. Hasty innovations, therefore, and crude conjectures, should not b2 permitted to dis- turb that course of grammatical instruction, which has been advancing in melioration, by the un- remitting labours of thousands, through a series of ages." Wilson's Essay on Gram. p. 66. Again : " The . i he parts of speech may be reduced, or enlarged, at pleasure ; and the rules of syn- tax may be accommodated to such new arrangement. The best grammarians find it difficult, in practice, to distinguish, in some instances, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions ; yet their effects are generally distinct. This inconvenience should be submitted to, since a less comprehensive distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the meaning of English sen- tences." Ib. p 68. Again: tl As and so have been also deemed substitutes, and resolved into other words. 'But if all abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech, there will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar ; and the various improvements, which have sprung from convenience, or necessity, and been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times, must be retrenched, and anarchy in letters universally prevail." 76. p. 114. Ons. 4. I have elsewhere sufficiently shown why ten parts of speech are to be preferred to any Other number, in English ; and whatever diversity of opinion there may be respecting the class to which some particular words ought to be referred, I trust to make it obvious to good sense, that I have seldom erred from the course which is most expedient. 1. Articles are used [with appellative nouns, sometimes to denote emphatically the species, but generally to designate individuals. 2. Nouns stand in discourse for persons, things, or abstract qualities. 3. Adjectives commonly ex- press the concrete qualities of persons or things; but sometimes, their situation or number. 4. l*ronouns are substitutes lor names, or nouns ; but they sometimes represent sentences. 5. Verbs assert, ask, or say something ; and, for the most part, express action or motion. 6. Participles contain the essential meaning of their verbs, and commonly denote action, and imply time ; but, apart from auxiliaries, they express that meaning cither adjectively or substantively, and not with assertion. 7 express the circumstances of time, of place, of degree, and of manner; the when, the tr/im-, the how much, and the how. 8. Conjunctions connect, sometimes words, and some: phrases ; and always show, either the manner in which one sentence or one phr; upon an other, or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third. 9. Prepositions express the correspondent relations of things to things, of thoughts to thoughts, or of words to words ; for these, if we speak truly, must be all the same in expres- sion. 10. / ^ are either natural sounds or exclamatory words, used independently, and serving briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker. Ons. i) In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified, and each is pointed out by the figure plund over the word : 1 - '.'-.111! 3 9212 6 9494 " The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man : a faculty bestowed on him by his beneficent 2:>1 3 8 7 8 10 775454 'Jl Creator, for the greatest and most excellent uses ; but, alas ! how often do we pervert it to the 39 2 worst of purposes ! " See Lowth's Gram. p. 7. In this sentence, which has been adopted by Murray, Churchill, and others, we have the follow- ing parts of speech : 1. The words the, a, and an. are articles. 2. The words power, speech, facul- ty, man, faculty, (Creator, uses, and purpose*, are nouns. 3. The words peculiar, bcnr-ficcnt, yrcat- , excellent, and trorst, are adjectives. 4. The words him, his, t/v, and >t, are pronouns. 5. The rds is, do, and pervert, arc verbs. 6. The word bestowed is a participle. 7. The words most, a 216 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. how, and often, are adverbs. 8. The words and and but are conjunctions. 9. The words of, to, on, by, for, to, and of, are prepositions. 10. The word alas! is an interjection. OBS. 6. In speaking or writing, we of course bring together the different parts of speech just as they happen to be needed. Though a sentence of ordinary length usually embraces more than, one half of them, it is not often that we find them all in so small a compass. Sentences some- times abound in words of a particular kind, and are quite destitute of those of some other sort. The following examples will illustrate these remarks. (1.) ARTICLES : " A square is less beautiful than a circle ; and the reason seems to be, that the attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square, Avhereas the circumference of a circle, being a single object, makes one entire impres- sion." Kames, Elements of Crit. i, p. 175. (2.) NOUNS : " A number of things destined for the same use, such as windows, chairs, spoons, buttons, cannot be too uniform; for, supposing their figure to be good, utility requires uniformity" Ib. i, 176. (3.) ADJECTIVES: " Hence nothing just, prop- er, decent, beautiful, proportioned, or grand, is risible" Ib. i, 229. (4.) PRONOUNS : " /must en- treat the courteous reader to suspend his curiosity, and rather to consider what is written than who they are that write it" Addison, Spect. No. 556. (5.) VERBS : " The least consideration will in- form us how easy it is to put an ill-natured construction upon a word ; and what perverse turns and expressions spring from an evil temper. Nothing can be explained to him who will not under- stand, nor will any thing appear right to the unreasonable." Cecil. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "The Scriptures are an authoritative voice, reproving, instriicting , and warning the world ; and declaring the only means ordained and provided for escaping the awful penalties of sin." G. B. (7.) AD- "VERBS : " The light of Scripture shines steadily, purely, benignly, certainly* superlatively " Dr. S.H.Cox. (8.) CONJUNCTIONS: " Quietness and silence both become ana befriend religious ex- ay dear strong- box ! OA, my lost guineas ! Oh, poor, ruined, beggared old man! Hoo .' hoc ! hoo ! " MOLIEBE: Burgh's Art of Speaking, p. 266. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related word or words, according to the definitions and rules of grammar. Parsing is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic. A Praxis is a method of exercise, or a form of grammatical resolution., showing the learner how to proceed. The word is Greek, and literally signi- fies action, doing, practice, or formal use. PRAXIS I. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the First Praxis, it is required of the pupil merely to distinguish and define the different parts of speech. The definitions to be given in the First Praxis, are one, and only one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. " The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." The is an article. 1.* An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. Patient is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. Ox is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can he known or mentioned. Submits is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be. to act, or to be acted upon. To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. The is an article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. Yoke is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. Meekly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Performs is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted vpon. The is an article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. Labour is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. Required is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Him is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. * These definitions are numbered here, because each of them is the first of a series now begun. In class re- hearsals, the pupils may he required to give the definitions in turn ; and, to prevent any from losing the place, it is important that the numbers be mentioned. When all have become sufficiently familiar with the definitions, the exercise may he performed without them. They are to be read or repeated till faults disappear or till the teacher is satisfied with the performance. He may then save time, by commanding his class to proceed more briefly ; making such distinctions as are required in the praxis, but ceasing to explain the terms employed ; that ifl, omitting all the definitions, for brevity's sake. This remark is applicable likewise to all the subsequent praxes or etymological parsing. CHAP. I.] ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH. PARSING. 217 LESSON* I. PARSING. " A nimble tongue often trips. The rule of the tongue is a great attainment. The language of truth is direct and plain. Truth is never evasive. Flattery is the food of vanity. A virtuous mind loathes flattery. Vain persons are an easy prey to parasites. Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. The smiles of the world are deceitful. True friendship hath eternal views. A faithful friend is invaluable. Constancy in friendship denotes a generous mind. Adversity is the criterion of friendship. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Few know the value of a friend till they lose him. Justice is the first of all moral virtues. Let justice hold, and mercy turn, the scale. A judge is guilty who connives at guilt. Justice delayed is little better than justice denied. Vice is the deformity of man. Virtue is a source of constant cheerfulness. One vice is more expensive than many virtues. Wisdom, though serious, is never sullen. Youth is the season of improvement." Dillwyri's Reflections, pp. 4-27. "Oh ! my ill-chang'd condition ! oh, my fate ! Did I lose heaven for this 1 " Cowley's Davideis. LESSON II. PARSING. " So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature is more timid than man ; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime ; for a common reproach is no reproach. A man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is a blessing from heaven : the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first step towards vice, is, to make a mystery of what is innocent : whoever loves to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves : death appeared terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato." Home's Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53. " thou most high transcendent gift of age ! Youth from its folly thus to disengage." Denhani's Age. LESSON III. PARSING. " Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it." Murray's Ex. p. 5. " Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little for the future." See ib. " Still waters are commonly deepest, lie laboured to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid." Ib. " Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. Ib. " The haU was very destructive. Hail, virtue ! source of every good. We hail you as friends." Ib. p. 6. " Much money makes no man happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world. " See ib. " Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company. ' Ib. " Give me more love, or more disdain." Carew. "He loved Rachel more than Leah." Genesis. "But how much that n.ore is, he hath no distinct notion." L "And my more having would be as a sauce To make me hunger more." Shakspeare. 218 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. CHAPTER II- ARTICLES. An Article is the word the, an, or a, winch we put before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the stars ; an island, a ship. An and a, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned one and the same article. An is used in preference to a, whenever the following word begins with u vowel sound ; as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. A is used in preference to an, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound ; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when expressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. A common noun, when taken in its widest sense, usually admits no article : as, "A candid temper is proper for man ; that is, for all mankind." Murray. In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a sense indefinitely partitive: as, "He took bread, and gave thanks." Acts. That is, " some bread." " To buy food are thy servants come." Genesis. That is, " some food." " There arejfishes that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region." Locke's Essay, p. 322. That is, " some fishes." 11 Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied, are used with- out articles: as, ' This is not beer, but water ; ' 'This is not brass, but steeV " See Dr. Johnson's Gram. p. 5. An or a before the genus, may refer to a whole species ; and the before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically : as, "A certain bird is termed the cuckoo, from the sound which it emits." Blair. But an or a is commonly used to denote individuals as unknown, or as not specially distinguished from others : as, " I see an object pass by, which I never saw till now ; and I say, ' There goes a beggar with a long beard.' " Harris. And the is commonly used to denote individuals as known, or as specially distin- guished from others: as, "The man departs, and returns a week after; and I say, * There goes the beggar with the long beard.' " Id. The article the is applied to nouns of either number : as, " The man, the men ; " "The good boy, the good boys." The is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns : as, "The young are slaves to novelty ; the old, to custom." Ld. Kames. The article an or a implies unity, or one, and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only ; as, A man, An old man, A good boy. An or a, like one, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number, when the noun following is plural ; as, A few days, A hundred men, One hundred pounds sterling. Articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them ; as, " Repeat the preterit and [the'] perfect participle of the verb to abide." Error in Merchant's Gram. p. 66. Needless articles should be omitted ; they seldom fail to pervert the sense : as, "The Rhine, the Danube, the Tanais, the Po, the Wolga, the Granges, like many hundreds of similar names, rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect." Error in Dr. Murray's Hist: of Europ. Lang. Vol. i, p. 327. The articles can seldom be put one for the other, without gross impropriety ; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense : as, "The violation of (his rule never fails to hurt and displease a reader." Error in Blair's Lectures, p. 107. Say, " A violation of this rule never fails to displease the reader." CLASSES. The articles are distinguished as the definite and the indefinite. I. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. OBSERVATIONS. 219 II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, an orange. MODIFICATIONS.' The English articles have no modifications, except that an is shortened into a before the sound of a consonant ; as, " In an epic poem, or a poem upon an elevated subject, a writer ought to avoid raising a simile on a low image." Ld. Karncs. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied ; none, oftener omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate both their uses and their u'niscs ; with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax. OKS. 2 With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle, Wells, f Weld, Butler, Frazee, Perley, and other writers, todfyrade the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject, can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an " adjective," as they would have it to be ; but it is a word of a peculiar sort a. cuxtomtiry index to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the extent of significa- tion, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun. ". First let it be understood, that an or a is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective one, but less emphatic ; and that*Aeis nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal ad- jective that or those, but less emphatic. On some occasions, these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles ; but not generally. If the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally like them, they would be adjectives ; but, that adjectives may occasionally supply their DO argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that a, an, and the, do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble, is shown even by some who judge " the distinctive name of article to be useless." See Crombic's Treatise, Chap. 2. The articles therefore must be distin- guished, not only from adjectives, but from each other. For, though both are articles, each is an the one definite, the other indefinite. And as the vrorrlithat and one cannot often. be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable. To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one meaning f)r an other : " A daughter of a poor man" " The daughter of the poor man" "A daughter of the poor man" and, " The daughter of a poor man," are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations. This difference between the two articles may be further illus- trated by the following example : " That Jesus was a prophet sent from God, is one proposition ; that Jf prophet, the Messiah, is an other ; and, though he certainly was both a prophet and the prophet, yet the foundations of the proof of these propositions are separate and distinct." II' - ijKiloyi/, p. 10-5. OKS. 4. -Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual, the several ob- The mo'lifieatinns which belong to the different parts of speech consist chiefly of the inflections or changes to whidi certain won!- . lerm sometimes in a rather broader sense, as including not only \orils. but. iu certain instances, their original forms, and also such of their relation.* us serve to in- r properties. ; ID the use of the term , for when the position of a word r is clearly a grammatical modification, though there te no .. 'I'/int (jii'ility which 'Us; inpuishes one genus, one species, or hus the s.-imo particul.it that is termed a property or mMuiil. <>r a cla<> of iixlivi.lu.il <. i-; termed a moihficat ion, when i :m order." Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii. p 892. articles into the claw of ad. authority as follows : u ' The words a or u.irians a separate part of speech ; but, as they in all respects come under eessary, as well as improper, to rank them as a clat-s by themselves.' s are also ranked with adjectives by Priestley, E Oliver, Bell, Klphinston, ham. Dalton. King, Hort, Buchanan, Crane, J. Russell, \\ iilarl. Kobbins, Felt"ii. Snyler. l!utler,S. Barrett, Badgley, Howe, ,"ol Giam. p. 6y. In this way, he may have made it atVr thorough investigation. In- h:ir how can they be ri^'ht, while reason, usage, and the prevailing opinion, are still ajr.; .::imars which reject the article-; as a part of speech, we have more than twice at* many w!ii'-!r '!.: ., h ; anioir.; which are those of the following author Adam, D.Adams, Ainsworth, Al l.-n AL-.-r. Al :1 , Harnard. Beattie, Beck, Bicknell. P.ingham, Blair, Mullic'ii*. Hum. I!; hurchill, four. Cohhett. C'omly. Cooper. Davi-s. Iv:irl>rn, Kverett, Far- I inn, Fi.-k. A Flint. Folk. r. Kr. It, 11 ' Mall," Uallock. Hart, Harrison, Mntt. Harrison, Ibuen, Hemlrick. Hiley. Hull. Inp-rM,!!. .Ian Ion. Johnson. Kirkham. I.ennie. A. Lewis, Ixnvth. Maltby, Maunder, Blennye, Merchant. T. 11. Miller. Murray Ni.v rkerand Fox, John 1'eirce. 1'ickef. Pond. S. Putnam, Sanborn, 8a r, Tucker Walker, Woblxrr. \\ilcox, \\ilson, Wood- worth, .1. K Worcester. >. \V '"r- <- T. v\ i i- 'r. The articles characterize our language more than some of the other I arts of speech, and are worthy of distinction for many reasons, one of which Ls the Tory gre&t/requency of their use. [PART ir. 220 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [: jects thus arranged under one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun, expressive of plurality ; as, horse, horses. Proper nouns, in their ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular individuals ; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an individual person or thin^ as distinguished from all others, so there is in general none to this class of nouns ; and no roora for further restriction by articles. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual significa- tion, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form ; as, " I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding whether I had it from an Aristotle or a Zoilus, a Newton or a Descartes." Churchill's Gram. Pref. p. 8. "It is not enough to have Vitruviuses , we must also have Augustuses to employ them." Bicknetts Gram. Part ii, p. 61. " A Daniel come to judgment ! yea, a Daniel!" SHAK. Shylock. " Great Homer, in th' Achilles, whom he drew, Sets not that one sole Person in our View." Brightland 's Gram. p. 183. OBS. 5. The article an or a usually denotes one out of several or many ; one of a sort of which there are more ; any one of that name, no matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is directly the reverse of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies and fixes the meaning of both ; but while it restricts that of the latter, it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class : as, " A man ; " that is, " One man, or any man." On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others to whom it will apply : as, " A Nero ; " that is, " Any Nero, or any cruel tyrant." Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to leave the idea still particular ; but, if it really does so, the propriety of using it may be doubted : as, " No, not by a John the Baptist risen from the dead." Henry's Expos. Mark, vi. " It was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero, or a Cara- calla, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so universal." M'llvaine's Evid. p. 398. OBS. 6. With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes specifically, sometimes in- dividually, but always definitely, always distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the particular individual, or the particular species, or, ( if the noun be plural, ) some parti- cular individuals of the species, as being distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned ; sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity with . the thing ; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this article, that with it the singular number of the noun is oftea more comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus, if I say, " The horse is a noble animal," without otherwise intimating that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively that species of animal ; and I shall be thought to mean, " Horses are noble animals." But if I say, " The horses are noble animals," I use an es - pression so much more limited, as to include only a few ; it must mean some particular horses, whic b. I distinguish from all the rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is occasion for them ; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and ought to be avoided ; because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be, if also specific;. Lindley Murray, though not uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it ne- cessary to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the singular ; as, "That the learners may have no doubts." Murray's Octavo Gram, i, p. 81. " The business will not be tedious to the scholars." Ib. 81. "For the information of the learners." Ib. 81. "It may afford instruction to the learners." Ib. 110. " That this is the case, the learners will per- ceive by the following examples." Ib. 326. " Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to the scholars." Ib. 335. OBS. 7. Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always preceded by the de- finite article ; as, " The Wesleys," " The twelve Casars," " All the Howards." So the names of particular nations, tribes, and sects ; as, The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics. Like- wise the plural names of mountains ; as, The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Andes. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names, they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and accordingly they are always written with capitals ; but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper. " Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson, in council great, And Jay, and Laurens oped the rolls of fate ; The Livingstons, fair freedoms generous band, The Lees, the Houstons, fathers of the land." Barlow. OBS. 8. In prose, the definite article is always used before names of rivers, unless the wordn'v- er, be added ; as, The Delaware, the Hudson, the Connecticut. But if the word river be added, the article becomes needless ; as, Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river. Yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both ; as, The Delaware river, the Hudson river, the Connecticut river. And if the common noun be placed before the proper name, the article is again necessary ; as, The river Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut. In the first form of expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name ; but these examples, and others of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, " The [river] Po- tomac" " The [ship] Constitution" " The [ steamboat ] Fulton." Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike ; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative. But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some names of rivers could not be understood ; as, "No more the Varus and the Atazfeel " The lordly burden of the Latian keel." Rowe's Lucan, i, p. 722. OBS. 9. The definite article is often used by way of eminence, to distinguish some particular in- CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. OBSERVATIONS. 221 dividual emphatically, or to apply to him some characteristic name or quality : as, " The Stagi- ritc" that is, Aristotle; " The Psalmist" that is, David; "Alexander the Great" that is, (perhaps,) Alexander the Great Monarch, or Great Hero. So, sometimes, when the phrase relates to a collective body of men : as, " The Honourable, the Legislature" " The Honourable, the Senate;" that is, "The Honourable Body, the Legislature," &c. A similar application of the^ article in the 3 are the Palemon after to be improper ever"to construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word. Dr. Pric.stley says, " We sometimes repeat the article, when the epithet precedes the substantive; as, He was met by the worshipful Me magistrates." Gram. p. 148. It is true, we occasionally meet with such fulsome phraseology as this ; but the question is, how is it to be explained ? I imag- ine that the word personages, or something equivalent, must be understood after icorshipful, and that the Doctor ought to have inserted a comma there. OBS. 10. In Greek, there is no article corresponding to our an or a, consequently man and a man are rendered alike ; the word, ou-doo)7iog may mean either. See, in the original, these texts : " There was u man sent from God," (John, i, 6,) and, " What is man, that thou art mindful of him ? " Hcb. ii, 6. So of other nouns. But the definite article of that language, which is exactly equivalent to our the, is a declinable word, making no small figure in grammar. It is varied by numbers, genders, and cases ; so that it assumes more than twenty different forms, and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of agreement. But this article in English is perfectly simple, being entirely destitute of grammatical modifications, and consequently incapable of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement a circumstance of which many of our gramma- rians seem to be ignorant ; since they prescribe a rule, wherein they say, it "agrees," "may agree" or " must agree," with its noun. Nor has the indefinite article any variation of form, except the change from an to a, which has been made for the sake of brevity or euphony. OHS. 11. As an or a conveys the idea of unity, of course it applies to no other than nouns of the singular number. An eagle is one eagle, and the plural word eagles denotes more than one ; but what could possibly be meant by " ans eagles," if such a phrase were invented ? Harris very 8tran^ r The Greeks have no article correspondent to an or a, but supply its place by a NEGATION of their article. And even in English, where the article a cannot be used, as in plurals, its forrc is exprest by the same NEGATION." flarru'j Hermes, p. 218. What a sample of gram- mar is this ! Besides several minor faults, we have here a nonentity, a NEGATION of the Greek ar- ticle, made to occupy a place in language, and to express force! The force of what ? Of a plural an or a ! of such a word as ans or aes ! The error of the first of these sentences, Dr. Blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture. (Jus. 12. The following rules of agreement, though found in many English grammars, are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended, but so badly written as to be scarcely intel- liaji'ble in any sense : 1. " The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, indi- vidually, or collectively : as, A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." 2. " The definite article the may ar/ree with nouns in the singular AND* plural number : as, The garden, the houses, the stars." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 170; 12mo, 139; Fisk's Murray, 98; a ^Teacher's, 4.5. For the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of the articles, these rules are utterly useless ; and for the purpose of syntactical parsing, or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech, they are awkward and inconvenient. The syntax of the articles may be much better expressed in this manner : "Articles relate to the noun's which they limit ;" for, in English, the bearing of the articles upon other words is properly that of simple relation, or dependence, according to the sense, and not that of agreement, not a similarity of distinctive modifications. Oi-.s. i:>. Among all the works of earlier grammarians, I have never yet found a book which taught correctly the ujtplicution of the two forms of the indefinite article an or a. Murray, con- > JoluuoB and Webster, considers a to be the original word, and an the euphonic derivative. I becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent /*. But if the h be sounded, the a only is to be used." Murray's Gram. p. 31. To this he adds, in a marginal note, " A instead of ;'ore words' beginning with u long. It is used before one. An must be used be- fore icords WHERE the h is not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical account." 76. This explanation, clumsy as it is, in the whole conception; broken, prolix, di ii 'ieut, and inacurate as it is, both in style and doctrine; has been copied and copied grammar, as if no one could possibly better it. Besides several other faults, it ise of the article itself: " the h " which is specified in the second and fifth. sentences, is the " silent h '' of the first sentence ; and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious solecisms of suppling, " if the [silent] h he sounded," and of locating " irordx WHERE the [si f silent!" In the word humour, and its derivatives, the h is silent, by all au- thority ^er's ; and yet these words require d and not an before them. II. It is the sound o\\\\, that governs the form of the article, and not the letter itself; as, ie which admit of tbe regular form, are marked with an it." Murray's Gram. p. 107. " A heroic poem, written by Virgil." I ' ry poem of the kind has no doubt a his- torical groundwork." Philological Museum, i, p. 4o7. " .-1 poi-t must be a naturalist and a histo- rian." ( 'o'cridge's Introduction, p. 111. Before h in an unaccented syllable, either form of the article may be used without offence to the ear ; and either may be made to appear preferable to the other, by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or less degree. But as the //, though everso feebly as- pirated has something of a consonant sound, I incline to think the article in this case ought to conform to the general principle : as, " A historical introduction has, generally, a happy effect to * In Murray's Abridgement, and in bis " Second Edition," 12mo, the connective in this place is " or ;" and flO if it given by most of his ainenders ; as in Aider's Murray, p. 6s : Bacon's, 48 ; Cboper'*, 111: A. Flint's, *> ; Maltby's,CO] Miller's, 07 ; . Putnam's, 74 ; RusseU's, 52; T. Smith's, 61. All these, and many more, repeat both of these rules. 222 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. rouse attention." Blair's Rhet. p. 311. " He who would write heroic poems, should make his whole life a heroic poem." See Life of Schiller, p. 56. Within two lines of this quotation, the biographer speaks of " an heroic multitude !" The suppression of the sound of h being with Englishmen a very common fault in pronunciation, it is not desirable to increase the error, by using a form of the article which naturally leads to it. " How often do we hear an air metamor- phosed into a hair, a hat into a gnat, and a hero into a Nero ! " Churchill's Gram. p. 205. Thus : " Neither of them had that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror an hero." Bollinqbroke, on History, p. 174. OBS^ 15 Some later grammarians are still more faulty than Murray, in their rules for the ap- plication of an or a. Thus Sanborn : " The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u. An should be used before words beginning with any of these letters, or with a silent h." Analytical Gram. p. 11. "An is used before words beginning with u long or with h not silent, when the accent is on the second syl- lable ; as, an united people, an historical account, an heroic action." Ib. p. 85. " A is used when the next word begins with a consonant ; an, when it begins with a voioel or silent h." Ib. p. 129, If these rules were believed and followed, they would greatly multiply errors. OBS. 16. Whether the word a has been formed from an, or an from a, is a disputed point or rather, a point on which our grammarians dogmatize differently. This, if it be worth the search, must be settled by consulting some genuine writings of the twelfth century. In the pure Saxon of an earlier date, the words seldom occur ; and in that ancient dialect an, I believe, is used only as a declinable numerical adjective, and a only as a preposition. In the thirteenth century, both forms were in common use, in the sense now given them, as may be seen in the writings of Robert of Gloucester ; though some writers of a much later date or, at any rate, one, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, a Scottish bishop, who died of the plague in London, in 1522 constantly wrote ane for both an and a : as, " Be not ouer studyous to spy ane mote in myn E, That in gour awin ane ferrye bot can not se." Tooke's Diversions, i, p. 124. " Ane uthir mache to him was socht and sperit ; Bot thare was nane of all the rout that sterit." Ib. i, p. 160. OBS. 17- This, however, was a Scotticism ; as is also the use of ae for a : Gower and Chaucer used an and a as we now use them. The Rev. J. M. M'Culloch, in an English grammar published lately in Edinburgh, says, "A and an were originally ae and ane, and were probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity ; as, ae man, ane ox." Manual of E. Gram. p. 30. For this idea, and indeed for a great part of .his book, he is indebted to Dr. Crombie ; who says, " To sig- nify unity, or one of a class, our forefathers employed ae or ane; as, ae man, ane ox." Treatise on Etym. and Synt. p. 53. These authors, like Webster, will have a and an to be adjectives. Dr. Johnson says, "A, an article set before nouns of the singular number: as, a man, a tree. T lis article has no plural signification. Before a word beginning with a vowel, it is written an; is, an ox, an egg ; of which a is the contraction." Quarto Diet. w. A. OBS. 18. Dr. Webster says, " A is also an abbreviation of the Saxon an or ane, one, used before words beginning with an articulation ; as, a table instead of an table, or one table. This it: a modern change ; for, in Saxon, an was used before articulations as well as vowels ; as, an tid, a time, an gear, a year." Webster's Octavo Diet. A modern change, indeed ! By his own showing in other works, it was made long before the English language existed ! He says, " An, therefore, is the original English adjective or ordinal number one ; and was never written a until after the Con- quest." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 2t); Improved Gram. 14. " The Conquest," means the Nor- man Conquest, in 1066; but English was not written till the thirteenth century. This author has long been idly contending, that an or a is not an article, but an adjective ; and that it is not pro- perly distinguished by the term " indefinite." Murray has answered him well enough, but he will not be convinced.* See Murray's Gram, pp 34 and 3-5. " If a and one were equal, we could not say, " Such a one" " What a one " " Many a one" " This one thing; " and surely these are all good English, though a and one here admit no interchange. OBS. 19. An is sometimes a conjunction, signifying if; as, " Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou." Shah. "An I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to fifty tunes, may a cup of sack be my poison." Id. Fallstaff. " But, an it were to do again, I should write ngain." Lord Byron's Letters. " But an it be a long part, I can't remember it." SHAKSPEAIIE : Burgh's Speaker, p. 136. OBS. 20. In the New Testament, we meet with several such expressions as the following : " And his disciples were an hungrcd." SCOTT'S BIBLF, : Matt, xii, 1. " When he was an hunyred." Ib. xii, 3. " When he had need and was an hungered." Ib. Mark, ii, 25. Alger, the improver of Murray's Grammar, and editor of the Pronouncing Bible, taking this an to be the indefinite arti- cle, and perceiving that the h is sounded in hungered, changed the particle to a in all these pass- ages ; as, " And his disciples were a hungered." But what sense he thought he had made of the sacred record, I know not. The Greek text, rendered word for word, is simply this : " And his disciples hungered." And that the sentences above, taken either way, are not good English, must be obvious to every intelligent reader. An, as I apprehend, is here a mere prefix, which has some- how been mistaken in form, and erroneously disjoined from the following word. If so, the cor- rection ought to be made after the fashion of the following passage from Bishop M'llvaine : " On a certain occasion, our Saviour was followed by five thousand men, into a desert place, whero they were enhungered." Lectures on Christianity, p. 210. OBS. 21. The word a, when it does not denote one thing of a kind, is not an article, but a gen nine preposition; being probably the same as the French , signifying to, at, on, in, or of: as, " Who hath it ? He that died a Wednesday." Shak. That is, on Wednesday. So sometimes' before plurals ; as, " He carves a Sundays." Siclft. That is, on Sundays. " He is let out a nights." Id. That is, on nights like the following example : "A pack of "rascals that walk the streets on nights." Id. " He will knap the spears a pieces with his teeth." Morc's Ant id. That is, in * When this -was written, Dr. Webster was living. CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. - ARTICLES. - OBSERVATIONS. 223 pieces, or to pieces. So in the compound word now-a-days, where it means on; and in the proper names, Thomas a Beckct, Thomas a Ketnpis, Anthony a Wood, where it means at or of. " Bot certainly the daisit blude now on dayis Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unwieldy age." Douglas. OBS. 22. As a preposition, a has now most generally become a. prefix, or what the grammarians call an inseparable preposition : as in abed, in bed; aboard, on board ; abroad, at large ; afire, on fire; afore, in front; afoul, in contact; aloft, on high; aloud, with loudncss ; amain, at main strength; at)thlst,in the midst; akin, of kin; ajar, unfastened; ahead, onward; afield, to the field ; alee, to the leeward ; aneio, of new, with renewal. " A-nights, he was in the practice of sleeping, &c.; but a-days he kept looking on the barren ocean, shedding tears." Dr. Murray's Hist. ofEurop. Lang. ii, p. 162. Compounds of this kind, in most instances, follow verbs, and are consequently reckoned adverbs ; as, To go astray To turn aside To soar aloft To fall a sleep. But sometimes the antecedent term is a noun or a pronoun, and then they are'as clearly adjectives ; as, " Imagi- nation is like to work better upon sleeping men, than men awake." Lord Bacon. " Man alive, did you ever make a hornet afraid, or catch a weasel asleep?" And sometimes the compound governs a noun or a pronoun after it, and then it is a preposition ; as, " A bridge is laid across a river." Webster's Diet. " To break his bridge athwart the Hellespont." Bacon's Essays. " Where Ufens glides along the lowly lands, Or the black water of Pornptina stands." Dryden. Ons. 23. In several phrases, not yet to be accounted obsolete, this old preposition ct still re- tains its place as a separate word ; and none have been more perplexing to superficial gramma- rians, than those which are formed by using it before participles in ing ; in which instances, the ' participles are in fact governed by it : for nothing is more common 'in our language, than for might be tak,en for an article and a noun, meaning an edifice* Yet, in almost all cases, other prepositions are, I think, to be preferred to a, if others equivalent to it can be found. Examples : " Lastly, they go about to apologize for the long time their book hath been a coming out: " i. e. in coming out. Barclay's Works, iii, p. 179. " And, for want of reason, he falls a railing : " i. e to railing.//;, iii, 3.37. " That the soul should be this moment busy a thinking:" i.e. at or in think;; - Jlsmti/, p. 78. " Which, once set a going, continue in the same steps: " i. e. piece, and fell it < n / : " i. e. to eating. .\ r t>irsj>'tper. " To go a mothering,^- is to visit parents on Midlent Sunday." Webster's l)i<-t. tr. M<}(li>,-riii[/. " Which we may find when we come a fish- tViyhere." Wotton. " They go a begging to a bankrupt's door." Dryden. " A hunting Chlofi v/eut." Prior. " They burst out a laughing." M. Edyeieorth. In the last six sentences, a aeems more suitable than any other preposition would be : all it needs, is an accent to distinguish it from the article ; as, a. OBS. 21. Dr. Alexander Murray says, " To be a-seeking, is the relic of the Saxon to he on or * In French, the preposition ", (to.) is always carefully distinguished from the verb a, (has,) by means of the grave a- , the former for that purpose. And in general also the Latin word , (from,) is i has hitherto been adopted to distinguish the preposi- tion a from th \on , (to.) is jjivt-n by Johnson with nn acute, even where no other a is found, i ranee, " ikeii this prei . :nnl unions them the authors of sundry grammars, ii for an artii !<-. Example : " Some adverbs arc composed of the article a -. ^ false and al Latin ; for, a hunting, a 'i j>-." Yirg. .En. I.e. " To go a hunting.' 1 "Abeo j school-boy ought to know better than to call this a an i, FIT the Greek of the foregoing text is c r/iuyo) uiti i'f tr, I go tojisk." One author ignorantly says, " The article a i'i such expressions as these. 'lie went a-hiinting.' marvel, that he o.iiM not funl the meaning of an article in tlii-iu nils this - Tii,- .-.a, rl, ,, , ;ktsenseot* p,-rpositinn, t! Some, too, hare pl ; -renerallv with tho hyph. n, but Mwetiines with- out: tli- : as, to set an; r'* Dirt. The doctor does not tell us what part oi'spee. M same meaning, and is about u okeii I; . ven as asleep;" hut, in the thus: They are aa a sltep:'- that is, as a dream that i> lie. I. N right. 1 11. 'iciple, and writes the words xfpnmt^y, ~ always have .,. tin- .-irfirle ,/ :ij.|,. tl.e Ian i at all in the common notions of its origin. Webster says, ' In th . he should have said, ' and b'fore , i of 'in or at. It may be BO it . some c,s'^,' luit \\itht. 'ix ge, and lomttimti per* haps of the ' .. (i>am. p. '241. wimt admirable learning iithis? A, forsooth, Is a contraction ofge ! And this Li the doctor's reason (or joining it to the participle ! 224 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. what ; and it may be observed, in passing, that the want of it, in such as " the going on," leaves us a loose and questionable word, which, by the conversion of the participle into a noun, becomes a nondescript in grammar. I dissent also from Dr. Murray, concerning the use of the preposition or prefix a, in examples like that which he has here chosen. After a neuter verb, this particle is unnecessary to the sense, and, I think, injurious to the construction. Except in poetry, which is measured by syllables, it may be omitted without any substitute ; as, " I am a walking." Johnson's Diet. w. A. " He had one only daughter, and she lay a dying." Luke, viii, 42. " In. the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing." 1 Pet. iii, 20. " Though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere a wandering." Locke's Essay, p. 281. Say " be wandering elsewhere ; " and omit the a, in all such cases. " And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is a ripening nips his root." Shak. OBS. 25. " A has a peculiar signification, denoting the proportion of one thing to an other. Thus we say, The landlord hath a hundred a year ; the ship's crew gained a thousand pounds a man." Johnson's Diet. " After the rate of twenty leagues a day." Addison. " And corn was at two sester- ces a bushel." Duncan's Cicero, p. 82. Whether a in this construction is the article or the preposi- tion, seems to be questionable. Merchants are very much in the habit of supplying its place by the Latin preposition per, by; as, "Board, at $2 per week." Preston's Book-Keeping, p. 44. "Long lawn, at $12 per piece." Dihcorth's, p. 63. " Cotton, at 2s. 6d. per pound." Morrison's, p. 75. " Exchange, at!2,d.per livre." Jackson's, p. 73. It is to be observed that an, as well as a, is used in this manner; as, " The price is one dollar an ounce." Hence, I think, we may infer, that this is not the old preposition a, but the article an or a, used in the distributive sense of each or every, and that the noun is governed by a preposition understood : as, " He demands a dollar an hour: " i. e. a dollar for eachhour. " He comes twice a year: " i. e. twice in every year. " He sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand a month by courses : " (1 Kings, v, 14 :) i. e. ten thou- sand, monthly ; or, as our merchants say, "per month." Some grammarians have also remarked, that, " In mercantile accounts, we frequently see a put for to, in a very odd sort of way ; as, ' Six bales marked I a 6.' The merchant means, 'marked from 1 to 6.' This is taken to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the law and mercantile language of England ; for, in French, a, with an accent, signifies to or at." Emmons's Gram. p. 73. Modern merchants, in stead of accenting the a, commonly turn the end of it back ; as, tfz). OBS. 26. Sometimes a numeral word with the- indefinite article as a fete, a great many, a dozen, a hundred, a thousand denotes an aggregate of several or many taken collectively, and yet is followed by a plural noun, denoting the sort or species of which this particular aggregate is a part : as, " A few small fishes " " A great many mistakes " " A dozen bottles of wine " " A hundred lighted candles " " A thousand miles off." Respecting the proper manner of explain- ing these phrases, grammarians differ in opinion. That the article relates not to the plural noun, but to the numerical word only, is very evident; but whether, in these instances, the words fe,o y many, dozen, hundred, and thousand, are to be called nouns or adjectives, is matter of dispute. Lowth, Murray, and many others, call them adjectives, and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the article ; like that of the singular adjectives every and one in the phrases, " Every ten days " " One seven times more." Dan. iii, 19. Churchill and others call them nouns, and suppose the plurals which follow, to be always in the objective case governed by of, understood: as, " A few [of] years " "A thousand [of] doors ; " like the phrases, " A couple of fowls " " A score of fat bullocks." Churchill's Gram. p. 279. Neither solution is free from difficulty. For example : *' There are a great many adjectives." Dr. Adam. Now, if many is here a singular nominative, and the only s\ibject of the verb, what shall we do with arc ? and if it is a plural adjective, what shall we do with a and great. Taken in either of these ways, the construction is anomalous. One can hardly think the word " adjectives " to be here in the objective case, because the sup- posed ellipsis of the word of cannot be proved ; and if many is a noun, the two words are perhaps in apposition, in the nominative. If I say, " A thousand men are on their way, " the men are the thousand, and the thousand is nothing but the men; so that I see not why the relation of the terms may not be that of apposition. But if authorities are to decide the question, doubtless we must yield it to those who suppose the whole numeral phrase to be taken adjectively ; as, " Most young Christians have, in the course of half a dozen years, time to read a great many pages." Young Christian, p. 6. " For harbour at a thousand doors they knock'd ; Not one of, all the thousand but was lock'd." Dryden. OBS. 27. The numeral words considered above, seem to have been originally adjectives, and such may be their most proper construction now ; but all of them are susceptible of being con- strued as nouns, even if they are not such in the examples which have been cited. Dozen, or hundred, or thousand, when taken abstractly, is unquestionably a noun ; for we often speak of dozens, hundreds, and thousands. Few and many never assume the plural form, because they have naturally a plural signification ; and a few or a great many is not a collection so definite that we can well conceive oifeios and manies ; but both are sometimes construed substantively, though in. modern English * it seems to be mostly by ellipsis of the noun. Example : " The praise of the judi- cious few is an ample compensation for the neglect of the illiterate many." Churchill's Gram. p. 278. Dr. Johnson says, the word many is remarkable in Saxon for its frequent use. The follow- ing are some of the examples in which he calls it a substantive, or noun : " After him the rascal many ran." Spenser. " O thou fond many." Shakspeare. " A care-craz'd mother of a. many children." Id. " And for thy sake have I shed many a tear." Id. " The vulgar and the many are fit only to be led or driven." South. " He is liable to a great many inconveniences every mo- ment of his life." Tillotson. " Seeing a great many in rich gowns, he was amazed." Addison. " There parting from the king, the chiefs divide, And wheeling east and west, before their many ride." Dryden. * The following construction maybe considered an archaism, or a form of expression that is now obsolete: "You have bestowed a many of kindnesses upon me." Walker's English Particles, p. 278. CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. PARSING. PRAXIS II. 225 OBS. 28. "On the principle here laid down, we may account for a peculiar use of the article with the adjectiv* ither diminutives. In his adherents rein lined with him ; ' we insinuate, that, they constituted a number sufficiently important to be foimcd into an aggregate : while, if th emitted, as, ' /'r aie much more properly arti- . p 234. But, in spite of this opinion, it has somehow happened, that t ve very orenerallv. and very absurdly, acquired the n ime of , we find Booth, who certainly excelled most other grammarians in learning and a .rvelling that t!. were ever separated from the class of pronouns." To all this I rep'u //, and a, are worthy to be distinguished as the only articles, because re not only used with much great' -/than any other definitives, but are specially restricted to the limiting of the signification of nouns. Whereas the other definitives above men- ly the place of their nouns; that \<, to represent them under- stood. 1, it is only by ellipsis of the noun a'ter it, and not as the representative of a noun i: . that any one of t :-SHMH>S the appearance of a pronoun. Hence, nut pronouns, but adjectives Xor are they " more properly articles than any thing else ; " for, " if the essence o f an article be to define and ascertain " the meaning of a noun, this tiou of the thing necessarily supposes the noun to be used with it. , or explanation, mav show what is meant by definitives. Let plural of which is n-n : \ mm jne unknown or indefinite ; The , some particular onet ' /< one ind n some like i tltitade taken singly ; M in indefinite multitude taken plu- sh without exception ; Enrh opposed to none ; in indcfi- the whole taken plurully } JVo men noue of the sex ; JVo man k-er oue of the race. .AMPLES FOR PARSING. PKAXIS H. ETYMOLOGICAL. ' /V^rit, if i* required of the pupil .' 'i:J/ find dtfineifa !<. in,, I f>> /-./y/A//// the Ai. TH finite or imtrjinite. an tirtirle, and one 'ciple, an adverb, a conjunc- : KXAMPLK 1 iv |iri.!i:|iti:!ir ;,nd urging an indolent class, is th.-in lii- wl:o drives In/y Imr- ,,,!/' h we put before nouns to limit their eig- ' .ilTcruut things or thought* to each I.- 1 AH - nouns to limit their slg* .; nut air. p.irtioiilar one. - ia a nouu. 1. A uuun is the name of any ptrson, p: that cau be known or mentioned. 15 226 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART H. Laboriously is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a -word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degiee, or manner. Prompting is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. Urging is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. An is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their sig- nification. 2. The indefinite article is an or #, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. Indolent is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. Class is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted vpon. Worse is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality, Than is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and tc show the dependence of the terms so connected. His is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. Who is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. Drives is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be. to act, or to be acted vpon. Lazy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. Horses is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. Along is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. A is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their sig- nification. 2. The indefinite article is an or , which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one Sandy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. -Road is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. LESSON I. PARSING. " The Honourable, the Corporation of the city, granted the use of the common council chamber, for holding the Convention ; generously adding the privilege of occupying the rotunda, or the new court-room, if either would better suit the wishes of the committee." Journal of Literary Convention, N. Y. 1830. " When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; the genus for a species, or a species for the genus ; the singular number for the plural, or the plural for th(5 singular ; and, in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant ; the figure is called a Synecdoche." See Blair's Rhet. p. 141 . " The truth is, a representative, as an individual, is on a footing with other people ; but, as a representative of a State, he is invested with a share of the sovereign authority, and is so far a governor of the people." See Webster's Essays, p. 50. " Knowledge is the fruit of mental labour the food and the feast of the mind. In the pursuit of knowledge, the greater the excellence of the subject of inquiry, the deeper ought to be the interest, the more ardent the investigation, and the dearer to the mind the acquisition of the truth." Keith's Evidences, p. 15. " Canst thou, partial Sleep ! give thy repose To the wet seaboy in an hour so rude ? " Shakspeare. LESSON II. PARSING. " Every family has a master ; (or a mistress I beg the ladies' pardon ;) a ship has a master ; when a house is to be built, there is a master ; wh#n the highways are repairing, there is a master ; every little school has a master : the continent is a great school ; the boys are numerous, and full of roguish tricks ; and there is no master. The boys in this great school play truant, and there is no person to chastise them." See Webster's Essays, p. 128. "A man who purposely rushes down a precipice and creaks his arm, has no right to say, that surgeons are an evil in society. A legislature may unjustly limit the surgeon's fee ; but the broken arm must be healed, and a surgeon is the only man to restore it," See ib. p. 135. " But what new sympathies sprung up immediately where the gospel prevailed ! It was made the duty of the whole Christian community to provide for the stranger, the poor, the sick, the aged, the widow, and the orphan." M'llvaine's Evi. p. 408. "In the English language, the same word is often employed both as a noun and as a verb ; and sometimes as an adjective, and even as an adverb and a preposition also. Of this, round is an example." See Churchill's Gram. p. 24. " The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, arose from the well." Woodworth. CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. ERRORS. 227 LESSON III. PARSING. "Most of the objects in a natural landscape are beautiful, and some of them are grand : a flowing river, a spreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain, arc delight- ful; and even a rugged rock, and a barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole." See Kames's El. of Crit. i, 185. ' An animal body is still more admirable, in the disposition of its several parts, and in their order and symmetry: there is not a bone, a muscle, a blood-vessel, a nerve, that hath not one corresponding to it on the opposite side ; and the same order is carried through the ii>n> have had an hundred eyes, some of which were always awake." Classic . p. 1 is. " I'entiped, an hundred feet ; centennial, consisting of a hundred years." No good man, he thought, could be an heretic." Gilpins Lives, ]>. 7-'. ian, an intidel, an heathen." Ash's Gram. p. 50. " Of two ormore illy joined by an hyphen." Ji/dir'.i Gram.}-). 7. " "We may consider the whole 69. " In guard- orship is an hom- an eulogium on the Bounced." Grimx/Kor'* I'. 8. p. 92. " 15 ut for Adam there was not found him." Grn. ii. 'Jit. My (!a\ s are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned a* an hearth." ]'- " A foreigner and an hired servant shall not eat there- of." />,,/. xii. 4.3. "The hill of God i^ MS the hill of Bashan ; an high hill, as the hill .-han." 7W//J.V, Ixviii, lo. "Hut I do declare it to have been an holy offering, and MU-h an one too as was to be once lor all." II '///. /'.////. " An hope that does not make ashamed those that have it." llarclays \Vorks, Vol. i, p. 75. " Where there is not an unity, rue charity. "Ib. i, 96. " Tell me, if in any of these such an union can be found " Ilroicn's :. 1 ( >. " Such holy drops her tresses steeped, Though 'twas an hero's eje that weeped." Sir W. Scott. Lr.ssox II. INSERT ARTICLES. " This veil of flesh parts the visible and invisible world." Sherlock. [FpRMtLE Not proper, because the article iht is orn >m-i.a-f 'Jlvli. " Ar'i< it-s should bt- ii n as the sense it-quires them/' Then- fore, the should be here supplied ; thus, ' This veil of flt-sh parts the visible and the invisible world."] 41 The copulative and disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb." J/ur- 228 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PAR Til. ray's Gram, ii, p. 286. " Every combination of a preposition and article with, the noun." Ib. i, 44. " Either signifies, ' the one or the other ; ' neither imports not either, that is, not one nor .the other.' "-^-Ib. i, 56. " A. noun of multitude may have a pronoun, or verb, agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number." Bucke's Gram. p. 90. " Copu- lative conjunctions are, principally, and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since, &c." See ib. 28. "The two real genders are the masculine and feminine." Ib. 34. " In which a mute and liquid are represented by the same character, th." Music of Nature, p. 481. 'They said, John Baptist hath sent us unto thee." Luke, vii. 20. " They indeed remem- ber the names of abundance of places." Sped. No. 474. " Which created a great dispute between the young and old men." Goldsmith's Greece, ii, p. 127. "Then shall be read the Apostles' or Nicene Creed." Com. Prayer, p. 119. "The rules concerning the perfect tenses and supines of verbs are Lily's." King Henry's Gram. p. iv. " It was read by the high and the low, the learned and illiterate." Johnson s Life of Swift. " Most commonly, both the pronoun and verb are understood." Buchanan's Gram. p. via. ' To signify the thick and slender enunciation of tone." Knight, on the Greek Alph. p. 9. "The difference be- tween a palatial and guttural aspirate is very small." Ib. 12. " Leaving it to waver between the ligurative and literal sense." Jamieson's Rhet.p. 154. " Whatever verb will not admit of both an active and passive signification." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 31. " The is often set before adverbs in the comparative or superlative degree." Ib. p. 15 ; Kirkham's Gram. 66. " Lest any should fe-ir the effect of such a change upon the present or succeeding age of writers." Fowle's Common School Gram. p. 5. " In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even syllables ; and every line is, in general, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed." L. Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 256 ; Jamieson's Rhet. 307. " How many numbers do nouns appear to have? Two, the singular and plural." Smith's Xaio Gram. p. 8. " How many persons ? Three persons the first, second, and third." Ib. p. 10. "How many cases? Three the nominative, possessive and objective." Ib. p. 12. "Ah ! what avails it me, the flocks to keep, Who lost my heart while 1 preserv'd sheep." POPE'S WORKS: British Poets, Vol. vi, p. 309 : Lond. 1800. LESSON III. OMIT ARTICLES. "The negroes are all the descendants of Africans." Morse's Geog. [FORMULE N<>t proper, because the article the before dfsctnflants, is useless to the construction, and injurious to the sense But. according to a principle on page 218th, il Needless articles should he omitted ; tht\\ seldom IV.il to pervert the sense." Therefore, the should be here omitted ; thus, " The negroes are all descendant* of At'i i. aus " '] *' A Sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners." Morse's Ancient Georj. p. 4. " The original signification of knave was a boy." Webster s EL Spell. p. 138. " The meaning of these will be explained, for the greater clearness and precision." Bucke's Gram. p. 58. " What Sort of a Noun is Man ? A Noun Substantive common." Buchanan's Gram. p. 166. " Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun ? " Kirkhams Cram. p. 117. "They delighted in the having done it, as well as in the doing of it," Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 344. " Both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following, Sentences." Murray's Gram. p. 174. " He has taught them to hope for another and a bet- ter world." N. L. Knapp. " It was itself only preparatory to a future, a better, and per- fect revelation." Keith's Evid. p. 23. " Es then makes another and a distinct svllab'e." Brightland's Gram. p. 17. " The eternal clamours of a selfish and a factious people." Broi.cn s Estimate, i, 74. " To those whose taste in Elocution is hut a little cultivated." Kirk- ham's Eloc.p. 65. " They considered they had but a Sort of a Gourd to rejoice in." Ben- net's Memorial, p. 333. " Now there was but one only such a bough, in a spacious and shady grove." Bacon's Wisdom, p. 75. " Now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards the making a man easy." Collier s Antoninus, p. 131. "This is true of the mathematics, where the taste has but little to do." Todd's Student's Manual, p. 331. " To itand prompter to a pau.-ing, yet a ready comprehension." Rush, on the Voice, p. 251. " Such an obedience as the yoked and the torture-d negro is compelled to yield to the whip Of the overseer." Chalmers's Sunn. p. 90. "For the gratification of a momentary and an unholy desire." Wai/land's M'>r. Sci. p. 288. "The body is slenderly put together; the mind a rambling sort of a thing." Collier's Antoninus, p. 26. " The only nominative to the verb, is the q;/i :/." Murray's Gram.ii, 22. " And though in the general it ought to be admitted, &c." Blair's Rhet. p. 376. "Philosophical writing admits of a polished, a neat, and elegant style." Ib. p. 3fi7. " But notwithstanding this defect, Thomson is a string and a be nitiful describcr." Ib. p. 405. " So should he be sure to be ransomed, and a ^any poor men's lives saved." SHAK.: lien, v.* " \\ ho felt the wrong, or fear'd it, took the alarm, Appeal'd to Law, and Justice lent her arm." Pope, p. 406. LESSON IV. CHANGE ARTICLES. "To enable us to avoid the too frequent, repetition of he same word." Bucke's Gr. p. 52. [FOK.VIULE. Not proper, because the article <...e is used to limit the meaning of ' repetition," or ''too -requeut CHAP. II.] ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. - ERRORS. 229 >n," where a would hotter suit the cense. But. arc-nr.linir to a principle on pnjre 21Sth, " The article? earn " t Imii ! put olio t"r tlu- othrr. wrhoiu :;;.-- impr<>|irii-t\ : ;i ,<1 t-ir!ir is of O'lir.-i- t/> i>r infrirvl r-> th.- n-in-r : iirri-fore. " ttir " should he u. which, in Mii> i: ( -rd."J " The former is commonly acquired in the third part of the time." Burn's Gram. p. xi. adjective becoq mtive, and has another adjective joined to it : as, 4 The ehief good.' " L. Murray' a dram, i, 10!). " An articuLite sound is the sound of the hum-in voice, formed by the organs of speech.." Ib. i. 2 ; Loictfis dram. 2; T. S/nilh's,5. " Ten-e is the distinction of time : there are >ix tenses." Manner's drum. p. 6. "In this !lipsis of the last article would he improper." L. Murray'.* dram. i, p. 218. luays the cil'eet to make each of the contrasted objects ap, ear in the Jit." Ib. i, 319; It'air'fi U hH. p. li'.T. " These remarks n. > show the of the proper use of the article." Lowth's Gram. p. 12 ; J//v ( ///'.s, i, 171. -hop Tillot- ii author of the History of England, 'died in this year.' " . M7. " Pronoun* are used instead of substantives, to prevent the too fre- que.i: . .f them." Alc.c. Murray's drum. p. __'. ' i relative, seems to be e the too frequent repetition of wko and which" Ib. p. 23. " A pronoun ! of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word." . . -. " That is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent h" Kirk/ft m'x dra/n.p.lQQ; L. Murray's , i, oo ; Uilt-ifs, 84. te one against an other." Lvgaiis N, ///< >.vs\ "They stand now on one ther." \\'dlk>-rs Particles, p. 2-39. "The I^ord watch between me and one from another.'' d, n. xxxi, 49. 44 Some have enumerated ten I , making a participle a distinct part." L. Murray'* drum, i, p. 29. >e a Hart is a most lively Cie iture." Bacon's 117*- doni, : i ie transition of the voice from one vowel ot the diphthong to another." difficult it is to separate these two things from one \Vithoutthematerialbreachofanyrule." Ib. p. 101. "The npoMtionto pu"-iM'>n, is the injudicious useof those words ' Ib. p. 97. " The great source of a loose style, in opposition to preei- ittfl use of the words termed tynonymotu." Murray's Gram, i, p. 302. - improperly used for another." Sa/tborn's Gram. p. 197. . alas ! can Sporus feel? "Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ? " Pope, p. 396. LESSON V. MIXED EXAMPLES. /.nth no delight in the strength of an horse." Maturin's Sermons, p. 311. " The head ulil !)( an universal monarch." Il< ///, p. 98. " Here they confound the i lonn 1 ohji-rt of faith." Hare/ay'* ll'o/-/,-.v. iii, p. 57. " The Irish and Srotish v -h. ( 'ornish, and Armorican, ai'e another." Dr. Murray's /i \mitbrm and perspicuous manner." / . - Tipture, n. Ap- propriate'. y. and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and New Testament ; the lii- " In two si-, a-atr ntitled the Old and the new Testa- o ( )ld and New Test an. en t con- : E an u after it ; which is not >ouuded in words derived from- -Mould we say of *uch an oner That ' .." Hnjtki,. ',. p. 22. "Son,. ;:uis subdivide vowels rid." M" . . 1 i liasifl bat been fur- iphaais." 7&. L, 244. " Em])ha>i> has emphasis." />,. i, _'}.">. Pronouns must 'i'h thei! nouns \\hieh !). ! r, number, and per- ill.andl, 1 ! verb ////,/-. iniproj erly n>ed, I . M. "The termination /*// ini, 01 ts diminu- > ],r,ic-rd : the to the other. "HI*,, .384. " To an i u'lory. unknown to any ' . - llous." il,r-h ^"li. :,>rm a plural." /'"/.< 'v drum. p. 40. r a primitive, derivative, or compound." L p. \ ii. " It is obvious, that neither the 2d, .'id, nor Ith cliapter of Matthew is . utly.ther. . r// ///-,// ill's < "^onie writ-r want- ;irt to introduce in its proper place." Hhiir'x Hint. p. 109. -:-l meadows are mo>t jilrasitig in the >prmg." 1'>. _<>7. " The ' '\\ei-n iritnil mind, is often lonu r ." '- trt. i'.r. p. H'>. "A I'hildsophi- liry into the Origin of our Id.-as of the Sublime av.d Beautiful 'Burke't Ti(k-jiaye. " Silence, my muse ! make not these jew- / ing to the world too large an heap." H alter, p. 113. THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. CHAPTER III- NOUNS. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, apple, truth. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, ) are nouns ; or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns : as, "For this reason, I prefer contemporary to cotemporary." Campbell's Rhet. p. 17 o ; Murray's Gram, i, p. 368. " I and J were formerly expressed by the same character ; as were U and V." Allen's Gram. p. 3. " Us is a personal pronoun." Murray. " Th has two sounds." Id. "The 's cannot be a contraction of his, because 's is put to female [ feminine ] nouns ; as, Woman's beau- ty, the Virgin's delicacy." Dr. Johnson's Gram. " Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the plural of it." Ib. " Let B be a now or instant." Harris's Hermes, p. 103. " In such case, I say that the instant B is the end of the time A B." Ib. 103. " A is sometimes a noun ; as, a great A." Todd's Johnson. "Formerly sp was cast in a piece, as st's are now." Hist, of Printing, 1770. " I write to others than he will perhaps include in his ice." Barclay's Works, iii, p. 455. " Here are no fewer than eight ands in one sentence." Blair's Rhet. p. 112; Murray's Gram, i, p. 319. "Within this wooden O;" i. e. circle. Shak. OBS. 2. In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each word, and class it ac- cordingly. Many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech are occasionally used as nouns ; and, since it is the manner of its use, that determines any word to be of one part of speech rather than of an other, whatever word is used directly as a noun, must of course be parsed as such. 1. Adjectives made nouns : " The Ancient of days did sit." Bible. " Of the ancients." Swift. " For such impertinents ." Steele. " He is an ignorant in it." Id. " In the luxuriance of an un- bounded picturesque." Jamieson. " A source of the sublime;" i e. of sublimity. Burke. "The Tast immense of space ; " i. e. immensity. Murray. " There is none his like." Job, xli, 33. " A little more than a little, is by much too much." Shakspeare. " And gladly make much cf that en- tertainment." Sidney. "A covetous man makes the most of what he has." L' Estrange. "It has done enough for me." Pope. " He had enough to do." Bacon. " All withers here; who most possess, are losers by their gain, Stung by full proof, that bad at best, life's idle all is vain." Young. " Nor grudge I thee the much the Grecians give, Nor murm'ring take the little I receive." Dryden. 2. Pronouns made nouns : "A love of seeing the what and how of all about him." STORY'S LIFE OF FLAXMAN : Pioneer, i, p. 133. " The nameless HE, whose nod is Nature's birth." Yoiing, Night iv. " I was wont to load my she with knacks." Shak. Winter's Tale. " Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." Shak. "I am the happiest she in Kent." Steele. " The shcs of Italy." Shak. "The hes in birds." Bacon. " We should soon have as many hes and shes as the French." Cobbett's Gram. H 42. "If, for instance, we call a nation a she, or the sun a he." Ib. H 193. " When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer." Ib. H 196. " Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their whos and their ichiches." SPECT. : Ash's Gr. p. 131. " Such mortal drugs I have ; but Mantua's law Is death to any he that utters them." Shak. 3. Verbs made nouns: " Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric." Coicper. " A may- be of mercy is sufficient." Bridge. "Which citts are reckoned among the fractures." Wise- man. " The officer erred in granting ^.permit." " Feel darts and charms, attracts and flames." Iludibras. " You may know by the falling-off of the come, or sprout." Mortimer. " And thou hast talk'd of sallies and retires." Shak. " For all that else did come, were sure to fail ; Yet would he further none, but for avail." Spenser. 4. Participles made nouns : " For the producing of real happiness." Crabb. " For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise." Bible. "Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, and the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood ; so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife." Prov. xxx, 33. " Reading, writing, and ciphering, are'indispensable to civilized man." " Hence was invented the distinction between doing and permitting." Calvin's Inst. p. 131. " Knowledge of the past comes next." Hermes, p. 113. "lam my beloved's, and his desire is toward rne." Sol. Sony, vii, 10. " Here's a simple coming-in for one man." Shak. " What are thy rents ? What are thy comings-in? O Ceremony, show me but thy worth." Id. 5. Adverbs made nouns : " In these cases we examine the why, ihewtiat, and ihehoioof things." L' Estrange. " If a point or now were extended, each of them would contain within itself infin- ite other points or nows." Hermes, p 102. " The why is plain as way to parish church.' 1 Shak. " 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter." Addison. " The dread of a hereafter." Fuller. " The murmur of the deep amen." Sir W. Scott. " For their whereabouts licth in a mystery." Book of Thoughts, p. 14. Better : " Their whereabout lieth," or, " Their whereabouts lie," in<* should be like this : " Peace is a common -noun, personified proper; of the third person, singular number, fem r, and nominative case." Here the construction of the wuiil a>. "//. and of the feminine gender, is the result of the personification, and contrary to the literal usage. MODIFICATIONS. Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and ' ' PERSONS. !, in grammar, art modifications that distinguish the speaker, the heaivr. mi I tip- ]>flf. The IH-:T:LC the ill.! maker of the co'iimunieatinn, Uons. The hearer or ln-arrr-;, )>ei:, lM ,l dn-ccti . u the next or x-i-ond of tlx-^ -A-!ien he perukes what is fcddresftedto hi n-rit" m print or writing. Listlv, w\ i< meri-lv mentioned in the discourse, bears to it that more remote relation which constitutes the third person. The dis- 232 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. tinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is nlways applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. OBS. 2. Of the persons, numbers, genders, cases, and some other gramm itical modifications of words, it should be observed that they belong not exclusively to any one part of speech, but joint- ly and equally, to two or three. Hence, it is necessary that our definitions of these things be such as will apply to each of them in full, or under all circumstances ; for the definitions o\ight to be as g( neral in their application as are the things or properties defined. Any person, num- ber, gender, case, or other grammatical modification, is really but one and the same thing, in whatever part of speech it may be found. This is plainly implied in the very nature of every form of syntactical agreement ; and as plainly contradicted in one half, and probably more, of the defi- nitions usually given of these things. OBS. X. Let it be understood, that persons, in grammar, are not words, but mere forms, rela- tions, or modifications of words; that they are things, thus named by &Jiyure ; thim/s of the neu- ter geiuler, and not living souls But persons, in common parlance, or in ordinary life, are intelli- gent beings, of one or the other sex. These objects, different as they are in their nature, are continu- ally confound* d by the makers of English grammars : as, " The^W person is the person who speaks." Comly's Gram p. 17. So Bickneil, of London : ' 1'hejirst person speaks of himself , as, I John takethee Elizabeth. The second person has the speech directed to him, and is supposed to be pre- sent; as, Thou Harry art a wicked felt'ow. The third person is spoken of, or described, and sup- posed to be absent ; as, That Thomas is a good man. And in the same manner the plural pronouns are used, when more than one are spoken of." Bicknelf's Grammatical Wreath, p. 50. "The person speaking is the first person ; the person spoken to, the second ; and the person spoken of, the third." Russell's Gram. p. 16. "The first person is the speaker " Parser & Fox's Gram. Part i, p. 6 " Person is that, which distinguishes a noun, that speaks, one spo'cen to, or one spok- en about." S. R. Hall's Gram. p. 6. " A noun that speaks ! " A noun "spoken to ! " If ever one of Father Hall's nouns shall speak for itself, or answer when " spoken to," will it not reprove him ? And how can ihefirsiptrson be " theperson WHO speaks" when every word of this phrase is of the third person ? Most ceitainly, it in not HE, nor any one of his sort. If any body can boast of being " the first person in f/rammar," 1 pray, 1}' ho is it ? Is it not I, even If Many grammarians say so. But nay : such authors know not what the first person in grammar is. The Rev. Charles Adams, with infinite absurdity, makes the three persons in grammar to be never any thing but three nouns, whicti hold a confabulation, thus : " PI rs >n is defined to be that which distinguishes a noun that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken of. The noun that speaks [,] is the first person; as, /, James, was present. Thewoww that is spoken to, is the second person; as, James, were you present ? The noun that is spoken of, is the third person ; as, James was present." Adums's System of Em/Hah Gram p. 9. What can be a greater blunder, than to call the first person of a verb, of a pronoun, or even of a noun, " the no an that speaks? " What can be more absurd than are the following assertions ? " Nouns are in the rir>t person when speaking. Nouns are of the second person when addressed or sj<> " I ThemUtocles ; , . " VirgiL Romuba Livy. ' Ami'h il /"' Id. "Co ,f r " '. an apostle, Xc., unto Timothy, m>j own son .n the faith." ; .rd f>W is of the second person, in the text, " Tlttm. me," Li /'.//o of the plur.,; >' us the apoxtles."Pet. iii, 2. How can it be pre- .ii. the phr.i-.-, " / P,mt." I is of the rir-t person, as den , ting the speaker, and Paul, ... ,,ther pc: - MMuethnii? or somebody that is not the speaker ? Let the ad- i . .r.-rsoll, R. C. Smith, C'omly, Greenleaf, Parkhurst, or of any O, ts . 7 _A, ,111 the direct application of what are called Christian names, there is a kind of : .a many occasion* would seem to indicate a lack of proper respect ; so in a tamiliar use of the second person, as it is the placing of an other in the more inti- : i:id one's self in that of the speaker, there is a sort of assumption : and respectful than to use the third person. In the following ex- ib uses both forms; applying the term serv int to himself, and to his bro- : " L-'t ///// 'or,/, I pr i i over before his s<'rr int : and / will lead . H. For when a speaker or a writer does not choose to declare himself in the or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks of both or either in t Muses did, and Caesar records the achievements of Casar. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph : " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my -Gen. xliv, :. And Abraham reverently intei cedes with God : " Oh ! let not the Lord be and I will -pt -ak." (,Y/< xviii, 30. And the Psalnu>t prays : -'God be merciful unto us, and ' his face to shine upon us." Ps. Ixvii, 1. So, on more common occasions: will the rest, so iri">th \\'std to be cap ible of hearing: as, t Hedde-t ? t/tou Jonln, that thou wast driven b u-k ? Y f '///*, likr lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence ot the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob." Psalms, cxiv, 5-7. NUMBERS. fumb i mmar, are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality. :nv two numV'rs ; the r and the plural. ir nmiiln'r is that which denotes but one ; as, " The boy learns." h<- / is that which denotes more than one; as, u The boys ' 1 jilur.il iiuin _'il:irlv formed by adding 8 or es to the r : as, I ; ftox, boxes ; sofa, sofas ; hero, heroes. Wh'Mi the siii.Mihir enls in a sound which will unite with that of *, the plur:: !'"nu !ied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference 'If. /, V - ,V -, //. rlnif ; ?<, AT an. I'erlej . I'i.-K.-- \\.-U, leiiifd, itln-r ., C,,nil\. I.ivK Dilwnrth, i, ln_''T-.ll. .l.Mi'lnii, Kirkli.iui. L. Mu- l.lli-r. Niirtinjr. I'arkhurst, -: ifh. itn.l (ir)n-r. Ani.n- t|,- .-r.-iuiin ofni'Uii- \ Icn. Ali'-n. A .-a. ni<-kn-ll. IJiiiU'i i n. HI lir. Ituoliaiiui). hucki-. Hurt). Hurr. Churchil. i'"iri. .ni. AU-I Hi t, K. W. Ureen, Uarridon, Johnsou, U-uuie, Lowih, Menuye. Priestley. ford War.'. u.|.!.,. r . ;u. 1 \\ 234 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their sub- jects, in number. OBS. 2 The most common way of forming the plural of English nouns, is that of simply add- ing to them an s ; which, when it unites with a sharp consonant, is always sharp, or hissing; and when it follows a vowel or aflat mute, is generally flat, like z : thus, in the words, ships, skiffs, pife^ rocks, depths, lakes, ff'.tif'i, it is sharp ; but in seas, bays, rivers, hills, ponds, paths, rows, webs, flags, it is flat. The terminations which always make the regular plural in es, with increase of syllables, are twelve ; namely, ce, ge, ch soft, che soft, sh, ss, s, se, x, xe, z, and ze : as in face, faces ; age, ages ; torch, torches; niche, niches; dish, dishes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebuses ; lens , lenses; chaise, chaises ; corpse, corpses ; nurse, nurses ; box, boxes ; axe, axes ;phiz, phizzes ; maze, mazes. All other endings readily unite in sound either with the sharp or with the flat s, as they themselves are sharp or flat; and, to avoid an increase of syllables, we allow the final e mute to remain mute after that letter is added : thus, we always pronounce as monosyllables the words babes, blades, strifes, tithes, yokes, scales, names, canes, ropes, shores, plates, doves, and the like. OBS. 3. Though the irregular plurals of our language appear considerably numerous when brought together, they are in fact very few in comparison with the many thousands that are per- fectly simple and regular. In some instances, however, usage is various in writing, though uni- form in speech ; an unsettlement peculiar to certain words that terminate in vowels : as, Rabbis, or rabbies ; octavos, or octavoes ; attornies, or attorneys. There are also some other difficulties re- specting the plurals of nouns, and especially respecting those of foreign words; of compound terms ; of names and titles ; and of words redundant or deficient in regard to the numbers. What is most worthy of notice, respecting all these puzzling points of English grammar, is briefly con- tained in the following observations. OBS. 4 It is a general rule of English grammar, that all singular nouns ending with a vowel preceded by another vowel, shall form the plural by simply assuming ans: as, Plea, pleas ; idea, ideas : hernia, hernias ; bee, bees; lie, lies; foe, foes ; shoe, shoes; cue, cues ; eye, eyes ; folio, folios; bamboo, bamboos ; cuckoo, cuckoos ; embryo, embryos ; bureau, bureaus ; pur lie a, purlieus ; sou, soits ; view, views ; straw, straws ; play, plays, key, keys ; medley, medleys ; viceroy, viceroys ; guy, guys. To this rule, the plurals of words ending in quy, as allpquies, colloquies, obloquies, soliloquies, are commonly made exceptions ; because many have conceived that the u, in such instances, is a mere appendage to the q, or a consonant having the power of w, and not a vowel forming a diphthong with the y. All other deviations from the rule, as monies for moneys, allies for alleys, vallies for valleys, chimnies for chimneys, &c., are now usually condemned as errors. See Rule 12th for Spell- ing. OBS. /). It is also a general principle, that nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y into i, and add es for the plural, without increase of syllables : as, fly, flies ; ally, allies ; city, cities ; colony, colonies. So nouns in i, ( so far as we have any that are susceptible of a chang3 of number,) form the plural regularly by assuming es : as, alkali, alkalies ; salmagundi, salma^un- dies. Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, are numerous ; and none of them de- viate from the foregoing rule of forming the plural . thus, duty, duties. The termination added is es, and the y is changed into i, according to the general principle expressed in Rule llth for Spell- ing. But, to this principle, or rule, some writers have supposed that proper nouns were to be ac- counted exceptions. And accordingly we sometimes find such names made plural by the mere ad- dition of an s ; as, " How come the Pythagoras' , [ it should be, the Pythagorases, ] the Aristotles, the Tullys, the Livys, to appear, even to us at this distance, as stars of the first magnitude in the vast fields of ether ?" Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 131. This doctrine, adopted from some of our older grammars, I was myself, at one period, inclined to countenance ; ( see Institutes of English Gram p. 33, at the bottom ;) but further observation having led me to suspect, there is more au- thority for changing the y than for retaining it, I shall by-and-by exhibit some examples of this change, and leave the reader to take his choice of the two forms, or principles. OBS. 6. The vowel a, at the end of a word, (except in the questionable term huzza, or when silent, as in guinea,') has always its Italian or middle sound, as heard in the interject! >n aha ! a sound which readily unites with that of s flat, and which ought, in deliberate speech, to be care- fully preserved in plurals from this ending : as, Canada, the Canadas ; cupola, cupolts ; comma, commas ; anathema, anathemas. To pronounce the final a flat, as Africay for Africa, is a mark of vulgar ignorance. OBS. 7. The vowel e at the end of a word, is generally silent ; and, even when otherwise, it re- mains single in plurals from this ending ; the es, whenever the e is vocal, being sounded cez, or like the word ease : as, apostrophe, apostrophes ; epitome, epitomes ; simile, similes. This class of words being anomalous in respect to pronunciation, some authors have attempted to reform them, by changing the e to y in the singular, and writing ies for the plural : as, apostrophy, apostrophies ; epit- omy, epitomies ; s'imily, similies. A reformation of some sort seems desirable here, and this has the advantage of being first proposed ; but it is not extensively adopted, and perhaps never will be; for the vowel sound in question, is not exactly that of the terminations y undies, but one which seems to require ee a stronger sound than that of y, though similar to it. OBS. 8. For nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, the regular method of forming the plural seems to be that of adding es ; as in bilboes, umboes, buboes, calicoes, moriscoes, gambadoes, barricadoes, fumadoes, carbonadoes, tornadoes, bravadoes, torpedoes, innuendoes, viragoes, mangoes, embargoes, cargoes, potar goes echoes, buffaloes, volcanoes, heroes, negroes, potatoes, manifestoes, mullatoes, stilettoes, ^loes'. In words of this class, the e appears to be useful as a means of pre- serving the right sound of the 0; consequently, such of them as are the most frequently used, have become the most firmly fixed in this orthography. In practice, however, wo find many simi- lar nouns very frequently, if not uniformly, written with* only; as, cantos, juntos, ijrotton, solos, quartos, octavos, duodecimos, tyros. So that even the best scholars seem to have frequently doubt- ed which termination they ought to regard as the regular one. The whole class includes more than one hundred words. Some, however, are seldom used in the plural; and others, never. Wo zndpotato are sometimes written woe andpotatoe. This may have sprung from a notion, that CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. NUMBERS. 235 such as have the e in the plural, should have it also in the singular. But this principle has never been carried out; and, being repugnant to derivation, it probably never will be. The only Eng- lish appellatives that are established in oe, are the following fourteen : seven monosyllables, doe, Joe, roe, shoe, sloe, soe, toe; and seven longer words, rockdoe, a/oe, felloe, canoe, mitsletoe, tiptoe, diplor. The last is pronounced dip'-lo-e by Worcester; but Webster, Bolles, and some others, give it as a word of two syllables only. Oas. 9 Established exceptions ought to be enumerated and treated as exceptions ; but it is impossible to remember how to write some scores of words, so nearly alike as fumadoes and ore- nados, stih-ttoes and palmettos, if they are allowed to differ in termination, as these examples do in Johnson's Dictionary. Nay, for lack of a rule to guide his pen, even Johnson himself could not remember the orthography of the common word mangoes well enough to copy it twice without in- con-istcncy. This may be seen by his example from King, under the words manyo and potargo. Sim o, therefore, either termination is preferable to the uncertainty which must attend a division of this cl.iss of words between the two; and since es has some claim to the preference, as being a better index to the sound; I shall make no exceptions to the principle, that common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take es for the plural. Murray says, " Nouns which end in o tmetimes es added, to form the plural; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, Tolcano, wo : and sometimes only s ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio." Octavo Gram. p. 40. This amounts to nothing, unless" it is to be interred from his examples, that others like them in form are to take * or es accordingly ; and this is what I teach, though it cannot be said that Mur- ray maintains the principle. bus. 10. Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural. But when sever- al persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes in some degree common, and ad- mits of the plural form and an article; as, " The Stuarts, the C&sars." Allen's Gram, p 41. So likewise when such nouns are used to denote character: as, " Solomons, for wise men ; Neros, for tvrants." II). " Here we see it becomes a doubt which of the two Hemileses, was the monster- queller." \otes to Pope's Dunriad, iv, 492. The proper names of nations, tribes, and societies, are generally plural ; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite article : as, :< Tin- Greeks, the Athenians, the Jews, the Jesuits." But such words mav take the singular form with the indefinite article, as often as we have occasion to speak of an individual of such a people ; as, " A Greek, an Athenian, a Jew, a Jesuit." Ons. 11. Proper names, when they form the plural, for the most part form it regularly, by as- suming s or e* according to the termination: as, Carolina, the Carolinas ; James, the Jameses. And those which are only or chiefly plural, have, or ought to have, such terminations as are proper to distinguish them as plurals, so' that the form for the singular may be inferred : as, " The Tun- . :ly a third of Siberia." Balbi's Gcoy. p. :i?9. Here the singular must certainly DC a 7 " The principal tribes are the /''"//o.v. the Arrajtahoes, and the Cumanches, who roam through the regions of the Platte. the Arkansaw, and the Norte." Ib. p 179. Here the singulars in iv be supposed to he a /'turner, fin Arrapaho, and a Cumanche. "The Southern or in family comprised the Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Chot-tnirs, St- mi notes, and Natchez." I li re all are regular plurals, except the last ; and this probably ought to be Natchezes, but .li tf.'isnn spells it Xaf'-hcx, the singular of which 1 do not. know. Sometimes foreign words or ; terminations have been improperly preferred to our own ; which last are more intelligible, and therefore betl 'ifiinmj-. to Kiyuimaw './, to Knistenaus, or Crees ; Sioux, />. to Iroguoya, or Huron*. the plurals of noun's ending in /, o, u, or y, preceded by a consonant, there is in p h uncertainty. As any vowel sound may be uttered with an s, many writers suppose th require for plurals strictly regular, the s only ; and to take es occasionally, rption. Others, ( perhaps with more reason, ) assume, that the most usual, regular, and proper endings for the plural, in these instances, are ies, oes, and ues : as, alkali, alkalies ; This, I think, is right for common nouns. How far proper name's are to lie made exceptions, because they are proper names, is an other question. It ne ot'them are not to be excepted : as, tor instance, Allt>f'an e ; and on a similar principle, Ajnj-'x, 1',-nux's; thus using the pOMewive case the nominative or objective plural. Harris says very properly, We have our Marks andj ur Antonits ii. 4 ; tor which these would have given us Mark's :\\u\ Antony's." drum. p. '2 ><>. Whatever may have been the motive for it, such a use of the apostrophe "In this quotation, [ ' From the S.u-rates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's the proper names >hould have been pluralixed like common nouns ; thus. Krom the . and the Ci < ram. p. 126: 7Ji/// /'>. 1 12. Allowing are son. ,,f the plurals of proper names, which I submit to lit of the reader, in connexion with th vations: " The Romans had - Marri and Anttmii. as \\e in later days h. lVt . ,,,,, Mirk* andour Antln,,ii, s." H.irris't 10. " There seems to be more reason tor such plurals, as the Ptolemies, Scipios, Catoi; 236 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PAR1? II. or, to instance in more modern names, the Howards, Pel hams, and Montagues." Ib. 40. " Near the family seat of the Montuomeries of Coil's-field." Bttrns's Poems, Note, p. 7. " Tryphon, t. sur- name of one of the Ptolemies." Lempriere's Diet. " Sixteen of the Tuber on, with their wives and children, lived in a small house." Ib. " What are t\i?Jupiters and Junosot the heathens to such, a God ?" Bur,/h'\ Di./nity, i, 234. *' Also when we speak of more than one person of the same name; as, the He/tries, the Edwards." Cobhetfs Gram. ^T 40. "She was descended from the Perries and the Stanleys." Lores of the Poets, ii, 102. "Naples, or the Two Sicilies." Bat- to?* Gc-off p. 2/3. The word India, comnvmly m tkes the plural Indies, not Indian ; and, for Aj txes, the poets write A/aces. But Richard Hiley says, " Proper nouns, when pluralized, follow the same rules as common nouns ; as, Venus, the Venuses ; Ajax, the Ajaxes Cato, the Catoes ; Henry, the Henries." Hiley's E Gram. p. 18. " He ev'ry day from King to King can walk, Of all our Harries, all our Edwards talk." Pope's Satires, iv. OBS. 15. When a name and a title are to he u*ed together in a plural sense, many persons are puzzled to determine whether the name, or the title, or both, should he in the plural form. For example in speaking of two young ladies whose family name is Bel! whether to call them the Alms Bells, the Misses Bell, or the Misses Bells. To an inquiry on this point, a learned e-litor, who prefers the last, lately gave his answer thus : " There are two young ladies; of course they are * the Mi>ses.' Their name is Bell ; of course there are two ' Bells.' Ergo, the correct phrase, in speak- ing of them, is ' the Misses B.'lls.' " N. Y. Com. Adv. This puts the words in apposition ; and there is no question, that it is formally correct But still it is less agreeable to the ear, less frequent- ly heard, and less approved by grammarians, than the first phrase ; which, if we may be allowed to assume that the two words may be taken together as a sort of compound, is correct also. Dr. Priest- ley says, " Wh^n a name has a title prefixed to it, as Doctor, Miss, Master, c., the plural termina- tion affects only the latter of the two words; as, 'The two Doctor Ncttletons''The two Miss Thomsons ;' though a strict analogy would plead for the alteration of the former word, and lead us to say, The two Doctors Nettteton ' The two Misses Thomson.' "Priestley's Gram. p. .59. The following quotations show the opinions of some other grammarians : " Two or more nouns in con- cordance, and forming one complex name, or a name and a title, have the plural termination an- nexed to the last only ; as, The Miss Smiths' The three Doctor Simpson* ' ' The t\vo Mister Wigginses.' With a few exceptions, and those not parallel to the examples just given, we al nost uniformly, in complex names, confine the inflection to the last or the latter noun." Dr. (,'ro.nbie. The foregoing opinion from Crombie, is quoted and seconded by Maunder, who adds the following examples : " Thus, Dr. Watts : ' May there not be Sir Isaac "Newton* in every science ?' ' You must not suppose that the world is made up of La>/y Aurora Granvilles.' " Maunder' s Gram. p. 2. OBS. 16 These writers do not seem to accord with W. L. Stone, the editor above quoted nor Would his reasoning apply well to several of their examples. Yet both opinions are right, if naith- er be carried too far. For when "he words are in apposition, rather than in composition, the first name or title must be made plural, if it refer to more than one : as, " The Misses Bell and Br< wn" " Messrs. Lambert and Son" "The Lords Calthorpe and Erskintt" " The Lord* Bishops of Durham and St. David's" " The Kniyhts Hospitalers" " The Knu/hts Templar.-." " The Knit/his Baronets." But this does not prove the other construction, which varies the last word only, to be irregular; and, if it did, there is abundant authority for it Nor is that which varies the first only, to be altogether condemned, though Dr Priestley is unquestionably wrong respecting the "strict ana'otiy" of which he speaks. The joining of a plural title to one singular noun, as, "Misses Rot/" " The Misses Bell" "The two Misses Thomson" produces a phrase which is in itself the least analoanus of the three ; but " The Misses June and Eliza Bell" is a phrase w hich nobody pei haps will undertake to amend. It appears, then, that each of these forms of expression may he right in some cases ; and each of them may be wrong, if improperly substituted for either of the others OBS. 17- The following statements, though erroneous in several particulars, will show the opin- ions of some other grammarians, upon the foregoing point : " Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family ; as, The Campbells ; or to several persons of the same name ; as, The eit/ht Henrys the two Mr. Bells ; the tivo Miss Browns ; or, without the numeral, the Mist Roys. But in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize the title, (Mr. or Miss,) and write, Misses Brown ; Misses Roy; A/f'.v.sr.s (for Messieurs, Fr.) Guthtie and Tait " Lenm'e's Gram p 7 " If we wish to distin- guish the unmarried from the married Howards, we call them the. Miss Howards. If we wish to distinguish these Misses from other Misses, we call them the Misses Howard " Fowlc's Gra/n. " To distinguish several persons of the same name and family from others of a different name and family, the title, and not the proper name, is varied to express'the distinction ; as, the Mi^cs Story, the Messrs. Story. The elliptical meaning is, the Misses and Messrs, who arc named Story. To distinguish unmarried from married ladies, the proper name, and not the title, should be varied ; as, the Miss Clarks. \Vhen we mention more than one person of different names, the title should be expressed befoie each ; as, Miss Burns, Miss Parker, and Miss Hopkinson, were present." Sanborn'* Gram. p. 79 In the following examples from Pope's Works, the last word only is varied : " He paragons himself to two Lord Chancellors for law." Vol. iii, p. 61. "Yearly panegyrics upon the Lord Mayors " Ib. p. 83. " Whence hapless Monsieur much complains at Paris Of wrongs from Duchesses and Lady Maries." Dunciad, B. ii, 1. 13-5. OBS. 18 The following eleven nouns in /', change the f into v and assume es for the plural : sheaf, sheaves; leaf, leaves; loaf , loaves ; beef, beeves; th'ief, thieves; <-alf, ralres ; half, hair es ; elf . elves ; shelf, shelves; self, selves; wolf, wolves. Three others in fe are similar: 'life, lives ; Jtnife, knives ; wife, wives These are specific exceptions to the general 'rule for plurals, and not a series of examples coming under a particular rule; for, contrary to the instructions of nearly all our grammarians, there are more than twice as many words of the same endings, which take a only : as, chiefs, kerchiefs, handkerchiefs, mischiefs, beliefs, misbeliefs, reliefs, bassreliefs, briefs, CHAP. ITT.] IOLOGY. NOUNS. NUMBERS. 237 'refs, oaf*, waifs, coifs, gulfs, hoofs, roofs, proofs, reproofs, woofs, califs, . ,/iv, //ds." (. . in .lf>/in*o/t's Dift. "The wharf's of Boston are also wortny of notice." li'tlb!'* : 'A \vitri dwelhn^-h'mses. manufactories, and toAor^r." I Bunion Nouns" in /f t ike s only ; as, skijfs, staffs, fluff's. But the plural of atf (//" , generally writt i 'puzzling m. " To distinguish between the two st 'Jf*." 'Comstock'* In one instance, I o is rve. a very excellent scholar has written self's for selves, "d plur.il o: ;-.ove would cease, or be dilated, when :iould behold as many self's as in -n." Waller's Poems, p. 55. QBS. 10. Of nouns purely English, the following thirteen are the only simple w >rds that form t ending in i four of these are often regular i/i'i/i. men; icuman, >ro- , bri'.thn-n or brothers ; ox, oxen ; goose, yeese ; foot, feet tooth, teeth ; /iy, pence or pennies ; pea, pease or peat. The word ; -.ilied only to fellow-members of the same church or fraternity; for sons of the ;itw.iys use brothers ; and this form is sometimes employed in the other sense. .tted cubes tor gaming; dies are stamps for coining money, or for impressing metals. e, refers to the amount of money in value ; pennies denotes the coins themselves. or two or more individual seeds; but petite, for an indefinite number in quanti- \\'tb*tt:r's i)i<-t. This la>t anomaly,! think, might well enough be spared; the -ime, and the distinction to the eye not always regarded. Why is it pn.ip.-r, to write an order for " a bushel of peas, 11 as for "a bushel of bi-um f " " Peas and red from the ground before they be quite dry." Cobbett's E. Gram *U 31. a comp-mnd, ending with any" of the foregoing irregular words, is made plural, ! with which it ends: as, Gentleman, gentlemen; bo ndw >n in, : eyi'tooth , eyeteeth, woodlouse, wood- . In this way, these irregularities metaphorical class, a> kite's foot, colt's-foot, bear's- names of plants, have no plural. The word man, which is used the most in re than seventy such comj ounds. But there are some words of 5 compounds of man, are regular: as, German, Genwinn; Turcoman, us ; leman, lenians ; ciiirti'nt, c.iimans. iieral. admit but one variation to form the plural, and that must be '.pal word, rath- r tiian in the adjunct; but where the terms differ little in imp >r- ..f the lanu'ia-c o!jviou->ly iin-iiu. s L^ a variation of the last only. Thus we write .-man, h ittyt-rs-on, comin/s-in, :n'g tlie tir^t ; and innnfi it, 'lunntfx, infjatheri tt/injx, orer- many instances, when there is a less intimate connexion of i with a hyphen, if not separately, we choose to vary the latter . h'-- varied : " Is it unreasonable to ^ iv with :iyona level with men stealersf" OoODBLL'a LECT. II : 22. From 1 both authority and analogy uch quint'.'. ;i<-cting the proper forms for the plurals : nouns in irrneral ; but ttir ir w.>r- Is mm and wom i/i are often varied at appears to be the general analogy . I shall have q-Mted a I //, vii, 67. " And I have - . men." / . .d "he .th a rod of iron " /.' .-. \:i, 5. " Why .18. Booh term* as these, if thought irt of the compound th< rate n female ; as. r those of the third example, , vii. 67 ; fi>r, in tlie ancient ./en." are usually, iri the lai: . ire mad- plural in Kng i^h add tiuis ..i .v ur ts at the end. But, in all such ca>es, I think the hyphen should be inserted in the *"hiT-- an- !iie siD'juliir compouiuls <>f the plur. which form thoir own plurals ; i posed of the diBputoa Uitlureiiie iu tae value of two doubtful silences.'' uool>tLL'a L.M.I-.: 238 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. compound, though it is the practice of many to omit it. Of this odd sort of words, I quote the following examples from Churchill ; taking the liberty to insert the hyphen, which he omits : " Ave- Maries, Te-Deums, camera-obscuras, af/nus-castuses, habeas-corpuses, scire-faciases, hiccius-doc ius- es, hocus-pocuses, ignis-fattiuses, chef-d'-ceiivres, conge'-d'-elires, flower-de-luces, louis-d '-ores , tite-a- tetes." Churchill's Gram. p. 62. OBS. 24. Some nouns, from the nature of the things meant, have no plural. For, as there ought to be no word, or inflection of a word, for which we cannot conceive an appropriate m?an- ing or use, it follows that whatever is of such a species that it cannot be taken in any plural sense, must naturally be named by a word which is singular only : as, perry, cider, coffee, flax, hemp, fennel, tallow, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, meekness, eloquence. But there are somethings, which have in fact neither a comprehensible unity, nor any distinguishable plurality, and which may therefore be spoken of in either number; for the distinction of unity and plurality is, in such instances, merely verbal ; and, whichever number we take, the word will be apt to want the other : as, dreys, or sediment ; riches, or wealth ; pains, or toil ; ethics, or moral fjhi/oxophy; poli- tics, or the science of government ; belles-lettres, or polite literature. So darkness, which in English appears to have no plural, is expressed in Latin by tenebra, in French by tenebres, which have no singular. It is necessary that every noun should be understood to be of one number or the other ; for, in connecting it with a verb, or in supplying its place by a pronoun, we must assume it to be either singular or plural. And it is desirable that singulars and plurals should always abide by their appropriate forms, so that they may be thereby distinguished with readiness. But custom, which regulates this, as every thing else of the like nature, does not always adjust it well; or, at least, not always upon principles uniform in themselves and obvious to every intellect. OBS. 2o. Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit the regular plural form ; which of course is understood with reference to the individuality of the whole collec- tion, considered as one thing : but, when taken distributively, they have a plural signification without the form ; and, in this case, their plurality refers to the individuals that compose the assem- blage. Thus, a council, a committee, a. jury, ^.meeting, a society, a. flock, or a, herd, is singular ; and the regular plurals are councils, committees, juries, meetings, societies, flocks, herds. But these, and many similar words, may be taken plurally without the s, because a collective noun is the name of many individuals together. Hence we may say, -''The council were unanimous." " The Com- mittee are in consultation." " The jury were unable to agree." " The meeting have shown ,'heir discretion." " The society have settled their dispute." " The flock are widely scattered." " The whole herd were droivned in the sea." The propriety of the last example seems questionable ; be- cause whole implies unity, and were drowned is plural. Where a purer concord can be effected, it may be well to avoid such a construction, though examples like it are not uncommon: as, " Clodius was acquitted by a corrupt jury, that had palpably taken shares of money before they gave their verdict." Bacon. " And the whole multitude of the people icere praying without, at the time of incense." Luke, i, 10. OBS. 26. Nouns have, in some instances, a unity or plurality of meaning, which seems to be directly at variance with their form. Thus, cattle, for beasts of pasture, and pulse , fur peas and beans, though in appearance singulars only, are generally, if not always, plural; and sumn ons, gallows, chints, series, superflcies, molasses, suds, hunks, jakcs, trapes, and corps, with the ap- pearance of plurals, are generally, if not always, singular. Dr. Webster says that cattle is of >oth numbers ; but wherein the oneness of cattle can consist, I know not. The Bible says, " God made cattle after their kind." Gen. i, 2o. Here kind is indeed singular, as if cattle were a natural genus of which one must be acattle ; as sheep are a natural genus of which one is a sleep : but whether properly expressed so or not, is questionable; perhaps it ought to be, " and cittle after their kinds." Dr. Gillies says, in his History of Greece, " Cattle teas regarded as the most convenient measure of value." This seems to me to be more inaccurate and unintelligible, than to say, " Sheep was regarded as the most convenient measure of value." And what would this mean } Sheep is not singular, unless limited to that number by some definitive word ; and cattle I conceive to be incapable of any such limitation. OBS. 27. Of the last class of words above cited, some may assume an additional es, when taken plurally ; as, summonses, gallowses, chintses : the rest either want the plural, or have it seldom and without change of form. Corps, a body of troops, is a French word, which, when singular, is pronounced core, and when plural, cores. But corpse, a dead body, is an English word, pronounced korps, and making the plural in two syllables, corpses. Summonses is given in Cobb's Dictionary as the plural of summons ; but some authors have used the latter with a plural verb : as, " But Love's first summons seldom are obey'd." Waller's Poems, p. 8. Dr. Johnson says this noun is from the verb to summon; and, if this is its origin, the singular ought to be a summon, and then sum- mons would be a regular plural. But this *' singular noun with a plural termination," as Webster describes it, more probably originated from the Latin verb submoneas, used in the writ, and came to us through the jargon of law, in which we sometimes hear men talk of " summonsing witnesses." The authorities for it, however, are good enough; as, 11 This present summons." SHAK.: Joh. Diet. " This summons he resolved to disobey." FELL: ib. Chints is called by Cobb a" substan- tive plural," and defined as " cotton cloths, made in India; " but other lexicographers define it as singular, and Worcester (perhaps more properly) writes it chintz. Johnson cites Pope as speak- ing of "a charming chints," and I have somewhere seen the plural formed by adding es. " Of the Construction of single Words, or Serieses of Words." IVard's Gram. p. 114. Walker, in his Elements of Elocution, makes frequent use of the word " serieses," and of the phrase " series of serieses." But most writers, I suppose, would doubt the propriety of this practice ; because, in Latin, all nouns of the fifth declension, such as caries, congeries, series, species, superficies, make their nominative and vocative cases alike in both numbers. This, however, is no rule for writing English. Dr. Blair has used the word species in a plural sense ; though I think he ought rather to have preferred the regular English word kinds : " The higher species of poetry seldom admit it." Rhet. p. 403. Specie, meaning hard money, though derived or corrupted from species, is not the singular of that word ; nor has it any occasion for a plural form, because we never speak of CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. NUMBERS. 239 a specie. The plural at gallows, according to Dr. Webster, is gallowses ; nor is that form without other authority, though some say, ynlloie.t is of both numbers and not to be varied : " Gallows- es were occasionally put in order by the side of my windows." Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 363. " Who woulo not guess there might be hopes, The fear of yalloicses and ropes, Before their eyes, might reconcile Their animosities awhile ? " Hudibras, p. 90. OBS. 28. Though the plural number is generally derived from the singular, and of course must as generally imply its existence, we have examples, and those not a few, in which the case is otherwise. Some nouns, because they signify such things as nature or art has made plural or double ; some, because they have been formed from other parts of speech by means of the plural ending which belongs to nouns ; and some, because they are compounds in which a plural word is principal, and put lust, are commonly used in the plural number only, and have, in strict proprie- ty, no singular. Though these three classes of plurals may not be perfectly separable, I shall en- deavour to exhibit them in the order of this explanation. 1. Plurals in meaning and form : analects, annals,* archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bowels, breech- es, cat , rlothes, compasses, crants, eaves, embers, estovers, forfeps, giblets, goggles, rrhoids,ides, matins, nippers, nones, obsequies, orgies, f piles, pincers or pinchers, s scissors, shears, skittles, smtjf'ers, spectacles, teens, tongs, troicsers, tweezers, f tut Is. 2. Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives: acoustics, aeronautics, analytics, bitters, I'cdentials, delicates, dioptrics, economics, ethics, extraordinaries, filings, goods, her/neneutics, hustings, hydrodynamics, hydrostatics, hy- drant. . 't/s, magnetics, mathematics, measles, mechanics, mnemonics, 'ihi/sics, middlings, movables, mumps, nuptials, optics, phonics, physics, J pneumatics, poet it -. tt, settlings, shambles, shatters, skimmings, spherics, staggers, statics, 'i/a, xtranylcs, sundries, sweepings, tactics, thanks, tidings, trappings, vives, vitals, icages, withers, yellows. 3. Plurals by composition: backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms, \\ headquarters, hotcockles, spatter- dashes, self -off airs. To these may be added the Latin words, aborigines, antipodes, antes, antceci, mnphiscii, anthropophagi, antiscit, asdi, literati, fauces, regalia, and credenda, with the Italian ver/itiri'.'/i, and the French beUet-lettrm and - Ons. 2:). There are several nouns which are set down by some writers as wanting the singular, and by others as having it. Of this class are the following: amends, H ancients, awns, bots, cata- '-sses, dogsears, < -,** entrails, fetters, fireworks, greens, gyves, nalanden, nnt!I/n/tirx, '. with verbs or pronouns of the singular numi" nstruction of such words, u is more common, and more agreeable to an i ion of a compositor in a printing-office, at a limited weekly wage," Compound that has no singular. But some :ines used, but the way of writing it is unsettled. Dr. '"' a small sort of fire arm;" Webrter h;is it. "a short gun, or M>n*ster, "a small ' a sort of emalljireanns.'' Webster uses "fire-arm,' in de- Platea." Hist. Rtadtr, p. 48. it, soon afterwards, h : his fault, at the battle of I fbere not p. ^7. x vii. 1. 47;,. lar of /CM, is found ; t In Youi ,- of lees, is found ; Webster and Bolles hare alao both forms in tin ir di Ketnie. exalt, throw down their poisonous lee. in the i.owi <,n.ii^."_. II I. W. Wright remarks. , j.hmil distinctions: as. n-mr. iraod, beer, sugar, tearin> >.'' fir ! Solomon's '-d.inn <. or read in Isaiah that "all our nfht'OUSittf'St.i are as fil'li I, like Timothy, "a good ]inifes-ii n liefore many u-itnrf*et.'' be - of some rude ra>in. an ! 1 fruits which nature affords. If these niuu plurals are right, his assertion is nine times wrong, or misappDed by himself seven times in the ten. 240 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IX. market, in spite of Cobbett,* will talk about wheats and barleys, meaning different kinds f or qualities ; and a gardener, if he pleases, will tell of an oat, (as does Milton, in his Lycidas.) meaning a single seed or plant. But, because icheat or barley generally means that sort of grain, in mass, if he will mention a single kernel, he must call it a grain of wheat or a barleycorn. And these he may readily make plural, to specify any particular number; as, five grains of wheat, or three barleycorns. OBS. 31. My chief concern is with general principles, but the illustration of these requires many particular examples even far more than I have room to quote. The word amends is repre- sented by Murray and others, as being singular as W"ll as plural ; but Weoster's lite dictionaries exhibit amend as singular, and amends as plural, with definitions that needlessly differ, though. not much I judge " an amends " to be bad English ; and prefer the regular singular, an amend. The word is of French origin, and is sometimes written in English with a needless final e ; as, " But only to make a kind of honourable amende to God." Rollings Aniient Hint Vol. ii, p. 24. The word remains Dr. Webster puts down as plural only, and yet uses it himself in the singular : " The creation of a Dictator, even for a tew months, would have buried every remain of freedom." Webster' 1 's Essays, p. 70 There are also other authorities for this usage, and also for some other nouns that are commonly thought to have no singular; as, " But Duelling is unlawful and murderous, a.remain of the ancient Gothic barbarity." Brown's Divinity, p. 26. " I grieve with the old, for so many additional inconveniencies, more than their small remain of life seemed des- tined to undergo." POTE: in Joh. Diet. " A disjunctive syllogism is one whose major premise is disjunctive " Hedge's Lot/ic. " Where should he have this gold ? It is some poor fragment, some slender ort of his remainder." SHAK : Tinton of Athens. OBS. 32. There are several nouns which are usually alike in both numbers. Thus, deer, folk, fry, (/entry, y>ouse, hose, neat, sheep, swine, vermin, and rest, (i. e. the rest, the others, the residue,) are regular singulars, but they are used also as plurals, and that more frequently. Again, alms, aloes, belloivs, means, news, odds, shambles, and species, are proper plurals, but most of them are oitener construed as singulars. Folk and fry are collective nouns. Folk means people ; a fol/c, a people: as, " The ants are a people not strong ; " " The conies are but a feeble folk." Prat?. xxx, 25, 26. " He laid his hands on a few sick folk, and healed them." Mark,' vi, 5. Folks, which ought to be the plural of folk, and equivalent to peoples, is now used with reference to a plurality of individuals, and the collective word seems liable to be entirely superseded by it. A fry is a swarrn of young fishes, or of any other little creatures living in water : so called, perhaps, because their motions often make the surface fry. Several such swarms might properly be calUd fries ; but this form can never be applied to the individuals, without interfering with the other. " So numerous was the fry." Cowper. " The fry betake themselves to the neighbouring pools." Quarterly Review. "You cannot think more contemptuously of these gentry than they we e thought of by the true prophets." Watson's Apology, p. 93. " Grouse, a heathcock." Johnson. " The 'squires in scorn will fly the house For better game, and look fur grouse." Swift. " Here's an English tailor, come hither for stealing out of a French Jiose " Shak. " He, being in love, could not see to garter his hose." Id Formerly, the plural wasAosm: " Then thesie men were bound, in their coats, their hosen, and their hats." Dan. iii, 21. " Who both by his calf and his lamb will be known, May well kill a 'neat and a sheep of his own." Tasser. "His droves of asses, camels, herds of neat, And ft >cks of sheep, grew shortly twice as great " Snndys. ' " As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout." Prov. xi, 22. " A herd of many stcine, feeding." Matt, viii, 30. " An idle person only lives to spend his time, and eat the fruits of the earth, like a vermin or a wolf." Taylor. " The head of a wolf, dried and hanged up, will scare away vermin." Bacon. " Cheslip, a small vermin that lies under stones or tiles." SKI.NNRR: in Joh. and in Web. Diet. " This is flour, the rest is bran." " And the rest were blinded " Horn, xi, 7. " The poor beggar hath a just demand ofrm alms." Swift. " Thine alms are come up tor a memorial be- fore God." Acts, x, 4. "The draught, of air performed the function of a be/lows" Rttbeftson't Amer.ii, 223. " As the bellows do."Bi,c.kneirs Gram, ii, 11. " The bellows are burned." Jer. vi, 29. " Let a gallows be made." Esther, v. 14 " M'llloios are very useful in medicine." Wood's Diet. " Nvws," says Johnson, "is without the singular, unless it be considered as singu- lar." Diet. " So is good news from a far country." Prov. xxv, 25. " Evil nncs rides fast, while good news bails." Milton. " When lihea heard these news, she fled " Riltiiuh. " News were brought to the queen." Hume's Hist, iv, 426. " The news I bring are afflicting, but the consolation with which t/iey are attended, ought to moderate your grief." Gil Hlas, ii, p. 20. " Between these two cases there are great odds." Hookvr. " Where the odds is considerable." Campbell. " Determining on which side the odd-s lie." Locke. " The greater are the odd*- that he mistakes his author." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 1. " Though thus an odds unequally they meet." Row's Lm- iv, 1. 789. "Preeminent by so much odds." Milton. "To make a shambles of the parliament house." Shak. " The earth has been, from the beginning, a great Aceldama, a shambles of blood " Christian's Vade-Mecum, p. 6. " A shutnbles " sounds so in- consistent, 1 should rather say, " A sha/t/b'c." Johnson says, the etymology of the word is un- certain; Webster refers it to the Saxon scamel : it means a butcher's stall, a meat market ; and there would seem to be no good reason for the s, unless more than one such place is in ten led. " Who sells his subjects to the shambles of a foreign power." Pitt. " A special idea is called by the schools a species." Watts. " He intendeth the care of species, or common natures.'' Broion. * " I will not supple if possible for my dear .lames to fill into either the company or Mi> language of those persons who talk, and even write, about barleys, cheats, clovers, Jiours, grasses, and malts.-' CobbetPs E. Gram. p. ti'.f t u H is a general rule, that all name- of things measured or weighed, have ro plural ; for in them not number, but quali-.v, is ivtf.u- ied : as, wool, win-, oil. U'i,*>n we .-peak, how. ver, of different kinds, we use tilt- plural : as, tut? coax-er wouts, tue richer wines, the tuei oiis .'" Murray^s Gram. p. 41. CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. NUMBERS. 1241 " ALOE, (al'o) n.; plu. Ar.ov:s." II '< ' ^fcr's Diet, and Worcester's. "But it was aloe itself to lose the reward." Tapper's Crock of Gold, p. 16. " But high in amphitheatre above, ///v arms the everlasting aloes threw." Cumpbi-ll, G. of W., ii, 10. OBS. 33. There are some nouns, which, though really regular in respect to possessing the two forms for the two numbers, are not free from irregularity in the manner of their application. Thus means is the regular plural ofmc(tn; and, when the word is put lor mediocrity, middle point, place, or degree, it takes both forms, each in its proper sense ; but when it signifies things instrumental, or that which is used to effect an object, most writers use means for the singular as well as for the plu- ral : as, " Bv thin means,"--" By 'thnt means," with reference to one mediating cause ; and, " By these means," " By fhoxe //n-fi.s," with reference to more than one. Dr. Johnson says the use of means for mean is not very grammatical ; and, among his examples for the true use of the word, he has the fol- lowing: " Pamela's noble heart would needs gratefully make known the valiant meanof her safety." Sidney. " Their virtuous conversation was a mean to work the heathens' conversion." Hooker. " Whether his wits should by that mean have been taken from him." Id. " I'll devise a mean to draw the Moor out of the way." S/iak. " Xo place will please me so, no mean of death." Id. " Nature is made better by no mean, but nature makes that mean." Id. Dr. Lowth also questioned the propriety of construing //nans as singular, and referred to these same authors as authorities for preferring the regular form. Buchanan insists that means is right in the plural only; and that, " The singular should be used as perfectly analogous ; by this mean, by that mean." English Syntax, p. 103. Lord Kames, likewise, appears by his practice to have been of the same opinion : '" Of this the child must be sensible intuitively, for it has no other mean of knowledge." Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 357. " And in both'the same mean is employed." Ib. ii, 271. Caleb Alexander, too, declares " this means," " that means" and "a means," to be " ungramma- tieal." Gram. p. 58. But common usage has gone against the suggestions of these critics, and later grammarians have rather confirmed the irregularity, than attempted to reform it. OBS. 34. Murray quotes sixteen good authorities to prove that means may be singular ; but whether it ought to be so or not, is still a disputable point, principle is for the regular word mean, and good practice favours the irregularity, but is still divided. Cobbett, to the disgrace of grammar, says, " i noun, is never used in the singular. It, like some other words, has broken loose from all principle and rule. Byuniversalconsent.it is become always a plural, whether used with singular or plural pronouns and articles, or not." Gram. p. 141. This is as ungrammatical, as it is untrue. Both mean and means are sufficiently authorized in the singular : " The prospect which by this mean is opened to you." Melmoth's Cicero. " Faith in this doctrine never terminates in itself, but is a mean to ho'liness as an end." Dr. Chalmers, Strmoni, p. v. "Tin- mean of basely affronting him." Brown's Divinity, p. 19. " They used every mean to prevent the re-establishment of their religion." Dr. Jamieson's Sacred Hist, i, p. 20. "Asa? to prepare men for the discharge of that duty." Bofinybroke, on Hist. p. 153. " Greatest is the power of a mean, when its power is least suspected." -Tapper's Book of Thoughts, p. 37. " To the deliberative orator the reputation of unsullied virtue is not only . ,., -.**.. 1* _ ._/ ._.*.*___ 1_ * _ 1 .fl ._ j. _ _ !___ -*._/!?_ '* usefulness in the world." Ib. ii, 39-5. " Exercise will be admitted to be a necessary mean of im- .ent." Blair's lihtt. p. 343. " And by tJuit means we have now an early prepossession in their favour." ib. p. .'}48. " To abolish all sacrifice by revealinga better mean of reconciliation." Keif! v. p 46. "As a mean of destroying the distinction." Ib. p. 3. " Which how- ever is by no m-nn universally the ease." Hr/ii/ioits ]Vorld Displayed, Vol. iii, p. lo-l. OBS. '>,'). Again, there are some nouns, which, though they do not lack the regular plural form, arc sometimes used in a plural sense without the plural termination. Thus manner makes the plural m'tnncrs, which last K now generally used in the peculiar sense of behaviour, or deport- ment, but not always : it sometime^ means "methods, modes, or \vays ; as, "At sundry times and in divers mnn/ti ffi." // t //. i, 1. " In the manm.rs above mentioned." Butler's Anafauy. 100. "There be tin. of trials in England." COWEI.L: Joh. Diet. to. Jury. " These' {wo manners of Mtation." Lou-tit's drum. p. 1">. " The>e are the three primary modes, or manners, of ion." Linrf/t's (-'i-ii/.'i. ]). s:>. " In an..: : urns manners suit various styles." I'Jiil. of Il/ift. p. 17-. the two manners." Bolin<;brokc, on Hint. p. 35. three different manners of asserting." lii/rna/'f/'s Gram. ]>.'-7). But manner has often been put for sorts, without tl.- ; ':, tn e of life, which bare tirelrc manner of fruits." v.i, _'. "A/, 1 mun/f / <>t in n ,;- -emMed here in arms." S/tak. "All manner of outward advant.un -." \(ti rhtin/. Milton usi-d kind in the same way, but not very properly ; as, "Alt kind of Ltures." P. L*(. \\. i\, 1. 2ST>. This irregularity it would be well to avoid. lp. !., printer for modes or ways; and all" manner, if allowed, must be taJwn in th noun; but for sorts', kinds, classes, or species, I would use noither the plural nor the singular of this word. The word heathen, too, makes the regular plural // at I-., us, aii'l yet is often used in a plural sense without the s ; as, " Why do the heathen -: Psalms, ii, 1. " Christianity was formerly propagated among the hcat/tt.;s." M./rray'x Key, 8vo, p. 217. The word youth, likewise, ha> "the same peculiarities. / So paint it tli.- rozular plurr:] r,f r ni n . nml. by Johnson . U'.-hster, and othor Icxiro^rnphcrs. i<< only as pluml ; luit \\ ek words. ^\ith ;i poninicnt, tlius : PMV, n. Labor : work ; ti il ; caro ; trouble. [T."'"" Acci>r.lin_' to Mn- >'c-t ns:-.^-. tlic \vunl pains, though of plural form, is u.-i'ii in thei-'e - ' . wnses as singular, and is jinrd \\\-\\ a flhignlar Terb ; U, The pains they had taken in:.- : vcrv LT'^I'.' flnrnutan. ken. 1 r<-]". ' Great pains ' taken.' Pii'stlry. Murk jiains.- J>olins>/rn/<>-." f'nir. HIT/ Crtt. Diet. T 10 multiplication of anom:ilir< of tliis kind is so undcsinihlo. tli;it nothing short of a very rlc:ir drri.-ion of Cus- Inst tho use of the regular (Mmconl. r.-m well justify -,y surli examplei may be cited, but are they not examples of false syntax ' I inrli-io t> think " th.' ' would still make alt these Terbs plural. Dr. Johnson cites the first example thus : " Tlv pains they had taken were very great. Clartndon." Quarto Diet. w. Pain. 16 242 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. Ons. 36. Under the present head come names of fishes, birds, or other things, when the appli- cation of the singular is extended from the individual to the species, so as to supersede the plural by assuming its construction : as, Sing. "A great fish." Jonah, i, 17- Plur. "For the multitude of fishes." John, nni, G. "A very great multitude offish." Ezekiel, xlvii, 9.* The name of the genus being liable to this last construction, men seem to have thought that the species should follow ; consequently, the regular plurals of some very common names of fishes are scarcely known at all. Hence some grammarians affirm, that salmon, mackerel, herring, perch, tench, and several others, are alike in both numbers, and ought never to be used in the plural form. I am not so fond of honouring these anomalies. Usage is here as unsettled, as it is arbitrary ; and, if the expression of plurality is to be limited to either form exclusively, the regular plural ought certainly to be preferred. But, for fish taken in bulk, the singular form seems more appropriate ; as, " These vessels take from thirty-eight to forty-five quintals of cod and pollock, and six thou- sand barrels of mackerel, yearly." Balbi's Geog. p. 28. OHS. 37. The following examples will illustrate the unsettled usage just mentioned, and from them the reader may judge for himself what is right. In quoting at second-hand, I generally think it proper to make double references ; and especially in citing authorities after Johnson, because he so often gives the same passages variously. But he himself is reckoned good au- thority in things literary. Be it so. I regret the many proofs of his fallibility. " Hear you this Triton of the minnows '? " Shak. " The shoal of herrings was of an immense extent " Murray's Key, p. 185. " Buy my herring fresh." SWIFT : in Joh. Diet. " In the fisheries of Maine, cod, herring, mackerel, alewives, salmon, and other fish, are taken." Balbi's Geog. p. 23. " MEASE, n, The quantity of 500 ; as, a mease of herrings." Webster's Diet. " We shall have plenty of mack- erel this season." ADDISON : in Joh. Diet. "Mackarel is the same in both numbers. Gay ha* improperly mackarels." Churchill's Gram. p. 208. " They take salmon and fronts by groping and tickling them under the bellies." CAREW : in Joh. Diet. " The pond will keep trout and salmon in their seasonable plight." Id. ib. w. Trout. '' Some fish are preserved fresh in vinegar, as turbot." Id. ib. w. Turbot. " Some fish are boiled and preserved fresh in vinegar, as tunny and turbot." Id ib. w. Tunny. " Of round fish, there are brit, sprat, barn, smelts." Id. ib. w. Smelt. " For sprats and spurlinys for your house." TUSSER: ib. to. Spurting. "The coast is plentifully stored with pilchards, herrings, and haddock." CAREW : ib. w. Haddock. " The coast is plentifully stored with round fish, pilchard, herring, mackerel, and cod." Id. ib. w. Herring. " The coast is plenti- fully stored with shellfish, sea- hedgehogs, scallops, pilcherd, herring, and pollock." Id. ib. w. Pollock. "A roach is a fish of no great reputation for his dainty taste. It is noted that roaches recover strength and grow a fortnight after spawning." WALTON : ib. w. Roach. "A friend of mine stored a pond of three or four acres with carps and tench." HALE : ib. w. Carp. " Having stored a very great pond with carps, tench, and other pond-fish, and only put in two small pikes, this pair of tyrants in seven years devoured the whole." Id. ib. w. Tench. " Singular, tench ; plural. "tenches." Bright land's Gram. p. 78. " The polar bear preys upon seals, fish, and the carcasses of whales." Balbi's Geog. p. 172. " Trouts and salmons swim against the stream." BACON: Ward's Gram. p. 130. " 'Tis true no turbots dignify my boards, But gudgeons, flounders, what my Thames affords.". Pope. OBS. 38. From the foregoing examples it would seem, if fish or fishes are often spoken of without a regular distinction of the grammatical numbers, it is not because the words are nol susceptible of the inflection, but because there is some difference of meaning between the mere name of the sort and the distinct modification in regard to number. There are also other noun? in which a like difference may be observed. Some names of building materials, as brick, stone., plank, joist, though not destitute of regular plurals, as bricks, stones, planks, joists, and not unadapted to ideas distinctly singular, as a brick, a stone, a plank, a joist, arc nevertheless some- times used in a plural sense without the s, and sometimes in a sense which seems hardly to embrace the idea of either number ; as, " Let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly." Gen. xi, 3. " And they had brick for stone." Ib. " The tale of bricks." Exod. v, 8 and 18. " Make brick." Ib. v, 16. " From your bricks." Ib. v, 19. " Upon altars of brick." Isaiah, Ixv, 3. " The bricks are fallen down." Ib. ix, 10. The same variety of usage occurs in respect to a fevr other words, and sometimes perhaps without good reason ; as, " Vast numbers of sea fowl frequent the rocky cliffs." Balbi's Geog. p 231. "Bullocks, sheep, and fowls." Ib. p. 439. " Cannon is used alike in both numbers." Everest's Gram. p. 48. " Cannon and shot may be used in the singular or plural sense." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 37. " The column in the Place Vendome is is used alike in both numbers." Everest's Gram. p. 48. " Cannon and shot may be used in the singular or plural sense." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 37. " The column in the Place Vendome is one hundred and thirty -four feet high, and is made of the brass of the cannons taken from the Austrians and Prussians." Balbi's Geog. p. 249. " As his cannons roar." Dry den's ] } ocms, p. 81. " Twenty shot of his greatest cannon." CLARENDON: Joh. Diet. " Twenty shots" would here, I think, be more proper, though the word is not made plural when it means little balls of lead. "And cannons conquer armies." Ihidihras, Part III, Canto iii, 1. 249. " Healths to both kings, attended with the roar Of cannons echoed from th' affrighted shore." Waller, p. 7. Ons. 39. Of foreign nouns, many retain their original plural ; a few are defective ; and some are redundant, because the English form is also in use. Our writers have laid many languages under contribution, and thus furnished an abundance of irregular words, necessary to be ex- plained, but never to be acknowledged as English till they conform to our own rules.' 1. Of nouns in a, saliva, spittle, and scoria, dross, have no occasion for the plural ; lamina, a *" And the fish that is in the river shall die." Fxori. vii, 18. " And the fish that was in the river died.'- Ib. 21. Here the construction is altogether in the singular, and yet the meaning seems to be plural. This construc- tion appears to be more objectionable, than the use of the word Jisli with a plural verb. The French Kible her* corresponds with ours ; but the Latin Vulgate, and the Greek S*-ptuagint, have both the noun aijd the verb in the al : as, " Thejfo/zcs that are. in the river," ' ; The./5.s/x,s that were.-' 1 &c. In plural : as, " Thejfo/zcs that are. in the river," ' ; The./5.s/x,s that were.-' 1 &c. In our Bible,ybw/, as well .asjfoA, it Bometirr.es plural; and yet both words, in some passages, have the plural form : as, " And few' that mayfly," &c. Gen. i, 20. u I will consume the fowls of the heaven, and ttiefshes of the sea." Zeph. i 3. CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. NUMBERS. 243 thin plate, makes lamina- ; macula, a spot, marula> ; minutia, a little thing, minutiae ; nebula, a mist, iifbuftp ; siliqua, a pod, siliqua*. Dogma makes dogmas or dogmata; exanthema, exanthema* '' ; miasm or miasma, titfasnu or miasmata ; stigma, stigmas or stigmata. 2. Of nouns in um, some have no need of the plural ; as,' bdellium, decorum, elysium, equili- brium, >'/' ; dracunculus, dracunculi ; echinus, echini ; magus, magi. But such as have prop- erly become Kn-zli-li words, may form the plural regularly in es ; as, chorus, choruses : so, appar- atus, bo >*,' focus, fucuv, fungus, hiatus, ignoramus, impetus, incubus, isthmus, nantii' prospeehu, rant*, rflMM, surplus. Five of these make the Latin plural like the singular ; but the mere English scholar has no occasion to be told which they are. Radius makes the plural radii or radiuses. Genius has genii, for imaginary spirits, and geniuses, for men of wit. (remi.s, a sort, becomes genera in Latin, and genuses in English. Denarius makes, in the plural, denarii or denariuses. 4. Of nouns in is, some are regular; as, trellis, trellises: so, annolis, butteris, caddis, derm's, tV/v, m-'rquis, metropolis, portcullis, proboscis. Some seem to have no need of the plural ; as, am- bf-ri/rit., a>/na -ford's, arthritis, hreiris, crasis, elephantiasis, genesis, orris, siriasis, tennis. But most of thi< ending follow the Greek or Latin form, which simply changes is toes : as, aman- I . analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; axis, axes ; basis, bases ; crisis, crises ; rears ; d it-vis, dieses; ellipsis, ellipses ; emphasis, emphases ; fascis, fasces ; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; phasis, phases ; praxis, praxes ; synopsis, synopses ; synth' n'ten ; t/ v/.v, theses. In some, however, the original plural is not so formed ; but is made by changing is to ides : as, aphis, aphides ; apsis, apsides ; ascaris, ascarides ; bolis, bolides; canthartx, cuntharidcs ; chrysalis, chri/s tlides ; epnemcris, ephemerides ; epidermis, So iris and proboscis, which we make regular ; and perhaps some of the foregoing made so too. Fisher writes Praxises for praxes, though not very properly. See his Gram. l>. v. I'.ijiie-i, a Roman knight, makes eyuites in the plural. 5. Of nouns in x, there are few, if any, which ought not to form the plural regularly, when :.i>h words ; though the Latins changed x to ces, and ex to ices, making the i some- time- long, and sometime* short: as,rt/x'.r, apices, for apexes ; appendix, appendices, for appendixes ; . for raii.rrn ; calx, calecs, for calxes ; calyx, calyces, for calyxes ; caudex, caudices, for caude.r . lor cicatrixes ; helix, helices, for helixes ; index, indices, for indexes; >r mat rises ; quincunx, quincunces, for quincunxes ; radix, radices, forradixes; .s, for vertexes; vortex, vortices, tor vortexes. Some Greek words in x change that letter to yes : as, larynx, larynges, for larinxes ; phalanx, phalanges, for I'roin the French, is billets-doux in the plural. G. Of nouns in on, derived from Greek, the greater part always form the plural regularly; as, ..s, myrmidons, phlet/mons, trigons, tetragons, pentagons, hexagon9 t "//., oct(i(/oi> /o//.s, h<-ndfcagons, dodecagons, polygons. So trihedrons, tetrct- :iough some say, these last may end in dra, which I think improper. For a few words of this class, however, there are double plurals in use ; as, automata or automa- tons, criteria or critcrions, jHirhelia o* parhelions ; and the plural of phenomenon appears to be al- 7. Tin- plural of let;um<-n is legumens or legume na ; of stamen, stamens or stamina ; of cherub, >ru l i* or r/i, rn'ii/n , <>f x< ra/th, seraphs or seraphim ; of beau, beaus or beaux; of bandit, bandits bum/itli. The regular forms are in general preferable. The Hebrew plurals cherubim and M f(jr singulars, other plurals have been formed from them; a>, "And pi . "). " Then flew one of the seraphims unto e." I.Mi/nh, vi, 6. Dr. Campbell remarks: " \\'.- are authorized, both by use and by analogy, :i'4 to tin- English idiom, or chcnihim and xa'aphim, ao- cordinj; to the orit ntal. The former suits beU;-r tin- familiar, the latter the. solemn style. I shall .,1.1 to this i . i-kerubhn and serujmhn are nlural, the -ing the plural, are (juite improper." rhilofllhet.\>.'2tt\. li. When other pa. ; ..iu- nouns, they cither want the plural, or form it - 1 !_ _ _ _ f . I 1 ', r ,r . f . 1 <7 I/-, : J xpanglcs." Bacon. " The ins and the outs." Newspaper. " We find it more safe against ic authors, when Mioy give to mrrt irnnti tlie construction of plural nouns, are in the habit of writing them in flu- form of hnv.-of la'e, 'ti-s true, refonne.l, in point- inca-un-. tl. .1 il-.n.!!.,' W'rk ol : t tliis kirnl." " MIT--. la improperly used for the objective rase plural. It should b, ' on Eiym. nnil Xynt. p. 3&J. According to our rules, thea* >. th'TLofs, therewith*. u Any word, when us-ij ;is the name ot itfielf^ i -nc'x (iram : iy, " Tlie plural or words, coDsiderud sa the apo.-trn^hc an I x ; a., ' Who, that has any ta.te, can endure the iiices.-'ant. quick returns of the otto'j, and the -./f/.v'.^, and the marrm-tr'*, and the tiowvers, and the notwit/ntan ling's ." CAMi-nr-LL." WelU'.\ School of the common gender." Ib. This then is manifestly no gender under the fore- going definition, and the term neuter is made somewhat less appropriate by the adoption of a third denomination before it. Nor is there less absurdity in the phraseology with which Murray proposes to avoid the recognition of the common gender : " Thus we may say, Parents is a noun of the masculine and ^feminine gender ; Parent, if doubtful, is of the masculine or feminine gender ; and Parent, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the gender so ascer- tained." Gram. 8vo, p. 39. According to this, we must have five genders, exclusive of that which is called common; namely, the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, the androm/nal, and tin doubtful. OBS. 4. It is plain that many writers on grammar have had but a confused notion of what * gender really is. Some of them, confounding gender with sex, deny that there are more than two genders, because there are only two sexes. Others, under a like" mistake, resort occasion- ally, (as in the foregoing instance,) to an androgynal, and also to a doubtful gender : both of which are more objectionable than the common gender of the old grammarians ; though this common " distinction with regard to sex," is, in our language, confessedly, no distinction at all. I assume, that there are in English the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, and no more ; and that every noun and every pronoun must needs be of some gender ; consequently, of some one of these three. A gender is, literally, a sort, a kind, a sex. But genders, in grammar, are attributes of words, rather than of persons or things ; whereas sexes are attri- butes, not of words, but of living creatures. He who understands this, will perceive that the absence of sex iu some things, is as good a basis for a grammatical distinction, as the presence CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. GENDERS. 245 or the difference of it in others ; nor can it be denied, that the neuter, according to my defini- tion, is a gender, is a distinction "in regard to sex," though it does not embrace either of the sexes. There are therefore three genders, and only three. Uns. .). Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually in- clude both sexes ; as, " Hast thou given the horse strength ? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder ? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper ? the glory of his nostrils is terrible." \xix, 19. Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south ? Doth le mount up at thy command, and make her nest on high :" Ib. ver. 26. These were called, by the old grammarians, t '/tt\-<-/u> nouns that is, supcrco/ntiion ; but they arc to be parsed, according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for them. OB.S. 6 Tin- gender of words, in many instances, is to be determined by the following prin- ciple of universal grammar Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, * and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common ita is always masculine, and must be represented by a masculine pronoun, for the gcml'T of a word is a property indivisible, and that which refers to the male sex. always takes the lead in such eases. If one say, " Joseph took the young child and his mother by night, and fled with them into Egypt," the pronoun them will be masculine ; but let " his " be changed to its, and the plural pronoun that follows, will be feminine. For the feminine gender takes precedence of the neuter, but not of the masculine ; and it is not improper to speak of a young child without the sex. As for such singulars as parent, frieiid, neighbour, thief, sUice, and many I, they arc feminine when expressly applied to any of the female sex; but otherwise, masculine. a jury, a sort, or a sex, if taken collectively, is neuter ; being represented in discourse by the neuter pronoun it : and the formal plurals, congresses, councils, committees, juries, sorts, sexes, of course, are neuter also. But, if I say. " The committee disgraced themselves," the noun and pronoun are presumed to be masculine, unless it be known that I am speaking of a. committee of females. Again : " The fair sex, ichose task is not to mingle in the labours of public life, have their own p 1 them to act." Comly's Gram. p. 132. Heres. 1-1 Because the child has no idea of any nurse besides his own." Ib. p. 153. To brute iinim-ilv aKo. the same distinction is generally applied, though with less uniformity. Some that an- very small, have a gender which seems to be merely occasional and figurative; as, ' Go "nt, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise." Prov. vi, 6. "The spider taketk hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces." Prov. xxx, 28. So the bee is usually made fem- a little creature of admirable industry and economy. But, in genera'l, irrational crcaii; unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are spoken of as neuter; as, "And it became a serpent; and Moses lied from before it. And the Lord said unto Moses. Put forth thine hand, and take it by the tail. And he put forth his hand and caught it, and it be- came a rod in his hand." Bxotf. iv, 3, 4. Here, although the vrordserjjent is sometimes masculine, the n Miter pronoun >eem>< l be more proper. So of some imaginary creatures : as. " Phenix, the fowl which is said to exist single, and to rise again from it* own ashes." Webster's Diet. " So shall the J'/ . with no stain on it* plumage." Dr. Barf left's Lcct. p. 10. '.I. But tiiis liberty of representing animals as of no sex, is often carried to a very ques- tionable extent; as, "The Ji>in- sleeps with /Vv eyes open." Bttfbavld. " The hedgehog, as soon as if ] .-ked, rolls itself into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but & prickle* t ) the foe " HI"' . p. 138. " The panther is a ferocious creature : like the tiger it sei/es 102. " The leopard, in its chace of prey, spares neither man nor Ih. p. 10:{ " If a man shall steal an ox, or a *hr/-p, ami kill ff, nr sell //." E.rd. x.xii, 1. run after a bare, because // recollects the beating it has previously 1 on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled." 5 3. " The r \ upon with pleasure ; but it is the tcarhorse, h-ur in its idea." /Hair's Jt/ut. p. 30. .ishi-d hi/ iconls, in four different ways. First, by the .dilations. Julius, Julia ; Item, heroine. Secondly, by the us. t, II- in-./. Mil'/ \i/i ;. qtu , n. Thirdly, by compounds or phrases including 6>mo distinctive term: as, Mr. Murray, Mrs. Murray ; Englishman, Englishwoman; yraiu "ThoSuprvmi- r,cin.'( ' '* i/<. />;<. &r.i !=. in all !-, . ulino : in as much n> th inn-ro- : la th Buperior and more excellent ; :m l .-i- I! r of all, the Father of god* and men." 7/or- riY< // /-//i- v. p. :,l. Tlii-i remark applies to all the direct names of the Dt.-ity, but the abstract idea of Dem/ it^lf. nmtn. Go'lhin'l.^r Divinity, is nr t nia.-rnl'ne, but neuter. On this point, some notions h pib'.i- >. 0. I>. Circe's Gram. p. 208. t Th-i: is, w t - jrive them st>x. if we mean to represent them as persons. In the following example, a character comuioi.. vmminr i- n-pvi-.-ci. ;-. the author would seem to doubt both the sez au4 tL.e personality : " I don't know what a icitch. is, or what it was then." N. P Hogers's Writings, p. 154. 246 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. grandmother; landlord, landlady ; merman, mermaid ; servingman, servingmaid ; man-servant, maid-servant ; schoolmaster, schoolmistress ; school-boy, school-girl; peacock, peahen ; cock-spar 'row , hen-sparrow ; he-goat, she-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit male elephant, female elephant ; male convicts, female convicts. Fourthly, by the pronouns he, his, him, put for'nouns masculine ; and she, her, hers, for nouns feminine: as, "Ask him that fleeth, and her that escapeth, and say, What is done ?" Jer. xlviii, 19. " O happy peasant ! Oh unhappy bard ! His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward." Cowper. OBS. 11. For feminine nouns formed by inflection, the regular termination is ess; but the manner in which this ending is applied to the original or masculine noun, is not uniform : 1. In some instances the syllable ess is simply added : as, accuser, accuseress ; advocate, advo- catess ; archer, archeress ; author, authoress; avenger, avcngeress ; barber, barber ess ; baron, bar- oness ; canon, canont-ss ; cit, cittess ;* coheir, coheir ess ; count, countess ; deacon, deaconess ; demon, demoness; di ciner, diviner ess ; doctor, doctoress ; giant, giantess ; god, goddess; guardian, quardi- aness ; Hebrew, Hebrewess ; heir, heiress ; herd, herdess ; hermit, hermitess ; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess ; Jew, Jewess; mayor, mayoress ; Moabite, Moabitess ; monarch, monarchcss ; pape,papess ; or,pope,popess ; patron, patroness ; peer, peeress ; poet, poetess ; priest, priestess ; prior, prior ess ; prophet, prophetess ; regent, regentess ; saint , saintess ; shejjherd, shepherdess; soldier, soldi er ess ; tailor, tailoress ; viscount, viscountess ; icarrior, warrioress. 2. In other instances the termination is changed, and there is no increase of syllables : as, abbot, abbess ; actor, actress ; adulator, adulatress ; adulterer, adulteress ; adventurer, adventuress ; ad- voutrer , advoiitress ; ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress; or, anachoret, anacJiorcss ; arbiter, arbitress ; auditor, auditress ; benefactor, benefactress ; caterer, cateress , chanter, cJiantress ; cloisterer, cloisteress ; commander, commandress ; conductor, conductress; creator, creatress; de- mander, demandress ; detractor, detractr ess ; eagle, eagless ; editor, editress; elector, elcctress ; tmperor, emperess, or empress; emulator, emulatress ; enchanter, enchantress; exactor, exact ress ; fautor, fautress ; fornicator,fornicatress ; fosterer, fosteress, or fostress ; founder, foundress ; gover- nor, f/overness ; htickster, huckstress ; or, huc/isterer, hucksteress ; idolater, idolatress; inhabited, inhabitress ; instructor, instructress; inventor, inventress ; launderer, launderess, or laundress; minister, ministress ; monitor, monitress ; murderer, murderess ; negro, negress ; offender, off en- dress ; ogre, ogress; porter, portress ; progenitor, progenitress ; protector, protectress ; proprietor, proprietress ; pythonist, pythoness ; seamster, seamstress ; solicitor, solicitress ; songster, songstress ; torcerer, sorceress ; suitor, suitress ; tiger, tigress ; traitor, traitress ; victor, victress ; ' votary, votaress. 3. In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing or to rix; but some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred: as, adjutor, adjutrix ; adminis- trator, administratrix ; arbitrator, arbitratrix ; coadjutor, coddjutrix ; competitor, compctitrcss, or compctitrix ; creditor, creditrix ; director, directress, or directrix; executor, executress, or execu- trix; inheritor, inheritress, or inheritrix ; mediator, mediatrcss, or mediatrix ; orator, oratn-^,or oratrix ; rector, rectress, or rectrix ; spectator, spectatress, or spectatrix ; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutoress, or tutress, or tutrix ; deserter, desertress, or desertriee, or desertrix. 4. The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the ter- mination: amoroso, amorosa ; archduke , archduchess ; chamberlain, chambermaid ; chfke, duchess; gaffer, gammer , goodman, goody; hero, heroine; landgrave, langravine ; margrave, mar c/rarinK ; 'marquis, marchioness ; palsgrave, palsgravine ; sakeret, sakerhaivk ; sewer, sewster ; sultan, sul- tana ; tzar, tzarina ; tyrant, tyranness ; widower, widow. OBS. 12. The proper names of persons almost always designate their sex ; for it has been found convenient to make the names of women different from those of men. We have also some appellatives which correspond to each other, distinguishing the sexes by their distinct application to each : as, bachelor, maid ; beau, belle; boy, gir I ; bridegroom, bride; brother, sister ; buck, doe; boar, sow ; bull, cow ; cock, hen; colt, filly ; dog, bitch; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, mother ; friar, nun ; gander, goose ; grandsire, grandam ; hart, roe ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen; lad, lass ; lord, lady ; male, female; man, woman; master, mistress ; Mister, Missis ; (Mr., Mrs.;) milter, spawner ; monk,min; nephew, niece ; papa, mamma; rake, jilt ; ram, ewe: rnjf, reeve ; sire, dam ; sir, madam ; sloven, slut ; son, daughter ; stag, hind; steer, heifer ; swain, nymph; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; youth, damsel ; young man, maiden-. OBS. 13. The people of a particular country are commonly distinguished by some name derived from that of their country ; as, Americans, Africans, Egyptians, Russians, Turks. Such words are sometimes called gentile names. There are also adjectives, of the same origin, if not the same form, which correspond with them. " Gentile names are for the most part considered as niascu- lino, and the feminine is denoted by the gentile adjective and the noun woman: as, a Spaniard, a Spanish woman ; a Pole, or Polander, a Polish icoman. But, in a few instances, we ahvuvs use a compound of the adjective with man or woman: as, an Englishman, an Englishwoman ; a Welsh- man, a Welshwoman; an Irishman, an Irishwoman; a Frenchman, a Frenchwoman ; a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman : and in these cases the adjective is employed as the collective noun; as, Me Dutch, the French, &c. A Scotchman, and a Scot, are both in use ; but the latter is not common in prose writers : though some employ it, and these generally adopt the plural, Scots, with the definite article, as the collrctive term." Churchill's Netv Gram. p. 70. OBS. 14. The names of things without life, used literally, arc always of the neuter gender : as, " When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a fivc-oarcd galley ; and, coming along side of her ship, entered -it without being seen by her." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. " The sit, high as it is, has its business assigned ; and so have the stars." Collier's Antoninus, p. 138. But inani- mate objects are often represented figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for p >wer, * There is the same reason for doublino: the t in citte.ss, as for doubling the d in goddess. See Rule 3d for Spelling Yet Johnson, Tocld, Webfter, Holies, Worcester, and others, spell it eitess, with, one t. " Cits and ciussct raise a joyful strain." DRYDBN : Joh. Diet. CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUX3. CASES. lM7 greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anier, .war. Things beautiful, amiable, Or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, a ship, the moon, the earth, nature, fortu ' ><, hope, spring, jn-'i.-c. Figurative gender is indicated only by tin- personal pronouns of the singular number : as, l< When we say of the *"><, //rjs setting; or of a 'ship, She sails well." L. Murray. For these two objects, the sun and I ship, this phrase- ology is so common, that the literal construction quoted above is rarely met with. 6ns. 1.5. When any inanimate objector abstract quality is distinctly personified, and presented to the imagination in the character of a living and intelligent being, there is necessarily a clnn^e of the gender of the word; for, whenever personality is thus ascribed to what is literally neuter, there must be an assumption of one or the other sex : as, " The G.-'nius of Liberty is awakened, and springs up ; she sheds her divine light and creative powers upon the two hemispheres. A great nation, astonished at seeing herself free, stretches her arms from one extremity of the earth to the other, and embraces the first nation that became so." Abbe Fauehet. But there is an inferior kind of personification, or of what is called such, in which, so far as appears, the gender remains neuter : as, " The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe united : ' O thou sicord of the Lord ! how long will it be ere thou be quiet ? put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest, and be still ! How can it bo quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a. charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore ? there hath he appointed it.' " Mnrrxifs Gram. p. 348. See Jer. xlvii. 6. Ons. 16. If what is called personification, does not always imply a change of gender and an ascription of sex, neither does a mere ascription of sex to what is literally of no sex, necessarily imply a personification; for there may be sex without personality, as we see in brute animals. Hence the gender of a brute animal personified in a fable, may be taken liter- ally as before; and the gf rider which is figuratively ascribed to the sun, the moon, or a ship, is merely metaphorical. In the following sentence, nature is animated and made feminine by a- metaphor, while a lifeless object bearing the name of Venus, is spoken of as neuter : " Like that conceit of old, which declared that the Venus of Guides was not the work of Praxiteles, since nature 7/rrv, //'had concreted the boundary surface of its beauty." Rush, on tlie Voice, p. xxv. Oiss. 17- " In personifications regard must be had to propriety in determining the gender. Of most of the passions and moral qualities of man the ancients formed deities, as they did of various other things : and, when these are personified, they are usually made male or female, according as they were gods or goddesses in the pagan mythology. The same rule applies in other cases : and thus the planet Jupiter will be masculine ; Venus, feminine : the ocean, Oce/inu.s, masculine : riv- ers, months, and winds, the same : the names of places, countries, and islands, feminine." Chun-hill's Grain, p. 71. 18. These suggestions are worthy of consideration, but, for the gender which ought to be adopted in personifications, there seems to be no absolute general rule, or none which English writers have observed with much uniformity. It is well, however, to consider what is most com- mon in each particular case, and abide by it. In the following examples, the sex ascribed is not that under which these several objects are commonly figured; for which reason, the sentences are perhaps erroneous : " Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much ; "/// is humble that he knows no more." Cowper. "But hoary Winter, unadorned and bare, Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there ; There *//< assembles all her blackest storms. And the rude hail in rattling tempests forms." Addison. " II< r pow'r extends o'er all things that have breath, A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death." Sheffield. CASES. Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other wor There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Th <>ase is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which de- notes the subject of a verb : as. The boy runs ; /run. Tlu- ' runs." \V h" runs? u The boy" Boy is therefore here in the ise. The powsaive caxe is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which de- notes the relation of property : as. The bo- /// hat. The possessive < la formed, in I lar number, by adding to the nominative ind, in the plural, when the nominative e . by adding ris's Gram. p. 19. Dr. Webster, in his Philosophical Gram- mar, of 1807, and in his Improved Grammar, of 1831, teaches the same doctrine, but less posi- tively. This assumption has also had the support of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, Ash, Bicknell, Fisher, Dalton, and our celebrated Lindley Murray .f * " But in the English we have no Gf.nrif.rs, as has been seen in the foregoing Notes. The same may be said of Cases "Brinhtltinrl''* Gram. Seventh Edition, Lond. 1746. p. 85. tl'ho Hev. David Blair so palpably rontradirt.< himself In respect to this matter, that I know not which he favours most, two cases or three. In his main text, he adopts no objective, but says : " According to the sense or CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. CASES. 249 P Ons. 5. For the true doctrine of three, cases, we have the authority of Murray, in his later editions : of Webster, in his "Plain andComp. Grammar, grounded on True Principle*," 1790; also in his "Rudiments of English Grammar," 1811 ; together with the united authority of Adams, Ainsworth, Alden, Alger, Baoon, Barnard, Bingham, Burr, Bullions, Butler, Churchill, Chandler, Cobbett, Comly, Cooper, Crombie, Davenport, Davis, Fisk, A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hart, Hiley, Hull, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Kirkham, Lennie, Mack, M'Culloch, Maunder, Merchant, Nixon, Nutting, John Peirce, Perley, Picket, Russell, Smart, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, Wil- cox, and I know not how many other^. OBS. 6. Dearborn, in 179-5, recognized four cases ; " the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute." Charles Bucke, in his work misnamed "A Classical Grammar of the English Lan- guage,"published in London in 1829. asserts, that, "Substantives in English do not vary their termi- nations ;" yet he gives them/ow cases ; "the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, and the voca- p. possessive, the objective, and \\\e absolute." Text-Book, p. 31. Goldsbury, of Cambridge, has also four : " the Nominative, the Possessive, the Objective, and the Vocative." Com. S. Gram. p. 13. Three other recent grammarians, Wells, of Andover, Weld, of Portland, and Clark, of Bloomfield, N. Y. also adopt " four cases ; the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the independent." l\'-'/s'a Gram, p.' 57 ; UWr/'.x, GO; Clark's, 49. The first of these gentlemen argues, that, " Since a noun or pronoun, used independently, cannot at the same time be employed as ' the sub- ject of a verb,' there is a manifest impropriety in regarding it as a nominative." It might as well be urged, that a nominative after a verb, or in apposition with an other, is, for this reason, not a noniiiidtirc. He also cites this argument : " ' Is there not as much difference between the nomina- tire and [the] indeju-ndent case, as there is between the no/nf native and [the] objective? If so, why class them together as one case ?' S. R. Hall." lfW/,s'.v School Gram. p. 57. To this I an- swer, Xo. " The nominative is that case which primely denotes the name of any person or thing ;" (Burn's Gram, p. 36;) and this only it is, that can be absolute, or independent, in English. This scheme of four cases is, in fact, a grave innovation. As authority for it, Wells cites Felton ; and bids his readers, " See also Kennion, Parkhurst, Fowle, Flint, Goodenow, Bucke, Hazen, Golds- No. Certainly one half of them, and probably more, give little or no countenance to such an in- dependent case as he has adopted. Parkhurst admitted but three cases ; though he thought two others " might he an improvement. 1 ' What Fowle has said in support of Wells's four cases, I -ought with diligence, and not found. Felton's " independent case " is only what he absurd- ly calls, >'/%< unit, i ni- ),!<>, iniin addressed." Page 91. Bucke and Goldsbury acknowledge "the ;md none of the twelve, so far as I know, admit any objective word, or what others call objective, to be independent or absolute, except perhaps Goldsbury. OBS. 7- S. 11. Hall, formerly principal of the Seminary for Teachers at Andover, (but no gn -at grammarian,) in 1832, published a manual, called " The Grammatical Assistant ; " in which . There are at least ^fire rases, belonging to English nouns, differing as much from each other, as th<- cases of L;itin 'ami Greek nouns. They may be called Nominative, Possessive, Ob- , Independent and Absolute." P. 7- O. B. Peirce will have both nouns and pronouns to be used in . \vhiehhethuscnumerates: " Four simple cases; the Subjective, Possessive, Ob- jective.'and the Independent ; and the Twofold case." Grant p. 42. But, on page 56th, he speaks of a " twofold xtt' : ." ' the twofold objeefive case, "and shows how thOMMVMMM may be twofold also; >o that, without taking any of the Latin cases, or even all of Hall's, he really :/es as many as >cvcn, it' not eight. Among the English grammars which assume all the '.lie Latin Language, an- IJnrn's. ('oar's, Dilworth's, Mackintosh's, Mennye's, Win. s, and the " Comprehensive Grammar," a respectable little book, published by Dobson of Philadelphia, in 17S9, but written by somebody in England. S. Of the English grammars which can properly be said to be now in use, a very great majority agree in ascribing to nouns three cases, and three only. This, I am persuaded', is the best number, and susceptible of the best defence, whether we appeal to authority, or to other ar- gument. The disputes of grammarians make no small part of the history of ura nimar ; and in submitting to be guided by their decisions, it is proper for us to consider what degree of certainty Trillion in \vhirii r, :.the\ ap- in the NOMI.NATIVK or [the] POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, nom. man ; post. marginal note " In tin- Kn^lish language, the distinction of the objective !'-inx nothing hut in/lections, where inflections do not exist, tin-re i of cases, for the terms inflation and case ;n Anonymous and ron- n, so no other case is here adopted. The objec- CH//H it is c:isy to distinjjm- ::ntn obj'Cts. A noun i a- in the nominitive case, and one governed by the verb, or following a pr< i)'i.-i:iu:!. a> in tii. 1'ractical Gram., Seven'h Eilition. London, 1815, p. 11. The terms : Ically synonymous, and i.ever were so in the grammars of the language from which they ant derived The man who reject* the \ jee-ive it has not a form pe- cu iar n-a'ive ami the vo, ati\e r,f all neuter nouns in Utin. for the .-aim- : an I th I. .1 (.11 the same principle. In some other parts of his book, Blair speaks of the i do other authors ! * This au:lir saj -. " \\ ' ,,-r than nominative, because it is shorter, and becausi 'he larter word means, indeed, livle ..r nothing in if.h innovation, too much in the spirit of Oliver U. IViree. \\\m al.-o adepts it. iiu- person \slio knows no: tlie meaning; of the won! nnminntii-t, will not ho very likelv to h'ud out whit is meai.t \>\ subjtctive; especially as some learned grainmari ins, even such men as J>r. CroinMe and Pro- fessor Riillimis. i I'ren erron. onsly call the \vnrd wiii. !. : by the verb its subj- ii" we >-ay sub- jective ,1 of 'nominative and objective ^ we shall inevitably change the accent of both, and give the 01 a pronunciation hitherto unknown to the words. G. BROWX. 250 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. there is in the rule, and what difference or concurrence there is among them : for, the teaching of any other than the best opinions, is not the teaching of science, come from what quarter it may. On the question respecting the objective case of nouns, Murray and Webster changed sides with each other ; and that, long after they first appeared as grammarians. Nor was this the only, or the most important instance, in which the different editions of the works of these two gentlemen, present them in opposition, both to themselves and to each other. "What cases are there in Eng- lish ? The nominative, which usually stands before a verb ; as, the boy writes : The possess. ive, which takes an s with a comma, and denotes property ; as, John's hat : The objective, which fol- lows a verb or preposition : as, he. honors virtus, or it is an honor to him." H^'W -/-'.v P //(hi and Comp. Gram , Sixth Edition, 1800, p. 9. "But for convenience, the two positions of nouns, one before, the other after the verb, are called cases. There are then three cases, the no i'> native, possessive, and objective." Webster's Rudiments of Grain., 1811, p. 12. "In English therefore names have two cases only, the nominative or simple name, and the 2^ossessive." Webster's Phi- losoph. Gram., 1807, p. 32 : also his Improved Gram., 1831, p. 24. OBS. 9. Murray altered his opinion after the tenth or eleventh edition of his duodecimo Gram- mar. His instructions stand thus : "In English, substantives have but two cases, the nomina- tive, and [the] possessive or genitive." Murray's Gram. 12mo, Second Edition. 1796, p. 35. "For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, &c. names which are sufficient to decide this point." Ib. p. 36. "In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." Murray's Gram. 12/wo, Twenty-third Edition, 1816, p. 44. " The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assigning to English substantives an objective case : but a renewed critical examination of the subject; an examination to "which he was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his mind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objective case." Ib. p. 46. If there is any credit in changing one's opinions, it is, doubtless, in changing them for the better; but, of all authors, a grammarian has the most need critically to examine his subject before he goes to the printer. "This case was adopted in the twelfth edition of the Grammar." Murray's Exercises, 12mo, N. Y. 1818, p. viii. OBS. 10. The possessive case has occasioned no less dispute than the objective. On this vexed article of our grammar, custom has now become much more uniform than it was a century ago ; and public opinion may be said to have settled most of the questions which have been agitated about it. Some individuals, however, are still dissatisfied. In the first place, against those who hive thought otherwise, it is determined, by infinite odds of authority, that there is such a case, b )th of nouns and of pronouns. Many a common reader will wonder, who can have been ignorint enough to deny it. " The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian O'ves a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an adjective possessive ; I think, with no more propriety than he might have applied the same to the Latin genitive." Dr. Johnson's Grc.m. p. 5. Brightland also, who gave to adjectives the name of qualities, included all possessives among them, calling them " Possessive Qualities, or Qualities of Possession." Brightland' s Gram. p. 90. OBS. 11. This exploded error, William S. Cardell, a few years ago, republished as a novelty ; for .vhich, among other pretended improvements of a like sort, he received the ephemeral praise of some of our modern literati. William B. Fowle also teaches the same thing. See his Com- mon School Gram. Part II, p. 104. In Felch's Grammar, too, published in Boston in 1837, an attempt is made, to revive this old doctrine ; but the author takes no notice of any of the above- named authorities, being probably ignorant of them all. His reasoning upon the point, does not appear to me to be worthy of a detailed answer.* That the possessive case of nouns is not an adjec- tive, is demonstrable ; because it may have adjectives, of various kinds, relating to it : as, " This old man's daughter." Shak. It may also govern an other possessive ; as, " Peter's wife's moth- er." Bible. Here the former possessive is governed by the latter ; but, if both were adjectives, they would both relate to the noun mother, and so produce a confusion of ideas. Again, nouns of the possessive case have a distinction of number, which adjectives have not. In gender also, there lies a difference. Adiectives. whenever thev are varied bv sender or number, aorce with their Ib. ver. 22. OBS. 12. Secondly, general custom has clearly determined that the possessive ca.se of nouns is always to be written with an apostrophe : except in those few instances in which it is not gov- erned singly by the noun following, but so connected with an other that both are governed jointly ; as, Cato the Censor's doctrine, Sir Walter Scott's Works, Beaumont and Fletcher's Plays. This custom of using the apostrophe, however, has been opposed by many. Bright- land, and Buchanan, and the author of the British Grammar, and some late writers in the Philo- * The authorities cited by Felch, for his doctrine of " possfsu've adnouns," amount to nothing. They are ostensibly two. The first is a remark of Dr. Adam's : ' ' John's book was formerly written Juhnis book. Some have thought the '. a contraction of his, but improperly. Others have imagined, with more justness, that, by the addition of the '*, the substantive is changed into a possessive adjective.' Adam's Latin and Eng/i^'i Grammar, p. 7 ." FelrMs Comp. Gram. p.2G. Ileic Dr. Adam by no means concurs with what those " Imagin- ed ; " for. in the very same place, he declares the possessive ca,-/>i:r!i/, when we are obliged to pronounce it fully ; as, ' Thomas' 8 book,' that is, Thomasis book,' not ' Thomas his book,' as it is commonly supposed." Lowth's p. 17. Whatever weight thrre may be in this argument, the objection has been overruled by general custom. The convenience of distinguishing, even to the eye alone, the numbers and >t' the noun, is found too great to be relinquished. If the declension of English nouns is ever to be amended, it cannot be done in this way. It is understood by every reader, that the apos- trophir s adds a syllable to the noun, whenever it will not unite with the sound in which the nomi- native ends ; as, torch's, pronounced tort />/'-. " Yet time ennobles or degrades each line; It brighten'd Cragtjs's, and may darken thine." Pope. OBS. It. The English possessive case unquestionably originated in that form of the Saxon genitive which terminates in e.v, examples of which may be found in almost any specimen of the Saxon tongue: as, " On Ih -rodes dagum," "In Htrod's days ; " " Of Aarones dohtrum," " Of Aui-o/t'ft daughters." Luke, i, 6. This ending was some'times the same as that of the plu- ral ; and both were changed to is or ys, before they became what we now find them. This ter- mination added a syllable to the word ; and Lowth suggests, in the quotation above, that the apostrophe was introduced to shorten it. But some contend, that the use of this mark originated in a mi-take. It appears from the testimony of Brightland, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, and others, who have noticed the error in order to correct it, that an opinion was long entertained, that the termination 's was a contraction of the word his. It is certain that Addison thought so; for he expressly says it, in the 135th number of the Spectator. Accordingly he wrote, in lieu of the regular possessive, " My paper is l'/i/xtn-s his bow." Guardian, No. 98. " Of Soc- ri'fes his rules of prayer." >);"/. N<>. 207. So Lowth quotes Pope : " By youmi Ti-ft/machita his bloom lifim. p. 17.* There is also one late author who says, " The '* is a con- n of his, and was formerly written in full ; as, William Russell his book." Goodetiow's p. 32. This is undoubtedly bad English ; and always was so, however common may have been the erroneous notion which gave rise to it. But the apostrophe, whatever may have been its origin, is now the acknowledged distinctive mark of the possessive case of English nouns. The application of the 's, frequently to feminines, and sometimes to plurals, is proof positive that it id )iot a contraction of the pronoun his ; as, " Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air, 'v wits against the Lady's hair." Pope, R. of L. v, 72. OBS. 1-3. Many of the old grammarians, and Guy among the moderns, represent the regular formation of the possessive case as being the same in both numbers, supposing generally in the plural an abbreviation of the word by the omission of the second or syllabic s. That is, they sup- . it siieh te; . were written for eagles's wings, ant/els's Pt*M% &c. This view of the matter accounts well enough for the fashion of such plurals zsmeii's, wotm-n's, children's, and makes them regular. But I find no evidence at all of the fact on which these au- thors presume ; nor do I believe that the regular possessive plural was ever, in general, a syllable than the nominative. If it ever had been so, it would still be easy to prove the point, by 11 ancient books. The general principle then is, that the apostrophe forms the posses- te, with an * i* the singular , tutd >rith'/t it in the pi '/// '. but there are some exception* rule, on cither hand ; and these must be duly noticed. KJ The chief exceptions, or irregularities, IB the formation of the possessive singular, liink, to be accounted m-n- poe; ,, it' e\er, to be allowed in prose. ( Lowth,) Sj j,<>. This is scarcely >\c in prose, thm. JDS/I, i, 1. 'Phim-has' wife.' K!V, 27. It was done in prose evidently to avoid the recurrju-e of a sibilant sound at the end of two following syllables ; but this may as readily be ol ii.m of, which is now commonly substituted for th< 1>. -2\~>. In Scott's Bible, Philadelphia, 1814, the texts here quoted are all of then correct. ., room." But the phraso, "j e sake," (Rom. xiii, o,) is there given without the apostrophe. Algvr prints it, "for cot ke," which is better; and though pillar, it i- a common form for this p.rticuhr expression. Our common Bible- ha\- this And the \\vancil child shall put his hand on the //, xi. S. Alger, this to he wrong, wn.f it. "on ti, " Pronouncing Bible. Dr. Scott, in his Reference Bible, makes this ; > -ul.ir, "oath -'s den." This is right. The * A critic's accuracy is .eomotini.^ lhM.> to he brought into doubt, by subsequent alterations of the texts which he quo-os. Many an frr>r < i I in this volume of cri irj-m. may poaibly not be founl in soim- firurr eilition of thi> book ref. voral of Mi ,,- l,y Lowth, have disappeared from tin- places Uaaaed for thMD. Churchill also titea this line as boi >i. p. '211;) but. in my edkion of the Odyssey, by Pope, the reading is this : " By lov'd Telcmackuss blooming years ! " Book xi, 1. 8i. 252 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Vulgate has it, "in caverna reguli;" which, however, is not classic Latin. Afters also, the poets sometimes drop the s : as, " Sad was the hour, and luckless was the day, When first from Shiraz' walls I bent my way." Collins. OBS. 17- A recent critic, who, I think, has not yet learned to speak or write the possessive case of his own name properly, assumes that the foregoing occasional or poetical forms are the only true ones for the possessive singular of such words. He says, " When the name does end with the sound of s or z, (no matter what letter represents the sound,) the possessive form is madefy annexing only an apostrophe." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 44. Agreeably to this rule, he letters his work, " Peirce' Grammar," and condemns, as bad English, the following examples and all others like them: " James Otis's letters, General Gates's command, General Knox's ap- pointment, Gov. Meigs's promptness, Mr. Williams' s oration, The ^oitness's deposition." Ib. p. 60. It is obvious that this gentleman's doctrine and criticism are as contrary to the common practice of all good authors, as they are to the common grammars, which he ridicules. Surely, such expressions as, " Harris's Hermes, Philips's Poems, Prince's Bay, Prince's Island, Fox's Journal, King James's edict, a.jiistice's warrant, Sphinx's riddle, the lynx's beam, the lass's beauty," have authority enough to refute the cavil of this writer ; who, being himself wrong, falsely charges the older grammarians, that, "their theories vary from the principles of the language correctly spoken or written." Ib. p. 60. A much more judicious author treats this point of grammar as follows : " When the possessive noun is singular, and terminates with an s, another * is requisite after it, and the apostrophe must be placed'between the two ; as, ' Die kens' s works,' ' Harris's wit.' " Day's Punctuation, Third London Edition^ p. 136. The following example, too, is right : " I would not yield to be your house's guest." Shakespeare. OBS. 18. A\\phiral nouns that differ from the singular without ending in s, form the posses- sive case in the same manner as the singular: as, man's, men's; woman's, women's; child's, children's ; brother's, brothers' or brethren's; ox's, oxen's; goose's, geese's. In two or three words which are otherwise alike in both numbers, the apostrophe ought to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish it from the singular: as, the sheep's fleece, the sheeps' fleeces ; a wear's tongue, neats' tongues ; a deer's horns, a load of deers' horns. OBS. 19. Dr. Ash says, "Nouns of the plural number that end in s, will not very properly admit of the genitive case." Ash's Gram. p. 54. And Dr. Priestley appears to have been of the same opinion. See his Gram. p. 69. Lowth too avers, that the sign of the possessive case is " never added to the plural number ending in s." Gram. p. 18. Perhaps he thought the phval sign must involve an other s, like the singular. This however is not true, neither is Dr. Ash's assertion true; for the New Testament speaks as properly of "the soldiers' counsel," as of the tf centurion' s servant; " of " the scribes that were of the Pharisees' part," as of "Paul's siste-'s son." It would appear, however, that the possessive plural is less frequently used than tie possessive singular ; its place being much oftener supplied by the preposition of and the obj( c- tive. We cannot say that either of them is absolutely necessary to the language ; but they are both worthy to be commended, as furnishing an agreeable variety of expression. " Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend His actions' , passions' , being's xise and end." Pope. OBS. 20. The apostrophe was introduced into the possessive case, at least for the singular num- ber, in some part of the seventeenth century. Its adoption for the plural, appears to have been later : it is not much used in books a hundred years old. In Buchanan's "Regular English Syntax," which was written, I know not exactly when, but near the middle of the eighteenth century, I find the following paragraph: "We have certainly a Genitive Plural, though there has been no Mark to distinguish it. The Warriors Arms, i. e. the Arms of the Warriors, is as much a Genitive Plural, as the Warrior's Arms, for the Arms of the Warrior is a Genitive Sin- gular. To distinguish this Genitive Plural, especially to Foreigners, we might use the Apos- trophe reversed, thus, the Warrior's Arms, the Stone's End, for the End of the Stones, the Grocer's, Taylor's, Haberdasher's, &c. Company ; for the Company of Grocers, Taylors, &c. The Surgeon's Hall, for the Hall of the Surgeons ; the Rider's Names, for the Names of the Riders ; and so of all Plural Possessives." See Buchan. Synt. p. 111. Our present form of the possessive plural, being unknown to this grammarian, must have had a later origin ; nor can it have been, as some imagine it was, an abbreviation of a longer and more ancient form. OBS. 21. The apostrophic s has often been added to nouns improperly ; the words formed by it not being intended for the possessive singular, but for the nominative or objective plural. Thiia we find such authors as Addison and Swift, writing Jacobus's and genius's, for Jacobuses and geniuses ; idea's, toga's, and tunica's, for ideas, togas, and tunicas ; enamorato's and virtuoso's, for enamoratoes and virtuosoes. Errors of this kind, should be carefully avoided. OBS. 22. The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case ; as, two a's, three i's, four 9's. These we cannot avoid, except by using the names of the things ; as, two Aes, three Bees, four Nines. " Laced down the sides with little c's." Steele. " Whenever two ^'s come together, they are both hard." Buchanan. The names of c and g, plural, are Gees and Gees. Did these authors know the words, or did they not ? To have learned .the names of the letters, will be found on many occasions a great convenience, especially to critics. For example : " The pronunciation of these two consecutive s's is hard." Webber's Gram. p. 21. Better : " Esses." " S and x, however, are exceptions. They are plura- lyzed by adding es preceded by a hyphen [-], as the s-es ; the x-es." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 40. Better, use the names, Ess and Ex, and pluralize thus : " the Esses ; the Exes." " Make Q's of answers, to waylay What th' other party 's like to sa.y."Hudibras, P. in, C. ii, 1. 951. Here the cipher is to be read Kucs, but it has not the meaning of this name merely. It is put either for the plural of Q., a Question, like D. D.'s, (read Dee-Dees,) for Doctors of Divinity ; or else, more erroneously, for cues, the plural of cue, a turn which the next speaker catches. OBS. 23. In the following example, the apostrophe and s are used to give the sound of a CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. PARSING. PRAXIS III. 253 verb's termination, to words which the writer supposed were not properly verbs : " When a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs all his designs." Conqreve. But here, "procs and cons," would have been more accurate. " We put the ordered number of m's into our composing-stick." Printer's Gram. Here "'Ems" would have done as well. " All measures for folio's and y/w/r/.v, should be made to m's of the English body ; all measures for octavo's, to P'ica m's." Ibid. 'Here regularity requires, "folios, quartoes, octa roes" and "pica Ems." The verb /.v, when contracted, sometimes gives to its nominative the same form as that of the possessive case, it not being always spaced off for distinction, as it may be ; as, " A wit's a feather, and a chief a rod ; An honest man's the noblest work of God." Pope, on Han, Ep. iv, 1. 247. Ous. 21. As the o'>J- f nouns is to be distinguished from the nominative, only by th< sen . v.'lation, and position, of words in a sentence, the learner must acquire a habit of att-'iidinu' to these several things. Nor ought it to be a hardship to any reader to understand that which he thinks worth reading. It is seldom possible to mistake one of these cases for the other, without a total misconception of the author's meaning. The nominative denotes the agent, actor, or door ; the person or thing that is made the subject of an affirmation, nega- tion, question, or supposition : its place, except in a question, is commonly before the verb. Tin- oliji i tive, when governed by a verb or a participle, denotes the person on whom, or the thin^ 0:1 \\liich, the action falls and terminates : it is commonly placed after the verb, parti- ciple, or preposition, which governs it. Nouns, then, by changing places, may change cases: as, " Jun-it/K'n loved David;" "David loved Jonathan." Yet the case depends not entirely upon position ; for any order in which the words cannot be misunderstood, is allowable : as, "Such tricks hath strong imagination." Shak. Here the cases are known, because the meaning is plainly this: "Strong imagination hath such tricks." "To him give all the prophets witness. Acts, x, 43. This is intelligible enough, and more forcible than the same meaning expressed thus: "All the prophets give witness to him." The order of the words never can affect the explanation to be given of them in parsing, unless it change the sense, and form them into a different sentence. THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Thus : EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. Sing. Norn. friend, Plur. Nom. friends, Poss.. friend's, Poss. friends', Obj. friend ; Obj. friends. EXAMPLE II. MAN. Sing. Nom. man, Plur. Nom. men, Poss. man's, Poss. men's, Obj. man ; Obj. men. EXAMPLE III. FOX. Sing. Nom. fox, Plur. Nom. foxes, Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes', 01)j. fox; Obj. foxes. EXAMPLE IV. FLY. Sing. Nom. fly, Plur. Nom. flies, Poss. fly's, Pots. flies', Obj. fly; Obj. flies. i:\AMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS III. ETYMOLOGICAL. tird Praxis, it ?.? required of the pi/pi? to distinguish and define the \dijferent parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES and NOUNS. The definitions to be given in //// Third Praxis, arc two for an article, six for a noun, and one for an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus: FXAMPLE PARSED. " The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praiseworthy than Scott's." The is the definite article. 1. An article is the wonl the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their Signification. 2. The definite article is tkr, which denotes some prr icular thing or things. 254 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. Writings Is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sorb, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gen- der is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or ?tate of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Hannak More is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2 A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3 The third person is that which denotes the per- son or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5 The feminine gend-jr is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind G. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. Appear is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Me is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. More is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Praiseworthy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. Than is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. Scott's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the relation of property. LESSON I. PARSING. " The virtue of Alexander appears to me less vigorous than that of Socrates. Socrates in Alexander's place I can readily conceive : Alexander in that of Socrai.es I cannot. Alexander will tell you, he can subdue the world : it was a greater work in Socrates to fulfill the duties of life. Worth consists most, not in great, but in good actions." Names' s Art of Thinldng, p. 70. " No one should ever rise to speak in public, without forming to himself a just and strict idea of what suits his own age and character; what suits the subject, the hearers, the place, the occasion." Blair's Rhetoric, p. 260. " In the short space of little more than a century, the Greeks became such states- men, warriors, orators, historians, physicians, poets, critics, painters, sculptors, architects, and, last of all, philosophers, that one can hardly help considering that golden period, as a providential event in honour of human nature, to show to what perfection the species might ascend." Harris's Hermes, p. 417. " Is genius yours ? Be yours a glorious end, Be your king's, country's, truth's, religion's friend." Young. LESSON II. PARSING. " He that is called in the Lord, being a servant, is the Lord's freeman : likewise also, he that is called, being free, is Christ's servant." 1 Cor. vii, 22. " What will remain to the Alexanders, and the Caesars, and the Jenghizes, and the Louises, and the Charleses, and the Napoleons, with whose ' glories ' the idle voice of fame is filled ? " J. Dymond. " Good sense, clear ideas, perspicuity of language, and proper arrangement of words and thoughts, will always command attention." Blair's Rhet. p. 174. " A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts for man's advan- tage. Wisdom's precepts form the good man's interest and happiness." Mur- ray* & Key, p. 194. " A dancing-school among the Tuscaroras, is not a greater absurdity than a masquerade in America. A theatre, under the best regulations, is not essential to our happiness. It may afford entertainment to individuals ; but it is at the expense. of private taste and public morals." Webster's Essays, p. 80. " Where dancing sunbeams on the waters played, And verdant alders form'd a quivering shade." Pope. LESSON III. PARSING. " I have ever thought that advice to the young, unaccompanied by the routine of CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. ERRORS. 255 honest employments, is like an attempt, to make a shrub grow in a certain direction, by blowing it with a bellows." Webster's Essays, p. 247. " The Aral )ie characters for the writing of numbers, were introduced into Europe by Pope Sylvester II., in the eleventh century." Constable's Miscellany. " Emotions raised by inanimate objects, trees, rivers, buildings, pictures, arrive at perfection almost instantaneously ; and they have a long endurance, a second view producing nearly the same pleasure with the first." Kames's Elements, i, 108. " There is great variety in the same plant, by the different appearances of its stem, branches, leaves, blossoms, fruit, size, and colour ; and yet, when we trace that variety through different plants, especially of the same kind, there is discovered a surprising uniformity." Ib. i, 273. Attitude, action, air, pause, start, sigh, groan, lie borrow'd, and made use of as his own." Churchill. " I dread thee, fate, relentless and severe, With all a poet's, husband's, father's fear ! " Burns. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF NOUNS. LESSON I. NUMBERS. "All the ablest of the Jewish Rabbis acknowledge it." Wilson's Heb. Gram. p. 7. [FORMPLE. Not proper, because the word Rabbi is here made plural by the addition of s only. But, according to Obsorv;iri..n 12th on the numbers, nouns in i ought rather to form the plural in us. The capital /f, too, is not necessary . Then-fore. Rabbis should be rabbits, \\hli i>s aud a small r.] ""Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian rabbis." CampbeWs Rhet. p. 378. " The seeming singularitys of reason soon wear off." Collier's An- toninus, p. 47. "The chiefs and arikis or priests have the power of declaring a place or object taboo." Balbi's Grog, p. 460. " Among the various tribes of this family, are the Pottawatomies, the Sacs and Foxes, or Saukis and Ottogamis." Ib. p. 178. "The Shaw- nees, Kickapoos, Menomonies, Miamis and Delawares, are of the same region." Ib. p. 178. The Moheganfl and Abenaquis belonged also to this family." Ib. p. 178. " One tribe of this family, the Winnebagos, formerly resided near lake Michigan." Ib. p. 179. "The other tribes are the loways, the Otoes, the Missouris, the Quapaws." Ib. p. 179. "The great Mexican family comprizes the Aztecs, Toltecs, and Tarascos." Ib. p. 179. "The Mulattocs are born of negro and white parents ; the Zambos, of Indians and negroes." Ib. p. 1G5. "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Caesars, the Lewis', or the Charles', the s d butchers of their fellow -creatures." IhiryJis Diynity, i, 132. ""Which was the notion of the Platonic Philosophers and Jewish rabbii." Ib. p. 248. "That they should relate to the whole body of virtuosos." Cobbctt's E. Gram. U 212. " What thank have } also love those that love them." Luke, vi, 32. " There are five ranks of nobility ; dukes, marquesses. e.-irls viscounts, and barons." Hull's Gcoff.p. 228. "Acts, which . rll known to the two Charles's." Payne's Geoy. ii, 511. " Court Martials aro held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks." Ol< rw /, No. 458. " It becomes a com- mon noun, and may have a plural number; as, the two Davids ; the two Xcipios, the two m. p. 8. "The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hare, rats, and reptiles." 7,v///;/'\ <;,<>,/. p. 177. " And let fowl multiply in the earth." G< iched the hill-side where eight bulfalo were grazing." Marthicaus \ pair of bodice for a woman." Worcester's Diet. 12mo. " As the be's ,- e rloubliijus." <>. /'. . p. -10. " Simplicity is the means bc- Q and ru-ticity." Pop/'s Pn-f. to lloimr. "You have disguised your- ' Gil Bias, i, 1 1 1. " But who, that hath any taste, can endure the in- turns of tli. d the ///.Y>-/.SV'S, and the moreover s, and the hv> and the noivrithttandurf*)" ''ON II. CASES. 'For whose name sake, I have been made willing." Wm. Penn. [FORMIC. Not propt-r, bivausi- the noun natnt. which is hero meant for the possessire cafe Mnpular, has not the true form But, according to a princi] 247th, u The p< : mod, in the singular number, by adding to th> nominative . ;r,t,itr,.j>hf ; and. in tin- plural, when the nominiitiv,- ni.ls in ., by adding an o.\tri>{,h- vn'y." Tlu-rcfore, name should be name's ; thus, > For whose name's s;.kc, I hive been made willing ''J ' 1> by your conscience, and never ask any bodies leave to be honest." Col- lier's An 1 >n ; >i-i-i, p. 105. "To overlook nobodies me it or misbehaviour." Ib. p. 9. 256 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. p. 91. "Nothing is lazier, than to keep ones eye upon words without heeding their meaning." Philological Museum, i, 645. " Sir William Joneses division of the day." Ib. Contents. "I need only refer here to Vosses excellent account of it." Ib. i, 465. " The beginning of Stesichoruses palinode has been preserved." Ib. i, 442. " Though we have Tibulluses elegies, there is not a word in them about Glycera." Ib. p. 440. " That Horace was at Thaliarchuses country-house." Ib. i, 451. "That Sisyphuses foot-tub should have been still in existence." Ib. i, 468. "How every thing went on in Horace's closet, and in Mecenases antechamber." Ib. i, 458. " Who, for elegant brevities sake, put a participle for a verb." Walker's Particles, p. 42. " The countries liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope." Ib. p. 73. "A brief but true account of this peoples' princi- ples." Barclay's Pref. "As, the Churche's Peace, or the Peace of the Church; Virgil's Eneid, or the Eneid of Virgil." British Gram. p. 93. " As, Virgil's VEneid, for the ^Eneid of Virgil; the Church' es Peace, for the Peace of the Church." Buchanans Syntax, p. 18. " Which, with Hubner's Compend, and Wells' Geographia Classica, will be sufficient." Burgh's Dignity, i, 155. " Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupi- ter enchanted with Venus' girdle." Ib. i, 184. " Dr. Watts' Logic may with success be read and commented on to them." Ib. p. 156. " Potter's Greek, and Rennet's Roman Anti- quities, Strauchius' and Helvicus' Chronology." Ib. p. 161. "Sing. Alice' friends, Felix' property; Plur. The Alices' friends, The Felixes' property." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 46. " Such as Bacchus' es company," " at Bacchus' es festivals." Ainsicorth's Diet. w. Thyrsiis. " Burn's inimitable Tarn o'Shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance." Scott's Lay, Notes, p. 201. " Nominative, Men. Genitive, Mens. Objective, Men." Cutler's Gram. p. 20. "Mens Happiness or Misery is most part of their own making." Locke, on Educa- tion, p. 1. "That your Sons Cloths be never made strait, especially about the Breast." Ib. p. 15. " Childrens Minds are narrow and weak." Ib. p. 297. " I would not have little Children much tormented about Punctilio's, or Niceties of Breeding." Ib. p. 90. " To fill his Head with suitable Idea's." Ib. p. 113. " The Burgusdiscius's and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those Days, as they do now." Ib. p. 163. " To see the various ways of dress- ing a calve's head ! " Shenstone, Brit. Poets, Vol. vii, p. 143. " He puts it on, and for decorum sake Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she." Cowpers Task. LESSON III. MIXED. " Simon the witch was of this religion too." Bunyan's P. P., p. 123. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the feminine name witch is here applied to a man. But, according to the doc- trine of genders, on page 24ith, " Names of males are masculine ; names of females, feminine ; " &c. Therefore, witch should be wizard; thus, " Simon the wizard^ &c.] "Mammodis, n. Coarse, plain India muslins." Webster's Diet. "Go on from single persons to families, that of the Pompeyes for instance." Cottier's Antoninus, p. 142. " By which the ancients were not able to account for phaenomenas." Bailey's Ovid, p. vi. "After this I married a wife who had lived at Crete, but a Jew by birth." Josephm's Life, p. 194. "The very heathen are inexcusable for not worshipping him." Student's Manual, p. 328. " Such poems as Camoen's Lusiad, Voltaire's Henriade, &c." Blair's Rhet. p. 422. " My learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarves." SPECT. in Joh. Diet. " The forerunners of an apoplexy are dulness, vertigos, tremblings." ARBUTHNOT: ib. "Ver- tigo changes the o into ines, making the plural vertigines." Churchill's Gram. p. 59. " Noc'ambulo changes the o into ones, making the plural noctambulonls." Ib. p. 59. " What shall we say of noctambulos ? ARBUTHNOT : in Joh. Diet. " In the curious fretwork of rocks and grottos." Blair's Rhet. p. 220. " Wharf makes the plural wharves." Smith's Gram. p. 45 ; Merchant's, 29 ; Picket's, 21 ; Frost's, 8. " A few cent's worth of maccaroni supplies all their wants." Balbi's Geog. p. 275. " C sounds hard, like k, at the end of a 1 Perching within square royal even in poetry, be used with moderation." Blair's Rhet. p. 166. " Similies should never be taken from low or mean objects." Ib. p. 167. " It were certainly better to say, ' The house of lords,' than the Lord's house.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo. p. 177. " Read your answers. Unit figure? 'Five.' Ten's? 'Six.' Hundreds? < Seven.' "Abbott's Teacher, p. 79. " Alex- ander conquered Darius' army." Kirkham's Gram. p. 58. "Three days time was requi- site, to prepare matters." Brown's Estimate, ii, 156. " So we say that Ciceros stile and Sallusts, were not one, nor Cesars and Livies, nor Homers and Hesiodus, nor Herodotus and Theucidides, nor Euripides and Aristophanes, nor Erasmus and Budeus stiles." Put- tenham's Arte of English Poesie, iii, 5. "Lex (i. e. leys} is no other than our ancestors past partciplc teg, laid down." Tooke's Diversions, ii, 7. " Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the Atridac' sake." Coioper's Iliad. "The corpse* of half her senate manure the fields of Thessaly." Addison's Cato. " Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear : And spotted corpse are frequent on the bier." Dry den. * Corpse forms the plural regularly, corpses; as in 2 Kings, xix, 35 : " In the morning, behold, they were all dead corpses." CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 257 CHAPTER IV.-ADJECTIVES. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally ex- es quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are (////// OBSERVATIONS. Ons. 1. Adjectives have been otherwise called attributes, attributives, qualities, adnouns ; but none of these names is any better than the common one. Some writer's have classed adjec- ti\ es with v ii'a neuter verb for the copula, they often form logical predicates : as, 'in grammarians uMially class them with nouns; consequently their nouns are divided into nouns substantive and noun's adjective. With us, substanti\. nouns ; and adjectives form a part of speech by themselves. This is generally acknowledged to ; ution. Adjectives cannot with propriety be called nouns, in any lan- ;u^e thvy an.- not the names of the qualities which they signify. They must be us or pronouns in order to make sense. But if, in a just distribution of words, the term - and improper, the term " atfaective pronotttu" is, certainly, not less so : most of the words which Murray and others call by this name, are not pronouns, but adjectives. - 2. The noun, or substantive, is a n, which makes sense of it elf. The adjective is an adjunct to the noun or pronoun. It is a word added to denote quality, situation, quantity, number, r whatever d-o may characterize and distinguish "the thing or things spoken of. Adjectives, therefore, n> -bed from nouns by their relation /othem ; a relation correspond- ing to that which qualities bear to things: so that no part of speech is more easily discriminated th in the adjective. Again : English adje ;--h, are all indeclinable. When, thereioie. any !v belonging to this class, are found to take either the plural or the possessive form, . they arc to be parsed as nouns. To abbreviate expression, we not unfre- quently, in this manner, convert adjectives into nouns. Thus, in grammar, we often speak of no/nil. s, meaning neuiis or pronouns of the nominative, the posses- r the objective c;: . or superlutici-s, meaning adjectives of the pos- >r the superla live degree; of infitiittV8, subjunctives, or it ii 4 \erbs of the infinitive, the subjunctive, or the imperative mood; and of singular*, plurals, and n; . iu the same way. So a man's superiors OT inferiors are persons supe- iuferior t'> hin-- are persons better than he. Others are any persons or -bed from some that are named or referred to; as, "If you want enemies, >u want friends, let ot'' >. All adjectives thus taken sub- st-intivcly, become nouns, and ought to be parsed as such, unless this word others is to be made an tion. " Th' event is fear'd ; should we again provoke Our stronger, some worse way his wrath may find." Milton, P. L. ii, 82. Ons 3. Murray says, " Perhaps the -words former and latfermav be properly ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, \nny of their applications. The following sentence may serve as an example: 4 It was happy to; that Fabius continued in the command with Minutius: the former's pM- ^m was a check upon the hitter's vivacity.'" Gram. 8vo, p. 57. ought to be adjectives only ; except wlu n fi>r- . And, it not so, it is too ( multiplying pronouns, to manufacture jigle anonymous sentence. If it. were said, "'Hie deliberation of the : ' :uper of tl, Is former and' latter would ) me not to be pronouns, but adje i relating to the noun commander understood : it. rise and relation of words in sentence*, as well as their particular form and the lean . with certainty, to what class Other ji i p i -ticiples. by a change in tbcir ! of which a thing is formed. iiat of the thing . ret the former word may In- p >eatrr, \ LT'dd, no //. and many sim- il '' ' is white ; and /> ;i be ])redi latter. So In the ;-on of public pronunoi- ation." / full, would give a very agreeable . I'. !];: / ' Come, calm ( tly -uide my ;/ mid. . ."> Murr .ther nouns assume* the nature j, sea fish, wine vessel, corn h-ld, me;;, 'ii-nm. p. 48. \ lame instruction. I .,\- in all his examples, tl c proprit ' . -pt a:id follow out tlicir principle, w >uld be, to tear apart some thousands of r>nr mr.st famil indi. "Meadow ground" 1 may perhaps be a correct phrase, since the ground is .t seems therefore pref- erable to the compound word meadow-ground. What he meant by " trine vessel," is doubtful: 258 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. that is, whether a ship or a cask, a flagon or a decanter. If we turn to our dictionaries, Web- ster has sea-fish and icine-caskvfiih a hyphen, and cornfield without; while Johnson and others have corn-field with a hyphen, and scafish without. According to the rules for the figure of words, we ought to write them seafish, winecask, cornfield. What then becomes of the thousands of "adjectives" embraced in the "&c." quoted above ? OBS. 6. The pronouns he and she, when placed before or prefixed to nouns merely to denote Most writers, however, think proper to insert a hyphen in the terms here referred to : as, he-bear, she-bear, the plurals of which are he-bears and she-bears. And, judging by the foregoing rule of predication, we must assume that this practice only is right. In the first example, the word he is useless ; for the term "male animals" is sufficiently clear without it. It has been shown in the third chapter, that he and she are sometimes used as nouns ; and that, as such, they may take the regular declension of nouns, making the plurals hes and shes. But whenever these words are used adjectively -to denote gender, whether we choose to insert the hyphen or not, they are, without question, indeclinable, like other adjectives. In the following example, Sanborn will have he to be a noun in the objective case ; but I consider it rather, to be an adjective signifying masculine : *^( Philosophy, I say, and call it He; For, whatsoe'er the painter's fancy be, It a male-virtue seems to me.)" Coicley, Brit. Poets, Vol. ii, p. 54. OBS. 7. Though verbs give rise to man} 7 adjectives, they seldom, if ever, become such by a mere change of construction. It is mostly by assuming an additional termination, that any verb is formed into an adjective : as in teachable, moveable, oppressive, diffusive, prohibitory. There are, however, about forty words ending in ate, which, without difference of form, are either verbs or adjectives ; as, aggregate, animate, appropriate, articulate, aspirate, associate, complicate, confed- erate, consummate, deliberate, desolate, effeminate, elate, incarnate, intimate, legitimate, moderate, ordinate, precipitate, prostrate, regenerate, reprobate, separate, sophisticate, subordinate. This class of adjectives seems to be lessening. The participials in. ed, are superseding some of them, at least in popular practice: as, contaminated, for contaminate, defiled; reiterated, for reiterate, re- peated ; situated, for situate, placed ; attenuated, for attenuate, made thin or slender. Devote, exhaust, and some other verbal forms, are occasionally used by the poets, in lieu of the participial forms, devoted, exhavisted, &c. OBS. 8. Participles, which have naturally much resemblance to this part of speech, often drop their distinctive character, and become adjectives. This is usually the case whenever they stai d immediately before the nouns to which they relate ; as, A. pleasing countenance, & piercing eye, ; n accomplished scholar, an exalted station. Many participial adjectives are derivatives formed from participles by the negative prefix un, which reverses the meaning of the primitive word ; as, any participial adjective be needlessly varied from the true orthography of the participle: a dis- tinction is, however, observed by some writers, between past and passed, staid and stayed; and some old words, as drunken, stricken, shotten, rotten, now obsolete as participles, are still retained as adjectives. This sort of words will be further noticed in the chapter on participles. OBS. 9. Adverbs are generally distinguished from adjectives, by the form, as well as by the construction, of the words. Yet, in instances not a few, the same word is capable of being used both adjectively and adverbially. In these cases, the scholar must determine the part of speech, by the construction alone ; remembering that adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns only ; and adverbs, to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs, only. The following examples from Scripture, Avill partially illustrate this point, which will be noticed again under the head of syntax : " Is your father well? " Gen. xliii, 27. " Thou hast icell said." John, iv, 17. " He separateth very friends." Prov. xvi, 9. " Esaias is very bold." Rom. x, 20. "For a pretence, ye make long prayer." Matt, xxiii, 14. "They that tarry long at the wine." Prov. xxiii, 30. "It had not much earth." Mark, iv, 5. " For she loved much." Luke, vii, 47. OBS. 10. Prepositions, in regard to their construction, differ from adjectives, almost exactly as active-transitive participles differ syntactically from adjectives: that is, in stead of being mere adjuncts to the words which follow them, they govern those words, and refer back to some other term ; which, in the usual order of speech, stands before them. Thus, if I say, " A spreading oak," spreading is an adjective relating to oak ; if, "A boy spreading hay," spreading is a partici- ple, governing hay, and relating to boy, because the boy is the agent of the action. So, when Dr. Webster says, " The off horse in a team," off is an adjective, relating to the noun horse; but, in 1 From the above specula- LL : in Web. Diet. " With Whom this beneath world doth embrace and hug.' T Shak. "Especially is over exertion made." Journal of Lit. Conv. p. 119. " To both the under worlds." lludibras. " Please to pay to A. B.the amount'of the within bill." Whether properly used or not, the words above, after, beneath, over, under, and within, are here unquestionably made adjectives ; yet every scholar knows, that they are generally prepositions, though sometimes adverbs. CLASSES. Adjectives may be divided into six classes ; namely, common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound. CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. - ADJECTIVES. CLASSES. 259 I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good, bad, peaceful, ivarlike eastern, western, outer, inner. II. Kproper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name ; as, American, English, Platonic, Genoese. III. A numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite num- ber ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c. IV. A pronominal adpective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood ; as, "All join to guard what each desires to gain." Pope. That is, "All men join to guard what each man desires to gain." V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time; as, " An amusing story," " A lying divination." VI. A compound adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly : as, Nut-brown, laughter- loving, four-footed ; threefold, lordlike, lovesick. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. This distribution of the adjectives is no less easy to be applied, than necessary to a proper explanation in parsing. How many adjectives there are in the language, it is difficult to say ; none of our dictionaries profess to exhibit all that are embraced in some of the foregoing classes. Of the Common Adjectives, there are probably not fewer than six thousand, exclusive of the common nouns which we refer to this class when they are used adjectively. Walker's Rhym- ing Dictionary contains five thousand or more, the greater part of which may be readily distin- guished by their peculiar endings. Of those which end in ous, as generous, there are about 850. O.' those in y or ly, as sh'njgi/, Jio>nehj, there are about 550. Of those in ive, as deceptive, there are about 400. Of those in at, as autumnal, there are about 550. Of those in ical, as mechanical, there are about 350. Of those in able, as valuable, there are about 600. Of those in ible, as cred- ible, there arc about 200. Of those in ent, as different, there are about 300. Of those in ant, as abundant, there are about 170. Of those in less, as ceaseless, there are about 220. Of those inful, as useful, there are about 130. Of those in ory, as explanatory, there are about 200. Of those in is//, as childish, there are about 100. Of those in ine, as masculine, there are about 70. Of those : here are about 50. Of those in some, as quarrelsome, there are about 30. These added together, make 4770. Ons. '2 The Proper Adjectives are, in many instances, capable ofbeing converted into declina- ble nouns : as, European, a Enropron. f/f Enrojirins ; Greek, a Greek, the Greeks ; Asiatic, an Asi- ati'-, f lint with the v. ''/. French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish, and in gen-' end all siu-h as would acquire an additional syllable in their declension, the case is otherwise. :itile noun has frequently fewer syllables than the adjective, but seldom more, unless de- -ome different root. Examples: Arabic, an Arab, the Arabs; Gallic, a Gaul, the >/-ish, a Moor, the Moors ; Polish, a Pole, or Po/anrler, the Pole*. h,a Turk, the Turks. When we say, the Etu/lish, the I-',-,, i- >',, the Dntrfi, the Scotch, the UW.sV/. tin' Irish, meaning, the Etvili*h people, the French people, AT . many grammarians conceive that Eni/li-th, 1 ^uwt.t. But in my opinion, it is better to reckon them rim noun men or people understood. - are nouns, so arc a thousand others, after which there is the same ellipsis; as when f The principle would involve the incon- venience of multiplying our nouns of the singular form and a plural meaning, indefinitely. If are, in this sense, plural only ; and, in an other, they are singular only. /,, for an Englishman, an r n, or a 1 i old, a sclfixh, or a rich, for an old man, .'>hing the languages, wo call them Enl. ami punishes the ftdfl.'" If I i. iinly contrary to thft f.ict. I suppose tlie author to I* ik i : -here not an cllip-n-* in his lantrii.-i-ro ' II W n it be aii I, thut ^one/and bail are here in in! meaning nM n-t'ii-f the plur.il form? A woi-d ' n-rittrn a* a - >r > that naiie. Yet Smi-li. aa.l <)': ' ; inf : atnl M ' :min^'." Smith's New Gram. with th- definite article before it, becomes a noun, (of the third person, plural number,) ant. must be parsed &s such." R. (r. Greene's Grammatical Ttxt-Book, p. 55. 260 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. these he calls adjectives: "ENGLISH, adj. Belonging to England; hence English* is the language of England." The word Latin, however, lie makes a noun, when it means a sc-hool- boy's exercise ; for which usage he quotes, the following inaccurate example from Aschum : "He shall not use the common order in schools for making of Latins." OBS. 3. Dr. Webster gives us explanations like these : " CHINESE, n. sinrj. and/)///. A native of China ; also the language of China." " JAPAXKSE, n. A native of Japan ; or the language of the inhabitants." "GENOESE, n. pi. the people of Genoa in Italy. Addtison." "DANISH, n. The language of the Danes." " IRISH, n. 1. A native of Ireland. 2. The language of the Irish ; the Hiberno- Celtic." According to him, then, it is proper to say, a Chinese, a Japanese, or an Irish ; but not, a Genoese, because he will have this word to be plural only ! Again, if with him we call a native of Ireland an Irish, will not more than one be Irishes /f If a native of Japan be a Jap- anese, will not more than one be Japanesesf In short, is it not plain, that the words, Chinese, Japanese, Portugv&e, Maltese, Genoese, Milanese, and all others of like formation, should follow one and the same rule ? And if so, what is that rule ? Is it not this ; that, like En;/li.':h, French, &c., they are always adjectives; except, perhaps, when they denote ltin!/n,a(/esf There may possibly be some real authority from usage, for calling a native of China a Chinese, of Japan a Japanese, &c. ; as there is also for the regular plurals, Chinotcti, Jajxtnescs, &o. ; but is it, in either case, good and sufficient authority ? The like forms, it is acknowl- edged, are, on some occasions, mere adjectives ; and, in modern \isage, we do not find these words inflected, as they were formerly. Examples: "The Chinese are by no means a cleanly people, either in person or dress " Balbi's Geo,/. p. 415. ' The Japanese excel in working in. copper, iron, and steel." Ib. p. 419. " The PortfqptMM are of the same origin with the Span- iards." Ib. p. 272. " By whom the undaunted Tyrolese are led." Wordsworth's Poems, p 122. Again : " Amongst the Portugueses, 'tis so much a F.ishion, and Emulation, amongst their Chil- dren, to learn to Read, and Write, that they cannot hinder them from it." Locke, on Education, p. 271. " The Malteses do so, who harden the Bodies of their Children, and reconcile them to the Heat, by making them go stark Naked." Idem, Edition of 1699, p. 5. "CHINESE, n. s. Used elliptically for the language and people of China: plural, Chineses. Sir T. Herbert." Abridge- ment of 'jTodd's Johnson. This is certainly absurd. For if Chinese is used elliptical/!/ for the people of China, it is an adjective, and does not form the plural, Chineses: which is pre- cisely what I urge concerning the whole class. These plural forms ought not to be imitated. Home Tooke quotes some friend of his, as saying, " No, I will never descend with him benet th even a Japanese : and I remember what Voltaire remarks of that country." Diversions of Purl 't/, i, 187- In this case, he ought, unquestionably, to have said ' beneath even a. native oj Japan ;" because, whether Japanese be a noun or not, it is absurd to call a Japanese, (( that count ri/." liutl 3r, in his Hudibras, somewhere uses the word Chineses and it was, perhaps, in his day, common ; but still, I say, it is contrary to analogy, and therefore wrong. Milton, too, has it : " But in his way lights on the barren plains Of Sericana, where Chineses^ drive With sails and wind their cany tcaygons light." Paradise Lost, B. iii, 1. 437. Ons. 4. The Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds ; namely, cardinal, ordinal, and multi- plicative: each kind running on in a series indefinitely. Thus : 1. Cardinal ; One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two, \ - c. 2. Ordinal; First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twen- tieth, twenty-first, twenty-second, &c. 3. Multiplicative; Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or four- fold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. But high terms of this series are seldom used. All that occur above decuple or tenfold, are written with a hyphen, and are usually of round numbers only ; as, thirty-fold, sixty-fold, hun- dred-fold. OBS. 5. A cardinal numeral denotes the whole number, but the corresponding ordinal denotes only the last one of that number, or, at the beginning of a series, the first of several or many. Thus : " One denotes simply the number one, without any regard to more ; but_/?/'.v has respect to more, and so denotes only the first one of a greater number ; and two means the number lico com- pletely ; but second, the last one of two : and so of all the rest." Burn's Gram. p. ;3i. A cardinal * Here the word English appears to be used substantively, not by reason of the article, but rather In has no article ; for, when the definite article is used before BUCh a word taken in the singular number, if seems to show that the noun language is understood. And it is remarkable, that before the names or epr which we distinguish the languages, this article may, in many instances, be either used or not. used, rep not repeated, without any apparent impropriety : as, ' This is the case with iAe Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish." Murray's Gram i, p. 88. Better, perhaps : ' ; This is the case with the Hebrew, the French. lh>- Italian, and tfie Spanish." But we may say : This is the case with Hebrew, French, Italian, and J-panisli '' In the first of these forms, there appears to be an ellipsis of the plural noun languages, at the end of the sentence ; in the second, an ellipsis of the .-ingular noun I'tng'Hige, afcer each of tae national epithets ; iii the last, no ellipsis, but rather a substantive use of the words in question. t The Doctor may, for aught I know, have taken his notion of this "ns, in the. Lib, nitnr, Vol. xi, p. 211. $ Lindley Murray, or some ignorant printer of his octavo Grammar, has omitted this s ; and thereby spoiled the prosody, if not the sense, of the line : " Of Seric;m:i. where C'iin?se drive," &c. Fourth American E4. p. 345. If there was a design to correct the error of Milton's word, something should have been inserte 1. The common phrase, l; the Chinisc," would give the sense, and the right number of syllables, but not tin- right accent. It would be sufficiently analogous wirh our mode of forming the words, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Scotchmen, Dutch- men, and Irishmen, and perhaps not unpoetical, to say : ' Of Sericana, where Chinese-men drive, With sails and wind, their cany u-agons light." CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. - ADJECTIVES. CLASSES. 261 number answers to the question, " How many? " An ordinal number answers to the question, " U '///'/'/ < it* .'" or, " \Vlxtt uiu'.'" All the ordinal numbers, except frat, second, third, and the compounds of th< '. tirrnty-xi cond, tirenty-third, arc formed directly from the car- dinal numbers by means of the termination th. And as the primitives, in this case, are many of them either compound words, or phrases consisting of several words, it is to be observed, that the addition is made to the last term only. That is, of every compound ordinal number, the last term only is ordinal in form. Thus we say, forty-n inf/i, and not fortieth-ninth ; nor could the mean- ing of the phrase, four hundred and Jift icth, be expressed by saying, fourth h undrcdth and fif- tieth for this, it' it means any thins;, speaks of three different num 1 Ons. I) Some of the numerals are often used as nouns; and, as such, are regularly declined: as, Om.s, finxfi, .. \-c. So, Fifths, sist/is, sercnths, eighths, ninths', tenth*, \c. " The ai-i-enty's translation." 1 1 '. //. p. 32. no\f, /////r//, neither, no or no/ic, one, other, own,onfy, same, .v -rcral, some, such, sundry, that, t/ii*, / -rhat, ichati'i-er, ichat*oer<-r, tchtch, trhichen-r, icliichsoever* Of these forty-six words, seven are always .singular, if the word one is not an exception ; namely, each, either, era-//, neither, one, that, this' : and nine or ten others are always plural, if the word many is not an excep- tion ; namely, both, dicers, f ,,i'tny. se'reral, sundry, them-, those. All the rest, like our common adjectives, are applicable to nouns of either number. Else, erery, only, no, and none, are definitive word>, which I have thought proper to call pronominal adjectives, though only the last can now with propriety be made to represent its noun understood. " Nor has Vossius, or any else that I know of, observed it." Jo/i .-/. Com. p. 279. Say, "or anyone else." Dr. Web- ster explains this word ehe thus: " Ki.sr., run. [Sax. elles ] Other; one or something . \\"ho rAsr is coming ? " Octaro Diet. " Each and every of them," is an old phrase in wh used pronominally, or with ellipsis of the word to which it refers; but, in com- mon (1 . e now say, ry man, X'c., never using the word every alone to sug- gest its noun. Only is perhaps most commonly an adverb ; but it is still in frequent use as an i ml in old books we sometimes find an ellipsis of the noun to which it belongs; as, re they the only [verbs] in which it is read." Johnson's Grammatical Commuifar'n .*, it 1 think he is the only [one] of these Authors." Ib. p. 193. No and none seem to ! only different forms of the same adjective ; the former being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun is understood, or not placed after the adjective ; as, " For none of usliveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself." Romans, xiv, 7. Xone was anciently used for no before all words beginning with a vowel sound; as, "They are sottish children; and they have /<<>;/, understanding." Jeremiah, iv, 22. This practice is now obsolete. None is btill used, when its noun precedes it ; as, " Fools ! who from hence into the notion fill, That rice or virtue there is none at all." Pope. OBS. 8. Of the words given in the foregoing list as pronominal adjectives, about one third are t'rc'ir.enth pronouns ; ami sonic writers will have well-nigh all the rest In like manner. ii. there h-iN. from the iuljri 'tivi-s. ;UM with tin- ]T": . this, tln-sf ; iind by otliT !">rh. ritlirr. '. lu-itlii-r. an m on Uxnti. p. 106. in- -.VdllM K.tM- t m-llt a jiiuch h. arc what Dr i -.,,,, | / ;. j>. 24. This class of a.i - whi, h .Murs i.limi-i. Kirkliuni. an. I i.tln-rs. so aliMinlly ilciiuiniiiatu "Ad- i\o I'roiioui . nuthf r: " tlirir Dt inonstrative .'/((<, tliit, t Hi. I their In.lt !'n , ,,'f, othfr, /. ewe, all. xi" K-ni ln-ri- : f<>r tln-y all :irc .-I /j-nir,-*, an 1 not I'm/minn An.l i i.- olnimis. t!:at .. or Fr.-iii-h. ;ik,-ui.-.-. .-n,,! are, for the . called: BO that, from muar. >r * the u-:i.'''s of o-hcr l.n.L'na.c-." ari-i-s an argument for ranking thrin as ad- jectives. r.irli.T than jcctive niu-t- an-1 tln-ncc u L rl , 1 1- callt-il ndjec- {i>- v. . rilly a.-si^'ii to tin <> K UaM- for self-cootradiotioa, u well u thi . !: tiorl note upon the r N, that 1 shall present; the whole of it for the i'lii li-trU'titivc-:. -l.-in iv 1). ralleil p'uinntnx: .-ince fl:. Btninl i Min. but al. 1 wit/I pro ii a/' .if'/.r ///;i.7i/ -i. s. which nmT.il>y ./ .tsjilacf. All the-e. t< -ether with the poteMitv, in parsing, i *urh in syntax."/ t -o Irs .-[/>/ enn is heri- ' The pronominal a.ljei -hes c mil": jipipeiiy i.e ea jtniv " may with uffloient prop iety be t.r,n f ,i nilj,-rti> ?.<.' .\i. or the per.wx ' case! Here." i.p. in Etymology, thej Kre all r, many a one, a new one, an old one, an oth,r one, the same one, the young ones, the little ones, the mic/hty ones, the. wicked one, tlie Holy One, the Ever- lasting (>n>\ 'So, like the French on, or I'on, the word one, without any adjective, is now very frequently used as a general or indefinite term for any man, or any person. In this sense, it is sometimes, unquestionably, to be preferred to a personal pronoun applied indefinitely: as, " Pure religion, and undefiled before God and the Father, is this, To visit the fatherless and widow- in their affliction, and to keep himself [better, one's self] unspotted from the world." James, i, 27. But, as its generality of meaning seems to form a sort of covering for egotism, some writers are tempted to make too frequent a use of it. Churchill ridicules this practice, by framing, or anony- mously citing, the following sentence: " If one did but dare to abide by one's own judgement, one's I mid be much more refined; but one fancies one's ^//"obliged to follow, where- ever the many choose to lead one." See Churchill's Gram. p. 229. Here every scholar will con- cur with the critic in thinking, it would be better to say : " If we did but dare to abide by our own judgement, our \ uld be much more refined ; but we fancy ourselves obliged to follow, wherever the many choose to lead us." See ib. 14. Of the pronominal adjectives the following distribution has been made: " E%ch,every, and either, are called distributives; because, though they imply all the persons or things that make up a number, they consider them, not as one whole, but as taken separately. This, that, former, lnt<> W, are termed dt-monstra tices ; because they point out precisely the sub- jects to which they relate. This has these for its plural ; that has t/iose. This and that are frequently put in opposition to each other; this, to express what is nearer in place or time; that, what is more remote. All, any, one, other, some, such, are termed indefinite. Another is merely other in the singular, with the indefinite article not kept separate from it.* Oth-.r, \yhen not joined with a noun, is occasionally used both in the possessive case, and in the plural number : as, ' Teach me to feel an other's wo, to hide the fault I see ; That mercy I to others sho.w, that mercy show 10 me.' Pope. E'teh other and one another, when used in conjunction, may be termed reciprocals; as they are employed to express a reciprocal action ; the former, between two persons or things ; the latter, /if more than two. The possessive cases of the personal pronouns h;ive been also ranked under the head of pronominal adjectives, and styled possess i v es ; but for this I see no good rea- son." Churchill's Gram. p. 7G. OHS. 1-3. The reciprocal terms each other and onean other divide, according to some mutual act or interchangeable relation, the persons or things spoken of, and are commonly of the singular num- btr only. /'. If rightly used, supposes two, and only two, to be acting and acted upon reciprocal!) r, it'not misapplied, supposes more than two, under like circumstances, and h;is ;in indefinite reference to all taken distributive!)- : as, " Brutus and Aruns killed each other." ' killed the <>'h, r. lt Tin- di^.-iplcs were commanded to love one an other, and to be willing t t-t." Tint is, A/I the disciples were commanded to love '">/ ; fur b >th tei '///iff, or t: tantively or pronominully in parsing, must be represented as being of di fferent cases ; or, if we take them adjectively, the noun, which is twice to be supplied, will necessarily be so. * There ?eom< t- . be no p>od reason for joining an and other : on the contrary, the phrase an other is always as prDpcri i" phrase tkf otti'r. ;m 1 uunv so. The latter, being long ngo vulgarly comraru-.i into ; >n another; which many people nowadays are ignorant to .livi.ii' \vr..iur. an 1 mi-p:..n,,,iii.-. j n M,, r - -Honk, p. 71 ; and i-tr" in En . n.l both :m-il(i'jy ami consistency require that the words be sepirau-d. Tlu-ir ut.ion. lik. rimes to aii impro- per repetition of the article; M, u .4otAr raeh a mao," t>r, w Am other tneh man." " r.ind my '>r m>. As 't'ras \ S i, nor tnrt'ui - ton', and when th* f^cr." Sm T. MoORE: T.H^-\ />. p. V,,). jj. j,. .jjS That !; hen h- shoul.l tikei/r e dit 1 will br renn'v.-. I by writing an ottifr n: n. To thei;. refer it ; with directions, nt to univ tln-.-e words for me, e.v.vpt when.- i f bas been done in the manuscript, for thesakr O. HROW.V. t Tliis is a tiii.'/;!, which cannot bare refeience to more than two things or parties: the term should have been among. G. Baowu. 264 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. DBS. 16. Misapplications of the foregoing reciprocal terms are very frequent in books, though it is strange that phrases so very common should not be rightly understood. Dr. Webster, among his explanations of the word other, has the following: '-Correlative to each, and applicable to any number of individuals." Octavo Diet. " Other is used as a substitute for a noun, and in this use has the plural number and the sign of the possessive case." Ib. Now it is plain, that the Vtordoffcr, as a " correlative to each,'" may be so far "a substitute for a noun" as to take the form of the possessive case singular, and perhaps also the plural ; as, " Lock'd in each other's arms they lay." But, that the objective other, in any such relation, can convey a plural idea, or be so loosely applicable "to any number of individuals, " I must here deny. If it were so, there would be occasion, by the foregoing rule, to make it plural in form ; as, '" The ambitious strive to excel each others." But this is not English. Xor can it be correct to say of more than two, " They all strive to excel each other." Because the explanation must be, " Each strives to excel other ; " and such a construction of the word other, is not agreeable to modern usage. Each other is therefore not equivalent to one an other, but nearer perhaps to the one the other : as, " The two generals are independent the one of the other." Voltaire's Charles XII, p. 67. " And these are contrary the one to the other." Gal. v, 17. " The necessary connexion of the one with the other." Blair's Rhet. p. 304. The latter phraseology, being definite and formal, is now seldom used, except the terms be separated by a verb or a preposition. It is a literal version of the French I'un I'autre, and in some instances to be preferred to each other; as, " So fellest foes, whose plots have broke their sleep, To take the one the other, by some chance." Shak. OBS. 17. The Greek term for the reciprocals each other and one an other, is a certain plural de- rivative from AAoc, other ; and is used in three cases, the genitive, /P.i'Ator, the dative, dwUiJAoic, the accusative, aAAi l.ovg : these being all the cases which the nature of the expression admits ; and for all these we commonly use the objective that is, we put each or one before the objective other. Now these English terms, taken in a reciprocal sense, seldom, if ever, have any plural form ; because the article in one an other admits of none ; and each other, when applied to two persons or things, (as it almost always is,) does not require any. I have indeed seen, in some narrative, such an example as this : " The two men were ready to cut each others' throats." But the meaning could not be, that each was ready to cut " others' throats ;" and since, between the two, there was but one throat for each to cut, it would doubtless be more correct to say, "each other's throat." So Burns, in touching a gentler passion, has an inaccurate elliptical expression : " 'Tis when a youthful, loving, modest pair, In others' arms, breathe out the tender tale." Cotter's Sat. Night. He meant, " In each other's arms;" the apostrophe being misplaced, and the metre improperly allowed to exclude a word which the sense requires. Now, as to the plural of each other, although we do not use the objective, and say of many, " They love each others," there appear to be som<; instances in which the possessive plural, eachothers', would not be improper; as, "Sixteen minis- ters, who meet weekly fit each other's houses." Johnson's Life of Swift. Here the singular i$ wrong, because the governing noun implies a plurality of owners. "The citizens of different states should know each others characters." Webster's Essays, p. 3o. This also is wrong, be- cause no possessive sign is used. Either write, " each others' characters," or say, " one an other's character." Ons. 18. One and other are, in many instances, terms relative and partitive, rather than reci- procal ; and, in this use, there seems to be an occasional demand for the plural form. In French, two parties are contrasted by les tins les autres ; a mode of expression seldom, if ever imitated in English. Thus : " II les separera les uns d'avec les autres." That is, " He shall separate them some from others ;" or, literally, " the ones from the others." Our version is : " He shall separate them one from an other." Matt, xxv, 32. Beza has it : " Separabit eos alteros ab alteris." The Vulgate: " Separabit POS abinvicem." The Greek: "^yoniff ariuvg <>//' <)AA//;(.>r." To separate many "one from another," seems, literally, to leave none of them together ; and this is not, "as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats." To express such an idea with perfect propriety, in our language, therefore, we must resort to some other phraseology. In Campbell's version, we read : " And out of them he will separate the f/ood from the bad, as a shepherd separateth the sheep from the goats." Better, perhaps, thus : " And he shall separate them, the riyhtcousfrom the wicked, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats." OHS. 19. Dr. Bullions says, " One and o^A-re nouns ; as, " Among the dying and the dead." " The called of Jesus Christ." Horn. i,"6 "Dearly belored, I beseech you." 1 Pet. ii, 11. "The redeemed of the Lord shall return." /V/////, li, 11. " They talk, to the grief of thy wounded" Psalms, Ixix, 26: Margin. '11 In the text, Prov.'vii, 26, " She hath cast down many wounded," wounded is a par- ticiple ; because the meaning is, '///<-//>// men wounded," and not, " many wounded men." Our Participial Adjectives are exceedingly numerous. It is not easy to ascertain how many there are of them ; because almost any simple participle may be set before a noun, and thus become an adjective : as, " Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, And parting summer's lingering blooms delay'd." Goldsmith. OBS. 23. Compound Adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are both numerous and various. In their form, iti. m, however, certain an tlo^ies may be traced : (1.) Many of them are formed by join- live to its noun, and giving to the latter the participial termination ed ; as, able-bodied, . left-handed,fu . iie-feiii;-d, tiro-leu n d . f/i/'ee-leavcd, four-leaved : or, per- r'< (/, tiru-leiifed, c. But, upon the same principle, -a .mid be- i :id long-lived, long-lifcd. (5.) In some, there is a combination :.d a participle ; as, n<>b'<--lotiking, high-sounding, nl t'-tr-shootini/, forth-issuim/, buck- sliding, ill-trained, f, vnlieard-if. (9.) Some are phrases of many words, I'unviTtod into one part of speech by the hyphen ; 'as, " Where is the evt-r-to-bc-honoured Chaucer ':" Wordtioorth. . witli (ioil-onlii-kiuurx-Jtoir-gotlen light. Informs the nation what is wrong or ri-^lit .." Sne/liw/'s Gift for Scribblers, p. 49. Ons. 2J. Nouns derived from compound adject:-. ;>rovedby good w.iters ; yet w- : with them: as, fi, in the most obvious si use of the words, it' in any other; and yet the doctrines they were designed to teach, may have been, in general, correctly gathered from the examples." (4.) The phrase, "positive 'in ni unification " is not intelligible in the sense intended, without a comma after posit ice ; and yet,' in an armful of dinerent English grammars which contain the passage, I find not one that lias a point in that place, (o.) It is not more correct to say, that the comparative or the superlative degree " increases or lessens the positive," than it would be to aver, that the Slural number i: lessens the singular, or the feminine gender, the masculine Nor oes the superlative mean, what a certain learned Doctor understands by it namely, " the greatest ." If it did, " the thickest parts of his skull," for example, would imply small room for brains; " the thinnest," protect them ill, if there were any. (6.) It is improper . T/i>> M'mph- word becomes [the] comparative by addiny r or er ; and the superlative by adding The thought is wrong ; and nearly all trie words are misapplied ; as, simple forprim- :>!V lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree" is a disagree- able tautol 8, unless it involves the additional error of presenting the same word in ditf'en it makes one degree swell or diminish an other to itself; whereas, in the very next sentence, this singular agency is forgotten, and a second equally strange takes its place : "The posith the superlative by in/din;/ st or est, to the end of it ;" i. e. to the end of itself. Nothing can be more ungrammatical, than'is much of the language by which grammar itself is now professedly taught! Oi;s .; it has been almost universally assumed by grammarians, that the positive degree is the only standard to which the other degrees can refer; though many seem to think, that the superlative always implies or includes the comparative, and is consequently inapplicable when only two things are spoken of. Neither of these positions is involved in any of the definitions which I have given above. The reader may think what he will about these points, after observ- ing the MfTeraJ ways in which each form may be used. In the phrases, "greater than Solo- >rt than a bushel," " later than one o'clock," it is not immediately obvious that the positn .(c/t, and late, are the real terms of contrast. And how is it in the Latin . Diih-ior me/l>\ sweeter than honey," " Prtestantior atiro, better than gold ?" These authors will resolve all such phrases thus : " yreater, than Solomon was great," " more, than a . /.s- mm-//," \-c. As the conjunction than never governs the objective case, it seems neces- 'sary to suppose an ellipsis of some verb after the noun which follows it as above ; and possibly the 'lution, uncouth as it seems, may, for the English idiom, be the true one : as, " My /KI /i /." John, xiv, 'JS. That is, "My Father is greater than I am;" or, per- . I am (/nut." But if it appear that some degree of the same quality must always be contrasted with the comparative, there is slill room to question whether this degree must always be that which we call the positive. Cicero, in exile, wrote to his wife : " Ego autem hoc miserior sum, quam tu, >i-rl, that the calamity itself is common to us both, but the fault is all my own." 8. In my Institutes and First Lines of English Grammar, I used the following brief defi- nitions : " The <-(.i,ij>a/- is that which exceeds the positive ; as, harder, softer, better." "The s-i/prrlati'' - that which is not exceeded; as, hardest, softest, best." And it is rather for the iak of -inc^estin^ to the Irarner the peculiar Ofptieatum of eaeli of these degrees, than from any decided dissatisfaction with th- : <>ns, that I now present others. The first, however, proceeds upon the common supposition, that the comparative degree of a quality, '! to any object, must needs he contrasted with the positive in some other, or with the Titive in t: an other time. This id. -a may be plausibly maintained, though it is eer- i that the positive term referred to, is seldom, if ever, allowed to appear. Besides, the appear, and in such a manner as to be, or seem to be, in the int of contract. Th r our view are apt to be thought greater thanthose of a remote."- ]>. 186. Upon the principle above, the expla- :uust be, that the meaning i> " art-aicr than those of a larger size are thomjht yrcat." :"xn- man that loveth Chri-? ''/an the ri< h. -.<( man in the world, that hates him." liti, :' ' . ~ This must be "richer than the richest man /> nr/i." The riekes contemplated hi >rtj and the comparative or the superlative of one sort, may !> exceeded bv either of th of an other sort, though the same epithet be 01 both. So in the following He that is h'nhi-r than the hiyhi^t regardeth ; and there l,e //'////ria,\t iriscr make. 268 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBS. 7- The relative nature of these degrees deserves to be further illustrated, (1.) It is plain, that the greatest degree of a quality in one thing, may be less than the least in an other; and, consequently, that the least degree in one thing, may be greater than the greatest in an other. Thus, the heaviest wood is less heavy than the lightest of the metals ; and the least valuable of the metals is perhaps of more value than ihechoicest wood. (2 ) The comparative degree may increase upon itself, and be repeated to show the gradation. Thus, a man may ascend into the air with a balloon, and rise higher, and higher, and higher, and higher, till he is out of sight. This is no uncommon form of expression, and the intension is from comparative to comparative. (3.) If a ladder be set up for use, one of its rounds will be the highest, and one other will be the lowest, or least high. And as that which is highest, is higher than all the rest, so every one will be higher than all below it. The higher rounds, if spoken of generally, and without definite contrast, will be those in the upper half ; the lower rounds, referred to in like manner, will be those in the lower half, or those not far from the ground. The highest rounds, or the loicest, if we indulge such latitude of speech, will be those near the top or the bottom ; there being, absolutely, or in strictness of language, but one of each. (4.) If the highest round be removed, or left uncounted, the next becomes the highest, though not so high as the former. For every one is the highest of the number which it completes. All admit this, till we come to three. And, as the third is the highest of the three, I see not why the second is not properly the highest of the two. Yet nearly all our grammarians condemn this phrase, and prefer " the higher of 'the two." But can they give a reason for their preference ? That the comparative degree is implied between the positive and the superlative, so that there must needs be three terms before the latter is applicable, is a doctrine which I deny. And if the second is the higher of the two, because it is higher than the first ; is it not also the highest of the two, because it completes the member? (5.) It is to be observed, too, that as our ordinal numeral first, denoting the one which begins a series, and having reference of course to more, is an adjective of the superlative degree, equivalent to foremost, of which it is perhaps a contraction; so last likewise, though no numeral, is a superlative also. (6.) These, like other superlatives, admit of a looser application, and may possibly include more than one thing at the beginning o*r the end of a series : as, " The last years of man are often helpless, like the first." (7.) With undoubted propriety, we may speak of the first two, the last two, the first three, the last three, &c. ; but to say, the two first, the two last, &c., with this meaning, is obvi- ously and needlessly inaccurate. " The two first men in the nation," may, I admit^ be good English ; but it can properly be meant only of the two most eminent. In specifying any part of a series, we ought rather to place the cardinal number after the ordinal. (8.) Many of the fore- going positions apply generally, to almost all adjectives that are susceptible of comparison. Thus, it is a common saying, " Take the best first, and all will be best." That is, remove that degree which is now superlative, and the epithet will descend to an other, " the next best." OBS. 8. It is a common assumption, maintained by almost all our grammarians, that the degrees which add to the adjective the terminations er and est, as well as those which are express- ed by more and most, indicate an increase, or heightening, of the quality expressed by the positive. If such must needs be their import, it is certainly very improper, to apply them, as many do, to what can be only an approximation to the positive. Thus Dr. Blair : " Nothing that belongs to human nature, is more universal than the relish of beauty of one kind or other." Lectures, p. 16. "In architecture, the Grecian models were long esteemed the most perfect." Ib. p 20. Again : In his reprehension of Capernaum, the Saviour said, " It shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom, in the day of judgement, than for thee." Matt, xi, 24. Now, although uif/.TuTtnor, more tolerable, is in itself a good comparative, who would dare infer from this text, that in the day of judgement Capernaum shall fare tolerably, and Sodom, still better/ There is much reason to think, that the essential nature of these grammatical degrees has not been well understood by those who have heretofore pretended to explain them. If we except those few approximations to sensible qualities, which are signified by such words as whitish, greenish, &c., there will be found no actual measure, or inherent degree of any quality, to which the simple form of the adjective is not applicable ; or which, by the help of intensive adverbs of a positive character, it may not be made to express; and that, too, without becoming either comparative or superlative, in the technical sense of those terms.. Thus very lohite, exceedingly white, perfectly white, are terms quite as significant as whiter and whitest, if not more so. Some grammarians, observing this, and knowing that the Romans often used their superlative in a sense merely intensive, as altissimus for very 'high, have needlessly divided our English superlative into two, " the definite and the indefinite ;" giving the latter name to that degree which we mark by the adverb very, and the former to that which alone is properly called the superlative. Clmrchill does this : while, (as we have seen above,) in naming the degrees he pretends to prefer " what has been established by long custom." New Gram. p. 231. By a strange oversight also, he failed to notice, that this doctrine interferes with his scheme of five degrees, and would clearly furnish, him with six : to which if he had chosen to add the " imperfect degree" of Dr. Webster, (as whit- ish, greenish, &c.,) which is recognized by Johnson, Murray, and others, he might have had seven. But I hope my readers will by-and-by believe there is no need of more than three. OBS. 9. The true nature of the Comparative degree is this : it denotes either some excess or some relative deficiency of the quality, when one thing or party is compared with an other, in res ect to what is in both : as, " Because the foolishncs ess of God is stronger than men." 1 Cor. i, 2-5. " the English." Blair's Rhet. p. 87. " Our style is less comj)> p. 88. " They are counted to him less than nothing and vanity." Isaiah, xl, 17. As the compar- atives in a long scries are necessarily many, and some of them higher than others, it may be ask- ed, " How can the comparative degree, in this case, be merely ' that which exceeds the positive ?' " Or, as our common grammarians prompt me here to say, " May not the comparative degree in- crease or lessen the comparative, in signification ? " The latter form of the question they may answer for themselves ; remembering that the comparative mag advance from the comparative, step by step, from the second article in the series to the utmost. Thus, three is a higher or greater number than two ; but four is higher than three ; five, than four ; and so on, ad infinitum. P< G< pect to what is in both : as, " Because the foolishness of God is iviser than men ; and the weak- ness of God is stronger than men." 1 Cor. i, 2-5. " Few languages are, in fact, more copious than the English." Blair's Rhet. p. 87. " Our style is less compact than that of the ancients." Ib. CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. - ADJECTIVES. - DEGREES. 269 My own form of the question I answer thus : "The highest of the higher is not higher than the rest arc Jii. tretne, or >iu It may he used either absolutely, us being without bounds ; or rela- tively. as being confined within any limits we choose to give it. It is equally applicable to that which is naturally unsurpassable, and to that which stands within the narrowest limits of comparison. of (,'. would scarcely be thought a henry thing, and yet the expression is proper; bfcansf tin; weight, whatever it is, is relatively ' The youngest of three per- i:iy not be / /// goung ; nor need we suppose tin- oldest in a whole college to have arrived at What then shall be thought of the explanations which our grammari- ii of this degree of comparison? That of Murray I have already criticised. It is ascribed to him, not upon *h<- >n that he invented it ; but because common sense contin- ues to give place to the authority of his name in support of it. Comly, Russell, Alger, In;: Merchant. Kirkham, T. Smith, II. C. Smith, Hall, Ililey, and many others, have copied it into their grammars, as being natter than any definition they could devise. "Murray him- self n: lj took it from some obscure pedagogue among the old grammarians." Bu- chanan, who long preceded him, has nearly the same words: "The Superlative increases or di- minish ;itication, to the highest or [the] lowest Degree of all " English v If this must be taken for a grammatical definition, what definition shall gram- ear ? 1 1. Let us see whether our later authors have done better. " The superlative expr- quality in the greatest or [the] least possible degree ; as, tristst, coldest, least //v'.v." Webster's In his later speculations, this author conceives that the termination ish forms fhcjirst d'-gree of comparison ; as, < Imperfect, danldsh," Pos. dank, Comp. danker, Superl. est. " '1 here are therefore four degrees of comparison." II -'ebut er's Philosophical Gram. p. 65. "The fourth denotes the utmost or [the] least degree of a quality; as, bravest, wisest, poorest, f. This is called the superlative degree." Ih. , also his I/nprovcd Gram . 1831, p 47. "This the Superlai from its raising the amount of the quality above that of all others." 1! -/., 1832, p. 26. It is not easy to quote, from any source, a worse sentence than this ; if, indeed, so strange a jum'ile of words can be called a sentence. " I-'roni a vicious and untranslatable phrase, here put for "be' Ive of the superlative degree, as " raising tin- amoi'nt of -.hat of all other ipi.tlitirs .' " Or, if it be supposed to mean, above the amount of all hat is this amount ? Is it that of one and one, t\iQ positive wn<\ ther^ . ically ? or is it the sum of all the quantities which these may indicate ? Per- haps the author meant, "above the amount of all other amounts." If none of these absurdities is here taught, r< i^ht, and the words are nonsense. Again: "The stii // the critic, " should have been 'larger.' " Mintt'/rr's Gram. p. 4. the comp.r p. 4. It is true, arative ive been used; but the superlative is clearer, and more agreeable to And li'iu .-an " largest " be wrong, if "jirst " is right ? " Let Dick's be the larger, be- much upon a different idea, that of proportion .- as win n we - 1 So Blair: " When only two thii. compare ee shouldbe used, ai.d not the superlative." Vractieal ' <' unaccented." Ib. p. 118. liable unaer.'nted, and the lust accented." Ibid. , exam- ples ai> '.v Gram. p. 2.33; Kirhhani's, 21!) ; llul- \\'\\<-\ : When tiro persona or thing are compared, i.e employed. When three or UK, .compared, Contradiction in pi . - than his />,-nf'i> /-.-,." / v re not " t!> here com- ipar-itive" - \ liable 5> unaccented." Ib. p 123. An iai': :.d thi> author ex- form of ai: iation of ; sens the meaning of ti- tire, or les . p. So'. Tl. Led definitions of the di of compare not only the absurdities which I liave already censured in those of our I suppose thru, in a comparison of two, any of tho decrees may be accurately employed. The common usage - tperlative wirii of. Hut hen- allows i. a manner of the superlative ; a^. u Thfc c/' the 'll wliim Of , to lin.l in this :i rc.-t.-ou f.-r .le.-larinir it iiiitrraii D u Thi-i~ 1 the former construction c i!>prov- ed, thus : " ThU u the better book of the two. : rhe a.lj-rri\- ter,) can not i-.-rn-.-pcnd wi:li the preposition, of. The definite arti-.-le, th>. is likewise improperly applied to the comparative state ; the sentence should stand thus, This Li the bat book of the two. ; ' Chandler's Gram.; Ed. of 1821, p. 130 ; Ed. of 1^47. p. I'A. 270 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. common grammars, but several new ones peculiar to this author. Of the inconsistency of his doctrine and practice, take the following examples : " Which of two bodies, that move with the same velocity, will exercise the greatest power ? " Ib. p. 93 ; and again, p. 208. " '/ was offered a dollar;' ' A dollar was offered (to) me.' The first form should always be avoided." Ib. p. 128. " Nouns in apposition generally annex the sign of the possessive case to the last; as, ' For David my servant's sake.' ' John the Baptist's head.' Bible." Ib. p. 197. OBS. 13. So Murray : " We commonly say, ' This is the weaker of the two ; ' or ' The weakest of the two : '* but the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are only two things compared." Octavo Gram, i, 167. What then of the following example : " Which of those two persons has most distinguished himself? " Ib. Key, ii, 187. Again, in treating of the adjec- tives this and that, the same hand writes, thus : " This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the most distant : as, ' This man is more intelligent than that.' This indicates the latter, or last mentioned ; that, the former, or first mentioned : as, ' Both wealth and poverty are temp- tations ; that tends to excite pride, this, discontent.' " Murray's Gram, i, 56. In the former Eart of this example, the superlative is twice applied where only two things are spoken of; and, i the latter, it is twice made equivalent to the comparative, with a like reference. The following example shows the same equivalence : " This refers to the last mentioned or nearer thing, that to the first mentioned or more distant thing." Webber's Gram. p. 31. So Churchill : " The su- perlative should not be used, when only two persons or things are compared." New Gram. p. 80. " In the first of these two sentences." Ib. p. 162 ; Lowth, p. 120. According to the rule, it should have been, "In the former of these two sentences;" but this would be here ambiguous, be- cause former might mean maker. "When our sentence consists of two members, the longest should, generally, be the concluding one." Blair's Rhet. p. 117 : and Jamieson's, p. 99. " The shortest member being placed first, we carry it more readily in our memory as we proceed to the second." Ib. & Ib. " Pray consider us, in this respect, as the weakest sex." Spect. No. 533. In this last sentence, the comparative, weaker, would perhaps have been better ; because, not an absolute, but merely a comparative weakness is meant. OBS. 14. Hyperboles are very commonly expressed by comparatives or superlatives ; as, "My lit- tle finger shall be thicker than my father's loins." 1 Kings, xii, 10. " Unto me, who am less than, the least of all saints, is this grace given." Ephesians, iii, 8. Sometimes, in thus heightening or lowering the object of his conception, the writer falls into acatachresis, solecism, or abuse of tlu grammatical degrees ; as, " Mustard-seed which is less than all the seeds that be in the earth." Mark, iv, 31. This expression is objectionable, because mustard-seed is a seed, and cannot be less than itself; though that which is here spoken of, may perhaps have been " the least of allseeds : r and it is the same Greek phrase, that is thus rendered in Matt, xiii, 32. Murray has inserted in his Exercises, among " unintelligible and inconsistent words and phrases," the following extfnv pie from Milton : "And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide." Exercises, p. 122. For this supposed inconsistency, he proposes in his Key the following amendment : " And, in the lower deep, another deep Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide." Key, p. 2o4 But, in an other part of his book, he copies from Dr. Blair the same passage, with commendation : saying, " The following sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are described, contain nothing but what is natural and proper : ' Me miserable ! which way shall I fly Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? Which way I fly is Hell ; myself am Hell ; And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide, To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven.' P. Lost. B. iv,l. 73." Blair's Lectures, p. 153 ; Murray's Grammar, p. 352. OBS. 15. Milton's word, in the fourth line above, is deep, and not depth, as these authors here give it : nor was it very polite in them, to use a phraseology which comes so near to saying, the devil was in the poet. Alas for grammar ! accuracy in its teachers has become the most rare of all qualifications. As for Murray's correction above, I see not how it can please any one who chooses to think Hell a place of great depth. A descent into his "tower deep " and " other deep," might be a plunge less horrible than two or three successive slides in one of our western caverns ! But Milton supposes the arch-fiend might descend to the lowest imaginable depth of Hell, and there be liable to a still further fall of more tremendous extent. Fall whither ? Into the horrid and inconceivable profundity of the bottomless pit! What signifies it, to object to his language as " unintelligible, if it conveys his idea better than any other could ? In no human conception of what is infinite, can there be any real exaggeration. To amplify beyond the truth, is here im- possible. Nor is there any superlation which can fix a limit to the idea of more and more in in- finitude. Whatever literal absurdity there may be in it, the duplication seems greatly to aug- ment what was even our greatest conception of the thing. Homer, with a like figure, though ex- pressed in the positive degree, makes Jupiter threaten any rebel god, that he shall be thrown down from Olympus, to suffer the burning pains of the Tartarian gulf; not in the centre, but, " As deep beneath th' infernal centre hurl'd, As from that centre to th' ethereal world." Poke's Iliad, B. viii, 1. 19. * This example appears to have been borrowed from Campbell ; who, however, teaches a different doctrine from Murray, and clearly sustains my position : " Both degrees are in such cases used indiscriminately. We say right- ly, either ' This is the weaker of the two,' or' the weakest of the two.' "Philosophy of Rhetoric, p 202. Uo-vr positively do some other men contradict this ! "In comparing two persons or things, by means of an adjective, care must be taken, that the superlative state be not employed : We properly say, ' John is the taller of the two ; ' but we should not. .say, ' John is the tallest of the two." 1 The reason is plain : we compare but two person?, and must therefore use the comparative state." Wright's Philosophical Gram. p. 143. Kev. Matt. Harrison, too, insists on it, that the superlative must " have reference to more than two," and censures Dr. Johnson for not observing the rule* See Harrison's English Language, p. 265. :u, <,v/te,u*7. CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. - ADJECTIVES. - REGULAR COMPARISON. 271 REGULAR COMPARISON. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by adding est to them : as, Pos. great, Comp. greater, Super! grrdlcst : Pus. mild, (Jump, milder, Superl. mildest. In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final e is omitted, and final y is changed to i, agreeably to the rules for spelling : as, hot, hotter, hottest ; wide, wider, widest ; happy, /nippier, happiest. The regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to monosyllables, with dissyllables ending in w or y, and such others as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent : as, fierce, fiercer, fiercest ; narrow, narrower, nar- rowest ; gloomy, gloomier, gloomiest ; serene, serener, serenest ; noble, nobler, no- blest ; gentle, gentler, gentlest. COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. The two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the same im- port as above, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more wise, most wise ; famous, more famous, most famous ,* amiable, more amior lie, invar a //liable. The degrees of inferiority are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least : as, wise, less wise, least wise ; famous, less famous, least famous ; amiable, less aininble, least amiable. The regular method of comparison has, properly speak- ing, no degrees of this kind. irly all adjectives that admit of different degrees, may be compared by means of the adverbs; but, for short words, the regular method is generally preferable : as, quick, quicker, quickest ; rather than, quick, more quick, most quick. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The genius of our language is particularly averse to the lengthening of long words by additional syllables ; and, in the comparison of adjectives, er and est always add a syllable to the word, except it end in le after a mute. Thus, free, frefr, freest, increases syllabically ; but ample, cmph : ;oes not. Whether any particular adjective admits of comparison or not, is a matter of reasoning from the sense of the term ; by which method it shall be compared, is in some a mutter of taste ; though custom has decided that long words shall not be inflected, and for the shorter, there is generally an obvious bias in favour of one form rather than the other. Dr. Johnson says, "The comparison of adjectives is very im-ertain ; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules. Monosj llal'i.-s arc commonly compared. Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most. Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in fit/, less, inn, ous, ed, 'id, fil, cut, (tin, or in-." dram, of the English Tongue, p. 6. - hut one syllable, the degrees are usually formed by adding er or est. When th'- positive contains two syllables, it is matter of taste which method you shall use in .legrees. The ear is, in' this case, the best guide. But, when the positive contains llables, the degrees must be formed by the use of more and most. We may say, and plcusa>iti-st, pntfar and prettiest ; but who could endure a'elicaf- tr.it?" c, 81. Quirt, hitter, clever, sober, and perhaps some ethers like them, are still regularlv compared ; but such words . . famousest, rirtuousest, . which were usnl by Milton, have gone out of fashion. The' following, though not :re perhaps allowable. " Yet these are the two commonest occupations of '' they are gone. f Of his crew, -till contriving something bad, but new." KlXG : ib. . 2. I make a distinction between the regular comparison by cr and csf, and the compari- son h\ -umatical point of view, these two methods are totally different : the meaning, though the samo, being cxprc-^cd in the one case, by an inflection of the adjec- nd in the other, by a .; O f two different parts of speech. If the placing of ;m ail\< r'.i before an ad to be called a grammatical modification or variation of the latter word, we shall hav? many other degrees than those which are enumerated above. The words nay with much more propriety ,-cr bein, boyish, girlish; and who can prove that blackish, saltish, reddish, brou:nish, smdyelloivish,aren<)t also from the nouns, black, salt, red, brown, and yellow ? or that " a more reddish tinge," " a more saltish taste," are not correct phrases ? There is, I am persuaded, no good reason for noticing this termination as constituting a degree of comparison. All " double comparisons" are said ';o be ungrammaticalj^but, if ish forms a degree, it is such a degree as may be compared again : as, "And seem more learncdish than those That at a greater charge compose." Butler. OBS. 6. Among the degrees of comparison, some have enumerated that of equality ; as when we say, "'it is as sweet as honey." Here is indeed a comparison, but it is altogether in the positive degree, and needs no other name. This again refutes Harris ; who says, that in the positive there is no comparison at all. But further: it is plain, that in this degree there may be comparisons of inequality also; as, "Molasses is not so sweet as honey." "Civility is not so slight a matter as it is commonly thought." Art of Thinking, p. 92. Nay, such comparisons may equal any superlative. Thus it is said, I think, in the Life of Robert Hall : " Probably no human being ever before suffered so much bodily pain." What a preeminence is here ! and yet the form of the adjective is only that of the positive degree. " Nothing so uncertain** general reputation." Art of Thinking, p. 59. " Nothing so nauseous as undistinguishing civility " Ib. p. 88. These, likewise, would be strong expressions, if they were correct English. But, to my apprehension, every such comparison of equality involves a solecism, when, as it here happens, the former term includes the latter. The word nothing is a general negative, and reputation is a particular affirmative. The comparison of equality between them, is therefore certainly improper : because nothing cannot be equal to something ; and, reputation being something, and of course equal to itself, the proposition is evidently untrue. It ought to be, " Nothing is more uncertain than general reputation." This is the same as to say, " General reputation is as uncertain as a/ii/ thing that can be named." Or else the former term should exempt the latter ; as, " Nothing eke or, " No other thing, is so uncertain as" this popular honour, public esteem, or "general reputa- tion." And so of all similar examples. OBS 7. In all comparisons, care must be taken to adapt the terms to the degree which is ex- pressed by the adjective or adverb. The superlative degree requires that the object to which it * Murray copied this passage literally, (though anonymously.) as far as the colon ; and of course his book teach- es US to account " the termination is-'i, in sonic sort, a ihrtf. of ctunj-arhon.' 1 ' Octavo Gram. p. 47. l>ut what is more absurd, than to think of accounting this, or any other suffix, " a dr-gree of comparison? " The inaccuracy of the language is a sufficient proof of the haste with which Johnson adopted this notion, and of the blindness with which be has been followed. The passage is now found in most of our English grammars. Sanborn ex- presses the doctrine thus : "Adjectives terminating with ?.s/i, denote a degree of comparison less than the posi- tive ; as, nfiftish, whitish, blackish." Analytical Gram. p. 87. But who does not know, that most adjectives of this ending are derived from nouns, and are compared only by adverbs, as r.hilrlisli, foolish, and so furth? Wilcox says, ' Words ending in ish. generally express a slight degree; as, reddish, bookish." P>actical Gram, p 17. But who will suppose that foolish denotes but a slight degree of folly, or bookish but a slight fondness for books ? And, with, such an interpretation, what must be the meaning of mote bookishor most foolish? CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 273 relates, be one of those with which it is compared; as, " Eve was the fairest of women." The comparative degree, on the contrary, requires that the object spoken of be not included among v.-ith which it is Compared; a vr than any of fur d" wjlitcr s." To take the inclusive term here, and say, > than any irmnnn" would'be no less absurd, than Milton's assertion, thu: of her daugkten : M the former supposes that she was not a icoman ; the latter, that she was <>w af //'/ ov/i daughters. But Milton's solecism is double; he makes Adam one of his oirn son* : " Adam the goodliest man of men since born :ie fairest of her daughters Eve." P. Lost, B. iv, 1. 32. 8. '' Such adjectives," says Churchill, "as have in themselves a superlative significa- wo /-, ' Holder, more undeceivable . for these the proper expressions would have been the op; ^ without the negation; least apt, less corrupted, less deceit-able. Watts ' sarrier.' If he had simply said ' an impassable barrier,' we should have understood it at once in the strongest sense, as a barrier impossible to be surmounted : but, by at- tempting to express something more, he gives an idea of something less ; we perceive, that his iniji"- This is the mischief of the propensity to exaggeration ; which, striving after strength, sinks into weakness." Ib. p. 234. . 'i. The foregoing remarks from Churchill appear in general to have been dictated by good but, if his own practice is right, there must be some exceptions to his rule respecting the comparison of adjectives with a negative prefix ; for, in the phrase " less imprudent," which, ac- cording to a passage quoted before, he will have to be different from "more prudent," he himself furnishes an example of such comparison. In fact, very many words of that class are compared <1 writers: ns, " Nothing is more unnecessary." Loicth's Gram. Pref. p. v. " What is yet '." RooF.u-s : in Jok. Diet. " It is hard to determine which is most uneliffible." l. " Where it appears the nw*f 'ural." ADIHSOX : ib. " Men of the best sense, and of the most unblemished lives." 1nt) i.;liti ous tears Had left the flushing in her galled eyes." Shak. ). Comparison must not be considered a general property of adjectives. It belongs chiefly to the class which I call common adjectives, and is by no means applicable to all of these, f, or epithets denoting quality, are perhaps more numerous than all the other - put together. Many of these, and a few that are pronominal, may be varied by cpmpari- i : cetives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives i from proper namt8 t all :/\, and most of the compounds, are in no way smsceptible iparison. All nouns used adjectively, as an iron bar, an ',l, ;i muhoyainj chair, '.h-Sea dream, are also incapable of comparison. In the title of " His Mo\t Cftniltan Ma- plied to a i ut who will pretend that we ought to understand by it " tin- //it',' ' ;n attainment? It might seem uncourtly to i that this is " an abuM of the king's English." I shall therefore say no such thing. Pope is the word Christian, in the following couplet: . ;>urified bv Ibettai and '-in proge'ny." Dunciad, B. i, 1. 227. IIIKKUCLAK COMPARISOX. The following adjectives are ooinpureil irregularly : good, letter, best ; bad, evil, or re, most ; many, more, most. OBSKKVATIi . "Y.s7/, and also in that denote place or situat ion, not only form the siipeilat ither dei'ective or redundant in compari- I. 'I iore than one sujx-rlat:' . hind, h'hulir, kittam , ' tesi or II. Th ?' want the positive: [aft, adv.] afar, nftmost or aftermost; [forth, adv.] III. The following want the compara* ' 'most; top, t upmost ; bottom, bottommost . >/,* midmost or /// contraction of the regular guperl ut now obsolete. Mi;ic coiitracri'in f.,r ilu' ir;m rxdverb. In the following exn nple it is ?ft, and therefore an a-:. -.ill greatest lie the midst, Now dragon gro vn. :< Paradise Lost, B. x, 1. 18 274 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. north, northmost ; south, southmost ; east, eastmost ; icest, westmost ; northern, northernmost ; southern, southernmost ; eastern, easternmost ; ivestern, westernmost. OBS. 2. Many of these irregular words are not always used as adjectives, but oftener as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions. The sense in which they are employed, will show to what class they belong. The terms fore and hind, front and rear, right and left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, mid and after, all but the last pair, are in direct contrast with each other. Many of them are often joined in composition with other words ; and some, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their nouns : as, inland, oi^house, mid-sea, after-ages. Practice is here so capricious, I find it difficult to determine whether the compounding of these terms is proper or not. It is a case about which he that inquires most, may perhaps be most in doubt. If the joining of the words prevents the possibility of mistaking the adjective for a preposition, it prevents also the separate classification of the adjective and the noun, and thus in some sense destroys the former by making the whole a noun. Dr. Webster writes thus : " FE.ONTKOOM, n. A room or apartment in the forepart of a house. BACKROOM, n. A room behind the front room, or in the back part of the house." Octavo Diet. So of many phrases by which people tell of turning things, or changing the position of their parts ; as, mside out, outside in; tipside down, doivnside up; wrong end foremost, but-end foremost ; forepart back, /ore-end aft ; hind side before, backside before. Here all these contrasted particles seem to be adjectives of place or situation. What grammarians in general would choose to call them, it is hard to say; probably, many would satisfy themselves with calling the whole "an adverbial phrase," the common way of disposing of every thing which it is difficult to analyze. These, and the following examples from Scott, are a fair specimen of the uncertainty of present usage : " The herds without a keeper strayed, The pknighwas in mid-furrow staid." Lady of the Lake. " The eager huntsman knew his bound, And in mid chase called off his hound." Ibidem. OBS. 3. For the chief points of the compass, we have so many adjectives, and so many modes of varying or comparing them, that it is difficult to tell their number, or to know which to choose in practice. (1.) North, south, cast, and west, are familiarly used both as nouns and as adiectives. From these it seems not improper to form superlatives, as above, by adding most ; as^ " From Aroar to Nebo, and the wild of southmost Abarim." Milton. " There are no rivulets or springs in the island of Feror, the westmost of the Canaries." White's Nat. Hist. (2.) These primitive terms may also be compared, in all three of the degrees, by the adverbs farther anl farthest, or further and furthest ; as, "Which is yet farther west." Bacon. (3.) Though wa 'never employ as separate words the comparatives norther, souther, easier, wester, we have north- erly, southerly, easterly, and westerly, which seem to have been formed from such comparative? , by adding ly ; and these four may be compared by the adverbs more and most, or less and least : as, " These hills give us a view of the most easterly, southerly, and tcesterly parts of England." GRAUNT: in Joh. Diet. (4.) From these supposed comparatives likewise, some authors form the superlatives northermost, souther most, castermost, and wester most ; as, " From the westermost part of Oyster bay." Dr. Webster's Hist. U. S. p. 126. " And three miles southward of the souther- most part of said bay." Trumbull's Hist, of Amer. Vol. i, p. 88. " Pockanocket was on the westermost line of Plymouth Colony." Ib. p. 44. "As far as the northermost branch of the said bay or river." Ib. p. 127. The propriety of these is at least questionable ; and, as they aie neither very necessary to the language, nor recognized by any of our lexicographers, I forbear to approve them. (5.) From the four primitives we have also a third series of positives, ending in ern ; as, northern, southern, eastern, western. These, though they have no comparatives of their own, not only form superlatives by assuming the termination most, but are sometimes compared, perhaps in both degrees, by a separate use of the adverbs : as, " Southernmost, a. Furthest towards the south." Webster's Diet. "Until it shall intersect the northernmost part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude." Articles of Peace. "To the north-westernmost head of Connecticut river." Ib. " Thence through the said lake to the most north-western point thereof." Ib. OBS. 4. It may be remarked of the comparatives former and latter or hinder, upper and undef or nether, inner and outer or litter, after and hither ; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and Junior, major and minor ; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than. After all genuine English comparatives, this conjunction may occur, because it is the only fit word for introducing the latter term of comparison; but we never say, one thing is former or latter, 'or or inferior, than an other. And so of all the rest here named. Again, no real compara- tive or superlative can ever need an other siiperadded to it ; but inferior and superior convey ideas that do not always preclude the additional conception of more or 'less : as, " With respect to high and low notes, pronunciation is still more inferior to singing." Kames, Elements of Criti- . Vol. ii, p. 73. " The mistakes which the most superior understanding is apt to fall into." West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 117. OBS. 5. Double comparatives and double superlatives, being in general awkward and unfashion- able, as well as tautological, ought to be avoided. Examples: "The duke of Milan, and his more braver daughter, could control thee." Shak. Tempest. Say, " his more valiant daughter." " What in me was purchased, falls upon thee in a more fairer sort." Id. Henry IV. Say, "fairer" or, " more honest ," for "purchased" here means stolen. " Changed to a worscr shape thou canst not be." Id. 1 Hen. VI. Say, " a worse shape" or, " an uglier shape." most straitcst sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee." Acts, xxvi, 5. Say, " the strictest sect." 'Some say he's mad; others, that lesser hate him, do call it valiant fury." Shak. Say, " others, that hate him less." In this last example, lesser is used adverbially ; in which construc- tion it is certainly incorrect. But against lesser as an adjective, some grammarians have spoken with more severity, than comports with a proper respect for authority. Dr. Johnson says, ' LESSER, adj. A barbarous corruption of less, formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 275 comparatives in er ; aftcnrnrd adopted by poets, and then by icritcrs of prose, till it has all the author! f >/ tr. uriy/u-'il/y erroneous c<> ." <^ci>-^> I)irsi-r, though not more har>> tr the ear in a much greater d^ree, because it has not been so frequently used." : God made two great lights ; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night." (Jen. i, 16. Kirkham, after making an imitation of this passage, remarks upon it: M ; as ftuddi-r, gooder, icorser." Gnnn.\>. 77. The judgement of any critic who is ignorant enough to say this, is worthy only of contempt. 1 frequently "used by the most tasteful authors, both in verse ami ' It is the glowing style of a man who is negligent of A. >*/ graces" Blair's Rhct. p. 18'J. " Athos, Olympus, .Ktna, Atlas, made ^giiity." Byron. : jective little is used in different Censes ; for it contrasts sometimes with great, and someti! / appears to refer only to size. Hence less and lesser are not al- 1'iivalent terms. Lesser means mnalii-r, and contrasts only with greater. Less contrasts . but oftener with more, the comparative of much ; for, though it may mean not so hn'ife, its inost common meaning U /'. It ought to be observed, likewise, that iot an adjective of number,* though not unfrequently used as such. It does not mean few- er, and is therefore not properly employed in sentences like the following: " In all verbs, there are no test than three things implied at once." Blair's Rket. p. 81. " Smaller things than three," is nonsense; arid so, in reality, is what the Doctor here says. Less is not the proper opposite ' is the comparative of many : few, fewer, fewest, are the only words which con- trast regularly with many, more, moxt. In the following text, these comparatives are rightly em- vnd to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the But if writers will continue to use less for fewer, so that for inst.iiR'e.m iy mean " fewer cattle ; " we shall be under a sort of necessity to retain ler to speak intelligibly: as, " It shall be for the sending forth of oxen, and for the treading .f lesser cattle." l* l)i'-t. " By the same reason, may a man punish the leaser breaches of that law." Locke. " "NVh --'!' differences among the tastes of men." Blair's Rhet. p. 20. "In >:nplexity." Burke, on Sublime, p. 94. " The greater ought not to succumb to the A NV-/-." /; /?, p. 128. " To such productions, lesser composers must resort for ideas." 0 . Thus Allen : " Adjectives compounded with the Latin preposition per, already superlative; '.if/it, &c.'' We/m-nts of E. Gram. p. 52. In reply to this. 1 would s iy, tint nothing is really superlative, in English, but what has the form -itruclion of the superlative : as, " The most permanent of all dyes." No word beginning A- virtue of this La-tin prefix. " Separate spirits, which are beings that ;e and greater happiness than we, must needs have also a perfecter way of i than we have." >7y, B. ii, Ch. 24, $ 36. This mode of >od, but it shows that perfect is no superlative. Thus Kirkham : " The / others, are always in (//< supcrlntice deyri-e ; because, by express- . they carry in them-i Ives a superlative signification: nlimit<-d, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal.''-^ Gram. p. 73. * What II; " 'i th teaching of all onr lexicographers and grammarians, except one dauntless - uiken particular p in the defensive. This gentleman at actually exhibits -, posi- An I -i -rices less and more, least and moat, to the same :md most is equivalent to ADNAMES," and just MSS ; Few, fewer or less, few- nore, nm >-ce's Gram. p. 1 1 1- f these a 1 j.i-rhaps all the rest ; for his es to inn. nph be : such as, ' Chief, ex- ii-st, per- \{>ressions are therefore improper. ' Ho 1 became ;uid national ; ' 'A method universal, &c. not pos- iydo as he pleases about con. ; adjec- )regoing, will Irive work enough on bis hands. . l:nit of no variation ') f nir \ about as often at i" the langm ' mart '' and .< of per- lion."lh. pp. 1 \:} :ni'l l")l. 'iit quali- cannot be r>" :}i\p}\ Dr. I'.; s ic " impr", ettw TV- .,u e he judges them to have " an absolute or superlative signification, ' ; are u true, perfect, universal, chief > e. supreme. &c." no boJv knows how uiaiiv. ,>ec Principles of E. Gram. n. 19 and p. 115. 276 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. So the Rev. David Blair : " The words perfect, certain, infinite, universal, chief, supreme, right, trite, extreme, superior, and some others, which express a perfect and superlative sense in them- selves, do not admit of comparison." English Gram. p. 81. Now, according to Murray's defini- tion, which Kirkham adopts, none of these words can be at all in the superlative degree. On the contrary, there are several among them, from which true superlatives are frequently and correctly formed. Where are the positives which are here supposed to be " increased to the highest degree '.<"' Every real superlative in our language, except best and u-orst, most and least, first and last, with, the still more irregular word next, is a derivative, formed from some other English word, by add- ing est or most; as, truest, hindmost. The propriety or impropriety of comparing the foregoing words, or any of the "many others" of which this author speaks, is to be determined according to their meaning, and according to the usage of good writers, and not by the dictation of a feeble pedant, or upon the supposition that if compared they would form " double superlatives." OBS. 8. Chief is from the French word chef, the head : chief est is therefore no more a double superlative than headmost : " But when the headmost foes appe'ared." Scott. Nor are chief and chief cut equivalent terms: " Doeg an Edomite, the chief est of the herdsmen." 1 Samuel, xxi, 7. " The chief of the herdsmen," would convey a different meaning ; it would be either the leader of the herdsmen, or foe principal part of them. Chief est, however, has often been used where chief would have been better; as, " He sometimes denied admission to the chiefest officers of the army." Clarendon. Let us look further at Kirkham's list of absolute " superlatives." OBS. 9. Extreme is from the Latin superlative extremes, and of course its literal signification is not really susceptible of increase. Yet extremest has been used, and is still used, by some of the very best writers ; as, " They thought it the extremest of evils." Bacon. " That on the sea's extremest border stood." Addison. " How, to extremest thrill of agony." Pollok, B. viii, 1. 270. " I go th' extremest remedy to prove." Dry den. "In extremest poverty." Sivift. ' The hairy fool stood on th' extremest verge of the swift brook, augmenting it with tears." Shak. " While the extremest parts of the earth were meditating submission." Atterbury. " His writings are poeti- cal to the extremest boundaries of poetry." Adams's Rhetoric, i, 87. In prose, this superlative is not now very common ; but the poets still occasionally use it, for the sake of their measure ; and it ought to be noticed that the simple adjective is not partitive. If we say, for the first exam- ple, " the extreme of evils ; " we make the word a noun, and do not convey exactly the same idea that is there expressed. OBS. 10. Perfect, if taken in its strictest sense, must not be compared ; but this word, like many others which mean most in the positive, is often used with a certain latitude of meaning, which renders its comparison by the adverbs not altogether inadmissible ; nor is it destitute of authority, as I have already shown. (See Obs. 8th, p. 268.) " From the first rough sketches, to the more perfect draughts." Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 152. " The most perfect." Adams's Lect. on Rhet. i, 99 and 136 ; ii, 17 and 57 : Blair's Lect. pp. 20 and 399. " The most beautiful and per- fect example of analysis." Lowth's Gram. Pref. p. 10. " The plainest, most perfect, and most useful manual." Bullions' s E. Gram. Rec. p. 7. " Our sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, of all our senses." Addison, Spect. No. 411 ; Blair's Lect. pp. 115 and 194 ; Murray's Gram, i, 322. Here Murray anonymously copied Blair. " And to render natives more perfect in the knowledge of it." Campbell's Rhet. p. 171 ; Murray's Gram. p. 366. Here Murray "copied Campbell, the most accurate of all his masters. Whom did he copy when he said, " The phrases, more perfect, and most perfect, are improper?" Octavo Gram. p. 168. But if these are wrong, so is the following sentence : " No poet has ever attained a greater perfection than Horace." Blair's Lect. p. 398. And also this : " Why are we brought into the world less perfect in respect to our nature ? " West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 220. OBS. 11. Right and wrong are not often compared by good writers ; though we sometimes see &uch phrases as more right and more wrong, and such words as rightest and wrongest : " 'Tis al- ways in the icrongest sense." Butler. " A method of attaining the rightest and greatest hap- piness." PRICE : Priestley's Gram. p. 78. "It is no more right to steal apples, than it is to steal money." Webster's Neto Spelling-Book, p. 118. There are equivalent expressions which seem preferable; as, more proper, more erroneous, most proper, most erroneous. OBS. 12. Honest, just, true, correct, sincere, and vast, may all be compared at pleasure. Pope's Essay on Criticism is more correct than any thing this modest pretender can write ; and in it he may find the comparative justcr, the superlatives justest, truest, sincerest, and the phrases, " So vast a throng," " So vast is art :" all of which are contrary to his teaching. " Unjust er dealing Is used in miying man in senmg." nuuer s j^oems, p. IDS. " iniquissimam p&ceio.justisaimo bcllo antefero." Cicero. "I prefer the unjmtest peace before the ju&test war." Walker's English Particles, p. 68. The poet Cowley used the word honestcst ; which is not now very common. So Swift: " What honester folks never durst for their ears." The Yahoo's Overthrow. So Junius : " The honestest and ablest men." Letter XVIII. " The sentence would be more correct in the following form." Murray's Gram, i, p. 223. " Elegance is chiefly gained by studying the correctcst writers." Ilolmes's Rhetoric, p. 27. Honest and correct, for the sake of euphony, require the adverbs ; as, more honest, " most correct" Lowth's Gram. Pref. p. iv. Vast, vaster, vastest, are words as smooth, as fast, faster, fastest ; and more vast is certainly as good English as more just: " Shall mortal man be more just than God ?" Job, iv, 17, " Wilt thou condemn him that is most just /"' Ib. xxxiv, 17. "More wise, more learn'd, more just, morc-everything." Pope. Universal is often compared by the adverbs, but certainly with no reinforcement of meaning: as, "One of the most universal precepts, is, that the orator himself should feel the passion'." Adams's Rhet. i, 379. " Though not so universal." Ib. ii, 311. " This experience is general, though not so universal, as the absence of memory in childhood.'' Ib. ii, 362. " We can suppose no motive which would more universally operate." Dr. Blair's Rhet. p. 55. " Music is known to have been more universally studied." Ib. "p. 123. " We shall not wonder, that his gram- mar has been so universally applauded." Walker's Recommendation in Murray's Gram, ii, 306. " The pronoun it is the most universal of all the pronouns." Cutler's Gram. p. 66. Thus much for one half of this critic's twenty-two " superlatives." The rest are simply adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison : they are not " superlatives" at all. A man might just as well teach, that (jood is a superlative, and not susceptible of comparison, because " there is nonegoodbut one." CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. PARSING. PRAXIS IV. 277 OBS. 13. Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to thorn, and have no modifications : except this and that, which form the plurals t/i>,M and those ; and much, many, and a few others, which are compared. Examples : "Whence hath this man this wisdom, and these mighty works ?" Mutt, xiii, 54. " But some man will say. How are the dead raised up ? and with what body do they come ?" 1 Cor. xv, 35. "The first man Adam was made a living soul ; the last Adam was made a quickening spirit." lb. 45. So, when one pronominal adjective " precedes an other, the former mu-st be taken simply as an adjective ; as, " Those suns are set. rise some other such !" Coicper's Task, B. ii, 1. 252. Ons. 14. Pronominal adjectives when their nouns are not expressed, may be parsed as representing them in person, number, vender, and case; but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective, simply as an adject ice. Example : " He threatens many, who injures MM." K'imcs. Here it may be said, " Many is a pronominal adjective, meaning persons; of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case." Or those who will take the word simply as an adjective, may say," M -my is a pronominal adjective, of the positive degree, compared many, //< \-\ relating to persons understood." And so of which represents, or relates to, person understood. Either say, " One is a pronominal adjective, not compared," and give the three definitions accordingly ; or else say, " One is a pronominal adjective, relating to person understood; of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case," and give the six dejinitions accordingly. OBS. 15. Elder for older, and eldest for oldest, are still frequently used ; though the ancient positive, eld for old, is now obsolete. Hence some have represented old as having a two-fold com- l have placed it, not very properly, among the irregular adjectives. The comparatives .ad better, are often used as nouns ; "so are the Latin comparatives superior and inferior, interior and exterior, senior and junior, major and minor : as, The elder's advice One of ihe elders His betters Our superiors The interior of the country A handsome exterior Your seniors My junior* A nnijor in the army He i-. yet a minor. The word other, which has something of the nature of a comparative, likewise takes the form of a noun, as before suggested ; and, in that form, the reader, if he will, may call it a noun : as, " What do ye more than others /" Bible. " God in thus much is bounded, that the evil hath he left unto an other; and that Dark Other hath usurped the evil which Omnipotence laid down." T/fj>per's Book of Thoitf/hts, p. 45. Some call it a pronoun. But it seems to be pronominal, merely by ellipsis of the noun after it; although, unlike a mere adjective, it assumes the ending of the noun, to mark that ellipsis. Perhaps, therefore, the best explanation of it would be this : " Others is a pronominal adjective,, having the form of a noun, and put for other men , in the third person, plural number, masculine r, and nominative case." The gender of this word varies, according to that of the contrasted term ; and the case, according to the relation it bears to other words. In the following example, it is neuter and objective : ' The fibres of this muscle act as those of others" Cheyne. Here, >\ others," means, " as the fibres of other muscles." OBS. 16. " Comparatives and superlatives seem sometimes to part with their relative nature, and only to retain their intcnsirr, especially those which are formed by the sxiperlative adverb . "/ man,' ' A mostbrare man :' i. e. Not the bravest or the most learned man that ever was, but a man possessing bravery or learning in a very eminent degree." See ///*. p. 110. This use of the terms of comparison is thought by some not to be \ :tical. Ous. 17. Contractions of the superlative termination cat, as Jiii/Ji'st for hii/hest, bi i rth." Miis part of our grammar, that in many such cases it if diJii t. to use the apostrophe, or the hyphen, or both, or neither. To insert neither, unless we make a i the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and dejine the 278 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, and ADJECTIVES. The definitions to be given in the Fourth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, and one for a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an ad- verb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. " The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond : teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly." The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their sig- nification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things. Best is a common adjective, of the superlative degree ; compared irregularly, good, better, best. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordi- nary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 8. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it. And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. Most is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Effectual is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs ; effectual, more effectual, most effectual ; or, effectual, less effectual, least effectual. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. Method is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person, is that which denotes the per- son or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gen- der is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Teaching is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, atd of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4- The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Precisely is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. That is a pronominal adjective, not compared ; standing for that method, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See OBS. 14th, p. 277.] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which mayeithsr accompany its noun or represent it understood 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Which is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signi- fication. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things. Careless is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs ; careless, more careless, most careless ; or, care- leas, less carehss, least careless. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally express- es quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. Are is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Least is an adverb. 1. An adverb i.s a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Fond is a common adjective, compared regularly, fond, fonder, fondest ; but here made superlative by the ad- verb Itast. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3*. The superlative de- gree is that which is most or least of all included with it. Teach is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Learnedly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Rebuking is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing. d, or ed, to the verb. Whatsoever is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to beaded upon. False is a common adjective, of the positive degree ; compared regularly, false, falser, falsest. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2 A common adjective is any ordinary ep ; th(>t. or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. Elundtrhig is a participial adjective, compared by means of the adverbs ; blundering, more blundering, most blun- dering ; or, blundering, less Uunilfrin^, Lm^t bl.underhig. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- noun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the Idea of time. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. is a cos junction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. PARSING. PRAXIS IV. 27 'J Unmannerly is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; unmannerly, more unmannerly, mox t unmannerly ; or. unmannerly, l?sx u '/. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. '2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or n.'-i'i,' LESSON I. PARSING. " The noblest and most beneficial invention of which human ingenuity can boast, is that of writing." Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 193. " Charlemagne was the tallest, the handsomest, and the strongest man of his time ; his appearance was truly majestic, and he had surprising agility in all sorts of manly exercises." Stories of France, p. 19. " Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less or more plentiful." Beatties Moral Science, p. 378. *' The right way of acting, is, in a moral sense, as much a reality, in the mind of an ordinary man, as the straight or the right road." Dr. Murray's Hist. Lang, i, 118. " The full period of several members possesses most dignity and modulation, and conveys also the greatest degree of force, by admitting the closest compression of thought." Jarnieson's Rhet. p. 79. His great master, Demosthenes, in addressing popular audiences, never had re- course to a similar expedient. He avoided redundancies, as equivocal and feeble. He aimed only to make the deepest and most efficient impression ; and he employed for this purpose, the plainest, the fewest, and the most emphatic words " Ibid. p. 68. " The high eloquence which I have last mentioned, is always the offspring of pas- sion. A man actuated by a strong passion, becomes much greater than he is at other times. He is conscious of more strength and force ; he utters greater sentiments, conceives higher designs, and executes them with a boldness and felicity, of which, on other occasions, he could not think himself capable." Blair's Rhet. p. 236. " His words bore sterling weight, nervous and strong, In manly tides of sense they roll'd along." Churchill. " To make the humble proud, the proud submiss, AVisc-r the wisest, and the brave more brave." W. S. Landor. " T nm a LESSON II. PARSING. " I am satisfied that in this, as in, all cases, it is best, safest, as well as most right and honorable, to speak freely and plainly." Channing's Letter to Clay, p. 4. " The gospel, when preached with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, through the wonder-working power of God, can make the proud Humble, the selfish disinter- ested, the worldfy heavenly, the sensual pure." Christian Experience, p. 399. " I am so much the better, as I am the liker* the best ; and so much the holier, ns I am more conformable to the holiest, or rather to Him who is holiness itself." Bp. " Whether anything in Christianity appears to them probable, or improbable; con- sistent, or inconsistent; agreeable to what they should have exported, or the contrary ; <>r ridiculous and useless; is perfectly irrelevant." M'Hvaine** "G i '- providence is higher, and deeper, and larger, and stronger, than all the skill of his ndv ".1 his pl<-asun' > } v\\\ be accomplished in their overthrow, ex- cept they repent and boronie his friends." Cox, on Christianity, p. 445. A just i"'i-!i of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is a tine preparation for the same just relish of I these qualities in rh:ir:i<-t-.-r and behaviour. To the man who has ai'quirt-d a taste so acute and accomplished, every action wrong or improper must be highly disgustful : if, in any instance, the overbearing power of passion sway him from his duty, he re- * The regular rotnpnrUon of this word, (like, liker, lik'*!.) seems to be obsolete, or nearly fo. It is seldom met with, except in oil l>onk> <" lik', or wontt Ukf. " To ?ay the flock with \\\\< m Hkeat to Christ." &irclay's~ Works, Vol. i, p. 1" i. " Of Godlike pow'r? for likest Goda they seem'd.'' Milt,r ..301. 280 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. turns to it with redoubled resolution never to be swayed a second time." Kames, Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 25. " In grave Quintilian's copious work, we find The justest rules and clearest method join'd." Pope, on Grit. LESSON III. PARSING. " There are several sorts of scandalous tempers ; some malicious, and some effemi- nate ; others obstinate, brutish, and savage. Some humours are childish and silly ; some, false, and others, scurrilous; some, mercenary, and some, tyrannical." Col- lier's Antoninus, p. 52. " Words are obviously voluntary signs : and they are also arbitrary; excepting a few simple sounds expressive of certain internal emotions, which sounds being the same in all languages, must be the work of nature : thus the unpremediated tones of admiration are the same in all men." Kames, Elements of Crit. i, 347. "A stately and majestic air requires sumptuous apparel, which ought not to be gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A woman of consummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned, and yet shows best in a plain dress." Ib. p. 279. " Of all external objects a graceful person is the most agreeable. But in vain will a person attempt to be graceful, who is deficient in amiable qualities." Ib. p. 299. " The faults of a writer of acknowledged excellence are more dangerous, because the influence of his example is more extensive ; and the interest of learning requires that they should be discovered arid stigmatized, before they have the sanction of an- tiquity bestowed upon them, and become precedents of indisputable authority." Dr. Johnson, Rambler, Yol. ii, No. 93. "Judges ought to be more learned than witty, more reverend than plausible, and more advised than confident ; above all things, integrity is their portion and proper virtue." Bacon's Essays, p. 145. " The wisest nations, having the most and best ideas, will consequently have the best and most copious languages." Harris's Hermes, p. 408. Here we trace the operation of powerful causes, while we remain ignorant of their nature ; but every thing goes on with such regularity and harmony, as to give a strik- ing and convincing proof of a combining directing intelligence." Life of W. Allen, Vol. i, p. 170. " The wisest, unexperienced, will be ever Timorous and loth, with novice modesty, Irresolute, unhardy, unad venturous." Milton. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF ADJECTIVES. LESSON I. DEGREES. " I have the real excuse of the honestest sort of bankrupts." Cowley's Preface, p. viii. f FORMULE. Not proper, because the adjective honestest is harshly compared by est. But, according to a princi- ple stated on page 271*r,, concerning the regular degrees, " This method of comparison is to be applied only to monosyllables, and to dissyllables of a smooth termination, or such as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent." Therefore, honestest should be most honest ; thus, " I have the real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts. 5 '] " The honourablest part of talk, is, to give the occasion." Bacon's Essays, p. 90. " To give him one of his own modestest proverbs." Barclay's Works, iii, 340. " Our language is now certainly properer and more natural, than it was formerly." Bj). Burnet. " Which will be of most and frequentest use to him in the world." Locke, on Education, -p. 163. " The same is notified in the notablest places in the diocese." Whitgift. " But it was the dreadfullest sight that ever I saw." Pilgrim's Progress, p. 70. " Four of the ancientest, soberest, and discrcetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regulate it." Locke, on Church Gov. "Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of ancicnter time, without this skill." Walker's Particles, p. x. " Far the Icarn- edest of the Greeks." Ib. p. 120. " The learneder thou art, the humbler be thou." Ib. p. 228. "He is none of the best or honestest." Ib. p. 274. "The properest methods of communicating it to others." Burn's Gram. Pref. p. viii. " What heaven's great King hath powerfullest to send against us." Paradise Lost. "Benedict is not the unhopefullest husband that I know." SIIAK. : in Joh. Diet. "That he should immediately do all the CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. ERRORS. 281 meanest and triflingest things himself." RAY : in Johnson's Gram. p. 6. "I shall be named among the famouscst of women." MILTON'S S. "Those have the inven- heads for all purpo- i AM : ib. "The wrctcheder are the contemners of all ." BKX JONSOX : ib. " 1 will now deliver a few of the properest and naturallest con- siderations that belong to this piece." WI/TTOX : ib- " The mortalest poisons practised by the We^t Indians have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man." BACOX : ib. " He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the faithfulest and most affectionate allies the M<"l"s ever had." Rnllin, ii, 71. " ' You see before you,' says he to him, ' the most devoted servant, and the faithfullest ally, you ever had.'" Ib. ii/79. "I chose the flour- ishing'st tree in all the park." Coirl-i/. " Which he placed, I think, some centuries backyarder than Julius Africanus thought fit to place it afterwards." Bolinybroke,on His- tory, p. 53. " The Tiber, the notedst river of Italy." Littleton's Diet. "To fartherest shores the ambrosial spirit flies." Cutler's Gram. p. 140. " That what she wills to do or say, Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best." Milton, B. viii, 1. 550. LESSON II. MIXED. " During the three or four first years of its existence." Taylor's District School, p. 27. [K.iKMi I.K. Not proper, because the cardinal numbers three and four are put before the ordinal first. Bat, accor.liii^ to the 7th part of Obs. 7th, page 26Sth, " In specifying any part of a series, we ought to place the cardi- nal number after the ordinal." Therefore the words three and/our should be placed after first / thus, " During three or four years of its existence/'] " I'o the first of these divisions, my ten last lectures have been devoted." Adams's Rhet. Vol. i, p. 391. " There are in the twenty-four states not less than sixty thousand common schools." Taylors District School, p. 38. "I know of nothing which gives teachers so much trouble as this want of firmness." Ib. p. 57. "I know of nothing that throws such vor the line which separates right from wrong." Ib. p. 58. " None need this purity and simplicity of language and thought so much as the common school instructer." Ib. p. 01. " I know of no periodical that is so valuable to the teacher as the Annals of :ion." Ib. p. 67. "Are not these schools of the highest importance ? Should not every individual feel the deepest interest in their character and condition:" Ib. p. 78. "If tion were made a profession, teachers would feel a sympathy for each other." Ib. " Notiling is so likely to interest children as novelty and change." Ib. p. 131. " I of no labour which affords so much happiness as that of the teacher's." Ib. p. 136. r school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable of any that they engage in." /';. p. 13';. "I know of no exercise so beneficial to the pupil as that of drawing maps." ft. p. 176, ' I know of nothing in which our district schools are so defective as they are in the art of teaching grammar." Ib. p. 196. "I know of nothing so easily acquired as history." Ib. p. 206. "I know of nothing for which scholars usually have such an abhorrence, as composition." Ib. p. 210. "There is nothing in our fellow-men that we should respect with so much sacredness as their good name." Ib. p. 307. " Sure never any tiling was so unbred as that odious man." CONGREVE: in Joh. Diet. " In the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deccast." Philological Museum, i, 4G6. " These master-works would still be less excellent and finisht." Ib. i, 469. "Every attempt to Btuylaee the language of polisht conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy." /',. i, 678. " Here are a few of the unpleasant'st words that ever blotted paper." K. : /// J(th. Did. " With the most easy, undisobliging transitions." BUOOME : ib. "1 i>, of all affections, the unaptest to admit any conference with reason." HOOKER : ib. '- think glass a body more undestroyable than gold itself." BOYLE: ib. " To part with unhai-kt edges, and bear back our barge undinted." SIIAK. : ib. " Erasmus, who was an unbigotted Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage." ADDISOX : ib. 'tan five words, witli any of which the sentence might have termina- ted." r.,., | rf. p. 897. " The one p'rca-h Christ of contention ; but the other, of :, L6. " I!' ;! \\ i; ;il 1.,-s discontent and heart-burnings, than where tally burdene'l." .!// ,//' Thinkimi, p. 56. The serpent, subtil'.-! beast of all the Held, I knew ; but not with human voice indu'd." MILTOX : ib. w. Human. II >\v much more grievous would our lives appear, To reach th' eighth hundred, than the eightieth year?" Denham, B. P., ii, -ii. LESSON III. MIXKK 4 ' Brutus . Ith Aruns ; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced one another atth( Dii-t. the i>hnue one anothtr is here applied to two persons only, the words an and Oth- ' i ;_. (fimiii'Uii'lf'l. I- i .5 of A'ljctivi-s. tiirh athff n other to more than ftwo. Therffri- " nntittr her. \*..sf(ititicc/>/, for nouns not previously introduced: some, re/atirefy, for nouns or pronouns going before ; some, adjectivcly, for nouns that must follow them in any explanation which can be made of the sense. These three modes of subMituiiun, are very different, each from the others. Yet they do not serve for an accurate division of the pronouns; because it often happens, that a substitute which commonly represents the noun in one of tin >< w:,ys. will sometimes represent it in an other. <)i:s. 3. The pronouns / and tftov, in their different modifications, stand immediately for per- sons that are, in general, sufficiently known without being named ; (/ meaning the sjirtiker, and tfiou, the In arcr ,) their Antecedents, or nouns, are therefore generally understood. The other personal pronouns, also, arc sometimes taken in a general and demonstrative sense, to denote 3 or things not previously mentioned; as, " lie that hath knowledge, spareth his words." Biblt. Here //c is equivalent to tin- man, cr the person. " The care of posterity is most in Hum that have no posterity." !',(/<(, n. Here tin >n is equivalent to those persons. " How far do you call it . . . or people latives, do not always relate to % noun or pronoun going before them ; for who may be a direct substitute for irhnt person; and irhich may mean which person, onchich thine/ : as, " And he that was heal.-d. wist not ic ho it was." John, V, 13. That is, " The man who was healed, knew not what pd-on it was." " 1 care not which you take ; they are so much alike, one cannot tell which is which.'" (Jus. 1. A pronoun with which a question is asked, usually stands for some person or thing Tid, in fact, as they have no inflections for the numbers and cases, there is reason to think them at all times essentially such. We call them pronouns, to avoid the inconvenience of supposing and supplying an infinite multitude of ellipses. But who, though often equivalent (as bore) to an adjective and a noun, is never itself used adjectively ; it is always a pronoun. OBS. o. In respect to icho or ir/,o>/>, it sometimes makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we take it as a demonstrative pronoun equivalent to tchat person, or suppose it to relate to an antecedent understood before it : as, Even so the Son quickeneth whom he will." John, v, 21. That is " what persona he will," or, " those persons whom he will ; " for the Greek word for whom, is, in this instance, plural. The former is a shorter explanation of the meaning, but the latter I take to be the true account of the construction ; for, by the other, we make whom a double relative, and the object of two governing words at once. So, perhaps, of the following example, which Dr. Johnson cites under the word who, to show what he calls its " disjunctive sense : " " There thou tellst of kings, and who aspire ; Who fall, who rise, who triumph, who do moan." Daniel. '. It sometimes happen! that the real antecedent, or the term which in the order of the -tand before the pronoun, is not placed antecedently to it, in the order given to the It is written, TO irhinn he was not spoken of, they shall see ; and they that have not understand." / .21. Here the sense is, " They to whom he was not spo- Whoever take- the passage otherwise, totally misunderstands it. And yet Vr of the words might be used to signify, " They shall see to whom (that is, to what ken of." Transpositions of this kind, "as well as of ei ery other, occur most frequently in poetry. The following example is from an Essay on Satire, printed with Pope's Works, but written by ono of his friend- : " ! ' 'lime, the scandal too be theirs ; The knave and fool are their own libellers." /. Proton. DM. 7. The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the ante- pronouns : as, l\>- also that is slothful in his w ,.rk, is brother to him that is a great waster." Prw. xvhi, 9. Here he and him are each equivalent to tin- ma,,, and each is **n ' ''ive which follows it. " For both he that ianctifieth, ami thnj t/7/0 are -an. tified, are all ..four : for which cause, he is not ashamed to call tht-m brethren." Ll, 11. Here h>- and they may be considered the antecedents to that and irho, of the first he and them, of the second. So the interrogative who may be the antecedent IIVio that has any moral sense, dares tell lies:" Here who, being n, is the term with which the other pronoun agrees. Nay, an interrogative . , Kiun which is implied in it.) may be the antecedent to a tx rsonal pronoun ; as, 'Who hath first given to Him, and it shall be recompensed to Asm again ?".Romaji, ki, 30. Hen- the idea is, " What penon hath first given ani/thhii/ to the Lord, so that it ought to be re- I 1 _'" -it the (lift ought to be recompensed from Heaven to t/u; yiu-r f" In following example, the first pronoun is the antecedent to all the rest: " And he that never doubted of his state, He may perhaps perhaps he may too late." Cowper. 284 . THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBS. 8. So the personal pronouns of the possessive case, (which some call adjectives,) are sometimes represented by relatives, though less frequently than their primitives : as, " How different, O Ortogrul, is thy condition, who art doomed to the perpetual torments of unsatisfied desire!" Dr. Johnson. Here who is of the second person, singular, masculine ; and represents the antecedent pronoun thy : for thy is a pronoun, and not (as some writers will have it) an adjective. Examples like this, disprove the doctrine of those grammarians who say that my, thy, his, her, its, and their plurals, our, your, their, are adjectives. For, if they were mere adjectives, they could not thus be made antecedents. Examples of this construction are sufficiently common, and sufficiently clear, to settle that point, unless they can be better explained in some other way. Take an instance or two more : " And they are written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world are come." 1 Cor. x, 11. " Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; His praise is lost, who stays till all commend." Pope. CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, relative, and interroga- tive. I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what per- son it is : as, " Whether it* were Jor they, so we preach, and so ye believed." 1 Cor. xv, 11. The simple personal pronouns are five : namely, /, of the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and it, of the third person. The compound personal pronouns are also five : namely, myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second person ; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence ; as, " No people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous." Dr. Johnson. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, as, and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever.^ What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that which or those which ; Sind is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and then as relative : as, " This is what I wanted ; that is to say, the thing tvhich I wanted." L. Murray. III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a questi'on is asked ; as, " Who touched my clothes ? "Mark, v, 30. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what ; being the same in form as relatives. Who demands a person's name ; which, that a person or thing be distin- guished from others ; what, the name of a thing, or a person's occupation and character. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The pronouns /and myself, thou and thy&cif, with their inflections, are literally appli- cable to persons only ; but, figuratively, they represent brutes, or whatever else the human imagination invests with speech and reason. The latter use of them, though literal perhaps in every thing but person, constitutes the purest kind of personification. For example : " The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them : and they said unto the olive-tree, ' lleign thou over us.' But the olive-tree said unto them, ' Should /leave my fatness, wherewith by me they honour God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees ?' " See Judyes, ix, from 8 to 16. OBS. 2. The pronouns he and himself, she and herself, with their inflections, are literally applicable to persons and to brutes, and to these only ; if applied to lifeless objects, they animate them, and are figurative in gender, though literal perhaps in every other respect. For example : " A diamond of beauty and lustre, observing at his side in the same cabinet, not only many other * Some grammarians exclude the word it from the list of personal pronouns, because it does not convey the idea of that personality which consists in individual intelligence. On the other hand, they will have who to be a personal pronoun, because it is literally applied to persons only, or intelligent beings. But I judge them to be wrong in respect to both ; and, had they given definitions ot their several classes of pronouns, they might perhaps have found out that the word it is always personal, iu a grammatical sense, and who, either relative or interrogative. t u whoto and ivhatso are found in old authors, but are mm out of use.'' ChurchilPs Gram. p. 76. These antiquated words are equivalent in import to whosoever and whatsoever. The former, whoso, being used many times in the Bible, and occasionally also by the poets, as by Cowper, Whittier, and others, can hardly be said to be obsolete ; though Wells, like Churchill, pronounced it so, in his first edition. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. CLASSES. 285 gems, but even a loadstone, began to question the latter how he came there he, who appeared to be no better than a mere flint, a sorry rusty-looking pebble, without the least shining quality to advance him to such honour; and concluded with desiring hiin to keep his distance, and to pay a proper respect to his superiors." . ' f Thinhin not, in itself, present them as such. Thus we say, /," "/<' was they;" ".ft was you;" "It was your a '>kcn of. That subject, whatever it be in itself, may be introduced again after tiie i ;.ny person, number, or gender, that suits it. But, as the verb agrees with the pronoun it, the \\\trd which follows, can in no sense be made, as Dr. Priestley will have it to be, the dent to that pronoun. Besides, it is contrary to the nature of what is primarily demonstrative, to represent a preceding word of any kind. The Doctor absurdly says, " Not only things, but per- sons, rtviy be the antecedent to this pronoun; as, Who is it / Is it not Thomas f i. e. Who is the person.' Is not he Tho.r n. p. So. In these examples, the terms are trans- posed by interrogation ; but that circumstance, though it may have helped to deceive this author and his copiers, affects not my assertion. I. The pronoun who is usually applied only to persons. Its application to brutes or to things is improper, unless we mean to personify them. But whose, the possessive case of this relati times used to supply the place of the possessive case, otherwise wanting, to the relative whf,-h. Examples: '-The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be pro- period is used." Xuttiny's Gram. p. 124. " We remember best those things whose parts are methodically disposed, and mutually connected." Beat tic's Moral Science, i, 59. " Is there any other doctrine whose followers are piaiished ?" ADDISOX : Murray's Gram. p. 54; Lowth's,p. 2o. " The question, whose solution I require, Is, what the sex of women most desire." DRYDEN : Lowth, p. 25. Ons. 5. Buchanan, as well as Lowth, condemns the foregoing use of whose, except in grave poetry : saying, " This manner of personification adds an air of dignity to the higher and more solemn kind of poetry, but it is highly improper in the lower kind, or in prose." Buchanan's ;< Sijnta.r, p. 73". And, of the last two examples above quoted, he says, " It ought to be of oth places: L e. The followers of which ; the solution of which." Ib. p. 73. The truth i*. th it no personification is here intended. Hence it may be better to avoid, if we can, this use of w'iosf, as seeming to imply what we do not mean. But Buchanan himself (stealing the text of an older author) has furnished at least one example as objectionable as any of the fore- going : " Prepositions are naturally placed betwixt the Words whose Relation and Dependence English >y\v confined to brute animals and inanimate things. Thus, " Our Father which art in heaven," is not now reckoned go ; it should be, " Our Father who art in heaven." In this, as well as in many oth' r things, the custom of speech has changed; so that what was once right, is now un.:nii;imatical. The use of which for who is very common in the Bible, and in other books of the th century ; but all good writers now avoid the construction. It occurs seventy- .ird chapter of I. >, whirl, was the son of Heli, which was the son ot : a personal term taken by metonymy for a thing, which is not impro; 'Of the particular author which he is studying." Galluudet. And as an interro- gative or :. demonstrative pronoun or adjective, the wonpc/,/r/t is still applicable to persons, as former! \ ; is, " Which of you all?" Which man of you all?" "There arose a reasoning among them, which of them ^loul.: -^."Luke, ix, 46. "Two fair twins the puzzled strangers, which is which, inquire." TickeL 7 If which, as a direct relative, is inapplicable to persons, who ought to be preferred to it in all personifications "Thcs- Icome thou dread power, Nameless, yet thus omnipotent, which here Walk'st in the shadow of the midnight hour." UYUOX : Child. ''primage, Cant, iv, st. 138. What sort of personage is here imagined and addressed, I will not pretend to say ; but it should seem, that icho would be more proper than which, though less agreeable in sound before the word In one of his iiotes^m this word, Chrchill has fallen into a strange error. He will have who to represent a horm- .' and that, in such a sense as would require which and not who, even for a person. As he prints the masculine pronoun in Italics, perhaps he thought, with Murray and 286 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [rART II. Webster, that which must needs be " of the neuter gender."* He says, " In the following passage, which seems to be used instead of who : ' Between two horses, which doth bear him best; I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment.' SHAK., 1 Hen. ~\~L" Churchill's Gram. p. 226. OBS. 8. The pronoun what is usually applied to things only. It has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and as relative, in the form of a single word ; being equivalent to that which, or the thiiif/ which, those which, or the things which. In this dou- ble relation, what represents two cases at the same time : as, " He is ashamed of wJiat he has done;" that is, "of what [thing or action] he has done ;" or, "of that [thing or action] which he has done." Here are two objectives. The two cases are sometimes alike, sometimes different; for either of them may be the nominative, and either, the objective. Examples : " The dread of censure ought not to prevail over what is proper." Kames y EL of Crit. Vol. i, p. 252. "The public ear will not easily bear what is slovenly and incorrect." Blair's llhct. p. 12. " He who buys whathe does not need, will often need what he cannot buy." Student's Manual, p. 290. " What is just, is honest ; and again, what is honest, is just." Cicero. " He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches." Rev. ii, 7, 11, 17, 29 ; iii, 6, 13, 22. OBS. 9. This pronoun, what, is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural : as, " I must turn to the faults, or ichat appear such to me." Byron. " All distortions and mimic- ries, as such, are what raise aversion instead of pleasure." Steele. " Purified indeed from total appear to be its real defects." Wordsworth's Pref. p. xix. " Every single impression, made even 1 P 1 ^_ manifest solecism : " What has since "followed are but natural consequences." J. C. CALHOUN, Speech in U. S. Senate, March 4, 18oO. Here has should be have; or else the form should be this : " What has since followed, is but a natural consequence." OBS. 10. The common import of this remarkable pronoun, what, is, as we see in the foregoing examples, twofold ; but some instances occur, in which it does not appear to have this double con- struction, but to be simply declaratory ; and many, in which the word is simply an adjective : as, " What a strange run of luck I have had to-day ! " Columbian Orator, p. 293. Here what is a mere adjective; and, in, the following examples, a pronoun indefinite: " I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her." Shak. " He knows what 's what, and that 's as high As metaphysic wit can fly." Hudibras. OBS. 11. What is sometimes used both as an adjective and as a relative at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents; being equivalent to the adjective any or all, and the simple relative who, which,-]; or that : as, " What money we had, was taken away." That is, "All the money that we had, was taken away." " What man but enters, dies." That is, "Any man who enters, dies." "It was agreed that ichat goods were aboard his vessels, should belaud- ed." Mickle's India, p. 89. " What appearances of worth afterwards succeeded, were drawn ft om thence." Internal Policy of Great Britain, p. 196. That is, "All the appearances of wo:-th, which afterwards succeeded." Priestley's Gram. p. 93. Indeed, this pronoun does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative : none but the most illiterate ever seriously use it so. What put for who or which, is therefore a ludicrous vulgarism ; as, " The aspiring youth what fired the Ephesian dome." Jester. The word used as above, however, does not always pre- clude the introduction of a personal pronoun before the subsequent verb ; as, " What god but enters yon forbidden field, Who yields assistance, or but wills to yield, Back to the skies with shame he shall be driven, Gash'd with dishonest wounds, the scorn of heaven/' Pope's Homer. OBS. 12. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction as has the simpler word what: as, "Whatever word expresses an affirmation, or assertion, is a verb ; or thus, Whatever word, with a noun or pronoun before or after it, makes full sense, is a verb." Adam's Latin Gram. p. 78. That is, "Any word which expresses," &c. " We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth." Jeremiah, xliv, 17. That is " any thing, or every thing, which." "Whatever sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same propor- tion, harsh and painful to the ear." Blair's Rhet. p. 121 ; Murray's Gram. p. 325. " Whatsoever things were written aforetime, were written for our learning." Romans, xv, 4. In all these ex- amples, the word whatever or whatsoever appears to be used both adjectively and relatively. There are instances, however, in which the relation of this term is not twofold, but simple : as, " What- ever useful or engaging endowments we possess, virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre." English Reader, p. 23. Here whatever is simply an adjective. " The declarations contained in them [the Scriptures] rest on the authority of God himself; and there can be no ap- peal from them to any other authority whatsoever." London Epistle, 1836. Here whatsoever may * " ' The man is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence is incorrect, because which is a pronoun of the neuter gender." Murray' 1 s Exercises, p. 18. " Which is also a relative, but it is of [the] neuter gender. It is also interrogative." Webster's Improved Gram. p. 26. For oversights like these, I cannot account. The relative which is of all the genders, as every body ought to know, who has ever heard of the horse ivhich Alexander rude, of the ass which spoke to Balaam, or of any of the animals ivhich Noah had with him in the ark. t The word which, also, when taken in its discriminative sense, (i. e. to distinguish some persons or things from others,) may have a construction of this sort ; and, by ellipsis of the noun after it, it may likewise bear a resem- blance to the double relative what : as, " I phall now give you two passages ; and request you to point uufc which words are mono-syllables, ivhich dis-syllables, which tris-syllables, and which poly -syllables. "'Ihicke's Gram. p. 16. Here, indeed, the word what might be substituted for ivhich; because that also has a discriminatiYB sense. Either would be right ; but the author might have presented the same words and thoughts rather more accurately, thus : " I shall now give you two passages ; and request you to point out which words are monosylla- bles ; which, dissyllables ; which, trissyllables ; and which, polysyllables." CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. - PRONOUNS. - CLASSES. 287 be parsed cither as an adjective relating to authority, or as an emphatic pronoun in apposition with its noun, like himself in the preceding clause. In this general explanatory sense, irlnitwever may be applied to persons as well as to things ; as, " I should be sorry if it entered into the ima- gination or ' .> l^tirc, or a term which includes both antecedent and relative ; as, " Wlxf, per pun: ;;lso the heart." Emjlixh lieatlrr, p. 23. Thatis. "Atl t/ic.t purifies or. Everything fliir/t purifies fortifies also the heart.'' ' H7t/t< trhich he doeth shall prosper." This con- struction, however, may be supposed elliptical. The Latin expression is, "O faciet ' ilnmtur." ]~'.( ur .im^ xrce of a relai '' God shall help her, and that right early." Fsal. xlvi, 5. " Nay, ye do wrong, and defraud, and that your brethren." 1 Cor. vi, 8. " I'll know your business, thai I will." Shaksptare. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. CLASSES. 289 a conjunction ; and, as such, it most commonly makes what follows it, the purpose, object, or final cause, of what precedes it : as, " I read th'it I may learn." Dr. Adam. " Ye men of Athens, ul. "Live well, that you may die Genesis. " Judge not, that ye be i 111. ill U*U*^J V/l T Hv*l, pi ^U^VA^O Ifc . iA^j JL * V **_. MTV*** A lllt* t ? IV HH. I perceive that in all things ve arc too superstitious." St. Paul. "Live well, that you may die well." Anon. " Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." < not judged." Matthew. OBS. 18. The word that, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain ; as, " For in the" day that thou eatest thereof, thou sh.ilt surely die." Gen. ii, 17. IlereM'W seems to be a relative pronoun, representing day, in the third person, sin- gular, neuter; yet, in other respects it seems to be a conjunction, because there is nothing to determine its case. Better: " For in the day on which thou eatest thereof, thoushalt surely die." This mongrel construction of the word that, were its justification possible, is common enough in our language to be made good English. But it must needs be condemned, because it renders the character of the term ai md is such a grammatical difficulty as puts the parser at a dead nonplus. Examples : (I.) " But at the same time THAT men are giving their orders, God on his part is likewise giving his." Rollings Hist, ii, 106. Here the phrase, " at the same time that,"' is only equivalent to the adverb while ; and yet it is incomplete, because it means, "at t/te same time at tOAicA," or, "at the very tim> at ichich." (2.) " The author of this work, at the same time THAT he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be too concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in the disposition of them, has studied to render his subject sufficiently easy, intelli- gible, and comprehensive." Murray's Gram., Introd., p. 1. This sentence, which is no unfair specimen of its author's original style, needs three corrections : 1. For " at the same time that," say while: 2. Drop the phrase, "which may be," because it is at least useless : 3. For " aufr- ject," read treatise, or compilation. You will thus have tolerable diction. Again: (3.) "The participles of active verbs act upon objects and govern them in the objective case, in the same manner that the verbs do, from which they are derived. A participle in the nature of an adjective, belongs or refers to nouns or pronouns in" the same manner that adjectives do ; and when it will admit the degrees of comparison, it is called*, participial adjective." Sanborn's Gram. p. 38. This is the style of a gentleman of no ordinary pretensions, one who thinks he has produced the best grammar that has ever appeared in our language. To me, however, his work suggests an abun- the relation" ? When do'es a participle " admit the degrees of comparison ?" How shall we parse the word that in the foregoing senteni UHS. 1! The word.v, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has sometimes the construc- tion of a relative pronoun, especially after such, so many, or as many and, whatever the antecedent noun m;iy be, this is the only jit relative to follow any of these terms in a restrictive sense. Exam- ples: "We have been accustomed to repose on its veracity with such humble confidence as suppresses curiosity." Johnson's Life of Cowfey. " The malcontents made such demands as none but a tyrant could refuse." Bolinabroke, on Hist. Let. 1. " The Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." Acts, ii, 47. "And as many as were ordained to eternal life, believed." Acts, xiii, 48. "As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten." Rev. iii, 19. " Know ye not, that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into his death :"//"///. vi, 3. "For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ." Gal. iii, 27- " A syllable is s ma>/ letters as are spoken with one motion of the voice." l'i r/'-if's H mm. p. 8. " The compound tenses are s^lch as cannot be formed without an auxili- ary verb." Murray's Gram. p. 91. "Send him such books as will please him." Webster's Improved Gntm. p. 37. "In referring to su>-/t a division of the day as is past, we use the imper- f-'ct." M//rr KI '.> drum. p. ~(). " 1'articiples have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived." Ib. Rule xiv. " Participles ha\ e government as the verbs have from which they an- derived." Sunburn's Gram. p. 'Jl. In some of these examples, as is in the nomina- d in others, in the objective ; in some, it is of the masculine gender, and in others, it is neuter; in some, it is of the plural number, and in others, it is singular : but in all, it is of the third person ; and in all, its person, number, gender, and case, are as obvious as those of any inva- riable pronoun can be. Oiss. -2'}. Some writers (the most popular are Webster, Bullions, Wells, and Chandler )ima- gine that as, in such sentence* :is the foregoing, can be made a conjunction, and not a pronoun, if i to consider the phraseology elliptical. Of the example for which I am indebted to him, Dr. Webstc : :ed as the nominative to ir ill please, orwemustsup- ral words : as, ' Send him such books as the books ichich will please him, or as those, u-hich will please him.'" Imprm-nl dram. p. .'57. This pretended explanation must be d as an absurditv. In either form of it, tiro nominatives are idly imagined between as and ,} ; and, I ask, of what is the first one the subject ? If you say, " Of are understood, "making i books as theliook* an " does not as bear the same relation to this new verb arc, that is found in the pronoun who, when one says, " Tell him u'/io you arc?" If so, as is a pronoun still ; so that, thus far, you gain nothing. And if you will have the whole explanation to be, " Send him such books as the books are boote ichich will please him ;" you multiply words, and finally arrive at nothing, bat tautology and nonsense. Wells, not condescending to show his. pupils what he would supply after this as, thinks it sufficient to say, the word is " followed by an, ellipsis of one or more words required to complete the construction ; as, ' !!- was the father of all ] handle the harp and organ.' Gen. 4: 21." W'dls's School Gram. 1st Ed. p. IGl ; 3d Ed. p. 17 J. OHS. 21. Chandler exhibits the sentence, " These are not such as are worn;" and, in parsiag it, expounds the words as and are, thus ; the crotchets being his, not mine : " as . . . . is an adverb, tie two sentences, in comparing them. [It is a fault of some, that they make as a pro- noun, when, in a comparative sentence, it corresponds with such, and is immediately followed, by 19 290 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [FAKT II, a verb, as in the sentence now given. This is probably done/rorn an ignorance of the real nomi~ native to the verb. The sentence should stand thus : ' These (perhaps bonnets) are not such (bonnets) as (those bonnets) are (which are) worn.' Then] are .... is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with the noun bonnets, understood." Chandler's Common School Gram. p. 162. All this bears the marks of shallow flippancy. No part of it is accurate. " Are worn," which the critic unwarrantably divides by his misplaced curves and uncouth impletions, is a passive verb, agreeing with the pronoun as. But the text itself is faulty, being unintelligible through lack of a noun ; for, of things that may b? " worn" there are a thousand different sorts. Is it not ridiculous, for a great grammarian to offer, as a model for parsing, wh;it he himself, "from an ignorance of the real nominative," can only interpret with a "perhaps f" But the noun which this author supplies, the meaning which he guesses that he had, he here very improperly stoAvs away within a pair of crotchets. Nor is it true, that " the sentence should stand" as above exhibited ; for the tautological correction not only ha the very extreme of awkwardness, but still makes as a pronoun, a nominative, belonging after are: so that the phrase, "as are worn" is only encumbered and perverted by the verbose addition made. So of an other example given by this expounder, in which as is an objective : " He is exactly such a man as I saw." Chandler's Com. iSch. Gram. p. 163. Here as is the object of saw. But the author says, " The sentence, hoAvever, should stand thus : ' He is exactly such a man as that person was whom I saAV.' " Ibid. This inelegant alteration makes as a nominative depen- dent on was. OBS. 22. The use of as for a relative pronoun, is almost entirely confined to those connexions in which no other relative Avould be proper ; hence feAV instances occur, of its absolute equivalence to who, which, or that, by Avhich to establish its claim to the same rank. Examples like the follow- ing, hoAveA r er, go far to prove it, if proof be necessary ; because who and tvhich are here employed, where as is certainly nOAV required by all good usage : " It is not only convenient, but absolutely needful, that there be certain meetings at certain places and times, as may best suit the conveni- ence of siich, who may be most particularly concerned in them." Barclay's Works, "Vol. i, p. 495. "Which, no doubt, will be found obligatory upon all such, who have a sense and feeling of the mind of the Spirit." Ib. i, p. 578. " Condemning or removing such things, which in themselves are evil." Ib. i, p. 511. In these citations, not only are who and zvhich improperly used for as, but the commas before them are also improper, because the relatives are intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. " If there be such that AA-alk disorderly noAV." Ib. i, p. 488. Here that ought to be as; or else such ought to be persons, or those. " When such virtues, as which still accom- pany the truth, are necessarily supposed to be wanting/' Ib. i, p. 502. Here which, and the comma before as, should both be expunged. " I shall raise in their minds the same course of thought as has taken possession of my OAvn." Duncan's Logic, p. 61. " The pronoun must be in the same case as the antecedent would be in, if substituted for it." Murray's Gram. p. 18: . "The verb must therefore have the same construction as it has in the folloAving sentence." Murray's Key, p. 190. Here as is exactly equivalent to the relative that, and either may be usei with equal propriety. We cannot avoid the conclusion, therefore, that, as the latter word is some- times a conjunction and sometimes a pronoun, so is the former. OBS. 23. The relatives that and as have this peculiarity ; that, unlike whom and which, they never folloAv the word on which their case depends : nor indeed can any simple relative be so- placed, except it be governed by a preposition or an infinitive. Thus, it is said, (John, xiii, 29th ) " Buy those things that we have need of;" so Ave may say, " Buy such things as we have need of." But we cannot say, " Buy those things of that we have need;" or, ".P^y such things of as we have need." Though we may say, " Buy those things of which we havt U'3d," as Avell as, " Buy those things which Ave have needo/";" or, " Admit those persons of whom we hare need," as well as, " Admit those persons whom AVC have need of." By this it appears that that and as have a closer connexion Avith their antecedents than the other relatives require : a circumstance Avortby to have been better remembered by some critics. " Again, that and as are used rather differently. When that is used, the verb must be repeated ; as, ' Participles require the same government, that their verbs require.' ' James shoiced the same credulity, that his minister showed' But Avhen as is used, the verb generally may, or may not be repeated ; as, ' Participles require the same gov- ernment as their verbs ;' or, ' as their verbs require.' ' James showed the same credulity as his minister ;' or, ' as his minister showed :' the second nominative minister being parsed as the nomi- native to the same verb showed understood." Nixon's Parser, p. 140.* OBS. 24. The terminating of a sentence Avith a preposition, or other small particle, is in general xmdignined, though perhaps not otherAvise improper. Hence the above-named inflexibi- lity in the construction of that and as, sometimes induces an ellipsis of the governing Avord designed ; and is occasionally attended with some difficulty respecting the choice of our terms. Examples : " The answer is always in the same case that the interrogative word is." Sanborn's Gram. p. 70. Here is a faulty termination ; and with it a more faulty" ellipsis. In stead of ending the sentence Avith is in, say, " The ansAver ahvays agrees in case with the interrogative Avord." Again : " The relative is of the same person witH the antecedent." Lowth's Gram. p. 101. This sentence is Avrong, because the person of the relative is not really identical with the antecedent. '* The relative is of the same person as the antecedent." Murray's Gram. p. 154. Here the writer means "as the antecedent is of." "A neuter verb becomes active, when follo\ved by a noun of the same signification with its OAvn." Sanborn's Gram. p. 127. Here same is wrong, or else the last three words are useless. It Avould therefore be improper to say " of the same signi- fication as its OAvn." The expression ought to be " of a signification similar to its own." " Ode * Dr. Bullions has undertaken to prove, " That the word AS should not be considered a relative in any circum- stances." The force of his five great arguments to this end, the reader may well conceive of, when he has com- pared the following one with Avhat is shown in the 22d and 28d observations above : " 3. As can never be used as a, substitute for another relative pronoun, nor another relative, pronoun us a substitute, j or it. If, then, it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommodating one." Bullions'* Analytical and Practical Gram, of 1849, p. 233. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. - PRONOUNS. CLASSES. 291 <",reek, the same with song or hymn." Blair's Rhet. p. 396. Sony being no Greek word, I cannot think the foregoing expression accurate, though one might say, " Ode is identical with song or hymn " Would it not be better to say, " Ode is the same as song or hymn :" That is, " Ode is, KteraUy, the same thiny that song or hymn is /" " Treatises of pkllosopnj, ought not to be composed in the same style icith orations." 'Blair's Ithet. p. 17-). Here neither with nor as can be proper; because orations are not a style. Expunge same ; and say "in the style of oniti Oi:s 2-1. Few writers are sufficiently careful in their choice and management of relatives. In the following instance, Murray and others viol ite a special rule of their own grammars, by using whom tor that " after an adjective of the superlative degree :" " Modifying them according to the genius of that tongiie, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by icho/n it is used." O'f'ii-o (int/n. p. 1 ; Fink's, p. 11; ct at. According to Priestley and himself, the great Compiler is here in an error. The rule is perhaps too stringent; but whoever teaches it, should keep it. If he did not like to say, " the best speakers and writers that it is used by ;" he ought to have said, " the best speakers and writers that use it." Or, rather, he ought to have said noth tinj after the word " writers ;" because the whole relative clause is here weak and useless. Yet how many of the amenders of this grammar have not had perspicacity enough, either to omit the expression, or to correct it according to the author's own rule ! Ons. 20. Relative pronouns are capable of being taken in two very different senses : the one, 'ire of the general idea suggested by the antecedent; the other, resumptive of that idea, in the full import of the term or, in whatever extent the previous definitives allow. The distinc- tion between these two senses, important as it is, is frequently made to depend solely upon the insertion or the omission of a comma. Thus, if I say, " Men who grasp after riches, are never satisfied ;" the relative icho is taken rcstrictively, and I am understood to speak only of th ricious. But, if I say, " Men, who grasp after riches, are never satisfied ;" by separating the '. !;d who, 1 declare all men to be covetous and unsatisfied. For the former sense, the relative that is preferable to who ; and I shall presently show why. This example, in the latter form, is t'oun i in Sanborn's Grammar, page 142d ; butwhether the author meant what he says, or not, I doubt. Like many other unskillful writers, he has paid little regard to the above-mention- ed distinction ; and, in'some instances, his meaning cannot have been what his words declare : as, " A prism is a solid, whose sides are all parallelograms." Analytical Gram. p. 142. This, as it stands, is no definition of a prism, but an assertion of two things ; that a prism is a solid, and that all the sides of a solid are parallelograms. Erase the comma, and the words will describe the prism as a peculiar kind of solid; because whose will then be taken in the restrictive sense. This sense, however, may be conveyed even with a comma before the relative ; as, " Some ficti- tious histories yet remain, that were composed during the decline of the Roman empire." Blair's ... .'J71. This does not suggest that there are no other fictitious histories now extant, than such as were composed during the decline of the Roman empire ; but I submit it to the reader, whether the word which, if here put for that, would not convey this idea. OHS. 27 Upon this point, many philologists aie open to criticism ; and none more so, than the recent aiithor above cited. By his own plain showing, this grammarian has no conception of the difference of meaning, upon which the foregoing distinction is founded. What marvel, then, that he falls into errors, both of doctrine and of practice ? But, if no such difference exists, or none that is worthy of a critic's notice ; then the error is mine, and it is vain to distinguish between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of relative pronouns. For example : " The boy that desires to assist his companions, deserves respect." G. Broicn. " That boy, who desires to assist his companions, deserves respect." D. II. tinhorn. According to my notion, these two sentences clearly convey two very different meanings ; the relative, in the former, being restrictive, but, in the hitter, resumptive of the sense of the antecedent. But of the latter example this author says, ' The clause, ' who desires to assist his companions,' with the relative who at its head, explains or tells what boy deserves respect ; and, like a conjunction, connects this clause to the noun boy." ,'. p. 69. He therefore takes it in a restrictive sense, as if this sentence were . equivalent to the former. But he adds, "A relative pronoun is resolvable into a personal and a conjunction. The sentence would then read, 'That boy desires to assist his com- " . unit hi- deserves respect.' The relative pronoun governs "the nearer verb, and the antecedent the more distant one." 76. p. 69. Now, concerning the restrictive relative, this lence does not hold good ; and, besides, the explanation here given, not only is former declaration of the sense he intended, but, with other seeming contradiction, i the nearer verb, and the substituted pronoun to the more distant. . the following principles of this author's punctuation are no less indicative of s of this matter: " Rri.r. xiv. Relative pronouns in the nominative or [the] objec- when the clause which the relative connects [,] ends a sent hment.' B. temper is a quality, which reflects a lustre on every aceomplishme Self [-] denial is the sacrifice [,] which virtue must make.' [ L. Murray.] The: is omitted before* the relative, when the verb which the antecedent geiverns. follows the : hut suffers by imposture, has too often his virtue more impaired than his fortune.' .// 's Analytical Cram. p. 269. Such are some of our author's principles " the essence of modern improvements." His practice, though often wrong, is none the worse itradie-ting these doctrines. Nay, his proudest boast is ungrammatk-al, though peradvcn- t.ire not the less believed : " \0 [other] yrammar in the language probably contains so great a quantity of condensed and useful matter with so little superfluity.'" Xan'mr !> v. OBS. 29. Murray's rule for the punctuation of relatives, (a 'rule which he chiefly copied from rowth,) rccogni/es virtually the distinction which I have made above ; but, in assuming that ;lativi "?/" require a comma before them, it erroneously suggests that the resumptive isnse is more common than the restrictive. Churchill, on the contrary, as wrongly makes it an essential characteristic of all relatives, " to limit or explain the words f> which they refer." See p. 74. The fact is, that relatives are so generally restrictive, that not one half of 292 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. them are thus pointed ; though some that do restrict their antecedent, nevertheless admit the point. This may be seen by the first example given us by Murray : " Relative pronouns are con- nective words, and generally admit a comma before them: as, ' He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life.' But when two members, or phrases, [say clauses,] are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted: as, ' Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;' ' A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together.' In the latter example, the assertion is not of ' a man in general,' but of ' a man who is of a detracting spirit ;' and therefore they [say the pronoun and its antecedent] should not be separated." Mur- ray's Gram. Octavo, p. 273 ; Ingersoll's, 285 ; Comly's,l52. This reasoning, strictly applied, would exclude the comma before who in the first example above; but, as the pronoun does not " closely" or immediately follow its antecedent, the comma is allowed, though it is not much needed. Not so, when the sense is resumptive : as, " The additions, -which are very considerable, are chiefly such as are calcuated to obviate objections." See Murray's Gram. p. ix. Here the comma is essential to the meaning. Without it, which would be equivalent to that ; with it, which is equivalent to and they. But this latter meaning, as I imagine, cannot be expressed by the rel- ative that. OBS. 30. Into the unfortunate example which Sanborn took from Murray, I have inserted the comma for him ; not because it is necessary or right, but because his rule requires it: " Self denial is the sacrifice," &c. The author of " a complete system of grammar," might better con- tradict even Murray, than himself. But why was this text admired ? and why have Greene, Bullions, Hiley, Hart, and others, also copied it ? A sacrifice is something devoted and lost, for the sake of a greater good ; and, if Virtue sacrifice self-denial, what will she do, but run into indul- gence ? The great sacrifice which she demands of men, is rather that of their self-love. Win. E. Russell has it, " Self defence is the sacrifice which virtue must make !" Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram. p. 116. Bishop Butler tells us, " It is indeed ridiculous to assert, that self-denial is essential to virtue and piety ; but it would have been nearer the truth, though not strictly the truth itself, to have said, that it is essential to discipline and improvement." Analogy of Religion, p. 123. OBS. 31. The relative that, though usually reckoned equivalent to who or which, evidently differs from both, in being more generally, and perhaps more appropriately, taken in the restrictive sense. It ought therefore, for distinction's sake, to be preferred to who or which, whenever an antecedent not otherwise limited, is to be restricted by the relative clause ; as, " Men that grasp after riches, are never satisfied." " I love wisdom that is gay and civilized." Art of Thinking, p. 34. This phraseology leaves not the limitation of the meaning to depend solely upon the absence of a pause after the antecedent ; because the relative that is seldom, if ever, used by good writers in any other than a restrictive sense. Again : "A man of a polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving." Addison, Spect. No 411. Here, too, according to my notion, that is obviously preferable to which ; though a great critu , very widely known, has taken some pains to establish a different opinion. The " many pleasures ' here spoken of, are no otherwise defined, than as being such as " the vulgar are not capable <>f receiving." The writer did not mean to deny that the vulgar are capable of receiving a grert many pleasures ; but, certainly, if that were changed to which, this would be the meaning con- veyed, unless the reader were very careful to avoid a pause where he would be apt to make one. I therefore prefer Addison's expression to that which Dr. Blair would substitute. OBS. 32. The style of Addison is more than once censured by Dr. Blair, for the frequency with which the relative that occurs in it, where the learned lecturer would have used ichich. The rea- sons assigned by the critic are these : " Which is a much more definitive word than that, being never employed in any other way than as a relative ; whereas that is a word of many sense;* ; sometimes a demonstrative pronoun, often a conjunction. In some cases we are indeed obliged to use that for a relative, in order to avoid the xingraceful repetition of which in the same sen- tence. But when we are laid under no necessity of this kind, which is always the preferable word, and certainly was so in this sentence : 'Pleasures which the vulgar are not capable of receiving,' is much better than 'pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving.' " Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. xx, p. 200. Now the facts are these : (I.) That that is the more definitive or restrictive word of the two. (2.) That the word which has as many different senses and uses as the word that, (3.) That not the repetition of ichich or who in a series of clauses, but a needless change of the relative, is ungraceful. (4.) That the necessity of using that rather than which or who, de- pends, not upon what is here supposed, but upon the different senses which these words usually convey. (5.) That as there is always some reason of choice, that is sometimes to be preferred; which, sometimes ; and who, sometimes : as, " It is not the man who has merely taught, or who has taught long, or who is able to point out defects in authors, that is capable of enlightening the world in the respective sciences which have engaged his attention ; but the man who has taught well." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 7. OBS. 33. Blair's Rhetoric consists of forty-seven lectures ; four of which are devoted to a critical examination of the style of Addison, as exhibited in four successive papers of the Spec- tator. The remarks of the professor are in general judicious ; but, seeing his work is made a common textbook for students of " Belles Lettres," it is a pity to find it so liable to reprehension on the score of inaccuracy. Among the passages which are criticised in the twenty-first lecture, there is one in which the essayist speaks of the effects of novelty as follows : ' It is this which bestows cha'rms on a monster, and makes even the imperfections of nature please us. It is this that recommends variety, where the mind is every instant called off to something new, and the attention not suffered to dwell too long and waste itself on any particular object. It is this, likewise, that improves what is great or beautiful, and makes it afford the mind a double entertainment.' Spectator, No. 412. This passage is deservedly praised by the critic, for its " perspicuity, grace, and harmony ; " but, in using different relatives under like circumstances, the writer has hardly done justice to his own good taste. Blair's remark is this : " His frequent use of that, instead of which, is another pe- CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. CLASSES. 293 culiarity of his style; but, on this occasion in particular, [it] cannot be much commended, as, ' It 'which,' seeing in every view, to be better than, ' It is this that,' three times repeated." What is here meant by " erer>i dew." may, I suppose, be seen in the corre- sponding criticism which is noticed in my last observation above; and I am greatly deceived, if, in this instance also, the relative that is not better than which, and more agreeable to polite usage. The direct relative which corresponds to the introductory pronoun it and an other ante should, I think, be that, and not who or which : as, " It is not yet/tat speak." Matt, x, 20. "It is th-Hi, Lord, ir/io hast the hearts of all men in thy hands, that turnest the hearts of any to show me favour." J t -n kit's Prayer*, p. 278. Here who has reference. to thou or Lord only;" but that me resj.i-rt to the pronoun it, though it agrees in person and gender with thou.' A similar example is cited at the close of the preceding observation ; and I submit it to the reader, whether the word that, as it there occurs, is not the only Jit word for the place it occupies. So in the following examples: "There are Words, irliirh are not I'crhs, that signify actions and passions, and even things transient." Bright tantf 9 dram. p. 100. "It is the universal taste of mankind, wh>i h is subject to no such changing modes, that alone is entitled to possess any authority." Hhetnri,-, p. 286. ()}!s. ,'34. Sometimes the broad import of an antecedent is doubly restricted, first by one rela- tive clause, and then by an other ; as, "And all that dwell upon the earth, shall worship him, whose >' written in the hoof; of fife." Rev. xiii, 8. " And then, like true Thames-Watermen, ix> every nrin that passes by, who is better dressed than themselves." Brown's Esti- Vol. ii, p. 10. Here and, or (/' he, would be as good as " who ; " for the connective only serves to carry the restriction into nairower limits. Sometimes the limit fixed by one clause, is fj-f ended by an "other ; as, " There is no evil that you may suffer, or that you may expect to mtjf< r, which prayer is not the appointed means to alleviate." Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 16. Here which resumes the idea of " ecil," in the extent last determined ; or rather, in that which is fixed by either clause, since the limits of both are embraced in the assertion. And, in the two limiting 3, the same pronoun was requisite, on account of their joint relation ; but the clause which assumes a different relation, is rightly introduced by a different pronoun. This is also the case in the following examples : " For there is no condemnation to those that are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit." Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 432. " I will tell thee the v of the woman, and of the beast that carrieth her, which hath the seven heads and ten horns " Her. xvii, 7. Here the restrictive sense is well expressed by one relative, and the resumptive by an other. When neither of these senses is intended by the writer, any form of the relative must needs be improper : as, "The greatest genius which runs through the arts and sciences, takes a kind of tincture from them, and falls unavoidably into imitation." Addison, Spect. '. Here, as I suppose, which runs should be in ru/Dting. What else can the author have meant ? OHS. 3-5. Having now, as I imagine, clearly shown the difference between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of a relative pronoun, and the absolute necessity of making such a choice of words as will express that sense only which we intend ; I hope the learner will see, by these observations, not merely that clearness requires the occasional use of each of our five relatives, who, which, what, that, and'r/.v , but that this distinction in the meaning, is a very common principle by which to determine what is, and what is not, good English. Thus that and as are appropri- at'-ly our n-xtrictirc relatives, though who and which are sometimes used restrictively; but, in a 'ho or trhich is required, and required even after those terms which usually de- mand thnt or ax : thus, " We are vexed at the unlucky chance, and go away dissatisfied. Such impressions, irhifh ought not to be cherished, are a sufficient reason for excluding stories of that kind from the theatre." Katncs, El. ofCrit. ii, 279. Here which is proper to the sense intended ; but Mf-'/i requires us, \\hen the latter term limits the meaning of the former. In sentences like prodigies that attended the death of Julius C;esar." lh. p. 401. " By unfolding those principles that ought to govern the taste of every individual." A'ART II. corresponding in some respects to the interrogative pronoun, and agreeing with it in case ; but this noun cannot be supposed to control the interrogation, nor is it, in any sense, the word for which the pronoun stands. For every pronoun must needs stand for something that is uttered or conceived by the same speaker ; nor can any question be answered, until its meaning is under- stood. Interrogative pronouns must therefore be explained as direct substitutes for such other terms as one might use in stead of them. Thus who means what person ? " Who taught that heav'n-directed spire to rise ? The Man of Ross, each lisping babe replies." Pope. OBS. 38. In the classification of the pronouns, and indeed in the whole treatment of them, almost all our English grammars are miserably faulty, as well as greatly at variance. In some forty or fifty, which I have examined on this point, the few words which constitute this part of speech, have more than twenty different modes of distribution. (1.) Cardell says, " There is butonekind of pronouns." Elements of Gram. p. 30. (2.) D.Adams, Greenleaf, Nutting, and Weld, will have two kinds ; "personal and relative." (3.) Dr. Webster's " Substitutes, or pronouns, are of two kinds :" the one, " called personal;" the other, without name or number. See Improved Gram. p. 24. (4.) Many have fixed upon three sorts ; "personal, relative, and adjective ; " with a subdivision of the last. Of these is Lindley Murray, in his late editions, with his amenders, Ainsworth, Alger, Bacon, Bullions, Fisk, A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hall, Kirkham, Lennie, Merchant, Picket, Pond, and S. Putnam. (5.) Kirkham, however, changes the order of the classes; thus, " personal, adjective, and relative;" and, with ridiculous absurdity, makes mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs to be " compounds." (6.) Churchill adopts the plan of "personal, relative, and adjective pronouns ; " and then destroys it by a valid argument. (7-) Comly, Wilcox, Wt-lls, and Perley, have these three classes ; "personal, relative, and interrogative :" and this division is right. (8.) Sanborn makes the following bull : " The general divisions of pronouns are into personal, re- lative, interrogative, and several sub -divisions." Analytical Gram. p. 91. (9.) Jaudon has these three kinds ; "personal, relative, and distributive." (10.) Robbins, these ; "simple, conjunctive, and interrogative." (11.) Lindley Murray, in his early editions, had these four; personal, poss es- sive, relative, and adjective." (12.) Bucke has these; " personal, relative, interrogative, and ad' jective." (13.) Ingersoll, these; "personal, adjective, relative, and interrogative." (14.) Bucha- nan; "personal, demonstrative, relative, and [interrogative." (15.) Coar; " personal, possessive or pronominal adjectives, demonstrative, and. relative." (16) Bicknell ; " personal, possessive, relative, and demonstrative." (17.) Cobbett; " personal, relative, demonstrative, and indefinite." (18.) M'Culloch ; "personal, possessive, relative, and reciprocal." (19,) Staniford has five ; " personal, relative, interrogative, definitive, and distributive." (20.) Alexander, six; "personal, relative, demonstrative, interrogative, definitive, and adjective." (21.) Cooper, in 1828, had five; "personal, relative, possessive, definite, and indefinite." (22.) Cooper, in 1831, six; "personal, relative, defi- nite, indefinite, possessive, and possessive pronominal adjectives." (23.) Dr. Crombie says : "Pro- nouns may be divided into Substantive, and Adjective ; Personal, and Impersonal ; Relative, and Interrogative." (24.) Alden has seven sorts ; " personal, possessive, relative, interrogative, distri- butive, demonstrative, and indefinite.'' (25. ) Smith has many kinds, and treats them so badly that nobody can count them. In respect to definitions, too, most of these writers are shamefully in- accurate, or deficient. Hence the filling up of their classes is often as bad as the arrangement. For instance, four and twenty of them will have interrogative pronouns to be relatives ; but who that knows what a relative pronoun is, can coincide with them in opinion ? Dr. Crombie thinks, " that interrogatives are strictly relatives ; " and yet divides the two classes with his own hand ! MODIFICATIONS. Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; namely, Persons, Num- bers, G-enders, and Cases. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things ; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distinguished by the words them- selves ; in the relative and the interrogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by means of the antecedent and the verb. Interrogative pronouns, however, as-well-as the relatives which, what, as, and all the compounds of who, which, and tchat, are always of the third person. Even in etymological parsing, some regard must be had to the syntactical relations of words. By mod- ifications, we commonly mean actual changes in the forms of words, by which their grammatical properties are inherently distinguished ; but, in all languages, the distinguishable properties of words are somewhat more numerous than their actual variations of form ; there being certain prin- ciples of universal grammar, which cause the person, number, gender, or case, of some words, to be inferred from their relation to others ; or, what is nearly the same thing, from the sense which is conveyed by the sentence. Hence, if in a particular instance it happen, that some, or even all, of these properties, are without any index in the form of the pronoun itself, they are still to be ascribed in parsing, because they may be easily and certainly discovered from the construction. For example : in the following text, it is just as easy to discern the genders of the pronouns, as the cases of the nouns ; and both are known and asserted to be what they are, upon principles of mere inference : " For what knowest thou, O wife, whether thou shalt save thy husband? or hovr knowest thou, O man, whether thou shalt save thy ivife?" 1 Cor. vii, 16. Again: " Who betrayed w ,p. 211. Here h the inference of every reader, that who and / are so too ; but whether the word companion is mas- htr companion ? Not /." Murray's Key, p 211. Here her being of the feminine gender, it is culine or feminine, is not so obvious. OBS. 2. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally applicable to both sexes ; and should be considered masculine or feminine, according to the known application of Ul : di CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. MODIFICATIONS. 295 them. [See Levizac's French Gram. p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course know the sex to which they respectively belong ; and, whenever they appear in narrative or dialogue, we are told who they are. In Latin, an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with them in number, gender, and case. This is a sufficient proof, that ego, I, and tu, thou, are not destitute of geuder, though neither the Latin words nor the English are themselves varied to express it : " Miseree hoc tamen unum Excquere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus ; Sola viri molles aditus et tempora ndras." Virgil. Ons. 3. Many English grammarians, and Murray at their head, deny the first person of nouns, and the gender of pronouns of the first and second persons ; and at the same time teach, that, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person :" (Murray's Gr. Id Ed. p. Ill ; Rev. T. Smith's, p. 60 :) and further, with redundance of expression, that, " The relative is of the same person with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly." Same. These quotations form Murray's fifth rule of syntax, as it stands in his early editions.* In some of his rcvisings, the author erased the word person from the former sentence, and changed with to as in the latter. But other pronouns than relatives, agree with their nouns in person ; so that his first alteration was not for the better, though Ingersoll, Kirkham, Alger, Bacon, J. Greenleaf, and some others, have been very careful to follow him in it. And why did he never discern, that the above-named principles of his etymology are both of them contradicted by this rule of his syntax, and one of them by his rule as it now stands ? It is manifest, that no two words can possibly agree in any property which belongs not to both. Else what is agreement? Nay, no two things in nature, can in any wise agree, accord, or be alike, but by having some quality or accident in common. How strange a contradiction then is this ! And what a compliment to learning, that it is still found in well-nigh all our grammars ! OBS. 4. If there were truth in what Murray and others affirm, that " Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it,"-\- no two words could ever agree in gen- der ; because there can be no such agreement between anv two of the words here mentioned, and the assertion is, that gender has respect to no others. But, admitting that neither the author nor the numerous copiers of this false sentence ever meant to deny that gender has respect to noun's, they do deny that it has respect to any other pro)ioun.i than these ; whereas I affirm that it ought to be recognized as a property of all pronouns, as well as of all nouns. Not that the gender of either is in all instances invariably fixed by the forms of the particular words ; but there is in general, if not in every possible case, some principle of grammar, on which the gender of any noun or pronoun in a sentence may be readily ascertained. Is it not plain, that if we know who speaks or writes, who hears or is addressed, we know also the gender of the pronouns which are applied to these persons ? The poet of The Task looked upon his mother's picture, and expressed his tender recollections of a deceased parent by way of address ; and will any one pre- tend, that the pronouns which he applied to himself and to her, are either of the same gender, or of no gender? If we take neither of these assumptions, must we not say, they are of different genders ? In this instance, then, let the parser call those of the first person, masculine ; and tkose of the second, feminine : " My mother ! when / learned that thou wast dead, Say, wast thou conscious of the tears / shed ?" Coipper. OBS. 5. That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and some- mes feminine, is perfectly certain ; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they are only applied figuratively ; and the question is, whether the figure always necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun. We assume the general principle, that the noun and its pronoun arc always of the same gender ; and we know that when inanimate objects are personified in the third person, they are usually repre- sented as masculine or feminine, the gender being changed by the figure. But when a" lifeless object is spoken to in the second person, or represented as speaking in the first, as the pronouns here employed are in themselves without distinction of gender, no such change can be proved by the mere words ; and, if we allow that it would be n '*' it where the words do not ve it, the gender of these pronouns must in such cases be neuter, because w have no ground think it otherwise. Examples : " And Jesus answered and said uuto it, [the barren ft/free,'] No fruit of th re hereafter forever." Mir';, xi, It. "() i-trfh, cover not thnn mY blood." , xvi, IS. " O thou tsironl of the Lord, how ling will it be ere thou be quiet ?" Jeremiah, xlvii, In :he objects addressed do not appear to be figuratively invested with the attribute of - with respect to the first person. If, in the following example, gold and ('/.. it the pronoun me; and, if not neuter, of what gender are they ? The iication indicates no other. ' Where thy true treasure ? (Jold snv r to which they rrftr in .Y,/;','Vr. prnon, I gender." Grammatical I:: / j the book : the Italics are his, t mine Uosxv.-ll <'. Smith appear- .,di- in tin tif'h nil.- : for he II publishes at Murray's a prl .<-ord which < <'<>-n>- .liiu with Murr.i\'- Qrami //< noun* fat uliirh ih'ii -i'liii'f. in zrnrf'r, . in hi-i Murr.iv's English Grammar Simpli- p. Ill: A'twn M. M-'i'mnt. in hi- ; . Grammar, !: "/ and proved." p. 7'.*; and .'/- Rev. J. ' of Murr;i\ 's Kir_'li.-'i Grammar," p. 118 1 ere, from the title*, I-VITV reader would -ni:r.- r.f Mnrni\ . and not what he had so g ago renounced or rha: . j.. .".1 ; 1'Jino. '1 : Advns's, 37 : Ali-rr's. 21 : llncon'?. 19 : Fi.-k>, 20 ; Kirkh nn's, 1)7 : Merchant'.- M.irr hint's American Gram. 40 ; T. II. Miller's Gram. 26 ; Pond's. 28 j 8. Putnain'i, 22 ; Russell's, K3 ; 1: 296 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GPAMMARS. [PART II. THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. I. SIMPLE PERSONALS. The simple personal j ronouns are thus declined : I, of the FIRST? PERSON, any of the genders.* Sing. Nora. I, Plur. Nom. we, Poss. my, or mine,f Poss. our, or ours, Obj. me; Obj. us. TIIOU, of the SECOND PERSON, any of the genders. Sing. Nom. thou, j Plur. Nom. ye, or you, Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, Obj. thee ; Obj. you, or ye. HE, of the THIRD PERSON, masculine gender. Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. him; Obj. them. SHE, of the THIRD PERSON, feminine gender. Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. her; Obj. them. IT, of the THIRD PERSON, neuter gender. Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. it; Obj. them. II. COMPOUND PERSONALS. The word self, added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing, myself, plur. our- selves ; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves ; sing, himself, plur. themselves ; sing, herself, plur. themselves ; sing, itself, plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. Thus : MYSELF, of the FIRST PERSON,)) any of the genders. Sing. Nom. myself, Plur. Nom. ourselves, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. myself; Obj. ourselves. * Dr. Crombie, and some others, represent / and thou, with their inflections, as being "masculine and femi- nine." Lennie, M'Culloch, and others, represent them as being " masculine or feminine." But, if either of them can have an antecedent that is neuter, neither of these views is strictly correct. (See Obs. 5th, above.) Mackin- tosh says. " AVe use our, your, their, in speaking of a thing or things belonging to plural nouns of any gender." Essay on Sngluh Gram. p. 149. t " It is perfectly plain, then, that my and mine are but different forms of the same word, as are a and an. Minr, for the sake of euphony, or from custom, stands for the possessive case without a noun ; but must be changed for my when the noun is expressed : and my, for a similar reason, stands before a noun, but must be changed for mine when the noun is dropped. * * * Mine and my, thine and t/iy, will, therefore, be considered in this book, as different forms of the IK s.-c-.-ivc case from /and Thou. And the same rule will be extended to her and hers, our and ours, your and ymirs. their and theirs." Barnard's Analytic Grammar, p. 142. % It baf long been fashionable, in the ordinary intercourse of the world, to substitute the plural form of this pronoun for the singular through all the cases. Thus, by the figure K.NAU.ACE, ''you are," for instance, is com- monly put for tiimi art.'' See Observations 20th and 21st, below ; also Figures of Syntax, in Part I V. The original nominative was ye., which is still the only nominative of the solemn style ; and the original objective wa.- '/"". which is still the only objective that our grammarians in general acknowledge. Hut, whether grammatical or not, ye is now very often used, in a familiar way, for the objective case. (See Observations 22d and 23d, upon the d-clen.-ions of pronouns'.) T. Dil worth gate both cases alike : " No?n. Ye or you;" "Arc. [or Obj.] Ye or you.'' His Ntu* (inirf,\ p. US. Dr. Campbell says. " I am in.-lincd to prefer that usV which makes ye invariably ibe nominative plural of the personal pronoun thou'. and you the accusative, when applied to an actual plurality." Philosophy of l\lutonr., p. 174. No grammarian, however, discards you as a nominative of u actual plurality;" and the present casual practice of putting ye in the objective, has prevailed to some extent for at least two centuries : as, " Your change approaches, when all there delights Will vanish and deliver ye to woe." Milton, P. L., I?, iv. 1. 367. || Dr. Young has, in one instance, and with very doubtful propriety, converted this pronoun into the second per&on, by addressing himself thus : " thou, myxrlf! abroad our counsels roam And, like ill husbands, take no care at home." Love of Fame Sat. II, 1. 271. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. - PRONOUNS. - DECLENSIONS. 297 THYSELF, of the SECOND PERSON, any of the genders. Sing. Norn. thyself, * Plur. Nora. yourselves, Poss. - , Obj. thyself; Ol-j. yourselves. HIMSELF, of the THIRD PERSON, masculine gender. Sing. Norn. himself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poas. - , Poss. -- , Obj. himself; Obj. themselves. HERSELF, of the THIRD PERSON, fan it/in e gender. Sing. NODI. herself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. - , Poss. -- , Obj. herself; Obj. themselves. ITSELF, of the TIIIRD PERSON, neuter gender. Sing. Nom. itself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. - , Poss. -- , Obj. itself; Obj. themselves. III. RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES. The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined : WHO, literally applied to persons only. Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Poss. whose, Obj. whom ; Obj. whom. WHICH, applied to animals and things. Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, Poss. f - , Poss. - , Obj. which ; Obj. which. WHAT, applied ordinarily to things only.% Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, - Poss. , Obj. what; Obj. what. The fashion of usinp the plural number for the singular, or you for thou, has also substituted yourself tor ;M (-'minion discourse. In pin-try, in prayer, in Scripture, and in the familiar language of the Friends, the original com], mind is s;i!l retained : hut the poets use either term, according to the gravity or the lightness of . le. Hut i/inirs'lf. like the regal compound t>u*se!f, though apparently of the singular number, and always I>er8on only, i-, in ir< very nature, an anomalous and uiicrammatical word ; for it can neither mean fiaore than one, nor agree wHi a pronoun or a ver). that i- -inpilar. Swift indeed wrote : " Conversation is but can-in-.- lUit he wrote t-rrone.>u-ly. and hi- meaning is doubtful : probably nals. when they are nominatives before the v.i -Acts, x, 16. "That thou -Rin.\i.r.t. "Hi '^prart. " That ynu ynursrlf are ned. '11. And.:: . requires the same form of th- verl. : as, U hieh way I tly I- Hell : ,,.,,( : I Jove Prrf p. x. Dr. Kollen m 1. it his own is good English, the verb t /.," cannot be ea any one M; as, " Captain, MI a third part of the langunpe iip.-idc- ..r:.l nnnil.er with the Mnjjulur through all "tir rather plural- put for .-inpulars by a figure of rds are. in some few parat.-l\ : and then l,,,th the meaning and the con- strucri. -/ ( vol. i. ],. Hi. perhaps the word mystlf a inonarchi. . f hat I can love." The two el in person and caw, perhaps also in gen. ler ; ami. in tt.c pn-ci-din-.' bwUac, they differ in person, its lirst part, . i i^'ht other- whom -.true. H" "'. i-iir. and , : * nothing can be worse iyaU^ he possewive cane of which; as, ' A ,ose origin is divine." Blair, See ions fli an i I AT. nrenr-e. the' double relative what ia sometimes applied to persons; and it is here q iivalent to tlif friend who : " Loronro, pride repress ; nor hope to find A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. ? ' Young. 298 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. THAT, applied to persons, animals, and things. Sing. Norn. that, Plur. Norn. that, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. that; Obj. that. As, applied to persons, animals, and things. Sing. Norn. as, Plur. Norn. as, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. as; Obj. as. IV. COMPOUND RELATIVES. The compound relative pronouns, whoever or ivhosoever, whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever* are declined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. Thus : WHOEVER or WHOSOEVER, applied only to persons. Sing. Norn. whoever, Plur. Norn. whoever, Poss. whosever, Poss. whosevcr, Obj. whomever; Obj. whomever. Sing. Norn. whosoever, Plur. Norn. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever, Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever; Obj. whomsoever. WHICHEVER or WHICHSOEVER, applied to persons, animals, and things. Sing. Norn. whichever, Plur. Norn. whichever, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. whichever; Obj. whichever. Sing. Norn. whichsoever, Plur. Norn. whichsoever, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. whichsoever ; Obj. whichsoever. WHATEVER or WHATSOEVER, applied ordinarily to things only. Sing. Norn. whatever, Plur. Norn. whatever, Poss. , Poss. , Obj. whatever; Obj. whatever. Sing. Norn. whatsoever, Plur. Nom. whatsoever, Poss. -; , Poss. , Obj. whatsoever; Obj. whatsoever. OBSERVATIONS. Ons. 1. Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive case, in each number : as, my or mine, our or ours ; thy or thine, your or yours ; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used before a noun expressed, or when nothing but an adjective intervenes ; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or is so placed that a repetition of it is implied in or after the pronoun : as, " My powers are thine ; be thine alone The glory of my song." Montgomery. State what mine and your principles are." Legh Richmond, to hit Daughters. Better, perhaps : " State what my principles and yours are ; " " State what your principles and mine are ; " or, " State what are my principles and your own." " Resign' d he fell ; superior to the dart That quench'd its rage in yours and Britain's heart." J. Brown. " Behold ! to yours and my surprise, These trifles to a volume rise." Lloyd, p. 186. ORS. 2. Possibly, when the same persons or things stand in a joint relation of this kind to different individuals or parties, it may be proper to connect two of the simple possessives to express it ; though this construction can seldom, if ever, be necessary, because any such * Of all these compounds, L. Murray very improperly says, " They are seldom used in modern style." Octavo Gram. p. 54 ; also fufc'*, p. 65. None of them are yet obsolete, though the shorter forms seem to he now gener- ally preferred. The following suggestion of Cobbett's is erroneous ; because it implies that the shorter forms are innovations and faults ; and because the author carelessly speaks of them as one */' only : " We sometimes omit the so, and say, whoever, whomever, w hat ever, and even ivhosever. It is a mere abbreviation. The 50 is under- stood : and. it is best not to omit to write it." Eng. Gram. IT 209. R. C. Smith dismisses the compound relatives with three lines ; and these he closes with the following notion : " They art not often used /" New Gram, p 61. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. DECLENSIONS. 299 expression as thy and her sinter, my and his duty, if not erroneous, can mean nothing but your sister, our duty, &c. But some examples occur, the propriety of which it is worth while to consider : as, " I am sure it will be a pleasure to you to hear that she proves worthy of her father, worthy of you, and of your and her ancestors." Spectator, No. 525. This sentence is from a version of Pliny's letter to his wife's aunt ; and, as the ancestors of the two in- dividuals are here the same, the phraseology may be allowable. But had the aunt commend- ed her niece to Pliny, she should have said, " worthy of you, and of your ancestors and "Is it her or tti honour that is tarnished ? It is not hfrs, but his." Murray's Gram. p. 1 1~). This question I take to be bad English. It ought to be, " Is it her honour, or his, that is tarnished : " Her honour and his honour cannot be one and the same thing. This example was framed by Murray to illustrate that idle and puzzling distinction which he and some others make between "possessive adjective pronouns " and "the genitive case of the personal pronouns ; " and, if I understand him, the author will here have her and his to be of the former class, and hers and his of the latter. It were a better use of time, to learn how to employ such words correctly. Unquestionably, they are of the same class and the same case, and would be every way equivalent, if the first form were fit to be used ellipti- cally. For example : " The same phrensy had hindered the Dutch from improving to their pnd to the common advantage the public misfortunes of France.'' Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 309. Here the possessive case their appears to be governed by advantage ^ understood, and therefore it would perhaps be better to say, theirs, or their own. But in the following instance, our may be proper, because both possessives appear to be governed by one and the same noun: "Although 'twas our and their opinion Each other's church was but a Ilimmon." Iludibras. OBS. 3. Mine and thine were formerly preferred to my and thy, before all words begin- ning with a vowel sound ; or rather, mine and thine were the original forms,* and my and thy were lirst substituted for them before consonants, and afterwards before vowels : as, " Hut it was thou, a man mine equal, my guide, and mine acquaintance." Psalms, Iv, 13. " Tliy prayers and thine alms are come up for a memorial before God." Acts, x, 4. "SVhen the JHble was translated, either form appears to have been used before the letter h; as, " II;ith not my hand made all these things : " Acts, vii, 50. " By stretching forth thine hand . iv, 30. According to present practice, my and My are in general to be pre- ; before all nouns, without regard to the sounds of letters. The use of the other forms, in the manner here noticed, has now become obsolete ; or, at least, antiquated, and peculiar to the poets. We occasionally meet with it in modern verse, though not very frequently, and only where the melody of the line seems to require it : as, "Time writes no Avrinkle on thine azure brow." Byron. " Deign on the passing world to turn thine eyes." Johnson. " Mine eyes beheld the messenger divine." Lusiad. " Thine ardent symphony sublime and high." Sir W. Scott. . 4. The possessives mine, thine, /urn, ours, yours, theirs, usually denote possession, or the relation of property, with an el/ipsis of the name of the thing possessed ; as, " My sword and i/'jttrs are kin." SAaJbpMTV. Here yours means your sword. "You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was." Bacon. Here theirs means their faith. " He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavoured to precipitate ours." Bolingbroke. Here ours means our ruin. " Kvery one that hearcth these sayings of mine." Matt, vii, 26. Here mine means my stiylntjs. " Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints of his." 7 W///.9, xxx, 4. Here his means "its. The noun which governs the possessive, is here understood after it, being inferred fro: a that which precedes, as it is in all the foregoing instances. "And the man of thine, whom I shall not cut off from mini- altar, shall be to consume thine, eyes, and to grieve thine lie; rt." 1 s.tmn-1, ii, thine, in the first phrase, means My men; but, in the subse- quent parts of the sentence, both mine and thine mean neither more nor less than thy and my, because there is no ellipsis, of before the possessive case, governs the noun which is ' this case ; and is al\\ays taken in a part it ice sense, and not as the sign of tin- po>s ( sxive relation : as, \Vhcn we say, 'a soldier of the king's,' we mean, one of the king'- a re m. p. 29. There is therefore an ellipsis of the word toUitn, in the former phi.. Q the following example, mine is used elliptically for //*// feet ; or rather, feet is understood after mine, though mine feet is no longer good English, for reasons before stated : c 1 absolve thee, stoop ! that on thy neck Levelled with earth this fi,ut nf mine may tread." Wordmcorth. . 5. Respecting the . !' the simple personal pronouns, there appears am ->ng our grammarians a strange diversity of sentiment. Yet is there but one view of Sanborn, with strange i-noranro of the history of these words, teaches thus : "JU//K and thin* appear to ha-vr h.-en formal from >//// and r ; n/ \<\ into i and addinir n. and then subjoining f to retain the long urn i'l < -ft hi- vowel "Analytical . '.<_: ',<>tion, as we learn from his unillt me'- and a remark in his preface, he borrowed fr 'in " I'arkhiirM ! :.tn>:lur f ion " lip. I, owth saj s, " The Saxon Ic hath '-ase Mm : Thu, posses.-i. ; ..--, *-jve n, s : from which our possessive cases of the same pronouns are taken without alteration.'' LowtWs Gram. p. 23. 300 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. the matter, that has in it either truth or reason, consistency or plausibility. And, in the opinion of any judicious teacher, an erroneous classification of words so common and so important as these, may well go far to condemn any system of grammar in which it is found. A pronoun agrees in person, number, and gender, with the noun for which it is a substitute ; and, if it is in the possessive case, it is usually governed by an other noun expressed or im- plied after it. That is, if it denotes possession, it stands for the name of the possessor, and is governed by the name of the thing possessed. Now do not my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, and mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, all equally denote possession ? and do they not severally show by their forms the person, the number, and sometimes also the gender, of whomever or whatever they make to be the possessor ? If they do, they are all of them pronouns, and nothing else; all found in the possessive case, and nowhere else. It is true, that in Latin, Greek, and some other languages, there are not only genitive cases correspond- ing to these possessives, but also certain declinable adjectives which we render in English by these same words : that is, by my or mine, our or ours ; thy or thine, your or yours ; &c. But this circumstance affords no valid argument for considering any of these English terms to be mere adjectives ; and, say what we will, it is plain that they have not the signification of adjectives, nor can we ascribe to them the construction of adjectives, without making their grammatical agreement to be what it very manifestly is not. They never agree, in any respect, with the nouns which follow them, unless it be by mere accident. This view of the matter is sustained by the authority of many of our English grammars ; as may be seen by the declensions given by Ash, C. Adams, Ainsworth, Barnard, Buchanan, Bickriell, Blair, Burn, Butler, Comly, Churchill, Cobbett, Dalton, Davenport, Dearborn, Farnum, A. Flint, Fowler, Frost, Gilbert, Greenleaf, Hamlin, Hiley, Kirkham, Merchant, Murray the schoolmaster, Parkhurst, Picket, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, R. C. Smith, Wilcox. OBS. 6. In opposition to the classification and doctrine adopted above, many of our gram- marians teach, that my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are adjectives or " adjective pronouns ;" and that mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, are personal pronouns in the possessive case. Among the supporters of this notion, are D. Adams, Alden, Alger, Allen, Bacon, Barrett, Bingham, Bucke, Bullions, Cutler, Fisk, Frost, (in his small Grammar,) Guy, Hall, Hart, Harrison, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Lennie, Lowth, Miller, L. Murray, Pond, T. Smith, Spear, Stan- iford, Webber, Woodworth. The authority of all these names, however, amounts to l.ttle more than that of one man ; for Murray pretended to follow Lowth, and nearly all the rest copied Murray. Dr. Lowth says, " Thy, my, her, our, your, their, are pronominal adjectives ; but his, (that is, he's,} hers, ours, your's, their s, have evidently the form of the possessive ci.se : And, by analogy, mine, thine, may be esteemed of the same rank." Lowth's Gram. p. 23. But why did he not see, that by the same analogy, and also by the sense and meaning of the words, as well as by their distinctions of person, number, and gender, all the other six are entitled to " the same rank ? " Are not the forms of my, thy, her, our, your, their, as fit to denote the relation of property, and to be called the possessive case, as mine, thine, his, or any others ? In grammar, all needless distinctions are reprehensible. And where shall we find a more blamable one than this ? It seems to have been based merely upon the false no- tion, that the possessive case of pronouns ought to be formed like that of nouns ; whereas custom has clearly decided that they shall always be different : the former must never be written with an apostrophe ; and the latter, never without it. Contrary to all good usage, however, the Doctor here writes " her's, our's, your's, their s," each with a needless apos- trophe. Perhaps he thought it would serve to strengthen his position ; and help to refute what some affirmed, that all these words are adjectives. OBS. 7. Respecting mine, thine, and his, Lowth and L. Murray disagree. The latter will have them to be sometimes "possessive pronouns," and sometimes "possessive cases." An ad- mirable distinction this for a great author to make ! too slippery for even the inventor's own hold, and utterly unintelligible to those who do not know its history ! In short, these au- thors disagree also concerning my, thy, her, our, your, their ; and where two leaders of a par- ty are at odds with each other, and each is in the wrong, what is to be expected from their followers ? Perceiving that Lowth >vg s wrong in calling these words " pronominal adjectivea f " Murray changed the term to " possessive pronouns," still retaining the class entire ; and ac- cordingly taught, in his early editions, that, " There we four kinds of pronouns, viz. the per- sonal, the possessive, the relative, and the adjective pronouns." Murray's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 37. " The Possessive Pronouns are such as principally relate to possession or property. There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. The possessives his, mine, thine, may be accounted either possessive pronouns, or the possessive cases of their respective personal pronouns." Ib. p. 40. He next idly demonstrates that these seven words may come before nouns of any number or case, without variation ; then, forgetting his own dis- tinction, adds, "When they are separated from the noun, all of them, except his, vary (/tar terminations ; as, this hat is mine, and the other is thine ; those trinkets are hers ; t\\\s house is ours, and that is yoiirs ; theirs is more commodious than ours." Ib. p. 40. Thus all his personal pronouns of the possessive case, he then made to be inflections of pronouns of a different class ! What are they now ? Seek the answer under the head of that gross sole- cism, "Adjective Pronouns." You may find it in one half of our English grammars. !IIAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. DECLENSIONS. 301 Ows. 8. Any considerable error in the classing of words, does not stand alone; it natu- rally brings others in its train. Murray's " Adject i>-<- 1'r >,fiuns," (which he now subdivides into four little classes, poss^*i'-c, di*ft-ibutn-c, demount rot/ >,; and ierson, numbi-r, and i/,->ul<-r ; and are governed, like all other possessives, by the nouns which fol- low them. The rest are no r, but pronominal adjectives ; and, as such, they relate to nouns expressed or understood after f/n-.n. Accordingly, they have none of the above- mentioned (Dualities, except that the words this and that form the plurals tliese and those. Or, if we choose to ascribe to a pronominal adjective all the properties of the noun understood, it is merely for the sake of brevity in parsing. The difference, then, between a " pronomi- nal adjective " and an " adjective pronoun " should seem to be this ; that the one is an ad- . and the other ." ( 'ooper, in his grammar of 1828, copies the last scheme of Murray: in that of 1831, he avers that the personal pronouns "want the possessive case." N .w, like Webster and Wilson, he will have mini', thim-, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, to be pronouns of the nominative or the objective case. Dividing the pronouns into six general tifth ; calling them " Possessive Pronouns," but preferring in a : >us name, u Pott uit ProMtNM Substitute." His sixth class are what he calls, "T!. re Pronominal Adjectives; " namely, " my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, i I thine."' Cooper's I'l. and J'r. (in/m. p. 43. But all these he has, unquestionably, either misplaced or misnamed ; while he tells us, that, " Simplicity of arrangement should be the object of every compiler." Ib. p. 33. Dr. Perley, (in whose scheme of grammar all the pronouns are nouns,) will have my, thy. his. In-,-, its, mtr, your, and . to be in the possessi\ it of mim-, thine, In rs, ours, yours, and theirs, he says, .>c may be called J> <1 I'ronouns." I'lt-fry's drum. p. \~>. . 10. Kirkham, though he professes to follow Murray, declines the simple personal pronouns as 1 have declined them ; and argues admirably, that my, thy, his, &c., are pronouns ot the possessive case, because, " They always xt and for nouns in the possessive case." But he afterwards palpably contradicts both himself and the common opinion of all former gram- This word should hare been numerals, for two or three reasons. The author speaks of the numeral adjectives ; and to say the MMtartmtMlaCfeM iu number with their substantives,'' is tautological. G. BROW.V 302 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. marians, in referring mine, thine, hers, c., to the class of "Compound Personal Pronouns" Nay, as if to outdo even himself in absurdity, he first makes mine, thine, hers, ours, &c., to be compounds, by assuming that, " These pluralizing adjuncts, ne and s, were, no doubt, for- merly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce ; " and then, because he finds in each of his supposed compounds the signification of a pronoun and its governing noun, reassumes, in parsing them, the very principle of error, on which he condemns :heir common classification. He says, "They should be parsed as two icords." He also supposes them to represent the nouns which govern them nouns with which they do not agree in any respect ! Thus is he wrong in almost every thing he says about them. See Kirkham's (jnun. p. 99, p. 101, and p. 104. Goodenow, too, a still later writer, adopts the major part of all this absurdity. He will have my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, for the possessive case of his personal pronouns ; but mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, he calls " compound possessive pronouns, in the subjective or [the] objective case." Text-Book of E. Gram. p. 33. Thus he introduces a new class, unknown to his primary division of the pronouns, and not included in his scheme of their declension. Fuller, too, in a grammar produced at Plymouth, Mass. in 1822, did nearly the same thing. He called/, thou, he, she, and it, with their plurals, "antecedent pronouns ; " took my, thy, his, her, c., for their only possessive forms in his de- clension ; and, having passed from them by the space of just half his book, added : " Some- times to prevent the repetition of the same word, an antecedent pronoun in the possessive case, is made to represent, both the pronoun and a noun ; as, That book is mine ' i. e. my book.' MINE is a compound antecedent pronoun, and is equivalent to my book. Then parse my, and book, as though they were both expressed." Fuller's Gram. p. 71. OBS. 11. Amidst all this diversity of doctrine at the very centre of grammar, who shall so fix its principles that our schoolmasters and schoolmistresses may know what to believe and teach? Not he that speculates without regard to other men's views ; nor yet he that makes it a merit to follow implicitly " the footsteps of" one only. The true principles of grammar are with the learned; and that man is in the wrong, with whom the most learned will not, in general, coincide. Contradiction of falsities, is necessary to the maintenance of truth ; correction of errors, to the success of science. But not every man's errors can be so con- siderable as to deserve correction from other hands than his own. Misinstruction in gram- mar has for this reason generally escaped censure. I do not wish any one to coincide with me merely through ignorance of what others inculcate. If doctors of divinity and doctors of laws will contradict themselves in teaching grammar, so far as they do so, the love rs of consistency will find it necessary to deviate from their track, Respecting these prone uns, I learned in childhood, from Webster, a doctrine which he now declares to be false. This was nearly the same as Lowth's, which is quoted in the sixth observation above. But, in stead of correcting its faults, this zealous reformer has but run into others still greater. Now, with equal reproach to his etymology, his syntax, and his logic, he denies that our pronouns have any form of the possessive case at all. But grant the obvious fact, that sub- stitution is one thing and ellipsis an other, and his whole argument is easily overthrown ; for it is only by confounding these, that he reaches his absurd conclusion. OBS. 12. Dr. Webster's doctrine now is, that none of the English pronouns have more than two cases. He says, " Mine, thine, his, hers, yours, and theirs, are usually considered as [being of] the possessive case. But the three first are either attributes, and used with nouns, or they are substitutes. The three last are always substitutes, used in the place of names WHICH ARE UNDERSTOOD." " That mine, thine, his, [ours,] yours, hers, and theirs, do not con- stitute a possessive case, is demonstrable ; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs and as the objectives after verbs and prepositions, as in the following passages. ' Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of a body organized as ours is.' Locke. 'The reason is, that his subject is generally things ; theirs, on the con- trary, is persons.' Camp. Rhet. Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men.' Wycherley to Pope. It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these pre- tended possessives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives.* Should it be said that a * Cardell assails the common doctrine of the grammarians on this point, with similar assertions, and still more earnestness, ^ee his Essay on Language, p. 89. The notion that " these pretended possessives [are] uniformly used as nominatives or objectives' 1 ' 1 though demonstrably absurd, and confessedly repugnant to what is " usually considered'' to be their true explanation was adopted by Jaudon, in 1812 ; and has recently found several new advocates ; among whom are Davis, Eelch, Goodenow, Hazen, Smart, Weld, and Wells. There is, however, much diversity, as well as much inaccuracy, in their several expositions of the matter. Smart inserts in his declensions, as the only forms of the possessive case, the words of which he afterwards speaks thus : " The followi casts of the personal pronouns. (See page vii,) must be railed PERSONAL PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE: mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, tlitns. For these words, are always utedsiibslantively, so as to include the meaning of some noun in the third person singular or plural, in the nominative or the objective case. Thus, if we. are speaking of books, and say [,] ' Mine are here,' mine means my books, f(r"] and it must be deemed a personal pronoun possfssire in the third person plural, and nominative to the verb are.'' Smart's Accidence, p. xxii. If to say, these " possessive cases must be called a class of pronoun*, used substantially. and deemed nominatives or objectives,'' is not absurd, then nothing can be. Nor is any thing in grammar more certain, than that the pronoun " mine" can only be used by the speaker or writer, to denote himself or herself as the owner of something. It is therefore of thejirst person, singular number, masculine (or feminine) gender, und possessive case ; being governed by the name of the tiling or things possessed. This name is. of course, always known ; and, if known and not expressed, it is " understood." For sometimes a word is repeated to the mind, and clearly understood, where " it cannot properly be" expressed ; as, " And he came and sought fruit thereon, and found none." Luke, xiii, 6. Wella opposes this doctrine, citing* CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. DECLENSIONS. 303 noun is understood ; I reply, this cannot be true," &c. Philosophical Gram. p. 35 ; Improved . ]}. 2il. Now, whether it be true or not, this very position is expressly affirmed by the Doctor himself, in the citation above ; though he is, unquestionably, wrong in suggesting that the pronouns are " used in the place of [those] names WHICH AUK UNDKKSTOOD." They are used in the place of other names the names of the possessors ; and are governed by those which he here both admits and denies to be " understood." . 1:;. The other arguments of Dr. Webster against the possessive case of pronouns, may perhaps be more easily answered than some readers imagine. The first is drawn from, the tact that conjunctions connect like cases. " Besides, in three passages just quoted, the word ij'>ura is joined by a connective to a name in the same case ? ' To ensure yours and their nitty.' ' The easiest part of yours and my desir/n.' ' My sicord and yours are kin.' "Will any person pretend that the connective here joins different cases " Improved Grain, p. '28; Philox:,]il,irul Gram. p. 30. I answer, No. But it is falsely assumed that yours is here con- nected by and to immortality, to design, or to sword ; because these words are again severally- understood after yours : or, if otherwise, the two pronouns alone are connected by and, so that the proof is rather, that their and my are in the possessive case. The second argument is drawn from the use of the preposition of before the possessive. " For we say correctly, an acquaintance of yours, ours, or theirs' of being the sign of the possessive ; but if the words in themselves are possessives, then there must be two signs of the same case, which is absurd." Imjn-ort-d Gram. p. 28 ; 1'hil. Gr. 36. I deny that of is here the sign of the -ivr, and affirm that it is taken partitively, in all examples of this sort. " I know my sheep, and am known of mine," is not of this kind; because of here means by a sense in which the word is antiquated. In recurring afterwards to this argument, the Doctor mis- quotes the following texts, and avers that they " are evidently meant to include the whole "ing to the Lord, all ye saints of his.' Ps. 30, 4. ' lie that heareth these sayings of mine.' Matt. 7." Improved Gram. p. 29 ; Phil. Gr. 38. If he is right about the mean- ing, however, the passages are mistranslated, as well as misquoted : they ought to be, "Sing nntn the Lord, O ye his Saints." "Every one that heareth these my sayings." But when a definitive particle precedes the noun, it is very common with us, to introduce the possess- ive ellipticaJly after it ; and what Dr. Wilson means by suggesting that it is erroneous, I know not : " When the preposition of precedes mine, ours, yours, &c. the errour lies, not in this, that there arc double possessive cases, but in forming an implication of a noun, which the substitute already denotes, together with the persons." Essay on Gram. p. 110. . 1 I. In his Syllabus of English Grammar, Dr. Wilson teaches thus : " My, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their, whose, and ichosesoercr are possessive pronominal adjectives. Ours, . and theirs are pronoun substantir.cs, used either as subjects, or [as] objects; as singulars, or [as] plurals ; and are substituted both for [the names of] the possessors, and (for those of the] things possessed. His, its, whose, mine, and thine, are sometimes used as , but also are at other times pronominal possessive adjectives." Wilson's v, ]). x. Xow compare with these three positions, the following three from the same learned author. "In Hebrew, the adjective generally agrees with its noun in gender and number, but pronouns follow the gender of their antecedents, and not of the nouns with whii-h they stand. So in English, my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, agree with the nouns they represent, in number, gender, and person. But adjectives, having no change of number, gender, or case, cannot accord with their nouns." l\'ilson's Essay on passage from Webster, as above, and also imitating his argument. This author acknowledges three classes of pro- . excluding these words from their true place among MB possessive ca.e, al'.-m . . . a siifirr numt rary class of poss> ^ >r objec- /'teirs, are POSSESSIVE PRONOI >s. u-fi in ci.rstniciion cither as isures are past, mine are to come.' Here the word mine, which is used as asul'-" ;tif filbert of the vc-rb nt>." - 'tool Gram. p. 71 ; 113 Ed. p. 78. Now it are to come ? :? Ans. ' treasures." But the author li t<> ar^m- in a n supplied, tin- phra.M- becomes :i tnine to my; so that we are made, by this ire mine aa possessing a word understood, before which it cannot properly be used The word nls my and book." Wtlls,ibid. This note appears to nu- \ respects, fai. ce, its whole dedgn was, to disprove what is true. F< r. 1-at- . nal t<> tin.- : -Your pleasures are past, U". H. At in both. But ellipsis is not substitution ; no. nor is it suggests an ellipsis of the governing noun, i to my am/ tlmt ntiuii : hut ' ii.iuii. for the name of Jhr sj'eaktr or icri- rms representing, and always agreeing with, that nanio IT JHTS'HI only. No posseohre . with thai for which i <'iidly, if the DOU n! ,.im in ( ju,-ti"ii art "governed by nouns \nnltr- *<<>"/, ,|cn\ ir. In the third place, the exainj. - m.t a pood < -.- 'Hi., u irl\ parsed as ft pGMMive, without supposing any ellij _-iv. n, and li ous c-i . . n-iuiriiiu' -iii'-r-nt rrt.vt; and not the DMC, which mu.-t t.- put in the same case. In tin- tnurtli j'lacc. t<> nn-taki- n/i oJ/i*r, a ni"'!' 1 (i < ' ' urring twke in tin- ii.r-p). p. 4G. The work here quoted to I wo different grammars ; namely, Murray's and Allen's. These the author doubtless conceived to be the best English grammars extant. And it is not a little remark- able, that both of these authors, as well as many others, teach in such a faulty manner, that their intentions upon this point may be matter of dispute. " When Murray, Allen, and other>, -ay, we make use of the particle of to express the relation of the genitive,' the ambiguity of their assertion loaves it in doubt whether or not they considered the substan- tive which is preceded by of and an other substantive, as in the genitive case." Xixon's Eti'ili . 88. U"- living this doubt according to his own fancy, Nixon makes the of our personal pronouns to be as follows : " mine or of me, ours or of us ; (r.-i or of // i , /i in or of him, //V- //> or of tlfm ; hers or of her, theirs or of them; its or ]>. 43. This doctrine gives us a form of de- clensio-i that is both complex and deficient. It is therefore more objectionable than almost any of those which are criticised above. The arguments and authorities on which the author is position, are not thought likely to gain many converts; for which reason, I d. the subject, without citing or answering them. . 19. In old books, we sometimes find the word I written for the adverb ay, yes : as, "To dye, to slecpe ; To sleepe, perchance to dreame ; /, there's the rub." Shakspeare, Old The British Grammar, printed in 1784, and the Grammar of Murray the school- r, published some years earlier than Lindley Murray's, say : " We use / as an Answer, in a famili : , or merry Way ; as, 'I, I, Sir, I, I ; ' but to use ay, is accounted rude, especially to our Betters." See Brit. Gram. p. 198. The age of this rudeness, or incivility, if it ever existed, has long passed away ; and the fashion seems to be so changed, that to write or utter / for ay, would now in its turn be " accounted rude " the rudeness of igno- rance a false orthography, or a false pronunciation. In the word ay, the two sounds of i-.-e plainly heard ; in the sound of /, the same elements are more quickly blended. When this sound is suddenly repeated, some writers make a new word of it, which must be called an / as, " ' Pray, answer me a question or two.' * Ey, ey, as many as you ploa-e, r nisin Bridget, an they be not too hard.' " Burgh's Speaker, p. 99. " Ey, ey, 'tis so ; ut of her head, poor thing." Ib. p. 100. This is probably a corruption of ay, which is often doubled in the same manner : thus, , ay, Antipholus; look strange, and frown." Shakspeare. . 20. The common fashion of address being nowadays altogether in the plural form, the pronouns, thou, thy, thine, t/tee, and thyself, have become unfamUiar to most people, espe- cially to the vulgar and uneducated. These words are now confined almost exclusively to the writings of the poets, to the language of the Friends, to the Holy Scriptures, and to the solemn services of religion. They are, however, the only genuine representatives of the second person singular, in English ; and to displace them from that rank in grammar, or to , y mr, and your* as being literally singular, though countenanced by several late id pernicious innovation. It is sufficient for the information of the learner, and far more consistent with learning and taste, to say, that the plural is fashion- ably use< \ for the singular, by a figure of syntax ; for, in all correct usage of this sort, the plural, as well as the pronoun Dr. Webster's fourteen authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. For, surely, " You MW" cannot be considered good English, merely it number of respectable writers have happened, on some particular occasions, to adopt the phrase ; and even if we must needs concede this point, and grant to the Doctor and his converts, tha' . i i* prim iti<- < '," the example no more proves that -ingular, than that jrs is plural. And what is one single irregular preterit, com- with all the verbs in the langu-i . '1\. In our present authorised version of the Bible, the numbers and cases of the second person are kept remarkably distinct,* the pronouns being always used in the following inann r the nominative, thy or thine for the po^e~-ive, and thee for the objective, siniru the nominative, ymr or yours for the p<> e^ive, and you for the objective, plural. Vet, before that ^ -.'lionahle usage had commonly substitut- . iking the firmer word nominative as well as objective, and applying it to one h '1 as to in -ubsequently, as it appears, the religious sect that cmtert Miple about applying ^dividual, fell for the most part into an ungrammatiral practice of putting th- making, in like manner, the objective pro- noun t > be both nominative and objective; or, at lea-4, u-ing it very commonly so in their conversation. Their manner of speaking, however, was not or, certainly, with the present In rrsprrt to the numl'T*. th*> following text i* an uncouth exception : " Pas ye away, tkou inhabitant of Faphir.' 1 - Mirah. i, 11. The singular ami the plural an- II-T nfounded. Perhaps the muting ulionld (> inhabitant of Saphir." Nor is the I \\\ abrupt transitions from one number to the other, or from one person to an other, which arc m-i'li.T a-rcciihle u<>r -trictly pramuiatiral J a*, '* Brethren, If a man K- . VIT aken in a fault, ]it trhtr/i [ichn] arc spirimal. : .., [a] one in the spirit of meekness ; con- idering t.'i '/<'//", lest fAovalso be tempted. " (in!, vi. 1 \'e that put far away the evil day, and cause the geat cf violence to come near; that lie upon I- ml stretch t fit much- ?s upon their couches," &C. 4no5,vi, 3 20 306 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. generation of their successors, is not as some grammarians represent it to be, that formal and antique phraseology which we call the solemn style.* They make no more use of the pro- noun ye, or of the verbal termination eth, than do people of fashion ; nor do they, in using the pronoun thou, or their improper nominative thee, ordinarily inflect with st 'or est the preterits or the auxiliaries of the accompanying verbs, as is done in the solemn style. In- deed, to use the solemn style familiarly, would be, to turn it into burlesque ; as when Peter Pindar "tellath uhuthetroweth."^ And let those who think with Murray, that our present version of the Scriptures is the best standard of English grammar, J remember that in it they have no warrant for substituting s or es for the old termination eth, any more than for ceas- ing to use the solemn style of the second person familiarly. That version was good in its day, yet it shows but very imperfectly what the English language now is. Can we consist- ently take for our present standard, a style which does not allow us to use you in the nomi- native" case, or its for the possessive ? And again is not a simplification of the verb as necessary and proper in the familiar use of the second person singular, as in that of the third ? This latter question I shall discuss in a future chapter. ORS. 22. The use of the pronoun ye in the nominative case, is now mostly confined to the solemn style ; but the use of it in the objective, which is disallowed in the solemn style, and nowhere apprortd by our grammarians, is nevertheless common when no emphasis falls upon the word : as, " When you're unmarried, never load ye With jewels ; they may incommode ye." Dr. King, p. 384. Upon this point, Dr. Lowth observes, " Some writers have used ye as the objective case plural of the pronoun of the second person, very improperly and ungrammatically ; [as,] 4 The more shame for ye : holy men I thought ye.' Shak. Hen. VIII. 1 But tyrants dread ye, lest your just decree Transfer the pow'r, and set the people free.' Prior. 4 His wrath, which one day will destroy ye both.' Milt. P. L. ii. 7.34. Milton uses the same manner of expression in a few other places of his Paradise Lost, and more frequently in his [smaller] po&ms. It may, perhaps, be allowed in the comic and bur- lesque style, which often imitates a vulgar and incorrect pronunciation ; but in the serious and solemn style, no authority is sufficient to justify e manifest a solecism." Lowth's Gram. p. '22. Churchill copies this remark, and adds ; " Dryden ham you as the nominative, and ye as the objective, in the same passage : || 4 What gain you, by forbidding it to teaze ye f It now can neither trouble ye, nor please ye.' Was this from a notion, that you and ye, thus employed, were more analogous to thou and thee in the singular number? " Churchill's Gram. p. 225. I answer, No ; but, more proba- bly, from a notion, that the two words, being now confessedly equivalent in the one case, might as well be made so in the other : 'just as the Friends, in using thee for you, are care- lessly converting the former word into a nominative, to the exclusion of thou ; because the latter has generally been made so, to the exclusion of ye. When the confounding of such distinctions is begun, who knows where it will end ? With like ignorance, some writers suppose, that the fashion of using the plural for the singular is a sufficient warrant for put- ting the singular for the plural : as, "The joys of love, are they not doubly thine, Ye poor! whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline ? " Southwick's Pleas, of Poverty. " But, Neatherds, go look to the kine, Their cribs with fresh fodder supply ; The task of compassion be thine, For herbage the pastures deny." Perfect's Poems, p. 5. OBS. 23. When used in a burlesque or ludicrous manner, the pronoun ye is sometimes a * " The solemn style is used, chiefly, in the Bible and in prayer. The Society of Friends retain it in common parlance. It consists in using thou in the singular number, and ye in the plural, instead of using you in both num- bers as in the familiar style. * * * The third person singular [of verbs] ends with tk or eth, which affects only th present indicative, and hath of the perfect. The second person, singular, ends with st, est, or t only." Sanborn's Gram. p. 58. " In [the] solemn and poetic styles, mine, thine, and thy, are used ; and THIS t* the style adopted by the Friends' 1 society. In common discourse it appears very stiff and affected." Bartlett's C. S. Man 1 1, Part II, p. 7U. t " And of the History of his being tost in a Blanket, he saith, ' Here, Scriblerus, thouleesest in what thou assert- eft concerning the blanket : it was not a blanket, but a rug.' Curlliad, p. 26.*' Notes to Pope's Dunciad, B. ii, Terse 3. A vulgar idea solemnly expressed, is ludicrous. Uttered in familiar terms, it is simply vulgar : as, " You tie, Scriblerus, in what you say about the blanket." t " Notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate grammatical compp- ition that we have in the English language. The authority of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion, but it may be sufficient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, ' The present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the English language.' "Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 166. I revere the Bible vastly too much to be pleased with an imitation of its peculiar style, in any man's ordinary speech or writing. G. BROWN. " Ye, except in the solemn style, is obsolete; but it is used in the language of tragedy, to express contempt : as, l When ye shall know what Margaret knows, ye may not be so thankful.' Franklin." Allen's Gram. p. 57. " The second person plural had formerly YE both in the nominative and the objective. This form is now obsolete in the objective, and nearly obsolete in the nominative." Hart's Gram. p. 55. 1) So has Milton : " To waste it all myself, and leave ye none ! So disinherited how would you bless me ! "Par. Lost. B. x, 1. 820. CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. DECLENSIONS. 307 mere expletive ; or, perhaps, intended rather as an objective governed by a preposition understood. But, iu such a construction, I see no reason to prefer it to the regular objec- tive you " He'll laugh ye, dance ye, *in ye, vault, look gay, And ruffle all the ladies in his play." AV//y, p. 574. Some grammarians, who will have- you to be singular as well as plural, ignorantly tell us, that " i/i- always means more than one." But the fact is, that when yc was in common use, it was as frequently applied to one person as you : thus, re.wcll my doughtcr lady Margarcte, ( iod wotte full oft it grieued hath my mynde, That ye should go where we should seldome mete : Now am I gone, and haue left you bchyncU." .SV 7'. More, 1.503. In the following example, //< is used for thee, the objective singular ; and that by one whose knowledge of the English language, is said to have been unsurpassed : 41 Proud Baronet of Nova Scotia ! The Dean and Spaniard must reproach ye" Swift. So in the story of the Chameleon : " ' Tis green, ' tis green, Sir, I assure ye." Mcrrick. Thus we have ye not only for the nominative in both numbers, but at length for the objec- tive in both ; ye and you being made everywhere equivalent, by very many writers. Indeed this pronoun has been so frequently used for the objective case, that one may well doubt any grammarian's authority to condemn it in that construction. Yet I cannot but think it ill-chosen in the third line below, though right in the first : who have traced the Pilgrim to the scene Which is his last, if in your memories dwell A thought which once was his, if on ye swell A single recollection, not in vain He wore his sandal-shoon, and scallop-shell." Byron. OBS. 24. The three pronouns of the third person, he, she, and it, have always formed their plural number after one and the same manner, they, their or theirs, tJicm. Or, rather, these plural words, which appear not to be regular derivations from any of the singulars, have ever been applied alike to them all. But it, the neuter pronoun singular, had formerly no variation of cases, and is still alike in the nominative and the objective. The possessive its is of comparatively recent origin. Iff our common Bible, the word is not found, except by misprint ; nor do other writings of the same age contain it. The phrase, of it, was often used as an equivalent; as, "And it had three ribs in the mouth of it between the teeth of it." Dan. vii, o. That is " in its mouth, between its teeth," But, as a possessive case was sometimes necessary, our ancestors used to borrow one ; commonly from the masculine, though sometimes from the feminine. This produced what now appears a strange confusion of the genders : as, " Lirn ; no/, when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth /m, ,-/, th, if*, though true possi r their kind, have no occasion for this mark, nor does good usage admit it. Churchill, with equal disregard of con-i-tency and authority, givrs it to one of them, and denies it to the rc-t. to the classiiii-ation of thc*e word- . and of my, thy, her, our, your, their, as adject: jn : " It M ema as if the termination in s had. led to the di.^tincti m : but no one will contend, that ours is the possessive ease of our, or theirs of (heir; though ours, yours, hers, and (heirs, are often very improperly spelt with an apostrophe, u fault not always imputable to the printer ; while in it's, which is unq\ ably the possessive case of it, the apostrophe, by a -train;' 1 perversencss, is almost always, omitted." Churchill's dram. p. 'I'l'l. The charge of strange perverseness may, in this instance, I think, be retorted upon the critic ; and that, to the fair exculpation of those who choose to conform to the general usage which offends him. 308 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBS. 26. Of the compound personal pronouns, this author gives the following account : " Self, in the plural selves, a noun, is often combined with the personal pronouns, in order to express emphasis, or opposition, or the identity of the subject and [the] object of a verb ; and thus forms a pronoun relative : as, I did it myself;' ' he was not himself, when he said so ;' ' the envious torment tJiemsclves more than others.' Formerly self and selves were used simply as nouns, and governed the pronoun, which was kept distinct from it [them] in the possessive case : but since they [the pronoun and the noun] have coalesced into one word, they [the compounds] are used only in the following forms : for the first person, myself, our- selves ; for the second, thyself, or yourself, yourselves ; for the third, himself, herself, itself, themselves : except in the regal style, in which, as generally in the second person, the sin- gular noun is added to the plural pronoun, [making] our self. Each of these is the same i.t all three cases." Churchill's Gram. p. 75. In a note referring to the close of this explana- tion, he adds : " Own also is often employed with the possessive cases of the personal pronouns by way of emphasis, or opposition ; but separately, as an adjective, and not com- bining with them to form a relative : as, ' I did it of my own free will :' ' Did he do it with his own hand ?' " Ib. p. 227. OBS. 27. The preceding instructions, faulty and ungrammatical as they are, seem to be the best that our writers have furnished xipon this point. To detect falsities and blunders, is half the grammarian's duty. The pronouns of which the term self or selves forms a party are used, not for the connecting of different clauses of a sentence, but for the purpose of emphatic distinction in the sense. In calling them " relatives," Churchill is wrong, even by his own showing. They have not the characteristics which he himself ascribes to relatives ; but are compound personal pronouns, and nothing else. He is also manifestly wrong in asserting, that they are severally " the same in all three cases." From the very nature of their composition, the possessive case is alike impossible to them all. To express owner- ship with emphasis or distinction, we employ neither these compounds nor any others ; but always use the simple possessives with the separate adjective own : as, " With my own eyes," "By thy own confession," "To his own house," "For her own father," "By its own weight," " To save our oivn lives," " For your oion sake," "In their own cause." OBS. 28. The phrases, my own, thy own, his own, and so forth, Dr. Perlcy, in his little Grammar, has improperly converted by the hyphen into compound words : calling them the possessive forms of myself, thyself, himself, and so forth ; as if one set of compounds could constitute the possessive case of an other ! And again, as if the making of eight new pro- nouns for two great nations, were as slight a feat, as the inserting of so many hyphens ! The word own, anciently written owen, is an adjective ; from an old form of the perfect parti- ciple of the verb to owe ; which verb, according to Lowth and others, once signified to possets. It is equivalent to due, proper, or peculiar ; and, in its present use as an adjective, it stands nowhere else than between the possessive case and the name of the thing possessed : as, " The Boy's Own Book," "Christ's own words," " Solomon's own and only son." Dr. Johnson, while he acknowledges the above-mentioned derivation, very strangely calls ovm a noun substantive ; and, with not much more accuracy, says : " This is a word of no other use than as it is added to the possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, our, your, their." Quarto Diet. w. Own. O. B. Peirce, with obvious 'untruth, says, " Own is used in combination with a name or substitute, and as a part of it, to constitute it emphatic." Gram. p. 63. He writes it separately, but parses it as a part of the possessive noun or pronoun which precedes it! OBS. 29. The word self was originally an adjective, signifying same, very, or particular ; but, when used alone, it is now generally a noun. This may have occasioned the diversity which appears in the formation of the compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson, in his great Dictionary, calls self a pronoun ; but he explains it as being both adjective and sub- stantive, admitting that, " Its primary signification seems to be that of an adjective."- Again he observes, " Myself, himself, themselves, and the rest, may, contrary to the analogy of my, him, them, be used as nominatives." Hisself, itsself, and thcirseloes, would be more analogical than himself, itself, themselves ; but custom has rejected the former, and established the latter. When an adjective qualifies the term self, the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case ; as, My si/iyle self My own self His own self Their own selves. So, anciently, without an adjective : as, " A man shall have diffused his life, his self, and his whole concernments so far, that he can weep his sorrows with an other's eyes." South, 11 Something valuable for its self without view to any thing farther." Harris's Hermes, p. 293. "That they would willingly, and of their selves endeavour to keep a perpetual chastity."- Stat. Ed. VI, in Loicth's Gram. p. 26. " Why I should either imploy my self in that study or put others upon it." Walker's English Particles, p. xiv. " It is no matter whether you do it by your proctor, or by your self." Ib. p. 96. The compound oneself is sometimes written in stead of the phrase one's self; but the latter is preferable, and more common. Even hi* self, when written as two words, may possibly be right in some instances ; as, " Scorn' d be the wretch that quits his genial bowl, His loves, his friendships, ev'n his self, resigns ; Perverts the sacred instinct of his soul, And to a ducat's dirty sphere confines." SHENSTONE: Brit. Poets, Vol. vii, p. 107. OBS. 30. In poetry, and even in some compositions not woven into regular numbers, th CHAP. V.] ETfMOIyOQY. PRONOUNS. DECLENSIONS. 309 simple personal pronouns are not ^infrequently used, for brevity's sake, in a reciprocal sense ; that is, iu stead of the compound personal pronouns, which are the proper reciprocals : as, " Wash I/OK, make you clean." Isaiah, i, 16. " I made me great works; I bullied m houses; I planted tin: vineyards; I made me gardens and orchards." / . ii, 4. J'Thou shall surely clothe thee with them all as with an ornament, and bind them on thee as a bride doeth." Ixiitah, xlix, 18. Compare with tho.-^c the more regular expression : "As a bridegroom decketh A////v,7/' with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth hrr<-[f with jewels." Isaiah, Ixi, 10. Thi-; phraseology is almost always preferable in prose; the other is a poetical license, or peculiarity : " I turn me- from the martial roar." Xmtt's L. L., p. 97. " Hush thec, poor maiden, and be still." Ib. p. 110. " Firmer he roots him the ruder it blow." Ib. p. 49. OHS. 31. To accommodate the writers of verse, the word ever is frequently contracted into r'cr, pronounced like the monosyllable air. An easy extension of this license, gives us similar contractions of all the compound relative pronouns ; as, >rhoe'crOTirhosoc'cr,whose'er or whnsi- -t.-'er, trh'imr'rr or irhotttsue'er, ichichc'er or irhichsoeer, ichateer or whatsoe'er. The character and properties of these compounds are explained, perhaps sufficiently, in the observations upon the classes of pronouns. Some of them are commonly parsed as represent- ing two cases at once ; there being, in fact, an ellipsis of the noun, before or after them : as, " Each art he prompts, each charm he can create, Whole er he gives, are f/icen for you to hate." Pope's Duuciad. OBS. 32. For a form of parsing the double relative what, or its compound ir/i>rfen.r or tchat soccer, it is the custom of some teachers, to suggest equivalent words, and then proceed to explain these, in lieu of the word in question. This is the method of RtmeU'a drum. p. 99; of Merchant's, p. 110; of Kirkhanis, p. Ill ; of Gilbert's, p. 92. But it should be remem- bered that equivalence of meaning is not sameness of grammatical construction ; and, even if the construction be the same, to parse other equivalent words, is not really to parse the text that is given. A good parser, with the liberty to supply obvious ellipses, should know how to explain all goo I English r/.v // stands ; and for a teacher to pervert good English into false doctrine, must needs seem the very worst kind of ignorance. What can be more fan- tastical than the following etymology, or more absurd than the following directions for parsing: " What is compounded of which that. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained : irhatirh[ich t]hat ; (ir/tich-that.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qua, qua tha, qutha, Iquthat, quJuif, Jurat, and tinally ichat." Kirkhanis dram. p. 111. This bald pedantry of " tha qua, qua tha," was secretly borrowed from the grammatical speculations of William S. Cardell:* the " which-that" notion contradicts it, and is partly of the borrower's own invention. If it-h-if is a compound, it was compounded more than a thousand years ago; and, of course, long before any part of the English language existed as such. King Alfred used it, as he found it, in the Saxon form of Inert. The Scotch afterwards spelled it quhat. Our English grammarians have improperly called it a compound; and Kirkham, still more absurdly, calls the word others a compound, and mine, thine, ours, yours, &c. compounds.f On- ording to this gentleman's notion of things, there is, within the little circle of the word irhat, a very curious play of antecedent parts and parts relative a dodging contra-danrc of /////,// that and/ 1 //'// irJiic.h, with things "///>//, and so forth. Thus : "When tchaf i- you most always parse it !; that is, you must parse the antecedent part v a // /n, and give it case ; the relative part you may anti/i/.-.e like any other iving it a case likewise. Example: 'I will try what (that which) can be li Tl>ew. : '..,,/of ticoxp- ' >-f. *. each, of course, referring to a o/m, expressed or / ti-hirh : thn- ''it that: or that tkat ; used also in tin- plural. At dif- f.T.jnt ji.-i: !-. ati.l in 'lit) |, it appears in tin- varvin.. ,/, t/itu //,. ijn'thn. r/itt/ifif. quhat, in other forms : but, it i- multiply them." Cfcrrf/Tj Essay on lji> f which I have tak i in Obs. 10th abcm-. is reraark- I'roii.iiu.s an- .-< -ii'-ra/lii divi led into tlir- kinds, nm. p. in- far from i] kind* leqnate. And if we look it, -ir, n . of t':. .i;ioun, he wt\- ,,,1 i M fh-ir. The great peculiarity of the pronoun what, or of its compound whatever or what- soever, is a peculiarity of construction, rather than of etymology. Hence, in etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to notice it only as a relative, though the construction be double. It is in fact a relative ; but it is one that reverses the order of the antecedent, * "It is now proper to give some examples of the. manner in which the learners should be exercised, in order to improve their knowledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called pursing. The nature of the subject, as well as the adap'atiou of i" to learners, requires that it sh 'Uld be divided into two parts ; viz. pursing, as it re- gpec s el.VMiol'igy alone : juid parsing, as it respects both etymology and syntax." Mu.r'ii/'s (.train. Oitnro. Vol. i, p. 22"). lluw very little real respect for the opinions of Murray, has been entertained by these self-seikmg magni- fiers and modifiers of his work! U'imt Murrav calls ' Syntactical Parsing,-' i.s sometimes called " Construing," especially by those who will hare Parsing to be nothing in ore than an er,\mological exercise. A late author says, " The practice of Construing dif- fers from that of parsing, in the extension of irs objects. Parsing merely indicates the parts of speech and their accidents, bur construing searches for and points out their syntactical relations." I). 7>/.nV. Gram. ]> 4 '. Here the distinction which Murray judged to be necessary, is still more strongly marked and in.-i^fed on. And tho'iiM I see no utility in restricting the word Parsing to a mere description of the parts of speech uMi their accidents, and no impropriety in calling the latter branch of the exercise " Syntactical Parsing;" I cannot but think there is such a necessi y for the division, as forms a very grave argument against tho-e r.-mgled schemes of grammar which do not admit of it. 151 air is grossly inconsistent with himself. For. at'rer drawing his distinc- tion between Parsing and Construing, as above, he takes no further noriee of the latter ; but,, bavin a filled up seven pages wi'h his most wretched mode of " PAUSING," adds, in au emphatic note: " The T, acker should direct the Pufil to CONSTRUE, IN THE SAME MANNER, any passage from MY CLASS-BOOK, or othir Wutk, at the iatt of thret or four lines per day." D. Blair* Gram, pi 5G. CIIAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUN'S. PARSING. PRAXIS V. 311 whenever the noun is inserted with it. But as the noun is usually suppressed, and as the supplying of it is attended with an obvious difficulty, arising from the transposition, we cut the matter short, by declaring the word to have, as it appears to have, a double syntactical relation. Of the foregoing example, therefore viz., " From ickat is recorded," &c., a pupil of mine, in parsing etymolotjically would say thus : " What is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an ante- redfit word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. '). The neuter gender is that which denotes things that arc neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb." In parsing syntactically, he would say thus: "What is a double relative, including both antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that -which. As 'nt, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case ; being governed by from ; according to the rule which says, ' A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.' Because the meaning isfrom what. As relative, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nomina- tive ea>c ; being the subject of is recorded ; according to the rule which says, 'A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is what is recorded." Gits. 37. The word what, when uttered independently as a mark of surprise, or as the prelude to an emphatic question which it does not ask, becomes an interjection ; and, as such, is to be parsed merely as other interjections are parsed : as, " What! came the word of God out from you ? or came it unto you only :" 1 Cur. xiv, 36. " What ! know ye not that your 1) o ly is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God r" 1 Cor. vi, l.i. "But what ! is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing-" 2 Kings, viii, 13. " Whnt ! are you so ambitious of a man's good word, who perhaps in an hour's time shall curse himself to the pic of hell :" ('ullii-rs A/ttnni/mx, p. \~>-2. '.' up and down, carv'd like an apple-tart r" Shakspeare. " Wh-it ! can you lull the winged winds asleep :" Campbell. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS V. ETYMOLOGICAL. fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the different /trts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, A IM KCTIVES, and PRONOI The definitions to In- (jii m in the Fifth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a // , three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, and one for a verb, a participle, an adcerb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus: EXAMPLE PARSED. " N iy Lut, man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the tiling formed :iim that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?" Rom. ix, 20. i. an adverb. 1. An adverb is a * a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an oiher adverb ; and r. >.<< tiiiM-, j.Uri'. '|ii'ii ..MII-C <.f ttic ti-nii- > ronii' >> > 1 An in;. rj.M-tiou i> a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emo- f tli.. MI .1- kind. G. The nominative case Is that form or \.-rh. ^nlar nnnil <-r. nifiM-u!ii; ponder, and rmniinittivp rase. 1. A pri:(>iin is :. In interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which ft Mi.it wiiiHi d.-iinvsMi.- PT-OM or Miin m.-r.-h s|."k.-n oi' 4. The mmber is thai ie masculine gender ix that which dnotM i-iM.nsor malt- kind. U. The noniiimtivi- case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which denote* v verb. ifi.'rt tn b'. tr> net, or tn If acini upon. -.in ,1 pronoun, of nninh.-r. ma.*ruline ponder, and nomitm'iv.- case. 1. \ !i is awi.pt . of a n. tun. _ .. |n,,u. ,111; is n pronoun that ghow, b, inform, of whit person i- i 3 l':i- weond I>.T-.H i lenote^ the hearer, or the yenon l- i;. liat \rliir;i .i.-intt. R persons or .ini.n lU of the ma'c kin I. -. 1 h ui-iniua:ive cose is that form or stale of a nounor pronoun which denotes the subject of a verb. 312 'Jin. M:\MM\IJ or BfftLItH <;I:A.MMARS. fi'AiiTlI. That \H a relative pioiioiin, of Ihe OOnd p'-r .on, nin^uliir nnmhcr, nunculiiu! gender, and nominal iu- Cfl 1 . A pronoun IH H word n --,) I,, ;,..,, I nl a nmin. ii. A i.-la.'i-.c pmnoun IH a pronoun that n pic . n 1 ail atlt< ' edi nl wm d or phra- e a ml > nn IK ' I Milli rent c|a n. ,< nl . 'I lie ei m,. ii. iQd in.. , I.- lal-.en ui'h it. Tkr. IM !ln il< hnite ai IK l- I. An article I i he -.-. m . I tln.itn m-,, v.h,.h .-. . put hi I'nrc nnn n,'. tn limil. Ii. ..tion. ii. The definite article il a word di-i i v.-,| homa vei h , pai I n ipat in" Mn- prop. -h, and 01 a noun ; and JH (.'cm-rally |nrim-d hy adding /'/(<,'. t/,nntf, to the v.rh. ay. or .\////// '"?/, i a \<-r\>. I A Mil. i ;i \vi.nl th.'it. , ij'iijlM /,, /,, . /,, ,/ 1,1 /,/ /// m Til W a |,l' pi, id, ,n I A |,|, |,,, |i|',i, l :i .M.iil ii i .1 I', .- ,],rcfH HOIII each other, and IK K''IK run v pi ; "i'i befbni noon or a pronoun, pi.r H.if.ii. I. A pn-p.. -I u , .( I,. < --.pn -,; ,'i,ni,- M l;ili'in ,,) ililli-i, 1,1, tbingl <>r lli'.ughta to i, . .1 |,|, .in.iiii, ,,l I!K- tiiinl prri'dii, ; iii;'ii|.-,r iniuihi-r, in;if ' uliin- (.7-11, li-r, :i ml i.l.jccl i v I-MM-. 1. A pp. IK, u n i '. :i w.i il u i , ,i. m- / h, ii,it ,!,,,!. // ii a permniil pii B| of the third ptrton, cingular namb< tndei umi nhj-ci.ivi- i-;ivi-. l. A jironoim If a WOrd u id m Htead Of a noun. Ii. A per; ..mil pmhniin in ,-i prniK.uii l.h.-it, nhown, hy SlM Inrm, nl wh.-il. \>< r- onltin. ::. TI.. third person I ihai irhlob denote thi pel on or thing nurel poken ol i Th .in^ulir i iiinl.i r i,i Hint, whi.-h dCttOtol Im? "i,.-. :, TI,,. ,,, ,,!,, gradd i that uhi.-h ,|,-m,i..H thinjTH that, arc neither mill, i; Tin- nhjci-iivc en; i ,, th.-it Inrm or ;-.tat.t* of a noun or pronoun, which di'iiotcs tin: nl.jicl 'I :i \,-i I,, p.uli, iplc, nr pr.-pi,;;illnii. Why ih an :nl vi i h. I An .-iilvi-ih i ;i wnnl :i.l'|,-'l In ;i vi-i (., a. p;i rt i' iplc, ;m .-nljcrl.i v<-, nr :LII f.lhcr a.lvi'.rh; :> nl I- groe nr iiianiK r HanHn II. M l I,, .iii-'.ihai y t.o iiiiiili -,;iml m. ./ he I :i I. i-n v.itli il,. 'I'll-. a i. I pel nn.-il pmnniin ,,l lh>- BOOnd pl 01 :< ml hnini nal i i - :> '- I. A pi '.IK ii i n is a wni-'l ii ' 'I in l cail nl' a. m.iiii. ii. A pi i . mi.il pronoun is a pronoun t,ha,t, nhnw- , |, v its I'nnii, hat. p. iHnn \t,\*. I!. Tin- -,,-< nnii pci ..MI that which denot the bearer, or the perion addrWied -l. Tho Ingular numberii that which denote* i.nt ,m- '.,. The matcullne gender ii i.h:i.t, which ,h m,!. personioraiil* I .'h' m. I. -liiml. i;. Tin- iinininalivi! ca. is l.hat. Inrm nr , ' ili .-I .1 nnim m pi nnnun, which !( note* the vcrh. Min/i , or /in-,/ ninth . |H a vcrh. I. A vci h in a wnril Unit. sl^niHitH / '", liiml . nr lulu m li/l n/mii. ,1 pronoun, nf (In I,,, I. p, , m, : in-Milar nuinher. m-uliT -',-i,,|. i ami nhjYctivi- ca, e. ]. A prnnniin iri 11 word u . -I ii ( : ii -.nl nl a, m.iin. ii. A pcrnn.,1 pi -niinn n i:: a pi nnnu n th a.t, H.lmws, hy it.H lonn, of 'what, per- il IM :;. Tin- in i p, i on U thai which iicnnii n,.- peaker .i writer, -I The ilngular number ! '"He. f,. The licilli i ;< -nil, i l I 1 1.1 1 v, 1 1 ii h , Icnnl , ; ! 1, 1 1 ,<; ' I |,a I. a re i ,, il I M r inilciM,, !. h' 'I he nl.jei-livi- can- i.4 l.hat, I'm m nr 'tale of a nmin or pronoun which ilcnolc:' l.hc ohj.-c|, i,| ;i v,-rh, jiarli' iplc, or pri pn Him,. "' idTerb. I. An ailvcrhi.-: a. word mldcd t.n a VCrb, a participle, an adjective, or an nlhcr mlvcrli; and -illy rxprcMoH tliim, place, dogTM, "i- 111. mm r. LESSON I. PAUSING. " livery limn li;is uniloulitrrlly ;in inward [HTccplion of I!K- ((]<, fi;il "no-lncss ]y \vlidi lie i,> (jiiickciicil. |!ut, if l.o ;i!l;iin somr ideas o(' (iod, il. I.e. not, nree.^ary for US to p" lieyond our : el \ c:-, \vliat an tin panloiialile indolence is if in those who \vill imt i d into lliein.-'c!ve : . tint they may lind him ?"- -Ciilrins /us/if tifrs, 1 1. i, (Hi. f>. " .lesii.s aiisvvereil. If I liononr niy:-i'lf, my honour is nolhinl. " Wli.-il, ! have ye not boUSCS to cut and to ilrink in? or ! 'he elinreh of (lod, and : h;ime tiiem that have not, v \Vhat shall I say to you? shall I pr:ii.-e you in fl,i- v I prai 6 y*\ not." 1 (?or. xi, H'J. " \\ r e know not what we ouvht to wi;-h for, but, He who made US, knows." \v Di'iinty, Vol. ii, ]>. -<>. V.] MYMOLOQY. i 10. - I'FIAXIM V. 318 :i;it will harm you, if yi: he fitilnwi-r.-i <>f that which i> miod V" 1 /V/r/'. iii. l:i. " For we i Ijii- ii' > t make (nu>el\e > of tin- n urn IMT, i >r emu p.i ic oui ! vi-.-. \vitli -.iiiiiii-inl tin-in rlvi-:- : lint they, in- hy them c|\c.-. and <-..m- paini" I (,! olvi amon^ tlirii' < imt u i ." 'J fV//-. \, I '_! " Whatever i humane, i- ui 6 ; whatever i. \\\ B, i- JM I ; what--- ' :itid humane, \\ill lie found ill'' tine inlri> " />/. l!n*li,nn /'//// /.\7////r///.s. |i ID. " lint, inciliinl. , wa cannot anawai ittooui elves, a irell-a to oui Maker, that wt frhnuld ii\e and die i;-norant .l :mhonM ' u \\ln-n In- di'l BO I hhonld !>< >. M my v-'pln, \vh > /<_ ,^'j,,, I i!>l mi-li'Marid iii - iin'lln-r loii'/m- \\i-ll l.i |n|r !,, ml. i | ii| ..... lh< of :td. -ail ' In- y honl'l In- iii:i>|i* |M-r!'i--t ma : t.-r of the meaning of all flu- woi-il- uhi'h :m- in .- :ny I" I'lirui-h him with a translation of tin- particular author \vhi.-h be U stud viog. GoJlaudit t Lit Oonv, |. -'MI. ' No discipline 'H more suitable to man, or UK. ic rnii'Tiion ; to tin nf Iu3 , than thai whirl) r-lin--~ hi- ta '', and |i-:nU him i h, in . \M -, nlji-ct, oi.l.-rlv, what i- :-nitahh-, and what, i -i lit and proper. 1 / of( ///. i, : , Simph- th. naturally; what tlio occasion or the Klllijcct BUff- i "lit ; rui'l what, wh'ii onCO I. Ifffl ^a-ily appr.'hiMidi'd' \>y all. 1 in writin ;l and [!:>> J ol\ion train <-!' thought." Blair HI,*! p. I- I. " Whi-iT tin- >tory of an :'.. iin.lcd mi truth, no cii - HiUHt be i naturallv v. ith what arc l:no\vn to he tine ; hi tmv m:iy I)O nut In- r.,i|tr. :1 |ir-t<.d." Sri- I\IIIH,*\ i'.l t,f Orit i!. nut n- r.,i|tr. :1 r-t<.. ri- \IIIH,* . t,f " Uthcr--. I am t,ld, |in-t nd t', liidid-. Sun-lv lln -ui be molt odlOUS thaO '> 'r-at a IVn-nd a- they I'.ut oj'thi-: I cannot pcp-uadc niv-cll', when I con-idcr the cun taut M/I I e "frill had writ- " <'/, / away !" (,'nlilsinilli. :\.,Iv. d in tlio natiii' ,.,not IM- indifl^r'-nt to an -., M t thnt un it.-, it givOfi him joy ; if nnfor- i uriii who had rulinqtmhod tho >untry life : in tho corner of nil i il ill-unit with a |.-v.-i ^nu-nir, resembli 'iot i.nly il .:|,| I,,.,-,. ),,. .,, ,,,-ially Walked. " .. limii c]--e i . it thnt inted, \v!i- mur al !';< di -iiii-'Hion of thin;^ hi 314 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. because our own condition is less agreeable than we would have it, or because that of others is more prosperous than we imagine they deserve V" Archbishop Seeker. " Things cannot charge into the soul, or force us upon any opinions about them ; they stand aloof and are quiet. It is our fancy that makes them operate and ^all us ; it is we that rate them, and give them their bulk and value." Collier's Antoninus, p. 212. " What is your opinion of truth, good-nature, and sobriety ? Do any of these virtues stand in need of a good word ; or are they the worso for a bad one ? I hope a diamond will shine ne'er the less for a man's silence about the worth of it." Ib. p. 49. "Those words which were formerly current and proper, have now become obsolete and barbarous. Alas! this is not all : fame tarnishes in time too; and men grow out of fashion, as well as languages." Ib. p. 55. " Luxury ! thou curs'd by Heaven's decree, How ill exchang'd are things like these for thee !" Goldsmith. " 0, then, how blind to all that truth requires, Who think it freedom when a part aspires !" Id. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF PRONOUNS. LESSON I. RELATIVES. " At the same time that we attend to this pause, every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against." Murray's English Reader, p. xx. [FoRMCLE. Not proper, because the word that has not clearly the construction either of a pronoun or of a con- junction. But, according to Observation 18th, on the Classes of Pronouns, " The word that, or indeed ;iny other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain." Therefore, the expres.-ion should be altered ; thus, " While we attend to this pause, every appearance of singsong must be carefully avoidtcl.^] "For thou shalt go to all that I shall send thee." Jeremiah, i, 7 ; Gurney's Obs. p. 223. "Ah ! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I have possessed my kingdom." See Sanborn's Gram. p. 242. "In the same manner that relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed." Ib. p. 71. " Parse or mention all the other nouns in the parsing examples, in the same manner that you do the word in the form of parsing." Ib. p. 8. " The passive verb will always be of the person and number that the verb be is, of which it is in part composed." Ib. \>. 53. "You have been taught that a verb must always be of the same person and number that its nominative is." Ib. p. 68. " A. relative pronoun, also, must always be of the same person, number, and even gender that its antecedent is." Ib. p. 68. " The subsequent is always in the same case that the word is, which asks the question." Ib. p. 95. " One sometimes represents an antecedent noun in the same definite manner that personal pronouns do." Ib. p. 98. " The mind being carried forward to the time that an event happens, easily con- ceives it to be present." Ib. p. 107. " Save and saving are parsed in the same manner that except and excepting are." Ib. p. 123. "Adverbs describe, qualify, or modify the meaning of a verb in the same manner that adjectives do nouns." Ib. p. 16. "The third person singular of verbs, is formed in the same manner, that the plural number of nouns is." Ib. p. 41. "He saith further : 'that the apostles did not anew baptize such persons, that had been baptized with the baptism of John.' " Barclay's Works, i, 292. " For we which live, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake." 2 Cor. iv, 11. " For they, which believe in God, must be careful to maintain good works." Barclay's Works, i, 431. "Nor yet of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake." Ib. i, 43-5. " So as to hold such bound in heaven, whom they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven, whom they loose on earth." Ib. i, 478. " Now, if it be an evil to do any thing out of strife ; then such things that are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken "- Ib. i, 522. " All such who satisfy themselves not with the superficies of religion." Ib. ii, 23. " And he is the same in substance, what he was upon earth, both in spirit, soul and body." Ib. hi, 98. " And those that do not thus, are such, to whom the Church of Rome can have no charity." Ib. iii, 204. "Before hi? book he placeth a groat list of that he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers." Ib. in. l-il. " And this is that he should have proved." Ib. iii, 322. "Three of which were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university." Ib. iii, 180. " Therefore it is not lawful for any whatsoever * * * to force the consciences of others." Ib. ii, 13. " What is the cause that the I'onuer days were better than these r" Eccf. vii, 10. " In the same manner that the term >.T. bpoaufe the pronoun it's is written with an apostrophe. Bat, according to Observation 25th, on the lii-rlcn-i 'i.s of Pronouns, v ' The possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apos- trophe " Thi-n-fiin-. this apostrophe should be omitted ; thus, 4i Other makes the plural others, when it is found without it\ -ulis'antive "J " But his, //ive case." Loicth's Grtiin. p. '2o. "To the Saxon possessive cases, hire, lire, cower, him, (that is, her's, oiir'.s >j nir's, tln-irs, ) we have added the *, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns." Ib. p. '!'< . " I'pon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both their' s andour's." FRIENDS' BIHLI: : 1 <' >r. i, 2. " In this Place His Hand i.s clearly preferable either to Hers or It's."* Hi r, p. o9. " That roguish leer of your's makes a pretty woman's heart ake." AUDI SON : in Joh. Diet. " Lest by any means this liberty of your*fc become a stumbling- block." FKIKXD.-' UIULK : 1 (.-or. viii, 9. "First person: Sing. I, mine, me; Plur. we, our's, us" Wilbur and Livingston,'* Gram. p. 16. " Second person : Sing, thou, thine, thee ; Plur. ye or you, your's, you." Ib. " Third person : Sing, she, her's, her; Phir. they, their's, them." Ib. " So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not your's." SCOTT ET AL.: ./-/-. v, 11). " Second person, Singular: S'om. thou or you, Poss. thine or yours, Obj. theo or you." Font's EL of K. Gram. p. 13. " Second person, Dual: Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of ye two ; Dat. Inc, incrum, to ye two ; Ace. Inc, ye two ; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two ; Abl. Inc, inerum, from ye two." Gwilt's Saxon Gram. p. 12. " Second person, Plural : Nom. s when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest their selves." ? (i /nn. p. 1 >. '-It not only exists in time, but is time its self." Ib. p. 7o. "A I which the action its self will palpably deny." Ib. p. 102. "A difficulty sometimes present its self." Ib. p. 165. " They are sometimes explanations in their selves." Ib. p. t" Our's, Your's. Their's, Her's, It's." N. Barrett's Gram. p. 24. " Their's the wild chace of false felicities; His, the compos' d possession of the true." Murray's E. Reader, p. 216. LKSSON III. MIXED. " It is th" boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most tr.'e , which exists on the earth." Dr. Atfrn's Lectures, p. 18. TLK. Not proper, because the relative \rltidi is h ;re intended to be taken in a restrictive sense But, ae- eordi: _ ''ronouns, and (others thnt f >llow it,) the word ivlitt or whirh, with t> usually limit the preceding term. Tin k should be that, and the comma ahoui I ; i;is, " thattli^ir j;ov.'rinii-nt id the most free and jx-rft-oc that exists on the earth. ''J .ildreu. wl\o are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity." S(in/rns Gram. p. 69. "The scholar, who improves his tim". -rU an example worthy of imitation." 76. p. G9. Nouns an 1 pr .nouns, which signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case." ve sentence is one, which asks a question." Ib. p. 1 1 1. "In tMe UM of words and phrases, which in point of time relate to each other, a Mould he ttbserrcd." M. p. 1 Murray's Rule xiii. "The .-, which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle, ile to the pronoun and participle." Murray's dram. p. 193. "the th .t they have not tl. of them in reading, may be traced to the very defec- tive an forms, one of which is always simple ; as, " Obeyedj or being obeyed," Sanborn's Analytical G-ram. p. 55 : " Loved / being loved," Parkhursfs Grammar for B-gmners, p. 110 : " Loved, or, being loved," Clark's Practical Gram. p. 83. I her* concur with the majority, who in no instance take the participle in ed or en, alone, for the Imperfect. OIIAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. - VERBS. - CLASSES. 317 participle in two ways or more, and so as to be both regular and irregular ; as, tliritw, thrived or throve, thriviny, thrived or thriven. IV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, beware, ouylit, yHoth. Verbs arc divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes; tUJtive-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter. I. An ti>-f ire-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object ; as, " Cain slew Abel" " Cassius loved frwtus." II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object ; as, " John walks" " Jesus icq>(." III. A 2^ssive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nom- inative expresses, as being acted upon ; as, " I am compelled." " Caesar icas slain." IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; as, " There was light." " The babe sleeps" OBSERVATIONS. Ons. 1. So various have been the views of our grammarians, respecting this complex and most important part of speech, that almost every thing that is contained in any theory or distribution of the English verbs, may be considered a matter of opinion and of dispute. Nay, the essential nature of a verb, in Universal Grammar, has never yet been determined by "any received definition that can be considered unobjectionable. The greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of this part of speech, is difficult, if not impossible, to be formed. Home Tooke, at the close of his Diversions of Purley, cites with contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition, some Latin, some English, some French ; then, with the abruptness of affected disgust, breaks oft* the catalogue and the conversation together, leaving his readers to guess, if they can, what he conceived a verb to be. lie might have added some scores of others, and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them. A definition like that which is given above, may answer in Borne degree the purpose of distinction ; but, after all, we must judge what is, and what is not a verb, chiefly from our own observation of the sense and use of words.* OBS. 2. Whether participles ought to be called verbs or not, is a question that has been nnich disputed, and is still variously decided ; nor is it possible to settle it in any way not liable to some serious objections. The same may perhaps be said of all the forms called itijitii(irr\, but form a separate part of s>peech. . 3. The number of verbs in our language, amounts unquestionably to four or five thousand; some >;iy, (perhaps truly, ) to eight thousand. All these, whatever be the num- ber, arc cont'"s.-rdly ,>-, a great deal of attention. The defective verbs being very few, and most of thc-r tew being mere auxiliaries, which are never parsed separately, there is little occasion to treat them as a distinct class ; though Murray and others have ranked them so, and perhaps it is best to follow their example. The redundant verbs, In the following example, " hr - and il .V " arc converted into verbs ; as " thou " sometimes if. i the writing! Offihakapeare, :md others: " Is it not an impulse of selfishness or of ;i deprived nature t- iuini;it Objects?" Cntl, and that only, lie adds, A verb neuter expresses neither action nor ptissi&n, but being, or a state of .' and the accuracy of this definition is borne out by the assent of perhaps every other grammarian. If, with tins dear and forcible definition before our eyes, we proceed co class intransitive verbs with neuter verbs, and direct our pupils to prove such a classifica- tion by reciting Murray's definition of the neuter verb, we may indeed expect from a think- ing pupil the remonstrance which was actually made to a teacher on that system, while parsing the verb - the boy, ' does not to run imply action, for it always makes me perspire :' " .Y/>>//',y Knylish Parser, p. 9. . 8. For the consideration of those classical scholars who may think we arc bound by the authority , to adhere to the old division of verbs into active, passive, and neuter, it may be proper to say, that the distribution of the verbs in Latin, has been as much a matter of dispute among the great grammarians of that language a- has the dis- tribution of English, verbs, more recently, among ourselves; and often the points at issue were ; c same.* To explain here the different views of the very old grammarians, as Chariaius, 1 uatiu, >' . \ius, 1'riscian ; or even to notice the opinions of later critics, as :;/.oiiiu-; might seem perhaps a needless departure from wh.it the student of mere English grammar is concerned to know. The curious, however, may iind interesting citations from all these authors, under the corresponding head, in some of our Latin grammars. See Prat's <> Lntina, 8vo, London, 1722. It is certain that the division of active verbs, into tran^itire and intransitive or, (what is the same thing,) into "abaoluU and transitire" or, into " immanent and transit-tit" is of a very ancient date. The notion of calling pa&sicc verbs transitive, when used in their ordinary and proper con- struction, as some now do, is, 1 think, a modern one, and no small error. age rft <<', ami rhinks independently.- Dr. Lieber, Lit. Coin', p. 313. Of examples like these, three different ty IK? taken ; ami it is ri/ iiufsdoii'Me which is the ri^lit one : First, that these verbs are here intransi- uot commonly so ; >'/!/. tint they arc transitive, and have objects understood; Tkird, that thr\ :ii' '''fly, because m< d terminate ol j< -IMS are given them. If we assume the second opinion or the lull or tliu these : " !! < -onvince.s t!\e jmlznnent, but he does not elevate the ima^m any ; Case (Tptrsstil, it is tran-i'ive : it i' has none, it is int; < iclutk appear trai.-i'he in their nature, may freijin'!.- mifln'\ Ol'l tiiiDn. ]>.'.>! ; his I'mntnun Srkool ( itttm. p. 48. An other ion which '/ me object." / ">i. p. 2'J An -t from each other, viz: Thus,, which do, and those which Ami \\\~ detiniti"n i--, ' A Transitive Verb is one which Tfquirts&n objec- !l at'" J-:.<;r'i And the latter tL'ithout an objective case ; as, The apple tastes In ; io Principle* of Litin r,rammar, ;i and " the Trinciplpsof English Gram- mar, 1 ' , tngeable ; and, wh;it is very remarkable, a comparison of different editions will h.n\,r 4li>h, Latin, and '- L'r:mini .r<. a few years ago, like led verbs into " three kinds, ^ (<. !' ' " and ab-urillv av. < mine pa*x,vrf<'r,-t ,tre us really t- Prin. of E. '.'.rnn, '. as if no verb couM IK- plural, and ii" tr ni.-i'.ivi- act could be future, conditional, in pvr.^re?--. or left undone, they define thus : 14 A Tramnn--- M rti e\p:-esis an art >/ ;-i.nii or fhii._' " another.'' Ib. p. '29 ; Analyt. m this author wh-de paircs of weak argu- ni" i ;.iplacently huppn^ed to have been wellstttltd in his favour r. now, '. he speaks thus : i% The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive 1. ; 'td and Ppr iv, ; grammarians, that any discussion of the subject is now unnecessary." Lullions's Analyt. and Pract. Grain, p. 09. 320 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBS. 9. Dr. Adam's distribution of verbs, is apparently the same as the first part of Murray's ; and his definitions are also in nearly the same words. But he adds, " The verb Active is also called Transitive, when the action passeth over to the object, or hath an effect on some other thing ; as, scribo literas, I write letters : but when the action is confined within the agent, and passeth not over to any object, it is called Intransitive ; as, ambulo, I walk ; curro, I run : SP which are likewise called Neuter Verbs." Adam' s Latin and Eng- lish Gram. p. 79. But he had just before said, "A Neuter verb properly expresses neither action nor passion, but simply the being, state, or condition of things ; as, dor mis, I sleep ; secleo, I sit." Ibid. Verbs of motion or action, then, must needs be as improperly called neuter, in Latin, as in English. Nor is this author's arrangement orderly in other respects ; for he treats of "Deponent and Common Verbs," of " Irregular Verbs," of "Defective Verbs," and of " Impersonal Verbs," nons of which had he mentioned in his distribution. Nor are the late revisers of his grammar any more methodical. OBS. 10. The division of our verbs into active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter, must be understood to have reference not only to their signification as of themselves, but also to their construction with respect to the government of an objective word after them. The latter is in fact their most important distinction, though made with reference to a different part of speech. The classical scholar, too, being familiar with the forms of Latin and Greek verbs, will doubtless think it a convenience, to have the arrangement as nearly correspon- dent to those ancient forms, as the nature of our language will admit. This is perhaps the strongest argument for the recognition of the class of passive verbs in English. Some gram- marians, choosing to parse the passive participle separately, reject this class of verbs altogether ; and, forming their division of the rest with reference to the construction alone, make but two classes, transitive and intransitive. Such is the distribution adopted by C. Alexander, D. Adams, Bingham, Chandler, E. Cobb, Harrison, Nutting, and John Peirce ; and supported also by some British writers, among whom are M'Culloch and Grant. Such too was the distribution of Webster, in his Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, as published in 1800. He then taught : " We have no passive verb in the language ; and those which are called neuter are mostly active." Page 14. But subsequently, in his Philosophical, Abridged, and Improved Grammars, he recognized " a more natural and comprehensive division" of verbs, "into transitive, intransitive, and passive." Webster's Rudiments, p. 20. This, in reality, differs but little from the old division into active, passive, and neuter. In some gr im- mars of recent date, as Churchill's, Butler's, S. W. Clark's, Frazee's, Hart's, Hendrick's, Perley's, Weld's, Wells's, and the improved treatises of Bullions and Frost, verbs are sai 1 to be of two kinds only, transitive and intransitive ; but these authors allow to transitive verbs a " passive form," or " passive voice," absurdly making all passive verbs transitive, am all neuters intransitive, as if action were expressed by both. For this most faulty classification, Dr. Bullions pretends the authority of "Mr. Webster;" and Frazee, that of "Webster, Bullions, and others." Gram. p. 30. But if Dr. Webster ever taught the absurd doctrine that passive verbs are transitive, he has contradicted it far too much to have any weight in its favour. OBS. 11. Dalton makes only two classes ; and these he will have to be active and passive : an arrangement for which he might have quoted Scaliger, Sauctius, and Sciopj ius. Ash and Coar recognize but two, which they call active and neuter. This was also the scheme of Bullions, in his Principles of E. Gram., 4th Edition, 1842. Priestley and Maun- der have two, which they call transitive and neuter ; but Maunder, like some named above, will have transitive verbs to^e susceptible of an active and a passive voice, and 1'ri^stley virtually asserts the same. Cooper, Day, Davis, Hazen, Hiley, Webster, Wells, (in his 1st Edition,) and Wilcox, have three classes; transitive, intransitive, and passive. Sanders's Grammar has three; " Transitive, Intransitive, and Neuter ;" and two voices, both transitive! Jaudon has four ; transitive, intransitive, auxiliary, and jjassive. Burn has four; active, pas- sive, neuter, and substantive. Cardell labours hard to prove that all verbs are both active and transitive; and for this, had he desired their aid, he might have cited several ancient authorities.* Cutler avers, " All verbs are active ;" yet he divides them " into active transi- tive, active intransitive, and participial verbs." Grammar and Parser, p. 31. Some gramma- rians, appearing to think all the foregoing modes of division useless, attempt nothing of the kind. William Ward, in 1765, rejected all such classification, but recognized three voices ; *' Active, Passive, and Middle ; as, / call, I am called, I am calling." Farnum, in 1842, acknowledged the first two of these voices, but made no division of verbs into classes. OBS. 12. If we admit the class of active-intransitive verbs, that of verbs neuter will unquestionably be very small. And this refutes Murray's objection, that the learner will " often" be puzzled to know which is which. Nor can it be of any consequence, if he hap- pen in some instances to decide wrong. To be, to exist, to remain, to seem, to lie, to sli'i-p, to rest, to belong, to appertain, and perhaps a few more, may best be called neuter ; though some grammarians, as may be inferred from what is said above, deny that there are any neuter * This late writer seems to have published his doctrine on this point as a novelty ; and several teacher* igno- rantly received and admired it as such : I have briefly shown, in the Introduction to this work, how easily they were deceived. " By this, that Question may he resolv'd, whether every Verb not Passive governs always ;m Accu- sative, at least understood : T/. the Opinion of \orne very able GRAMMARIANS, butfor our Parts we dont think it. Grammar published by John Brifhtland, 7th Ed., London, 1746, p. 115. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CLASSES. 321 verbs in any language. " Vcrba Ncutra, ait Sanctius, millo pacto cssc possunt ; quia, teste Aristotelc, omnis motus, actio, vel passio, nihil medium est." Prat's Lat. Gram. p. 117. John Grant, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, recognizes in the verbs of that language the distinction which Murray supposes to be so "very difficult" in those of our own ; and, without falling into the error of Sanctius, or of Lily,* respecting neuter verbs, judiciously confines the term to such as are neuter in reality. I. 13. Active-transitive verbs, in English, generally require, that the agent or doer of the action be expressed before them in the nominative case, and the object or receiver of the action, after them in the objective ; as, " C'a-sar conquered Pompcy." Passive verbs, which are never primitives, but always derived from active- transitive verbs, (in order to form sen- 3 of like import from natural opposites in voice and sense,) reverse this order, change the cases of the nouns, and denote that the subject, named before them, is affected by the action ; while the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition by : as, " Pompey was conquered by Caesar." But, as our passive verb always consists of two or more separable parts, this order is liable to be varied, especially in poetry ; as, "How many things by season seasoned are To their right praise and true perfection !" Shakspeare. " Experience is by industry achicci-d, And perfected by the swift course of time." Id. . 11. Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. Active verbs are transitive, whenever there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied on, which the action terminates; as, "I knew him well, and every truant knew." Goldsmith. When they do not govern such an object, they are intransitive, whatever may be their power on other occasions ; as, " The grand elementary principles of pleasure, by which he . and lives, and moves." Wordsworth's Pref. p. xxiii. "The Father ori andr/c-x.v. The Son mediates and atones. The Holy Spirit regenerates and sanctifies." i's Portable Evidences, p. 66. "Spectators remark, judges decide, parties watch." Blair's Rhet. p. 271. " In a sermon, a preacher may explain, demonstrate, infer, exhort, admo- nish, comfort." Alexander s Gram. p. 91. . i'.-,._ Some verbs may be used in either an active or a neuter sense. In the sentence, "Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb; but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive verb, and governs hopes. And a few that are always active in a gram- 1 sense, as necessarily requiring an object after them, do not always indicate such an exertion of force as we commonly call action. Such perhaps are the verbs to have, to possess, to owe, to cost ; as, " They have no wine." " The house has a portico." " The man possesses no real estate." " A son owes help and honour to his father." Holyday. " The picture cost a crown." Wright, p. 181. Yet possibly even these may be sometimes rather active-intran- sitive ; as, "I can bear my part ; 'tis my occupation : have at it with you." Shakspeare. " Kings hare to deal with their neighbours." Bacon. " She will not let instructions enter : (. folly now possesses." Shaiktpea " Thou hast deserv'd more love than I can show ; But 'tis thy fate to give, and mine to owe." Dryden. Oi?s. 16. An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its object, will some- idmit of being put into the passive form ; the object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition itself being retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, (Actfi-r, i " They laughed at him." (J'assice,) "He was laughed at." "For some time the nonconformists were connived at." Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 414. "Everyman shall h,> dealt eqxiitably with." RittU-rs Analogy, p. 212. " If a church would be looked up to, it must stand high." Par. >. 15. ->me instances, what is commonly considered the active form of the verb, ;md, still oftener, as we have no other passive form that so well denotes continue ?lv the participle in ing in that sense also : as, " I'll teach you all what's wing to your Uueen." Drt/d> n. That is what is due, or meed. " The books continue selUn-i : i. <. "/""' '/"' s of little consequence : " Mr. Grant, however, observes, p. 65, 'The com- ponent parts of tin- English verb, or name of action, are few, simple, and natural; they con- sist of three words, as plough, plough ing, ploughed. Now these words, and their inflections, may be employed either actively or passively. Actively, ' They plough the fields ; they are ploughing the fields ; they ploughed, or har,- ploughed, the fields.' Passively, ' The fields plough well ; the fields are ploughing ; the fields are ploughed." This passive use of the present tense Upon this point, Richard .Johnson cites and criticiw-s Lily's system thus : "'A Verb Neuter endeth in o or m, ami ciuiuot take r to make him a Passive ; as, Curro, I run ; SkHM, I am.' Grammar, Eng. p. 13. This Definition. is founded upon the Notion aboveim-ntioned, viz. That none but Transit! ves are Verbs Active, which is contrary to tie reason of Things, and the common sense of Mankind. And what can shock a Child more, of any Ingenuity, than to be told. That Ambulo and Curro are Verbs Neuter ; that is, to speak according to the common Apprehen- sions of Mankind, that they signifie neither to do, nor suffer." Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries. 8vo, London , 170.5, p. 273. 21 322 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. and participle is, however, restricted to what he denominates verbs of external, material, or mechanical action ; ' and not to be extended to verbs of sensation and perception ; e. g. love, feel, see, &c." Nutting's Gram. p. 40. MODIFICATIONS. Verbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Moods, Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. MOODS. Moods* are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner. There are five moods ; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number : as, " To die, to sleep ; To sleep I perchance, to dream !" The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing : as, I write ; you know : or asks a question ; as, "Do you know ? ""Know ye not ? " The Potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion : as, " I can walk ; he may ride ; we must go" The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent : as, " If thou go, see that thou offend not." " See thou do it not." -Rev. xix, 10. The Imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in command- ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting : as, "Depart thou." "Be com- forted." "Forgive me." "Gro in peace." OBSERVATIONS. OBS, 1. The Infinitive mood is so called in opposition to the other moods, in which the verb is said to Toe finite. In all the other moods, the verb has a strict connexion, and neces- sary agreement in person and number, with some subject or nominative, expressed or understood ; but the infinitive is the mere verb, without any such agreement, and has :ao power of completing sense with a noun. In the nature of things, however, all being, action, or passion, not contemplated abstractly as a thing, belongs to something that is, or acts, or is acted upon. Accordingly infinitives have, in most instances, a reference to some subject of this kind; though their grammatical dependence connects them more frequently with some other term. The infinitive mood, in English, is distinguished by the preposition to ; which, with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it, and may be said to govern it. In dictionaries, and grammars, to is often used as a mere index, to distinguish verbs from the other parts of speech. But this little word has no more claim to be ranked as a part of the verb, than has the conjunction if, which is the sign of the subjunctive. It is the nature of a preposition, to show the relation of different things, thoughts, or words, to each other ; and this " sign of the infinitive " may well be parsed separately as a preposition, since in most instances it manifestly shows the relation between the infinitive verb and some other term. Besides, by most of our grammarians, the present tense of the infinitive mood is declared to be the radical form of the verb ; but this doctrine must be plainly untrue, upon the supposition that this tense is a compound. OBS. 2. The Indicative mood is so called because its chief use is. to indicate, or declare positively, whatever one wishes to say. It is that form of the verb, which we always employ when we affirm or deny any thing in a direct and independent manner. It is more fre- quently used, and has a greater number of tenses, than any other mood ; and is also, in our language, the only one in which the principal verb is varied in termination. It is not however, on all occasions, confined to its primary use ; else it would be simply and only declarative. But we use it sometimes interrogatively, sometimes conditionally ; and each of these uses is different from a simple declaration. Indeed, the difference between a ques- * Murray says, "Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion is represented." Octavo Gram. p. 63. By many grammarians, the term Mode is preferred to Mood ; but the latter is, for this use, the more distinctive, and by far the more common -word. In some treatises on grammar, as well as in books of logic, certain parts of speech, as adjectives and adverbs, are called Modes, because they qualify or modify other terms. E. g. " Thus all the parts of speech are reducible to four; viz., Names, Verbs, Modes, Connectives." Enclytica, or Universal Gram. p. 8. "Modes are naturally divided, by their attribution to names or verbs, into adnames and adverbs." Ibid. p. 24. After making this application of the name modes, was it not improper for the learned author to call the moods also "modes ?" CHAP. VI.] KTYMOLOGY. VERBS. MOODS. tion and an assertion is practically very great. Hence some of the old grammarians made the form of inquiry a separate mood, which they called the Interrogative Mood. But, as these differ -ions are distinguished, not by any difference of form in the verb itself, but merely by a different order of the words, it has been found most convenient in practice, to treat them as one mood susceptible of different senses. . 3. The / ood is so called because the leading idea expressed by it, is that of the power of performing some action. This mood is known by the signs may, can, must, mi'jht, r/A7, ir>,n!-l, and MMdUL Some of these auxiliaries convey other ideas than that of power in the agent ; but there is no occasion to explain them severally here. The potential mood, like the indicative, may be used in asking a question ; as, "Must I budge? must I observe you ? must I stand and crouch under your testy humour r " Shakspeare. No question can be ysked in any other mood than these two. By some grammarians, the poten- tial mood has been included in the subjunctive, because its meaning is often expressed in Latin by what in that language is called the subjunctive. By others, it has been entirely rejected, because all its tenses are compound, and it has been thought the words could as well be parsed separately. Neither of these opinions is sufficiently prevalent, or suffi- ciently plausible, to deserve a laboured refutation. On the other hand, James White, in his Essay on the English Verb, (London, 1761,) divided this mood into the following five : namely, " the Elective," denoted by may or might; "the Potential,'" by can or could; " the '," by would; "the Obligative," by s/iould; and "the Compulsive," by must. Such a distribution is needlessly minute. Most of these can as well be spared as those other " moods, Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Precative, &c.", which Murray mentions only to reject. See his Octavo Gram. p. 68. . 4. The Subjunctive mood is so called because it is always subjoined to an other verb, and usually denotes some doubtful contingency, or some supposition contrary to fact. The manner of its dependence is commonly denoted by one of the following conjunctions ; if, that, though, . -. The indicative and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be used in the same dependent manner, to express any positive or potential condition ; but this seems not to be a sufficient reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood. In short, the idea of a "subjunctive mood in the indicative form," (which is adopted by ( 'handler, Fraxee, Fisk, S. S. Greene, Comly, Ingersoll, It. C. Smith, Sanborn, Mack, Butler, Hart, "\\YUl, and others,) is utterly inconsistent with any just notion of what a mood is ; and the suggestion, which we frequently meet with, that the regular indicative or potential mood may be thi-mm. Into the subjunctive by merely prefixing a conjunction, is something worse than nonsense. Indeed, no mood can ever be made a part of an other, without the grossest confusion and absurdity. Yet, strange as it is, some celebrated authors, misled by an if, have tangled together three of them, producing such a snarl of tenses as never yet can have been understood without being thought ridiculous. See Murray's Grammar, and others that agree with his late editions. OBS. 5. In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the .i>if>jun'-ti' > iiio'xl in English, our grammarians are greatly at variance; and some, supposing its distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential,* even deny the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the instructions published by Lindley Murray, however commended and copied, are most remarkably vague and inconsist- ent, f The early editions of his Grammar gave to this mood six tenses, none of which had any of the personal inflections ; consequently there was, in all the tenses, some difference between it ami the indicative. His Hter editions, on the contrary, make the subjunctive exactly like the '. . except in the present tense, and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-future. JJotli ways, he goes too far. And while at last he restricts the distinc- ibjunctive to narrower bounds than he ought, and argues against, " If thou . t . thi> mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all . ..irh its multiplied" auxiliaries ; alleging, "that as the ilivc mood ibjnnctivc, by the expression of a condition, motive, > it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, * " \ v '-rimperfcct, if I irrre, if thoutwf, ftc.Of .iir.1 Jl.vuni'I.- i.f Copjuiriition, in this chapter.] The phrase il ; shall, mm:. 'nod; as, 'Though hand (shall) join in Rev. appear to disprove this doctrine. '/otv," appear to disprove this doctrine. low] t " Mr. n, as often as Laban changed Jacob's wages. In the edition we print from, I used in each pets"! , O f the st.!>jiii:i-iiv", l>ut h now - in the only lie ha made i -,, of Lindlty Murray's English G ram s an}- mo-lorn grammarian / forms ofth-;>'. -"Ifthnu/.- -iljunc- / put as m my indic-ai: mood in one hilo the conjunction controls it in tli<> oth'-r : :at in cases wherein contin- gency and futurity do not occur, it is not proper to turn the Terb f: . nor to rary [h'S means, or 'to forbrar to change] its form or termination. [7" '. i >>e in thz indicativt mood, Whatever conjunctions might attend it. r L. Murray's Gram. STO, p. 208 ; 12mo, p. 107. 324 THE GRAMMAR OT ENGLISH GRAMMARS". [FART II. be turned into the subjunctive." Octavo Gram. p. 82. According to this, the subjunctive mood of every regular verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hundred and thirty- eight different expressions ; and it may happen, that in one single tense a verb shall have no fewer than fifteen different forms in eaeh person and number. Six times fifteen are ninety ; and so many are the several phrases which now compose Murray's pluperfect tense of the subjunctive mood of the verb to straw a tense which most grammarians very prop- erly reject as needless ! But this is not all. The scheme not only confounds the moods, and utterly overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity, but condemns as bad English what the author himself once adopted and taught for the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood, " If thou loved, If thou knew," &c., wherein he was sustained by Dr. Priestley, by Harrison, by Caleb Alexander, by John Burn, by Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, and by others of high authority. Dr. Johnson, indeed, made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative ; and this may have induced the author to change his plan, and inflect this part of the verb with st. But Dr. Alexander Murray, a greater linguist than either of them, very positively declares this to be wrong : " When such words as if, though, unless, except, whether, and the like, are used before verbs, they lose their terminations of cst, cth, and s, in those persons which commonly have them. No speaker of good English, expressing himself conditionally, says, Though thou fattest, or Though he falls, but, Though thou fall, and Though he fall; nor, Though thou earnest, but, Though, or although, thou came." History of European Languages, Vol. i, p. 5o. OBS. 6. Nothing is more important in the grammar of any language, than a knowledge of the true forms of its verbs. Nothing is more difficult in the grammar of our own, than to learn, in this instance and some others, what forms we ought to prefer. Yet some authors tell us, and Dr. Lowth among the rest, that our language is wonderfully simple and easy. Perhaps it is so. But do not its "simplicity and facility" appear greatest to those who know least about it r i. e. least of its grammar, and least of its history ? In citing a passage from the eighteenth chapter of Ezekiel, Lord Kames has taken the liberty to change the word hath to have seven times in one sentence. This he did, upon the sup- position that the subjunctive mood has a perfect tense which differs from that of the indicative ; and for such an idea he had the authority of Dr. Johnson's Grammar, and others. The sentence is this : " But if he be a robber, a shedder of blood ; if he have eaten upon the mountains, and defiled his neighbour's wife ; if he have oppressed the poor and needy, havt spoiled by violence, have not restored the pledge, have lift up his eyes to idols, have given forth upon usury, and have taken increase : shall he live ? he shall not live." Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 261. Now, is this good English, or is it not? One might cite about half of our grammarians in favour of this reading, and the other half against it ; with Mur- ray, the most noted of all, first on one side, and then on the other. Similar puzzles may be presented concerning three or four other tenses, which are sometimes ascribed, and some- times denied, to this mood. It seems to me, after much examination, that the subjunctive mood in English should have two tenses, and no more ; the present and the imperfect. The: present tense of this mood naturally implies contingency and futurity, while the imperfect here becomes an aorist, and serves to suppose a case as a mere supposition, a case contrary to fact. Consequently the foregoing sentence, if expressed by the subjunctive at all, ought to be written thus : " But if he be a robber, a shedder of blood ; if he eat upon the mountains, and defile his neighbour's wife ; if he oppress the poor and needy, spoil by violence, restore. not the pledge, lift up his eyes to idols, give forth upon usury, and take increase ; shall he li ve ? he shall not live." OBS. 7. " Grammarians generally make a present and a past time under the subjunctive mode." Cobbett's Gram. IT 100. These are the tenses which are given to the subjunctive by Blair, in his "Practical Grammar." If any one will give to this mood more tenses than these, the five which are adopted by Staniford, are perhaps the least objectionable : namely, 4t Present, If thou love, or do love ; 'imperfect, If thou loved, or did love ; Perfect, If thou have loved ; Pluperfect, If thou had loved ; Future, If thou should or would love." Stani- ford's Gram. p. 22. But there are no sufficient reasons for even this extension of its tenses. Fisk, speaking of this mood, says : " Lowth restricts it entirely to the present tense." 4< Uniformity on this point is highly desirable." " On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth." English Grammar Simplified, p. 70. His desire of uniformity he has both her- alded and backed by a palpable misstatement. The learned Doctor's subjunctive mood, in .the second person singular, is this : " Present time. Thou love ; AND, Thou mayest love. Past time. Thou mightest love ; AND, Thou couldst, &c. love ; and have loved." Lowth's Gram. p. 38. But Fisk's subjunctive runs thus : "Indie, form, If thou lovest ; varied form, If thou love." And again : "Present tense, If thou art, If thou be ; Imperfect tense, If thou wast, If thou wert." Fisk's Grammar Simplified, p. 70. His very definition of the subjunc- tive mood is illustrated only by the indicative ; as, "If thou wcdkest." "I will perform the operation, if he desires it." Ib. p. 69. Comly's subjunctive mood, except in some of his early editions, stands thus : "Present tense, If thou lovest ; Imperfect tense, If thou lovedst or loved ; First future tense, If thou (shalt) love." Eleventh Ed. p. 41. This author teaches, that the indicative or potential, when preceded by an if, " should be parsed in the subjunctive CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. MOODS. 325 mood." Ib. p. 42. Of what is in fact the true subjunctive, he says : "Some writers use the singular number in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, without any variation; as, if I loce, if thou lure, if he toce.' But this usage must be ranked amongst the anom^U, -,v of our language." Ib. p. -il. Cooper, in his pretended " Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, Philad. 18'28," gave to the subjunctive mood the following form, which contains all six of the tenses : " 2d pers. If thou love, If thou do love, If thou loved, If thou did love. If thou have loved, If thou had loved, If thou shall (or will) love, If thou shall (or will) have loved." This is almost exactly what Murray at first adopted, and afterwards rejected ; though it is probable, from the abridgor's preface, that the latter was ignorant of this fact. Soon afterwards, a perusal of Dr Wilson's Essay on Grammar dashed from the reverend gentle- man's mind the whole of this fabric ; and in his " Plain and Practical Grammar, Philad. 1831," he acknowledges but four moods, and concludes some pages of argument thus: " From the above considerations, it will appear to every sound grammarian, that our language does not admit a subjunctive mode, at least, separate and distinct from the indicative and potential." Cooper s Ncic Gram. p. 63. ()i;>. 8. The true Subjtt,n.-fire mood, in English, is virtually rejected by some later gram- marians, who nevertheless acknowledge under that name a greater number and variety of forms than have ever been claimed for it in any other tongue. All that is peculiar to the Subjunctive, all that should constitute it a distinct mood, they represent as an archaism, an obsolete or antiquated mode of expression, while they willingly give to it every form of both the indicative and the potential, the two other moods which sometimes follow an if. Thus Wells, in his strange entanglement of the moods, not only gives to the subjunctive, as well as to the indicative, a " Simple " or " Common Form," and a " Potential Form ; " not only recognizes in each an "Auxiliary Form," and a " Progressive Form; " but encumbers the whole with distinctions of style, with what he calls the " Common Style," and the " Ancient Style ; " or the " Solemn Style," and the " Familiar Style :" yet, after all, his own example of the Subjunctive, " Take heed, lest any man deceive you," is obviously different from all these, and not explainable under any of his paradigms ! Nor is it truly consonant with any part of his theory, which is this : " The subjunctive of all verbs except be, takes the same form as the Good writers were formerly much accustomed to drop the personal termination in the subjunctive present, and write 'If he have,' 'If he deny,' etc., for 'If he has,' If IK :c. ; but this termination is now generally retained, unless an auxiliary v> un'/>;-^tnftfl. Thus, ' If he hear,' may properly be used for ' If he shall hear ' or ' If he should hear,' but not for 'If he hears.' " Wells' s School Gram. p. 83 ; 3d Ed. p. 87. Now every position here taken is demonstrably absurd. How could " good writers " indite " much " bad English by dropping from the subjunctive an indicative ending which never belonged to it : And how can a needless " auxiliary" be " understood," on the principle of equivalence, where, by awkwardly changing a mood or tense, it only helps some grammatical theorist to convert good English into bad, or to pervert a text ? The phrases above may all be right, or all be wrong, according to the correctness or incorrectness of their application : when each is used as best it may be, there is no exact equivalence. And this is true of half a dozen more of the same sort ; as, " If he does hear," " If he do hear," " If he is hearing," " If he be hearing," "If he shall be hearing," " If he should be hearing." Oi:s. 9. Similar to Wells's, are the subjunctive forms of Allen II. Weld. Mistaking mtmtf to signify ;vA>, this author teaches thus : " ANNEX //', (hough, unless, suppose, admit, grant, alloir, or any word implying a condition, to each tense of the Indicative and Potential modes, to form the subjunctive ; as, If thou lovest or love. If he loves, or love. Formerly it was customary to omit (I in tin- second and third persons of the present .ode. But now the terminations are /A/,-/-,/'/// retained, except when the ellipsis of .%/' ^, If he obey, i. e., if he shall, or should obey." . ]). 71. Again: / . / :,,-a1, the form of the verb in the Subjunctive, is the *. p. liM. As for this s. -he-mi 1 , i ; . f it. First, the rule for formi; sibjuiictive is faNe, and is plain'; in tho examples: " If thou >r, "//" he it the form of the- indi-.-aiive. Secondly, no terminations have ever been " generally " om. i in, the form of the subjunctive pres- eit; because that part of the mood, as common well known to be made of il talk of suffixes for the imperative, "Lore thou," or "l).i thou . '.ever be really impliiMl in the subjunctive present ; bivau-e thv . i unexampled, would : the tense, the mood, ai ;ly also the n.- ."properly h vplies a condition of future certainty ; " If he nh'd-';" a -upp-itioii of duty : the true sub- 326 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. junctive suggests neither of these. Fourthly, " the ellipsis of shall or should" is most absurdly called above, " the omission of the Indicative termination." Fifthly, it is very strangely supposed, that to omit what pertains to the indicative or the potential mood, will produce an " elliptical form of the Subjunctive" Sixthly, such examples as the last, " If he do but touch the hills," having the auxiliary do not inflected as in the indicative, disprove; the whole theory. OBS. 10. In J. R. Chandler's grammars, are taken nearly the same views of the " Sub- junctive or Conditional Mood," that have just been noticed. " This mood," we are told, " is only the indicative or potential mood, with the word if placed before the nominative case." Gram, of 1821, p. 48 ; Gram, of 1847, p. 73. Yet, of even this, the author has said, in the former edition, " It would, perhaps, be better to abolish the use of the subjunctive mood entirely. Its use is a continual source of dispute among grammarians, and of perplexity to scholars." Page 33. The suppositive verb were, (as, "Were I a king," "If I were a king," ) which this author formerly rejected, preferring teas, is now, after six and twenty years, replaced in his own examples ; and yet he still attempts to disgrace it, by falsely representing it as being only " the indicative plural " very grossly misapplied ! See Chan- dler's Common School Gram. p. 77. OBS. 11. The Imperative mood is so called because it is chiefly used in commanding. It is that brief form of the verb, by which we directly urge upon others our claims and wishes. But the nature of this urging varies according to the relation of the parties. "We command inferiors ; exhort equals ; entreat superiors ; permit whom we will ; and all by this same imperative form of the verb. In answer to a request, the imperative implies nothing more than permission. The will of a superior may also be urged imperatively by the indicative future. This form is particularly common in solemn prohibitions \ as, "Thou shaltnot kill. * * ThousAafe not steal." Exodus, xx, 13 and 15. Of the ten commandments, eight are negative, and all these are indicative in form. The other two are in the imperative mood : "Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy. Honour thy father and thy mother." Ib. But the imperative form may also be negative : as, "Touch not; taste not ; handle not." Colossians, ii, 21. TENSES. Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are six tenses ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Plu- perfect, the First-future, and the Second-future. The Present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place : as, " I hear a noise ; somebody is coming" The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occur- ring, in time fully past : as, " I saw him yesterday, and hailed him as he was The Perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within soms period of time not yet fully past : as, " I have seen him to-day ; something must have detained him." The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what had taken place, at some past time mentioned : as, " I had seen him, when I met you." The First-future tense is that which expresses what mil take place here- after : as, " I shall see him again, and I will inform him." The Second-future tense is that which expresses what will have taken place, at some future time mentioned : as, I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The terms here defined are the names usually given to those parts of the verb to which they are in this work applied ; and though some of them are not so strictly appropri- ate as scientific names ought to be, it is thought inexpedient to change them. In many old grammars, and even in the early editions of Murray, the three past tenses are called the Preterimperfcct, Preterperfect, and Preterpluperfect. From these names, the term Prefer, (which is from the Latin preposition prater, meaning beside, beyond, or past,} has well been dropped for the sake of brevity. OBS. 2. The distinctive epithet Imperfect, or Preter imperfect, appears to have been much less accurately employed by the explainers of our language, than it was by the Latin gram- marians from whom it was borrowed. That tense which passes in our schools for the Im- perfect, (as, I slept, did sleep, or tvas sleeping,} is in fact more completely past, than that which we call the Perfect. Murray indeed has attempted to show that the name is right ; and, for the sake of consistency, one could wish he had succeeded. But every scholar must that, the simnle nreterit. which is the first form of this tense, and is never found in CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. TENSES. 327 any other, as often as the sentence is declarative, tells what happened within some period of time f nil n past, as hi^t trcrk, la-styi'nr : whereas the perfect tense is used to exrpess what has happened within some period of time not yet fully past, as this week, this year. As to the com- pleteness of the action, there is no difference ; for what has been done to-day, is as completely done, as what was achieved a year ago. Hence it is obvious that the term Imperfect has no other applicability to the English tense so called, than what it may have derived from the participle in in;/, which we use in translating the Latin imperfect tense : as, Dormiebam, I was sleeping ; I, ; . '"in. f wm r "/'///; Docebam, I was teaching. And if for this reason the whole Engli- .'. ith ;ill it-; variety of forms in the different moods, "may, with propriety, be denominated imperfect ; " surely", the participle itself should be so denominated a fortiori : for it always conveys this same idea, of "action not finished" be the tense of its accompany- ing auxiliary what it may. OBS. 3. The tenses do not all express time with equal precision ; nor can the whole number in any language supersede the necessity of adverbs of time, much less of dates, and of nouns that express periods of duration. The tenses of the indicative mood, are the most definite ; and, for this reason, as well as for some others, the explanations of all these modifications of the verb, are made with particular reference to that mood. Some suppose the compound or participial form, as I am writing, to be more definite in time, than the simple form, as I write, or the emphatic form, as I do write ; and accordingly they divide all the tenses into Indefinite and Definite. Of this division Dr. "Webster seems to claim the invention ; for he gravely accuses Murray of copying it unjustly from him, though the lat- ter acknowledges in a note upon his text, it "is, in part, taken from Webster's Grammar." Murray's (Maro dram. p. 73. The distribution, as it stands in either work, is not worth quarrelling about : it is evidently more cumbersome than useful. Nor, after all, is it true that the compound form is more definite in time than the other. For example ; " Dionys- ius, tyrant of Syracuse, was always betraying his unhappiness." Art of Thinking, p. 123. Now, if was betraying were a more definite tense than betrayed, surely the adverb "always" would require the latter, rather than the former. OBS. 4. The present tense, of the indicative mood, expresses not only what is now actu- ally going on, but general truths, and customary actions : as, " Vice produces misery." " He v to repent, who gives sentence quickly." Grant's Lot. Gram. p. 71. "Among the Purthians, the signal y the drum, and not by the trumpet." Justin. Deceased authors may be spoken of in the present tense, because they seem to live in their works ; as, " Sene \ well." Murray. "Women talk better than men, from the superior shape of their tongues : an ancient writer speaks of their loquacity three thou- sand '.v Music of Nature, p. 27. . o. The text, John, viii, 58, " Before Abraham was, I am," is a literal Grecism, and not to be cited a.s an example of pure English : our idiom would seem to require, " Before Abraham // . I tittod." In animated narrative, however, the present tense is often sub- stituted for the past, by the figure enallage. In such cases, past tenses and present may occur together ; because the latter are used merely to bring past events more vividly before us: as, " Ui >, not knowing where he was." Pope. "The dictator flies forward to the cavalry, beseeching them to dismount from their horses. They obeyed ; they dismount, rush onward, and for vancouriers show their bucklers." Livy. On this principle, perhaps, the following couplet, which Murray condemns as bad English, may be justified : Him portion'd maids, apprentic'd orphans blest, The young who labour, and the old who rest." See Murray's Key, R. 13. . 0. The present tense of the subjunctive mood, and that of the indicative when '>-e, till, or when, is generally used with reference to future time ; as. ""if he cuk a tUh. will he irive him a serpent? " Matt, vii, 10. " If I will that he t'irrij till I < >,n . what is that to thee ? Follow thou me." John, xxi, 22. "When he arrives, 1 will send for you." The imperative mood has but one tense, and that is always ;ird to the giving of the command ; though what is commanded, must be done in the future, if done at all. So the subjunctive may convey a present supposition of what the will of another may make uncertain : as, " If thou count me therefore a partner, raoeive him a- mysi !!'." >'/. I'm/' /, 17. The perfect indicative, like the present, is sometime-* u--,l with reference to time that is relatively future ; as, "He will be fatigued before he lias iralked a mile." "My lips shall utter praise, when thou hast taught me thy statut. ;.x, 1 70. ' Marvel not at this : for the hour is coming, in the whirl i all . -hall hear his vni.-r. and shall come forth; they that have done, good, ruto the resurrection of life ; and they that have done evil, unto the resurrection of damna- tion." John, V, . 7. What is called the pwnt infinitive, can scarcely be said to express any par- ticular time.* It is usually dependent on an other verb, and therefore relative in time. It may be connected with I ;' any mood: as, "I indnd to do it; I intended to do ii; ; I/ '// to do it; I /n/< ; > it;" fee. For want of a better mode of -ion, we often use the infinitive to denote futurity, especially when it seems to be * " The infinitive mood, as ' to tliinr,' may be called the name of the verb ; it carries ntithfr time nor aflirma- tion ; but .-im !hat attribute, fiction, or state of things, which is to be the subject of the other moods and tenses." /;:'tin-j;uish the different persons and numbers. This will be well under- stood by every one who has ever glanced at the verbs as exhibited in any Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, or Italian grammar. To explain it to others, a brief example shall be given : (with the remark, that the Latin pronouns, here inserted, are seldom expressed, except for emphasis :) "Ego d/>x>, I love; Ta rt< r* : and that -e, 'We vp.-l-f..rn,ed 1 lie verb, . written, always a.-r ^inative in number and person." Kirkham't (rram. p. 47. It seems to me, that these authors do not very well know what persona or numbers, in grammar, are. 330 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PAST II. to differences in the same style between ancient usage and modern ; partly to interfering cl aims of new and old forms of the preterit and the perfect participle ; partly to the conflicting notions of different grammarians respecting the subjunctive mood ; and partly to the blind tenacity with which many writers adhere to rugged derivatives, and prefer unutterable contractions to smooth and easy abbreviations. For example : a clergyman says to a lucky gamester, (1.) " You dwett in a house which you neither planned nor built." A member of the Society of Friends would say. (2.) "T/tou dwellst in a house which thou neither planned nor built." Or, if not a scholar, as likely as not, (3.) "Thee dicells in a house which thee neither planned nor built." The old or solemn style would be, (4.) " Thou dwellest in a house which thou neither planned st nor buildedst." Some untasteful and overgrammatical poet will have it, (5.) "Thou dwell' st in halls thou neither plann'dst nor build' d^t." The doctrines of Murray's Grammar, and of most others, would require, (6.) "Thou dwellest in a house which thou neither planncdst nor builtest." Or, (according to this author's method of avoiding unpleasant sounds,) the more complex form, (7.) "Thou dost dwell in a house which thou neither didst plan nor didst build." Out of these an other poet will make the line, (9.) "Dost dwell in halls which thou nor plann'dst nor built'st." An other, more taste- fully ,would drop the st of the preterit,and contractthe present, asin the second instance above: thus, (10.) " Thou dwellstin halls thou n either planned nor built, And revelst there in riches won by guilt." OBS. 5. Now let all these ten different forms of saying the same thing, by the same verbs, in the same mood, and the same two tenses, be considered. Let it also be noticed, that for these same verbs within these limits, there are yet other forms, of a complex kind ; as, " You do dwell" or, " You are dwelling ; " used in lieu of, " Thou dost dwell," or, " Thou art dwelling : " so, " You didplan," or, " You were planning ; " used in lieu of, " Thou didst plan," or, "Thou wast planning" Take into the account the opinion of Dr. Webster and others, that, " You was planning," or, "Youioas building" is a still better form for the singular number ; and well "established by national usage, both here and in England." Improved Gram. p. 25. Add the less inaccurate practice of some, who use was and did familiarly with thou; as, " Thou was planning, did thou build?" Multiply all this variety tenfold, with a view to the other moods and tenses of these three verbs, dwell, plan, and build; then extend the product, whatever it is, from these three common words, to all the verbs in the English language. You will thus begin to have some idea of the difficulty mentioned in the preceding observation. But this is only a part of it ; for all these things relate only to the second person singular of the verb. The double question is, Which of these forms ought to be approved and taught for that person and number ? and which of them ought to be censured and rejected as bad English ? This question is perhaps as in.por- tant, as any that can arise in English grammar. With a few candid observations by way of illus- tration, it will be left to the judgement of the reader. OBS. 6. The history of youyouing and thouthceing appears to be this. Persons in high stat ons, being usually surrounded by attendants, it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flat ;ery, to address individuals of this class, in the plural number, as if a great man were something more than one person. In this way, the notion of greatness was agreeably multiplied, and those who laid claim to such honour, soon began to think themselves insulted whenever they were addressed with any other than the plural pronoun.* Humbler people yielded through fear of offence ; and the practice extended, in time, to all ranks of society : so that at present "the customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary address, is altogether plural; both the verb and the pronoun being used in that form.f This practice, which confounds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords a striking instance of the power of fashion. It has made propriety itself seem improper. But shall it be allowed, in the present state of things, to confound our conjuga- tions and overturn our grammar ? Is it right to introduce it into our paradigms, as the only form of the second person singular, that modern usage acknowledges ? Or is it expedient to augment by it that multiplicity of other forms, which must either take this same place or be utterly reject- ed ? With due deference to those grammarians who have adopted one or the other of these methods, the author of this work answers all these questions decidedly in the negative. It is not to be denied, that the use of the plural for the singular is now so common as to form the cus- tomary mode of address to individuals of every rank. The Society of Friends, or Quakers, how- ever, continue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse; and custom, which has novr destroyed the compliment of the plural, has removed also the supposed opprobrium of the singu- lar, and placed it on an equality with the plural in point of respect. The singular is universally employed in reference to the Supreme Being; and is generally preferred in poetry. It is the language of Scripture, and of the Prayer-Book ; and is consistently retained in nearly all our grammars ; though not always, perhaps, consistently treated . OBS. 7. Whatever is fashionable in speech, the mere disciples of fashion will always approve ; and, probably, they will think it justifiable to despise or neglect all that is otherwise. Those may be contented with the sole use of such forms of address as, " You, you, sir ; " " You,yoit, ma, union style, and the like, as used in grammar, imply no certain divisions of the lai designed merely to distinguish, in a general way, the occasions on which sonic particular forms of expression may be considered proper, or the times to which they belong. For what i- \\ sometimes, may not be so always. It would not be easy to tell, definitely, in what an\ ; because they all belong to one language, and the num- ber or natm ulia'rities of each is not precisely fixed. But whatever is acknowledged to be peculiar to any ' piently understood to be improper for any other: or, at least, ;i^ to styles of an opposite character; and words of general use belong to no particular style.* For example: " So thru it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runnef/i, hut of (Jod that s/'iinr,-f/i men v." Horn, ix, 16. If the termination eth is not obso- lete, a which this ending is added, are of the solemn style; for the common or famiK ui would here he this : " So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, hut of (*osary." * In re-rani to the intln-tinn of ., lir verbs. William B. Fowle, who is something of an antiquarian in grammar, and who professes now to be " conserve , t makes a threefold distim-M"ii <*f -t\ 1, thus : "E'iplNi verbs have three .vr/./..v [,] or Mo,l,s, [:]oalh-d [tin-]" Familiar, [the] .V/,/, inn (.1 and [the] Ann.nt. The fan. iliar sti/l?. or in iniiion eon\ . you see, he fears The solemn style, or mode, IB that n <>-arfth. The ancirnt style, or mode, now little used. allows no rh.i -insular, ot" the verb, and generally follows the word if, thov^ii, /'.///v, hegive the following : " Thou !,,i;.*t. Thou l,n and this i by facts. The necessar- l" i/iootfs, this author , i:U the Indicative, in order to furnish out this useless and fanciful con.rast of hLs Sultmn and Ancient stales. 332 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PAET II. OBS. 10. Of the origin of the personal terminations of English verbs, that eminent etymologist Dr. Alexander Murray, gives the following account : " The readers of our modern tongue may be reminded, that the terminations, est, eth, and s, in our verbs, as in layest, layeth, and laid'st, or laidest ; are the faded remains of the pronoum which were formerly joined to the verb itself, and placed the language, in respect of concise expression, on a level with the Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit, its sister dialects." History of European Languages, Vol. i, p. 52. According to this, since other signs of the persons and numbers are now employed with the verb, it is not strange that there should appear a tendency to lay aside such of these endings as are least agreeable and least necessary. Any change of this kind will of course occur first in the familiar style. For example : " Thou wentest in to men uncircumcised, and didst eat with them." Acts, xi, 3. " These things write I unto thee, that thou mayest know how thou oughtcst to behave thyself in the house of God." 1 Tim. iii, L5. These forms, by universal consent, are now of the solemn style ; and, consequently, are really good English in no other. For nobody, I suppose, will yet pretend that the inflection of our preterits and auxiliaries by st, or est, is entirely obsolete ;* and surely no person of any literary taste ever uses the foregoing forms familiarly. The termination est, however, has in some instances become obsolete ; or has faded into st or t, even in the solemn style. Thus, (if indeed, such forms ever were in good use,) diddest has become didst; havest, hast; haddest, hadst ; shallest, shalt ; wiliest, wilt ; and cannest, canst. Mayest, mightest, couldest, wouldest, and shouldest, are occasionally found in books not ancient ; but mayst, mif/htst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst, are abundantly more common, and all are peculiar to the solemn style. "Must, burst, durst, thrust, blest, curst, past, lost, list, crept, kept, girt, built, felt, dwelt, left, bereft, and many other verbs of similar endings, are seldom, if ever, found encumbered with an additional est. For the rule which requires this ending, has always had many exceptions that have not been noticed by grammarians.f Thus Shakspeare wrote even in the present tense, " Do as thou list," and not " Do as thou listest." Possibly, however, list may here be reckoned of the subjunctive mood ; but the following example from 'Byron is certainly in the indicative : " And thou, who never yet of human wrong Lost the unbalanced scale, great Nemesis ! " Harold, C. iv, st. 132. OBS. 11. Any phraseology that is really obsolete, is no longer fit to be imitated even in the solemn style ; and what was never good English, is no more to be respected in that style, than in any other. Thus : " Art not thou that Egyptian, which before these days modest an uproar, and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand men that were murderers ?" Acts, xxi, 38. Here, (I think,) the version ought to be, " Art not thou that Egyptian, who a while ago made an uproar, and led out into the wilderness four thousand men, that were murderers ?" If so, th >re is in this no occasion to make a difference between the solemn and the familiar style. But what ia the familiar form of expression for the texts cited "before ? The fashionable will say, it is this: " You went in to men uncircumcised, and did eat with them." " I write these things to you, that you may know how you ought to behave yourself in the house of God." But this is not litera'ly of the singular number : it is no more singular, than vos in Latin, or v ous in French, or we used for / in English, is singular. And if there remains to us any other form, that is both singular and grammatical, it is unqestionably the following : " Thou went in to men uncircumcised, and did eat with them."" I write these things to thee, that thou may knoto how thou ought to behave t],yself in the house of God." The acknowledged doctrine of all the teachers of English grammar, that the inflection of our auxiliaries and preterits by st or est is peculiar to " the solemn style," leaves us no other alternative, than either to grant the propriety of here dropping the suffix for the fa- miliar style, or to rob our language of any familiar use of the pronoun thou forever. Who, then, are here theneologists, the innovators, the impairers of the language ? And which is the greater innovation, merely to drop, on familiar occasions, or when it suits our style, one obsolescent ver- bal termination, a termination often dropped of old as well as now, or to strike from the con- jugations of all our verbs one sixth part of their entire scheme ? ' '. O mother myn, that cleaped loere Argyue, Wo worth that day that thou me bare on lyue." Cfiaucer. OBS. 12. The grammatical propriety of distinguishing from the solemn style both of the forms presented above, must be evident to every one who considers with candour the reasons, analogies, and authorities, for this distinction. The support of the latter is very far from resting solely on the practice of a particular sect ; though this, if they would forbear to corrupt the pronoun while they simplify the verb, would deserve much more consideration than has ever been allowed it. Which of these modes of address is the more grammatical, it is useless to dispute ; since fashion * In that monstrous jumble and perversion of Murray's doctrines, entitled, " English Grammar on the Pro- ductive System, by Uoswell C. Smith," you is everywhere preferred to thou, and the verbs are conjugated ivithout the latter pronoun. At the close of his paradigms, however, the author inserts a few lines respecting " these obso- lete conjugations," with the pronoun thou; for a further account of which, he refers the learner, with a sneer, to the common grammars in the schools. See the work, p. 79. He must needs be a remarkable grammarian, with whom Scripture, poetry, and prayer, are all % ' obsolete .'" Again : " Thou in the singular is obsolete, except among the Society of Friends; and ye is an obsolete plural !" Guy's School Gram. p. 25. In an other late grammar, professedly tk constructed upon the basis of Murray's, by the Rev. Charles Adams, A. M., Principal of Newbury Seminary," the second person singular is everywhere superseded by the plural ; the former being silently dropped from all his twenty pag<-s of conjugations, without so much as a hint, or a saving clause, respecting it ; and the latter, which is put in its stead, is falsely called singular. By his pupils, all forms of the verb that agree only with thou, will of course be conceived to be either obsolete or barbarous, and consequently ungrammatical. Whether or not the reverend gentleman makes any account of the Bible or of prayer, does not appear ; he cites some poetry, in which there are examples that cannot be reconciled with his u System of English (Jrammar." Parkhurst, in his late " Grammar for Beginners," tells us that, " Such words as are used in the Bible, and not used in common books, are called obsolete.' " P. 146. Among these, he reckons all the distinctive forms of the second person singular, aud all the " peculiarities" which " constitute what is commonly called the Solemn Style." Ib. p. 148. Yet, with no great consistency, he adds : " This style is always used in prayer, and is frequently used in poetry." Ibid. Joab Brace, Jnr., may be supposed to have the same notion of what is obsolete ; for hfi too has perverted all Lennie's examples of the verb, as Smith and Adams did Murray's. t Coar gives durst in the " Indicative mood," thus : " I durst, thou durst, he durst ; " &c. Courts E. Gram. p. 115. But when he comes to wist, he does not know what the second person singular should be, and so he leaves it out : " I wist, , he wist ; we wist, ye wist, they wist." Courts E. Gram. p. 116 CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 333 rules the one, and a scniplc of conscience is sometimes alleged for the other. A candid critic will consequently allow all to take their choice. It is enough for him, if he can demonstrate to the candid inquirer, what phraseology is in any view allowable, and what is for any pood reason reprehensible. That the use of the plural for the singular is ungrammatical, it is neither discreet nor available to affirm ; yet, surely, it did not originate in any regard to grammar rules. Murray the schoolmaster, wh" imar appeared some years before that of Lindley Murray, speaks of it as follow- : " / . the second person singular, though strt< tttteal, is sel- dom used, except in addresses to God, in poetry, and by the people called Quakers. In all other cases a ''<>r foreign manners,* and the power of custom, have given a sanction to the use of you, for the -i ,-inH person singular, though contrary to (jranon<'i\-\ and attended with this par- ticular inconvenicney, that a plural verb must be used to agree with the pronoun in number, and both applied to a // . as, i/'. TV word of the Greek," says a learned author, " we meet with contractions and abbrevi- ations ; but, the flexions of no language allow of extension or amplification. Incur own we may write *l, rjH-d or metre of a line or the rhythm of a period may require: but by no license may we write s/r c/^W. " Kniyht, on ( ' 'nhahet, 4to, p. 107. But, if after contracting steeped into shyt, we add an est and make alcjitcst, is there not here an extension of MI one syllable to two ? Is there not an amplification that is at once novel, disagree- able unauthorized, and unnecessary? Nay, even in the regular and established change, as of there not a syllabic increase, which is unpleasant to the ear, and unsuited to famili -tent do th us apply to the verbs of our language ? Lindley Murray, it is presumed, had no conception of that extent ; or of the weight of the objec- ion of you for thou. our grammarians assign various causes. That which is most commonly given ii zinal one, because it concerns no other language than ours : " In order .' ,>ltasant formality which acconij a of thou with a correspondent verb, its plural you. - u-ii 'h idoptod in i rwition; a?. ' ;/owwalk? instead of wilt tkou walk ? You p. 33. t This position, aa may be seen above, I do not suppose it competent for any critic to maintain. The use of you :iar," than tin- u-e of i/-- for /; which. grammatical enough for all> : IK. t fur others. But both are itar ; and, as such, fecy : \. n'.'itii-tf of the number for which they are put. I$ut in what a posture does the grammarian place him.-elf, who condemns, as bn / KinzluJt. that phraseology which he constantly and purposely uses ? The authrr nf the following remark, as well :isall who h:iv- pnJMOhh work, ought immediately to adopt the style of the F-icnd., or Quak rd rAow, in grammatical construciion, is preferable t> yon, in the second person singular: however, custom has familiarized the latter, and consequently made it more general, though BAD GRAM- MAR. To say. ' You are a wan,' is NOT GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE ; the word you having reference to a plural noun only. It should be, ' .Thou art a man.' 1 " Wright' & Philosoph. Gram. p. 55. This author, like Lindley Murray and many others, continually calls himstlf WB ; and it is probable, that neither he, nor any one of his sixty rev- erend commenders, dares address any man otherwise than by the above-mentioned " BAD GRAMMAR ! M 334 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. tion which is implied in the second. With respect to a vast number of our most common verbs, he himself never knew, nor does the greatest grammarian now living know, in what way he ought to form the simple past tense in the second person singular, otherwise than by the mere uninfiect- ed preterit with the pronoun thou. Is thou sleepedst or thou sleptest, thou ledvedst or thou leftest, thou feeledst or thou feltest, thou dealedst or thou dealtest, thou tossedst or thou tostest, thou losedst or thou lostest, thoupayedst or thou paidest, thou layedst or thou laidest, better English than thou slept, thou left, thou felt, thou dealt, thou tossed, thou lost, thou paid, thou laid? And, if so, of the two forms in each instance, which is the right one? and why? The Bible has " saidst" and " layedst ; Dr. Alexander Murray, " laid'st " and "laidest ! " Since the inflection of our preterits has never been orderly, and is now decaying and waxing old, shall we labour to recall what is so nearly ready to vanish away ? " Tremendous Sea ! what time thou lifted up Thy waves on high, and with thy winds and storms Strange pastime took, and shook thy mighty sides Indignantly, the pride of navies fell." Pollok, B. vii, 1. 611. OBS. 15. "Whatever difficulty there is in ascertaining the true form of the preterit itself, not only remains, but is augmented, when st or est is to be added for the second person of it. For, since we use sometimes one and sometimes the other of these endings ; (as, saidst, sawes, bids, knewes, loveds, wentes^;) there is yet need of some rule to show which we ought to prefer. The variable formation or orthography of verbs in the simple past tense, has always been one of the greatest difficulties that the learners of our language have had to encounter. At present, there is a strong tendency to terminate as many as we can of them in ed, which is the only regular ending. The pronunciation of this ending, however, is at least threefold ; as in remembered, repented, relinquished. Here the added sounds are, first d, then ed, ihent; and the effect of adding st, whenever the ed is sounded like t, will certainly be a perversion of what is established as the true pronunciation of the language. For the solemn and the familiar pronunciation of ed unquestionably differ. The present tendency to a regular orthography, ought rather to be encour- aged than thwarted ; but the preferring of mixed to mixt, whipped to whipt, worked to wrought, kneeled to knelt, and so forth, does not make mixedst, ivhippedst, workedst, kneeledst, and the like, any more fit for modern English, than are mixtest, ivhiptest, wroughtest, kneltest, burntest, dweltest, heldest, giltest, and many more of the like stamp. And what can be more absurd than for a gram- marian to insist upon forming a great parcel of these strange and crabbed words for which he cau quote no good authority ? Nothing ; except it be for a poet or a rhetorician to huddle together great parcels of consonants which no mortal man can utter,* (as lov'dst, lurltdst, shruga'dst,} and call them " words" Example : " The clump of subtonick and atonick elements at the termination of such words as the following, is frequently, to the no small injury of articulation, particularly slight- ed : couldst. wouldst, hadst, prob'st, prob'dst, hurl'st, hurl'dst, arm'st, arm'dst, want'st, wani'dst, burn'st, bum'dti, bark'st, bark'dst, bubbl'st, bubbl'dst, troubbl'st, troubbl'dst." Kirkham's E'ocu- tion, p. 42. The word trouble may receive the additional sound of st, but this gentleman doe* not here spell so accurately as a great author should. Nor did they who penned the following 1 nes, write here as poets should : ' Of old thou build'st thy throne on righteousness." Follows C. ofT., B. vi, 1. 638. ' For though thou work'dst my mother's ill." Byron's Parasina. ' Thou thyself doat'dst on womankind, admiring." Milton's P. R., B. ii, 1, 175. ; But he, the sev'nthfrom thee, whom thou beheldst."Id. P. L., B. xi, 1. 700. : Shall build a wondrous ark, as thou beheldst."Id. ib. B. xi, 1. 819. ' Thou, who inform' d'st this clay with active fire !" Savage's Poems, p. 247. ' Thy valiantness was mine, thou suck'dst it from me." Shak. Coriol. Act iii. ' This cloth thou dipp'dst in blood of my sweet boy." Id. Henry VI, P. i. ' Great Queen of arms, whose favour Tydeus won ; As thou defend' st the sire, defend the son." Pope, Iliad, B. x, 1. 337. OBS. 16. Dr. Lowth, whose popular little Grammar was written in or about 1758, made no scruple to hem up both the poets and the Friends at once, by a criticism which I must needs con- sider more dogmatical than true ; and which, from the suppression of what is least objectionable in it, has become, in other hands, the source of still greater errors: " Thou in the polite, and even in the familiar style is disused, and the plural you is employed instead of it ; we say, you have, not thou hast. Though in this case, we apply you to a single person, yet the verb too must agree with it in the plural number ; it must necessarily be, you have, not you hast. You was is an enor- mous solecism, f and yet authors of the first rank have inadvertently fallen into it. * * * On the contrary, the solemn style admits not of you for a single person. This hath led Mr. Pope into a great impropriety in the beginning of his Messiah : ' O thou my voice inspire, Who touch'd Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire !' * ' ; We arc always given to cut our words short ; and, ivith very few exceptions, you find people writing : ov'd, mov'd, wal : d ; instead of loved, moved, walked. They wish to make the pen correspond with the tongue. From lov'd, mov'd, walk'd, it is very easy to slide into lovt, movt, ivalkt. And this has been the case with regard to curst, dealt, divelt, leapt helpt, and many others in the last inserted list. It is just as proper to say jumpt, as it \ to say leapt ; and just as proper to say walkt as either ; and thus we might go on till the orthography of the whole language were changed. When the love of contraction came to operate on such verbs as to burst and to light, it found such a clump of consonants already at the end of the words, that it could add none. It could not enable the organs even of English speech to pronounce burst- d, light-d. It, therefore, made really short work of it, and dropping the last syllable altogether, wrote, burst, light, [rather, lit,] in the past time and passive participle.'- Cobbttfs English Gram. IT 109. How could the man who saw all this, insist on adding st for the second person, where not even the d of the past tense could be articulated ? Am I to be called an innovator, because I do not like in conversation such new and unauthorized words as litlest, leafiest, curstest ? or acorruptcr of the language, because I do not admire in poetry such unutterable monstrosities as, lightest, leap'dst, cur&dst ? The novelism, with the corruption too, is Avholly theirs who Stickle for these awkward forms. 1 " You were, not you luas, for you ivas seems to be as ungrammatical, as you hast would be. For the pronoun you being confessedly plural, its correspondent verb ought to be plural." John Burn's Gram. 10th Ed. p. 72. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 335 The solemnity of the style would not admit of you for thou, in the pronoun ; nor the measure of the verse touoMdtt, orchdst tuwh, in the verb, as it indispensably oiujht tuba, in the one or the other of these two forms ; you, who towh'-d, or thou, who foueAdrfsf, or follow the example of Spenser and Milton throughout, but have merely attempted to rjvive the old form of th preterit in t." J'hil. Museum, Vol. i, p. 6G ; 3. "We ought no* 336 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. however to stop here," he thinks ; and suggests that it would be no small improvement, " to write leveld for levelled, enameld for enamelled, reformd for reformed," &c. OBS. 20. If the multiplication of irregular preterits', as above described, is a grammatical orror of great magnitude ; the forcing of our old and well-known irregular verbs into regular forms that are seldom if ever used, is an opposite error nearly as great. And, in either case, there is the same embarrassment respecting the formation of the second person. Thus Cobbett, in his English Grammar in a Series of Letters, has dogmatically given us a list of seventy verbs, which, he ^ays, are, " by some persons, erroneously deemed irregular;" and has included in it the words, How, build, cast, ding, creep, freeze, draw, throw, and the like, to the number of sixty ; so that he is really right in no more than one seventh part of his catalogue. And, what is more strange, for several of the irregularities which he censures, his own authority may be quoted from the early editions of this very book : as, " For you could have thrown about seeds." Edition of 1818, p. 13. " For you could have throived about seeds." Edition of 1832, p. 13. " A tree is blown down." Ed. of 1818, p. 27. " A tree is blowed down." Ed. of 1832, p. 25. " It froze hard last night. Now, what was it that/rose so hard ? " Ed. of 1818, p. 38. " Itfreezed hard last night. Now, what was it that freezed so 'hard ?" Ed. of 1832, p. 35. A whole page of such contradictions may be quoted from this one grammarian, showing that he did not know what form of the preterit he ought to prefer. From such an instructor, who can find out what is good English, and what is not ? Respecting the inflections of the verb, this author says, " There are three persons ; but, our verbs have no variation in their spelling, except for the third person singular." Cobbett's E. Gram. If 88. Again: " Observe, however, that, in our language, there is no very great use in this distinction of modes ; because, for the most part, our little signs do the business, and they never vary in the letters of which they are composed" Ib. If 95. One would suppose, from these remarks, that Cobbett meant to dismiss the pronoun thou entirely from his conjugations. Not so at all. In direct contradiction to himself, he proceeds to inflect the verb as follows : " I work, Thou- workest, He works ; &c. I worked, Thou loorkedst, He worked ; c. I shall or will work, Thou shalt or wilt work, He shall or will work ;" &c. Ib. If 98. All the compound tenses, except the future, he rejects, as things which " can only serve to fill up a book." OBS. 21. It is a common but erroneous opinion of our grammarians, that the unsyllabic suffix st, wherever found, is a modern contraction of the syllable est. No writer, however, thinks it always necessary to remind his readers of this, by inserting the sign of contraction ; though Eng- lish books are not a little disfigured by questionable apostrophes inserted for no other reason. Dr. Lowth says, " The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, [incline] us to con- tract even all our regular verbs : thus loved, turned, are commonly pronounced in one syllable lov'd, turn'd : and the second person, which was originally in three syllables, lovedest, turneiest, is [say has] now become a dissyllable, lovedst, turnedst." Lowth's Gram. p. 45; Hiley's, 45; Churchill's, 104. See also Priestley's Gram. p. 114; and Coar's, p. 102. This latter doctiine, with all its vouchers, still needs confirmation. What is it but an idle conjecture ? If it were true, a few quotations might easily prove it ; but when, and by whom, have any such words as lovedest, turnedest, ever been used ? For aught I see, the simple st is as complete and as c Id a termination for the second person singular of an English verb, as est; indeed, it appears to be older : and, for the preterit, it is, and (I believe) always has been, the most regular, if no1 the only regular, addition. If suffer edest, woundedext, and killedcst, are words more regular han sujferedst, woundedst, killedst, then are heardest, kneioest, sleioest, sawcst, rannest, mettest, swam- mest, and the like, more regular than heardst, kneuist, slewst, sawst, ranst, metst, sivamst, satst, saidst, ledst, fledst, toldst, and so forth ; but not otherwise.* So, in the solemn style, we write seemest, deemest, sicimmest, like seemeth, deemcth, swimmeth, and so forth ; but, when we use; the form which has no increase of syllables, why is an apostrophe more necessary in the second per- * Among grammarians, as well as among other writeivs, there is some diversity of usage concerning the personal inflections of verbs ; while nearly all, nowadays, remove the chief occasion for any such diversity, by denying with a fashionable bigotry the possibility of any grammatical use of the pronoun thou in a familiar style. To illustrate this, I will cite Cooper and Wells two modern authors who earnestly agree to account you and its verb literally singular, and thou altogether erroneous, in common discourse : except that Wells allows the phrase, " If thou art," for "Common style." School Gram. p. 100. 1. Cooper, improperly referring all inflection of the verb to the grave or solemn style, says : "In the collo- quial or familiar style, we observe no change. The same is the case in the plural number." He then proceeds thus : " In the second person of the present of the indicative, in the solemn style, the verb takes st or est ; and in the third person th or eth, as : thou hast, thou lovest, thou teachest ; he hath, he loveth, he goeth. In the collo- quial or familiar style, the verb does not vary in the second person ; and in the third person, it ends in s or st, as : he loves, he teaches, he does. The indefinite, [i. e. the preterit,] in the second person singular of the indicative, in the grave style, ends in est, as : thou taughtest, thou wentest. O=* But, in those verbs, whtre the sound .of st will unite with the last syllable of the verb, the vowel is omitted, as : thou lovtdst, thou heardst, thou didst. " Cooper's Murray, p 60 ; Plain and Practical Gram. p. 59. This, the reader will see, is somewhat contradictory ; for the colloquial style varies the verb by " s or ts," and taught'st may be uttered without the e. As for " lovedst," I deny that any vowel " is omitted " from it ; but possibly one may be, as lov'dst. 2. Wells's account of the same thing is this : " In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the second person singular of the solemn style ends regularly in st or est. as, thou seest, thou hearest, thou sawest, thou heardest ; and the third person singular of the present, in 5 or e's, as, he hears, he wishes, and also in th or eth, as, he saith, he loveth. In the simple form of the present indicative, the third person singular of the common or familiar style, ends in s or es ; as, he sleeps ; he rises. The first person singular of the solemn style, and the first and second persons singular of the common style, have the same form as the threo persons plural." Wells 1 s School Grammar, 1st Ed. p. 83 ; 3d Ed. p. 86. This, too, is both defective and inconsistent. It does not tell when to add est, and when, st only. It does not show what the regular preterit, as freed or loved, should make with thou : whether ffeedest and lovedest, by assuming the syllable est ; fre-edst and lov-edst, by increasing syllabically from assuming st only ; orfreedst and lov'dst, or lovedst, still to be uttered as monosyllables. It absurdly makes " ; or es" a sign of two opposite styles. (See OBS. 9th, above.) And it does not except " lam, 1 u-as. If I am, If I tvas, If ttwu art, I am loved," and so forth, from requiring " the same form, [are or were,] as the three persons plural." This author prefers " heardest ;" the other, " heardst," which I think better warranted : " And heardst thou why he drew his blade? Heardst thou that shameful word and blow Brought Roderick's vengeance on his foe?" Scott, L. L., C. v, st. 6. CHAP. VI.] lOi.OCV. VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 337 son, than in the third? in '.than in seems, deems, swims f When final e is dropped from the verb, the " Th nead oft' with a golden axe, And .s/W/V upon the stroke taut murders mo." > OBS. 22. T)r. Lowth rmination s or cs to have come from a contraction of cth. II< the rapidity of our pronunciation, the vowels are shortened or lost; and 1! re thrown together, do not coalesce with one another, and are therefore c! , of a kindred species. Th'- a far- ther deviation from (/', t)iu*. ton-th, turm-tl>, are contracted int rn'fh, and tV riation, /// s turn:;. 1 ' p. 46 ; iu->t, hut certainly such contractions as arc here spoken of, v- mon in Lowth's age, or even in that of Ben Jonson, who it ', of sharp Mvery obviously akin to flat s. The change would have been ! fur/uf had become lores and turns ; as some people nowadays are apt to change them, though doubtless this is a grammatical error : as, 1 wheresoe'er thou cast* thy view." Coirf, >/. thou that Jliniis me floundering from thy back." Eat. of Frogs and Mice,\. 123. " Thou tiitt'xt on high, and matnurcs destinies." Pollok, Course of T'' '-'tl.fi nurt;" " That thou h<; " "Before thou; '; ' What thou mrrf.s " [me- -tst] ; "Iftli 1 thou " That thou / - at my house." JO;:N K NDALI,. "That t - . thou trait' : ^mujht him:" "i hope thou iriti heir my >: _.;;" Thou also knnu-s" .1 up:" "I irish thou would yet i >i>. "Th( tei.d, forth thy delivering hand, and ;- THER- Bef. e of the third person singular ; and, m the imperative mood, it was applied to the second person, both singular and plural : as, "Demith thyself, that demist other's dede ; And trouthe the shall deliver, it's no drede." Chaucer. Ons. 29. It must be obvious to every one who has much acquaintance with the history of our language, that this part of its grammar has always been quite as unsettled as it is now; and, may wish to establish its principles, it is idle to teach for absolute certainty that which may confute. Let those who desire to see our forms of conjugation as M of other tongues, study to exemplify in their own practice what tends to uniformity. The best that can be done by the author of a grammar, is, to exhibit usage, as it has been, and as it is; pointing out to the learner what is most fashionable, as well as what is most orderly and le. It by these means the usage of writers and speakers cannot be fixed to what is fittest for their occasio'ns, and therefore most grammatical, there is in grammar no remedy for their inaccuracies ; as there is none for the blunders of dull opinionists, none for the absurdities of Ignorance stalled in the seats of Learning. Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit of an irregular verb is like the present, it should take edst for the second person singular. This rule, (which is adopted by Walker, in his Principles, No. 372,) gives us such words as cast-edst, 'lnt, Jiit-trdst, Irt-tcdst, jiut-ti-dst, hurt-edst, rid-dedst, shcd-dedst, which may be adduced from ancient writings, in support of this principle, are undoubtedly formed in the usual manner from regular preterits now obsolete ; and if this were not the case, no person of taste could think of employing, on any occasion, derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that "the chief defect of our language, is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect, as some of the foregoing remarks have shown, is peculiarly obvious, when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to our preterits. Accordingly, we find numerous instances among the poets, both ancient and modern, in which that : ttion is omitted. See Percy's Keliqu\s of Ancient Poetry, everywhere. Thou, who of old the prophet's eye muetbtL" Pollok. " Thou saw the fields laid bare and waste." Bums.-\- W. Allen, in i - immar, p. 132. says : < Vr/i and eth (from the Saxon ia5 ) were formerly, < .t/i man.' William t.f W\ keham's motto. 'After long advisement, they Doctrine and discourse maktth nature utly earlier than th r is utterly obsolete, and the firmer !. have been F.n^li^h. Th Anslo-Snxon v appears to have h. en inflected \\ith the several pronouns i. Hi hitiiith. The form in Old English was this : I M marks, (though in my opinion require a .-higular construction ; . ',' ? pays he, " in some measure, vindicate the ,ak(th man.'' Piiestley't Gram. \vnot what half-i* -uch construction. Manners and rnutk- uiU-r. and then-fore both it and maktth are wrong. I judge it better ,'irs are a useful ptu ake the man.'' But perhaps both ideas may -'*sed by a change of the nominative, thus : ' The study of mathematics is U5eful.' ; t Ah it the i i:.- of sir i/erruro v,oul I have been, had no author attempted any thing on English grammar, and not of ai ;ion." It is my opinion, that, with all tin i. Df the books and essays in which this subject has been handled, have been in some degree i it, without their influence, our language must have been much :, 01 it now is. Hut a late writer s*\s. ami. with respect to some of our verbal iv MH/vrr rnni-iftinn that fewer ir, .mid hare crept into the language had MO grammars existed, than have been authorized by gramman i<>uld be understood that the first of our K:-amm:iriai!. finding that good wi upon many points, instead of endeavouring to reconcile these .ibsolutely perpetuated then , n-ing ht%h authorities for both. To thi weo^e all the irregularity which exis'. in the personal terminations of verbs, some of the best early writers using them promi^i-it vising them unifotmly, and others making no uxe of them ; and really they are of no vie I at to puzzle children and foreigners, perplex poets, and furnish an awkward dialect to that exemplary sect 840 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. . OBS. 30. "With the familiar form of the second person singular, those who constantly put you for thoit can have no concern ; and many may think it unworthy of notice, because Murray has said nothing about it : others will hastily pronounce it bad English, because they have learned at school some scheme of the verb, which implies that this must needs be wrong. It is this partial learning which makes so much explanation here necessary. The formation of this part of speech, form it as you will, is central to grammar, and cannot but be very important. Our language can never entirely drop the pronoun thou, and its derivatives, thy, thine, thec, tJtysclf, without grert injury, especially to its poetry. Nor can the distinct syllabic utterance of the termination cd be now generally practised, except in solemn prose. It is therefore better, not to insist on those old verbal forms against which there are so many objections, than to exclude the pronoun of the second person singular from all such usage, whether familiar or poetical, as will not admit them. It is true that on most occasions you may be substituted for thou, without much inconvenience; and so may ice be substituted for /, with just as much propriety ; though Dr. Perley thinks the latter usage " is not to be encouraged." Gram. p. 28. Our authors and editors^ like kings and emperors, are making we for /their most common mode of expression. They renounce their individuality to avoid egotism. And when all men shall have adopted this enallage, the fault indeed will be banished, or metamorphosed, but with it will go an other sixth part of every English conjugation. The pronouns in the following couplet are put for the first person singular, the second person singular,and the second person plural; yet nobody will understand them so, but by their antecedents: " Right trusty, and so forth we let you to know We are very ill used by you mortals below." Sicift. OBS. 31. It is remarkable that some, who forbear to use the plural for the singular in the sec- ond person, adopt it without scruple, in the first. The figure is the same in both ; and in both, sufficiently common. Neither practice is worthy to be made more general than it now is. If thou should not be totally sacrificed to what was once a vain compliment, neither should /, to what is now an occasional, and perhaps a vain assumption. Lindley Murray, who does not appear to have used you for thou, and who was sometimes singularly careful to periphrase and avoid the latter, nowhere in his grammar speaks of himself in the first person singular. He is often "the Com- piler; " rarely, " the Author ; " generally, "We : " as, " We have distributed these parts of gram- mar, in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible." Octavo Gram. p. 58. "We shall not pursue this subject any further." Ib. p. 62. "We shall close these remarks on the tenses." Ib. p. 76. "We presume no solid objection can be made." Ib. p. 78. " The observa- tions which we have made." Ib. p. 100. " We shall produce a remarkable example of this beau- ty from Milton." Ib. p. 331. "We have now given sufficient openings into this subject." Ib. p. 334. This usage has authority enough ; for it was not uncommon even among the old Lat n grammarians ; but he must be a slender scholar, who thinks the pronoun we thereby becomes singular. What advantage or fitness there is in thus putting we for /, the reader may judgx Dr. Blair did not hesitate to use /, as often as he had occasion; neither did Lowth, or Joh i- son, or Walker, or Webster: as, "/ shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty fro n Milton." Blair's Rhet. p. 129. tl l have now given sufficient openings into this subject." Ib. p. 131. So in Lowth's Preface : "/believe," "/am persuaded," "/am sure," "/think," '! am afraid," "/ will not take upon me to say." OBS. 32. Intending to be critical without hostility, and explicit without partiality, I write not for or against any sect, or any man ; but to teach all who desire to know the grammar of o ir tongue. The student must distinctly understand, that it is necessary to speak and write diff erect- ly, according to the different circumstances or occasions of writing. Who is he that will pretend that the solemn style of the Bible may be used in familiar discourse, without a mouthing affecta- tion ? In preaching, the ancient terminations of cst for the second person singular and eth for the third, as well as ed pronounced as a separate syllable for the preterit, are admitted to be gen- erally in better taste than the smoother forms of the familiar style ; because the latter, though now frequently heard in religious assemblies, are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a sermon or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially when it treats of scriptural subjects, to which you put for thou is obviously unsuitable, the personal terminations of (he verb, though from the earliest times to the present day they have usually been contracted and often omitted by the poets, ought still perhaps to be considered grammatically necessary, whenever they can be uttered, agreeably to the notion of our tuneless critics. The critical objection to their elision, however, can have no very firm foundation while it is admitted by some of the objectors them- selves, that, "Writers generally have recourse to this mode of expression, that they may avoid harsh terminations." Irving'* Elements of English Composition, p. 12. But if writers of good authority, such as Pope, Byron, and Pollok, ha've sometimes had recourse to this method of sim- plifying the verb, even in compositions of a grave cast, the elision may, with tenfold stronger reason, be admitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authority of general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation. ' But thou, false Arcite, never shall obtain," &c. Drydm, Fables. ' These goods thyself can on thyself bestow." Id. in Joh. Diet. ' What I show, thy self may freely on thyself bestow." Id. Lowth' s Gram. p. 26. ' That thou might Fortune to thy side engage." Prior. ' Of all thou ever conquered, none was left." Pol/ok, B. vii, 1. 760. ' And touch me trembling, as thou touched the man," &c. Id. B. x. 1. 60. OBS. 33. Some of the Friends (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy thce for of Christians, who in every thing else study simplicity." Fowlers True E. Gram. Part II, p 26. Wells, a still later writer, gives this unsafe rule: "When thr. past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a single vowel, the second person singular of the solemn style is generally formed by the addition of est ; as heardest, Reddest, tookest. Hadst, wast, saidst, and didst, are exceptions." Wells's School Gram. 1st Kd. p. 106 ; 3d Ed p. 110 ; 113th Ed. p. 115. Now the termination d or ed commonly adds no syllable ; so that the regular past tense of any mono- syllabic verb is, with a few exceptions, a monosyllable still ; as, freed, feed, loved, feared, planned, turned : and how would these sound with est added, which Lowth, Hiley, Churchill, and some others erroneously claim as having pertained to such preterits anciently ? Again, if heard is a contraction of heared, anUJled, offleed, as seems prob- able ; then are hcardst and fledst, which are sometimes used, more regular than heardtst, Jltddest : so of many other preterits. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 341 thou ; and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second. Such expressions as, tin < does, thce is, thcc has. thcc thinks, &c., are double solecisms ; they set all grammar at de- .in, many persons who are not ignorant of grammar, and who employ the pronoun aright, sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a slight improvement in sound, and give to the verb the ending of the third 'person, for that of the second. Three or four instances of this, oc- cur in the examples which have been already quoted. See also the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns; who says of himself. "Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I made an excellent English "scholar ; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a critic in substantives, vi:uns, and particles :'" " But when thou pours ; " " There thou shines chief; " "Thou dears the head; " " Thou striiu/s the nerves ; " " Thou bri/fhteru black despair;" " Th "Thou frov0bur;" "Nowtfoufc turned out;" "Unseen thou //./> . " " O thou pale orb that silent ,s-// //*/.*." This mode of simplifying the verb, con- founds the i t little advantage in sound, over the regular contracted form of ond person, it ought to be avoided. With this author it may be, perhaps, a Scotticism : as, " Thou jmiids auld nature to the nines, In thy sweet Caledonian lines." Burns to Ramsay. " Thou paintst ohl nature." would be about as smooth poetry, and certainly much better En- gli^h. This confounding of the persons of the verb, however, is no modern peculiarity. It ap- to be about as old as the use of s for th or eth. Spenser, the great English poet of the sixteenth century, may be cited in proof: as, " Siker, thou's but a lazy loord, And rckes much of thy swinke." Joh. Diet. w. Loord. Ons. 34. In the solemn style, (except in poetry, which usually contracts these forms,) the second person singular of the present indicative, and that of the 'irregular preterits, commonly end in cat, pronounced as a separate syllable, and requiring the duplication of the final consonant, according to llule 3d for Spelling: as, I run, thou runnest ; I ran, thou rannest. But as the terini; o solemn discourse, constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits form the second person singular by assuming st, without further increase of syllables : as, I loved, thou loccdst ; not, ' >s (.'handler made it in his English Grammar, p. 41, Edition of 1821; and as Wells's rule, above cited, if literally taken, would make it. Dost and hast, and the three irreg- ular p. *?,dif/*(. and liadit, are permanently contracted; though doest and did,. sometimes seen in old b< ' is more common, and perhaps more regular, than saide.st. Werest has long been contracted into irert : " I would thou werest either cold or hot." \V. Perkinx. 1608.* The auxiliaries shall and will change the final / to t, and become shalt and wilt. To the auxil- !, -u-ould, and should, the termination cst was formerly added; but 'rally written with st only, and pronounced as monosyllables, even in solemn disc-on ' v, in quoting the Scriptures, very often changes mayest to mayst, mightest to iniyhl :ue other permanent contractions are occasionally met with, in what many gram- call the solemn 'dst for biddext, Jledst for Jlcddest, satst for sattest : " Hiding sublime, thou bidst the world adore, And humblest nature with thy northern blast." Thomson. \ thither whence thou fledst." Milton, P. L., B. iv, 1. 963. " Unspeakable, who sitst above these heavens." Id. ib. B. v, 1. 156. ' Why satst thou like an enemy in wait ? " Id. ib. B. iv, 1. 82o. ;>}. The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is now precisely the same as that of the plural number of noun-;: as lore. lore*; xhw, shows; boast, boasts ; fly, flies ; reach, 1 about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The ending winded as ,v or z : as, " And thus I see among these pleasant thynges . F.nrl of Snrry. ' With throte yrent, he roares, he lycth along." Sir T. Wyat. ' He iii/it/i, he is all dead, ':. Id. lot''. all theso instance me improper. The es does not here form a ither does the ////. in " /V'/' " and " dycth." In very ancient times, the third person adding th or eth nearly as we now add s or es. f After- H.ble, it was formed by adding th to verbs ending in c, and ((Ji to all '.-kenetl< xt eve'r pt in the imagination of certain grammarians. In s'olemn prose one may write, thou . or, thou quickened**, thou ttrtngthenedst ; but, in the familiar style, or in poetry, it is better to write, //,>ss foot, tho-i 'lie vales of earth" st honourable th , and most To be desire.1 "ToUok's Course of Time. 15. ix, 1. 18, and 1. 24. OBS. ry common pra . in contractions of the . person of n. .1 i:i //. and to a Id tl.e onsouant terminations . with an apostrophe before . ,f for : : -turn, fair :oiu thou //v'.sV, of him th.ri art." P. L., B. iv, 1. 481. :i index to the pronunciation of the iturefrom . derivatives. That rule is, len preceded b\ :i rod into / bof- pt those of the r tury, , or their printers, ha\ rul - that .ill of whirM .1 their rm by . '.n both t>'< . ;' the term ' < as r< one h rt linly w. generally, then f< . like illy a syllabic termin tion; hut .s/, li of the third person, the . the termin :t: 'ii *t is linly i- considered to be as r> .< and juivalent ; and. ^met boo. To all \evbs that admit the sound, we add ihe.s without marking it as a , : a n against adding the st in like manner, whenever we choose to form the second person without adding a 344 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. syllable to the verb. The foregoing observations I commend to the particular consideration of all those who hope to write such English as shall do them honour to every one who, from a spark of literary ambition, may say of himself, " I twine My hopes of being remembered in my line With my land's language." Byron's C. Harold, Canto iv, st. 9. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb ; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle* A verb which wants any of these parts, is called defective : such are most of the auxiliaries. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The present, or the verb in the present tense, is radically the same in all the moods, and is the part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is commonly considered the root, or simplest form, of the English verb. We usually place the preposition TO before it ; but never when with an auxiliary it forms a compound tense that is not infinitive : there are also some other exceptions, which plainly show, that the word to is neither a part of the verb, as Cobbett, R. C. Smith, S. Kirkham, and Wells, say it is ; nor a part of the infinitive mood, as Hart and many others will have it to be, but a distinct preposition. (See, in the Syntax of this work, Observations on Rule 18th.) The preterit and the perfect participle are regularly formed by adding d or cd, and the imperfect participle by adding ing, to the present. OBS ; 2. The moods and tenses, in English, are formed partly by inflections, or change s made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the verb or its participle, with a f e v short verbs, called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. This view of the subject, though disputed by some, is sustained by such a preponderance both of authority and of reason, that I shall not trouble the reader with any refutation of those who object to it. Murray the schoolmaster observes, " la the English language, the times and modes of verbs are expressed in a perfect, easy, and beautiful manner, by the aid of a few little words called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. The" possibility of a thing is expressed by can or could; the liberty to do a thing, by may or might ; the inclination of the will, by will or would; the necessity of a thing, by must or ought, shall or should. The prepo- sition to is never expressed after the helping verbs, except after ought." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 112. See nearly the same words in Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 3G; and in the British Grain, p. 12o. OBS. 3. These authors are wrong in calling ought a helping verb, and so is Oliver B. Peirce, in calling Bought to," and " ought to have" auxiliaries ; for no auxiliary ever admits the preposition to after it or into it : and Murray of Holdgate is no less in fault, for calling let an auxiliary ; because no mere auxiliary ever governs the objective case. The sentences. " He ought to hc/p'you," and "Let him help you," severally involve two different moods : they are equivalent to, '"It is h>s duty to help you;" "Permit him to help you." Hence ought and let are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs. OBS 4. Though most of the auxiliaries are defective, when compared with other verbs : yet these three, do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete : but the participles of do and have are not used as auxiliaries ; unless having, which helps to form the third or " compound perfect " participle, (as having loved,) may be considered such. The other auxiliaries have no participles. OBS. .5 English verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxiliaries ; the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the present and the imperfect ; as I love, I loved. And even here an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations ; as, "Do you love ?" "You do not love." "Did he love?"' 1 He did not love." "Do I not yet grieve'/" -'Did she not die?" All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds.' 0ns. 6. Dr. Johnson says, "Do is sometimes used superfluously, as / do lore, I did love ; simply for I lore, or I loved ; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech." (Irani, hi \to Diet. p. 8. He also somewhere tells us, that these auxiliaries " are not proper before be and have ; " as, "Idobe," for Iain; "I did have" for I had. The latter remark is generally true, and it ought to * These are what William Ward, in his Practical Grammar, written about 1765, denominated " the CAPITAL FORMS, or 'Hoots, of the English Verb." Their number too is the same. " And these ; lie, " are con- sidered as i'nnr ii> each verb : although in many verbs two of them are alike, and in some few three are alike." P. fiO. Few modern grammarians have been careful to display these Chief Terms, or Principal Parrs, properly. Many say nothing about them. Some speak of three, and name them faultily. Thus \Vells: The ' h ree />''- palparts of a verb are the . the /jnst tense, and Vhu perfect participle." School Cmm. \\:;.\\ Ed. p. 0'2. Now a whole- " tc,is>: " is something more than one verbal form, and \Vells's " perfect participle '' includes the nuxili.ir. Ihn-ht^.' 1 ' Hence, in stead ot write, wrote, writing, written, (the true principal parts of .: certain verb,) snider V.'ells's description, cither of these threes, bof.li entirely false titii n:ril.in : , ili/l vri/f, and liavinif writti n : or, tin writ 'I iini-in^ icritten. But writing, being the root of the " Pro.uresi-ivo 1'orm of tho Verb," is far more worthy to he here counted a chief term, than wrote, the preterit, which occurs only in one tense, and never receives an auxiliary. So of other verbs. This sort of treatment of the Principal Parts, is a yery grave defect in sundry schemes of grammar. CI1AP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. - CONJUGATION. 345 be remc-nb.?red;* but, in the imperative mood, be and have will admit the emphatic word do before- i- ireful;" "It > ///" a little discretion." Sanbor v puts do before fe, in this mood : M, />>> m <>. DJ y >n '- - j;u irded. Dothou6^. Dothoa 6* guarded." p. 1 ; >. "Do'thou be watchful." Ih. p. 135. In these instances, he must have t . -ewheresaid positively, that. "Do, as an auxiliary, ' with theve: V). p. 112. In the other moods, it is seldom proper before be; but it is sometimes Mad before Aa#e, especially with ft n i f " Those modes of charity which ' .:iview the cultivation or moral excellence, are essentially defective." \Va p. 428. " Sun natural or revealed, does not have respect merely to the external condu, And each day of our lives do we .I'tnt it." Dr. Bartlvtt's Lecture on Hc.dth, p. ').' " Verbs, in them- person and number." It. ('. S/tc't/t'x X<-io Gram. p. 21. [This notion 1. Kirkham taught the sam rson."] In the following example, the auxihiry is, and perhaps allowably :" It is certain from scripture, that i the course of life many times offend and be forgiven." Ji to a ': OBS. 7. In the compound tenses, there is never any variation of ending for the different persons and n '[>t iu the first auxiliary : as, "Thou wilt hive finished it;" not, "Thoawiif hastji, . s nonsense. And even for the former, it is better to say, in the familiar >ed it ;" for it is characteristic of many of the auxiliaries, that, unlike other u-e not varied by s or eth, in the third person singular, and never by st or est, in i singular, except in the solemn style. Thus all the auxiliaries of the potential mood, as well as shall and will of the indicative, are without inflection in the third person singular, principal verb, makes wills or willeth, as well as wiliest, in the indicative present. there appears a tendency in the language, to confine the inflection of its verbs to this tense only : and to the auxiliary have, hast, has, which is essentially present, though used with a par- ticiple to form the perfect. Do t dost, does, and am, art, is, whether used as auxiliaries or as princip . e always of the indicative present. >rd need, (though, as a principal verb and transitive, it is unquestionably both regular airl <.> .ipl^t^, having all the requisite parts, need, needed, need and being jd in the indicative present, as, I need, thou needst or tieedcst, he needs or .qu.'ntly used without inflection, when placed before an other verb to express a ity nf the being, action, or passion, that one may well question whether it has not become, under these circumstances, an auxiliary of the potential mood ; and therefore proper to be used, like all the other auxiliaries of this mood, without change of termination. I have not yet know- ingly i: . nor does it appear to have been classed with the auxiliaries, by any of our r.f I shall therefore not presume to say now, with positiveness, that nk ; (though I incline to think it does ;) but rather quote such instances as have occurred t.) m in re a. ling, and leave the student to take his choice, whether to condemn as bad iples, or to justify them in this manner. " He that can swim, need not -.is Rasselas, p. '1 .. One therefore needs not expect to do it." Kirkham' s \~i~>. "In so doing I should only record some vain opinions of this age, which a >/., on the Voice, p. 34-5. " That a boy needs not be kept at : on, p. 161. " No man need promise, unless he please." ,312. " What better reason needs \>e given ? " Cainjtbell's Rhct. p. 51. no other reason for his conduct." Way land, ib. p. 214. " Now there is nothing that a ; :i unod of in all this." Collier's Antoninus, p. 45. " No notice need be taken of t'. ' llhyminy Diet. Vol. ii, p. 304. "Yet it need? not be repeat . Part ii, p. 51. "He need not be anxious." Grcenle.if's Gram. b not be air :/ied, p. 124. " He who will i to write." Red Book, p. 22. " The hccder need be under no . :>S. j; " More i;<> not be s;iid about it." Cobbctt's E. Gram. IT 272. I." Booth's Introd. to Diet. p. 37. " Indeed, th^re need be no 7.v to be illustrated."//;, p. 81. "And no ' omitt' 1." /' .'uner*, p. 1 1 1. " The learner ; /'"'. p. 6. " No one need be apprehensive of '/), p. 171. "The student who has bought r.-pent " Dr. ./ /t/txu/i, .lilr. loDi - dram. '>[. " One need only open 1. ::id examples every where." Blair's Rhct p. 108. "Their sex is coin rrai/'s Duodecimo LOCKK: in Sviborn'* r uninteresting to the pur- uer."- i p. vii. "The exact amount of knowledge is not, and need not be, V li^m for school-bofs, such English as the fol- ii 1 h:ive." Ib. p. 1 . .b be after thi '.at the ire. is formed /< nn u*c of do and did is now avoided by good writers. 2. SHALL, SHOULD, and Co; \.\t: ' " Men .shall deal unadvisedly sometimes, which after-hours give leisure to repent of.' 1 >u to proceed. I should think it would succeed. He it should seem, thinks m. p. 65. " I row/i/ wish yon to go." /i. p. 71. 3. WILL, &c. The follow:: : ly of the same character, but not exactly : " The isle is full of noises ; some- twanging instruments irill hum about mine ears." Shak. "In their evening sport- in amongst them." fturbauld. " His l>tU--- length at noontide would he stretch." Gray. old writers often formed the infinitive in en, so they sometimes dropped the tormina 1 ion of the perfect participle. Hence we find, in the infancy of the language, done used for do, and d . and that by the same hand, with like changes in other verbs : as, " Thou canst: ie was wont to done." Id. " The treson that to women r to ben honourable and free." Id. " I am sworn to holden it secre." Id. " Our nature God hath to him innjte." Dnwilas. " None otherwise negligent than I you aic hauc I not bee. 1 ' Id. See W.Atten'i 7-,'. Grain, p. 97. 11 But nethcless the thynge is do, That fals god was soone go." GOWER : H. Tookc, Vol. i, p. 376. is from the Anglo-Saxon m&gan, to be able. In the parent language also, it :;i auxiliary. It '. hv Fortescue, as a principal verb ; 'They shall may do it : ' i. e. t!ii v shall be able (to) do it." W. Allen's (Irani, p. 70. ''3/ay not, was formerly used for ;// ces for which we may not cease to sue.' Hooker." Ib. p. 91. "May fre- quently expresses doubt of the fact ; as, < I may have the book in my library, but I think I have not.' It is used aU<>. . doubt, or a consequence, with a "future signification; as, 'I L86 of my limbs, but I see httle probability of it.' 'That they may receive me into their 1, .4." ('/mrr/tiir* drum. p. 217. In these latter instances, the po- tential akin to the subjunctive. Hence Lowth and others improperly call "/may [uncttre mood. Others, for the same reason, and with as little propriety, deny that \ subjunctive mood ; alleging an ellipsis in verv thing that bears that name: as, " ' If it . .sly with all men.' Scriptures." ]V. Allt //'.v < //,.',//. p. 61. -hin^. ami ten in prayer: as, "Mm/ it be thy good (.) that: --'Mm/at thou be pleas'ed." Hence the potential is ukin aN'i t > the itnper Thy will he done," "May thy will be done," " lie th\ \\ill d:. thy Will b- alike in meaning, but not in mood or con- ion. the same as the regular verbs ken, to sec. and con, 'i or cunnnn, to know; whence al- > the In the following example irill and can are don is, not second, not/o can." Ld. Bacon. siirnify power, appears from these example* : ! -MfuAiouffSf &g i,K\iif, Strengthen it as \ :-i, I know not how to (i. e. 7 cannot) lie" M . p. 71. v . for which reason shdtld literally '. In the foil .;>le 'from Chaucer, shall is a principal veib, with its original meaning : -. by the faith I !. I wcne, Was neucr stran: ' II'. Allen's Gram. p. 01. Ons. 1 1. Do and <^d are auxiliary on! ofinitive, or the radical verb ; M t dotJtrOto t dit th, in //irnir is marked by t/o or to. Jic, in all its parts, is auiili r of the simple participles ; nx, to be throwing, to be f/n-rini-i ; -\v to mal;.- distinction between "< -\ " con- ; it ions include the moods, tenses, and inflections of verbs ; hut he teaches " The principal parts of the verb are the J'i-c;<-/it hulica- .nd the l\tst p>t>-(i<-i/ili'. The mentioning of these parts is called :: vi:ui:." Airilyf. niul Pra'-t. (Iran)., 1849, p. 80. Mi wrbs having hut very few inflections to indicate to what part of the scheme of moods ; , it is found convenient to insert in our conjugations the prepo- sition to, to mnr';; the infinitive; p>.-rs. .. >, to distinguish the persons and numbers ; the denote the subjunctive m<)< d ; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. , or indexes, a verb may be conjugated in Jour ways : 1. Afiinn 'lively ; as, I write, 1 do write, or, I am writing; and so on. -, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 3. I: .'..'/ ite I? Do I write ? or, Am I writing ? 4. Intern .1 negatively ; as, Write I not ? Do I not write ? or, Am I not writing ? 1. SIMPLE FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries ; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. FIRST EXAMPLE. The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively. PIUXCIPAL PARTS. Pn Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFINITIVE MOOD.* The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. PKESENT TEN This tense is tlie rort, or radical verb ; and is usually preceded by the preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word : thus, To love. PERFECT TEXSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle ; and, like the infinitive at, is usually preceded by the preposition to : thus, To have loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses. Pi: .SB. The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the present infinitive, or radical verb ; except that the verb be has am in the indicative. 1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus : ''lr. Plural 1st person, I love, 1st person, We love, L' 1 p".->o:i, Thou 1 :>d person, You love, :M p.-rson, lie loves; 8d person, They love. '2. This tunso in:iy als > lie formed l>y pr.M\m<* the auxiliary do to the verb : thus, , xhir. Plural 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 12. Thou dost love. -_'. You do love, :'. lie does love; ;;. They do love. ' The substantive form, or, as it i.; mmmo;.; ??joo7, contains at the same time the .1 nir:mi:i:r. an rb >irc to ! Mi inon to the infinitive in all langoagw to pn-oi >ie the [other] moM> of , Instead of being made to follow them, as i.* ubsurJly practice- 1 ;rammatical systems." Enrlytica, p. 11. 850 TIIE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense, in its simple form is the preterit ; which, in all regular verbs, adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously. 1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus : Singular. Plural. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved; 3. They loved. 2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 3. He did love; 3. They did love. PERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. PLUPERFECT TE> T SE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. FIRST-FUTURE TISNSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present : thus, 1. Simply to express a future action or event : Singular. Plural. I.I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 2. He will love; 3. They will love. 2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat : Singular. Plural. 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. Thou shaltlove, 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect participle : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. OBS. The auxiliary shall may also be nsed in the second and third persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or contingency ; as, "If he shall have completed the work by midsummer." L. Murray's Gram. p. 80. So, with the conjunctive adverb when ; as, " Then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Father ; when he shall have put down all rule and all authority and power." 1 Cor. xv, 24. And perhaps will may here be used in the first person to express a promise, though such usage, I think, seldom occurs. Professor Fowler has given to this tense, first, the "Predictive " iorm, as exhibited above, and then a form which he calls "Promissive," and in which the auxiliaries are varied thus : " Singular. 1. I will have taken. 2. Thou shalt have taken, you shall have taken. 3. He shall have taken. Plural. 1. We will have taken. 2. Ye, or you shall have taken. 3. He [say They,} shall have taken." Folder's E. Gram. 8vo, N. Y. 1850, p. 281. But the other instances just cited show that such a form is not always promissory. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 351 POTENTIAL MOOD. The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility or necessity of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses ; but the potential imperfect is properly an airist : its time is very indeterminate; as, "lie would be devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied." Lord Kames, EL of Crit. Vol. i, p. 11. PRESENT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I may love, 1. Wo may love, 2. Thou muyst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love ; 3. They may love. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, cynld, would, or should, to the radical verb : thus Singular. Plural. 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love. PERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the perfect parti- ciple : thus, Singular. Plural. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou rnaysthave loved, 2. You may have loved, .". He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE. This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or should have, to the perfc ct participle : thus, Singulnr. Plural. I". I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, '). He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction ; as */, that, though, lest, unless, except. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is formed by a more placing of the verb before the nominative; as, "Were I," for, "If I were;" "///-,' .'/-," i'-ir, "Ifkekad;"- tor, "Ifv>9faU;""Knewtkey"tot t "If w." It does not vary its termination at all, in the different persons.* It is used in the present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense ; rarely and perhaps never pr^prrly in his mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite ; as, " It shall be in eternal restless change, Sell'- if-consum'd : iff/if- The pillar'd firmament is rottenness."- Jfflfem, Comus, 1. 596. Bv tin*. I mean, that the verb in nil the persons, ' and plural, is the same in form. Buf. Lindlej . the verb, most absurdly me:ius by it. :>'>tentialmood ; and when he peaks of changes or nH in the first person singular ! For pie: ' ! :iular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive mood, is also very frequently vtiri--/ in :.im."' Mitrrritt't Gram, oro, p. 209. "The i '< the subjunctive, ." Ib. p. 210 " Some authors think, that the termination of : i may t>.-w. ire. " ]?>. p. 'J10. l; When tho oircum- and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of the second and third person! It may !> i rule, that tk' changes of termination are nrrestanj, when these :icur. v V). p. U')7. ''It maybe> -\ rulo, that no dinners of r.-nmnations are ne- ncur " InftrMfft Gram. p. 264 Now Murruv and Ingersollhere mean :'mlt is that? [fMorray'B, hcbaseomn inch. Bat, In this matter, only by Ingwrsoll, but, on one orra.u which i" 'i hat part of the verb i-umari-iiis call the present ten?c of the subjunctive mood, h signification. This is effected by varying tht terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ."' 76. p. 207. But the absurd- ity wr.ich he r^allv means to teach, K thit tho subjunctire moodii derived from the indicative^ the primitive or radical Terb, from its derivatives or branches! 352 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. PRESENT TENSE. This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future. Singular. Plural. 1. If I " love, 1. If we love, 2. If Thou love, 2. If you love, 3. If He love; 3. If they love. OBS. In this tense, the auxiliary do is sometimes employed ; as, " If tliou do prosper my vr ay. "Genesis, xxiv, 42. " If he do not utter it." Leviticus, v, 1. " If he do but intimate his desire." Murray's Key, p. 207. " If he dopromise, he will certainly perform." Ib. p. 208. "An event which, if it ever do occur, must occur in some future period." Hiley's Gram. (3d Ed. Lond.) p. 89. " If he do \)\it promise, thou art safe." Ib. 89. " Till old experience do attain To something like prophetic strain." MILTON : II Pcnseroso. These examples, if they are right, prove the tense to Represent, and not future, as Hiley and some others suppose it to be. IMPERFECT TENSE. This tense, like the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it is frequently connect- ed, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense ; for it may refer to time past, present, or future : as, " If therefore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there that an other priest should rise? " Heb. vii, 1 1. " They must be viewed exactly in the same light, as if the intention to purchase now existed.'" Murray's Parsing Exercises, p. 24. "If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect." Matt, xxiv, 24. " If the whole body were an eye, where icere the hearing ? " 1 Corinthians, xii, 17. " If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and grief to them." Atterbury. Singular. Plural. 1. If I loved, l. If we loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If he loved ; 3. If they loved. OBS. In this tense, the auxiliary did is sometimes employed. The subjunctive may here be distinguished from the indicative, by these circumstances; namely, that the time is indefinite, and that the supposition is always contrary to the i'act : as, " Great is the number of those who might attain to true wisdom, if they did not already think themselves wise." Dilhcyn's Rcflectnms, p. 36. This implies that they do think themselves wise; but an indicative supposition or con:cs- sion (as, " Though they did not think themselves Avise, they were so ") accords with the fict, and with the literal time of the tense, here time past. The subjunctive imperfect, suggesting the idea of what is not, and known by the sense, is sometimes introduced without any of the iintal signs ; as, " In a society of perfect men, where all understood what was morally right, and were determined to act accordingly, it is obvious, that human laws, or even human organization to enforce God's laws, would be altogether unnecessary, and could serve no valuable purpose." PRES. SHANNON : Examiner, No. 78. IMPERATIVE MOOD. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love ; Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. OBS. In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the imperative moocl is used in the second and third persons of them all; and has also several different tenses, sonic of which cannot be clearly rendered in English. In Latin, this mood has a distinct form for the third person, both singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, the first person plural is also given it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, particularly by the poets. Such imitations must be referred to this mood> unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else; and against this there are strong objections. Again, as imprecation on one's self is not impossible, the first person singular may be added; so that this mood may possibly hare all the persons and numbers. Examples: "Come ire now to his trans- lation of the Iliad." 1'opc's Pref. to Dunciad. " Proceed we therefore in our subject." Ib. "Blessed be he that blesseth thee."' Gen. xxvii, 29. " Thy kingdom come." Matt, vi, 10. " But pass ice that." W. Scott. pnxmniriri ,' M of the general usage of authors, prefer was to were in the*singular number of . Mit.jmictivc mood. In the following remark, the tens is named " present," and this preference ii'iral extravagance : M'c/.t. though the past tense of the indicative mood, expresses the f th<- h\i>otliftic;il : as, I \\Nh thn f . I I/---M well.' Thr itxe of this hypothetical form of the subjunctive mood, /i.v c"'- n nV to a form < >f -xii-r-sion wholly unwarranted by the rules of grammar. When the verb was is to I* used in the present tense singular, in Mii- form <>f the sulyimctive mood, the ear is often pained with a. plural w,Tf. .is, \\'err 1 your muster' ' HVrc ht compelled to do ir.' &c. This has become so common that some of the bes 1 -. grammars of the language furni>h authority for the barbarism, and even in the second person supply wert, rentait accompaniment. If rach a conjugation ii admitted, we may expect soon to see Shatapeare's 1 l/ii>u beest' in full use.'' CftatMfltr'j (hunt. Ed .of 1-J'Jl. p. :,",. In ' Chandler's Common School Grammar," of 1847, the language of this paragraph is somewhat softened, but the substance is still retained. See the latter work, p. 80. t If I mm, It thou were, Ifho wore." Harriton's Gram. p. 31. " If, or though , I were loved If, orthough, thou were, or t/v /-Moved. If. or though, he were loved/'JJicAnc/rj Gram. Part i, p. 69. <; If, though, &c. I were burned, thou it-frr Imrnr-l or you were burnt,!, hi- wore l.urned." Buchanan's Gram. p. 53. ''Though thou v-ff. - hough thou tr-rt.'" Mackintosh's Gram. p. 178. " If or though I were. If or though thou I for though he were." St. Qit'ntin's Gfnrral Gram. p. 86. " If I \v.is. Thou wast, or You was or were, Or tliu-: : If I wen>, T', You was or were, He were.' 1 W'rbstrr'f Philosophical Gram. p. 95; Improved Gram. p. 01. M l'r.;..-:Nr TlXU. i:-foro, &r. I be ; thou beett, or you be ; he, she, or it, br : We, you or \e, they, If. PAST TENSF. l?of"n>. &<-. I ii-fr* ; thou uyrf, or you were ; he, she, or it, were: We, you or ye, they, were.'' WHITE, on the English, Verb. p. o'J. 358 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. sun, Before the Heavens, fh.ou.wert.' Milton. ' Remember what thou wert.' Dryden. 'I knew thou wert not slow to hear.' Addison. ' Thou who of old wert sent to Israel's court.' Prior. ' All this thou wert.' Pope. * Thou, Stella, wert no longer young.' Swift. Shall we, in deference to these gi-eat authorities," asks the Doctor, " allow wert to be the same with wast, and common to the indicative and [the] subjunctive mood ? or rather abide by the practice of our best ancient writers ; the propriety of the language, which requires, as far as may be, distinct forms, for different moods ; and the analogy of formation in each mood ; I was, thou wast ; I were, thou wert ? all which conspire to make inert peculiar to the subjunctive mood." Lowth's Gram. p. 37 ; Churchill's, p. 251. I have before shown, that several of the " best ancient writers" did not inflect the verb were, but wrote " thou were ; " and, surely, "the analogy of formation," requires that the subjunctive be not inflected. Hence" the propriety which requires distinct forms," requires not wert, in either mood. Why then should we make this contraction of the old indicative form icerest, a solitary exception, by fixing it in the subjunctive only, and that in opposition to the best authorities that ever used it ? It is worthier to take rank with its kindred bcest, and be called an archaism. OBS. 4. The chief characteristical difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, is, that in the latter the verb is not inflected at all, in the different persons : as, IND. " Thou mag- nifiest his work." SUBJ. " Remember that thou magnify his work." Job, xxxvi, 24. IND. " He cuts off, shuts up, and gathers together." SUBJ. " If he cut off, and shut up, or gather together, then who can hinder him ? " Jo6,xi, 10. There is also a difference of meaning. The Indicative, " If he icas," admits the fact ; the Subjunctive, " If he ivere," supposes that he was not. These JOU-iii JJ tlUlA J.1C1C 13j JL.UUUM11 lb UU' > W*C*/tf*OT j u * > J. 11V UgH CllC-lC Ct/W-O t'/t'tWfcU t/ y LI1U OUUJ UJ.1OLA V C ; Though it should thunder," or, " Though there were thunder." These senses are clearly differ- ent. Writers however are continually confounding these moods ; some in one way, some in an other. Thus S. R. Hall, the teacher of a Seminary for Teachers : "SuBJ. Present' Tense. 1. If I be, or am, 2. If thou be, or art, 3. If he be, or is ; 1. If we be, or are, 2. If ye or you be, or are, 3. If they be, or are. Imperfect Tense. 1. If I were, or was, 2. If thou wert, or wast, 3. If he were, or was; 1. If we were, 2. If ye or you were, 3. If they were." Hall's Grammatical Assistant, p. 17. Again: " SUBJ. Present Tense. 1. If I love, 2. If thou lovest, 3. If he love;" &c. "The remaining tenses of this .mode, are, in general, similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative mode, only with the conjunction prefixed." Ib. p. 20. Dr. Johnson observes, " The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently confounded; or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some convenience of versification does not invite its revival. It is used among the purer writers of former times ; as, ' Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham oe ignorant of us, and Israel acknowledge us not.' " Gram, in Joh. Diet. p. 9. To neglect the sub- junctive mood, or to confound it with the indicative, is to augment several of the worst faults of the language. II. COMPOUND OR PROGRESSIVE FORM. Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Im- perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes ; as, " I am writing a letter." " He is sitting idle." " They are going" This form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb. FOURTH EXAMPLE. The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively, in the Compound Form. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SIMPLE VERB. Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. Read. Read. Reading. Read. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be reading. PERFECT TENSE. To have been reading. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 3. He is reading; 3. They are reading. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VEEBS. CONJUGATIONS. 359 IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading. PLUPERFECT TENSE. 1 Singular. Plural. 1. I had been reading, .1. We had been reading, 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading. FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been reading, 1. We shall have been reading, 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 2. You will have been reading, 3. He will have been reading ; 3. They will have been reading. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, o. lie might be reading; 3. They might be reading. PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. I may have been reading, 1. We may have been reading, Thou mayst have been reading, 2. You may have been reading, 0. He may have been reading ; 3. They may have been reading. PLUPERFECT TENSK. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been reading, 1. We might have been reading, 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 2. You might have been reading, 3. He might have been reading; 3. They might have been reading. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. 360 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 2. If thou were reading, 2. If you were reading, 3. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading ; Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being reading, Having been reading. FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'Tuou.' NOTE. In the familiar style, the secon'd person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus : IND. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou hast been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou shall or will be reading, Thou shall or will have been reading. POT. Thou may, can, or must be reading ; Thou might, could, would, or should be read- ing ; Thou may, can, or must have been reading ; Thou might, could, would, or should have been reading. SUBJ. If thou be reading, If thou were reading. IND. Be [thou,] reading, or Do thou be reading. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Those verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not admit the com- pound form : thus we say, " I respccthim ; " but not, " I amrespecting him." This compound form seems to imply that kind of action, which is susceptible of intermissions and renewals. Affections of the mind or heart are supposed to last; or, rather, actions of this kind are complete as soon as they exist. Hence, to love, to hate, to desire, to fear, to forget, to remember, and many other suai verbs, are incapable of this method of conjugation.* If is true, we often find in grammars suc!a models, as, " I was loving, Thou least loving, He icas loving," &c. But this language, to express what the authors intend by it, is not English. "'He was loving," can only mean, " H3 was affectionate :" in which sense, loving is an adjective, and susceptible of comparison. Who, in common parlance, has ever said, " He teas loving me," or any thing like it ? Yet some hav3 improperly published various examples, or even whole conjugations, of this spurious sort. Se3 such, in Adam's Gram. p. 91; Gould's Adam, 83; Bullions' s English Gram. 52; hi* Analyt. ani Pract. Gram. 92 ; Chandler's New Gram. 85 and 86 ; Clark's, 80 ; Cooper's Plain and Practical, 70 ; Frazee's Improved, 66 and 69 ; S. S. Greene's, 234 ; Guy's, 25 ; Hallock's, 103 ; Hart's, 88 ; Henc- rick'8,38;Lenrite's,3l; Lowth's, 40; Harrison's, 34; Perley's, 36. OBS. 2. Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; as, " The books are now sell- ing." Allen's Gram. p. 82. "As the money was paying down." Ainsworth's Diet. w. As. "It requires no motion in the organs whilst it is forming." Murray's Gram.- p. 8. " Those works are long forming which must always last." Dr. Chetwood. " While the work of the temple too* carrying on." Dr. J. Owen. " The designs of Providence are carrying on." Bp. Butler. "A scheme, which has been carrying on, and is still carrying on." Id. Analogy, p. 188. "We are permitted to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us." Dr. Blair. " While these things were transacting in Germany." Russell's Modern Europe, Part First, Let. 59. "As he was carrying to execution, he demanded to be heard." Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 163. " To declare that the action was doing or done." Booth's Introd. p. 28. "It is doing by thousands now." Abbott's Young Christian, p. 121. " While the experiment was making, he was watching every movement." Ib. p. 309. "A series of communications from heaven, which had been making for fifteen hundred years." Ib. p. 166. " Plutarch's Lives are re-printing." L. Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 64. " My Lives are reprinting." Dit. JOHNSON : Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Diet. p. xlvi. "All this has been transacting within 130 miles of London." BYIION : Perley's Gram. p. 37. " When the heart is corroding by vexations." Student's Manual, p. 336. " The padlocks for our \ipsareforging." WHITTIER: Liberator, No. 993. "When his throat is cutting." Collier's Antoninus. " While your story is telling." Adams's Rhet. i, 425. " But the seeds of it wercsoicing some time before." Bolingbroke, on History, p. 168. "As soon as it was formed, nay even whilst it was forming." Ib. p. 163. "Strange schemes of private ambition were formed and forming there." Ib. p. 291. " Even when it was making and made." Ib. 299. "Which have been made and arc making." HENRY CLAY : Liberator, ix, p. 141. "And they are in measure sanctified, or sanctifying, by the power thereof." Barclay's Works, i, 537. "Which is now accomplishing amongst * The text in Acts, xxii, 20th, " I also was standing by, and consenting unto his death," ought rather to be, " I also stood by, and contented to his death ; " but the present reading is, thus far, a literal version from the Greek, though the verb "kept," that follows, Is not. Montamis renders it literally : u Et ip?e tram astans, et conscntims interemptioni ejus, et custodiens vestimenta interflcientium ilium." Beza makes it better Latin thus: "Ego quoque adstabam, et una asttnt.ifbax caedi ipsius, et, custodiebam pallia eorum qui interimebant eum." Other ex- amples of a questionable or improper use of the progressive form may occasionally be found in good authors ; as, "A promising boy of six years of age, wan missing by his parents." Wkittier, Stranger in Lowell, p. 100. Missing, wanting, and willing, after the verb to be, are commonly reckoned participial adjectives ; but here " was missing'* is made a passive verb, equivalent to was missed, which, perhaps, would better express the meaning. To miss, to perceive the absence of, is such an act of the mind, as seems unsuited to the compound form, to be missing; and, if we cannot say, " The mother was missing her eon," I think we ought not to use the same form passively, as above. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 3d the uncivilized countries of the earth." Chalmers, Sermons, p. 281. " Who arc ruining, or ruined, [in] this way." Locke, on Ed. p. 155. " Whilst they were undoing" Ibid. "Whether he was employing fire to consume [something,] or was himself consuming by fire." Crombic, on Ety/n. and s'i/ntnx, p. 148. "At home, the greatest exertions are making to promote its progress." Sheridan's Etocution, p. iv. " With those [sounds] which are uttering." 76. p. 125. "Orders are now concerting for the dismissal of all officers of the Revenue marine." Proridi-nce Journal, Feb. 1, 18-50. Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics, under the notion that the participle in ing must never be passive ; but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority, and, according to my apprehension, in far better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead ; as, " The books are now being sold." ' In all the towns about Cork, the whiskey shops are bcinq closed, and soup, coffee, and tea houses [are] establishing gene- rally." Dublin Evening 7W. 1840. other equivalent phrase. Dr. Johnson, after noticing the compound form of active-intransitives, as, " I am f/oitu/," " She is dying," " The tempest is raging," " I have been walking," and so forth, adds: " There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a passive signification :* as, The grammar is now printing, Grammatica jam mine chart is imprimatur. The bra^s is forging, .7-,'m fxnuhmhar. This is, in my opinion," says he, " a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete : The book is a printing, The brass is a forging ; a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying action, according to the analogy of this "language." Gram, in Joh. Diet. p. 9. OBS. 4. A is certainly sometimes a preposition ; and, as such, it may govern a participle, and that without converting it into a " verbal noun." But that such phraseology ought to be preferred to what is exhibited with so many authorities, in a preceding paragraph, and with an example from Johnson among the rest, I am not prepared to concede. As to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation, as, " The bridge is being built," " The bridge was being built," and so forth, it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of. Yet some two or three men, who seem to delight in huge absurdities, declare that this " modern innovation is likely to supersede " the simpler mode of expression. Thus, in stead of, " The work is now publishing," they choose to say, "The work is now being published." Kirkham's Gram. p. 82. This is certainly no better English than, " The work was being published, has been In iii'/ pnbti*/ift/, had been being published, shall or will be being published, shall or will have been brin i jih!i\!iftl " and so on. through all the moods and tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated ! Ous. 5. A certain Irish critic, who even outdoes in rashness the above-cited American, having recently arrived in New York, has republished a grammar, in which he not only. repudiates the pas- sive use of the participle in ing, hut denies the usual passive form of the present tense, "lam loved, I am smitten," \'-.. us tauffht by Murray and others, to be good English ; and tells us that the true form is, '/ am het;>e ; as. A TI-. M fin i ! /)/(:,' i- n<. 'I in :t neutn -u'Mitioation. because it has no objcrt after ir. My this rule IT \ j.'.KMtiou i< \vii,tinj: The grammar is printing ; The lottery i- dnnvino: : ".'^1/xh Gni>n.p.2l. u A r ett/^,''h-re. a< in many other plaees. is meai t t't jm-lnde the. : an I is irive<. Tiie'l. however. l>y the usual ci in-iion. the nan.injj of tho^ uiiii-h.i' i wh.-ir may at first m-m j>rogre-M\-- : :mdsuch. ^fovM'erli- sL'i:if- ;.- i\sl)r. .li.lnison. may lil.t-nisc signify con- r im^it. nt\>\ ' I ''.>r, . I aiii in !>%,- ; /./i //.-.. I am i:o\v striking.' 1 ly tranM ive. ha\e .-Mii.rtinn-s an activ-inrran-: .. li nearly nj>; ptuaive, and of which ore stUiitg, is /,,,1'iim:. or.' and 'lie !i'<.- May be only equivalent exprwioos. For example : u It is < ormt rapidly if fonnivg rapillv." Here, with little diff< ninir. i^ the a]>i>ear:inrp of both TOJ. :nt the I'a-ive : while - , A hi.-h M nie will ha\e f. T 'an exam j.le of " the Midtil' voice,*' may > ri^hr. i\ ir, /,;'/;- i r r, ini/itin^' may I a - four dilT n-nt surfs: ' K :' :H;IV ilrivi- i\\-.i\ despair runnel t,e UMHUmfbyhim^ho coi. mWs ;;,.'. rr,No IV.- t lr. Bullions, in hi^ K-iimnar : ly woiiM thii, ![.- i- being loved' This n-pnlt .nmtPiart. rdingtoJ. U'. \Vii-ht. wl rity in grammar ha- - .i* \intn- ir I <>f hartiarism is. for the ]". >' nd solely in fict. anv more h:irbamn. <>v IIIOM. fon-i.cn fr"in usaye. than tle spurious example which the Doctor himself take* for a model in the a- /nr,,.-. Th.u art lot-ing, kc. ; I ha ( ':'cn loving, Thou hast bten loving. &c." A. ami P. Gr. p. 'J2. So : ' James is loving me." Ib. p. 235. 24 362 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. 5. 11 tne expression, is oeing built, be a correct form ot the present indicative passive, then it ; be equally correct to say in the perfect, ' has been being built ; ' in the past perfect, ' had being built ; ' in the present infinitive, to be being built ; ' in the perfect infinitive, < to have being built ; ' and in the present participle, ' being being built; ' which all will admit to be ex or more simply as before, ' the house is built ; ' plainly importing an action not progressing, but now existing in a finished state. 11 3. If the expression, ' is being built,' be a correct form of the present indicative passive, then it must be eqnallv correct tr> snv in thp nprfWt ' Jtn.it hwn. hf>inn hnilt. ' in thp nnst noi-fnnf ' /i/j/7 been being been being pressions as incorrect as they are inefegant/but precisely analogous to that which noAV begins to- prevail." Bullions' s Principles of English Gram. p. 58. OBS. 6. It may be replied, that the verbs to be and to exist are not always synonymous ; be- cause the former is often a mere auxiliary, or a mere copula, whereas the latter always means something positive, as to be in being, to be extant. Thus we may speak of a thing as being de- stroyed, or may say, it is annihilated; but we can by no means speak of it as existing destroyed, or say, it exists annihilated. The first argument above is also nugatory. These drawbacks, how- ever, do not wholly destroy the force of the foregoing criticism, or at all extenuate the obvious tautology and impropriety of such phrases as, is being, was being, &c. The gentlemen who affirm that this new form of conjugation " is being introduced into the language," (since they allow par- ticiples to follow possessive prononns) may very fairly be asked, " What evidence have you of its being being introduced f" Nor can they, on their own principles, either object to the mon- strous phraseology of this question, or tell how to better it ! OBS. 7. D. H. Sanborn, an other recent writer, has very emphatically censured this innovation, as follows : " English and American writers have of late introduced a new kind of phraseology, which has become quite prevalent in the periodical and popular publications of the day. Their intention, doubtless, is, to supersede the use of the verb in the definite form, when it has a passive signification. They say, ' The ship is being built,' ' time : is being wasted,' 'the work is being advanced,' instead of, ' the ship is building, time is icasting, the work is advancing.' Such a phraseology is a solecism too palpable to receive any favor ; it is at Avar with the practice of the most distinguished writers in the English language, such as Dr. Johnson and Addison. When an individual says, * a house is being burned,' he declares that a house is existing, bumed,vrhich is impossible ; for being means existing, and burned, consumed by fire. The house ceases to exist as such, after it is consumed by fire. But when he says, ' a house is burning,' we understand that it is consuming by fire ; instead of inaccuracy, doubt, and ambiguity, we have a form of expression, perfectly intelligible, beautiful, definite, and appropriate." Sanborn' s Analytical Gram. p. 102. OBS. 8. Dr. Perley speaks of this usage thus : "An attempt has been made of late to intro- duce a kind of passive participial voice; as, ' The temple is being built.' This ought not to be encouraged. For, besides being an innovation, it is less convenient than the use of the present participle in the passive sense. Being built signifies action finished; and how can, Is being built, signifiy an action unfinished f" Perley' s Gram. p. 37. OBS. 9. The question now before us has drawn forth, on either side, a deal of ill scholarship and false logic, of which it would be tedious to give even a synopsis. Concerning the import of some of our most common words and phrases, these ingenious masters, Bullions, Sanborn, and Perley, severally assert some things which seem not to be exactly true. It is remarkable that critics can err in expounding terms so central to the language, and so familiar to all ears, as " be, being, being built, burned, being burned, is, is burned, to be burned," and the like. That to be According to his reasoning, as well as that of Bullions, is burned must mean exists consumed , was burned, existed consumed; and thus our whole passive conjugation would often be found made up of bald absurdities ! That this new unco-passive form conflicts with the older and better usage of taking the progressive form sometimes passively, is doubtless a good argument against the innovation ; but that " Johnson and Addison " are fit representatives of the older " practice " in this case, may be doubted. I know not that the latter has any where make use of such phraseology; and one or two examples from the former are scarcely an offset to his positive ver- dict against the usage. See OBS. 3rd, above. OBS. 10. As to what is called " the present or the imperfect participle passive," as, "being: burned," or "being burnt," if it is rightly interpreted in any of the foregoing citations, it is, beyond question, very improperly thus named. In participles, ing denotes continuance : thus be- _.._,, .... .. tinning to build, or sense more precisely 'ing built, "but "con- tinuing to be built," the same, or nearly the same, as " building " taken passively? True it is, that built, when alone, being a perfect participle, does not mean " in process of construc- tion," but rather, "constructed," which intimates completion; yet, in the foregoing passive phrases, and others like them, as well as in all examples of this unco-passive voice, continuance of the passive state being first suggested, and cessation of the act being either regarded as future or disregarded, the imperfect participle passive is for the most part received as equivalent to the simple imperfect used in a passive sense. But Dr. Bullions, who, after making "is being built precisely equivalent to is built," classes the two participles differently, and both erroneously, the one as a "present participle," and the other, of late, as a "past," has also said above, " ' Built/ is a. perfect participle ; and THEREFORE cannot, in any connexion, express an action, or the suffer- ing of an action, now in progress." And Dr. Perley, who also calls the compound of being a "pres- ent participle, argues thus: "Being built signifies an action finished ; and how can /* being built, signify an action unfinished?" To expound a passive term actively, or as "signifying action," is, at any rate, a near approach to absurdity ; and I shall presently show that the fore-cited no- tion of " a perfect participle," now half abandoned by Bullions himself, has been the seed of the very worst form of that ridiculous neology which the good Doctor was opposing. OBS. 11. These criticisms being based upon the meaning of certain participles, either alone or CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VJJBBS. CONJUGATIONS. 363 in phrases, and the particular terms spoken of being chiefly meant to represent classes, what is said of them may be understood of their kinds. Hence the appropriate naming of the kinds, so as to convey no false idea of any participle's import, is justly brought into view ; and I may he allowed to say here, that, for the first participle passive, which begins with "briny," the epithet "Imper- fect'* is better than " Present, because this compound participle denotes, not always what is present, but always the state of something by which an action is, or icas, or will be, undergone or undergoing ;i sttitc continuing, or so regarded, though perhaps the action causative may be end- ed or sometimes perhaps imagined only, and not yet really begun. With a marvellous insta- 'and Pnict. dram mar, 1849, p. 77. And what was the "Perfect" before, in his several books, is now called the "Past ; " though, with this change, he has deliberately made an other which is re- pugnant to it : this participle, being the basis of three tenses always, and of all the tenses some- times, is now allowed by the Doctor to lend the term "perfect " to the three, "Present-perfect, Past-per fe,f, Future-perfect," even when itself is named otherwise ! Ons. \'2. From the erroneous conception, that a perfect participle must, in every connexion, ex- press "action finished," actionpa-st, or perhaps from only a moiety of this great error, the notion that such a participle cannot, in connexion with an auxiliary, constitute a passive verb of the present tense, J . W. Wright, above mentioned, has not very unnaturally reasoned, that, " The expression, 'lam fared,' which Mr. Murray has employed to exhibit the passive conjugation of the present tense, may much more feasibly represent pttst than present time." See Wright's Philosophical drum. p. 99. Accordingly, in his own paradigm of the passive verb, he has formed this tense solely from what he calls the participle present, thus : " I am being smitten, Thou art being smitten," &c. Ib. p. 98. His "Passed Tense," too, for some 1'eason which'l do not discover, he distinguishes above the rest by a double form, thus : " I tea* smitten, or being smitten; Thou wast smitten, or being smit- ten; " &c. P. $9. In his opinion, " Few will object to the propriety of the more familiar phrase- ology, 'lam in the ACT, or, suffering the ACTION q/" BEING SMITTEN : ' and yet," says he, "in substance and effect, it is wholly the same as, * I am being smitten,' which is THE TRUE FORM of the verb in the present tense of the passive voice ! " Ibid. Had we not met with some similar ex- :is of English or American blunderers, "the act or action of being smitten," would be ac- counted a downright Irish bull; and as to this ultra notion of neologizing all our passive verbs, by the addition of "being," with the author's cool talk of "the presentation of this theory, and [the] consequent suppression of that hitherto employed," there is a transcendency in it, worthy of the most sublime aspirant among grammatical new-fanglers. Ous. 13. But, with all its boldness of innovation, Wright's Philosophical Grammar is not a little self-contradictory in its treatment of the passive verb. The entire " suppression " of the usual form of its present tense, did not always appear, even to this author, quite so easy and reasonable a matter, as the foregoing citations would seem to represent it. The passive use of the participle in ing, he has easily disposed of: despite innumerable authorities for it, one false assertion, of seven syllables, suffices to make it quite impossible.* But the usual passive form, which, with some show of truth, is accused of not having always precisely the same meaning as the progressive used passively, that is, of not always denoting continuance in the state of receiving continued action, and which is, for that remarkable reason, judged worthy of rejection, is neverthe- less admitted to have, in very many instances, a conformity to this idea, and therefore to " belong [thus far] to the present tense." P. 103. This contradicts to an indefinite extent, the proposi- tion for its rejection. It is observable also, that the same examples, '/am loved 'and 'I am smit- ten,' the same "tolerated, but erroneous forms," (so called on page 103,) that are given as specimens of what he would reject, though at first pronounced "equivalent in grammatical con- struction," censured for the same pretended error, and proposed to be changed alike to " the true form " by the insertion of " being" are subsequently declared to " belong to " different classes and different tenses. '/ am loved," is referred to that " numerous " class of verbs, which " de- tail ACTION of prior, but r> ('lined, endured, and continued existence; and therefore, in this sense, belong to the present tense." But "/ am smitten," is idly reckoned of an opposite class, (said by Dr. Bullions to be " perhaps the greater number,") whose "'ACTIONS described are neither con- tintt'nts in their nature, nor pro 'c in their duration ; but, on the contrary, completed andpcr- fected: and [which] are consequently descriptive of passed time and ACTION." Wright's Gram. p. 103. Again: " In what instance soever this latter form and signification caw be introduced, their import sh'nt.'d be, and, indeed, migh t f<> be, supplied by the perfect tense construct inn : for example, I am smitten,' I should] be, > I have been smitten.' " Ib. Here is self-contradiction indefinitely ex- tended in an of/it r ten;/. Many a good phrase, if not every one, that the author's first suggestion would turn to the unco-passive form, his present "remedy " would about as absurdly convert into' "the perfect tense." OIH. 14. But Wright's inconsistency, about this matter, ends not here : it runs through all he- says of it ; for, in this instance, error and inconsistency constitute his whole story. In one place, he anticipates and answers a question thus : " To what tense do the constructions, ' I am pleas >d ; ' 'He is expected : ' '/ am smitten , ' ' He is bound ; ' belong ? " We answer : ^o far at i * " Suppose a criminal to be enduring the operation of binding : Shall we say, with Mr. Murray,' The crimina la Uncling ? ' If so, HE MUST UK BINDING SOMETHING, a circumstance, in effect, quite opposed to the fart present- ed. Shall wo then s.\v, as In- il o<, in the jnrsenl tfntr conjugation of his pasM\v vcrl>, 4 The criminal is bound? ' If O, the arlion of binding, which the criminal te suffering, will be represented as completed, a position which the arum its self will palpably deny." Sec Wight's Pliii. 0>a;;i. p. 102. It is folly for a man to pu/.zle himself or others thus, with Jicntiout fxami'lfs, imagined on purpose to make good usage seem u-rong. There is bad grammar enough, for all useful purposes, in the actual writings of valued authors ; but who can enow, by any proofs, that the English language, as heretofore written, ia so miserably inadequate to our wants, that we need use tho strange neologism, u The criminal w being bound,-' or any thing similar ? 364 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. these and like constructions are applicable to the delineation of continuous and retained ACTION, they express -present time ; and must be treated accordingly." P. 103. This seems to intimate that even, f la?n smitten,' and its likes, as they stand, may have some good claim to be of the pres- ent tense ; which suggestion is contrary to several others made by the author. To expound this, or any other passive term, ptmivtfy, never enters his mind : with him, as with sundry others, "ACTION," "Jinished ACTION," or " progressive ACTION," is all any passive verb or participle ever means ! No marvel, that awkward perversions of the forms of utterance and the principles of grammar should follow such interpretation. In Wright's syntax a very queer distinction is ap- parently made between a passive verb, and the participle chiefly constituting it ; and here, too, through a fancied ellipsis of "being " before the latter, most, if not all, of his other positions con- cerning passives, are again disastrously overthrown by something worse a word " imperceptibly understood." " ' J am smitten ; ' '/ ivas smitten ; ' &c., are," he says, " the universally acknowledged forms of the VERBS in these tenses, in the passive voice : not of the PARTICIPLE. In all verbal constructions of the character of which we have hitherto treated, (see page 103) and, where the ACTIONS described are continuous in their operations, the participle BEING is imperceptibly omit- ted, by ellipsis." P. 144. OBS. 15. Dr.'Bullions has stated, that, " The present participle active, and the present participle passive, are not counterparts to each other in signification ; [,] the one signifying the present doing, and the other the present suffering of an action, [ ; ] for the latter always intimates the present being of an ACT, not in progress, b^tt completed." Prin.ofEng.Gram. p. 58. In this, he errs no less grossly than in his idea of the " action or the suffering " expressed by " a. perfect par- ticiple," as cited in OBS. 5th above; namely, that it must have ceased. Worse interpretation, or balder absurdity, is scarcely to be met with ; and yet the reverend Doctor, great linguist as he should be, was here only trying to think and tell the common import of a very common sort of Eng- lish participles ; such as, "being loved " and "being seen." In grammar, " an act," that has " pres- ent being," can be nothing else than an act now doing, or "in progress ;" and if, "the present being of an ACT not in progress," were here a possible thought, it surely could not be intimated by any such participle. In Acts, i, 3 and 4, it is stated, that our Saviour showed himself to the apostles, " alive after his passion, by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, an&speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God : and, being 'assembled together with them commanded them that they should not depart from Jerusalem." Now, of these misnamed "present partici- ples," we have here one "active," one "passive," and two others (one in each form ) that are neuter ; but no present time, except what is in the indefinite date of "pertaining." The events are past, and were so in the days of St. Luke. Yet each of the participles denotes continuance: not, indeed, in or to the present time, but for a time. "Being seen " means continuing to be s?en ; and, in this instance, the period of the continuance was "forty days" of time past. But, accord- ing to the above-cited "principle of English Grammar," so long and so widely inculcates by "the Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D., Professor of Languages," &c., a central principle of interpre- tation, presumed by him to hold "always," this participle must intimate " the present being of an act, not in progress, but completed; " that is, " the present being of" the apostles' act infornerly seeing the risen Saviour ! OBS. 16. This grammarian has lately taken a deal of needless pains to sustain, by a studied divi- sion of verbs into two classes, similar to those which are mentioned in OBS. 13th above, a part o e the philosophy of J. W. Wright, concerning our usual form of passives in the present tense. But, ;is he now will have it, that the two voices sometimes tally as counterparts, it is plain that he adheres but partially to his former erroneous conception of a perfect or " past " participle, and the terms which hold it " in any connexion " The awkward substitutes proposed by the Irish critic, he does not indeed countenance; but argues against them still, and, in some respects, very justly. The doctrine now common to these authors, on this point, is the highly important one, that, in re- spect to half our verbs, what we commonly take for the passive present, is not such that, in " the second class, (perhaps the greater number,) the present-passive implies that the act expressed by the active voice has ceased. Thus, ' The house is built.' * * * Strictly speaking, then," says the Doctor, " the PAST PARTICIPLE with the verb TO BE is not the present tense in the, passive voice of verbs thus used; that is, this form does not express passively the doing of the act." Bullions' s A.nzh/t. and Pract. Grammar, Ed. of 1849, p. 235. Thus far these two authors agree; except that Wright seems to have avoided the incongruity of calling that "the present-passive" which he denies to be such. But the Doctor, approving none of this practitioner's " remedies," and being less solicit- ous to provide other treatment than expulsion for the thousands of present passives which both deempurious, adds, as from the chair, this verdict : " These verbs either have no present-passive, or it is made by annexing the participle in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be as, ' The house is building.' " 76. p. 236. OBS. 17. It would seem, that Dr. Bullions thinks, and in reality Wright also, that nothing can be a pi'esent passive, but what "expresses passively the DOING of the act." This is about as wise, as to try to imagine every active verb to express actively the receiving of an act ! It borders ex- ceedingly hard upon absurdity ; it very much resembles the nonsense of " expressing recepffre!>/ the giving of something!" Besides, the word " DOING," being used substantively, does not deter- mine well what is here meant ; which is, I suppose, continuance, or an unfinished state of the act received an idea which seems adapted to the participle in ing, but which it is certainly no fault of a participle ending in d, t, or n, not to suggest. To " express passively the doing of the act," if the though neither of them necessarily intimates either continuance or cessation of the act suffered, or, if it did, would be the less or the more passive or present, may, in such a sense, " express the doing of the act," if any passives can : nay, the " finished act" has such completion as may be stated with degrees of progress or of frequency ; as, " The house is partly built." "I am oftcner smitten." There is, undoubtedly, some difference between the assertions, " The house is building," CIIAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. COJUGATIONS. 3G5 and, " The house is partly built ;" though, for practical purposes, perhaps, we need not always be very nice in choosing between them, tor the sake of variety, however, if for nothing else, it is to be hoped, the doctrine above-cited, which limits half our passive verbs of the present tense, to the progressive form only, will not soon be generally approved. It impairs the language more than unco-passives are likely ever to corrupt it. Ons. IS. ' No startling novelties have been introduced," says the preface to the "Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language." To have shunned all shocking innovations, is only to have exercised common prudence. It is not pretended, that any of the Doctor's errors here remarked upon, or elsewhere in this treatise, will startle any body; but, if errors exist, even in plausible guise, it may not be amiss, if I tell of them. To suppose every verb or participle to be either "transitive'" or " intransitive," setting all passives with the former sort, all neuters with the latter ; (p. 59 ;) to define the transitive verb or participle as expressing always "on act DONE by one person or thing to another ; " (p. 60 ;) to say, after making passive verbs transitive, " The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case,'' and, " A verb that does not make sense with an ob- jective after it, is intransitive ; " (p. 60 ;) to insist upon a precise and almost universal identity of " meaning " in terms so obviously contrasted as are the two voices, " active " and " passive ; " (pp. 95 and 23-5 ;) to allege, as a general principle, " that whether we use the active, or the passive voice, the ntxining is the same, except in some cases in the present tense ;" (p. 67 ;) to attribute to the forms naturally opposite in voice and sense, that sameness of meaning which is observable only in certain whole sentences formed from them ; (pp. 67, 95, and 235 ;) to assume that each " VOICE is a particular form of the verb," yet make it include two cases, and often a preposition before one of them ; (pp. 66, 67, and 95 ;) to pretend from the words, " The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject of the verb as acted upon," (p. 67,) that, "According to Me DEFINITION*, the passive voice expresses, passively, the same thing that the active does actively;" (p. 235;) to affirm that, " 'Caesar conquered Gaul,' and ' Gaul was conquered by Cresar,' express precisely the same idea," and then say, " It will be felt at once that the expressions, ' Caesar conquers Gaul,' and ' Gaul is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing ;" (p. 235;) to deny that passive verbs or neuter are worthy to constitute a distinct class, yet profess to find, in one single tense of the former, such a difference of meaning as warrants a general division of verbs in respect to it ; (ib.;) to announce, in bad English, that, " In regard to this matter [,] there are evidently Two CLASSES of verbs ; namely, those whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in which it does not :" (ib. :) to do these several things, as they have been done, is to set forth, not " novelties " only, but errors and inconsistencies. Os. 19. Dr. Bullions still adheres to his old argument, that being after its own verb must be devoid of meaning ; or, in his own words, " that is being built, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed." Analyt. and Pract. (i.'-fii/i. p. 237. He had said, (as cited in OBS. 5th above,) "The expression, ' i 's being,' is equiv- alent to is, and expresses no more ; just as, ' is loving,' is equivalent to ' loves.' Hence, ' is being built,' is precisely equivalent to ' is built.' " Principles of E. Gram. p. 58. He has now discov- ered " that there'is no progressive form of the verb to 6e,'and no need of it: " and that, " hence, no such eapreuumin English as is being." Analyt. ami Pract. Gram. p. 236. He should have noticed also, that " is loving " is not an authorized " equivalent to loves ; " and, further, that the error of saying " is being built," is only in the relation of the first two words to each other. If " is being " and " is loving " are left unused for the same reason, the truth may be, that is itself, like loves, commonly denotes " continuance ; " and that being after it, in stead of being necessary or proper, can only be awkwardly tautologous. This is, in fact, THE GRAND OBJECTION to the new phraseology " is being practised" "am being smitten" and the like. Were there no danger that petty writers would one day seize upon it with like avidity, an other innovation, exactly similar to this in every thing but tense similar in awkwardness, in tautology, in unmistakable- ness might here be uttered for the sake of illustration. Some men conceive, that " The perfect participle is always compound ; as, having seen, having written ; " and that the simple word, seen or written, had originally, and still ought to have, only a passive construction. For such views, th"y find authorities. Hence, in lieu of the common phrases, " had we seen," " we have written," they adopt such English as this : "7/arf tee having tmcn you, we should have stopped." "We have having written but just now, to our correspondent." Now, " We are being smitten," is no better grammar than this ; and no worse : " The idea intended " is in no great jeopardy in either case. JO. J. K. Chandler, of Philadelphia, in his Common School Grammar of 1817, has earnestly Undertaken the defence of this now and much-mooted passive expression ; which he calls " the Defiii or "///< y./.ss/rr I'airr i,f tin I), fmit^ /'vuiu.r> /*/// U//I//M**** ca!ly ! " See p. 89. Claiming this new form as />, qualities; that of making bot: i in turn and at pleasure, the subject of conver- sation." Ibid. Concerning >, he evidently argues fallaciously; for he urges, that the >f them " (/ -vu-ero/ee." P. 88. But it is plain, that, of the many fair substitutes which may in most cases be found, if any one is preferred., ;in, and all the rest, are of course rejected for the time. 3its. 21. By Chandler, as well as others, this new passive form is justified only on the supposi- tion, that the >implc participle in /// can never with propriety be used jvi^sively. No plausible argument, indeed, can be framed for it, without the assumption, that the simpler form, when used in the same sense, /.v ungrammatical. But this is, in fact, a begging of the main question; and that, in opposition to abundant authority for the usage condemned. (See OBS. 3d, above.) This 3G6 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. author pretends that, "The RULE of all grammarians declares the verb is, and & present participle (is building, or is writing}, to be in the active voice" only. P. 88. (I add the word "only," but this is what he means, else he merely quibbles.) Now in this he is wrong, and so are the several grammarians Avho support the principle of this imaginary "RULE." The opinion of critics in remark applies to the participle used as a noun : as, actively, drawing is an elegant amusement, building is expensive ; and, passively, his drawings are good, this is a fine building." Allen's Elements of E. Gram. p. 82. OBS. 22.' Chandler admits, that, " When it is said, 'The house is building,' the meaning is easily obtained ; though," he strangely insists, "it is exactly opposite to the assertion." P. 89. He endeavours to show, moreover, by a fictitious example made for the purpose, that the progres- sive form, if used in both voices, will be liable to ambiguity. It may be so in some instances ; but, were there weight enough in the objection to condemn the passive usage altogether, one would suppose there mi^ht be found, somewhere, an actual example or two of th abuse. Not concurring with Dr. Bullions in the notion that the active voice and the passive usually " express precisely the same thing," this critic concludes his argument with the following sentence : " There is an import ant difference between doing and.sitff'ering ; and that difference is grammatically shown by the appropriate use of the active and passive voices of a verb. Chandler's Common School Gram. p. 89. OBS. 23. The opinion given at the close of OBS. 2d above, was first published in 1833. An opposite doctrine, with the suggestion that it is " improper to say, ' the house is building,' instead of ' the house is being built,' " is found on page 61th of the Rev. David Blair's Grammar, of 1815, " Seventh Edition," with a preface dated, " October 20th, 1814." To any grammarian who wrote at a period much earlier than that, the question about unco-passives never occurred. Many critics have passed judgement upon them since, and so generally with reprobation, that the man must have more hardihood than sense, who will yet disgust his readers or hearers with them.* That " This new form has been used by some respectable ivriters," we need not deny ; but let us look at the given " instances of it: 'For these who are being educated in our seminaries.' R. SOUTHEY. ' It was being littered.' COLERIDGE. ' The foundation was being laid.' BRIT. CRITIC." English Grammar with Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Diet. p. xlvi. Here, for the first example, it would be much better to say, "For those who are educated" f or, " who are receiving their educa- tion;" for the others, " It was uttering " " toas tittered," or, "was in ^lttering." " The founda- tion was laying," "was laid" or, "was about being laid." Worcester's opinion of the "new form" is to be inferred from his manner of naming it in the following sentence : " Within a :"ew years, a strange and awkward neologism has been introduced, by which the present passive part tri- ple is substituted, in such cases as the above, for the participle in ing." Ibid. He has two instances more, in each of which the phrase is linked with an expression of disapprobation ; " 'It [TTtu/u*jo$] signifies properly, though in uncouth English, one who is being beaten.' ABP. WHATELY. ' The bridge is being built, and other phrases of the like kind, have pained the eye.' D. BOOTH." Ib,d.~^ OBS. 24. Richard Hiley, in the third edition of his Grammar, published in London, in 1840, after showing the passive use of the participle in ing, proceeds thus : " No ambiguity arises, we presume, from the use of the participle in this manner. To avoid, however, affixing a passive signification to the participle in ing, an attempt has lately been made to substitute the passive participle in its place. Thus instead of ' The house was building,' ' The work is printing,' we sometimes hear, 'The house was being built,' ' The work is being printed.' But this mode is con- trary to the English idiom, and has not yet obtained the sanction of reputable authority." Hiley's Gram. p. 30. OBS. 25. Professor Hart, of Philadelphia, whose English Grammar was first published in 1845, justly prefers the usage which takes the progressive form occasionally in a passive sense ; but, in arguing against the new substitute, he evidently remoulds the early reasoning of Dr. Bullions, errors and all ; a part of which he introduces thus : " I know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much assailed, and an attempt, to some extent successful, has * It is a very strange event in the history of English grammar, that such a controversy as this should have arisen ; but a stranger one still, that, after all that has been said, more argument is needed. Some men, who hope to be valued as scholars, yet stickle for an odd phrase, which critics have denounced as follows : " But the history of the language scarcely affords a parallel to the innovation, at once unphilosophical and hypercritical, pedantic and illiterate, which has lately appeared in the excruciating refinement ' is being,' and its unmerciful variations. We hope, and indeed believe, that it has not received the sanction of any grammar adopted in our popular educa- tion, as it certainly never will of any writer of just pretensions to scholarship." The True Sun. N. Y., April 16, 1846. t Education is a work of continuance, yet completed, like many others, as fast as it goes on. It is not, like the act of loving or hating, so complete at the first moment as not to admit the progressive form of the verb ; for one may say of a lad, " I am educating him for the law ;" and possibly. " He is educating for the law ;" though not so well as, " He -is to be educated for the law." But, fo suppose that " is educated " or " are educated " implies necessarily a cessation of the educating, is a mistake. That conception is right, only when educated is taken adjectively. The phrase, " those who are educated in oxir seminaries," hardly includes such as have been educat- ed there in times past; much less does it apply to these exclusively, as some seem to think. "Being," as inserted by Southey, is therefore quite needless : so is it often, in this new phraseology, the best correction being its mere omission. t Worcester has also this citation : " The Eclectic Review remarks, ' That a need of this phrase, or an equivalent one, is felt, is sufficiently proved by the extent to which it is used by educated persons and respectable writers.' " Gram, before Dirt. p. xlvi. Sundry phrases, equivalent in sense to this new voice, have long been in use, and are, of course, still needed ; something from among them being always, by every accurate writer, still preferred. But this awkward innovation, use it who will, can no more be justified by a plea of "eerf," than can every other hackneyed solecism extant. Even the Archbishop, if quoted right by Worcester, has descended to "uncouth English," without either necessity or propriety, having thereby only misexpounded a very common Greek word a " perfect or pluperfect " participle, which means " beaten, struck, or having been beaten." G. BROWN. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 367 been made [,] to introduce the form [,] ' is being built.' But, in the first place, the old mode of expression is a well established usage of the language, being found in our best and most correct writers. Secondly, is being built does not convey the idea intended, [ ;] namely [,] that ol progres- sive action. Is being, taken together, means simply is, just as is writing means writes ; therefore, is being built means is built, a perfect and not a progressive ACTION. Or, if being [and] built be taken 'together, they signify an ACTION COMPLETE, and the phrase means, as before, the house is (EXISTS) being built." Hart's dram. p. 76. The last three sentences here axe liable to many objections, some of which are suggested above. OBS. 26. It is important, that the central phraseology of our language he so understood, as not to be misinterpreted with credit, or falsely expounded by popular critics and teachers. Hence errors of exposition are the more particula'rly noticed in these observations. In "being built," Prof. Hart, like sundry authors named above, finds nothing but "ACTION COMPLETE." Without doubt, Butler interprets better, when he says, " ' The house is built,' denotes an existing state, rather than a. completed action." But this author, too, in his next three sentences, utters as many errors ; for he adds : "The name of the agent cannot be expressed in phrases of this kind. We cannot say, ' The house is built by John.' When we say, ' The house is built by mechanics,' we do not express an existing state." Butler's Practical Gram. p. 80. Unquestionably, "is built by mechanics," expresses nothing else than the "existing state" of being "built by mechanics," together with an affirmation: that is, the " existing state" of receiving the action of mechanics, is affirmed of " the house." And, in my judgement, one may very well say, "The house is built by John;" meaning, "John is building the house." St. Paul says, "Every house is builded by SOME MAN." Heb. iii, 4. In this text, the common " name of the agent" is "expressed." Ons. 27. Wells and Weld, whose grammars date from 1846, being remarkably chary of finding any thing wrong in " respectable writers," hazard no opinion of their own, concerning the correct- ness or incorrectness of either of the usages under discussion. They do not always see absurdity in the approbation of opposites ; yet one should here, perhaps, count them with the majorities they allow. The latter says, " The participle in ing is sometimes used passively ; as, forty and six years was this temple in building ; not in being built." Weld's English Gram. 2d Ed. p. 170. Here, if he means to suggest, that " in being built " would " not" be good English, he teaches very erroneously ; if his thought is, that this phrase would " not" express the sense of the former one, 'in building," he palpably contradicts his own position ! But he proceeds, in a note, thus : " The form of expression, is being built, is being committed, &c., is almost universally condemned by grammarians ; but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers. It occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs, and in hasty compositions." Ibid. Wells comments thus: "Different opinions have long existed among critics respecting this passive use of the imperfect participle. Many respectable writers substitute the compound passive participle; as, ' The house is being built ; ' ' The book is being printed.' But the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form; as, 'The house is building.' "Wells' s School Gram. 1st Ed. p. 148; 113th Ed. p. 161.* OBS. 28. S. W. Clark, in the second edition of his Practical Grammar, stereotyped and pub- lished in New York in 1848, appears to favour the insertion of "being " into passive verbs ; but his instructions are so obscure, so often inaccurate, and so incompatible one with an other, that it is hard to say, with certainty, what he approves. In one place, he has this position : " The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by adding the Passive Participle of that verb, to the verbie. EXAMPLES To be loved. I am feared. They are worshipped." Page 69. In an other, he has this : " When the Subject is to be represented as receiving the action, the Passive Participle should be used. EXAMPLE Henry's lesson is BEING JIECITED." P. 132. Now these two positions utterly con- found each other ; for they are equally general, and " the Passive Participle " is first one thing, and then an other. Again, he has the following assertions, both false : " The Present (or First) Participle always ends in ing, and is limited to the Active Voice. The Past (or Second) Participle of Regular Verbs ends in rf or ed, and is limited to the Passive Voice." P. 131. Afterwards, in spite of the fancied limitation, he acknowledges the passive use of the participle in ing, and that there is "authority " for it ; but, at the same time, most absurdly supposes the word to predicate "action" and also to be wrong : saying, "Action is sometimes predicated of a passive subject. EXAMPLE ' The house is building '. . for . . ' The house is being built,' . .which means . . " The house is becoming built." On this, he remarks thus : " This is one of the instances in which Authority is against Philosophy. For an act cannot properly be predicated of a passive agent. Many good writers properly ri-jirt this idiom. ' Mansfield's prophecy is being realized.' MICHELET'S LUTHER." Clark's Practical Gram. p. 133. It may require some study to learn from this which idiom it is, * Wells has also the following citations, which most probably accord with his own opinions, though the first Is rather extravagant : ' The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by almost all our gramma- rians ; though I believ-i but few of th<>m hare written many pages without condescending to make use of them. Dr. llc.utk- >.-iys, ' One of the greatest defects of the English tongue, with regard to the verb, seems to be the want of an imperfect passive participle.' And yrt lie u--p* tlie imperfect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers." '/'ic/Houm's Dissertation on the English Verb. ral other rxj>r -MOMS <>t" this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism, ' is being done,' for the good old English idiomatic expression, 'is doing 'an absurd periphrasis, driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language. 1 ' AT. A. Rtview. See WelWs Grammar, I860, p. 161. The term, " imrrrfect passive te*f.<," .-coins not a very accurate one ; because the present, the perfect, &c., are included Pickboum applies it to any passive tenses formed from the simple " imperfect participle ;" but the phrise, "jussive verbs in the progrrMitr form,'- would better express the meaning. The term, " compound pas- $iv( participle." which Wells applies above to k> being built," kl being printed, 1 - and the like, is also both unusual and inaccurate. Most readers would sooner understand by it the form, having bftn built, having been printer!, &c. Thlt author's mode of naming parti( Spies is always either very awkward or not distinctive. His scheme makes it nec!8sary to add here, for each of these forms, a third epithet, referring to his main distinction, of " imperfect and 11 as, " the compound imperftct participle passive," and " the compound perfect participle passive." \Vh it is <-bfint; built" or u being printed,' 1 but " an imperfect passive participle ? " Waa this, or something else, the desideratum of Beattie? 368 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART LI. that these " many good writers reject :" but the grammarian who can talk of " a passive agent" without perceiving that the phrase is self-contradictory and absurd, may well be expected to enter- tain a " Philosophy " which is against "Authority,"and likewise to prefer a ridiculous innovation to good and established usage. OBS. 29. As most verbs are susceptible of both forms, the simple active and the compound or progressive, and likewise of a transitive and an intransitive sense in each ; and as many, when taken intransitively, may have a meaning which is scarcely distinguishable from that of the passive form ; it often happens that this substitution of the imperfect participle passive for the simple imperfect in ing, is quite needless, even when the latter is not considered passive. For example : " Sec by the following paragraph, how widely the bane is being circulated I " Liberator, No. 999, p. 34. Here is circulating would be better ; and so would is circulated. Nor would either of these much vary the sense, if at all ; for "circulate " may mean, according to Webster," to be diffused," or, as John- son and Worcester have it, " to be dispersed." III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes : thus from the active-transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved. FIFTH EXAMPLE. The regular passive verb BE L VED } conjugated affirmatively. PRINCIPAL PARTS or THE ACTIVE VERB. Present. Love. Singular. 1. I am loved, 2. Thou art loved, 3. He is loved; Singular. 1. I was loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 3. He was loved ; Singular. 1. I have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 3. He has been loved ; Preterit. Imp. Participle. Loved. Loving. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To be loved. PERFECT TENSE. To have been loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Perf. Participle. Loved. Singular. 1. I had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 3. He had been loved ; IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 3. He will beloved; FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Pural. 1. We are loved, 2. You are loved, 3. They are loved. Pural. 1. We were loved, 2. You were loved, 3. They were loved. Pural. 1. We have been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. They have been loved. Plural 1. We had been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. They had been loved. Plural. 1. We shall be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. They will be loved. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. lififl SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved. Singular. 1. I may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 3. He may be loved ; POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 3. He might be loved ; PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 3. He may have been loved ; PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 3. He might have been loved ; Plural 1. We may be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. They may be loved. Plural. 1. We might be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. They might be loved. Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved. Plural 1. We might have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. They might have been loved. Singular. If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved ; SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1 . If I were loved, 2. If thou were loved, 3. If he were loved ; IMPERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. If we be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If they be loved. Plural * 1. If we were loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If they were loved. Singular. Plurnl. 2. IMPERATIVE MOOD. IY.NSE. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved ; 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imperfect. '2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. I WITH ' T XOTE. In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more rly formed thus : IND. Thou art loved, Thou was loved, Thou hast been loved, Thou had been loved, Thou shall or v> ill be loved, Thou shall or will have been loved. Pox. Thou may, can, or must be loved ; Thou might, could, would, or should be loved ; Thou may, can, or must have been loved; Thou might, could, would, or should have been loved. Hriij. If thou be loved, If thou were loved, l.v v. lie [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. OBSERVATIONS. Oita. 1. A few active-intransitive verbs, that signify mere motion, change of place, or of condition, may be put into this form, mth a neuter signification ; making riot passire but neuter 24 370 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. verbs, which express nothing more than the state which results from the change: as, "lam come." " She is gone." " He is risen." "They are fallen." These are what Dr. Johnson aiid some others call " neuter passives ; " a name which never was very proper, and for which we have no frequent use. OBS. 2. Most neuter verbs of the passive form, such as, " am grown, art become, is lain, are flown, are vanished, are departed, was sat, were arrived," may now be considered errors of con- jugation, or perhaps of syntax. In the verb, to be mistaken, there is an irregularity which ought to be particularly noticed. When applied to persons, this verb is commonly taken in a neuter sense, and signifies, to be in error \ to be icrony ; as, " I am mistaken, thou art mistaken, he is mistaken." But, when used of things, it is a proper passive verb, and signifies to be misunder- stood, or to be taken wrong ; as, " The sense of the passage is mistaken; that is, not rightly un- derstood." See Webster's Diet, w. Mistaken. " I have known a shadow across a brook to be mis- taken for a footbridge." OBS. 3. Passive verbs may be easily distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument, common to the former class, but not to the latter. This frequently is, and always may be, expressed after passive verbs ; but never is, and never can be, expressed after neuter verbs : as, " The thief has been caught by the officer." " Pens are made with a knife." Here the verbs are passive; but, "I am not yet ascended," (John, xx, 17,) is not passive, because it does not convey the idea of being ascended by some one's agency. OBS. 4. Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequently employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense ; but, with a very few exceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference to be, whenever the verb formed with the perfect par- ticiple is not passive; as, "They have arrived," not, "They are arrived." Hence such ex- amples as the following, are not now good English : " All these reasons are now ceased." But- ler's Analogy, p. 157. Say, " have now ceased!" " Whether he were not got beyond the reach of his faculties." Ib. p. 158. Say, "had not got." " Which is now grown wholly obsolete." Churchill's Gram. p. 330. Say, " has now grown." "And when he ivas entered into a ship." Bible. Say, " had entered." " What is become of decency and virtue ? " Murray's Key, p. 196. Say, " has become." OBS. 5. Dr. Priestley says, " It seems not to havebcen determined by the English grammarians, whether the passive participles of verbs neuter require the auxiliary am or have before them. The French, in this case, confine themselves strictly to the former. ' What has become of nation- al liberty? ' Hume's History, Vol. 6. p. 254. The French would say, what is become; and, in this instance, perhaps, with more propriety." Priestley's Gram. p. 128. It is no marvel t'lat those writers who have not rightly made up their minds upon this point of English grammar, should consequently fall into many mistakes. The perfect participle of a neuter verb is not " passive," as the doctor seems to suppose it to be ; and the mode of conjugation which he here inclines to prefer, is a mere Gallicism, which is fast wearing out from our language, and is e^en now but little countenanced by good writers. OBS. 6. There are a few verbs of the passive form which seem to imply that a person's own mind is the agent that actuates him ; as, " The editor is rejoiced to think," &c. Juvenile Ktep- sake. " I am resolved what to do." Luke, xvi, 4. " He was resolved on going to the city to re- side." Comly's Gram. p. 114. " Jam^s teas resolved not to indulge himself." Murray's Key, ii, 220. " He is inclined to go." " He is determined to go." " He is bent on going." These are properly passive verbs, notwithstanding there are active forms which are nearly equivalent to most of them ; as, " The editor rejoices to think." " I know what to do." " He had resolved on going." " James resolved not to indulge himself." So in the phrase, " I am ashamed to beg," we seem to have a passive verb of this sort; but, the verb to ashame being now obsolete, ashamed is commonly reckoned an adjective. Yet we cannot put it before a noun, after the ut ual manner of adjectives. To be indebted, is an other expression of the same kind. In the following example, " am remember'd " is used for do remember, and, in my opinion, inaccurately : " He said mine eyes were black, and my hair black ; And, now I am remember'd, scorn'd at me." Shakspeare. IV. FORM OF NEGATION. A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive and participles take the negative first : as, Not to love, Not to have loved ; Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. IND. I love not, or I do not love ; I loved not, or I did not love ; I have not loved ; I had not loved ; I shall not, or will not, love ; I shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. I may, can, or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must not have loved; I might, could, would, or should not have loved. SUBJ. If I love not, If I loved not. SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. SOLEMN STYLE : IND. Thou lovest not, or Thou dost not love ; Thou lovedst not, or Thou didst not love ; Thou hast not loved ; Thou hadst not loved ; Thou shalt not, or wilt not, love ; Thou shalt not, or wilt not, have loved. POT. Thou mayst, canst, or must not love ; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst not love ; Thou CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 371 inayst, canst, or must not have loved ; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst not have loved. SCBJ. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, or Do thou not love. FAMILIAR STYLE : IND. Thou lov'st not, or Thou dost not love ; Thou loved not, or Thou did not love ; Thou hast not loved ; Thou had not loved ; Thou shall not, or will not, love; Thou shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. Thou may, can, or must not love ; Thou might, could, would, or should not love ; Thou may, can, or must not have loved ; Thou might, could, would, or should not have loved. Sn;j. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, or Do [thou] not love. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR. IND. He loves not, or He does not love ; He loved not, or He did not love ; He has not loved ; lie had not loved; He shall not, or will not, love ; He shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. He may, can, or must not love ; He might, could, would, or should not love ; He may, can, or must not have loved ; He might, could, would, or should not have loved. SUBJ. If he love not, If he loved not. V. FORM OF QUESTION. A verb is conjugated interrogatively ', in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary : as, FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. IND. Love I ? or Do I love ? Loved I ? or Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved? Shall I love? Shall I have loved? POT. May, can, or must Hove? Might, could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must I have loved? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ? SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. SOLEMN STYLE : IND. Lovest thou ? or Dost thou love ? Lovcdst thou ? or Didst thou love Y Hast thou loved ? Hadst thou loved ? Wilt thou love ? Wilt thou have loved? TOT. Mayst, canst, or must thou love? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou love '.' Mayst, canst, or must thou have loved ? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou have loved? FAMIUUI STYLE: IND. Lov'st thou? or Dost thou love? Loved thou? or Did thou love '.' Hast thou loved ? Had thou loved ? Will thou love ? Will thou havo loved ? POT. May, can, or must thou love ? Might, could, would, or should thou love ? May, can, or must thou have loved ? Might, could, would, or should thou have loved ? TUMID PERSON SINGULAR. I ND. Loves he? or Does he love? Loved he? or Did he love? Has he loved? lad J3e loved ? Shall or will he love ? Will he have loved ? POT. May, can, or must he love? Mi^lit, could, would, or should he love? May, can, or must he have loved? Mitrht, could, would, or should he have loved? VI. FORM IION WITH NEGATION. A verb is conjugated interrogatwdy and negatively, in the indicative and ]X)tential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary : as, T I.URAL. IND. Love we not? or Do we not love? Loved we not? or Did we not love? Have we not lov.-d V Hud we not lov 1 we not love? Shall wo not have loved V POT. May, can, or must we not -love Y Mi^ht, c'.uld, would, or should we not love? May. can, or must we not have loved? Might, could, would, or should we not have loved Y SECOND PERSON Pn IND. See ye not ? or Do you not see ? Saw ye not ? or Did you not see ? Have vou not seen ? Had you not seen ? Will you not sec ? Will you not have seen ? 372 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. POT. May, can, or must you not see? Might, could, would, or should you not see? May, can, or must you not have seen? Might, could, would, or should you not have seen? THIRD PERSON PLURAL. IND. Are they not loved ? Were they not loved ? Have they not been loved? Had they not been loved ? Shall or will they not be loved ? Will they not have been loved ? May, can, or must they not be loved ? Might, could, would, or should they not be loved? May, can, or must they not have been loved? Might, could, would, or should they not have been loved ? OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. In a familiar question or negation, the compound or auxiliary form of the verb is, in general, preferable to the simple : as, " No man lives to purpose, who does not live for posterity." Dr. Wayland. It is indeed so much more common, as to seem the only proper mode of ex- pression : as, ''Do I say these things as a man ? " "Do you think that we excuse ourselves ? " "Do you not know that a little leaven leavens the whole lump ? " "Dost thou revile ? " &c. But ' Know ye whole lump?" 1 Cor.v, 6. " Revilest thou God's high priest?" Acts. "King Agrippa, be- lievest thou the prophets ? " Ib. " Understandest thou what thou readest ? " Ib. " Of whom speaketh the prophet this ? " Id. " And the man of God said, Where fell it ? " 2 Kings, vi, G. "What ! heardyenot of lowland war ? "Sir W. Scott, L. L. " Seems he not, Malise, like a ghost ? " Id. L. of Lake. "Where thinkst thou he is now ? Stands he, or sits he? Or does he walk? or is he on his horse ? " Shak. Ant. and Chop. OBS. 2. In interrogative sentences, the auxiliaries shall and will are not always capable of being applied to the different persons agreeably to their use in simple declarations :"thus, "Will I go ?" is a question which there never can be any occasion to ask in its literal sense ; because none knows better than I, what my will or wish is. But "Shall I go ? " may properly be asked ; because shall here refers to duty, and asks to know what is agreeable to the will of an oth( r. In questions, the first person generally requires shall; the second, will; the third admits ~>f both : but, in the second-future, the third, used interrogatively, seems to require will only. Yet, in that figurative kind of interrogation which is sometimes used to declare a negative, there m; y be occasional exceptions to these principles; as, "Will I eat the flesh of bulls, or drink tic- blood of goats ? " Psalms, 1, 13. That is, I to ill not eat, &c. OBS. 3. Cannot is not properly one word, but two: in parsing, the adverb must be taken separately, and the auxiliary be explained with its principal. When power is denied, can and not are now generally united perhaps in order to prevent ambiguity; as, "I cannot go." Bi;t when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, the words are written separately ; as, " The Christian apologist can not merely expose the utter baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in its place." D,'. Chalmers. The junction of these terms, however, is not of much importance to the sense ; ami, as it is plainly contrary to analogy, some writers, (as Dr. Webster, in his late or "improved " works; Dr. Bullions, in his; Prof. W. C. Fowler, in his new "English Grammar," 8vo ; J. R. Chandler, W. S. Cardell, 0. B. Peirce, )always separate them. And, indeed, why should we write, " I cannot go, Thou canst not go, He cannot go ? " Apart from the custom, we have just as good reason to join not to camt as to can; and sometimes its union with the latter is a gros^ error : as, " He cannot only make a way to escape, but with the injunction to duty can infuse the power to perform." Maturings Sermons, p. 287. The fear of ambiguity never prevents us from disjoining can and not whenever we wish to put a word between them: as, "Though the waves thereof toss themselves, yet can they not prevail ; though they roar, yet can they not pass over it." Jeremiah, v, 22. " Which then I can resist not." Byron's Manfred, p. 1. " Can I not mountain maiden spy, But she must boar the Douglas eye? " Scott. OBS. 4. In negative questions, the adverb not is sometimes placed before the nominative, and sometimes after it: as, " Told not I thee I" Numb, xxiii, 26. " Spake I not also to thy mes- sengers ? " Ib. xxiv, 12. " Cannot I do with you as this potter ? "Jer. xviii, 6. " Art not thou a seer ? "_2 Sam. xv, 27. " Did not Israel know ? "Rom. x, 19. " Have they not heard ? "fb. 18. "Do not they 'blaspheme that worthy name?" James, ii, 7. This adverb, like every Other, should be placed where it will sound most agreeably, and best suit the sense. Dr. Priestley im- May Priestley's Gram. p. 177. . 5. In grave discourse, or in oratory, the adverb not is spoken as distinctly as othrr Mayn't, can't, or mustn't they have done it ? Mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, or shouldn't they have done it ? CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. IRREGULAR VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 373 CDS. 6. Well-educated people commonly utter their words with more distinctness and fullness than the vulgar, yet without adopting ordinarily the long-drawn syllables of poets and orators or the solemn phraseology of preachers and prophets. Whatever may be thought of the gram- matical propriety of such contractions as the foregoing, no one who has ever observed how tho English language is usually spoken, will doubt their commonness, or their antiquity. And it may be ol>sr:\i;l, that, in the u>t- it' these forms, the distinction of persons and numbers in the verb, is almost, if not entirely, dropped. Thus d'^n't is used for dost not or docs not, as properly as for do not ; and, " Thou can'f do it, or shan't do it," is as good English as, "He can't do it, or than'tdn it." Will, according to Webster, was anciently written icoll : hence won't acquired the o, which is long in Walker's orthoepy. Hurcn't, which cannot be used for /MS not or hast not, is still further contracted by the vulgar, and spoken ha'nt, which serves for all three. These forms are sometimes found in books ; as, " WONT, a contraction of woll not, that is, will not." Webster's Diet. " II A.'XT, a contraction of have not or has not." Id. "WoNT, (w6nt or wunt,) A contraction of tcould not: used for will not." Worcester's Diet. "HAN'T, (hant or hant,) A vulgar contraction for has not, or have not." Id. In the writing of such contractions, the apostrophe is not always used; though some think it necessary for distinction's sake: as, "Which is equivalent, because what can't be done won't be done." Johnson's Gram. Cobi. p. 312. IRREGULAR VERBS. An irregular verb is a verb that docs not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming dor ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen. Of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten, beside their several derivatives and compounds. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles, by adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations ; the final consonant of the verb being sometimes doubled, (as in dropped,} and final y sometimes changed to i, (as in cried,} agreeably to the rules for spelling in such cases. The verb hear, heard, hearing, heard, adds.d to r and is there- fore irregular. Heard is pronounced herd by all our lexicographers, except Webster : who formerly wrote it hccrd, and still pronounces it so ; alleging, in despite of universal usage against him, that it is written "more correctly heared." Octavo Diet., 1829. Such pro- nunciation would doubtless require this last orthography, "heared;" but both are, in fact, about as fanciful as his former mode of spelling, which ran thus : "Az I had heerd suggest- ed by fronds or indifferent recders." Dr. Webster's Essays, Preface, p. 10. Oits. 2. AVhcn a verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes improperly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect participle irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound ; as, distrest for distressed, tost for tossed, mixt for mixed, crackt for cracked. These contractions are now generally treated as errors in writing ; and the verbs are accordingly ( with a few exceptions) accounted regular. Lord Kames commends Dean Swift for having done all in his power to restore the syllable ed; " says, he " possessed, if any man ever did, the true genius of the English tongue ;" and thinks that in rejecting these ugly con- tractions, he well deserves to be imitated." Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 12. The regular orthography is indeed to be preferred in all such cases; but the writing of cd restores no F yllable, except in solemn discourse ; and, after all, the poems of Swift have so very many <-l these irregular contractions in t, that one can hardly believe his lordship had ever read thorn. Sin. (> the days of these critics still more has been done towards the restoration of ', in orthography, though not in sound ; but, even at this present time, our poets not imirequently write, c st for esscd or ess'd, in forming the preterits or participles of verbs that end in tl i- v. liable ess. This is an ill practice, which needlessly multiplies our redundant -, and greatly embarrasses what it seems at first to simplify : as, lend ! I know not which way I must look For comfort, being, as I am, opprcst, To think that now our life is only drest For show." Wordsworth's Poetical Works, 8vo, p. 119. . 3. When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution of t for ed pro- duces an irregularity in sound, as well as in A\ riting. In some such irregularities, the poets arc indulged for the sake of rhyme ; but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the reg- ular form, wherever good use has sanctioned it : thus learned is better than learnt ; burned, -han burnt ; penned, than pent ; absorbnl, than absorbt ; spelled, than spelt ; smelted, than smelt. So many of this sort of words as are allowably contracted, belong to the class of redundant verbs, ;uaor..c vhi-.-h they may be seen in a subsequent table. . 4. Several of the irregular verbs arc variously UM>dby the best authors; rcdundan > arc occasionally given to some verbs, without sufficient authority ; and many preterits and p.-'rtii -i^k's wlm-h were formerly in good use, are now obsolete, or becoming so. The rimplc irregular verbs in English are about one hundred and ten, and they are nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, in which language they arc also, for the most part, irregular. OBS. 5 The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, as they are 374 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART n. now generally used. In this list, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all compounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that follow their primitives, are here purposely omitted. Welcome and behave are always regular, and therefore belong not here. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that the learner might not mistake them for words in present use. Some of those which are placed last, are now little used. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle Arise, arose, arising, arisen. Be, was, being, been. Bear, bore or bare, bearing, borne or born.* Beat, beat, beating, beaten or beat. Begin, began or begun, f beginning, begun. Behold, beheld, beholding, beheld. Beset, beset, besetting, beset. Bestead, bestead, besteading, bestead. \ Bid, bid or bade, bidding, bidden or bid. Bind, bound, binding, bound. Bite, bit, biting, bitten or bit. Bleed, bled, bleeding, bled. Break, broke, breaking, broken. Breed, bred, breeding, bred. Bring, Buy, brought, bought, bringing, buying, brought, bought. Cast, cast, casting, cast. Chide, chid, chiding, chidden or chid. Choose, chose, choosing, chosen. Cleave, || cleft or clove, cleaving, cleft or cloven. Cling, clung, clinging, clung. Come, came, coming, come. Cost, cost, costing, cost. Cut, cut, cutting, cut. Do, did, doing, done. Draw, drew, drawing, drawn. Drink, drank, drinking, drunk, or drank. ' Drive, drove, driving, driven. *Borne usually signifies carrifd ; born signifies brought forth. J. E. Worcester, the lexicographer, speaks of these two participles thus : " O^ The participle born is used in the passive form, and borne in the active form, [with reference to birth] ^ as, lie was born bli:id.' John ix. ; ' The barren hath' borne seven,' 1 Sam. ii. This distinction between born and borne., though not recognized by grammarians, is in accordance with common usage, at least in this country In many editions of the Bible it is recognized; and in many it is nofc It seems to have been more commonly recognized in American, than in Knglish, editions.-' Worcester's Universal and Critical Dirt. iv. Bear. In five, out of seven good American editions of the Bible among my books, the latter text is, " The barren hath born seven ;" in two, it is as above, " hath borne.''' In Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, the per- fect participle of bear is given erroneously, " bore, or born;" and that of forbear, which should be forborne, is found, both in his columns and in his preface, li forborn." f According to Murray, Lennie, Bullions, and some others, to use begun for began or run for ran, is improper ; but Webster gives run as well as ran for the preterit, and begun may be used in like manner, on the authority of Dryden, Pope, and Parnell. $ " And they shall pass through it, hardly bestead, and hungry." Isaiah, viii, 21. $ "Brake [for the preterit of Biealc] seems now obsolescent." Dr. Crornbie, Etymo'. and Syntax, p. 193. Some recent grammarians, however, retain it; among whom are Bullions and M'Culloch. Wells retains it, but marks it as, " Obsolete ; " as he does also the preterits hare, clave, (have, gat, slang, spoke, span, spat, swarf, tare, writ; and the participles hoven. loaden, rid from ride, spitttn. stricken, and writ. In this he is not altogether consistent. Forms really obsolete belong not to any modern list of irregular verbs ; and even such as are arch.iie and obsoles- cent, it is sometimes better to omit. If " leaden,*' for example, is now out of use, why should ' loud, unload, and overload," be placed, as they are by this author, among u irregular verbs ;" while freight and distract, in spite of fraught and dist> aught, are reckoned regular? "Rid," for rode or ridden, though, admitted by Worcester, appears to me a low vulgarism. || Chaw-, to split, is most commonly, if not always, irregular, as above ; cleave, to stick, or adhere, is regular, but clave was formerly used in the preterit : as, " The men of Judah clave unto their king." Sam ml.. IT Respecting the preterit and the perfect participle of this vrb, drink, our grammarian* are gre.-itly at variance. Dr. Johnson f-ays, " proter. drank or drunk ; part. p;is.s. drunk or drunken." Dr. Webster : u pret. and pp. drank. Old pret. and pp. drunk; pp. drunken." Lowth : ' pret. d'ank ; part, drunk or drunken." So Staniford, Webber, and others. Murray has it : " Imperf. drank. IVi f. Part, drunk." So Comly, Lennie, Bullions Blair, Butler, Frost, Felton, Goldsbury, and many others. Churchill cites the text, "Serve me till I have eaten and drunken ;" and observes, "Drunken is now used only as an adjective. The impropriety of using the preterimperfect ['frank] for the participle of this verb is very common. 1 ' Ne w Gram. p. 261. Sanborn gives both forms for the participle, CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 375 Present. Kat. Fall, Feed, Feel, Fight, Find, Flee, Fling, Fly, Forbear, Forsake, Get, Give, Go, Grow, Have, Hear, Hide, Hit, Hold, Hurt, Keep, Know, Lead, Leave, Lend, Let, Lie, Lose, Make, Meet, Outdo, Put, Read, Rend, Bid, Ride, Ring, Boa, Preterit. ate or eat, fell, fed, felt, fought, found, fled, flung, flew, forbore, forsook, g ot gave, went, grew, had, heard, hid, hit, held, hurt, kcpt,t knew, led, left, lent, let, lay, lost, made, met, outdid, put, read, rent, rid, rode, rung or rang, rose, ran or run, Imperfect Participle. eating, falling, feeding, feeling, fighting, finding, fleeing, flinging, flying, forbearing, forsaking, getting, giving, growing, having, hearing, hiding, hitting, holding, hurting, keeping, knowing, leading, leaving, lending, letting, lyi"g. losing, making, meeting, outdoing, putting, reading, rending, ridding, riding, ringing, rising, running, Perfect Participle. eaten or eat. fallen, fed. felt, fought, found, fled, flung, flown, forborne, forsaken, got or gotten, given, gone, grown, had. heard. hidden or hid. hit, held.* hurt.f kept, known, led. left, lent, let. lain, lost, made, met. outdone, put. read, rent. || rid. ridden or rode, rung, risen, run. preferring drank to (trunk. Kirkham prefers drunk to drank ; but contndicts himself in a note, by unconsciously mikin_' The men were drunk; i.e. inebriated. The toasts were drank.' 1 ' 1 Gram, p, 149. '/nnk. drunk, drunk ; r but in his story of Jaek Halyard, on page 69, he wrote, Kowle's True Kiulisli (iraumiar, is not incorrect. The preponderance of authority is \ei in t'.ivmirof saying, " had drunk ; but drank seems to be a word of greater delicacy, and perhap* it i Hullirj. i - may be quoted for it, and some that were popular in the day* of Johnson. "In tl and drank." Btatlit's Moral Science, Vol. i, p. 51. "Which I had no sooner tl,unk." l AdJi- brother's blood the I i hath rfranfc, >'eely point of Clifford's lance." Shakxpeare. * * HoLIrn i* not in eeneral use : and is rhi.-tly employe 1 li r tl.^ II oderick Random. Vol. I, p. 8. .p. 19. Lu, to be at n->' as above ; but lif. to utter falsehood, is regular, as follows : lit, lied, lying, litd. Ill"Ulit:iill % f:ui.le, -ntt'x Lady of the Lak'. Perhaps there H auth"ri:\ -rf!ii-i. nt t<> place the verb n <-h are redundant. " U'hele'er its cli.Uly Veil was r- MI. . if thiv : thy rhiiin to earth is rmdrd ; :he- t" efrri.ity ; prepare ! thy cmir.-e is elided. M Tht Amultt. 'Sir H'. Srolt. " The hunger pangs her sons which rttnttU." NEW QOABTERLY KEVIEW : Examiner, No. 11D. 376 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART n. Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. Say, said, saying, said.* See, saw, seeing, seen. Seek, sought, seeking, sought. Sell, sold, selling, sold. Send, sent, sending, sent. Set, set, setting, set. Shed, shed, shedding, shed. Shoe, shod, shoeing, shod.f Shoot, shot, shooting, shot. Shut, shut, shutting, shut. Shred, shred, shredding, shred. Shrink, shrunk or shrank, shrinking, shrunk. Sing, sung or sang,J singing, sung. Sink, sunk or sank, sinking, sunk. Sit, sat, sitting, sat. Slay, slew, slaying, slain. Sling, slung, slinging, slung. Slink, slunk or slank, slinking, slunk. Smite, smote, smiting, smitten or srnit. Speak, spoke, speaking, spoken. Spend, spent, spending, spent. Spin, spun, spinning, spun. Spit, spit or spat, spitting, spit or spitten. Spread, spread, spreading, spread. Spring, sprung or sprang, springing, sprung. Stand, stood, standing, stood. Steal, stole, stealing, stolen. Stick, stuck, sticking, stuck. v Sting, stung, stinging, stung. Stink, stunk or stank, stinking, stunk. Stride, strode or strid, striding, stridden or strid. |j Strike, struck, striking, struck or stricken. Swear, swore, swearing, sworn. Swim, swum or swam, swimming, swum. Swing, swung or swang, swinging, swung. Take, took, taking, taken. * We find now and then an instance in which gainsay is made regular : as, " It can neither be rivalled nor %ainsayed." Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterian*, p. 36. Perhaps it would be as well to follow Webster here, in writing rivaled with one I ; and the analogy of the simple verb say, in forming this compound irregularly, gainsaid. Usage warrants the latter, however, better than the former. t " Shoe, shoed or shod, shoeing, sfioed or shod." Old Gram, by W. Ward, p. 64 ; and Fowlers True English Gram, p. 46. * "A Murray has rejected sung as the Preterit, and L. Murray has rejected sang. Each Preterit, however, rests on good authority. The same observation may be made, respecting sank and sunk. Respecting the preterits which have a or u, as filing, or slung, sank, or sunk, it would be better were the former only to be used, as the Preterite and Participle would thus be discriminated." Dr. Crombie, on Etymology and Syntax, p. 199. The preterits which this critic thus prefers, are rang, sang, slang, sprang, swung, sank, shrank, slank, stank, steam, and span for tpun. In respect to them all. I think he makes an ill choice. According to his own showing, fling, string, and sting, always make the preterit and the participle alike ; and this is the obvious tendency of the language, in all these words. I reject slang and span, as derivatives from sling and spin ; because, in such a sense, they are obso- lete, and the words have other uses. Lindley Murray, in Ids early editions, rejected sang-, sank, slang, swang, shrank, slank, stank, and span ; and, at the same time, preferred rang, sprang, and swam, to rung, sprung, and swum. In his later copies, he gave the preference to the u, in all these words ; but restored sang and sank, which Crombie names above, still omitting the other six, which did not happen to be mentioned to him. Sate for the preterit of sit, and sitten for the perfect participle, are, in my opinion, obsolete, or no longer in good use. Yet several recent grammarians prefer sitten to sat ; among whom are Crombie, Lennie, Bullions, and M'Culloch. Dr. Crombie says, " Sitten, though formerly in use, is now obsolescent. Laudable attempts, however, have been made to restore it." On Etymol. and Syntax, p. 199. Lennie says. " Many authors, both here and in America, use sate as the Past time of sit ; but this is improper, for it is apt to be confounded with sate to glut. Sitten and spitten are preferable [to sat and spit,] though obsolescent." Principles of E. Gram. p. 45. Bullion* ays, "Sit M'Culloch _ Manual of E. Gram. p. 65. | " He will find the political hobby which he has bestrided no child's nag." The Vanguard, a Newspaper. " Through the pressed nostril, spectacle-fcesm'rf." Cowpei. " A lank haired hunter strided."WJiittier' l 3 Sabbath Scene. "Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete, though preferable to sat and spit."' 1 Principles of E. Gram. p. 64. loch gives these verbs in the following form : " Sit, sat, sitten or sat. Spit, spit or spat, spit or spitten." CliAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. EEDDNDANT VERliS. OBSERVATIONS. 377 Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. Teach, taught, teaching, taught. Tear, tore, tearing, torn. Tell, told, telling, told. Think, thought, thinking, thought. Thrust, thrust, thrusting, thrust. Tread, trod, treading, trodden or trod. Wear, wore, wearing, worn. Win. \von, winning, won. Write, wrote, writing, written.* REDUNDANT VERBS. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular ; as, Thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and compounds. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Those irregular verbs which have more than one form for the preterit or for the perfect participle, are in some sense redundant; but, as there is no occasion to make a distinct class of such as have double forms that are never regular, these redundancies are either included in the preceding list of the simple irregular verbs, or omitted as being improper to be now recognized for good English. Several examples of the latter kind, including both innovations and archaisms, will appear among the improprieties for correc- tion, at the end of this chapter. A few old preterits or participles may perhaps be ac- counted good English in the solemn style, which are not so in the familiar : as, "And none spate a word unto him." Job, ii, 13. "When I brake the five loaves." Mark, viii, 19. "And he drave them from the judgement-seat." Acts, xviii, 16. " Serve me till I have eaten and drunken." Luke, xvii, 8. "It was not possible that he should be holdcn of it." Acts, ii, 21. "Thou castedst them down into destruction." Psal. Ixxiii, 18. "Behold, 1 was shapcn in iniquity." Ib. Ii, 5. "A meat-offering baken in the oven." Leviticus, ii, 4. k" With castcd slough, and fresh celerity." SHAK. Henry V. " Thy dreadful vow, louden with death." AUDISON : in Joh. Diet. BS. 2. The verb bet is given in Worcester's Dictionary as being always regular : "BET, [i. BETTED ; pp. KKTTIXG, BETTED.] To wager ; to lay a wager or bet. SHAK." Octavo . In Ainsworth's Grammar, it is given as being always irregular : "Present, Bet ; /m- i-'jtct, Bet; J'urd'cijilc, Bet." Page 36. On the authority of these, and of some others cited in Oi;>. '"-i. The verbs bless and dress are to be considered redundant, according to the authority of Worcester, Webster, Bolles, and others. Cobbett will have the verbs, cast, chide, cling, draw, yroir, shred, sli/iy, slink, spring, sting, stride, swim, suing, and thrust, to be always regular ; but I find no sufficient authority for allowing to any of them a regular form ; and therefore leave them, where they always have been, in the list of simple irreg- ulars. These fourteen verbs are a part of the long list of went;/ which this author says, " arc, by some persons, erroneously deemed irregular." Of the following ten only, is his lion true ; namely, dip, help, leap, load, ovcrjloir, slip, snow, stamp, strip, whip. These 1c formed regularly ; for all their irregularities may well be reckoned obsolete. Alter these deductions from this most erroneous catalogue, there remain forty- tour other v- iv common verbs, to be disposed of contrary to this author's instructions. .Ml but two o; hall place in the list of redundant verbs; though for the use of nd no written authority but his and William Ii. Fowle's. The two which I do not consider redundant are spit and stn-ic, of which it may be proper to take more particu- lar notice. Oits. 3. NpJ70." Barclay's Works, Vol. i. p. 77. IN- who, Miprcnie hi judgement, as in vi ( , Lolilly rtT.surc. a- ,t."Popf, Ess. on Crit. Dr. Crombie remark*!, nioic than thirty years ago. that, * Wrote as the Participle [of Write,] is generally dis- nied, and likewise u-rit." Treatise on Etym. and Synt. p. 202. 378 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. heap of emmets." Dryden. Spit, to throw out saliva, is irregular, and most properly formed thus : spit, spit, spitting, spit. "Spat is obsolete." Webster's Diet. It is used in the Bible ; as, " He spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle." John, ix, 6. L. Murray gives this verb thus : " Pres. Spit; Imp. spit, spat : Perf. Part, spit, spitten." NOTE : "Spit- ten is nearly obsolete." Octavo Gram. p. 106. Sanborn has it thus : " Pres. Spit ; Imp. spit ; Pres. Part, spitting ; Perf. Part, spit, spat." Analytical Gram. p. 48. Cobbett, at first, taking it in the form, " to spit, I spat, spitten," placed it among the severity which he so erroneously thought should be made regular ; afterwards he left it only in his list of irreg- ulars, thus: "to spit, I spit, spitten." Cobbett's E. Gram, of 1832, p. 54. Churchill, in 1823, preferring the older forms, gave it thus : " Spit, spat or spit, spitten or spit." New Gram. p. 111. NOTE : " Johnson gives spat as the preterimperfect, and spit or spitted as the participle of this verb, when it means to pierce through with a pointed instrument : but in this sense, I believe, it is always regular ; while, on the other hand, the regular form is now never used, when it signifies to eject from the mouth ; though we tiud in Luke, xviii, 32, He shall be spitted on.' " Churchill's New Gram. p. 264. This text ought to have been, " He shall be spit upon." OBS. 4. To strew is in fact nothing else than an other mode of spelling the verb to strow ; as shew is an obsolete form for shoio ; but if we pronounce the two forms differently, we make them different words. Walker, and some others, pronounce them alike, stro ; Sheri- dan, Jones, Jameson, and Webster, distinguish them in utterance, stroo and stro. This is convenient for the sake of rhyme, and perhaps therefore preferable. But streiv, I incline to think, is properly a regular verb only, though Wells and Worcester give it otherwise : if strewn has ever been proper, it seems now to be obsolete. EXAMPLES : " Others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way." Matt, xxi, 8. " Gathering where thou hast not streived." Matt, xxv, 24. " Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd muse, The place of fame and elegy supply : And many a holy text around she strews, That teach the rustic moralist to die." Gray. OBS. 5. The list which I give below, prepared with great care, exhibits the redundant yerbs, as they are now generally used, or as they may be used without grammatical rn- propriety.* Those forms which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by au- thorities, are placed first. No words are inserted here, but such as some modern authors countenance. L. Murray recognizes bereaved, catched, dcaled, digged, dwelled, hanyed, knitt id, shined, spilled; and, in his early editions, he approved of bended, builded, creeped, weavid, worked, wringed. His two larger books now tell us, " The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed." Oci'u- vo Gram. p. 107 ; Duodecimo, p. 97. But if he did not, in all his grammars, insert, "Spill, spilt, K. spilt, R.," (pp. 108, 96,) preferring the irregular form to the regular, somebody else has done it for him. And, what is remarkable, many of his amenders, as if misled by some evil genius, have contradicted themselves in precisely the same way! Ingersoll, Fisk, Merchant, and Hart, republish exactly the foregoing words, and severally become " The Com- piler" of the same erroneous catalogue ! Kirkham prefers spilt to spilled, and then declares the word to be "improperly terminated by t instead of ed" Gram. p. 151. Greenleaf, who condemns learnt and spelt, thinks dwelt and spilt are " the only established f jrms ; " yet he will have dwell and spill to be " regular " verbs, as well as " irregular ! " Gram. Simp. p. 29. Web- ber prefers spilled to spilt; but Picket admits only the latter. Cobbett and Sanborn prefer bereaved, builded, deakd, digged, dreamed, hanged, and knitted, to bereft, built, dealt, dug, dreamt, hung, and knit. The former prefers creeped to crept, andfreezed to froze ; the latter, slitted to slit, wrinyed to wrung ; and both consider, "/ bended," "Ibursted," and "/ blowed" to be good modern English. W. Allen acknowledges/m^edand slided; and, like Webster, prefers hove to hoven : but the latter justly prefers heaved to both. EXAMP. : " The supple kinsman slided to the helm." New Timon. " The rogues slided me into the river." Shak. " And the seaid slided from beneath my feet." Du. JOHNSON : in Murray's Sequel, p. 179. "Wherewith shefreez'd her foes to congeal' d stone." Milton's Comus, 1. 449. " Itfreezed hard la*t night. Now, what was it that freazcd so hard ? " Emmons's Gram. p. 25. " Far hence lies, ever freez'd, the northern main." Savage's Wanderer, 1. 57. " Has he not taught, beseeched, and shed abroad the Spirit unconfiuedr" Pollok's Course of Time, B. x, 1. 27-5. OBS. 6. U. Blair supposes catched to be an "erroneous" word and unauthori/cd : "I catch' d it," for " I caught it," he sets down for a " vulgarism." E. Grain, p. 1 1 1. But catched is used by some of the most celebrated authors. Dearborn prefers the regular form of creep ' " creep, creeped or crept, creeped or crept." Columbian Gram. p. 38. I adopt no man's opinions implicitly ; copy nothing without examination ; but, to prove all my decisions to be right, would be an endless task. I shdll do as much as ought to be expected, toward show- ing that they are so. It is to be remembered, that the poets, as well as the vulgar, use * A word is not necessarily ttngrammatical by reason of having a rival form that is more common. The regular words, b*seec/iKi : biota d, bur-ilxl. dixx--'J, Jrtf-nl, bmnvKl, liun^rd, mea-ted, sawed, s/towtd, stringed, weepeU, I admit for good English, though we find them all condemned by some critics. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. REDUNDANT VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 379 some forms which a gentleman would be likely to avoid, unless he meant to quote or imi- tate : as, " So clomb the first grand thief into God's fold ; So since into his church lewd hirelings climb." Milton, P. L., B. iv, 1. 192. " He shore his sheep, and, having packed the wool, Sent them unguarded to the hill of wolves." Pollok, C. of T., B. vi, 1. 306. " The King of heav'n Bar'd his red arm, and launching from the sky Ili- irrithen bolt, not shaking empty smoke, Down to the deep abyss the naming felon strook" Dryden. OBS. 7. The following are examples in proof of some of the forms acknowledged be- low : "Where etiquette and precedence abided far away." Paulding's Westward-IIo ! p. 6. " But tlic-ie were no secrets where Mrs. Judith Paddock abided." Ib. p. 8. "They abided by the firms of government established by the charters." John Q. Adams, Oration, 1831. "'l have a piences often enough in the course of my life." Id. Speech, 1839. "I au-u.\ / u;> last of all." Ecclus. xxxiii, 16. " For this are my knees bended before the God of th t all flesh." Wm. Penn. "There was never a prince bereaved of his de- pendencies." &c. Bacon. " Madam, you have bereft me of all words." Shakspeare. " Reave, reaved or //'/, reaving, reared or reft. Bereave is similar." Ward's Practical Gram. p. 65. " And let them tell their tales of woful ages, long ago betid." Shak. " Of every nation blent, an, I every age." Pollok, C. of T., B. vii, p. 153. "I builded me houses." Ecclesiastes, ii, 4. " For every house is builded by some man ; but he that built all things is God." iii, 1. "What thy hands builded not, thy wisdom gained." Milton's P. L., x, 373. 14 Present, bet ; Past, bet ; Participle, bet." Mackintosh's Gram. p. 197 ; Alexander's, 38. " John of Gaunt loved him well, &ndbetted much upon his head." SHAKSPEARE : Joh. Diet. w. Bet. " He lost every earthly thing he betted" PRIOR : ib. "A seraph kneeled." Pollok, C. T., p. 96. "At first, he declared he himself would be blowed, Ere his conscience with such a foul crime he would load." J. R. Lowell. "They are catche.d without art or industry." Robertson's Amer. Vol. i, p. 302. "Apt to be catchcd ai I- 1 dux/led." Blair's Rhet. p. 2G. " The lion being catcJied in a net." Art of Think- ing, p. 252. ' In their self-will they digijed down a wall." Gen. xlix, 6. " The royal mother instantly dove to the bottom and brought up her babe unharmed." Trumbidts 111." "The learned have diven into the secrets of nature." CARNOT : Colum- bian ()t\t- -/-, |>. 82. "They have awoke from that ignorance in which they had slept." Lon- don 1. . " And he slept and dreamed the second time." Gen. xli, 5. " So I awoke." J'i. 21. " But he hanged the chief baker." Gen. xl, 22. " Make as if you hanged your- self." Auiii Tiixor : in Joh. Diet. "Graven by art and man's device." Acts, xvii, 29. 'd on the -.tone beneath yon aged thorn." Gray. "That the tooth of usury maybe grind<-. -J78. " SC.UJD or SCAD moaned distinction, dividing." Ib. i, 114. "He only / to acknowledge him to be an extraordinary person." Lowth's Gram. p. 12. "Tht determine-* what particular thing is meaned." Ib. p. 11. "If Hermia meand to say Ly- sander lied." Xhuk. "As if I meaned not the first but the second creation." Barclay's " From some stones have rivers bursted forth." Sale's Koran, Vol. i, p. 14. " So move we on ; I only meant To show the reed 011 which you leant." Scott, L. L., C. v, st. 11. OIM. 8. Laycd, payed, and stayed, are now less common than laid, paid, and staid; but perhu: correct, sinee they are the same words in a more regular and not uncom- mon >! Thou takest up that [which] thou layedstnot down." FRIENDS' BIBLE, SMITU'>, li 'tt's Bible, in this place, has " layest," which is wrong ion upon our loins." FRIENDS' BIBLE: Psalms, Ixvi, 11. v' aiilietion upon our loins." SCOTT'S \\i\\\.\\, mid U;u ci.'s. "Thou laMst afflic- ]>cd by J. Ho>r>\ "Which gently lay'd my knighthood on my shoulder." 8 : Richard II, Act i, Sc. 1. " But no . Vol. iii, p. 212. " Therefore the . uul the earth is stayed from her fruit." Hayflai, i, 10. or STAIII ; .;>)." Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Diet. i-hau and Ahimaaz stayt ///i. xvii, 17. "This day have I ott's Bible has "paid." "They not onlv.s/-. : r th ; .i resort, but . ix, 1. l(',;Jo. "And he smote tl, '//<"'." - A'///>'v, xiii, 18. " When Cobham, generous as the noble peer rs his honours, pay'd the fatal price Of virtue blooming, ere the storms were laid." Shenstone, p. 167. 380 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBS. 9. By the foregoing citations, lay, pay, and slay, are clearly proved to be redim- dant. But, in nearly all our English grammars, lay and pay are represented as being always irregular ; and stay is as often, and as improperly, supposed to be always regular. Other examples in proof of the list : " I lit my pipe with the paper." Addison. " While he whom learning, habits, all prevent, Is largely mulct for each impediment." Crabbe, Bor. p. 102. "And then the chapel night and morn to pray, Or mulct and threaten' d if he kept away." Ib. p. 162. "A small space is formed, in which the breath is pent up." Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 493. "Pen, when it means to write, is always regular. Boyle has penned in the sense of confined." Churchill's Gram. p. 261. "Rapped with admiration." HOOKER: Joh. Diet. "And being rapt with the love of his beauty." Id. ib. "And rapt in secret studies.' '- SHAK. : ib. " I'm rapt with joy." ADDISON : ib. "Roast with fire." FRIENDS' BIBLE : Exod. xii, 8 and 9. "Roasted with fire." SCOTT'S BIBLE : Exod. xii, 8 and 9. " Upon them hath the light shined." Isaiah, ix, 2. " The earth shined with his glory." Ezekicl, xliii, 2. "After that he had showed wonders." Acts, vii, 36. " Those things which God before had showed." Acts, iii, 18. "As shall be shewed in Syntax." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 28. " I have shown you, that the two first may be dismissed." Cobbett's E. Gram. H 10. "And in this struggle were sowed the seeds of the revolution." Everett's Address, p. 16. "Your fa- vour showed to the performance, has given me boldness." Jenks's Prayers, Ded. "Yea, so have I strived to preach the gospel." Rom. xv, 20. "Art thou, like the adder, waxen deaf? " Shakspeare. "Hamstring' d behind, unhappy Gyges died." Dryden. " In Syracusa was I born and wed." Shakspeare. "And thou art wedded to calamity." Id. "I saw thee first, and wedded thee." Milton. " Sprung the rank weed, and thrived with large increase."- Pope. " Some errors never would have thriven, had it not been for learned refutation."- Book of Thoughts, p. 34. " Under your care they have thriven." Junius, p. 5. " Fixed by being rolled closely, compacted, knitted." Dr. Murray's Hist. Vol. i, p. 374. "With kind converse and skill has weaved." Prior. " Though I shall be wetted to the skin." Sandford and Merton, p. 64. " I speeded hither with the very extremest inch of possibility." Shak- speare. "And pure grief shore his old thread in twain." Id. "And must I ravel out my weaved-up follies? " Id. Rich. II. "Tells how the drudging Goblin swet." Milton's L' Al- legro. " Weave, wove or weaved, weaving, wove, weaved, or woven." Ward's Gram. p. 67. " Thou who beneath the frown of fate hast stood, And in thy dreadful agony sweat blood." Young, p. 238. OBS. 10. The verb to shake is now seldom used in any other than the irregular form, shake, shook, shaking, shaken; and, in this form only, is it recognized by our principal giam- marians and lexicographers, except that Johnson improperly acknowledges shook as well as shaken for the perfect participle : as, " I've shook it off." DRYDEN : Joh. Diet. But the regular form, shake, shakcd, shaking, shaked, appears to have been used by some writers of high reputation ; and, if the verb is not now properly redundant, it formerly was. so. Examples regular: "The frame and huge foundation of the earth shak'd like a coward." SHAKSPEARE : Hen. IV. " I am he that is so love-shaked." Id. As You Like it. "A sly and constant knave, not to be shak'd." Id. Cymbeline : Joh. Diet. " I thought he would have shaked it off." Tattler: ib. "To the very point I shaked my head at." Spectator, No. 4. "From the ruin'd roof of shak'd Olympus." Milton s Poems. "None hath hak'd it off." Walker's English Particles, p. 89. "They shaked their heads." Psalms, cis, 25. Dr. Crombie says, " Story, in his Grammar, has, most unwarrantably, asserted, that the Participle of this Verb should be skaked." ON ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, p. 198. Fowle, on the contrary, pronounces shaked to be right. See True English Gram. p. 46. OBS. 11. All former lists of our irregular and redundant verbs are, in many respects, defective and erroneous ; nor is it claimed for those which are here presented, that they are absolutely perfect. I trust, however, they are much nearer to perfection, than are any earlier ones. Among the many individuals who have published schemes of these verbs, none have been more respected and followed than Lowth, Murray, and Crombie; yet are these authors' lists severally faulty in respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in question, though the whole number does not amount to two hundred. By Lowth, eight verbs are made redundant, which I think are now regular only : namely, bake, climb, fold, help, load, owe, wash. By Crombie, as many : to wit, bake, climb, freight, help, lift, load, shape, writhe. By Murray, two : load and shape. With Crombie, and in general with the others too, twenty- seven verbs are always irregular, which I think are sometimes regular, and therefore redundant : abide, beseech, blow, burst, creep, freeze, grind, lade, lay, pay, rive, seethe, shake, show, sleep, slide, speed, string, strive, strow, sweat, thrive, throw, weave, weep, ^eind, wring. Again, there are, I think, more than twenty redundant verbs which arc treated by Crombie, and, with one or two exceptions, by Lowth and Murray also as if they were always regular : namely, betide, blend, bless, burn, dive, dream, dress, geld, kneel, lean, kap, learn, mean, mulct, pass, pen, plead, prove, reave, smell, spell, slave, stay, sweep, wake, whet, wont. Crombie's list contains the auxiliaries, which properly belong to a different table. Erroneous as it is, in all these things, and more, it is introduced by the author with the ETYMOLOGY. LIST OF THE REDUNDANT VERBS. 381 following praise, in bad English : "Verbs, wkich depart from this rule, are called Irregular, of which I believe the subsequent enumeration to be nearly complete." TREATISE ON ETYM. AND SYNT. p. 192. Q BS< 1 2. Dr. Johnson, in his Grammar of the English 1 ongue, recognizes two forms which would make teach and reach redundant. But Cached is now " obsolete," and rought is " old," according to his own Dictionary. Of loaded and loaden, which he gives as participle* of load, the regular forni only Appears to be now in good use. For the redundant forms of many words in the foregoing list, as of abode or abided, awaked or awoke, besought or beseeched, caught or catched, hewed or hewn, mowed or mown, laded or laden, seethed or sod, sheared or shore, sowed or sowu, waked or wofa, wove or weaved, his authority may be added to that of others already cited. In Dearborn's Columbian Grammar, published in Boston in 1795, the vear in vhich. Lindley Murray's Grammar first appeared in York, no fewer than thirty verbs are made redundant, which are not so represented by Murray. Of these I have re- tained eighteen in the following list, and left the other twelve to be now considered always regular. Tho thirty are these : "bake, bend, build, burn, climb, creep, dream, fold, freight, geti, heat, heave, he2p, lay, leap, lift, light, melt, owe, quit, rent, rot, seethe, spell, split, strive. wash, weave, wet, vork." See Dearborn's Gram. p. 37 45. LIST OF THE REDUNDANT VERBS. Present. Abide, Awake, Belay, Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Bet, Betide, Blend, Bless, Blow, Build, Burn, Burst, Catch, Clothe, Creep, Crow, Curse, Dare, Deal, Dig, Dive, Dream, Dress, Dwell, Freeze, Gild, Gird, Grind, re, Kneel, K nit, Lade, Lay, Lean, Preterit. Imperfect Participle. abode or abided, abiding, awaked or awoke, awaking, belayed or belaid, belaying, bent or bended, bending, bereft or bereaved, bereaving, besought or beseeched, beseeching, betted or bet, betting, betided or betid, betiding, blended or blent, blending, blessed or blest, blessing, blew or blowed, blowing, built or builcled, building, burned or burnt, burning, burst or bursted, bursting, caught or catched, catching, clothed or clad, clothing, crept or creeped, creeping, crowed or crew, crowing, cursed or curst, cursing, dared or durst, daring, dealt or dealed, dealing, dug or'digged, digging, dived or dove, diving, dreamed or dreamt, dreaming, dressed or drest, dressing, dwelt or dwelled, dwelling, froze or freezed, freezing, gelded or gelt, gelding, gilded or gilt, gilding, i "> girt, girding, graved, graving, ground or grinded, grinding, hung or hanged, hanging, heaved or hove, heaving, hewed, hewing, kneeled or knelt, kneeling, knit or knitted, knitting, laded, lading, , laid or layed, laying, leaned or leant, leaning, Perfect Participle. abode or abided, awaked or awoke, belayed or belaid, bent or bended, bereft or bereaved, besought or beseeched. betted or bet. betided or betid, blended or blent, blessed or blest, blown or blowed. built or builded. burned or burnt, burst or bursted. caught or catched. clothed or clad, crept or creeped. crowed. cursed or curst, dared. dealt or dealed. dug or digged, dived or diven. dreamed or dreamt, dressed or drest. dwelt or dwelled, frozen or freezed. gelded or gelt, gilded or gilt, girded or girt, graved or graven, ground or grinded, hung or hanged, heaved or hoven. hewed or hewn, kneeled or knelt knit or knitted, laded or laden, laidorlayed. leaned or leant. 382 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART n. Present. Leap, Learn, Light, Mean, Mow, Mulct, Pass, Pay, Pen, (to coop, Plead, Prove, Quit, Rap, Reave, Rive, Roast, Saw, Seethe, Shake, Shape, Shave, Shear, Shine, Show, Sleep, Slide, Slit, Smell, Sow, Speed, Spell, Spill, Split, Spoil, Stave, Stay, String, Strive, Strow, Sweat, Sweep. Swell, Thrive, Throw, Wake, Wax, Weave, Preterit. Imperfect Participle. leaped or leapt, leaping, learned or learnt, lighted or lit, meant or meaned, mowed, mulcted or mulct, passed or past, paid or payed, ) penned or pent, pleaded or pled, proved, quitted or quit, rapped or rapt, reft or reaved, rived, roasted or roast, sawed, seethed or sod, shook or shaked, shaped, shaved, sheared or shore, shined or shone, showed, slept or sleeped, slid or slided, slitted or slit, smelled or smelt, sowed, sped or speeded, spelled or spelt, spilled or spilt, split or splitted, spoiled or spoilt, stove or staved, staid or stayed, strung or stringed, strived or strove, strowed, sweated or sweat, swept or sweeped, swelled, thrived or throve, threw or throwed, waked or woke, waxed, wove or weaved, learning, lighting;, meaning, mowing, mulcting, passing, paying, penning, pleading, proving, quitting, rapping, reaving, riving, roasting, sawing, seething, shaking, shaping, shaving, shearing, shining, showing, sleeping, sliding, slitting, smelling, sowing, speeding, spelling, spilling, splitting, spoiling, staving, staying, stringing, striving, strowing, sweating, sweeping, swelling, thriving, throwing, waking, waxing, weaving, Perfect Participle. leaped or leapt.* learned or learnt, lighted or lit. meant or meaned. mowed or mown, mulcted or mulct, passed or past, paid or payed, penned or pent, pleaded or pio,d. proved or proven, quitted or quit.j rapped or rapt, reft or roaved. riven or rived, roasted or roast. sawed or sawn, seethed or soddon. shaken or shaked. shaped or shapen. shaved or shaven, sheared or shorn, shined or shone, showed or shown, slept or sleeped. slidden, slid, or slid 3d. slitted or slit, smelled or smelt, sowed or sown, sped or speeded, spelled or spelt, spilled or spilt, split or splitted. % spoiled or spoilt, stove or staved, staid or stayed, strung or stringed, strived or striven, strowed or strown. sweated or sweat, swept or sweeped. swelled or swollen, thrived or thriven, thrown or throwed. waked or woke, waxed or waxen, woven or weaved. * And the man in whom the evil spirit was, leapt on them." FRTENPS' BIBLE : Acts, xix, 16. In Scotfc'a Bible, and several others, the word is " leaped." Walker says, " The past time of this verb is generally heard with the diphthong short ; and if so, it ought to be spelled leapt, rhyming with kept." Diet. w. Leap. Worces- ter, who improperly pronounces leaped in two ways, " ICpt or lept,'' misquotes Walker, as saying, " it ought to be gpelled lept." 1 Universal and Critical Diet. w. Leap. In the solemn style, leaped is, of course, two syllables. A* for leapedst or leaptest, I know not that either can be found. t Acquit is almost always formed regularly, thus : acquit, acquitted, acquitting, acquitted. Put, like quit, it is sometimes found in an irregular form also ; which, if it be allowable, will make it redundant : as, " To be acquit from my continual smart." SPENCER : Johnson's Diet. " The writer holds himself acquit of all charges in thi regard." Judd, on the Revolutionary War, p. 5. j " Not know my voic% ! 0, time's extremity ! Hast thou so crack'd and splitted my poor tongue ? " SHAK. : Com. of Er. CHAP. VI.] IITVMOLOGY. DEFECTIVE VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 383 Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. Wed, wedded or wed, wedding, wedded or wed. Weep, wept or weeped, weeping, wept or weepcd. Wet, wet or wcttc'd, wetting, wet or wetted. Whet, whetted or whet, whetting, whetted or whet.* Wind, wound or winded, winding, wound or winded. \V>nt, wont or wonted, wonting, wont or wonted. Work, worked or wrought, working, worked or wrought. Wring, wringed or wrung, wringing, wringed or wrung. f DEFECTIVE VERBS. A def< ' is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, beware, ought, quoth. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. "When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the tenses usually derived from those parts are also, of course, wanting. All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and hate, if we com- pare them with other verbs, are defective ; but, as auxiliaries, they lack nothing ; for no complete verb is used throughout as an auxiliary, except be. And since an auxiliary differs essentially from a principal verb, the propriety of referring may, can, nv.tst, and shall, to the class of defec- tive verbs, is at least questionable. In parsing there is never any occasion to call them defective verbs, because they are always taken together with their principals. And though we may tech- nically say, that their participles are " wanting," it is manifest that none are needed. thou wiliest it to be a minister to our pleasure." Harris. " I will; be thou clean." Luke, v, 13. 4 Nevrrth'-!, >, v.nt as I trill, but as thou wilt." Matt, xxvi, 39. "To will is present with me." /.' /. vii, 18. But would is sometimes also a principal verb ; as, " What would this man ?" Pope. " Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets." Ni//, i . : -/rfirc of evil workers," beware of the concision." Philipjriam, iii, 2. "But :;'g our attention to this beauty too far." Blair's llhet. p. 119. These words were formerly separated: as, " Of whom be thou ware also." 1 Tim. iv, 15. ware of it." FUIKM' Pii'.i.r, :m i-tir. " the 113th Thousand the deficiencies of the foregoing kinds, if I am :''.rfy-four Hedundant.s, to which he awigns a regular t'cnn ' "h nc;irer ri^ht than Clark, as this number sur passe* thirty-two, si The wordi about whkh they differ, ar j-m, seethr, and u-het, i f the '. :uid th,ri-f. c.ftlie latter. t In the fulli\\ii>_' rxainplo, then- i> :i different phraseology, which scorns not so well suited to the sense : " But we must be /. 1 of " be aware." the author should have said, ' bwnre" or " be vtu: : " that b, be trary, or cautions ; for aware means apprised, or informed, a sense very different from the othor. 384 TIIE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II, " This to disclose is all thy guardian can; Beioare of all, but most beware of man." Pope. The words written separately will always have the same meaning, unless we omit the prepo- sition of, and suppose the compound to be a transitive verb. In this case, the argument for com- pounding the terms appears to be valid ; as, "Beware the public laughter of the town ; Thou springst a-leak already in thy crown." Dryden. OBS. 4. The words ought and own, without question, were originally parts of the redundant verb to owe ; thus : owe, owed or ought, owing, owed or own. But both have long been disjoined from this connexion, and hence owe has become regular. Own, as now used, is either a pronom- inal adjective, as, " my own hand," or a regular verb thence derived, as, "to own a house.'" Ought, under the name of a defective verb, is now generally thought to be properly used, in this one form, in all the persons and numbers of the present and the imperfect tense of the indicative and subjunctive moods. Or, if it is really of one tense only, it is plainly an aorist ; and hence the time must be specified by the infinitive that follows: as, "He ought to fjo ; He ought to have gone." "If thou ought to go ; If thou ought to have gone." Being originally a preterit, it never occurs in the infinitive mood, and is entirely invariable, except in the solemn style, where we find oughtest in both tenses ; as, " How thou oughtest to behave thyself." 1 Tim. iii, 15. " Thou oughtest therefore to have put my money to the exchangers." Matt, xxiv, 27. We never say, or have said. He, she, or it, oughts or oughteth. " Yet we manifestly use this verb in the present tense, and in also affirmed that must and ought " have only the present time" and are alike invariable. 11 It is now quite obsolete to say, thou oughtest ; for ought now changes its ending no more than must" Brightland's Gram., (approved by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.,) p. 112. " Do, icill, and shall, must, OUGHT, and may, Have, am, or be, this Doctrine will display." Ib. p. 107. OBS. 5. Wis, preterit wist, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete; but it may be proper to explain it, because it is found in the Bible : as, " I wist not, brethren, that he was the high priest." Acts, xxiii, 5. "He himself * wist not that his face shone.' " Life of Schiller, p. iv. Wit, to know, and wot, knew, are also obsolete, ex- cept in the phrase to wit ; which, being taken abstractly, is equivalent to the adverb namely, or to the phrase, that is to say. The phrase, " we do you to wit," (in 2 Cor. viii, 1st,) means, " we inform you." Churchill gives the present tense of this verb three forms, weet, wit, and wot ; and there seems to have been some authority for them all : as, " He was, to weet, a little roguis-h pa *e." Thomson. " But little wotteth he the might of the means his folly despiseth." Tapper's Book of Thoughts, p. 35. To wit, used alone, to indicate a thing spoken of, (as the French use thei in- finitive, savoir, a savoir, or the phrase, c'est a savoir,) is undoubtedly an elliptical expression; probably for, "I give you to wit; " i. e. " I give you to know." Troio, to think, occurs in the Bible ; as, "I trow not." N. Test. And Coar gives it as a defective verb ; and only in the first person singular of the present indicative, "Itroiv." Webster and Worcester mark the word as obsolete ; but Sir W. Scott, in the Lady of the Lake, has this line : " Thinkst ihou hetrow'd thine omen ought ? " Canto iv, stanza 10. Quoth and quod, for say, saith, or said, are obsolete, or used only in ludicrous language. Webster supposes these words to be equivalent, and each! confined to the first and third persons of the pres- ent and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood. Johnson says, that, "quoth you," as used by Sidney, is irregular ; but Tooke assures MS, that " The th in quoth, does not designate the third person." D. P. ii, 323. They are each invariable, and always placed before the nominative : as, quoth I, quoth he. "Yea, so sayst thou, (quod TrOylns,) alas ! "Chaucer. " I feare, quod he, it wyll not be." Sir T. More. " Stranger, go ! Heaven be thy guide ! Quod the beadsman of Nith-side." Burns. OBS. 6. Methinks, (i. e., to me it thinks,) for I think, or, it seems to me, with its preterit me- thought, (i. e., to me it thought,) is called by Dr. Johnson an " ungrammatical word." He imagined it to be " a Norman corruption, the French being apt to confound me and 1." Joh. Diet. It is indeed a puzzling anomaly in our language, though not without some Anglo- Saxon or Latin parallels ; and, like its kindred,." me scemeth," or " mesecms," is little worthy to he countenanced, though often used by Dryden, Pope, Addison, and other good writers. Our lexicographers call it an impersonal verb, because, being compounded with an objective, it cannot may be used as a participle. In the Bible, we find the following text : "Me think eth the running of the foremost is like the running of Ahimaaz." 2 Sam. xviii, 27. And Milton improperly makes thought an impersonal verb, apparently governing the separate objective pronoun him; as, "Him thought he by the brook of Cherith stood." P. R., B. ii, 1. 264. OBS. 7. Some verbs from the natiire of the stibjects to which they refer, .are chiefly confined to the third person singular ; as, "It rains; it siioics ; it freezes ; it hails ; it lightens ; it thunders. These have been called impersonal verbs; because the neuter pronoun it, which is commonly used before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to express a state of things. They are however, in fact, neither impersonal nor defective. Some, or all of them, may possibly take some other nominative, if not a different person ; as, " The Lord rained upon Sodom, and upon Gomorrah, brimstone and fire." Gen. xix, 24. " The God of glory thundereth." Psalms, xxix, 3. "Canst than thunder with a voice like him ? " Job, CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. PARSING. PRAXIS VI. 385 xl, 9. In short, as Harris observes, "The doctrine of Impersonal Verbs has been justly rejected by the best grammarians, both ancient and modern." H> r,nts, p. 17-5. OBS. 8. By some writers, words of this kind are called Munojjcraotial Vcrhs ; that is, verbs one person. This name, though not very properly compounded, is perhaps more fit than the other but we have little occasion to speak of these verbs as a distinct class in our language. Dr. Mur rav says, "\Vhat is called an impersonal verb, is not so ; for lic-tt, . ort-et, have Tf/a, >r it, in their composition." History of European 1. ii. p. 146 ', and behoove, are regular verbs and transitive ; but they are used only in the third person singular: ::s, ' \Vhat ails you ?" " It /r/i.s-mc.'' " It behoocc* you." The last two are obsolescent or at least not in very common use. In Latin, passive verbs, or neuters of the passive form, are often xised impersonally, or without an obvious nominative ; and this elliptical construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially by the poets : as, ' Meanwhile, ere thus was sinn'a and iudy'd on ear^h, Within the gates of Hell sat Sin and Death. 'Milton, P. L., B. x, 1. 230. " Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run By angels many and strong, who interpos'd." Id. B. vi, 1. 335. LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VEKBS. Present. Beware, Can, May, Methinks, Must, Ought, Preterit, could. might. methought. must.} ought.} Present. Shall, Will,* Quoth, Wis, Wit, Preterit. should. would. quoth. wist.f wot. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS VI. ETYMOLOGICAL. In. the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the dif- ferent parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTITES, PRONOUNS, and VERBS. The definitions to be given in the Sixth Praxis, are two for an article, six for noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five foi an ii/jiititive, and one for a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Tlius : EXAMPLE PARSED. " The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness ; because, properly speaking, nf is not our own which is imposed upon us." Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 109. us to limit their slg- atlvc case. 1. A inmon noun Is i gcjulcr that form or state o relation of different things or thoughts to case. 1. A noun union noun is tho Vr H a or state of a ivc mood, i>- t nlflos to It, to act, or to be acted upon. assuming d or ed. v In* 4. The , or asks a question. 5. * Dr. Crombie conU njtion : - on Et kaown, I only in the present tonec. nnk>, and 1 * and [ >j as ai. ; ;l is we gay^ to the familiar stylr, ia , be, and have, are inilcxiblo. For, in the solemn style, we do not say, Thou (Sec his Treatise, p. 204.) In . : illions, adopt the game ] post signification." lt . u -//; go ; ' and ' he wiUs to ression. Ok that I had known, (rotcw." Chalmer^s Diet, also Webster's 'liter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which denotes the subject of a verb. Is Imposed is a regular passive verb, from the active verb, impose, imposed, imposing, imposed, passive, 'o be imposed; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and Singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preteril and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A passive verb is a verb that represents the subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. C. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely sj oken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. Upon is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A pro- noun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, \>f its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective ease is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I. PARSING. " He has desires after the kingdom, and makes no question but it shall be his ; he wills, runs, strives, believes, hopes, prays, reads scriptures, observes duties, and regards ordinances." Penington, ii, 124. " AVo unto you, lawyers ! for ye have taken away the key of knowledge : ye enter not in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye hindered." Luke, xi, 52. "Above all other liberties, give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely, according to my conscience." Milton. " Eloquence is to be looked for only in free states. Longinus illustrates this obser- vation with a great deal of beauty. 'Liberty,' he remarks, 'is the nurse of true genius ; it animates the spirit, and invigorates the hopes, of men ; it excites honourable emulation, and a desire of excelling in every art.' " ^Blair's Rhet. p. 237. " None of the faculties common to man and the lower animals, conceives the idea of civil liberty, any more than that of religion." Spurzheim, on Education, p. 259. " Whoever is not able, or does not dare, to think, or does not feel contradictions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion and civil liberty." Ib. p. 258. " The too great number of journals, and the extreme partiality of their authors, have much discredited them. A man must have great talents to please all sorts of readers ; CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. - VERBS. - PARSING. - PRAXIS VI. 387 and it is impossible to please all authors, who, generally speaking, cannot bear with the most judicious and most decent criticisms." Formeys Belles-Letters, p. 170. Son of man, I have broken the arm of Pharaoh king of Egypt ; and, lo, it shall not be bound up to be healed, to put a roller to bind it, to make it strong to hold the sword." /;:,//,-/, xxx, Yet he was humble, kind, forgiving, meek, v to be entreated, gracious, mild ; And, with all patience and affection, taught, Rebuked, persuaded, solaced, counselled, warned." PolloJc, B. ix. LESSON II. PARSING. " What is coming, will come; what is proceeding onward, verges towards comple- tion." Dr. Murray's Europ. Lang, i, 324. " Sir, if it had not been for the art of printing, we should now have had no learning at all ; for books would have perished faster than they could have been transcribed." Dr. Johnson's Life, iii, 400. " Passionate reproofs are like medicines given scalding hot : the patient cannot take them. If we wish to do good to those whom we rebuke, we should labour for meek- ness of wisdom, and use soft words and hard arguments." Dodd. " My prayer for you is, that God may guide you by his counsel, and in the end bring you to glory : to this purpose, attend diligently to the dictates of his good spirit, which you may hear within you ; for Christ saith, ' He that dwelleth with you, shall be in you.' And, as you hear and obey him, he will conduct you through this troub- lous world, in ways of truth and righteousness, and land you at last in the habitations of everlasting rest and peace with the Lord, to praise him for ever and ever." T. Gwin. " By matter, we mean, that which is tangible, extended, and divisible ; by mind, that which perceives, reflects, wills, and reasons. These properties are wholly dissimi- lar and admit of no comparison. To pretend that mind is matter, is to propose a contradiction in terms ; and js just as absurd, as to pretend that matter is mind." Gumey's Portable Evidence, p. 78. '* If any one should think all this to be of little importance, I desire him to consider what he would think, if vice had, essentially, and in its nature, these advantageous tendencies, or if virtue had essentially the direct contrary ones." Sutler, p. 99. " No man can write simpler and stronger English than the celebrated Boz, and this renders us the more annoyed at those manifold vulgarities and slipshod errors, which unhappily have of late years so disfigured his productions." LIVING AUTHORS OP .AND : T. /ier, No. 119. Iluru llavard, all serene, in the same strains, Loves, hates, and rages, triumphs, and complains." Churchill, p. 3,. " Let Satire, then, her proper object know, And ere she strike, be sure she strike a foe." John Brown. LESSON III. PARSING. " The Author of nature has as truly directed that vicious actions, considered as vous to society, should be punished, and has as clearly put mankind under a ne< ing tli-m, as lie has directed and necessitated us to preserve our lives by foo. " The force of language consists in raising complete images ; which have the effect to transport the reader, as by magic, into the very place of the important action, and to convert him as it were into a spectator, beholding every thing that passes." Id. ib- ii, 241. 388 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. "An orator should not put forth all his strength at the beginning, but should liso and grow upon us, as his discourse advances." Blair's Rhet. p. 309. " When a talent is given to any one, an account is opened with the giver of it, who appoints a day in which he will arrive and ' redemand his own with usury.' ' Wests Letters to a Toung Lady, p. 74. " Go, and reclaim the sinner, instruct the ignorant, soften the obdurate, and (as occasion shall demand) cheer, depress, repel, allure, disturb, assuage, console, or ter- rify." Jerningharis Essay on Eloquence, p. 97. " If all the year were playing holydays, To sport would be as tedious as to work : But when they seldom come, they wish'd-for come, And nothing pleaseth but rare accidents." Skak. Hen. V. " The man that once did sell the lion's skin While the beast liv'd, was kill'd with hunting him." Id. Joh. Diet. w. Bev.st. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF VERBS. LESSON I. PRETERITS. "In speaking on a matter which toucht their hearts." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. . Not proper, because the verb toucht is terminated in t. But, according to Observation 2nd, on the irregular verbs, touch is regular. Therefore, this t should be changed to ed ; thus, " In speaking on a matter which touched their hearts."] " Though Horace publisht it some time after." Ib. i, 444. "The best subjects -,vith which the Greek models furnisht him." Ib. i, 444. " Since he attacht no thought to it." Jb. i, 645. "By what slow steps the Greek alphabet reacht its perfection." Ib. i, 651. " Because Goethe wisht to erect an affectionate memorial." Ib. i, 469. "But the Suxon forms soon dropt away." Ib. i, 668. " It speaks of all the towns that perisht in the age of Philip." Ib. i, 252. " This enricht the written language with new words." Ib. i, 668. ' He merely furnisht his friend with matter for laughter." Ib. i, 479. * A cloud arose and * topt the light." Surift'8 Poems, p. 313. "She slipt spadills in her breast." Ib. p. 371. "I guest the hand." Ib. p. 372. " The tyrant stript me to the skin : My skin he flay'd my hair he cropt ; At head and foot my body lopt." Ib. On a Pen, p. 338. " I see the greatest owls in you, That ever screecht or ever flew." Ib. p. 403. " I sate with delight, From rr.orn- ing till night." Ib. p. 367. " Dick nimbly skipt the gutter." Ib. p. 375. " In at the pantry door this morn I slipt.*' Ib. p. 369. "Nobody living ever toucht me, but you." Winker's Particles, p. 92. "Present, I ship ; Past, I shipped or shipt ; Participle, shipped or ship ;."- Murray the schoolmaster, Gram. p. 31. "Then the king arose, and tare his garments." 2 Sam. xiii, 31. " When he lift up his foot, he knew not where he should set it next." Buu-yan. "He lift tip his spear against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time." 2 SAM. : in Joh. Diet. " Upon this chaos rid the distressed ark." BUIINET : ib. " On whose foolish honesty, my practices rid easy." SHAK. : ib. " That form of the first or primogenial Earth, which rise immediately out of chaos." BURNET : ib. " Sir, how come it you have holp to make this rescue ? " SHAK. : in Joh. Diet. " He sware he had rather lose all his father's images than that table." PEACHAM : ib. " When our language dropt its ancient terminations. "- Dr. Murray's Hist, ii, 5. " When themselves they vilify'd." Milton, P. L., xi, 515. " But I choosed rather to do thus." Barclay's Works, i, 456. " When he plead against the par- sons." School History, p. 168. " And he that saw it, bear record." Cutter's Grnni, p. 72. " An irregular verb has one more variation, as drive, drivest, drives, drivedst, drove, driving, driven." REV. MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 260. "Beside that village Hannibal pitcht his camp." Walker's Particles, p. 79. " He fetcht it even from Tmohis." Ib. p. 114. " He supt with his morning gown on." Ib. p. 285. " There stampt her sacred name." Barlow's Columbiad, B. i, 1. 233. " Fixt on the view the great discoverer stood, And thus addrest the messenger of good." Barlow, B. i, 1. 658. LESSON II. MIXED. "Three freemen were being tried at the date of our last information." Neiosj [FORMULE. Not proper, because the participle being is used after its own verb were. But, according to Obser- vation 4th, on the compound form of conjugation, this complex passive form is an absurd innovation. Therefore, the expression should be changed ; thus, ' ; Three freemen ivere on trial' 1 ' 1 or, " were receiving their trial at the date of our last information."] " While the house was being built, many of the tribe arrived." Ross Cox's Travels, p, 102. CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. EIU.OR3. 389 J ' But a foundation has been laid in Zion, and the church is being built upon it." The , ix, 377. " And one fourth of the people are hein'j: educated." . "The present, or that which is now being done." /' . p. 13. " A new church, called thi i 1' just bcii. d in an expensive style." G. A. Thompson's '. Wh-jn I la-t saw him, he was grown considerably." Murray'* ; "I know :-nus path I* am got into." Von were ; to one on the rack." Locke's Rtsny, " Thou hnst Ivard me, and art becom :tion." 7 '.?/. cxviii, 121. " While ement i ; being prepared for the press." L. ( ", p. vi. " Lan- . in modern times, more correct and accurate." Jamicson's Rhet. p. 16. " If th uted in any measure answerable to the author's wishes." Rob- . :?. "The vial of wrath is still bein^ poured out on the seat of : , p. 409. " Chri .s become the generally adopted and cstab- . the whole Koman Empire." Gurncy's Essays, p. So. " Who wrote before -1." If), p. 13. "The original and analogical form is grown quite obo]< p. 56. "Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, aro perish ffram. i, 149. "The poems were got abroad and in a great "many Vr. " It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, ' the bub- ble is almost bursted." Cobbctt's E. Gram. If 109. " I drave my suitor from his mad humour of love." >'// '/.-. " Se viriliter expedivit. (Cicero.) He hath plaid the man." U'a'kcr's " Wilt thou kill me, as thou diddest the Egyptian yesterday? " FUIEXDB' Ui::u: : .! A-, vii, 2^. " And we, methoughts, look'd up t'him from our hill." <' iii, 1. 386. " I fear thou doest not think a> much of best things as thou oughtest." na3, p. 34. " When this work was being commenced." \\'i-i.ons, p. 88. " I said to myself, I will be obliged to expose the fol . p. 3. " When Clodius, had he meant to return that day to Rome, must 1 18. " That the fact has been done, is being done, or shall or ie." O. B. Peirce's Gram. pp. 347 and 356. "Am I being in- structed? " Wright's Gram. p. 70. " I am choosing him." Ib. p. 112. "John, who was Uer, was obedient to his commands." Barrett's Revised Gram. p. 69. " The re^ionechos to the clash of arms." Bcattics Poems, p. 63. "And sitt* st on high, and mak'st creation's top Thy footstool ; and behold' st below thec, all." Pottok, B. vi, 1. 663. "And see if thou can'st punish sin, and let Mankind go free. Thou fail'st be not surprised." Id. B. ii, 1. 118. LESSON III. MIXED. " What follows, had better been wanting altogether." Blair's Rhet. p. 201. the phrase had better been, is nsed in the ecnse of the potential pluperfect. ;, on the ecu,.: itionofone form for another is of q the regular form should here be preferred ; thus, " What follows, might better fiavt " T!. of the sentence had much better have been omitted altogether." Ib. p. >ther of them, therefore, had better have been omitted." Ib. p. 212. .uber of the sen' '>ecn dropped." Ih. p. 112. 41 In t" y hud much be". >ed." Ib. p. 173. " He had better have said tho f poetry to Orpheus, ago, that all these lietitious 71. "When I found that 'i, I have determined to send him." .In'.*, xxv, c of my God." Ps. Ixxxiv, 10. " As for It would a made our ' should not a been able i ioned our prudence, if we ire thou bee'st not IU:C.I:SAII'I> ; i. e. -i not dwindle into a mere Ciesar." -Thou record tlv H-S." Ai;: .Diet. . .tunr.tc 1. 1" me !' crys such a ono." 70. p. 60. " The nr.iso th:>t soft and "A man were better relate litcon. "I heard thee say but now, thou lik'dst not that." SfozA-. " In my whole course of wooing, thou cried'st, Indeed! " Id. "But our cars are 390 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. grown familiar with I have wrote, I have drank, &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical." Lowth's Gram. p. 63; Churchill's, 114. "The court was sat before Sir lloger came." Addison, Sped. No. 122. " She need be no more with the jama dice possest." &vift's Poems, p. 346. " Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day that you was here." Ib. p. 333. "If spirit of other sort, So minded, have o'erleap'd these earthly bounds." Milton, P. L., B. iv, 1. 582. "It should have been more rational to have forborn this." Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 265. "A student is not master of it till he have seen all these." Dr. Murray's Life, p. 55. "The said justice shall summons the party." Brevard's Digest. "Now what is become of thy former wit and humour?" Spect. No. 532. " Young stranger, whither wand'rcst thou ? " Burns, p. 29. " SUBJ. : Pres. If I love, If thou lovest, If he love. Imp. If I loved, If thou lovedst, If he loved." Merchant's Gram. p. 51. " SUBJ. : If I do not love, If thou dost not love, If he does not love ;" &c. Ib. p. 56. " If he have committed sins, they shall be forgiven him." James, v, 15. " Subjunctive Mood of the verb to call, second person singular : If Thou callest. If Thou calledst. If Thou hast called. If Thou hadst called. If Thou call. If Thou shalt or wilt have called." Hiley's Gram, p- 41. " Subjunctive Mood of the verb to love, second person singular : If thou love. If thou do love. If thou lovedst. If thou didst love. If thou hast loved. If thou hadst loved. If thou shalt or wilt love. If thou shalt or wilt have loved." Bullions' s E. Gram. p. 46. " I was; thou wast, or you was; he, she, or it was : We, you or ye, they, were." White, on the English Verb, p. 51. "I taught, thou taughtedst, he taught.'' Coar's English Gram. p. 66. "We say, if it rains, suppose it rains, lest it should rain, unless it rains. This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE mode." Weld's Gram. 2d Ed. p. 72 ; Abridged Ed. 59. "He is arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood." Priestley's Gram. 163. " He had much better have let it alone." Tooke's Diversions, i, 43. " He were better be without it." Locke, on Educa- tion, p. 105. " Hadest not thou been by." Beauties of Shak. p. 107. " I learned geography. Thou learnedest arithmetick. He learned grammar." Fuller's Gram. p. 34. "Till the sound is ceased." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 126. " Present, die ; Preterit, died ; Perf. Parti- ciple, dead." British Gram. p. 158 ; Buchanan's, 58 ; Priestley's, 48 ; Ash's, 45 ; Fisher's* 71; Bicknell's, 73. "Thou bowed' st thy glorious head to none, feared' st none." Pollok, B. viii, 1. 603. " Thou look' st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it." N. A. Reader, p. 320. " As once thou slept' st, while she to life was form'd." Milt. P. L., B. xi, 1. 369. " Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest, But may imagine how the bird was dead ? " SHAK. : Joh. Diet. " Which might have well becom'd the best of men." Id. Ant. and Ckop. CHAPTER VII.-PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, o. having ruled.. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence in motion, or the privation of motion in acting, or ceasing to act. And to all motion and rest, time and place are necessary concomitants ; nor are the ideas of degree and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and of adverbs. For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass some- time and somewhere ; and, in every event, something must be affected somewhat and somehmo. Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say, that " all partici- ples imply time." But it does not follow, that the English participles divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of action ; on the contrary, it is certain and manifest, that they do not. The phrase, " men labouring," conveys no other idea than that of labour- ers at work ; it no more suggests the time, than the place, degree, or manner, of their work. All these circumstances require other words to express them ; as, " Men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose." Again: "Thenceforward will men, there labouring hard and honourably, be looked down upon by dronish lordlings." OBS. 2. Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs; and, like verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or neuter, in their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjectives, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses of their verbs ; or when they have in part the nature of substantives, like the Latin gerunds. Hence some have in- judiciously ranked them with the adjectives. The most discreet writers have commonly CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES. OBSERVATIONS. 391 assigned them a separate place among the parts of speech ; because, in spite of all opposite usages, experience has shown that it is expedient to do so. OBS. 3. According to the doctrine of Harris, all words denoting the attributes 01 things, are either verbs, or participles, or adjectives. Some attributes have their essence in motion: as, to walk, to run, to Jly, to strike, to life; or, walking, running, flying, striking, living. Others have it in the privation of motion : as, to stop, to rest, to cease, to die ; or, stopping, rest- . dying. And there are others which have nothing to do with either motion or its privati' >u ; but have their essence in the quantity, quality, or situation of things : as, great and and black, wise a.nd foolish, eastern and western. These last terms are adjectives ; and those which denote motion or its privation, are either verbs or participles, according to their formal meaning ; that is, according to their manner of attribution. See Hermes, p. 95. Verbs commonly say or affirm something of their subjects; as, "The babe wept" Parti.-: rest the action or attribute without affirmation; as, "A babe weeping" "An ff I. A verb, then, being expressive of some attribute, which it ascribes to the thing or person named as its subject; of time, which it divides and specifies by the tenses; and also, (with the exception of the infinitive,) of an assertion or affirmation ; if we take away the affirmation and the distinction of tenses, there will remain the attribute and the general notion of time ; and these form the essence of an English participle. So that a participle is something less than a verb, though derived immediately from it ; and something more than an adjective, or mere attribute, though its manner of attribution is commonly the same. Hence, though the participle by rejecting the idea of time may pass almost insensibly into an adjective, and become truly a participial adjective ; yet the participle and the adjective are by no means one and the same part of speech, as so'me will have them to be. There is alway.- an essential difference in their meaning. For instance : there is a difference between a thinking man and a man thinking ; between a bragging fellow and a fellow bragging ; between a fast- i and a ship sailing fast. A thinking man, a bragging fellow, or a fast-sailing ship, is contemplated as being habitually or permanently such ; a man thinking, a fellow ::ig, or a ship sailing fast, is contemplated as performing a particular act; and this must embrace a period of time, whether that time be specified or not. John Locke was a thinking man ; but we should directly contradict his own doctrine, to suppose him alway* thin!. '>. The English participles are all derived from the roots of their respective verbs, and do not, like those of some other languages, take their names from the tenses. On the contrary, they are reckoned among the principal parts in the conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all the tenses. They do not therefore, of themselves, express any partic- ular time ; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its pro- >r completion. This I conceive to be their principal distinction. Respecting the par- ticipli .it has been matter of dispute, whether those which are called the present and ire really so in respect to time or not. Sanctius denies it. In Greek, the dis- in the participles is more apparent, yet even here the time to which they refer, docs not always correspond to their names. See remarks on the Participles in the >nd Greek Grammars. ru nf /'////e terra vidcbit.' Virg." Tooke's Div. ii, 420. " And thus I have u r ivi u yuu my opinion concerning what is called the present par- Which 1 think improperly so called ; because I take it to be merely the simple verb -Tooke's Div. Vol. ii, p. 423. " I do \vith this author, either in limiting participles in ed to time past, or in denying all : time to tl. . but I admit that what is commonly called the : v properly so denominated, either in English or in Latin, or perhaps in any 1 . With us, however, this participle is certainly, in very n.any -omethin- el*e than " merely the simple verb adjecticed." For, in the first i often of a complex character, as beii> '>, in which two verbs are . and that by different terminations. Yet do these words as perfectly rverything else; an.l / or being seen is confessedly a* much a ";//-c.vc/^" participle, ;< neither form being solely con- fined to what no in, our participl ,,t only for the present participle of the Latin or ( .:narians, but also for the Latin gerund, and often for the Greek infinitive used SU y ; so that by this en .nglish verb is not only adjectived, but also substantived, if one may so speak. For the participle when governed by a preposi- 392 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. tion, partakes not of the qualities " of a verb and an adjective" but rather of those of a verb and a noun. CLASSES. English verbs, not defective, have severally three participles ;* which havo been very variously denominated, perhaps the most accurately thus : the Im- perfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may be conveniently called the First, the Second, and the Third. I. The Imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and im- plies a continuance of the being, action, or passion : as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating. II. The Perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or m,and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion : as, been, acted, ruled, loved, defended, terminated. III. The Preperfect participle is that which takes the sign having, and im- plies a previous completion of the being, action, or passion : as, liaving loved, having seen, having written ; having been loved, having been writing, hay- ing been ivritten. The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb ; as, look, looking : when compound, it is formed by prefixing being to some other simple participle ; as, being reading, being read, being completed. The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb : those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are either irregular or redundant. The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when the compound is double, and having been to the perfect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple : as, having spoken, having been spoken, having been spealdng. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote present time ; some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the other, past time ; some have supposed that the first denotes no time, and the second, time past ; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time ; and some have supposed that both are of all times. In regard to the distinction of voice, or the manner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active, and the other to be passive ; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active or neuter, and the other active or passive ; and some have supposed that either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more unanimity among gram- marians, in respect to the compounds. Hence several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles : and sometimes with manifest impropriety ; as when Bu- chanan, in his conjugations, calls being, "Active," and been, having been, having had, "Pas- sive." Learned men may differ in opinion respecting the nature of words, but grammar can never well deserve the name of science, till at least an ordinary share of reason and knowledge appears in the language of those who teach it. OBS. 2. The FIRST participle has been called the Present, the Progressive, the Im- perfect, the Simple Imperfect, the Indefinite, the Active, the Present Active, the Present Passive, the Present Neuter, and, in the passive voice, the Preterimperfect, the Compound * That is, passive verbs, as well as others, have three participles for each ; so that, from one active-transitive root, there come six participles three active, and three passive. Those numerous grammarians who, like LindJey Murray, make passive verbs a distinct class, for the most part, very properly state the participles of a rerb to be " three ; : ' hut, to represent the two voices as modifications of one species of verbs, and then say, " The Participles are //tree," as many recent writers do, is manifestly absurd ; because two threes should be six. Thus, for example, Dr. Bullions: "In English f,l the transitive verb has always two voice, the Active and [the] Passive." Prin. of E. Gram. p. 33. " The Participles are three, [ :] the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Ptrf, ct.''lb. p. 57. Again: " Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active and the Passive." Bullions' s Analyt. and Pract. Gram.-p.6Q. Verbs have three participles the present, the past, and the perff ct ; as, lovins;, loved, bavins; loved, in the active voice : &.HCD being loved, loved, having been loved, in the passive." lb. p. 70. Now either not all these are the participles of out verb, or that verb has more than three. Take your choice. Redun- dant verbs usually have duplicate forms of all the participles except the Imperfect Active ; as, lighting, lighted ot lit, having lighted or having lit ; so again, being lighted or being lit, lighted or lit, having been lighted or having been lit. CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES. CLASSES. NAMES. 393 Imperfect, the Compound Passive, the Passive. The SKCO.VD, which, though it is always but one word, some authors treat as being two participles, or three, has been called the Per- fect, the 1'reter, the Prcterperfect, the Imperfect, the Simple Perfect, the Past, the Sim- ple Past, the Preterit, the Passive, the Present Passive, the Perfect Active, the Past Active, the c, the Perfect Neuter, the Simple Perfect Active, the Sin;; i he Tumi) has been called the Compound, the Com- pound Active, the Con . the Compound Perfect, the Compound Perfect Active, the Compound 1 . the Compound Preter, the Present, the Present Perfect, the P- t Compound, the Compound Past, the Prior-perfect, the Prior-pi the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the I'rcterperfect, the Preperfect.* In teaching others to speak and write well, it becomes us to express our doctrines in the most suitable terms ; but the application of a name is of no great consequence, so that the thing itself be right- ly understood by the- learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, iid brief. Upon the choice of his terms, the writer of this work has bestowed much reflection ; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain, without intolerable prolixity, all the reasons for preference. OHS. 3. The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing and ever in- te ; it is therefore rightly termed the IMPERFECT participle : whereas the participle in td always, or at least usually, has reference to the action as done and complete ; and is, by proper contradistinction, called the PERFECT participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imperfect, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference * The diversity in the application of these names, and in the number or nature of the participles recognized in ;i- remarkable :'..- thnt of the names themselves. To prepare a general synopsis of this no man will pmbaMv think it worth his while. The following are a few examples of it : 1. i There are two, the Active Part:< < mis in (ing), as burning, .< Participle which ends in (ed) as, burned." The British Grammar, p. 140. In this book, the iving. PASSIVE. Been, having been." J2>. p. 188. 2. How ninny > ' A. Two; the Active Participle, that ends always in fng-; a. .f Passive Participle, that ends always in ed, t, or n ; as, /< < 'am." Fisher's Practical Present, calling. Past, having called. Future, being about to call. PASSIVB .ist, having been called. Future, being about to be called." Ward's Practical : Perfect, loved : Past, having loved." Lovth's Gram. p. 39. The participles passive : is passive verb," they must be these: i loved." See Loucth's Grant, p. 44. Loved. P( PAS. V. Pres. Being loved. Past, pp. 25 and 33 : linilions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram. 87 . iner one copied from Murray. Hiving loved." PAS. "PrfSfnt. Being loved. .'' L. Murray's late editions, pp 93 and E. Gram . pp. 47 and 55. No form or name of the first par- i ions. Compound perfect. Having pursued." PAS. "Present ''ffect. Having been pursued." R?v. W. AHm's Gram. pp. .ms, and their names too, are thrown together; the former as equivalents, 1 '.-($. Loved or Being loved, Pcrf. Having been i Fere the second active form is wanting ; and the second pafl- Perfect, Havinplov.nl [.]" PAS. "/> . '_ loved [;] Prrftct, Loved, x> ami Hil. '. .o is not given ; the third it . as if they were but forma nt.) Loving. Perfect, Havinglov Perfect, Loved." PAS. "Imperfect, (Pret- tr.t. Gram. pp. '84 and 91. !. ami as manv are misnamed. > -ing Ifredf:] Frazee's Improved Gram. 68 and 73. '/," is not commonly recognized, except V. "Prettrirr>rrrf>rt, Being :c the chief and radical pasriT* , ing loved, [j] Pav. i ;m ., oflRI3.pi>. 37 and 60. PAS. " iVrfirt or I'art I, pp. 66 and \ Voice. '.p. 70. Here the chief Passir* tern . Prnrtical Gram, of 1*18, p. 71. -tt ... Lovi: .-Tb. p. 81. p. 83. ie fourth isf '-is ho\ ut. iiplp* is very discrepant. I have, in brackets, suggested some corrections, but have not attempted a general adjustment of it. 394 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. to time, or to those tenses of the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets. The terms present and past, which some still prefer to imperfect and perfoct, do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction ; but how well they apply to the participles, may be seen by the following texts : " God was in Christ, reconciling i;he world unto himself." "We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." ST. PAUL : 2 Cor. v, 19, 20. Here reconciling refers to the death of Christ, and reconciled, to the de- sired conversion of the Corinthians ; and if we call the former a present participle, and the latter a past, we nominally reverse the order of time in respect to the events, and egre- giously misapply both terms. OBS. 4. Though the participle in ing has, by many, been called the Present participle, it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; otherwise, such expressions as, "I had been Meriting" " I shall be writing," would be solecisms. It has also been called, almost as frequently, the Active participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb ; for such expressions as, " The goods are selling" " The ships are now build- ing" are in use, and not without good authority : as, "And hope to allay, by rational dis- course, the pain of his joints tearing asunder." Locke's Essay, p. 285. " Insensible of the designs now forming by Philip." Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 48. "The improved edition now publishing." Bp. HALIFAX: Pref. to Butler, "The present tense expresses an action now doing." Emmons's Gram. p. 40. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion ; it is therefore properly denominated the IMPERFECT participle. If the term were applied with reference to time, it would be no more objectionable than the word present, and would be equally supported by the usage of the Greek linguists. I am no more inclined to " innova- tion," than are the pedants who, for the choice here made, have ignorantly brought the false charge against me. This name, authorized by Beattie and Pickbourn, is approved by Lindley Murray,* and adopted by several of the more recent grammarians. See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, T. O. Churchill, R. Hiley, B. H. Smart, M. Harrison, and G. Lewis, published in London ; and J. M. M'Culloch's Grammar^ published in Edin- burgh ; also some American grammars, as E. Hazen's, N. Butler's, D. B. Tower's, W. H. Wells's, the Sanderses'. OBS. 5. The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, usually denotes a completion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the PERFECT par- ticiple. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, or future ; for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The conjugation of any passive verb, is a sufficient proof of all this : nqr is the proof invalidated by resolving verbs of this kind into their component parts. Of the participle in ed applied to present time, the following is an ex- ample : " Such a course would be less likely to produce injury to health, than the present course pursued at our colleges." Literary Convention, p. 118. Tooke's notion of gram- matical time, appears to have been in several respects a strange one : he accords v;ith those who call this a past participle, and denies to the other not only the name and no- tion of a tense, but even the general idea of time. In speaking of the old participial ter- mination and or ende, fwhich our Anglo-Saxon ancestors used where we write ing, he says, "I do not allow that there are any present participles, or any present tense of the verb." Diversions of Purley, Yol. ii, p. 41. OBS. 6. The Perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the Passive participle. It usually has in itself a passive signili ca- tion, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, " I have written a letter,"and, "I have a letter writ- * " The most unexceptionable distinction ivhich grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended : as, ' I am writing letter.' The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: as, ' I have written a letter.' 'The letter U written.' " Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 65. " The first [participle] expresses a continuation ; the other, a com- pletion." W. Allen's Grammar,\2mo, London, 1813. " The idea which this participle [e. g. ' tearing'} really ex- presses, is simply that of the continuance of an action in an incomplete or unfinished state. The action may belong to time present, to time past, or to time future. The participle which denotes the completion of an action, as torn, Is called the perfect participle ; because it represents the action as perfected QT finished.' 1 ' 1 Barnard's Analytic Gram. p. 51. Emmons stealthily copies from my Institutes as many as ten lines in defence of the term 'Imper- fect,' 1 and yet, in his conjugations, he calls the participle in .ing, "Present." This seems inconsistent. See his " Grammatical Instructtr, " p. 61. t "The ancient termination (from the Anglo-Saxon) was and; as, 'His schynand sword.' Douglas. And sometimes ende ; as, ' She, betwene the deth and life, Swounende. lay full ofte.' Gower." W. Allen's Gram. p. 88. " The present Participle, in Saxon, was formed by ande, ende, or onde ; and, by cutting off the final e, it acquired a Substantive signification, and extended the idea to the agent : as, alysende, freeing, and alystnd, a redeemer ; fteonde, loving cr friendly, audfreond, a lover or a friend." J>oo//t's Introd. to Diet. p. 75. t William B. Fowle, a modern disciple of Tooke, treats the subject of grammatical time rather more strangely than his master. Thus : " How many times or tenses have verbs ? Two, [the] present and [the] pastS* To thif he immediately adds in a note : " We do not believe in apast any more than a future tense of verbs. ; - The True English Gram. p. 30. So, between these two authors, our verbs will retain no tenses at all. Indeed, by his two tenses, Fowle only meant to recognize the two simple forms of an English verb. For he says, in an other place, " We repeat our conviction that no verb in itself expresses time of any sort." Ib. p. 69. CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES. CLASSES. NAMES. 395 ten ; " the former being equivalent to Scripsi literas, and the latter to Sunt mihi liters scripts. But there arc many perfect participles which cannot with any propriety be called passive. Such are all those which come from intransitive or neuter verbs ; and also those which so often occur in the tenses of verbs not passive. I have already noticed some instances of this misnomer ; and it is better to preclude it altogether, by adhering to the true name of this participle, s r. Nor is that entirely true which some assert, " that this par- ticiple in the active is only found in combination ; " that, " Whenever it stands alone to be parsed as a Participle, it is passive." //l "<-.sr things arc doing, were doing, &c. ; The house is building, was building, &c." Ib. p. s :. X. Butler, in his Practical Grammar, of 1845, names, and counts, and orders, the participles very oddly: " Every verb," he says, "has two participles the im- perfect and ; . " P. 78. Yet, for the verb love, he finds these six ; two " IMPERFECT, Loving and lid /if/ loved ; " two " PERFECT, Having loved and. Having been loved ; " one "AUXIL- IARY 1 ."of the "Active Voice;" and one "PASSIVE, Loiyd," of the "Passive ." Many old writers erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the- participle in cd or en as always passive ; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having loved, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. The absurdity of this is manifest : for having / ; oi // ifl passive. Again, the triple compound, having been writing, is active ; and h-ing toccd differs from the simple participle loved, in significa- tion as well as in form; and, if this participle is to be named with reference to its nn-aning, there is no i!i .a for it, than the epithet 1 ' r, a word which explains itself, like ;// . Of the many other names, the most correct one is PLUPERFECT, which y nearly the same meaning. Not bccaxise this compound is really of the pi 1 . it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, orwas, or will the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is i is pa-t, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense oi \ >. it was necessary she should expatiate on aity and futility of tin- enjoym rare."- /ofiMMon'j Wn-t. p. 181. Here \ \\\\ " I may say, "/ commanded, we obeyed." Felch's Com- ji. i\. Here the two phrases in Italics correspond in import, though not in construction. Ons. Q.I'/iijH-rfcct is a derivative contracted from the Latin pin- . and literally signifii s more tli-;. ,-t ; i. e., (as confirmed by use,) ante- ced'^i' ual name of our fourth tense ; is likewise applicable ling tenae in other tongues ; and is a word familiar to every scholar. Y grammarians too ready, ; r innovation, have shown their willingness to discard it altogether. Bullions, Butler, HUey, Perley, Wi-lN, and some others, call the Eng!i . -perfect, and understand either epithet to mem " completed at or before a certain past time ; " ( Bullions' s E. Gram. p. 39;) that is 396 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [l>ART 21. "finished or past, at some past time." Butler's Pract. Gram. p. 72. The relation of tlie tense is before the past, but the epithet pluperfect is not necessarily limited to this relation, any more than what is perfect is necessarily past. Butler has urged, that, "Pluperfect does not mean completed before" but is only " a technical name of a particular tense ; " and, arguing from this erroneous assumption, has convinced himself, " It would be as correct to call this the second future participle as the pluperfect." Ib. p. 79. The technical name, as limited to the past, is preter pluperfect, from the older teiTaprceteritumplusQu.' -m ; so preter perfect, from prceteritumperfectum, i. e. past perfect, is the name of an other tense, now called tho perfect : wherefore the substitution of past-perfect for pluperfect is the less to be commended. There may be a convenience in having the name of the tense to differ from that of the participle, and this alone induces me to prefer preperfect to pluperfect for the name of the latter. OBS. 10. From the participle in ed or en, we form three tenses, which the above-named authors call perfect ; " the present-perfect, the post-perfect, and \h& future-perfect ; " as, have seen, had seen, will have seen. Now it is, doubtless, the participle, that gives to these their perfectness ; w r hile diversity in the auxiliaries makes their difference of time. Yet it is assumed by Butler, that, in general, the simple participle in cd or en, " does not denote an action done and completed," and is not to be called perfect ; (p. 80 ;) that, " If we wish to express by a participle, an action completed at any time, we use the compound form, and this is THE perfect participle ;" (p. 79;) that, " The characteristic of the par- ticiple in ed is, that it implies the reception of an action ; " (p. 79 ;) that, hence, it should be called the passive, though it " is usually called the perfect participle ; " (p. 79 ;) that, " The use of this participle in the perfect tenses of the active voice should not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition ; " (p. 80 ;) that its active, neuter, or intransitive use is not a primitive idiom of the language, but the result of a gradual change of the term from the passive to the active voice ; (p. 80 ;) that, " the participle has changed its mode of signification, so that, instead of being passive, it is now active in sense ; " (p. 105;) that, "having changed its original meaning so entirely, it should not be con- sidered the same participle ;" (p. 78 ;) that, " in such cases, it is a perfect participle," and, " for the sake of distinction [,] this may be called the auxiliary perfect participle." Ib. These speculations I briefly throw before the reader, without designing much comment u:x>n them. It will be perceived that they are, in several respects, contradictory one to an other. The author himself names the participle in reference to a usage which he says, " shoild not be taken into consideration ; " and names it absurdly too ; for he calls that " the auxil- iary," which is manifestly the principal term. He also identifies as one what he professe 3 to distinguish as two. OBS. 11. Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before nouns to derote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial adjectives. Words of a parti- cipial form may be regarded as adjectives, under the following circumstances : 1. "When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a tran- sient act or state ; as, "A lying rogue," i.e., one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison ; as, "A more learned TXLQIL." 3. When they are compounded v.'ith something that does not belong to the verb ; as, " unfeeling, unfelt : " there is no verb to unfeel, therefore these words cannot be participles. Adjectives are generally placed before iieir nouns ; participles, after them. The words beginning with un, in the following lines may be classed with participial adjectives : " No king, no subject was ; unscutcheoned all ; Uncrowned, unplumed, unhelmed, unpedigreed ; Unlaced, uncoroneted, unbestarred." Pollok, C. of T., B. viii, 1. 89. OBS. 12. Participles in ing of ten become nouns. When preceded by an article, an adjective or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are construed as nouns ; and, if wholly such, have neither adverbs nor active regimen : as, " He laugheth at the shaking of a spear." Job, xli, 29. "There is no searching of his understanding ." Isaiah, xl, 28. "In their setting of their threshold by my threshold." Ezehiel, xliii, 8. " That any man should make my glorying void." 1 Cor. ix, 15. The terms so converted form the class of verbal or par- ticipial nouns. But some late authors ( J. S. Hart, S. S. Greene, W. H. Wells, and others) have given the name of participial nouns to many participles, such participles, often, as retain all their verbal properties and adjuncts, and merely partake of some syntactical re- semblance to nouns. Now, since the chief characteristics of such words arc from the verb, and are incompatible with the specific nature of a noun, it is clearly improper to call them nouns. There arc, in the popular use of participles, certain mixed constructions which are reprehensible ; yet it is the peculiar nature of a participle, to participate the proper- ties of other parts of speech, of the verb and adjective, of the verb and noun, or some- times, perhaps, of all three. A participle immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, but remains a participle, and therefore retains its adverb, and also its government of the objective case ; as, " I thank you for helping him so seasonably." Par- ticiples in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimes called gerundives. CIUP. VII.] ETTMOLOGY.^PARTICIPLES. PARSING. PRAXIS VII. 397 Ons. 13. To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should ob- serve the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them ; parti- ciples, as such, do not. '2. Nouns may govern the possessive case before them, but not the objective after them ; participles may govern the objective case, but not so properly the 3. Nouns, if they have adverbs, require the hyphen ; participles take adverbs separately. ;; do their verbs. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things, and are some- times drained like other nouns; participles usually refer actions to their agents or recipi- ents, arvl imve in English no grammatical modifications of any kind. Oi;s. 1 : . To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe which of the auxiliary forms will express it : thus, loved for b< ' ' for did love, is a preterit verb. So Jield for did hold, stung for did sting, r t, and the like, are irregular verbs ; but held for being held, stung for being ttung, tau/iht for being taught, and the like, are perfect participles. . 15. Though the English participles have no inflections, and are consequently in- capable of any grammatical agreement or disagreement, those which are simple, are sometimes elegantly taken in a plural sense, with the apparent construction of nouns; but, under these circumstances, they are in reality neither nouns nor participles, but participial adjec- tives construed clliptically, as other adjectives often are, and relating to plural nouns under- stood. The ellipsis is sometimes of a singular noun, though very rarely, and much less properly. Examples : " To them who are the called according to his purpose." Rom. x, 28. That is " the called ones or persojis." " God is not the God of the dead, but of the living" Matt, xxii, 32. " Neither is it found in the land of the living." Job, xxviii, 13. " The liv- ing, the licincj, he shall praise thee, as I do this day." Isaiah, xxxviii, 19. " Till we are made fit to live and reign with him and all his redeemed, in the heavenly glory forever." Jenlx's Prayers, p 18. " Ye blessed of my Father, come, ye just, Enter the joy eternal of your Lord." Pottok, B. x, 1. 591. " Depart from me, ye cursed, into the fire Prepared eternal in the gulf of Hell." 7. A common adjective . superlative degree is that which is moil or least ol all Included with it. 398 THE GKAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different tilings or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. All is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood, o. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared. Joys is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things, 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing mei'ely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gene er is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. Attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, attend, attended, attending, attended. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, ored, to the verb. 2. The imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion. It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. '6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I. PARSING. "A Verb is a word whereby something or other is represented as existing, possess- ing, acting, or being acted upon, at some particular time, past, present, or future ; and this in various manners." Wldte, on the English Verb, p. 1. " Error is a savage, lurking about on the twilight borders of the circle illuminated by truth, ready to rush in and take possession, the moment her lamp grows dim.'' Beecher. " The science of criticism may be considered as a middle link, connecting the different parts of education into a regular chain." Ld. Kames, EL of Orit., p. xxii. " When I see a man walking, a tree growing, or cattle grazing, I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be. Nature determines us to rely on the veracity of our senses ; for otherwise they could not in any degree answer their end, that of laying open things existing and passing around us." Id. ib. i, 85. " But, advancing farther in life, and inured by degrees to the crooked ways of men ; pressing through the crowd, and the bustle of the world ; obliged to contend with this man's craft, and that man's scorn ; accustomed, sometimes, to conceal their senti- ments, and often to stifle their feelings ; they become at last hardened in heart, and familiar with corruption." BLAIR : Murray's Sequel, p. 140. " Laugh'd at, he laughs again ; and stricken hard, Turns to his stroke his adamantine scales, That fear no discipline of human hands." Cowper's Task, p. 47. LESSON II. PARSING. " Thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person, and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others, are the punishments provided by nature for in- justice." /Tames, El of Grit. Vol. i, p. 288. "Viewing man as under the influence of novelty, would one suspect that custom also should influence him ? Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is wonderfully, and, indulging the expresssion, intricately con- structed." Id. ib. i, 325. " Dryden frequently introduces three or four persons speaking upon the same subject, each throwing out his own notions separately, without regarding what is said by the rest." Id. ib. ii, 294. "Nothing is more studied in Chinese gardens, than to raise wonder or surprise. Sometimes one is led insensibly into a dark cavern, terminating unexpectedly in a landscape enriched with all that nature affords the most delicious." Id. ib. ii, 334. " The answer to the objection here implied, is obvious, even on the supposition of the questions put being answered in the affirmative." Prof. VethaJce. " As birds flying, so will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem ; defending also, he will deliver it; and, passing over, he will preserve it." Isaiah, xxxi, 5. " Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held, Minds combat minds, repelling and repell'd." Goldsmith. " Suffolk first died, and York, all haggled over, Comes to him where in gore he lay insteeped." Shakspeare. CHAP. VII.] ETIMOLOGT. PARTICIPLES. ERRORS. 399 LESSON III. PARSING. " Every change in the state of things is considered as an effect, indicating the agency, characterizing the kind, and measuring the degree, of its cause." Dr. Mur- ray, Hist, of En. L., i, 171K " Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them unto the end. And supper being ended, (the devil having now put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him,) Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hand, and that he had come from God and was going to God, arose from sup- per, and laid aside his coat, and, taking a towel, girded himself: then he poured some wafer into a basin, and began to wash the disciples' feet, and to wipe them with the towel with which he wag girded." See John, xiii. " Spiritual desertion is naturally and judicially incurred by sin. It is the with- drawal of that divine unction which enriches the acquiescent soul with moral power and pleasure. The subtraction leaves the mind enervated, obscured, confused, de- graded, and distracted." HOMO: N. T. Observer. " Giving no offence in any thing, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God : as unknown, and yet well known ; as dying, and, behold, we live ; as chastened, and not killed ; as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing ; as poor, yet making many rich ; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things." 2 Cor. vi. " may th' indulgence of a father's love, Pour'd forth on me, be doubled from above." Young. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS OF PARTICIPLES. (/" [As the principles upon which our participles ought to be formed, were necessarily anticipated in the pre- ceding chapter on verbs, the reader must recur to that chapter for the doctrines by which the following errors are to be corrc< tc 1. The jn-at length of that chapter seemed a good reason for separating these exam pies from it, and it was :i rh words as are erroneously written for participles, should, for the sake of order, be . In many of these examples, however, the participle is not really a separate part of spei c-h, but is in fact taken with an auxiliary to form some compound tense of its verb.] LESSON I. IRREGULARS. ' Many of your readers have mistook that passage." Steele, Spect., No. 544. [FoRMULE Not proper, because the preterit verb mistook Is here used for the perfect participle. But, according rbs, we ought to Ray. mistake, mistook, mistaking, mistaken; after the form of the Itn. Therefore, the sentence should be amended thus : " Many of your readers /i that p:issa_- " Had not my dig of a steward ran away." Addison, Spcct. " None should be admitted, except he had broke his collar-bone thrice." Spcct. No. 474. " We could not know what was wrote at twenty." / " I have wrote, thou hast wrote, he has wrote; we have wrote, ye have wrote, they have wrote." Ash's Gram. p. 62. "As if God had spoke his last words there to his people." Barclay's Works, i, 462. " I had like to have came in that ship myself." A >. 453. " Our ships and vessels being drove out of the har- bour 1 . 470. " lie will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have wrote, had he writ in the same language." Boliiigbroke, on Hist, i, 68. "When hi- ; re w too strong to be shook by his enemies." Attcrbury. "The iminortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion." Milton. " Grease that's sweaten from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame." Xhak. Macbeth. The court also was chided for allowing such questions to be put." '''emasonry, p. 470. " He would have spoke." Milton, I'. 1... 15. x, 1. ,>17. >vith sighs found out their way." /'/. > have strove." Id. i:iii>nnchii % \\\\. "That - took." , ~. "And envious Darkness, ere they could re- tur.i, hem from me." Id. r<. ////>*, 1. i:i.i. "I have chose this perfect man." . /,'., 15. i, 1. 165. "I will scarce think you h:ive swam in a gondola." Mink. As You iragrant bn :i." hn/dn LM. ohnugud to .''.;"' of all (ho trnntn:itior Forgive him. TOT-.- . I with his own potav."-- '' . Ao: :. "A are, L was nuv ll mother.' /\v/.'?>\ p. ;UO. "If ho ^honld now he i -inoehisi ' c head and "We seo the D ;]_'. " Hooanso they t'nul their j - /.'. p. ,'v'S. " what a pleasure muct vrith pain 1 "- Aiuloniy>.-ith .llowM, That iui;;-l\t noi he oonfest." /. p. 361. "My love to Sluvb.h is more i -The observations awnext to them will K , \\A. i, p. 157. res are always fixt on. the general priu< , 468. "Laborious i wiUbobanishl t'ror.; > 1, :u\d as reestablisht in his sto:ul." / /&. i, 466. '* Nor should I have spol , v.uloss Maxtor had t:i ] kt abo: such." /d. i, 467. "And the reformers of a^ht on." !>. i, >(;). "Three oc-.. ' a half had then elaptt since the date, 1 ot'sm-horiti-ria, as has beer. .uulauce." Ib. - } \ have >ur- every other nation in their services." Ib. i, 306. iity to the speaker." Boms'* Hermes, p. 66. "To -\\Vi h wo ('otter'* Pitrtidos, p. 13. " But for him, I should have lookt M oil enough to in Id. p. 88. "Why are you vext, Lady? why do frown?" !///'/<>;/, r/;m,<, 1 "Obtruding false rules prank t in reason's garb." Ib. 1. 759, ' Hut. i '.ko Pavid on Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed." Compfott** Met. p. 378. " And when their merchants are blown up, and crackt, Whole towns are oast away in storms, and wreckt." Butler, p. 163. LESSON III. MIXED. "The lands are holden in free and common soccage." Trumbuffs Hist, i, 133. ot proper, because the participle koldtn is not m that form which present us: '' ut , ncroiMir- to tho table of irregular verbs, the four parts of the rwrb to hold, as now used, mv . . . ; -.v.-.vo, . :::, ' :-... - . . L:.^ avo : i .. ..: I,,-.-. - n ^> .,, .,.."| " A stroke is drawed under sn i rammar, Edition of 1S3-J. ',">!. "It is striked even, with a strickle." How\- /'.: .-; :.\ :.>. p. il->. Wi ring, without any on v my bounds." lit. p. S;>. "YTuou one wouh: thing, unless hundred ;t." JbAtuo/t's < potentially, but not so as dote upon things hurryod down the Stream thus en hnth timely try*d their growth." Milton, Conuu. have Pnntcht his wand." Ib. p. 815. that they have at last come to ' "Tho n among the pots." Po/. olive- U a ( pluck i RXI>S' BIBLB, ar, Are rid, like madmen, through the u Luke, xviii, 82. " And are not tho oo 'try's .Vrmom. "No; as she was cloud." UWtot, B P*sroso, 1, 123. " To satisly . H. aJ " With him there v W. P. L., B. x, 1. 325. "] rgon/'J . o, alas, is quick 74. " In i uld you not wi.- ^150. *' In the Gran: . ion pretixt to them." Grai:- . , hoover n place the . Itr's Did. "Being mo, Essays, p. 40. \vn, Till ' >scommon* " In iny own Th.auies may I bo d If e'er 1 . orown'd-hoad." Sicifl. CHAP. VIII.] . AI 401 CIIAITKIl YIIL-ADVKRIiS. An An. M<-<1 to a vcrl, a particijilc, ;m a'ljr-ctivc, or an :mf, pl;u'' . . < i- milliner: as, itly. BRVATH lid oth< : : as, Now, ' : I)Uiif, ullij, I lailJfd b; ::'liii'^ with a noun. hhort words, which fir*' '- i: if I ft, <'.', i in ii in t't!. ]Jut all ,'!y retain thr-ir individuality, ought t< \\ ith t! .i; a few elli i'nis parser In these i; yfh, !ioii;il)lv nouns j u a noun ;///// and alt uns arc understood; at least, is, ,cnt, is, at the present time ; and in vain, is, in a vain course, or ttion of two or more separable parts of speech, the parsing 11. And though the division of our language cch, have never yet been made Mily desirable to bring them as near together as possible. , cverso, to-< /-and- it' tlicy an to be COm- ! thf (liff'crfiit. (rl;)::-."s of -\vonls, some particular instances may to take the nature oi > as either 1 This may appear in- /'/. , 337. "The other party waa a \Q8tone* blind." Cuirjur. "He will ' ." -c/'ir!;. "Tlicy were travelling post when he met them." ii'l \\itli a vengeance sent : i;i post to Egypt." Milton, ' work or not." Kirk- !l iii^lit, and i^ // i.>.-unce cold." i IVES : not." J' t -. "A | .ms deep." If /. "That may speak louder or softer in the ;>. 116. i i.i r : tin -c ":" a, ,/. xx, 9. '.; went the \vliij), round went the f/, along the miry road." Id. ' went the yard medicines given scalding came Squire South, stark, '. iv, 8. " How sweet, how ' we act according to our duty." lifted up axe-, upon the thick trees." 1 \ilo\\- ih i, leather from my face. "- ofman."- "From r i fro in the in it." / eposi- hough r words for lot aetu.dly call adverbs,) maybe ' as, i in. fly appears when one 402 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II, OBS. 5. As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, HO adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, assume the nature of other parts of speech.. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say Yes or No; that will do very little good ; the yes or the no must be accompanied and supported by reasons." Dr.M'- Cartee. "Shall I tell you why ? Ay, sir, and wherefore ; for, they say, every why hath a wherefore" Shalt. (2.) Of ADJECTIVES : as, " Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an almost desert." Wood's Diet. w. Moab. " The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty." Clarendon. "With upward speed his agile wings he spread." Prior. " She lights the doionward heaven, and rises there." Dry den. (3.) Of PRONOUNS : as, " He liked the ground whereon she trod." Milton. " Wherein have you been galled by the king ? " Shak. " O how unlike the place from ichcnce they fell ! " Par. Lost, B. i, 1. 75. Here whereon is exactly equivalent in sense to on which ; wherein, to in what ; and tohence, to which : but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns. (4.) Of VERES : as, " If he be hungry more than wanton, bread alone will down." Locke. " To down proud hearts that would not willing die." Sidney. " She never could away with me." Shah. "Away, and glister like the god of war." Id. "Up, get ye out of this place." Gen. xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS : as, " I, even I, am he." Isaiah, xliii, 25. " If I will that he tarry till I come." John, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him before I die." Gen. xlv, 28, " Before I go whence I shall not return." Job, x, 21. (6.) Of PREPOSITIONS : as, " Superior to any that are dug out the ground." Barnes's Lect. p. 28. "Who act so counter heavenly mercy's plan." Burns. Better perhaps, " out of" and " counter to." (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS : as, "Up, up, Glentarkin ! rouse thee, ho !" Scott. "Down, down, cried Mar, your lances down ! " Id. "Off! or I fly for ever from thy sight." Smith. OBS. 6. In these last examples, up, and down, and off, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections ; but they need not be referred to either of these classes, because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Home Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong ; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work ; but, as the classification of word* often depends upon their construction, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax. OBS. 7. The proper classification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly n- dicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circum- stances of any event or assertion, are the when, the where, the how-much, and the how ; or the time, the place, the degree, and the manner. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of sometime, somewhere, somewhat, or somehow. Hence the gencxal classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The classifica- tion heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammars, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this : "Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interroga- tion, and Comparison." Murray's Gram. p. 115 ; Comly's, 66 ; Kirkham's, 86 ; R. C. Smith's, 34 ; Hall's, 26 ; and others. CLASSES. Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes ; namoly, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs. I. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long ? How soon f or, How often ? including these which ask. OBS. Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows : 1. Of time present ; as, Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straight- way, directly, forthwith. 2. Of time past; as, Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, here- tofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, ercwhile, erst. 3. Of time to come ; as, Tomorrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, short/)/. 4. Of time relative ; as, When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, other while, otherivhiles. 5. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly. 6. Of time repeated ; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, or three times. Above this, we u CHAP. TIT.] ETYBIOLOGY. ADVERBS. CLASSES. 403 only the phrases, four times, five times, six times, &c. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs or not, is questionable : times, for repetitions, may be supposed a noun. II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the question, Where ? Whither ? Whence ? or, Whereabout ? including these which ask. OBS. Adverbs of place mav be subdivided as follows : 1. Of place in which ; as, iVhere, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, any win i ', otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, ir!n-refiintts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts. 2. Of place to which; a*, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, doicn, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, Immcicards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. Inward, homeward ^ upward, downward, backward, and forward, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives. 3. Of place from which ; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely. 4. Of the order of place ; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, c. Thus, secondly means in the second place ; thirdly, in the third place ; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees. III. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much ? How little ? or to the idea of more or less. OBS. Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows : 1. Of excess or abundance ; as, Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides ; chief y, princi- pally, mainly, mostly, generally ; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, ynitt; clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, incon- ', injinitely. 2. Of equality or sufficiency ; as, Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely. 3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily, merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite. 4. Of quantity in the abstract ; as, How, (meaning, in what degree,) however, howsoever, everso, 'n'nt/. anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially. IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How ? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded. OBS. Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : 1. Of manner from quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. Ly is a contraction of like; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few o these are also used adverbially : as, daily, weekly, monthly, which denote time. 2. Of affirmation or assent ; as, Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assur . forsooth,* amen. 3. Of negation; as, No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow. 4. Of doubt or uncertainty ; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be. ~>. Of mode or way ; as, Thus, so, hotr, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, elst, -.''ross, together, ap-nt, n^undtr, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, . I: endlong, i V. Conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like. This class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others : as, (1.) The abverbs of cause ; why, refore, therefore ; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions. ) The pronominal compounds ; herein, therein, wherein, &c. ; in which the former term is a substitute, and virtually governed by the enclitic particle. OBSERVATIONS. 1. Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses, on which unt it is the more- ncrcs-aiy to distinguish them from others; as, "And they feared when they heard that they wore Romans." -S. Here when is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates equally 'to feared and to heard. " The right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general, as and when they pl':x it." ffolroyd. Here as is a conjunctive adverb of manner, and . of time ; both relating equally to coming and to j> ous. 2 The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: after, again, ako, ax, before, besides, ronterju, nth/, rthermore, hence, how, however, mort- : *o, stilt, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, whert, hither, and while, or whilst. OBS. 3. Adverbs of titm-, plwe, and manner, are generally connected with verbs or participles ; those of degree are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs : the latter, however, some- * Forsooth is literally a word of affirmation or a*wnt. meaning for truth, but it is now almost always nsed ironi- as, u In those gentlemen whom the world forsooik calls wie and solid, there is generally either a morosenew that persecutes, or a dullness that tires you." Home's Art of Thinking, p. 24. 404 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. times denote the measure of actions or effects ; as, "And I wept much." Rev. v, 4. "And Isaac trembled very exceedingly." Gen. xxvii, 33. " Writers who had felt less, would have said more." Fuller. " Victors and vanquished, in the various field, Nor wholly overcome, nor wholly yield." Dryden. OBS. 4. The adverbs kere t there, and where, when compounded with prepositions, have the force of pronouns, or of pronominal adjectives: as, Hereby, for by this; thereby, for by that; whereby, for by lohich, or by what. The prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner, are only the short words, at, by, for, from, in, into, of, on, to, unto, under, upon, and with. Compounds of this kind, although they partake the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before, are still properly reckoned adverbs, because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them ; as, " You take my life, when you do take the means wJiereby I live." Shak. Here whereby is a conjunctive adverb, representing means, and relating to the verb live.* This mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated, though still frequently used by good authors, and especially by the poets. OBS. 5. The adverbs, ichen, where, whither, whence, how, why, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereby, and other like compounds of where, are sometimes .used as inter roc/at ivcs ; but, as such, they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution, except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives. These adverbs, ar>d the three pronouns, who, which, and what, are the only interrogative words in the language ; but questions may be asked without any of them, and all have other uses than to ask questions. OBS. 6. The conjunctive adverbs, when, where, whither, whence, how, and why, are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of pronouns, being used as a sort of special relatives, which refer back to antecedent nouns of time, place, manner, or cause, according to their own respective meanings ; yet being adverbs, because they relate as such, to the verbs which follow them: as, " In the day when God shall judge the secrets of men." Rom. ii, 16. "In a time when thou mayest be found." PsaL xxxii, 6. " I sought for some time what I at length found here, a place where all real wants might be easily supplied."!);-. Johnson. " To that part of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy." Id. "At Canterbury, ivhither some voice had run before." Wotton. " Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged." Isaiah, li, 1. " We may remark three different sources whence it arises." Blair's Rhet. p. 163. " I'll tell you a way how you may live your time over again." Collier's Antoninus, p. 108. "A crude account of the method how they perceive truth." Harris's Hermes, p. 404. " The order hoio the Psalter is appointed to be read" Common Prayer. "In the sane reasoning we see the cause, why no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees." Hermes, p. 201. " There seems no reason why it should not work prosperously." Society in America, p. 68. " There are strong reasons why an extension of her territory would be injurio is to her." Ib. "An other reason why it deserved to be more studied." Blair's Rhet. p. Ii3. " The end ichy God hath ordained faith, is, that his free grace might be glorified." Goodwin. OBS. 7. The direct use of adverbs for pronouns, is often, if not generally, inelegant; arid, except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened, it ought to be considered ungrammat- ical. The following examples, and perhaps also some of the foregoing, are susceptible of improvement: " Youth is the time, when we are young." Sanborn's Gram. p. 120. Say rathor, "Youth is that part of life which succeeds to childhood." "The boy gave a satisfactory reason why he was tardy." Ibid. Say rather, " The boy gave a satisfactory reason for his tardinesu." "The several sources from whence these pleasures are derived." Murray's Key, p. 2o8. Say rather " sources from which." " In cases ichere it is only said, that a question has been asked." Kirkham's Gram. p. 217. Say, " In those cases inwJdch" " To the false rhetoric of the v,ga when he lived." Harris's Hermes, p. 415. Say rather " of the age in which he lived." OBS. 8. When a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative, Ihe construction seems to be less objectionable, and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it, especially in poetry: as, " But the Son of man hath not icJtcrc to lay his head." Matt, viii, 20. " There might they see whence Po and Ister came." Hoole's Tasso. " Tell how he formed your shining frame." Ogilvic. " The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell ivhcnceit cometh, and whither it goeth." John, in, 8. In this construction, the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition ; the noun being, in fact, understood: as, " Sinks, like a sea-weed, into whence she rose." Byron. " Here Machiavelli's earth return'd to whence it rose." Id. OBS. 9. The conjunctive adverb so, very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before; as, "Wheresoever the speech is corrupted, so is the mind." Seneca's Morals, p. 267. That is, the mind is also corrupted. " I consider grandeur and sublimity, as terms synony- mous, or nearly so." Blair's Rhet. p. 29. The following sentence is grossly wrong, because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer : " We have now come to far the most complicated part of speech ; and one which is sometimes rendered still more so, than the nature of our language requires." Nutting's Gram. p. 38. So, in some instances, repeats the import of a preceding noun, and consequently partakes the nature of a pronoun; as, " We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so." Pope, on Crit. OBS. 10. " Since is often improperly used for ago : as, ' When were you in France ? Twenty * In most instances, however, the words hereof, thereof, and whereof, are placed after nount, and have nothing to do with any verb. They are therefore not properly atlvftbi, though all our grammarians and lexicographer! call them so. Nor are they adjectives ; because they are not used adjectively, but rather in the sense of a pro- noun governed by of; or, what is nearly the same thing, in the sense of the possessive or genitive case. Example : "And the lame hereof went abroad." Malt, ix, 26. That is, ' the fame of this miracle;" which last is a better expression, the other being obsolete, or worthy to be so, on account ol its irregularity. CHAP. Till.] ETYMOLOGY. ADVERBS. MODIFICATIONS. 405 years since.' It ought to be, ' Twenty years ago.' Since may be admitted to supply the place of ago that : it being equally correct to say, " It is twenty years since I was in F ance;' and, ' It is twents .'/, ;/.' 1 \v.is in France. 1 " Churchill's Gram. p. 337. The difference between o is clearly this : the former, being cither a preposition or a conjunctive adverb, can- not with strict propriety be used adjc-tin-ly , the latter, being in reality an old participle, naturally comes after a noun, in the sense of an adjective ; as, a year ajo, a month arjo, a week ayo. "Go, ago, y re all used indiscriminately by our old English writers as the le <;f the verb to go." Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 376. "Three days at/one, I fell sick." 1 &t//tiul, xxx, lo. MODIFICATIONS. Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;* , lonycr, longest ; fast, faster, fastest. The following are irregularly compared : well, letter, best ; badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; forth, farther, furthest. Hath, rather, rathest, is now used only in the com- parative. OBSERVATIONS. . 1. Most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly, will admit the comparative adverbs more and m-)st, less and least, before them : as, wisely, more wisely, most 10 /, least culpably. This is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb, but the 1 inflection, or degree, belongs only to the former ; and the words oarately, it is certainly most proper to parse them separately, ascribing the of comparison to the word which expresses it. As comparison does not belong to aclver il, it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which ;r it. . J. lu the works of Milton, and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age,t adverbs of two syllables, ending in ly, are not only compared regularly, like adjectives of the same ending, but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables. Examples : " But God hath wiselier arm'd his vengeful ire." P. Lost, B. x, 1. 1022. " Destroyers riyhtlier call'd and plagues of men." Ib. B. xi, 1. 699. "And on his quest, where likeliest he might find." Ib. B. ix, 1. 414. " Now amptier known thy Saviour and thy Lord." Ib. B. xii, 1. 544. "Though thou \\crtjirmlicr fasten'd than a rock." Sam. Agon. 1. 1398. " Not rustic, as before, but seemlier clad." P. Reg. B. ii, 1. 299. " Whereof to thee anon 'ier shall be reveal'd." Paradise Lost, B. xii, 1. 150. " To show what coast thy sluggish crare harbour in." >'//th adjcftivcly and adverbially. The- words which are now commonly used in this C, arc" principally monosyllables; and, of adjectives, monosyllables are the and cst : next to which come dissyllables ending in y ; as, liut if to any monosyllabic we add fy to form an adverb, we have :>s of this class may be compared regularly, after t little or no occasion to use the primitive word ivc. But, according to present usage, few adverbs are ever com- hy inflection, except such \v.. ..djcctively. For example : arly, kindly, kingly, HI ',/, seemly, trenk'/y, may all be thus According to Johnson and Webster, they may all be used either adjectively 1 in this manner, though not frequently ; as, " This kind of verse occurs the f|lU Hn<, but has a h-ippy !(>,:. in div.-i ;,, IUIIIKT g- raphers as an adjective only ; and if the latter are right, Milton's use of easiest in the sease and construction of most easily, must be considered an error in grammar. And besides, ac- cording to his own practice, he ought to have pref erred plainliest to plainest, in the adverbial sense of most plainly . OBS. 6. Beside the instances already mentioned, of words used both adjectively and ad- verbially, our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other, according to their construction ; as, soon, late, high, low, quick, slack, hard, soft, wide, close, clear, thick, full, scant, long, short, clean, near, scarce, sure, fast ; to which may as well be added, slow, loud, and deep ; all susceptible of the regular form of comparison, and all regularly convertible into adverbs in ly ; though soonly and longly are now obsolete, and fastly, which means firmly, is seldom used. In short, it is, probably, from an idea, that no adverbs are to be compared by er and est unless the same words may also be used adjective- ly, that we do not thus compare lately, highly, quickly, loudly, &c., after the example of Milton. But, however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms, the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred, especially in prose. For ex- ample : " The more it was complained of, the louder it was praised." Daniel Webster, in Congress, 1837. If it would seem quaint to say, " The loudlier it was praised," it would perhaps be better to say, " The more loudly it was praised ; " for our critics have not acknowledged loud or louder to be an adverb. Nor have slow and deep been so called. Dr. Johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an adjective : " Drink hellebore, my boy ! drink deep, and scour thy brain. DRYDEN." Joh. Diet. w. Deep. " Drink hellebore, my boy ! drink deep, and. purge thy brain." Dryd. IV Sat. of Persius. OBS. 7. In some instances, even in prose, it makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns, or adverbs of like import, having reference to the verbs : as, " The whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to the mind." Blair'* Rhet. p. 138. Here clear and. strong are adjectives, referring to conception; but we might as well say, " The whole conception is conveyed clearly and strongly to the mind." "Against a power that exists independent of their own choice." Webster's Essays, p. 46. Here we might as well say, " exists independently ; " for the independence of the power, in which- ever way it is expressed, is nothing but the manner of its existence. " This work goeth fast on and prospereth." Ezra. " Skill comes so slow, and life so fast doth fly." Davies. Dr. Johnson here takes fast and slow to be adjectives, but he might just as well have called them adverbs, so far as their meaning or construction is concerned. For what here qualifies the things spoken of, is nothing but the manner of their motion ; and this might as well be ex- pressed by the words, rapidly, slowly, swiftly. Yet it ought to be observed, that this docs not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs, and not adjectives. Our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence. CUAP. VIII.] ETYMOLOGY. ADVERBS. PAUSING. PRAXIS VIII. 407 EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS VIII. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Eighth Praxis, it ' --d of the. pupil to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the AUTICLES, NOUNS, AD.JI I'KOXOUNS. PARTICIPLES, awe? ADVERBS. The definitions to le given in the Eighth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, and one for a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. ' When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?" ~Ji. G. J/arper. Wlien Is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other :!> : and generally i i.c, place, decree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer t<- . \Vln-n f //< noon? orl/owoftfn? inclndijig these which :i U'as i*an irrciMilar neuter verb, fromfte, ica*. liin. The third persi n is that \sl,kh Denotes the person or tiling merely spoken of. 7. The singular "number is that " the third person, sinpular number, nenter per.der, and nominative case. 1. A pro- : .1 n-'iin. '-'. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that sh"\\s. bv its form, of \\h.r 3. Tlie third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number The neuter gender to that which den at are . ue nominative ease is that furm or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes >rd used to connect words or sentences In construction, and to r, personified feminine, and nominative case. 1. A nohn it be known or mentioned, i'. A proper noun is tli- D third person!* that which denote* th penon or thing > i that vrhlch denotes but one. *>. The feminine ,;iale kind. (',. 'i he nominative case is that form or State Of a noun or pronoun, which deno verl). A'.trart, lar active-tran -(traded, attracting, attracted; found in the indic- ative m<>(,d, inn..' and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that sijrnines to be, to act, or to rii is a verb that i-mns the ]reterit and the perfect participle bv ass:. s an action which has some person or thii! ; I'.irm ot'tlii- verl>, which simply indicates or declares a thin^. .r a-k- a q i-; tliat whicli expr. or was occur- ring, in tim "'. The tbinl II-TS-III i< that which denotes the person or thin-; merely spoken oC 7. T: i/ost \- :. 1 found in the superlative. 1. An adverb is a word added t" .1 verb; and jjcneralh expresses tiine. place, degree, f-r maiMi'M- h f /low lililf or to th idea. thai \vhich is f of all included with it. ,;.. a parti.-iple, an adje, live, or an manner are those nvin-. or duuMinr, show Itmr a subj.'d is regarded. The l t . or a, whuh we put before noun-, to limit their sig- irliculnr thinjr or tilings. hler, and o'ljective ease. 1. A noun I tioned. 2. A common noun la tl.e i is that which denotes iln-perM.ii "r i! The renter gender >>" tive case is that form or slate of - tion. r dale-rent things or thoughts to : of pluralitv, masculine pender, .it can be known . Tlie third person number is that which rtenotei - or animals of the male Kind. 6. object of a verb, participle, ui or opposition of objects." Jamiesons Rhet. p. 102. *' Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully masters of 408 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IL, the language in which they write, there would be occasion for few rules." Ib. 102. " Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade." Brad- ley's Literary Guide, p. 155. "The more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investi- gating, the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our under- standing." Gurney's Essays, p. 160. "Why should we doubt of that, whereof our sense Finds demonstration from experience ? Our minds are here, and there, below, above ; Nothing that's mortal, can so swiftly move." Denham. LESSON II. PARSING. " If we can discern particularly and precisely what it is, which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of God ; what is truly morally beautiful, or really and adsolutely deformed ; the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ethics, or morality, will be sufficiently decided." West, on Agency, p. xiii. " Thus it was true, historically, individually, philosophically, and universally, that they did not like to retain God in their knowledge." Cox, on Christianity, p. 327. " We refer to Jeremiah Evarts and Gordon Hall. They had their imperfections, and against them they struggled discreetly, constantly, successfully, until they were fitted to ascend to their rest" N. T. Observer, Feb. 2d, 1833. " Seek not proud riches ; but such as thou mayst get justly, use soberly, distrib- ute cheerfully, and leave contentedly." Ld. Bacon. " There are also some particularly grievous sins, of which conscience justly accuses us ; sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly, deliberately and re- peatedly." Biclcersteth, on Prayer, p. 59. "Arid herein I apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully, being slanderously re- ported, falsely accused, shamefully and despiteful ly used, and hated without a cause." Jenks's Prayers, p. 173. " Of perfect knowledge, see, the dawning light Foretells a noon most exquisitely bright ! Here, springs of endless joy are breaking forth ! There, buds the promise of celestial worth ! " Young. LESSON III. PARSING. "A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably." Penn's Maxims. " That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly the character of most human minds." Burgh's Dignity, ii, 35. " There is not a man living, who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery ; but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished, and that is, by legislative authority. Gco. Washing- ton, 1786. "Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired ; or, rather, it is a part of our very nature to be indolent. "- Student's Manual, p. 176. " I am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife ; never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself." Home's Art of Thinking, p. 89, "Hovvbeit whereinsoever any is bold, (I speak foolishly,) I am bold also. Are they Hebrews ? so am I. Are they Israelites '? so am 1. Are they the seed of Abraham ? so ani I. Are they ministers of Christ *? (I speak as a fool,) I am more." 2 Cor. xi. " Oh, speak the wondrous man ! how mild, how calm, How greatly humble, how divinely good, How firm establish'd on eternal truth." Thomson. CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY. ADVERBS. ERRORS. CONJUNCTIONS. 409 IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING ADVERBS. "We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat." Blair's Rhet. p. 167. [FOR 1 " '-cause the adjective easier is used as an adverb, to qualify the verb ran form. But, accordii; - ' Hie using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain \ ir." Therefore, easier should be mote easily; thus, ' We can much mor* easily form the concepiioii of a, lu-rce combat."] "When he was restored, agreeable to the treaty, he was a perfect savage." Webster's Essays, p. 236. " II >-,\- I -hall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial." Can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat man- kind " ,s>, ">. No. 497. " In what "other [language,] consistent with reason and common flense, can you go about to explain it to him r" Loirtfis Gram. Prcf. p. viii. "Agreeable to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters." Wilson's Hebrew Gram. p. 46. " We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure." Murray's Gram. p. 347. "All of which is most abominable false." Barclay's Works, iii, 431. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserable." Murray's Key, 8vo, ii, 202. "He is never satisfied with expressing anything clearly and simple." Blair's Rhet. p. 96. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact, he appears dry." Ib. p. 100. " Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the softest." Ib. p. 129. "The simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended." Ib. p. 312. "Too historical, to be accounted a perfect regu- lar epic poem." //>. p. 441. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeable to the French construction." Priestley's Gram. p. 108. " Where the train proceeds with an ex- treme - . . ,,''. i, 1,31. " So as scarce to give an appearance of succession." Ib. i, 152. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expression* independent of artful pronunciation." Ib. ii, 63. " Cornaro had be- come very corpulent, previous to the adoption of his temperate habits." Hitchcock, on !>read, which is a solid and tolerable hard substance." Sandford and Mer- ton, p. 38. " To command every body that was not dressed as tine as himself." Ib. p. 19. " Many of them have scarce outlived their authors." Prcf. to Lily's Gram. p. ix. " Their labour. i I not penetrate very deep." Wilson's Heb. Gram. p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish." Hume's Hist, ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make." Bucke's Gram. p. 81. "There is no truth on earth I ! the truth of the Bible." Taylors District School, p. 288. " I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished." Du. NOTT: ib. p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable." Taylor: ib. p. 58. " Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered." Dillwyn's Ilcftectiojis, p. 19. " Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived." . ;>. )J7t. " If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."- Jfttttrt Greek Gram. p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the saiae Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same." Ib. p. 259. "And children are more busy in their play Than those that wisely' st pass their time away." Butler, p. 163. CHAPTER IK-CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construc- tion, and the dependence of the terms so connected : as, " Thou, and he arc hunpy, because you arc good." OBSKIIYATI- \vords are of four kinds ; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive have a certain resemblance toono ?m other, so tar a- they iro all of them conne there are also characteristical differences by which they i.: i. Relative pronouns represent ante- De.-' relative pronouns "Co n .". II". i!-> - rtheonly word* which connect v. 1-11 aii whit Ii .- : ri: Con- jun> iiv> : ; kno v i,. in ri-'c'". t<> the conjunctive - to me to b<- a pronoun, and not an ; and of his " Conjuntti ought to have given, us some examples, if he knew of auv. 410 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. cedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases ; conjunctive adverbs assume tho connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else ; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest. OBS. 2. Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or centrist under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves " devoid of signification ;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition* of this part of speech. It is the omce of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms ; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language. "The current is often evinced by the straws, And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather ; So a speaker is known by his ands and his ors, Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together." Robert F. Mott. OBS. 3. Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an. other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence ; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunc- tion as such, and repeat the definition above ; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting " what precedes and what follows ;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to ;he second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context. OBS. 4. However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to na me the terms which. in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for him; elf what these terms are, that is, to know what the conjunction does, or does not, connect, it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aris- totle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, tnat " the Conjunction connects, not Words, but Sentences ; " and frames his definition accordingly. See Hermes, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, " Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunc- tion as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This Sanctius j ustly explodes." Ib. p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammari- ans, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted ; the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction." Fowler's E. Gram. Svo, 1850, p. 557. OBS. 5. The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, " Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly ex- pressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, " Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words ; as in the following instances : ' Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences ; ' ' Wisdom or folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, " contains two sentences." Murray's Gram. p. 124 ; Smith's, 95 ; Frisk's, 84 ; Ingersoll's, 81. By " the same moods, tenses, or cases," we must needs here understand some one mood, tense, or case, in which the connected words agree ; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, if, that, though, lest, itnless, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always bo found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, and, as, even, than, or, and nor, though they may connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The king and queen are an amiable pair." Murray. "And a being of more than human dignity stood before me." Dr. Johnson. It cannot be plausibly pretended, that and and than, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So and and or, in the examples above, con- * "Now the Definition of a CONJUNCTION is as follows a Part of Speech, void of Signification -itself, but so formed as to help Kiynijicittion, by making TWO or more significant Sentences to be ONE significant Sentence." Harris's Hermts, Otk Edition, London, p. 238. CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY. CONJUNCTIONS. CLASSES. 411 nect the nouns only, and not " sentences : " else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to siy, that the construction and meaning are not what they appear to be ; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences ; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, according to the view ichich may be taken of them in analyzing." Xi'lt'/ifi's (tram. p. 77. <)i 9. '. S< trend \ ords belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as con- junctions. Such are the follow ir ', except, verbs ; both, an adjective ; rif/irr, neither, that, pronouns ; :ticij>les; before, since, for, prepositions. I will do it, pro- you lend some help. Hcv<- ;; a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. Paul idein the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here except is a conjunc- tion. is also u.-.ed a-< u participle and conjunction. 'Being this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.' />'/;/<"," Pearson, 'teeing all the congregation are holy.' Bible, llere being and weing are used as conjunctions." Alexander's Gram. p. 50. The -.114 remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. Before, it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. Provided, as cit( d above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. Either and neither, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, words belonging to of hi r /.'// s- of speech, are used as conjunctions" is a sort of solecism, which r in doubt to what class they really belong. Being, and being that, were formerly used in the sense of because, since, or seeing that ; (Lat. cum, quoniam, or quando ;) but thi> u -.;)-< i- now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of without, in the i cxcejrt ; (Lat. -nisi ;) as, He cannot rise without he be helped." Walker* Particles, p. 425. " Json potest nisi adjutus exsurgere." Seneca. CLASSES. Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunc- tive ; and a few of each class arc particularly distinguished from the rest, as being correspond I. A copulative -<,}i is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition : as, " He and I shall not dispute ; 7* lie has any choice, I shall readily grant it." II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning : as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live." St. John's Gos- }>d. " Be not faithless, but believing." Id. III. The cor.- I'tions are those which are used in pairs, so that the latter answers to the former: as, "John came neither eating nor drinkini:." Matt, xi, 1$. " But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, the kingdom of God is come unto you." Ib. xii, 28. LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 1 Copulatives : And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, ;/. so. '2. Tin.' Disjunctives: Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, I. ir/nth<.r, lest, ?////<>>, mirr. provided, notwithstanding, whereas. 3. The Con Both and; as as; as so; if then; either or ; neither nor ; whether or; though, or ulfhouah yet. OBSERVATIONS, . 1 .l>y pnme writers, the words, also, since, too, thru, therefore, and wherefore, are placed among the copulative conjunctions ; and as, so, stiff, however, and albeit, among tho diminutive : but Johr.-oi, and Webster have marked nn.>t of those terms as riu'n-rb.i only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which n re called ; for, in some instance?, con- jui ciions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very rr:;tially. As, so,ere, then, i/ef, and but, seem to be'umj MMBM timei to the one part of spc-et-h, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions, when they appear to be mere connectives. As, yet, and but, are generally conjunctions ; but to, even, and then, arc aim adverbs. Sedny and provided, when used as connec- tives, arc more properly conjunction* than anything else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing niany awkward ellipses, keeps them with the 412 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II- participles. Examples : " For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day." Acts, ii, 15. " The senate shall have power to adjourn them- selves, provided such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time." Constitution of New Hampshire. OBS. 2. Since, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition : as, " Hast thou com- manded the morning since thy days?" Job. Albeit is equivalent in sense to although, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. As is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last : " We present ourselves as petitioners." If as is ever disjunctive, it is not so here ; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term quasi is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly : as, " Et colles quasi pulverem pones ; " "And thou shalt make the hills as chaff." Isaiah, xli, 15. So even, which in English is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition, seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb : as, " I, even I, am the Lord." Isaiah, xliii, 11. OBS. 3. Save and saving, when they denote exception, are not adverbs, as Johnson denominates them, or a verb and a participle, as Webster supposes them to be, but dis- junctive conjunctions ; and, as such, they take the same case after as before them : as, "All the conspirators, save only he, did that they did, in envy of great Caesar." Shak. "All this world's glory seemeth vain, and all their shows but shadows, saving she." Spen- ser. "Israel burned none of them, save Hazor only." Joshua, xi, 13. "And none of them was cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian." Luke, iv, 27. Save is not here a transitive verb, for Hazor was not saved in any sense, but utterly destroyed ; nor is Naaman here spoken of as being saved by an other leper, but as being cleansed when oihers were not. These two conjunctions are now little used ; and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions, is the more apt to be doubted. The Rev. Matt. Harrison, after citing five examples, four of which have the nominative with save, adds, without naming the part of speech, or assigning any reason, this decision, which I think erroneous : " In all these passages, save requires after it the objective casa." His five examples are these: "All, save I, were at rest, and enjoyment." Frankensttin. "There was no stranger with us, in the house, save we two." 1 Kings, iii, 18. "And nothing wanting is, save she, alas ! " DRUMMOXD of Haivthorndcn. "When all slept sound, save she, who bore them both." ROGERS, Italy, p. 108. "And all were gone, save him, who now kept guard." Ibid. p. 185. OBS. 4. The conjunction if is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation : as, " I have sworn in my wrath, if tLey shall enter into my rest." Heb. iv, 3. That is, that they shall not enter. The same pe- culiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. Or, in the obsolete phrase "or ever" is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning before. It is supposed to be a corruption of ere : as, " I was set up from everlast- ing, from the beginning, or ever the earth was." Prov. viii, 23. "And we, or ever he come near, are ready to kill him." Acts, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the origi- nal text. OBS. 5. There are some peculiar phrases, or combinations of words, which have the force of conjunctions, and which it is not very easy to analyze satisfactorily in parsing : as, "And for all there were so many, yet was not the net broken." John, xxi, 11. Here for all is equivalent to although, or noticiths'anding ; either of which words would have been more elegant. Nevertheless is composed of three words, and is usually reckoned a con- junctive adverb ; but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction, for it is obvious- ly equivalent to yet, but, or notwithstanding ; as, "I am crucified with Christ : nevertheless I live; yet not I, but Christ liveth in me." Gal. ii, 20. Here, for nevertheless and but, we have in the Greek the same particle <$. " Each man's mind has some peculiarity, as well as his face." Locke. " Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences." Murray's Gram. p. 124. Here the first as corresponds to the second, but iccll not being used in the literal sense of an adverb, some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction. It is, however, susceptible of division : as, " It is ador-ned with admira- ble pieces of sculpture, as well modern, as ancient." Addison. OBS. G. So the phrases, for as much as, in as much as, in so much that, if taken collect- ively, have the nature of conjunctions ; yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech. The words are sometimes printed separately, and sometimes partly together. Of late years, forasmuch, inasmuch, insomuch, have been usually compounded, and called adverbs. They might as well, perhaps, be called con- junctions, as they were by some of our old grammarians ; for two conjunctions sometimes come together : as, "Answering their questions, as if * it were a matter that needed it." * Whether these, or any other conjunctions that come together, ought to be parsed together, is doubtful. lam riot in f ivour of taking any words together, that can well be parsed separately. Goodenow, who defines a phrase to be " the union of two or more words having the nature and construction of a single word '," find.s an immense number of these unions, which he cannot 3 or does not, analyze. As examples of "a conjunctional phrase," J CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY. - CONJUNCTIONS. - PARSING. - PRAXIS IX. 413 "These should bo at first gently treated, as though we expected an imposthuma- tion." *h(trp. "But there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true, not- withstanninrj that we cannot comprehend tjiem." />' -nee, p. 211. "There is no difference, . are heavier than others." "We may be playful, and yet innocent ; grave, and i/et corrupt." Murray's AVy, p. Ons. 7. (injunctions have no grammatical modifications, and are consequently in- capable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words ; yet their import as connectives, copulative or disjunctive, nuist be carefully observed, lest we wiite or speak them improperly. Example of error : " Prepositions are generally set before nouns and pro- nouns." Wilbur's Gram. p. 20. Here and should be or; because, although a preposition usual' - a noun or a pronoun, it seldom governs both at once. And lH'-ul<--, the assert: y naturally to mean, that nouns and pronouns a (>( pre- ould invent ! L. Murray also says of prepositions: " They are, / ;-ut before nouns and pronouns." Cram. p. 117. So Felton : " They generally stand before nouns and pronouns." Analytic, and /'/-.". Cram. p. 61. The blunder however came originally from Lowth, and out of the following ad- miralile enigma : " Prepositions, standing by themselves in construction, are put before nouns and pronoun-; and sometimes after verbs; but in this sort of composition they are chiefly to verbs : as, to outgo, to overcome." Lowth' s Gram. p. 66. . 8. The opposition I by the disjunctive particle or, is sometimes merely nominal, or verbal : as, " That object is a triangle, or figure contained under three right . "So if we say, that figure is a sphere, or a globe, or abalL" Id. Hermes, I. In these cases, the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words ; for the terms connected describe or name the same thing. For this sense of or, the Latins had liar particle, sire, which they called Va, a SV< . a-;. "AVxander M:ivor<." II trr , p. 258. In English, the conjunction or is itly equivocal : . were both more ancient than Zoroaster or Zcrdusht." f . p. 250 ; Irani, p. 297. Here, if the reader does not happen to kno-.v that ' mean the same person, he will be very likely to mistake To avoid this ambiguity, we substitute, (in judicial proceedings,) the Latin ad- verb f it as a conjunction subdisjunctive, in lieu of or, or the Latin. idcr, alias Ellick." " Simsoii, alias Smith, alias Baker." Johnson s Diet. AMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS IX. ETYMOLOGICAL. 'h Praxis, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the > parts of speech, find the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, Nuu.xs, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, and CON- T/ie d .Yinfh Praxis, are two for an article, six for a " [Tonoun, seven for a verb finite, five for pnrticijtl', two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, undone for a preposition, or - ction. Thus : EXAMPLE Pj " Tf thou h-ist clone n I not of it." Maxims. Tils or sentences in construction, MjuiK'tioii is u vuiijaii. Hun that vocase. t i< nil "r .-inn- LI' a ] i. n or jironuun, which to be acted miing . will.iM S"l; ~ ; ' _ IP arrr, t.r U i . Ircssed. ;t brfore noiuia to liinit tli. l iS ;l \s [3 auy " if" 1 and "O.T though." Gram. p. 25. But when he comes to speak of ellipsi*, he ays : t: .Aftc-r the con- icUcns than, a*. /C A] will ;' 'He .u t<-d as[he icculd act] if he were mad. 1 " Ib. p. 41. 'j his <] - .n-.c La i ti rt-iugLant to the 414 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IT. ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. Deed is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neater gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things, y. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. Boast is a regular active-intransitive verb, from boast, boasted, boasting, boasted ; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act. or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. o. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreat- ing, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. Not is an adverb of manner, expressing negation. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How ? or, by am'rming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded. Of is preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun, It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singu- lar number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I. PARSING. " In all gratifications, disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures ; and there- fore let us not marvel, if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence. By glancing at either poets or orators, we may easily satisfy ourselves, that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine, showy, and sparkling, can please us long. Wherefore, though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly, we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splen- did." CICERO, de Oratore. " The foundation of eloquence, as well as of every other high attainment, is pnc- tical wisdom. For it happens in oratory, as in life, that nothing is more difficult, than to discern what is proper and becoming. Through lack of such discernme it, gross faults are very often committed. For neither to all ranks, fortunes, and ages, nor to every time, place, and auditory, can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted. In every part of a discourse, as in every part of life, we must consider what is suitable and decent; and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question, and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear." CICERO, Orator ad Brutum. " So spake th' Omnipotent, and with his words All seem'd well pleas'd ; all seem'd, but were not all." Milton. LESSON II. PARSING. "A square, though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon, is more beautiful than either : for what reason, but that a square is more simple, and the at- tention is less divided?" Kames, EL of Grit, i, 175. " We see the material universe in motion ; but matter is inert; and, so far as we know, nothing can move it but mind : therefore God is a spirit. We do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul ; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection ; and, as these qualities do not belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelligent, we must refer them to that which is not matter, but mind." Beanie's Moral Science, p. 210. " Men are generally permitted to publish books, and contradict others, and even themselves, as they please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of being un- derstood." Boyle. " Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerou?, are best refuted by neglect." Kames 's Thinking, p. 76. "No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time ; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own ._ /&. p . 97. " Young heads are giddy, and young hearts are warm, And make mistakes for manhood to reform." Cowper. CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY. CONJUNCTIONS. ERRORS. 415 LESSON III. PARSING. " The Nouns denote substances, and those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They moreover denote things either general, or special, or particular. The Pronouns, their substitutes, are either prepositive, or subjunctive." Harris's Hermes, p. 85. " In a thought, generally speaking, there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun : its action is expressed by an active verb ; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun : its suffering, or passive state, is expressed by a passive verb ; and the thing that acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence, or period, there are generally underparts ; each of the substantives, as well as the verb, may be qualified : time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circumstances, may be necessary to complete the thought." Names, EL of Grit, ii, 34. " Yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind, To narrow cares and narrow space confined, Though with big titles each his fellow greets, Are but to wits, as scavengers to streets." Mallet. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING CONJUNCTIONS. "A. Verb is so called from the Latin verbum, or word." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 56. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the conjunction or, connecting verbum and word, suppo?es the latter to be T.atfr . But, according to Observation 7th, on the Classes of Conjunctions, " The import of connectives, copulative or dis- junctive, niu-t be carefully observe'!, k-st we write or speak them improperly." In this instance, or should be changed to a . tklH, M ^ Y> i rb is so called from the Latin verbum, a word : " that is, li which means, a word."] " References arc often marked by letters and figures." Gould's Adam's Gram. p. 283. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word -which joins woi'ds and sentences together." Lennies E. Gram. p. 51; J'mllions's, 70 ; Brace's, 57. (2.) "A conjunction is used I to connect words and sentences together." Smith's Xeio Gram. p. 37. (3.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences." Mawufrr's Gram. p. 1. (4.) " Conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences." Wihox's Gram. p. 3. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences." M'Culloch's Gram. p. 36; Hart's, 92; Day's, 10. (6.) "A conjunc- tion joins Avords and sentences together." Mackintosh's Gram. p. 115; Hiky's, 10 and 53. (7.) " The Conjunction joins words and sentences together." L. Murray's Gram. 2d Edition, p. 28. (8.) " Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other." Wright's Gram. p. 3-5. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences." Wilcox's Gram. p. 80 ; Wells' s t 1st Ed. Io9 and 168. (10.) " The conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences." H'cWs Gram. 2d Ed. p. 49. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together." Fowler 's E. Gram. 320. (12.) "Connectives are words whi'rh unite words and sentences in construction." Webster's PhUos. Gram. p. 123 ; Improved Gram. 81. . Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools ; the teacher* know but little or nothing about it." Taylor's District School, p. 48. " Least, instead of pre- venting, you draw on Diseases." I^ckc, on Ed. p. 40. " The definite article the is fre- quent! in the comparative and superlative degree." Murray's Gram. and others. " When nouns nat- urally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 38. "Thi* form of the perfect : ents an action completely past, and often at no great dis- oc'ified." /'>. j>. 71. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continu , by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c." 76. p. liM. unction Disjun .-, not only to connect and continue the sentence, but imposition of meaning in different degrees." Ib. p. 123. "Whether we open tin- volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they h all the f . to communicate their observations and discoveries." ' \\hr-i :i divunotivo occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun. "/'. p. 1";2 : A'. C. Smith, Afyr, " Pronouns must always agree with their antece- dent s and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number." Murray's Gram. p. 154. uter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns." Ib. p. 179. the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times." Ib. p. 72. "If this rule shov Id not appear to apply to every example, which has been produced, nor to otherH which might be adduced." Ib. p. 216. "An cmphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention." /&. p. 2i8; Hart's Gram. 175. "An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not 416 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. amount to a proposition or sentence." Murray's Gram. p. 267. " The -word was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, the subj ect may still be a secret." Ib. p. 213. "A word it was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret." Harris's Three Treatises, p. 5. " It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every other country in Europe." Smollett's Voltaire, ix, 303. " So gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic." Rush, on the Voice, p. 2o5. " Where the Chelsea or Maiden bridges now are." Judt/v Parker. " Ad- verbs are words joined to vevbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. Smith's Produc- tive Gram. p. 92. " I could not have told you, who the hermit was, nor on what mountf in he lived." Bucke's Classical Gram, p. 32. "Am, or be (for they are the same) naturally, or in themselves signify being." BrighUand's Gram. p. 113. "Words are distinct sounds, by which we express our thoughts and ideas." Infant School Gram. p. 13. " His fears will detect him, but he shall not escape." Comly's Gram. p. 64. "Whose is equally applicable to persons or things." WEBSTER : in Sanborn's Gram. p. 95. " One negative destroys an- other, or is equivalent to an affirmative." Bullions, Eng. Gram. p. 118. " No sooner does he peep into The world, but he has done his do." Uudibras. CHAPTER X.-PKEPOSITIONS. A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pro- noun ; as, " The paper lies before me on the desk." OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The relations of things to things in nature, or of words to words in dis- course, are infinite in number, if not also in variety. But just classification may make even infinites the subjects of sure science. "Every relation of course implies more objects, and more terms, than one ; for any one thing, considered merely in itself, is taken inde- pendently, abstractly, irrelatively, as if it had no relation or dependence. In all corract language, the grammatical relation of the wards corresponds exactly to the relation of 1he things or ideas expressed ; for the relation of words, is their dependence, or connexion, ac- cording to the sense. This relation is oftentimes immediate, as of one word to an other, without the intervention of a preposition ; but it is seldom, if ever, reciprocally equal ; because de- pendence implies subordination ; and mere adjunction is a sort of inferiority. OBS. 2. To a preposition, the antecedent term may be a noun, an adjective, a prono an, a verb, a participle, or an adverb ; and the subsequent term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or a participle. In some instances, also, as in the phrases, in vain, on high, at once, till now, for ever, by how much, until thai, from thence, from above, we find adjectives used elliptically, and adverbs substantively, alter the preposition. But, in phrases of an adverbial character, what is elsewhere a preposition often becomes an adverb. Now, if prepositions are concerned in expressing the varioxis relations of so many of the different parts of speech, multiplied, as these relations must be, by that end- less variety of combinations which may be given to the terms ; and if the sense of the writer or speaker is necessarily mistaken, as often as any of these relations are misunderstood, or their terms misconceived ; how shall we estimate the importance of a right explanation, and a right use, of this part of speech ? OBS. 3. The grammarian whom Lowth compliments, as excelling all others, in " acute- ness of investigation, perspicuity of explication, and elegance of method;" and as sur- passing all but Aristotle, in the beauty and perfectness of his philological analysis ; com- mences his chapter on conjunctions in the following manner : " Connectives are the subject of what follows ; which, according as they connect either Sentences or Words, arc called by the different Names of Conjunctions on Prepositions. Of these Names, that of the Preposition is taken from a mare accident, as it commonly stands in connection before the Part, irhich it con- nects. The name of the Conjunction, as is evident, has reference to its essential character. Of these two we shall consider the Conjunction^^, because it connects, not Words, but Sen- tences." Harris's Hermes, p. 237. Or,s. 4. In point of order, it is not amiss to treat conjunctions before prepositions ; though this is not the method of Lowth, or of Murray. But, to any one who is well acquainted with these two parts of speech, the foregoing passage cannot but appear, in three sentences out of the four, both defective in style and erroneous in doctrine. It is true, that conjunctions generally connect sentences, and that prepositions as generally express relations between particular words : but it is true also, that conjunctions often connect words only; and that prepositions, by governing antecedents, relatives, or even personal pronouns, may serve CHAP. X.] % ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. THEIR NATURE. 417 to subjoin sentences to sentences, as well as to determine the relation and construction of the particular words which they govern. Example : " The path seems now plain and even, but there are asperities and pitfalls, over which Religion only can conduct you." Dr. John- son. Here are three simple sentences, which are made members of one compound sentence, by means of but and orer irhirh , while two of these members, clauses, or subdivisions, con- tain particular words connected by and. OBS. o. In one respect, the preposition is the simplest of all the parts of speech : in our common schemes of grammar, is lias neither classes nor modifications. Every connective word that governs an object after it, is called a preposition, because it does so ; and in etymo- logical parsing, to name the preposition as such, and define the name, is, perhaps, all that is necessary. But in syntactical parsing, in which we are to omit the definitions, and state the construction, we ought to explain what terms the preposition connects, and to give a rule adapted to this office of the particle. It is a palpable defect in nearly all our grammars, that their syntax contains NO srcu KULE. " Prepositions govern the objective case," is a rule for /// IM, and not for the syntax of prepositions. "Prepositions show the re- lations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them," is the principle for the latter ; a principle which we cannot neglect, without a shameful lameness in our interpreta- tion ; that is, when we pretend to parse syntactically. . f>. Prepositions and their objects very often precede the words on which they de- pend, and sometimes at a great distance. Of this we have an example, at the opening of Milton's Paradise Lost; where "Of" the first word, depends upon "Sing," in the sixth line below ; for the meaning is "Sing ofmansfrst disobedience" &c. To find the terms of the relation, is to find the meaning of the passage; a very useful exercise, provided the words have a meaning which is worth knowing. The following text has for centuries afforded ground of dispute, because it is doubtful in the original, as well as in many of the versions, whether the preposition in (i. e. " in the regeneration") refers back to have followed, or for- ward to the last verb shall sit : " Verily I say unto you that ye who have followed me, in the regeneration, when the Son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel." Matt, xix, 28. The second wrong : the Greek word is i.ii, on or upon; i. e. "upon the throne of his glory." OBS. 7. The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety. Example of error : " Proper seasons should be allotted for re- tirement." Murray's Key, p. 17.3. We do not say " allotted for" but " allotted to ; " hence for is either wrong in itself or misplaced. Such errors always vex an intelligent reader. He sees the terms mismatched, the intended connexion doubtful, the sense obscured, and wishes the author could have valued his own meaning enough to have made it intelligible ; that is, (to speak technically,) enough to have made it a certain clew to his syntax. We can neither parse nor correct what we do not understand. Did the writer mean, " Proper seasons should be allotted to retirement:" or, "Proper seasons for retirement should be allotted-" or, "Seasons proper for retirement should be allotted:" Every ex- pression is incorrigibly bad, the iniunuui of which cannot be known. Expression? Nay, expression it is not, but only a mock utterance or an abortive attempt at expression. . S. Harris observes, in substance, though in other words, that almost all the prepositions were originally formed to denote relation of place ; that this class of relations is primary, being that which natural bodies maintain at all times one to another ; that in the continuity of place these bodies form the universe, or visible whole ; that we have some prepositions to denote the- cnnti-/V- oforethe hills ; " "These figs came from Turki v ; "the antecedent term of the relation is not the verb, but the noun or pro- 'noun before it. B Now the true antecedent is, unquestionably, that word which, in the order of the sense, the preposition should immediately follow : and a verb, a participle, or an adjective, may sustain this relation, just a well as a substantive. f t-dlnur," (lues not in .,nn of ml our spoke ; " nor does, "The mem- l>i'laware." 9. To make this matter more clear, it may be proper to observe further, that what I call the order of the scn-e, is not always that order of the words which is fittest to express the .sense of a whole period ; and that the true antecedent is that word to which the prepo- sition and its object would naturally be subjoined, were there nothing to interfere with such an arrangement. In practice it often happens, that the preposition and its object cannot be placed immediately alter the word on which they depend, and which they would naturally follow. For example: "She hates the means 'by irhich she lives." That is, "She hates the means which she I ires by." Here we cannot say, " She hates the means she lives by which;" and yet, in regard to the preposition by, irds is really the order of the sense. 27 418 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II, Again : " Though thou sliouldcst bray a fool in a mortar among -wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him." Prov. xxvii, 22. Here is no transposition to affect our understanding of the prepositions, yet there is liability to error, because the words which immediately precede some of them, are not their true antecedents : the text does not really peak of " a mortar among wheat" or of " -wheat with a pestle" To what then are the mortar, the wheat, and the pestle, to be mentally subjoined? If all of them, to any one thing, it must be to the action suggested by the verb bray, and not to its object fool ; for the text does not speak of " a fool with a pestle" though it docs seem to speak of " a fool in a mortar, and among wheat." Indeed, in this instance, as in many others, the verb and its object are so closely associated that it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, whether you take both of them together, or either of them separately, as the antecedent to the preposition. But, as the instrument of an action is with the ngcnt rather than with the object, if you will have the substantives alone for antecedents, the natural order of the sense must be supposed to be this : " Though thou with a pestle shouldest bray 9. fool in a mortar [and] among wheat, yet will not \\\s> foolishness from him depart." This gives to each of the prepositions an ante- cedent different from that which I should assign. Sanborn observes, " There seem to be two kinds of relation expressed by prepositions, an existing and a eonneeting relation." Analyt. Gram. p. 225. The latter, he adds, " is the most important" Ib. p. 22(>. But it is the for- mer that admits nothing but nouns for antecedents. Others besides Harris may have adopted this notion, but I have never been one of the number, though a certain author scruples not to charge the error upon me. See O. B. Peiree's Grammar, p. 1G5. OBS. 10. It is a very common error among grammarians, and the source of innumerable discrepancies in doctrine, as well as one of the chief means of maintaining their interminable disputes, that they suppose ellipses at their own pleasure, and supply in every given instancy just what words their fancies may suggest. In this work, I adopt for myself, and also rec- ommend to others, the contrary course of avoiding on all occasions the supposition of any needless ellipses. Not only may the same preposition govern more than one object, but then* may also be more than one antecedent word, bearing a joint relation to that which is governed by the preposition. (1.) Examples of joint objects : " There is an inseparable connexion iBTWEEN/>M?ty a)id virtue." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. " In the conduct of Parmenio, a mix- ture or wisdom and folly was very conspicuous." Ib. p. 179. " True happiness is an enemy TO pomp and noise." Ib. p. 171. (2.) "Examples of joint antecedents : "In unity consist the welfare and security OF every society." Ib. p. 182. "It is our duty to be just and kind TO our fellow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful TO Him that made us." Ib. p. 181. " I f the author did not mean to speak of being' pious to God as well as faithful to Him, he ha* written incorrectly : a comma after pious, would alter both the sense and the construction. So the text, " For I am meek, and lowly in heart," is commonly perverted in our Bibles, for want of a comma after meek. The Saviour did not say, he was meek in heart : the Greek may be very literacy rendered thus : " For gentle am I, and humble in heart." OBS. 11. Many writers seem to suppose, that no preposition can govern more than on& object. Thus L. Murray, and his followers : " The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the following instances : He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings ; ' that is, 'He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public buildings.' He also went through all the streets, and lanes of the city; ' that is, * Through all the streets, and through all the lanes,' &c." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 219. See the same interpretations in Ligcrsolt's Gram. p. 15o ; Merchant's, 100 ; Picket's, 211 ; Algcr'n. 73; Fisk's, 147 ; Guy's, 91 ; Adams's, 82 ; 11. C. Smith's, 183 : Haniliiis, 105 ; Putnam's, 'l39 ; Weld's, 292. Now it is plain, that in neither of these examples is there any such ellipsis at all. Of the three prepositions, the first governs three nouns ; the second, two ; and the third, one only. But the last, (which is of,) has two antecedents, streets and lanes, the comma after streets being wrong ; for the author does not speak of all tlxe streets in the world, but of all the streets and lanes of a particular city. Dr. Ash has the same example without the comma, and supposes in it only an ellipsis of the preposition through, and even that suppo- sitioa is absurd. He also furnished the former example, to show an ellipsis, not of the verb icent, but only of the preposition into ; and in this too he was utterly wrong. See Ash's Grammar, p. 100. Bicknell also, whose grammar appeared five years before Mur- ray's, confessedly copied the same examples from Ash ; and repeated, not the verb and it nominative, but only the prepositions through and into, agreeably to Ash's erroneous notion. See his Grammatical Wreath, Part i, p. 124. Again the principles of Murray's supposed ellipses, are as inconsistent with each other, as they are severally absurd. Had the author explained the second example according to his notion of the first, he should have made it to mean, 'He also went through all the streets of the city, and he also went through all the lanes of the city.' What a pretty idea is this for a principle of grammar ! And what a multi- tude of admirers are pretending to carry it out in parsing ! One of the latest writers on grammar says, that, "Between him and me," signifies, "Between him, and between me! Wright's Philosophical Gram. p. 206. And an other absurdly resolves a simple sentence into a compound one, thus : " 'There was a difficulty between John, and his brother.' That is, there was a difficulty between John, and there was a difficulty between his brother." Jaint Brouvi's English Syntax, p. 127 ; and again, p. 130. CHAP. X.] ETYMOLOGY. PREPOSITIONS. THEIR NATURE. 419 OBS. 12. Two prepositions are not unfrequcntly connected by a conjunction, and that for different purposes, thus: (1.) To express two different relations at once; as, "The picture of my travels in and around Michigan." Society in America, i, 231. (2.) To suggest an alternative in the relation affirmed ; as, " The action will be fully accomplished at or before the time." Murray's dram, i, 7-. Again : " The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, ntforwM or without respect to the precise time." 76. Felt on' s Gram. p. 23. With and without being direct opposites, this alternative is a thing of course, and the phrase is an idle truism. (3.) To express two relations so &s to affirm the one and deny the other ; as, " Captain, yourself are the fittest to live and reign not over, but next and immediately under the people." Dryrlen. Here, perhaps, " the people " may be under- stood after over. (4.) To suggest a mere alternative of words'; as, "NEGATIVELY, adv. With or by denial." Webster's Diet. (5.) To add a similar word, for aid or force; aa, " Hence adverbs of time were necessary, over and above the tenses." See Murray's Cram. p. 116. " To take effect from and after the first day of May." X< ir^,,ip, /. OHS. 13. In some instances, two prepositions come directly together, so as jointly to ex- press a sort of compound relation between what precedes the one and what follows the other: as, "And they shall sever the wicked from among the just." Matt, xiii, 49. "Moses brought out all the rods from before the Lord." JVw6. xvii, 9. " Come out from among them." 2 Cor. vi, 17. " From Judea, and from beyond Jordan." Matt, iv, 25. " Nor a law- giver from between his feet." Gen. xlix, 10. Thus the preposition from, being itself adapt- ed, to the ideas of motion and separation, easily coincides with any preposition of place, to express this sort of relation ; the terms however have a limited application, being used only between a verb and a noun, because the relation itself is between motion and the place of its beginning: as, "The sand xlidcd from beneath my feet." Dr. Johnson. In this man- ner, we may form complex prepositions beginning with from, to the number of about thirty ; as, from amidst, from around, from before, from behind, &c. Besides these, there are several others, of a more questionable character, which are sometimes referred to the same class ; as, according to, as to, as for, because of, instead of, off" of, out of, over against, and round about. Most or all of these are sometimes resolved in a different way, upon the assumption that the former word is an adverb ; yet we occasionally find some of them compounded by the hyphen : as, " Pompcy's lieutenant?, Ai'ranius and Petreius, who lay over-against him, de- camp suddenly." E< . Argument to B. iv. But the common fashion is, to write ihem separately ; as, " One thing is set over against an other." Bible. OBS. 14. It is not easy to fix a principle by which prepositions may in all cases be distinguished from adverbs. The latter, we say, do not govern the objective case ; and if we add, that the former do severally require some object after them, it is clear that any word which precedes a preposition, must needs be something else than a preposition. But this destroys all the doctrine of the preceding paragraph, and admits of no such thing as a compli-.c proposition ; whereas that doctrine is acknowledged, to some extent or other, by every one of our grammarians, not excepting even those whose counter-assertions leave no room for it. Under these circumstances, I see no better way, than to refer the student to the definitions of these parts of speech, to exhibit examples in all needful variety, and then let him judge for himself what disposition ought to be made of those words which different grammarians parse differently. . 15. If our prepositions were to be divided into classes, the most useful distinction would be, to divide them into Single and Double. The distinction which some writers make, who divide them into " S.-jinra'dc. and Iiisrparabk," is of no use at all in parsing, be- cause the latter are mere syllables ; and the idea of S. It. Hall, who divides them into "Pos- :md Jtfldtirc," is positively absurd ; for he can show us only one of the former kind, and that one, (the word of,) is not always such. A Don' -ion, if such a thing is n l::,i ible, is one that consists of two words which in syntactical parsing must be taken together, because they jointly express the relation between two other terms; as, "The re dried up from off the earth." dm. viii. 13. "The clergy kept this charge from off u*." , p. 'J-J1. "Confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble, is like a broken tooth, and a foot out of joint." 7V, r. xxv, 19. "The beam out of the timber shall answer it." Hub. ii, 11. Off and out are most commonly adverbs, but neither of them can be called an adverb here. .in, if according to or a.? to is a preposition, then is according or as a preposi- tion also, although it does not of itself govern the objective case. As, thus used, is called a conjunction by some, an adverb by others. Dr. Webster considers according to be always a participle, and cxpr - or a preposition." Octavo Diet. The following is an instance in which, if it is not a preposition, it is a participle : " This is a constiuction net according to the rules of grammar." Murray's (Si-am. Vol. ii, p. 22. But according to arid contrary to arc expressed in Latin and Greek by single prepositions ; and if to alone is the preposition in English, then both according and contrary must, in many instances, be aaverbs. Example : " For dost thou sit as judging me according to the law, and contrary to law command me to be smitten?" (See the Greek of Acts, xxiii, 3.) Contrary, though literally an adjective, is often made either an adverb, or a part of a complex preposition, 420 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. unless the grammarians are generally in error respecting it : as, " He dares not act contrary to his instructions." Murray's Key, p. 179. OBS. 17. J. W. Wright, with some appearance of analogy on his side, but none of usage, everywhere adds ly to the questionable word according; as, "We are usually estimated accordingly to our company." Philosophical Gram, p. 127. "Accordingly to the forms in which they are employed." Ib. p. 137. "Accordingly to the above principles, the adjective ACCORDING (or agreeable) is frequently, but improperly, substituted for the adverb ACCORD- INGLY (or agreeably.}" Ib. p. 145. The word contrary he does not notice ; but, on the same principle, he would doubtless say, "He dares not act contrarily to his instructions." We say indeed, " He acted agreeably to his instructions ; " and not, " He acted agreeable to his instructions." It must also be admitted, that the adverbs accordingly and contrarily are both of them good English words. If these were adopted, where the character of according and contrary is disputable, there would indeed be no longer any occasion to call these latter either adverbs or prepositions. But the fact is, that no good writers have yet preferred them, in such phrases ; and the adverbial ending ly gives an additional syllable to a word that seems already quite too long. OBS. 18. Instead is reckoned an adverb by some, a preposition by others ; and a few write instead-of with a needless hyphen. The best way of settling the grammatical ques- tion respecting this term, is, to write the noun stead as a separate word, governed by in. Bating the respect that is due to anomalous usage, there would be more propriety in com- pounding in quest of, in lieu of, and many similar phrases. For stead is not always followed by of, nor always preceded by in, nor always made part of a compound. We say, in our stead, in your stead, in their stead, &c. ; but 'lieu, which has the same meaning as stead, is much more limited in construction. Examples : " In the stead of sinners, He, a divine and human person, suffered." Barnes's Notes. "Christ suffered in the place, and stead of sin- ners." Ib. "For, in its primary sense, is pro, loco altcrius, in the stead or place of another." Lowth's Gram. p. 65. "If it may stand him more in stead to lie." Milt. P. L., B. i, 1. 473. " But here thy sword can do thee little stead." Id. Comus, 1. 611. OBS. 19. From forth and from out are two poetical phrases, apparently synonymous, in which there is a fanciful transposition of the terms, and perhaps a change of forth and out from adverbs to prepositions. Each phrase is equivalent in meaning to out of or out from. Forth, under other circumstances, is never a preposition ; though out, perhaps, may be. We speak as familiarly of going out doors, as of going up stairs, or down cellar. Hence from out may be parsed as a complex preposition, though the other phrase should seem to be a mere example of hyperbaton : "I saw from out the wave her structures rise." Byron. "'Peeping from forth their alleys green." Collins. OBS. 20. "Out of and as to," says one grammarian, " are properly prepositions, although they are double words. They may be called compound prepositions." Cooper's Gram. p. 103. I have called the complex prepositions double rather than compound, because several of the single prepositions are compound words ; as, into, notwithstanding, overthu'art, throughout, upon, within, without. And even some of these may follow the preposition from ; as, " If he shall have removed from within the limits of this state." But in and to, up and on, with and in, are not always compounded when they come together, because the sense may positively demand that the former be taken as an adverb, and the latter only as a preposition : as, " I will come in to him, and will sup with him." Rev. iii, 20 . " A statue of Venus was set up on Mount Calvary." M'llvaine's Lectures, p. 332. " The troubles which we meet with in the world." Blair. And even two prepositions may be brought together without union or coalescence ; because the object of the first one may be expressed or understood before it : as, " The man whom you spoke with in the street ;" "The treatment you complain of on this occasion;" "The house that you live in in the summer ; " " Such a dress as she had on in the evening." OBS. 21. Some grammarians assume, that, "Two prepositions in immediate succession require a noun to be understood between them; as, ' Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes, From beticixt two aged oaks.' The mingling notes came softened from below.' " Nut- ting's Gram. p. 105. This author would probably understand here " From the space be- twixt two aged oaks ; " " came softened from the region below us." But he did not con- sider all the examples that are included in his proposition ; nor did he rightly regard even those which he cites. The doctrine will be found a very awkward one in practice ; and an other objection to it is, that most of the ellipses which it supposes, are entirely im- aginary. If there were truth in his assumption, the compounding of prepositions would be positively precluded. The terms ovcr-against and round-about are sometimes written with the hyphen, and perhaps it would be well if all the complex prepositions were regularly compounded ; but, as I before suggested, such is not the present fashion of writing them, and the general usage is not to be controlled by what any individual may think. OBS. 22. Instances may, doubtless, occur, in which the object of a preposition is sup- pressed by ellipsis, when an other preposition follows, so as to bring together two that do CHAP. X.] ETYMOLOGY. PREPOSITIONS. THE LIST. 421 not denote a compound relation, and do not, in any wise, form one complex preposition. Of such suppression, the following is an example ; and, I think, a double one : "They take pronouns after in^t-ad of before them." Foiclcr, E. Gram. 521. This maybe interpreted to mean, and probably does mean " They take pronouns after them in stead of taking them before them." OBS. 23. In some instances, the words, in, on, of, for, to, with, and others commonly reck- oned prepositions, are used after infinitives or participles, in a sort of adverbial construction, be- cause they do not govern any objective; yet not exactly in the usual sense of adverbs, because they evidently express the relation between the verb or participle and a nominative or objective going before." Examples : " Houses are built to live in, and not to look on ; therefore let use be preferred before uniformity, except where both may be had." Ld. Kames. " These are not mys- teries for ordinary readers to be let into." ADDISOX : Joh. Diet. w. Let. "Heaven is worth dying; for, though earth is not worth living/or." R. Hall. " What! have ye not houses to eat and to 'drink in f " 1 for. xi, 22. This is a very peculiar idiom of our language ; and if we say, " II.ivc ye not houses in which to eat and to drink ? " we form an other which is not much less so. Greek : " M > yl.tn olx'tn; i /. l/frt ?<; i>> cvQitir Kal TIITHI- ', " Latin : " Num enim domos non habetis ad manducandum et bibendum ? " Leusden. " N'avez vous pas des maisons pour man- ger et pour boire ? " French Bible.* OBS. 24. In OBS. 10th, of Chapter Fourth, on Adjectives, it was shown, that words of place, (such as, aboi'e, beloic, beneath, under, and the like,) are sometimes set before nouns in the character of adjectives, and not of prepositions : as, " In the above list " " From the above list." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 70. To the class of adjectives also, rather than to that of adverbs, may some such words be referred, when, without governing the objective case, they are put after nouns to signify place: as, "The way of life is above to the wise, that he may depart from'hell beneath." Prov. xv, 24. " Of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath." Exod. xx, 4. " Say first, of God above or man below, What can we reason but from what we know ? " Pope. LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. The following are the principal prepositions arranged alphabetically : Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at. athwart ; Bating, before, behind, below, beneath, beside m besides, be- tween or betwixt, beyond, by ; Concerning ; Down, during ; Ere, except, except- in;/ ; For, from ; In, into ; Mid or midst ; Notwithstanding ; Of, off,\ on, out, over, overthwart ; Past, pending ; Respecting, round ; Since ; Through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ; Under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon ; With, within, without. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Grammarians differ considerably in their tables of the English prepositions. Nor are they all of one opinion, concerning either the characteristics of this part of speech, or the partic- ular instances in which the acknowledged properties of a preposition are to be found. Some teach that, "Every preposition requires an objective case after it." Lennie, p. 50; Bullions, Prin. of E. Grant, p. 69. In opposition to this, I suppose that the preposition to may take an in- finitive rrrb after it; that about also may be a preposition, in the phrase, " about to write ;" that /, for, from, in, of, and some other prepositions, may govern partici- ; (i. e. without making them nouns, or cases ;) and, lastly, that after a preposition an mptimrs construed substantively, and yet is indeclinable ; as, for once, from afar, from abort '-es. OBS. 2. The writers just quoted, proceed to say : " Whon a proposition docs not govern an ob- jective case, it becomes an adverb ; as, 4 He rides about.' But in such phrases as, cast up, hold otif, f'tll on, the words nj>, out, and on, must be considered as a part of the verb, rather than as to speak of it as governing nothing ; yet it does not always govern the objective case, for partici- ples and infinitives ha-. About, up, out, and on, as here cited, are all of them adverbs; and so' are all other particles that thus qualify verbs, without governing anything. L. Murray grossly errs where he assumes, that, " The distinct component parts of suchpnrasesas, to to fall on, to bear on?, to vc., are no c/uidc to the sense of the whole." Surely, " to cast up" is to cast some/low, though the meaning of the phrase may be " to compute." By this author, * Of the consirnr'ion no'ico 1 in this observation, tho P.v. Matt. Harrison cites a good example : pronounces it elliptical; :ui 1 icarcelj f >rln-ar-i to condemn it as bad Kn^lis'n : " In the following sentence, the relative pronoun is thn>c> tiuif-i f inirf.- 1 : ]< tlu-n- a God to swear bit. and is tbere none to bclicvr in. none to trust to .' ' Letters liinntfmoii.i. Jlii. in. and to. as ] -and alone, ilfmirltil of the relatii-f$ to which they apply. The - its nn attraction* worthy nf imitation. It exhibits a license carried to the extreme point- of i-:i,lnr.ii!i ." Harrison's English I-an, t \:i rili|>-is dt -,-.., , after the advi-rh art ha< rained the latter word sometimes to be inserted incorrectly among the pr. , ! x. ' off (from ) hi hone.'" Hut's 'Irani, p . 'J6. Off and on are oppositos ; and, in a sen- tence lik the following, I see no more need of inserting "/rom " after the former, than to after the latter : " Thou shalt not come down off that bed on which thou art gona up." 2 Kings, i, 10. 422 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II and some others, all such adverbs are absurdly called prepositions, and are also as absurdly declared to be parts of the preceding verbs! See Murray's Gram. p. 117; W. Allen's, 179 ; Kirkham' s t 95 , R. C. Smith's, 93 ; Fish's, 86 ; Butler's, 63 ; Wells' s, 146. OBS. 3. In comparing the different English grammars now in use, we often find the primary distinction of the parts of speech, and every thing that depends upon it, greatly perplexed by the fancied ellipses, and forced constructions, to which their authors resort. Thus Kirkham: " Prep- ositions are sometimes erroneously called abverbs, when their nouns are understood. ' He rides ; act or misfor- He came down angels above ; ' n. p. 89. The errors of this passage are almost as numerous as the words ; and those to which the doctrine leads are absolutely innumerable. That up and down, with verbs of motion, imply ascent and descent, as wisely and foolishly imply wisdom and folly, is not to be denied ; but the grammatical bathos of coming " doivn [the ascent] from the hill" of science, should startle those whose faces are directed upward ! Doionward ascent is a movement worthy only of Kirkham, and his Irish rival, Joseph W. Wright. JThe brackets here used are Kirkham's, not mine. OBS tions gfl will p. 119. Here, after, before, and against, are neither conjunctions nor prepositions, but conjunctive adverbs of time, referring to the verbs which follow them, and also, when the sentences are complet- ed, to others antecedent. The awkward addition of " the time ichen," is a sheer perversion. If after, before, and the like, can ever be adverbs, they are so here, and not conjunctions, or prep- ositions. OBS. 5. But the great Compiler proceeds: " The prepositions, after, before, above, beneath, and several others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered: as, 'They had their reward L soon after ; ' ( He died not long before ;' ' He dwells above;' but if the nouns time and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form : as, ' He died not long before that time,' &c." Ib. Now, I say, when any of the foregoing words "appear to be adverbs," they are adverbs, fend, if adverbs, then not prepositions. But to consider prepositions to be adverbs, as Murray here does, or seems to do ; and to suppose " the NOUNS time AND place" to be understood in the several examples here cited, as he also does, or seems to do ; are singly such absurdities as no grammarian should fail to detect, and together such a knot of blunders, as ought to be wondered at, even in the Compiler's humblest copyist. In the following text, there is neither preposition nor ellipsis : "Above, below, without, within, around, Confus'd, unnumber'd multitudes are found." Pope, on Fame. OBS. 6. It comports with the name and design of this work, which is a broad synopsis of gram- matical criticism, to notice here one other absurdity ; namely, the doctrine of " sentential nouns." There is something of this in several late grammars : as, ''The prepositions after, before, ere, since, till, and until, frequently govern sentential nouns ; and after, before, since, notwithstand- ing, and some others, frequently govern a noun or pronoun understood. A preposition governing a sentential noun, is, by Murray and others, considered a conjunction; and a preposition govern- ing a noun understood, an adverb." J. L. PAKKHUKST : in Sanborn's Gram. p. 123. " Example : * He will, before he dies, sway the sceptre.' He dies is a sentential noun, third person, singular number; and is governed by before; before he dies, being equivalent iu meaning to before his death." Sanborn, Gram. p. 176. "'After they had waited a long time, they departed.*' After waiting." Ib. This last solution supposes the phrase, " icaitiny a longtime," or at least the par- ticiple waiting, to be a noun ; for, upon the author's principle of equivalence, *' they had tvaited," will otherwise be a "sentential" participle a thing however as good arid as classical as the other 1 OBS. 7. If a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object, it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions, like the following : " For in that he died, he died unto sin once ; but in that he liveth, he liveth unto God." Rom. vi, 10. " My Spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is flesh." Gen. vi, 3. " For, after that, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe." 1 Cor. i, 21. Here, in, for, and after, are all followed by the word that; which Tooke, Web- ster, Frazee, and some others, will have to be " a substitute," or "pronoun," representing the sentence which follows it, and governed by the preposition. But that, in this sense, is usually, and perhaps more properly, reckoned a conjunction. And if we take it so, in, for, and after, (unless the last be an adverb,) must either be reckoned conjunctions also, or be supposed to gov- ern sentences. The expressions however are little used; because "in that" is nearly equiv- alent to as; "for that" can be better expressed by because; and "after that," which is equiva- lent to */7/rf; ( , postquam, may well be rendered by the term, seeing that, or since. "Before that Philip called thee," is a similar example ; but " that " is here needless, and " before " may be parsed as a conjunctive adverb of time. I have one example more : " But, besides that he attempted it formerly with no success, it is certain the Venetians keep too watchful an eye," &c. Addison. This is good English, but the word " besides," if it be not a conjunction, may as well be called an adverb, as a preposition. OBS. 8. There are but few words in the list of prepositions, that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech. Thus bating, excepting, concerning, touching, respecting, dur- ing, pending, and a pnrt of the compound notwithstanding, are literally participles ; and some writers, in opposition to general custom, refer them always to their original class. Unlike most other prepositions, they do not refer to place, but rather to action, state, or duration ; for, even as prepositions, they are still allied to participles. Yet to suppose them always participles, as would Dr. Webster and some others, is impracticable. Examples : "They speak concerning virtue." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram. p. 69. Here concerning cannot be a participle, because its antecedent CHAP. X-] ETYMOLOGY. PREPOSITIONS. OF THE LIST. 423 term is a verb, and the moaning is, " they speak of virtue." " They are bound durinn life : " that is, durantti vita, life continuing, or, as long as life lasts. So, ''Notwithstanding this , " i. e. " hot non obstante," this not hindering. Here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words. " Since he had succeeded, notwithstanding them, peaceably to the throne." Bolinybrokc, on Hist. p. 31. " This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's criticism to the contrary notwithstanding." Webster's Improved Gram. p. 8-5. In the phrase, " notwithstanding the/n," "the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter ; but Dr. Webster doubtless supposed the woid " criticism " to be in the nominative case, put absolute with the participle : and so it would have been, had he written not withstanding/ as two words, like "non obstante ; " but the compound word notwithstanding is not a participle, because there is no verb to not withstand. But notwithstanding, when placed before a nominative, or before the conjunction that, is a con- junction, and, as such, must be rendered in Latin by tamcn, yet, quatnvis, although, or nihilomi- uus, ntverti OBS. 9. Fur, when it signifies because, is a conjunction : as, " Boast not thyself of to-morrom; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth." Piov. xxvii, 1. For has this meaning, and, according to Dr. Johnson, is a conjunction, when it precedes that ; as, " Yet for that the worst men are most ready to remove, I would wish them chosen by descretion of wise men." Spoiser. The phrase, as I 'have before suggested, is almost obsolete ; but Murray, in one place, adopts It from Dr. Bcattio : "For that those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses." / Gram. p. ?> How he would have parsed it, does not appear. But both words are con- nectives. And, from the analogy of those terms which serve as links to other terms, I should in- cline to take for that, in that, after that, and besides that, (in which a known conjunction is put last,) as complex conjunctions ; and also, to take as for, as to, and because of, (in which a known prep. Qsition is put last,) as complex prepositions. But there are other regular and equivalent expres- sions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of those. Ous. 10. Several words bes-ides those contained in the list above, are (or have been) occasion- ally employed in English as prepositions : as, A, (chiefly used before participles,) abaft, adoicn, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, ancar, ancath, ancnt, aslant, aslope, astride, atirecn, aticixt> bcsouth, bi/irest, cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maift/re, minus, onto, opposite, outside, pcr t plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, cersi/s, via', in thai, withinside. Ons. 11. Dr. Lowth says, " the particle a before participles, in the phrases, a coming, a going, a walking, a shooting, &c. and before nouns, as a bed, a-board, a-shore, a-foot, &c. seems to be a true and > position, a little disguised by familiar use and quick pronunciation. Dr. Wallis supposes it to be the proposition at. I rather think it is the preposition on." Lowth- '* Gram. p. > ; Churchill's, 268. There is no need of supposing it to be either. It is not fromow; foi in Saxon it sometimes accompanied on : as in the phrase, "on it u'coruhl ; " that is, "on to aaes ; '* or, as Wicklitfc rendered it, "into tcorldis ; " or, as our version has it, "for ever" See Luke, i, 55. This preposition was in use long before either a or an, as an article, appeared in its present form in the language; and, for ought I can discover, it may be as old as either on or at. An, too, is found to have had at times the sonse and construction of in or on; and this usage is, beyond doubt, older than that which makes it an article. On, however, was an exceedingly common prep- osition in Saxon, being used almost always where we now put on, in, into, upon, or among, and sometimes, for with or by ; so, sometimes, where a was afterwards used: thus, " What in the Saxon Gospel of John, is, ' Io wylle gan on fixoth,' is, in the English version, 'I go a fishing.' Chap, xxi, ver. 3." Sec Lowth's Gram. p. f>.> : Churchill's, 269. And a is now sometimes equiv- alent to on ; as, " He would have a learned University make Barbarisms a purpose." Bentley, Diss. on Phalaris, p. 223. That is, "on purpose." How absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the forgoing text ! " I go on a fishing." Alden's Gram. p. 117. " I go on a fishing Murray's Gram. p. 221 ; Merchant's, 101. " It may not be improper," says Churchill in another place, " to observe here, that the proposition on, is too frequently pro- nounced as if it wore the vowel a, in ordinary conversation; and this corruption/* [has] become so prevalent, that I have even met with ' laid it a oncsidc ' in a periodical publication. It should have been '"// om- side,' if the expression were meant to bo particular ; 'aside,' if general " Nei* p. .'iJ">. By those writers, a is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of o/: as, " Much iu tho same manner, Thomas of Bocket, by very frequent and familiar use, became Thorn ; and ono of the clock, or poihaps on the clock, is written, one o'clock, but pro- nouncod, one a clock. The phrases with a before a participle are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse. They are established by long usage, and good authority ; and tl to be no reason, why they should be utterly rejected. " Lotcth's Gram. p. 66. " Much i:i the s HMO manner, Julin of Xokes and John of Styles, become John a Nokes, and John a Stylos : and nr.e of the clock, or rather on the clock, is written one o'clock, but pronounced one a clock. The phra'ses with a before participles, are out of use in the solemn style; but still pre- vail in familiar discourse-." Cltun-hiH'.\ AVi/- Gram. p. 269. Ous. 12. The following are wimples of the loss usual prepositions, a, and others that begin with a : "And ho set throe thous .ml ;n;d six hundred overseers to set the people a work." 2 C/tron. ii. IS Who gorth a wart'.ire any time at his own charges?" 1 Cor. ix, 7. "And the mixed multitude that was amnnir them foil a lusting." .\um. xi, 4. 1 swret Billv Dirnond, a patting his hair Tip." Feast of the Poets, p. 17. 'The god fell a laudiing to SIT his mistake." Ib. p. 18. "You'd have thought 'twas the bishops or judges a coming." Ib. p. 22. "A place on the lower dock, ab-ift the mainmast." Gre<;oru's Diet. "A moment gazed adovm the dale." No//, /, /.. p. 10. "Adoton Strtth-Gartney's valley broad." Ib. p. 81. " For afor the harvot, w'ni-n thcbud is perfect," v Itaiah, xviii, o. " Whore the great luminary aloof the rolfrxr constellations thick." Seo Milton'* /' 15. Minus, less, plus, more, per, by, versus, towards, or against, and via, by the way of, are Latin words ; and it is not very consistent with thepiirity of our tongue, to use them as above. Sans, without, is French, and not now heard with us. Afore for before, atween for between, trav- erse for across, thorough for through, and withal for ^cith, are obsolete. Withal was never placed before its object, but was once very common at the end of a sentence. I think it not properly a preposition, but rather an adverb. It occurs in Shakspeare, and so does sans ; as, " I did laugh, sans intermission, an hour by his dial." As You Like It. " I pr'ythee, whom doth he trot withal? " Ib. "Saws teeth, sans eyes, saws taste, sans every thing." Ib. OBS. 16. Of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following, the readermay now judge for himself : "In consideration of what passes sometimes icithin-side of those vehicles."- Burr, p. viii. "Who had never been broken in to the experience of sea voyages." Timothy Flint. "And there came a fire out from before the Lord." Levitictis,Ya,1. "Because eight readers out often, it is believed, forget it." Broivn's Estimate, ii, 32. Fifty days after the Pass- over, and their coming out of Egypt." Watts's Script. Hist. p. 57. "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is roundabout his people." Psal. cxxv, 2. " Literally, I proceeded forth from out o/'God and am come.' "Gurney's Essays, p. 161. " But he that came down from (oifrom out of) heaven." Ibid. " Here none the last funereal rights receive ; To be cast forth the camp, is all their friends can give." Rowe's Lucan, vi, 166. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS X. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Tenth Praxis, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, and PREPOSITIONS. CHAP. X.] ETYMOLOGY. - PREPOSITIONS. - PARSING. - PRAXIS X. 425 The definitions to be given in the Tenth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, jive for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and one for an interjection. Titus : EXAMPLE PARSED. "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil." Maxims. Never is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. >. Adverbs of time an- those which answer to the question, \\'ln-n ? How long ? How soon ? or, How often f including these Avlrich ask. -: is u rc-iilar active-intransitive verb, from adventure, adventured, adventuring, n>e acted m/on. '2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or d. ;;. An active-intransitive verb Is a verb that expresses an action that lias no person or thin;-' f>r its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. <;. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person address- ed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes hut one. On is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is -cm-rally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Too to an adverb of degree. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; anil generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much f How little f or to the idea of more or Jess. Near is a common adjective, of the positive decree ; compared, near, nearer, nearest or next. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality, l'. A common adjective is any ordi- nary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. a. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in'its simple form. An is the indefinite article. 1. An article Is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. Approach is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. !. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. iJ. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merelv spoken of. 4. Tin- singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes tilings that ar-- neither male nor female. C. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a "word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is yenerallv placed before a noun or a pronoun. What la a relative pronoun, ofthe third penon, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. '2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrnse. and connects different clauses of a sentence, 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merelv spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female, (i. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Is is an irregular neuter verb, from b>-, ws, lt\n, been found in the indicative mood, present tense, third per- son, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to 6*, to act, or to be actedupon. 2. An irreg- ular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood i- that form of a verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or tiling merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. Ecil is a common adjective, of the positive degree ; compared irregularly, bad, evil, or ill. worse, worst. 1. An adjective is a word ad. led to a noun or pronoun, and gem-rally expresses qualitv. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation, o. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form. LESSON I. PARSING. " My Lord, I do here, in the name of all the learned and polite persons of the nation, complain to your Lordship, as first minister, that our language is imperfect ; that its daily improvements are by no means in proportion to its daily corruptions ; that the pretenders to polish and refine it, have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities ; and that, in many instances, it offends against every part of grammar." Dean Swift, to the Earl of Oxford. " Swift must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter ; to which he was himself very attentive, both in his own writings, and in his remarks upon those of his friends : He is one of the most correct, and perhaps [he is] the best, of our prose writers. Indeed the justness of this complaint, as far as I can find, hath never yet been questioned ; and yet no effectual method Jtcith hitherto been taken to re- dress the grievance which was the object of it." Lowltis Gram. p. iv. " The only proper use to be made of the blemishes which occur in the writings of such authors, is, to point out to those who apply themselves to the study of com- position, some of the rules which they ought to observe for avoiding such errors ; and to render them sensible of the necessity of strict attention to language aiid style." Blairs Rhet. p. 20:]. " Thee, therefore, and with thee myself I weep, For thee and me I mourn in anguish deep." Popes Homer. 426 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART LESSON II. PARSING. "The southern corner of Europe, comprehended between the thirty-sixth ai fortieth degrees of latitude, bordering on Epirus and Macedonia towards the nortl and on other sides surrounded by the sea, was inhabited, above eighteen centuric before the Christian era, by many small tribes of hunters and shepherds, among whoi the Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most numerous and powerful." Gillies, Gr. p. 1^ " In a vigorous exertion of memory, ideal presence is exceedingly distinct : thus when a man, entirely occupied with some event that made a deep impression, forget himself, he perceives every thing as passing before him, and has a consciousness presence, similar to that of a spectator." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 88. " Each planet revolves about its own axis in a given time ; and each moves roui the sun, in an orbit nearly circular, and in a time proportioned to its distanc Their velocities, directed by an established law, are perpetually changing by reguh accelerations and retardations." Ib. i, 271. " You may as well go about to turn the sun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock's feather." Shak. u Ch. Justice. I sent for you, when there were matters against you for your life, come speak with me. Falstaff. As I was then advised by my learned counsel in tl laws of this land-service, I did not come." Id. 2. Hen. IV, Act i, Sc. 2. " It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect ; to the cheeks take the die of the passions and appear in all the colours of thought. "- Collier. " Even from out thy slime The monsters of the deep are made." Byron. LESSON III. PARSING. " With a mind weary of conjecture, fatigued by doubt, sick of disputation, ea for knowledge, anxious for certainty, and unable to attain it by the best use of reason in matters of the utmost importance, I have long ago turned my thoughts to an impartial examination of the proofs on which revealed religion is grounded, and I am convinced of its truth." Bp. Watson's Apology, p. G9. " The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet until Shiloh come ; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be." Gen. xlix, 10 " Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, thou shalt no forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths. But I say unto you Swear not at all : neither by heaven ; for it is God's throne : nor by the earth ; fo it is his footstool : neither by Jerusalem ; for it is the city of the great King Neither shalt thou swear by thy head ; because thou canst not make one hair whitt or black." Matt, v, 3330. " Kefined manners, and polite behaviour, must not be deemed altogether artificial men who, inured to the sweets of society, cultivate humanity, find an elegant pleasur in preferring others, and making them happy, of which the proud, the selfish, scarce ly have a conception." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 105. " Bacchus, that first from out the purple grape Crush'd the sweet poison of misused wine." Milton. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING PREPOSITIONS. " Nouns are often formed by participles." L. Murray's Index, Octavo Gram, ii, 200. [FORMCLE. Not proper, because the relation here intended, between are forme / and participles, is not well sig- nified by the preposition by. But. according to Observation 'fth, on this part of speech, u The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, Unit they can sel- dom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety." This relation would be better expressed by fromi thus, '' Nouns are often formed from participles.''] " What tenses are formed on the perfect participle ? " IngcrsolFs Gram. p. 104. " Which tense is formed on the present ? " Ibid. " When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence," c. Ib. p. 150 ; Murray, 145 ; and CIIAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. PREPOSITIONS. ERRORS. INTERJECTIONS. 427 others. " If the addition consists in two or more words." Murray s Gram. p. 176 ; Ingcrsotf^ 177. "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or \ised independently on the rest of the sentence." Mur. p. 181; Ing. 2-14; and others. "For the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present him with a variety of false constructions." Mm-rai/'fi (it-am, p. 189. u For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety of false constructions." In- ffersoll's Gram, p. 2,58. "I shall here present you with a scale of derivation." Bitches Gram. p. 81. "These two manners of representation in respect of number." Istirth's Gram. -p. 15; ChurchMs, 57. "There are certain adjectives, which seem to be derived without any variation from verbs." Loicf/is Gram. p. 89. "Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof of others." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 253. " For being more studious than any other pupil of the school." lb. p. 226. " From misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way." lb. p. 201. " These people reduced the greater part of the island to their own power." lb. p. 261.* "The principal accent distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest." Murni>/'$ Gram. p. 236. "Just numbers are in unison to the human mind." lb. p. 298. " We must accept of sound instead of sense." lb. p. 298. "Also, instead for consnltation,]\c uses consult." Priestley's Gram. p. 143. "This ablative seems to be governed of a preposition understood." Walkers Particles, p. 268. "That my father may not hear on't by some means or other." lb. p. 257. "And, besides, my wife would hear on't by some means." lb. p. 81. " For insisting in a requisition so odious to them.'*' - /. i, 206. " Based in the great sell-evident truths of liberty and equali- ty." Scholar's Mainutf. "Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling book." Murray's Gram. p. 21. "They do not cut it off: except in a few words; as, due, duly, &c." 76. p. 21. " "\Vhethcr passing in such time, or then finished." Loidh's Gram. p. 151. " It hath disgusted hundreds of that confession." Barclay's Works, iii, 269. "But they have egregiously fallen in that inconveniency." lb. iii, 73. "For is not this to set nature a work : " lb. i, 270. "And surely that which should set all its springs a- work, is (iod." ATTEUIIUKY : in Blairs Hint. p. 298. "He could not end his treatise without a panegyric of modern learning." TKMPLJ: : ib. p. 110. "These are entirely independent on the modulation of the voice." Walker's Elocution, p. 308. " It is dear of a penny. It is cheap of twenty pounds." Walker s Particles, p. 274. " It will be despatched, in most i >ns, without resting." Locke. " ' O, the pain the bliss in dying.' " Kirkhanis Gram* p. 129. "When [he is] presented with the objects or the facts." Smith's Proditctii-e Gram. p. 6. " I will now present you with a synopsis." Ib. p. 25. " The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees." Ib. p. 38. "I shall now present you with a few lines." Bucko's Classical Gram. p. 13. "Common names of Substantives are those, which stand for things generally." Ib. p. 31. "Adjec- tives in the English language admit no variety in gender, number, or case whatever, ex- cept that of the degrees of comparison." Ib. p. 48. "Participles are adjectives formed of verbs." Ib. p. 63. "I do love to walk out of a fine summer's evening." Ib. p. 97. "An Ellipsis, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence." Mt-n-hn. . p. 99. "The prefix to is generally placed before verbs in the infinitive mood, but before the following verbs it is properly omitted; (viz.) bid, make^ I, and let ; a?, lie bid me do it; He made me/earn; &c." Ib. Stereo- ' 'iliu/i, p. 91 ; Old EJiti.jn, 85. "The infinitive sometimes follows than, after a com- parison ; as, I wish nothing more, than to know his fate." Ib. p. 92. See Mm ray's Gram. 8vo, i, 184. "Or by prefixing the adverbs more or less, in the comparative, and most or iaast, in the superlative."- Gram. p. 36. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun." Ib. p. 17 ; Com/;/, 15. "In monosyllables the Comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er." . p. 21. "lie has particularly named these, in dis- tinction to others." liar, . p. vi. "To revive the decaying taste of antient Literature." lb. p. xv. " lie found the greatest difficulty of writing." HUME : in Priest- ley's Gram. p. 159. "And the tear that is wip'd with a little address May be followed perhaps with a smile." ', p. 78 ; and Murray's E. Render, p. 212. CHAPTER XL -INTERJECTIONS. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong (rr sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh! alas! ah! poh! pzliaw ! avaunt! (iha! hurrah! "U7io mnirrjttfnt[>j rnluccil tlic zrfat'st rart of the i.laml TO their own power/' Fifift, on thf English Ton%ur \\ t ,,n. nation rfducts another TO subjection. But wheu dominion or poii-er is uted, no always, as [so] far as I know, say, rtducc UNDER thtir power" [01 dominion ^ Blan's Witt. p. 2LU. 428 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. Unimpassioned writings re- ject this part of speech altogether. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. Some significant words;, perhaps more properly belonging to other classes, are sometimes ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner; as, strange! prodigious! indeed! Wells says, "Other parts of speech, used by way of exclamation, are properly regarded as interjections ; as, hark I surprising ! mercy ! " School Gram. 1846, p. 110. This is an evident absurdity ; because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different. Nor is it right to say, "Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office of interjections." Wells, 1850, p. 120. OBS. 2. The word interjection comes to us from the Latin name interjectio, the root of which is the verb interjicio, to throw between, to interject. Interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between the parts of discourse, without any syntactical connexion with other words. Dr. Lowth, in his haste, happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds " thrown in between the parts of a sentence ; " and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the Interjection since. See Murray's Grammar and others. "Webster's Dictionary defines it as, " A word thrown in between icords connected in construction ; " but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation. OBS. 3. The following is a fair sample of " Smith's New Grammar," i. e. of " English Gram- mar on the Productive System," a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense : " Q. When I exclaim, ' Oh ! I have ruined my friend,' 'Alas ! I fear for life,' which icords here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to express passion or feeling ? Ans. Oh ! Alas ! Q. What does interjection mean ? Ans. Thrown between. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas ! &c.? Ans. INTERJECTIONS. Q. What, then, are interjec- tions ? Ans. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. Q. How may an interjection generally be known ? Ans. By its taking an exclamation point after it : [as,] f Oh ! I have alienated my friend.' " R. C. Smith's Neiv Grammar,]}. 39. Of the interjection, this author gives, in his examples for parsing, fifteen other instances ; but nothing can be more obvious, than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either "between sentences " or between the parts of any sentence! (See Neio Gram. pp. 40 and 96.) Can he be a competent grammarian, who does not know the mean- ing of between ; or who, knowing it, misapplies so very plain a word ? OBS. 4. The Interjection, which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language, is now very constantly set down, among the parts of speech, as the last of the series. But, for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words, some of our grammarians have adopted the term exclamation. Of the old and usual term interjection, a recent writer justly says, " This name is preferable to that of exclamation, for some exclamations are not interjections, and some interjections are not exclamations." Folder's E. Grain. 333. LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS. The following are the principal interjections arranged according to the emotion? which they are generally intended to indicate : (1.) Of joy; eiglil hey! io ! (2. ) Of praise ; well-done! good! bravo! (3.) Of sorrow ; oh ! ah! alas ! alack! hoo r welladay ! or welaway ! (4.) Of wonder; heigh ! ha! strange! indeed! whew / hoity-toity! hoida ! zounds! egad! my stars! (5.) Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address ; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute ;) ! (6.) Of pain or fear; oh! dear ! ah! eh! (7.) Of contempt ; fudge ! puyh ! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph! (8.) Of aversion; f oh! faugh! jie! fy! foy!* off! begone! avaunt! aroynt! whew! (9.) Of calling aloud; ho! what ho! soho! hollo! halloo! hoy! ahoy! (10.) Of exultation; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah! (11.) Of laughter ; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he. (12.) Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail! (13.) Of calling to attention; ho! lo ! behold! look! see! hark! la! law ! f (14.) Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum! (15.) Of surprise or horror ; oh! ha! hah! what! (16.) Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum ! (17.) Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh ! (18.) Of parting ; farewell ! adieu! (19.) Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay! (20.) Of interrogating; eh? ha? I hey? * " O foy, don't misapprehend me ; I don't Pay so." DOUBLE DEALER : Kames, El. of Crit. i, 305. t According to Walker and Webster, la is pronounced law ; and, if they are right in this, the latter is only a false mode of spelling. But I set down both, because both are found in books, and because I incline to think the former in from the French la, which is pronounced lah. Johnson and Webster make la and lo synonymous ; de- riving lo from the Saxon la, and la either from lo or from the French la. 'Law, how you joke, cousin." Co- lumbian Orator, p. 178. "Law me! the very ghosts are come now ! ' ; Ibid. l '-Law, sister Betty ! 1 am glad to see you ! " Ibid. "La you ! if you speak ill of the devil, How he takes it at heart ! " SUAKSPEARE : Joh. Diet. w. La. J The interjection of interrogating, being placed independently, either after a question, or after something which it converts into a question, is usually marked with its own separate eroteme ; as, " But this is even so : eh ? "- Newspaper. " Is 't not drown'd i' the last ruin ? Ila? " S/iakspeare. " Does Bridget paint still, Pompey ? Ha?" Id. " Suits my complexion hey gal ? so I think " Yankee Schoolmaster. Sometimes we see it divided only by a comma, from the preceding question : as, " What dost thou think of this doctrine, Friend Gurth, ha? " SCOTT'S IVANHOE : Fowler's E. Gram. 29. CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. - INTERJECTIONS. - PARSING. - PRAXIS XI. 429 OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. \Vith the interjections, may perhaps be reckoned hau and gec t the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle; and other similar .sounds, useful under certain circumstances, but seldom found in books. Besides these, and all the foregoing, there are several others, too often heard, which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language. The frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. Philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether. Yet are there several words of this kind, which in earnest utterance, animated poetry, or impassioned declamation, are not only natural, but exceedingly expressive: as, " Lift up thy voice, O daughter of Gallim ; cause it to be heard unto Laish, O poor Anathoth." Isaiah, x, 30. "Alns, alas, that great city Babylon, that mighty city ! for in one hour is thy judgement come." Rev. xviii, 10. ' \/i me! forbear, returns the queen, forbear ; Oh ! talk not, talk not of vain beauty's care." Odyssey, B. xviii, 1. 310. ORS. 2. Interjections, being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries, must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them, and never carelessly con- founded one with an other when we express them on paper. The adverb ay is sometimes im- properly written for the interjection ah ; as, ay me! for ah me I and still oftener we find oh, an interjection of sorrow, pain, or surprise,* written in stead of 0, the proper sign of wishing, earn- estness, or vocative address : as, "Oh Flappiness ! our being's end and aim ! " Pope, Ess. Ep. iv, 1. 1. " And peace, oh Virtue ! peace is all thy own." Id. ib. Ep. iv. 1. 82. "O/f stay, O pride of Greece ! Ulysses, stay ! O cease thy course, and listen to our lay ! " Odys. B. xii, 1. 222. OBS. 3. The chief characteristics of the interjection are independence, exclamation, and the want of any definable signification. Yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class, will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection. Indeed the last, (the want of a rational meaning,) would seem to exclude them from the language; forwards must needs be sig- nificant of something. Hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse, or the low- ing of a cow. There is some reason in this ; but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them, is to some extent instinctively understood; and does constitute a sort of significance, though we cannot really define it. And, as their use in lan- guage, or in connexion with language, makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar, it is certainly more proper to treat them as above, than to follow the plan of the Greek gram- marians, most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of adverbs. ()i:>. 1. Significant words uttered independently, after the manner of interjections, ought in general, perhaps, to be referred to their original classes ; for all such expressions may be sup- posed elliptical: as, "Order! gentlemen, order! " i. e. " Come to order," or, "Keep order." "Silence! " i. e. " Preserve silence." "Out .' out ! " i. e. " Get out," or, " Clear out ! " (See Obs. oth and 6th, upon Adverbs.) " Charge, Chester, charge ! On, Stanley, on! Were the last words of Marmion." Scott. OBS. 5. In some instances, interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns ;"*as, " I may sit in a corner, and cry hcy-ho for a husband." Sha k. So, according to James White, in his Essay on the Verb, is the word fa, in the following ex- ample : " If you deny me, fte upon your law." SHAK. : IVhite's Verb, p. 163. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XI. ETYMOLOGIC AL. In the Eleventh Praxis, it is m/.'/t'/W of the pupil to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and ALL their classes and modifications. The dcj'itifi'i/'s to fa (/iren in the Eleventh Pru.ris, are, two for an article, six for a no" a. .'///' "for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an intuit ire, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a cunj-inrtian, one for a preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus: KXAMI'LK 1'AllSED. " ! sooner Flmll the earth and stars fall into chaos ! " O [* an int.-ri, .;;,,,!. iu.li 1. Aii interio.-tinn is a word that Is uttered merely to indicate Home strong or sudden emotion of the mind. -'. The Interjection of wishln -3, or vocative ad- is an adverb of time, of the comparath mpared, soon, sooner, soonest. 1. An adverb is , . . word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; ;md -cin-rallv .\presses time, place, degree, or manner. -'. Atlsv irhieh answer to th< ' : long ? Jloic soon t or, It i lie comparative decree is that i\ iiich i< mre or less than HOmetblng r"litr:i>trd with it. all is an auxiliary to/,///. 1. An auxiliary ,,ne of the principal parts of an other verb, t.i express vimr particular mode and time of the tttmf, action. <,r * Though oh and a/i are most commonly used as signs of these depressing passions, it must be confessed that they are sometime* employed by repir :rks of cheerfulness or exultation; as, a .4/j, plea.sant proof," &c. Cowper's Task, p. 179. " Merrily o h .' merrily oh ."' Moore's Tyro!' Ay oh.' cheerily oh.' " 74. But even if this usa^e be supposed to b right, there is .-till tome difference between these worc'js and the interjection O: if there were not, we might dispense with the latter, and substitute one of the for- mer ; but this would certainly change the import of many an invocation. 430 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II- Fhe is the definite article. 1. An article is tlie word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their tif- nifieation. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things. Earth is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noilft is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of being* or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thine merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender to that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of n verb. And is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect word? or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction tiK.it denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition. Stars is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the nam Of A sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or th.nu merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes thines that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Fall, or Shall fall, is an irregular active-intransitive verb, (rom fall, fell, fatting, fallen ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and plural number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. '2. An irregular verb is a verb that docs not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming i! orcd. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simplv indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. Into is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Chaos is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noon is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is thft name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things, y. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender in that which denotes things that are neither male, nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of noun or pronoun which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I. PARSING. "Ah! St. Anthony preserve me ! Ah ah eh eh! Why why after all, your hand is not so co-o-o-old, neither. Of the two, it is rather warmer than my own. Can it be, though, that you are not dead?" "Not I." MOLIERE : in Burgh's Speaker, p. 232. "I'll make you change your cuckoo note, you old philosophical humdrum, you [Beats him] I will [Beats him]. I'll make you say somewhat else than, 'All things are doubtful ; all things are uncertain ;' [Beats him] I will, you old fusty pedant." "Ah ! oh ! eh ! What, beat a philosopher ! Ah ! oh ! eh ! " MOLIERE : ib. p. 247. " What ! will these hands never be clean ? No more of that, my lord ; no mere of that. You mar all with this starting." * * * " Here is the smell of blood still. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! oh! oh!" Sheik., Macbeth, Act V, Sc 1. " Ha ! at the gates what grisly forms appear ! What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear ! " Merry. LESSON II. PARSING. " Yet this may be the situation of some now known to us. frightful thought I horrible image ! Forbid it, O Father of mercy ! If it be possible, let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath, against which the strength of thy whole creation united, would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt ! " Burgh's Speaker, p. 289. " If it be so, our God, whom we serve, is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he will deliver us out of thine hand, king. But if not, bo it known unto thee, king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up." Daniel, iii, 17 and 18. " Grant me patience, just Heaven ! Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst the cant of criticism is the most tormenting ! " Sterne. "Ah, no ! Achilles meets a shameful fate, Oh ! how unworthy of the brave and great." Pope. LESSON III. PARSING. tt let not thy heart despise me ! thou whom experience has not taught that it i? misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess." Dr. Johnson. " Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery ! still thou art a bitter draught ; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account." Sterne. (1HAP. XII.] ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. PRAXIS XI. INTERJECTIONS. ERRORS. 431 " Put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character ; and if any body re- ports you not to be an honest or a good man, let your practice give him the lie. ThU is all very feasible." Antoninus. " Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brain j ! that we should, with joy, pleasancc, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts ! " Shakspeare. "All these afar off stood, crying, Alas ! Alas ! and wept, and gnashed their teeth, and groaned ; And with the owl, that on her ruins sat, Made dolorous concert in the ear of Night." Pollok. " Snatch'd in thy prime ! alas, the stroke were mild, Had ray frail form obey'd the fate's decree ! Blest were my lot, Cynthio ! my child ! Had Heaven so pleas'd, and I had died for thee ! " Shenstonc. I M PROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. ERRORS RESPECTING INTERJECTIONS. ** Of chance or change, oh let not man complain." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 85. fFoBMULE. Not proper, because fhe interjection ok, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise, is here used to indicate mere Ml Hut, according to the list of interjections, or Ons. 2d under it, the interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, Is O, and not ok. Therefore, ok should here be 0; thus, " Of chance or change.. O let not man complain." Beattie's Minstrel, B. ii, 1. 1.] " O thou persecutor ! Oh ye hypocrites." Merchant's Gram. p. 99 ; ct al. " Oh ! thou, who touchedst Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." Ib. (Key,) p. 197. " Oh ! happy we, surrounded by so many blessings." Ib. (Exercises,) p. 138. "Oh! thou, who art so nnmindful of thy duty." Ib. (Key,) p. 196. "If I am wrong, oh teach my heart To find that better May." Pope's Works. "Ileus! evocate hue Davum. Tcr. Hoe! call Da- vus out hither." Walkers Particlfx, p. loo. "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which was borrowed from the religion of paganism."" Murray's Gram. p. 281. "Oh that Ishmael might live before thee!" ALGER'S BIBLE: Gen. xvii, 18. "And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." FRIENDS' BIBLB : Gen. xviii, 30. "And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry." ID. and SCOTT'S : ib. ver. 32. * Oh, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word." FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'B : Gen. xliv, 18. "Oh, Virtue! how amiable thou art! I fear, alas! for my life." Fisk'i Gram. p. 89. "Ay me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain." Milton's I 1 . .L.,B. iv, 1. 86. " Oh ! that I had digged myself a cave." FLETCHER : in Bucke's Gram. p. 78. " O, my good lord ! thy comfort comes too late." SHAK. : ib. p. 78. "The voca- tive takes no article ; it is distinguished thus : O Pedro, Oh Peter ! O Dios, Oh God ! " Bucke's Gram. p. 43. "Oh, o ! But, the relative is always the same." Cobbett's Eng. Gram. 1st EJ. p. 127. "Oh, oh! But, the relative is always the same." Id. Edition of 1832, p. 116. "Ah hail, ye happy men ! " Jandons Gram. p. 116. " Oh that I had wings like a dove ! " Kim (TD8 1 BIBLB, and ALGER'S : Ps. Iv, 6. " Oh Glorious hope ! O Bless- ed abode! " o. B. Pcircc's Gram. p. 183. "Alas, Friends, how joyous is your presence." Rev. T. Smith's Cr-n/i. p. 87. "" Oh, blissful days ! Ah me ! how soon ye pass ! " Park- er and Fox's Gram. Part I, p. 16 ; Part III, p. 29. " Oh golden days ! oh bright unvalued hours ! What bliss (did ye but know that bliss) were yours ! " Barbauld. " Ay me ! what perils do environ The man that meddles with cold iron ! " Hudibras. CHAPTER XII. -QUESTIONS. ORDER OF RKHKARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY. proceeds to any subsequent put tT 9 * [The follow-in;* questions refer almost wholly to the main toit of the Etymology of this work, and arc roch a* every student should l-o able to .in-wi>r with readiness and accuracy, before he proceed* to any aub of the study or the exercites of English grammar.] N* I. PARTS OP SPEECH. 1. Of what does Etymology treat ? 2. What is meant by the term, "Paris of Speech?" 3 What are Classes, under the parts of speech ? 4. What are Modificationt t 6. How 432 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. many and what are the parts of speech ? 6. What is an article ? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective ? 9. What is a pronoun ? 10. What is a verb ? 11. What is a par- ticiple ? 12. Wh at is an adverb ? 13. What is a conjunction ? 14. What is a preposition ? 15. What is an interjection ? LESSON V II. PARSING. 1. What is Parsing ? and what relation docs it bear to grammar ? 2. What is a Praxis ? and what is said of the word ? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS ? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 5. How is the follow- ing example parsed? " The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the la- bour required of him." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the First Chapter, or the First Praxis.} LESSOX III. ARTICLES. 1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are an and a different .articles, or the same? 3. When ought an to be used, and what are the examples ? 4. When should a be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of w and y\ require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter ? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with an or a before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article ? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species ? 12. But how does an or a commonly limit the sense ? 13. And how does the commonly limit the sense ? 14. Which number does the limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is the required before ad- jectives ? 16. Why is an or a not applicable to plurals ? 17. What is said of an or a be- fore an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles ? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distin- guished in grammar ? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 23 Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote ? 24. What modifications have the articles ? LESSOX IV. PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS ? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 3. How is the following example parsed ? "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Second Chapter, or the Second Praxis ; andj^hen, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of bad English, with which the Second Chapter concludes.] LESSON V. NOUNS. 1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes an; nouns divided ? 3. What is a proper noun ? 4. What is a common noun ? 5. Wha ; particular classes are included among common nouns ? 6. What is a collective noun ? 7. What is an abstract noun ? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifica- tions have nouns ? 10. What are Persons, in grammar ? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 12. What is the first person ? 13. What is the second person ? 14. What is the third person ? 15. What are Numbers, in grammar ? 16. How man}- numbers are there, and what are they called ? 17. What is the singular number? 18*. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables ? 21. How is the regu- lar plural formed when the word gains a syllable ? LESSON VI. NOUNS. 1. What are Genders, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 3. What is the masculine gender ? 4. What is the feminine gender ? 5. What is the neuter gender ? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine ? what, feminine ? and what, neuter ? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender ? 8; On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong ? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually deter- mined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together ? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude ? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex ? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar ? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated ? 15. What are Cases, in grammar ? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called ? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb ? 19. What is the possessive case ? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 21. What is the objective case ? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or prepo- sition ? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished ? 24. What is the declension of a noun ? 25. How do you decline the nouns, friend, man, fox, CHAP. XII.] KTYMOLOGT. - QUESTIONS. 433 LESSON VII. 1. What is required of the pupil in the THIUI> PKXMS ? 2. How many definitions are here to be given fr each part of speech 3. How is the following exaini)lc parsed ? " The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott's." [Now parse, in like manner, the thre lessons of the Third Ckn;>t t r, or the Third Praxis; and then, if you "i may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Third Chapter concludes.] L; -v VIII. AD.II.I TIVKS. 1. What is an A . and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjective* be divided ? 3. What is a common adjective 4. What is a proper adjective ? 5. What is u numeral adjective- 6. What is a pronominal adjective r 7. What is a parti- cipial adjective : 8. What is a compound adjective: 9. What modifications have adjec- tives lo. "What is comparison, in grammar ? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison: 1U. What is the positive degree: 13. What is the comparative degree? 11. What is the superlative- degree M. What adjectives cannot be compared ? 16. What adjec- -mpared by means of adverbs? 17. How arc adjectives regularly corn- is. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by er &ndest, applicable ? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the .-. of diminution, or inferiority, expressed ? 22. Has the regular method of com- >t' this kind ? 23. l3o we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by cr and ruff 24. How do you compare good? bad, cril, or ill? y.' -">. How do you compare far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low* 2G. What words want the positive ? 27. What words want the comparative? -<>v IX. 1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PKAXIS ? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 3. How is the following example parsed ? "The id most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least find : tt ;M h learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly." [Now parse, in like i.-s of the Fourth Chapter, or the Fourth Praxis; and then, if you n ma) correct unliv the three lessons of bud English, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.] -ON X. PBONOVNS. 1. What is a PUOVMV, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there ? 3. How arc pronouns divided : 4. What is a personal pronoun ? 5. How many hat are the simple personal pronouns ? 6. How many and what are the compound id pronouns ? 7. What is a relative pronoun ? 8. Which are the relative pronouns ? '.. What peculiarity has the relative what ? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns ? 12. Do who, ichich, and what, all ask the same 13. What modinVations have pronouns ? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pr ". W hat is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you dot-line the pronoun / / ' 17. What is said of the compound personal pronoun-: is. Sow do you decline the pronoun < yselft llim^lff llerwlf? Itself? declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you 2 i . II ive the compound relative pronouns any rt Jl /,,,-./.' Whichever f Whichsoever* \l'/i -rf . 1. V, ' of the pupil in the 2. How many definitions are . How I-; the following example parsed? i that repliest against (Jod : Shall the thing formed say t;> him that formed it, V. ' 'th Chapter, or the Fifth Praxis : and then, if you tliu-e lessons of ba i i'il'th Chapter concludes.] 1. What' 2. Why are r.-rfa called by that name ugh t in the first place ? 4. What ' I'arlirijif- . r. to' their form : 9. What is ilar verb: 10. rb ? 11. Wli t r is u redundant verb? 12. -) : 13. h respect to their signification ? U. What is tin : ;ivc verb r 1C. What verb? 17. "V\ l;at > rb: IS. What modhic -ttions have verts ? 19. W )-v/\, in grammar: 'JO. I low many moo-.l- . mid what are they called .' .!!. What is the iniinitive ; the indicative mood ? 23. What is the po- tential inood ? 21. What is the subjunctive mood ? 2o. What is the imperative mood ? 18 434 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. LESSON XIIT. VERBS. 1. What are Tenses, in grammar ? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. "What is the present tense ? 4. "What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What arc the Person and Number of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things denned under the head of verbs ? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them ? 14. \\ hat is the conjugation of a verb ? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts ? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries ? 19. What are the inflections of the verb do, in its simple tenses ? 20. What are the inflections of the verb be, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb have, in its simple tenses ? 22. What are the inflections and uses of shall and will? 23. What arc the inflections and uses of may? 24. What are the inflections and uses of can 1 25. What are the uses of must, which is uninflccted ? 26. To what style is the inflecting of shall, -will, mat/, can, should, would, might, and could, now restricted ? LESSON XIV. VERBS. 1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation ? 2. What is the first example of conjugation ? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood? the indicative? the potential ? the subjunctive? the imperative ? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the Infinitive, present ? perfect ? Indicative, pres- ent ? imperfect ? perfect r pluperfect ? first-future ? second-future ? Potential, pres- ent ? imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? Subjunctive, present ? imperfect ? Imperative^ present ? 24. What are its participles ? LESSON XV. VERBS. 1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singtilar ? second person singular, solemn style ? third person singular ? first person plural ? second person plural ? third person plural ? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed ? LESSON XVI. VERBS. 1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout ? 4. How do you forrn a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I ? thou ? he ? we ? you ? they ? LESSON XVII. VERBS. 1. What is the third exam pie of conjugation? 2. What are the principcil parts ? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated ? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative/? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men? LESSON XVIIL VERBS. 1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs ? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation ? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb HEAD ? 5. How is the verb HEAD conjugated in the compound form ? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE BEADING, with the nominative/? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy ? the boys ? LESSON XIX. VERBS. 1. How are passive verbs formed ? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation. 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative // thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children ? LESSON XX. VERBS. 1. How is a verb conjugated negatively ? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb love in the first person singular ? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular ? 4. What is the form for the familiar style ? 5. What is the negative form of the verb love with the pronoun he ? 6. How is the verb conjugated in- terrogatively ? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun // 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style ? 10. What is the inter- rogative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 11. How is a verb conjugated inter- rogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first per- son plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural? CHA.P. XII.] ETYMOLOGY. QUESTIONS. 435 LESSON XXI. VERBS. 1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs arc there ? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs : Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, hind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, -hoc, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, , swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write? LESSON XXII. Vi-uns. 1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs : Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blond, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig. dive, dream, dr"ss, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulct, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb ? 5. What verbs arc defective ? LESSON XXIII. PAUSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH FKAXIS ? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech r 3. How is the following example parsed ? " The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness ; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Sirtfi Chapter, or the Sixth Praxis; and then, if you y correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXIV. PARTICIPLES. 1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of par- ticiples are there, and what are they called ? 3. What is the imperfect participle ? 4. What is the perfect participle ? 5. What is the preperiect participle ? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed ? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed ? 8. How is the third or prcperfect participle formed ? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation : Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive ? LESSON XXV. PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS ? 2. How many definitions are here to be given lor each part of speech ? 3. How is the following example parsed ? " Re- ligion, rightly understood and practised, lias the purest of all joys attending it." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Sn-rnth Chapttr, or the Seventh Praxis ; and then, if you plase, you ui^v correct ondly the three lesions of bad English, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXVI. ADVERBS. 1. What is an .' -<\ what is the example given ? 2. To what general classes may adverbs IK 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place ? ;;. What are adverbs of degree ? G. What are adverbs of manner ? 7. What are conjunc- tive adverbs 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided ? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided : 1 1 . I lov . dverbs of degree be subdivided ?* 12. How may the adverbs of manner 1 i I. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How "do we corn- pave ?' 15. Of what degree is the adverb rather? M. What is Mid of th i rbs by more and most, less and least? 'I. PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be ,. How is the following example parsed? When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind ? " [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eighth Chapter, or the Eighth Prnri.t; and then, if you pleaae, you muy correct orally the lemon of bail . i;ighth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXVIII. CONJUNCT; 1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given ? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions ? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives ? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives ? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives ? C. How do prepositions differ from other connectives ? 436 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II. 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction ? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions ? LESSON XXIX. PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 3. How is the following example parsed ? " If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Ninth, Chapter, or the Ninth Praxis; and then, if yon please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXX. PREPOSITIONS. 1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given ? 2. Are the prepositions di- vided into classes ? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications ? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list ? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with a ? with b ? with cf with df with e ? with/.? with i f with m f with n ? with o ? with p f withr? with s? with t /with u 1 with to? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions ? LESSON XXXI. PARSING. 1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 3. How is the following example parsed r "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil." [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Tenth Chapter, or the Tenth Praxis ; and then, if yon please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.] LESSON XXXII. INTERJECTIONS. 1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given ? 2. Why are interjec- tions so called ? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list ? 4. What are the inter- jections of joy ? of praise ? of sorrow ? of wonder ? of wishing or earnestness ? of pain or fear ? of contempt ? of aversion ? of calling aloud ? of exultation ? of laughter r of salutation ? of calling to attention ? of calling to silence ? of surprise or horror ? of languor ? of stopping ? of parting r of knowing or detecting ? of interroga ing ? LESSON XXXIIL PARSING. 1. What isTequired of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed ? "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos ! " [Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eleventh Chapter, or the Eleventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.] CHAPTER XIII. -FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. OCr" [When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and ~.~~ tions, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing arid correcting, he should write out the following exercises ; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercise* in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.] EXERCISE I. ARTICLES. 1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns : path, paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns : age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirl- wind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : George Second fair ap- pearance part first reasons most obvious good man wide circle man of honour man of world old books common people same person smaller piece rich and poor first and last all time great excess nine muses how rich reward so small number all ancient writers in nature of things much better course. 4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases : new name very quick motion other sheep such power what instance great weight such worthy cause to great difference high honour humble station universal law what strange event so deep interest as firm hope so great wit humorous story such person few dollars little reflection. : CHAP. XIII.] ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISES FOB WRITING. 437 EXERCISE II. NOUNS. 1. Write the plurals of the following nouns : town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, loot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citixen. 2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns : earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, soni^ster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave. 3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns : table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court- martial, precipice, countess, lordship. 4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns : priest, tutor, scholar, moun- tain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother. .;. Wrire the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch. EXERCISE III. ADJECTIVES. 1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word : good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, dif- ficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, ramy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus good manners, &c. 2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word : man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus vise man, &c. 3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form : black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast. 4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase : delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct. 5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution : objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant. EXERCISE IV. PRONOUNS. 1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as. 2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns : I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as. 3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms : he's, her's, it's, our's your's, their's, who's, meself, hisself, theirselves. 4. Write together in declension the following pronoxins, according to the agreement of each two : I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself, it itself. '>. lie-write the following sentences, and make them good English: "Nor is the crim- inal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound." Wright's Gram. p. 193. "The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self." 76. "May, or can, in its self, denotes possibility." 76. p. 2 Hi. " Consequently those in connection with the re- maining pronouns respectively, should be written, he, his self; she, her self; ye or you, your set ccs ; they, their selrt's." In. p. 1 H. "Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their - kcd on the shoals of destruction." 76. p. 1.55. " In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, ourself" ('!" <. p. 7 An inh'ni'.ive, \\\ \\ or without a m;iy be the object of a tmmitiv verb; as, ' I wish to ri>tt ; ' ride.' "Ib. p 37. Or. wi ,r, " An inh'ni'.ive may be the object ofn pr>posi- tion, expresse 1 or in: ib fot you tor' l!ut if the object governed by the Tefb,isalway* a mere qualifying ' I -Unite,*' ( Ib p. 2P.) IMW ili.TVrs it from an adverb? ro r//M///i/ their meaning." Ib. p. 23 And if infinitives, and other mere adjuncts, may be the rejects which i [ve, ln,v -lull a traiiM'ivc- verb be known ? T ; : \ -t of the tran>irive verb n one of tnt principal parts of the sen- tence, and that the infinitive n:o.. d cannot properly \ t Sonic writers di ' 'ft kinds, sinij,'?. and r.ompl'X, and comjiovnri ; but, in this work, care has not in gen-rnl been taken to di.-oriminare 1 u and compound. A late lie different :inic hut one proposition is simple ; a sentence containing ' of which Ti! ' r ; a sentence containing two propositions which in no way modify each other, is com/" I'lt-i." (>r> ent'x Analysis, p. 3. The term compound, as applied to sentences, is not itMially ."< re-rri ted. J The terms clautf and inrmbrr, in grammar, appcnr to have been generally used as words synonymous ; but ?ome authors have thought it conYenient to discriminate them, as having different senses, lliley says, " Those 440 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition ; as, " By the means appointed." " To be plain with you." " Having loved his own." Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing. The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech. THE RULES OF SYNTAX. RULE I. ARTICLES. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. RULE II. NOMINATIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. RULE III. APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case. RULB IV. POSSESSIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or parti- ciple, is governed by it in the objective case. RULE VI. SAME CASES. A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing. RULE VII. OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case. RULE VIII. NOM. ABSOLUTE. A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case de- pends on no other word. RULE IX. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. RULE X. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender. parts of a sentence which are separated by commas, are called clauses ; and those separated by semicolons, are called members." Hitey's Gram. p. 6G. W. Allen too confines the former term to simple members : ' A compound sentence is formed by uniting two or more simple sentences ; as, Man is mortal, and life is uncertain. Each of these simple sentences is called a clause. When the members of a compound sentence are complex, they are sub- divided into clauses; as. Virtue leads to honor, and insures true happiness ; but vice degrades the understanding, and is succeeded by infamy." Allen's Gram. p. 128. By some authors, the terms clause and phrase are often carelessly confounded, each being applied with no sort of regard to its proper import. Thus, where L. Murray and his copyists expound their text about " the pupil's composing frequently," even the minor phrase, " compos- ing frequently^" is absurdly called a clause; "an entire clause of a sentence." See Murray's Gram. p. 179 ; Alger's, 61; FisVs, 108; IngersoWs, 180; Me reliant'*, 84 ; R. C. Stnith's, 152; Weld's, 2d Ed., 150. The term sentence also is sometimes grossly misapplied. Thus, by R. C. Smith, the phrases "James and William," " Thom- as and John,"' and others similar, are called " sentences." Smith's New Gram. pp. 9 and 10. So \Veld absurdly writes as follows : U A whole sentence is frequently the object of a proposition ; as, ' The crime of being a young man.' Being a young man, is the object of the preposition of." Weld's E. Gram. 2d Edition, p. 42. The phrase " being a young man," here depends upon " of; " but this preposition governs nothing but the participle " being.-' The construction of the word " man " is explained below, in Obs. 7th on Rule 6th, of Same Cases. CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. RULES. OBSERVATIONS. 441 RULE XL PRONOUNS. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number. RULE XII. PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they arc taken together. RULE XIII. PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together. RULE XIV. FINITE VERBS. Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number. RULE XV. FINITE VERBS. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number. RULE XVI. FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together. RULE XVII. FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together. RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES. The preposition TO governs the Infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb. RULE XIX. INFINITIVES. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their par- ticiples, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by preposi- ns. RULE XXI. ADVERBS. Adverbs relate'to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs. RULK XXII. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences. RULE XXI II. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts ex- pressed by them. RULE X X IV. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have no dependent construction ; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words. i.UAL OR CRITICAL OI3SKRVATIONS ON SYNTAX. OIN. 1. An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call Si/ntn.r. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their BI nsMimr ,,f two parts only, " eoftconi and ny perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, o'n this occasion, preferred the 442 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. order of the parts of speech ; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology. OBS. 2. Agreement and concord are one and the same thing. Relation and agreem.ent, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agree- ment: of these the relation and use must be explained in parsing; and all requisite agreement between any of the rest, is confined to words that relate to each other. For one word may relate to an other and not agree with it ; but there is never any necessary agreement between words that have not & Delation one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically. OBS. 3. From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehen- sive principle of English syntax, is the simple Relation of words, according to the sense. To this head alone ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nomina- tives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our in- terjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of con- cord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and" erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that no rules of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises Btill marked with glaring defects in 'regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech. OBS. 4. Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally ; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignonmtly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the perversions, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax : " The construction of sentences depends principally upon the concord or agreement, and the regimen or government, of words." Loicth's Gram. p. 68 ; Churchill's, 120. "Words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another; namely, that of Concord or Agreement; and that of Government or Influence." Dr. Adam's Latin nnd English Grammar, p. 151. "The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence." R. G. Greene's Grammatical Text- Book, p. L3. "Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government." Murray's Gram. p. 142; Ingersoll's, 170; Aider's, 51; R. C. Smith's, 119; and many others. "Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Government." Kirkham's Gram. p. 175; Wright's, 124. "The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, Concord, Government, and Position." Bullions's E Gram. p. 87. "Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence." Ib. "These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of agreement and government; the remainder may be termed miscellaneous." Nutting's Gram. p. 92. " Syntax treats of the agree- ment, government and proper arrangement of words in a sentence." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often corrupted it, as he does here ; but my definitions of the tenses he copied without marring them much. The borrowing oc- curred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose me the plagiarist. OBS. 5. Most of our English grammars have more rules of syntax than are needed, and yet are very deficient in such as are needed. To say, as some do, that articles, adjectives, and parti- ciples, agree with nouns, is to teach Greek or Latin syntax, and not English. To throw, as Nutting does, the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on such a rule of agreement, is to choose disorder for its own sake. To say, with Frost, Hall, Smith, Perlcy, Kirkham, Sanborn, Rand, and others, " The nominative case governs the verb in number and person," and again, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person," is to confound the meaning of govern- ment and agreement, to say the same thing in different words, and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule: for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed, and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it.* To say, with Murray and others', " Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived," is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed, or any of their errors corrected : "those many gram- marians, therefore, who make this their only r jle for participles, leave them all without any syntax. To say, with Murray, Alger, and others, "Adverbs, thouf/h they have no government of case, tense, c. require an appropriate situation in the sentence," is to squander words at random, and leave the important question unanswered, " To what do adverbs relate ? " To saj r again, with the same gentlemen, " Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is to put an ungrammatical, obscure, and useless assertion, in the place * In the very nature of things, all agreement consists in concurrence, correspondence, conformity, similarity, Barueness. equali v : but goL-e.rnmt-nt is direction, control, regulation, restraint, influence, authoritative n>|uisi- tion, with the implication of inequality. That these properties ought to be so far distinguished in grammar, as never to be supposed to coexist in the same terms and under the same circumstances, muse be manifest to every reasoner. Some grammarians who seem to have been not always unaware of this, hiive nevertheless egregiously for-otten it at times. Thus Nutting, in the following remark, expresses a true doctrine, though he has written it with no great accuracy : '-A word in parsing never governs the same word which, it qualifies, or with which it agrees. ''Pr.tct icnl Gram, p. 108. Yet, in his syntax, in which he pretends to separate agreement from govern- ment, he frames his first rule under the latter head thus : ' The nominative case govtrns a verb/' lh p. 96. Lind!;!.v Murray recognizes no such government as this ; but seems tosuppose his rule for the agreement of a verb with its nominative- to be suffieien, for both verb and nominative. He appears, however, not to have known that a word does not agree syntactically with an other that governs it ; for. in his Exercifte*, h<> has given us. Apparent- ly from his own pen, the following untrue, but othnrwise not very objectionable sentence : "On these occasions, the pronoun is gov rned by, and eont*qneiitly a.^xes with, the preceding word." Exercises, 8vo, ii, 10. This he corrects thus: " On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by the preceding word, and consequently agrees with it."Kry, 8vo, ii. 201. The amendments most needed he overlooks ; for the thought is not just, and the two verbs which are here connected with one and the same nominative, are different in form. See the same example, with the same variation of it. in. Smith's New Gram. p. 107 ; and, without the change, in IngersolPs, p. 233 ; and Pisk's, 141. CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. RULES. OBSEKYATIONS. 443 of an important rule. To say merely. " Prepositions govern the objective case," is to rest all the syntax of prepositions, on a rule which never applies to them, but which is mrant oi:ly for one of the con-tnii-tions of the objective case. To say, as many do, " Interjections n-ijuire the objec- tive case of a pronoun of the first person after them, and the nominative case of the second," is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand, and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend. Finally, to suppose, with Murray, that, " the Interjection docs not require a distiiiet, )iri/(!< n. OB.S. 6. The truth of any doctrine in science, can be nothing else than its conformity to facts, or to the nature of things ; and chiefly by what he knows of the things themselves must any one judge of what others say concerning them. Erroneous or inadequate views, confused or in- t-.'iit statements, are the peculiar property of those who advance them; they have, in reality, no relationship to science itself, because they originate in ignorance; but all science is knowledge it is knowledge methodized. What general rules are requisite for the syntactical parsing of the sever il parts of speech in English, may be seen at once by any one who will con- sider for a moment the usual construction of each. The correction of false syntax, in it-; various forms, will require more yes, five times as many ; but such of these as answer only the latter purpose, are, 1 think, better reserved for notes under the principal rules. The doctrines which I conceive mo>t worthy to form the leading canons of our syntax, are those which are expressed in the twenty four rules above. If other authors prefer more, or fewer, or diiferent principles for their chief rules, I must suppose, it is because they have studied the subject less. Biased, as we may be, both by our knowledge and by our ignorance, it is easy for men to differ respecting matters of i-rjh-iUi //'//, but that clearness, order, and consistency, are both expedient, and ra/ in didactic compositions, is what none can doubt. OHS. 7. Those English grammarians who toll us, as above, that syntax is divided into parts, or included under a certain number of heads, have almost universally contradicted themselves by treating the subject without any regard to such a division ; and, at the same time, not a few have - >n led into the gross error of Mipposing broad principles of concord or govern- ment ..-h things exist. For example, they have invented general HULKS like these: " The with its noun in number, case, and gender." Bint/ham's English Gram. p. 40. " Interjections govern the nominative case, and sometimes the objective: as. 'O thou ! alas me! " 1'>. p. 43. "Adjectives at/ree \vith their nouns in number." Wilbur iples agree with their nouns in number." Ib. p. 23. "Every with some substantive expressed or understood." Hileifs Gram. Rule 8th, aiticle THE agrees with nouns in cither number : as, The wood, the woods." Bucke's < '"*U. " O ! oh ! ah ! require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after Them : as *Ah me. ! ' But when the second person is used, it requiri'n .1 nomina 1 is, 'O tlion ! ' " Ib. p. 87. " Two or more Nominatives in the singular n iinber. connected by the Conjunction or, nor, EITHER, NEITHER, govern a singular Verb. But Pronouns sinsrulur, of different persons, joined by or, EITHER, nor, NEITHER, govern a plural Verb." Ib. p. ( J4. " One Nominative frequently governs many Verbs." Ib. p. 9-5. " Partici- >y the article." Murray's Grain. 8vo, p. 192. "An adverb, an ad- jective, or a participle, may involve in itself the force of a preposition, nnd govern the objective .'.-. p. 99. " The nominative />* the verb."* Greenleafs Gram. . IT 1 '; and others. " The nominative < "fore the verb " nfnyhatn't Gram p :$S ; H" 23. " 1 'he Verb TO BE, alirays governs a Nominative, unless i iood." II . p. 94. "A verb in the infinitive mood may i;y a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun." Kirlift'ini'a Grtnn. p. 18". Or, (as . foregoing rule.) say, according to this author: "A verb in the infinitive mood, rnioun, as it> subject or actor " Ib. p. 188. Now what does he know of :iy of these rules to be worthy of the place which they hold, or i the halls of instruct Oi-.s. s. I ilt with the compilers of English grammars, to join together in tin- of speech, uniting laws that must ever be applied r.H xi. Articles and adje-; ' nnirn.i ex- pressed or understood; an-! e in number with the nouns to which tin v relate."- Now, in parsing an urtifle, why should ; to tell all this st >ry about u Such a mode of expreing the rule, is ly in bi-1 taste; and, aft.T all, t > is not here comprised, for they often r--' .t ' t > pi ,marts of their verbs in the formation of lsnM>. < To suppose that a n "in may govern the object.- ooth absurd in itself, and contrary to all authority ; yet, among his * It has been the notin:, thr rrrb %m'rrn inr. :!t. NCI- (um t.iiin-n Imi'- op, ri uliimum ma- num alicvr im; . \in\ (niuin in multis turn in hue uric est diffl- cillimr.: -iiini innunu'ram diversitatem.' 1 ' Ibid. AI ologetica, A. D. lolo. But if, for this reason, the task was heavy then, what ia it now ! 444 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. forty-nine rules, this author has the following : " RULE xxv. A participial noun is sometimes governed by a preposition and may govern an objective case ; as, ' George is too fond of wasting time in trifles.' " Frost's El. of Gram. p. 47. Here again is the fault of which I am speaking, two rules in one ; and this fault is combined with an other still worse. Wasting is a participle^, governed by of; and time is a noun, governed by toasting. The latter is a declinable word, and found in the objective case ; the former is indeclinable, and found in no case. It is an error to suppose that cases are the only things which are susceptible of being governed ; nor is the brief rule, " Prepositions govern the objective case," so very clear a maxim as never to be misapprehend- ed. If the learner infer from it, that all prepositions must necessarily govern the objective case, or that the objective case is always governed by a preposition, he will be led into a great mistak3. OBS. 9. This error of crowding things together, is still more conspicuous in the following examples : " RULE iv. Every article, adjective, and participle, must qualify some noun, or pro- noun, either expressed or understood." Nutting's Gram. p. 94. " RULE ix. The objective case is governed by a transitive verb or a preposition, usually coming before it." Ib. p. 98. Here an author who separates participles from verbs, has attempted first to compress the entire syntax of three different parts of speech into one short rule ; and, secondly, to embrace all the forms of dependence, incident to objective nouns and pronouns, in an other as short. This brevity is a poor exchange for the order and distribution which it prevents especially as none of its o'bjects are here reached. Articles do not relate to pronouns, unless the obsolete phrase the which is to be revived;* participles have other constructions than those which adjectives admit; there are exceptions to the rules which tie articles to nouns, and adjectives to nouns or pronouns; and the objective case may not only be governed by a participle, but may be put in apposition with an other objective. The objective case in English usually stands for the Latin genitive, dative, accu- sative, and ablative ; hence any rule that shall embrace the whole construction of this one case, will be the sole counterpart to four fifths of all the rules in any code of Latin syntax. For I imagine the construction of these four oblique cases, will be found to occupy at least that propor- tion of the syntactical rules and notes in any Latin grammar that can be found. Such rules, however, are often placed under false or equivocal titles ; f as if they contained the construction of the governing words, rather than that of the governed. And this latter error, again, has been transferred to most of our English grammars, to the exclusion of any rule for the proper con- struction of participles, of adverbs, of conjunctions, of prepositions, or of interjections. See the syntax of Murray and his copyists, whose treatment of these parts of speech is noticed in the fifth observation above. OBS. 10. It is doubtless most convenient, that, in all rules for the construction of cases, nouns and pronouns be taken together ; because the very same doctrines apply equally well to both, and a case is as distinct a thing in the mind, as a part of speech. This method, therefore, I have myself pursued ; and it has indeed the authority of all grammarians not excepting those who violate its principles by adopting two special rules for the relative pronoun, which are not needei. These special rules, which 1 shall notice again hereafter, may be seen in Murray's Rule 6th, which is double, and contains them both. The most complex rule that I have admitted, is that which embraces the government of objectives by verbs and participles. The regimen by verbs, and tl e regimen by participles, may not improperly be reckoned distinct principles ; but the near allian :e of participles to their verbs, seems to be a sufficient reason for preferring one rule to two, in this instance. OBS. 11. An other common fault in the treatment of this part of grammar, is the practice 3f making many of the rules double, or even triple, in their form. Of L. Murray's twenty-two ruks, for instance, there are six which severally consist of two distinct paragraphs ; and one is composed of three such parts, with examples under each. Five others, though simple in their form, are complex in their doctrine, and liable to the objections which have been urged above against this characteristic. These twelve, therefore, I either reject entirely from my catalogue, or divide and simplify to fit them for their purpose. In short, by comparing the twenty-two rules which were adopted by this popular grammarian, with the twenty-four which are given in this work, the reader may see, that twelve of the former have pleased me too little to have any place at all among the latter, and that none of the remaining ten have been thought worthy to be copied without considerable alteration. Nor are the rules which I adopt, more nearly coincident with those of any other writer. I do not proffer to the schools the second-hand instructions of a mere com- piler. In his twenty-two rules, independently of their examples, Murray has used six hundred and seventeen words, thus giving an average of twenty-eight to each rule ; whereas in the twen- ty-four rules which are presented above, the words are but four hundred and thirty-six, making * Nutting's rule certainly implies that articles may relate topronoun*, though he gives no example, nor can be give any that i.s now good English ; but he may, if he pleases, quote some other modern grammatisrs. who teach the same fake doctrine : as, " RULE n. The article refers tn its noun (OK PROXOUN) to limit -its $i}>->i(fi':ation. r K. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 18. Greene's two grammars are used extensively in the suite of Maine, luit they appear to be little known anywhere else. This author professes to inculcate " the principles established by Lindley Murray." If veracity, on this point, is worth any thing, it is a pity that in both books there are so many points which, like the foregoing parenthesis, belie this profession. He followed here Ingersol/'s RULE iv. which is this: " The article refers to a noun OR PRONOUN, expressed or understood^ to limit its signification." Conversa- tions on E. Gram. p. 185. f It is truly a matter of surprise to find under what titles or heads, many of the rules of syntax have been set, by some of the best scholars that have ever written on grammar. In this respect, the Latin and Greek gramma- rians are particularly censurable ; but it better suits my purpose to give an example or two from ore ot the ablest of the English. Thus that elegant scholar the Rev. W. Allen : " SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 325. A verb agrees with Its nominative case in number and person." Element.* of E. Gram. p. 131. This is in no wise the syntax ol Abuns, but rather that of the Verb. Again : " SYNTAX OF VERBS. 405. Active Verbs govern the accusative case; as, llovuhim. We saw Mem. God rules the world.' 1 ' 1 Ib. p. 161. This is not properly the s\ntax oi Verbs, but rather that of Nouns or Pronouns in the accusative or objective case Any one who has but the least sense of order, must see the propriety of referring the rule to that sort of words to which it. is applied in parsing, and not to some other. Verbs are never parsed or construed by the latter of these rules, nur nouns by tlw former. CHAP. I.] SFNTAX. SENTENCES. - RULES. - OBSERVATIONS. 445 the average less than nineteen. And yet I have not only divided some of his propositions and extended others, but, by rejecting what was useless or erroneous, and filling up the deficiencies which mark his code, I have delivered twice the amount of doctrine in two thirds of the space, and furnished eleven important rules which are not contained in his grammar. Thus much, in this place, to those who so frequently ask, " Wherein does your book differ from Murray's ? " Ous. !:> Of all the systems of syntax, or of grammar, which it has been my fortune to ex- amine, a book which was first published by Robinson and Franklin of New York in 1839, a fair- looking duodecimo volume of 384 pages, under the brief but rather ostentatious title, " TUB GKAMMAK of the Kmjli.sh Lantiti-," is, I think, the most faulty the most remarkable for the magnitude, 'multitude, and variety", of its strange errors, inconsistencies, and defects. This sin- gular performance is the work of OKver II /'-,/,,, an itinerant lecturer on grammar, who dates his preface at " Home, N. Y., December 29th, 1838." Its leading characteristic is boastful inno- vation ; it being full of acknowledged "contempt for the works of other writers." P. 379. It claim to ximjulariti/" as a merit, and boasts of a new thing under the sun " in a theory KAIUCM.'.Y Ni:\v, it (ii-niiinntr <>/ the L/tt//ish Language; something which I believe," says the author, " has M;VI;U HKKOKK iu:;':\ rODWD." P. 9. The old scholastic notion, that because Cus- tom is the arbitress of speech, novelty is excluded from grammar, this hopeful reformer thoroughly condemns; " repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it," (ib.) and "writing his theory n.- thoimli he had never seen a book, entitled an English Grammar." Ib. And, for all the ends of good learning, it would have been as well or better, if he never had. His passion for novelty 1 him not only to abandon or misapply, in an unprecedented degree, the usual terms of the art, but to disregard in many instances its most unquestionable principles, universal as well as particular. His parts of speech are the following ten: " Names, Substitutes, Asserters, Adnames, Modifiers, Relatives, Connectives, Interrogative*, Repliers, and Exclamations." The Gram. p. 2<*. His names arc nouns ; his substitutes are pronouns, and any adjectives whose nouns are not expressed ; his . For t s, it has been thought very desirable to have ',;, Latin, English, &c., all, so far as general principles are concerned, upon the same plan, and us neaily in the >;ime wonls as tli,- genius of the languages would per- mit." See Ilitlliun.Sti 1'rin drum. 2d Ed. pp. iv and vi. This scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves, but also of the ..in. us in wl.ich their principles, whether general or particular, are developed. For 1 to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner, or consistent with truth. Some books have been published, which, it is Sreteniied, are thus accommodated to one an other, and to the languages of which they treat. ut, in vi-w of the fact, that the Latin or the Greek grammars now extant, (to say nothing of the Fren. h, Spanish, and others,) are almost as various and as faulty as the English, I urn appre- hensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized a design more plausible in the pros- pectus, than feasible in the attempt. At any rate, the grammars of diiferent languages must needs dilft-r as much as do the la:. aerwise some of their principles will of ..at the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to KnglMi syntax. The achievement, however, is not altogether ira- i man of competent learning will devote to it a s;i roe of labour. But the altering of some one grammar in each -carccly amount to any more than a pretence of improve:: . of compiling upon th- of another man's compilation, the foundation of a goi^i for any lai ist be both deeper and broader than all the works which 1'. .ilions has selected to build upon: foi the Greek, than Dr. Moor's "Elements Limjiuc (Jrcrccc;" for the Latin, than Pr. A , . Rudiment* of Latin and English Grammar;" for the KnglSsh, than Murray's " EmjUsh Gram- iple of Ewjtish Grammar;" which last work, in fact, the learned gen- me-r," or Lenuie's "Principle 446 TIIE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. tleman preferred) though he pretends to have mended the code of Murray. But, certainly, Lennie never supposed himself a copyist of Murray ; nor was he to much extent an imitator of him, either in method or in style. OBS. 14. We have, then, in this new American form of "The Principles of English Grammar," Lennie's very compact little book, altered, enlarged, and bearing on its title-page (which is oth- erwise in the very words of Lennie) an other author's name, and, in its early editions, the fake and self-accusing inscription, "(ON THE PLAN OF MURRAY'S GRAMMAR.)" And this work, claiming to have been approved " by the most competent judges," now challenges the praise not only of being "better adapted to the use of academies and schools than any yet published," but of so presenting " the rules and principles of general grammar, as that they may apply to, and be in perfect harmony with, the grammars of the dead lanr/uaycs." Recommendations, p. iv. Thes-e are admirable professions for a critical author to publish ; especially, as every rule or principle of General Grammar, condemning as it must whoever violates it, cannot but " be in perfect harmony with" every thing that is true. In this model for all grammars, Latin, Greek, &c., the doctrines of punctuation, of abbreviations, and of capital letters, and also sections on the rhetorical divi- sions of a discourse, the different kinds of composition, the different kinds of prose composition, and the different kinds of poetry, are made parts of the Syntax; while his hints for correct and elegant writing, and his section on the composition of letters and themes, which other writers suppose to belong rather to syntax, are here subjoined as parts of Prosody. In the exercises for parsing appended to his Etymology, the Doctor furnishes ttventy-five Rules of Syntax, which, he *ays, " are not intended to be committed to memory, but to be used as directions to the be- ginner in parsing the exercises under them." E. Gram. p. 75. Then, for his syntax proper, he copies from Lennie, with some alterations, thirty -four other rules, nine of which are double, and all are jurnhled together by both authors, without any regard to the distinction of concord and gov- ernment, so common in the grammars of the dead languages, and even, so far as I can discover, without any principle of arrangement whatever. They profess indeed to have placed those rules first, which are easiest to learn, and oftenest to be applied; but the syntax of articles, which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series, is placed? by Lennie as the thirty- fourth rule, and by his amender as the thirty-second. To all this complexity, the latter adds twenty-two Special Rules, with an abundance of "Notes," "Observations," and "Remarks," distin- guished by these titles, on some principle which no one but the author can understand. Lastly, his method of syntactical parsing is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers, but his directions for it, with their exemplification, are perplexingly at variance with his own specimen of the performance. See pages 131 and 133. So much for this grand scheme. OBS. 15. Strictures like the foregoing, did they not involve the defence of grammar itself, so as to bear upon interests more important than the success or failure of an elementary book, might well be withheld through motives of charity, economy, and peace. There is many a gram- mar now extant, concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight, than ev?r did he that made it. What such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism, an other per- haps will confidently pronounce above it. If my remarks are just, let the one approve them f )r the other's sake. For what becomes of the teaching of grammar, when that which is received as the most excellent method, must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthless- ness ? And what becomes of Universal Syntax, when the imperfect systems of the Latin aiid Greek grammars, in stead of being amended, are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own ? * OBS. 16. What arrangement of Latin or Greek syntax may be best in itself, I am not new concerned to show. Lily did not divide his, as others have divided the subject since; but fiist stated briefly his three concords, and then proceeded to what he called the construction of t.ie several parts of speech, taking them in their order. The three concords of Lily are the following : (1.) Of the Nominative and Verb ; to which the accusative before an infinitive, and the collective noun with a plural verb, are reckoned exceptions ; while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns, is referred to the figure syllepsis. (2.) Of the Substantive and Adjective ; under which the agreement of participles, and of some pronouns, is placed in the form of a note. * What "the Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, ON THE SAME PLAN," will ultimately be, how many treatises for each or any of the languages it will probably contain, what uniformity will be ibund in the distribution of their several sorts and sizes, or what lameness they will have, except that which is bestowed by the binders, cannot yet be stated with any certainty. It appears now, in 1850, that the scheme has thus far resulted in the production of three remarkably different grammars, for the English part of the series, and two more, a Latin grammar and a Greek, which resemble each other, or any of these, as little. In these works, abound changes and discrepances, sometimes indicating a great unsettltment of " principles " or " plan," and often ex- ulting our special wonder at the extraordinary variety of teaching, which has been claimed to be, " as nearly in the same words as the genius of tke, languages would permit ! " In what should have been uniform, and easily might have been so, these grammars are rather remarkably diverse ! Uniformity in the order, number, or phrase- ology of the Jlules of Syntax, even for our own language, seems scarcely yet to have entered this " SAME PLAN " at all ! The "onward progress of English grammar," or, rather, of the author's studies therein, has already, within " fifteen years," greatly varied, from the first model of the "Series," his own idea of a good grammar ; nnd, though such changes bar consistency, a future progress, real or imaginary, may likewise, with as good rt-a- on, vary it yet as much more. In the preface to the work of 1849, it is said : " This, though not essentially different from the former, is yet in some respects a new work. It has been almost entirely rewritten." And Hgain : "The Syntax is much fuller thau in the former work ; and though the rules are not different, they are arranged in a d\ 'ffcrt.nl order.' 1 '' So it is proved, that the model needed remodelling ; and that the Syntax, espe- cially, was defective, in matter as well as in order. The suggestions, that " the rules are not different,''' 1 and the works, " not essentially " so, will sound best to those who shall never compare them. The old code has thirty-four chief, and twenty-two " special rules ; " the new has twenty chief, thirty-six *' special," and one " general rule." Among all these, we shall scarcely find exact sameness preserved in so many as half a do/en instances. Of the old thirty-four, fourteen only were judged worthy to remain as principal rules ; and two of these have no claim at all to such rank, one of them being quite useless. Of the twenty now made chief, five are new to " the Series of Grammars," and three of these exceedingly resemble as many of mine ; five are slightly altered, and five greatly, from their predecessors among the old ; one is the first half of an old rule ; one is an old subordinate rule, altered and elevated ; and three are as they were before, their numbers and relative positions excepted ! CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. RULES. OBSERVATIONS. 447 (3.) Of the Relative nnd Antecedent; after which the two special rules for the cases of relatives are given as underparts. Dr. Anam divided his syntax into two parts; of Simple Sentences, and of Compound Sentences. His thiee concords are" the following : (1.) Of < tic trith an . which construct d by Lily and many others among the figures of syntax, and is called apposition. (2.) Of an Aetfeettoe ic/i/t a Substantive; under which principle, we are told to ijective pronouns and participles. (3.) Of a Verb with a Nominative; under which, the collective noun with a verb of either number, is noticed in an observation. The conduction of relatives, of conjunctions, of comparatives, and of words put absolute, this author reserves for the second part of his syntax ; and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nomina- tives or antecedents, which Kuddiman places in an observation on his four <<>/ o;v/.v, is here absurdly reckoned a p irt of the construction of conjunction-;. Various divisions and subdi- visions of the Latin syntax, with spivial dispositions of some particular principles of it, may be seen in the elaborate grammars of Despauter, Prat, Kuddiman, Grant, and other writers. And here it may be proper to observe, that, the mixing of syntax with etymology, after the manner of ill, Kirkham, K. \V. Given, 11. C. Smith, Sanborn, Felton, Parkhurst, Parker and Fox, and others, is a modern innovation, pernicious to both; either topic being sufficiently comprehensive, and suifieiently difficult, when they are treated separately ; and each having, in some instances, employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other. OHS' 17. The syntax of any language must needs conform to the peculiarities of its ety- mology, and also be consistent "with itself; for all will expect better things of a scholar, than to lay down positions in one part of his grammar, that are irreconcilable with what he has stated in an other. The English language, having few inflections, has also few concords oragreements, and still fewer governments. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many other Ian- a with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have usually, in English, no mo din- iu which they ith their nouns. Yet Loicth savs, " The adjective in English, having no variation of gender and number, cannot but ai/rc-c with the substantive in these respects." Short I tit rod. to Gram. p. W. "tt'hat then is the agreement of words ? Can it be any thing else than their similarity in some common property or modification ? And is it not obvious, that no two thini;s in nature can at all agree, or /// a!iki>, "except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them ? Yet how often have Murray and others, as well as Lowth, forgotten this ! To give one instance out of many : "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, ///-, s/tr-, it." Mit/-nt>/, ./. 7', /'/vr, /'/////, J.yan, Bacon, 7V,v,w /'. l-'isk, Maltby, Alger, 'nut, K'i;(/ distinction of > The simpl- of words in English, (or those several uses of the parts of speech which \vo may reft r to this head,) are the following nine: (1.) Of Articles to nouns, by Rule 1st; (2.) Of Nominative* to verbs, by Rule 2d; (3.) Of Nominatives absolute or indepen- dent, by Rule 8th ; (4.) Of. 1 * nouns or pronouns, by Rule 9th ; (;').) Of Participles to or pronouns, by Rule 2 ith ; (G.) Of Adverbs to verbs, participles, &e , by Rule 21st; (7.) Of Conjunctions as connecting word-, phi iences, by Rule 22nd; (8.) Of Prepo- sitions as showing the relations of things, by Rule 23d; (9.) Of Interjections as being used independent 21th. v in English, though actually much fewer than those w'lirh occur in Latin, Greek, or French, may easily lie so reckoned as to amount to double, or even triple, the number usually spoken of by the old grammarians. The twenty-four rules alove. e following ten heads, whir' .iproperly be taken for so many distinct conronk: (1.) Of a N.mn or Pronoun in din- n with an other, by Rule 3d; (2.) Of a N mn or Pronoun at'tei 'isitive, by Rule 6th ; (3.*) Of a Pronoun with it- antcrcd.-Tit, by ll-iie loth ; (4.1 Of a Pronoun with a collective noun, by Rule llth; (-3.) Of a in with joint ant 12th; ('!.) Of a Pronoun with disjunct antecedents, by Rule loth; (7.) Of a Verb with it's nominative, by Rule Hth; (8.) Of a Verb with a collective ncun, by Rulr loth; (9.) Of a Veib with joint nominatives, by Rule IGth; (10.) Of a Y 10 with disjunct nominatives, by Rule 17th. To the ; .-ords, less common and less important, which will be explained in notes under the rules : (11.) Of one Verb with an other, in mood, tense, and form, when two ar<> connected so as to agree with the same nominative ; 1 12.) Of Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, with their nouns, in number. Ons. 21. Again, by a different mode oi : ;'iem, the concords, or the f/ r teso( agreement, in our language, mav be made to be only three or four ; and some of those much less ge,\eral, than they are iu other languages: (1.) FFomi in apposition- agree in case, according to . erorum. . ocum necnaum. it.it mans ram. p. . s subject Iriiigs all the titles of the rules wrong. For example, if the rule be, " govern (.In- accusative case," this is not properly " the government of verbs," but ra ernment of fhf a-rcnfiofira by verbs. At least, sucli titles are equivocal, and likely t ' 448 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLTSII GRAMMARS. [PART III. Ruin 3d; of which principle, Rule 6th may he considered a. modification. (2.) Pronouns agrte with tin-!,- iidi'ns, in jierson, number, and ffenaer, according to Rule 10th; of which principle, Rules llth, 121.1 1, ;md l.'Jtli, may be reckoned modifications. (' ) V'crbs rrr/rce with their noniinalic/-*, in ji'-rsnn an, I -number, according to Rule 14th; of which principle, Rules loth, IGth, and 17th, and the occasional agreement of on- verb with an other, may be esteemed mere modifications. (I . ) Srn>' adjective* mjrce with their noitns in number. These make up the twelve concords ;iliove cii'iMn rated. OHS. 22 'I'lio rules of Government in the best Latin grammars are about sixty; and these are usually distributed (though not very properly) under three heads ; " 1. Of Nouns. 2. Of Verbs. 3. Of Words indeclinable." Grant's Ln.t . Gram. p. 170. "Regimen est triplex ; 1. Nominnn.. 2. Verborum. 3. Vocum indeclinabilium." Rit.iltli man's Gram. p. 138. This division of the e, "Active verbs ut rather the gov- ely to mislead the learner. 'The governments in Knglish are only seven, and these are expressed, perhaps with KiiMieicnf diM inet ness, in six of the foregoing niles : (1.) Of Possessors by nouns, in Rule 4th ; (2) Of Obj "('fives by verbs, in Rule 5th; ('!.) Of Objectives by participles, in Rule 5th; (4.) Of Objectives by prepositions, in Rule 7th ; (5.) Of Infinitives by the preposition to, in Rule ISth ; (6.1 Of Infinitives hy the verbs bid, dare, &c., in Rule 19th; (7.) Of Participles by prepositions, in Rule 20t!i. OHS. 21 The Arrangement of words, (which will be sufficiently treated of in the observations hereafter to | )f . made on the several rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. 'Hut it is to be remembered, th;,t the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them: on the contrary, the same word-;, however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, so long as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or diflicnlt sentence rightly, w.- are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the seme and all the words unaltered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it, and to make a mockery of parsing, (irammar rightly learned, enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written ; and he who reads wb.it be does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, that, " In parsing poetry, in order to ((>'.- at the- tni'diiimi of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language. '' Kirl;l>ain's Gram. p. 166. See also the books of Merchant, Wileox, O. Ji. I'f/rrc, Hull, S/n/t/i, l'\;lton., and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he transpose the words of a sen- tence, who does not first see what they mean, and how to explain or parse them as they stand OHS. 24. Krrors innumerable have been introduced into the common modes of p; through a false notion of what Constitutes a fftmpfo sentence-. Lowth, Adam, Murray, (Jouhi, Smith, Ingersoll, Comly, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, Wells, and many others, say, "A simple sen- tence has in it but one subject, and one Jin tie r erb ; as, ' Life is short.'" /,. Murray's (iron'. p. 141. In accordance with this assertion, some assume, that, " Every nominative has its oirn r,-r'i expressed or understood; " and that, " Kvery verb (except in the infinitive mood and pa - ticiples) IHIS its oini noin tint tire expressed or understood" Ihditons'x I']. Gram. p. 87. Tie adopters of these dogmas, of course think it right to supply a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb, and a verb whenever they do not find a sepa- rate one expressed for every nominative. This mode of interpretation not only precludes tl e agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives, so as to render nugatory two of the most hu- nt rules of these very gentlemen's syntax; but, what is worse, it perverts many a plain, simple, and perfect sentence, to a form winch its author did not choose, and a meaning which he never intended. Suppose, for example, the text to be, "A good constitution and good laws mal-e good subjects." \\', 'liter's /V.V.S7///.V, p. 1">2. Does not the; verb make agree with constituti( hnrs, taken conjointly? and is' it not a /lerrcrsinn of the sentence to interpret it otherwise? then with all this needless subaudition ! But while we thus deny that there can be a trie ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction, it is not to be denied that there are titie ellipses, and in some men's style very many. The assumption of O. B. I'eirce, that no correct elliptical, and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle, are amor >'st . o.f possible absurdities. Oits. 2-">. Dr. Wilson says, "There may be several subjects to the same verb, several verbs to the same subject, or several objects to the same verb, and the sentence be simple. But when the sentene remains simple, the same verb must be differently all'ected bv its several adjuncts, or flic sense liable to be altered by a separation. If the verb or the subject be affected in the same manner, or the sentence /.-> resolvable into more, it is compounded. Thus, ' Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, mixed in due proportion, produce white,' is a simple sentence, for the subject is indivisible, liut, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, are r< blc rays of light,' is a compound sentence, and may be separated into seven." I'.ssai/ on Gram. p. !;'. '1 lie propriety of the distinction here made, ii at least questionable ; and I incline to con- ;he second example a simple sentence, as well as the first; because what the writer calls a separation into seven, involves a change of arc to is, and of?v/y.s to ray, as well as a sevenfold rep- etition of this altered predicate, " is a refrangible ray of light" But tho parser, in interpreting the words of others, and exp .Minding the construction of what is written, has no right to alter any thing in this manner. Nor do I admit that he lias a right to insert or repeat any thing nced- Its'x/i/; for the nature of a sentence, or the syntax of some of its words, may often be altered without change of the sense, or of any word for an other: as, " 'A wall seven feet high;' that is, A wall I'-i'ieft is seven feet high.'" "llilei/'s Grain, p. 109. "' He spoke and acted prudently;' that is, ' He spoke prudently, and 7n, ' The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.' ' MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 102. ANALYSIS. What is the general sense of this passage ? and what, the chain of connexion between the words nd putrefaction ? The perio 1 is denned to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin ; and John- son, of Latin. It h'i- ite members, tacitly connected ; the verb would say being under- after Johnson, and perhaps also the particle but, after the semicolon. Swift is the subject of would say; introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. The relates to thing ; thing is the subject of lia* : /ifi\ is qualified by ;i^, and governs lift ; life is ciualitii-i.1 by the adjective enough, and by the phrase, in it ; to to ; to governs keep; keep governs it, which stands for th<- thing ; and ?f,'in lieu of the thing, \^ .JIM,. members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by but, \-- the subject : and this would say, again intro- ." subject of possesses; possesses in qualified l>\- /. -if, 'lit i/ is (|ualilied by siiffirimt : sitj/jrimt is antecedent to to! to governs present : p/.tu,i. . ,,t 1M7. p. llo. is co copul 1 cite this examplf from Wells, for the purpose of explaining it without the several errors which that gentle- man's "Jf cxf e/" inculcate*. He raggmt*that a -r th< two P-, . but the two verbs in tnl.f : and that the connexion between nvai/ and is must be traced through the former, and its i<>ns, 1 think, are ^ r ions, " which relates it, 1 ' and, u which is related by,- 1 each in ft very unusual, and perhaps an unauthorized, sense. Ilia formula 452 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. ANALYSIS. What is the general structure of this passage? and -what, the chain of connexion "bet-ween the words away and in ? " The period is a complex sentence, having four clauses, all connected together by relatives ; the second, by whom, to the first and chief clause, " There is one Being ; " the third and the fourth, to the second, by u-hichnnd. which ; but the last two, having the same antecedent, security, and being coordinate, are also con- nected one to the other by and. As to " the chain of connexion," Away relates to can take ; can take agrees with its nominative nothing, and governs which ; whicli represents security; security is governed by finding; Jintiing is governed by of; of refers back to conviction; conviction is governed by with ; with refers back to can look ; can look agrees with we, and is, in sense, the antecedent of to ; to governs whom; whom represents Being ; and Being is the subject of is. FIFTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS. TJie best and most thorough method of analysis is that of COMPLETE SYNTACTICAL PARSING ; a method which, for the sake of order and brevity, should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons, but which may be pre- ceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution, if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition. This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below. OBSERVATIONS ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS. OBS. 1. The almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences, will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer, be his scheme or his skill what it may. The last four or five observa- tions of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as simple or compound, which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it generally so ; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance. If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase. OBS. 2. The Second Method above is, I think, easier of application than any of the rest ; and, if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable, this will probably be found as useful as any. There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis some mention of " the principal parts of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above, and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called " adjuncts ; " but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner. Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. Allen, Hart, Hiley, Ingersoll, Wells, and others, tell of these "PRINCIPAL PARTS;" Lowth calling them, "the agent, the attribute, and the object;" (Gram. p. 72;) Murray, and his copyists. Alger, Ingersoll', and others, calling them, " the subject, the attribute, and the object ; " Hiley and Hart calling them, " the subject or nomi- native, the attribute or verb, and the object ; " Allen calling them, "the nominative, the verb, and juncts," as a species which " embraces all the words of a simple sentence [,] except the principal parts ; " yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought, and they but little, about the formal application of their common doctrine. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as " either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked ; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, ex- cept what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is ap- Eded to his " Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood : " " The pupil may now bcyin to analyse %lyze\ the sentences, by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts." W. Allen's E. tm. p. 258. OBS. 3. These authors in general, and many more, tell us, with some variation of words, that the agent, subject, or nominative, is that of which something is said, affirmed, or denied; that the attribute, verb, or predicate, is that, which is said, affirmed, or denied, of the subject ; and that the object, accusative, or case sequent, is that which is introduced by the finite verb, or affected by the action affirmed. Lowth says, " In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active." Short Introd. p. 72. Murray copies, but not literally, thus : " The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb [,] or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb : as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here, a wise man is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and his passions, the object." Murray's Octavo, p. 142; Duodecimo, 115. To include thus the adjuncts with their principals, as the logi- cians do, is here manifestly improper ; because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate, and tends to defeat the main purpose for which " THE PRINCIPAL PARTS " are so named and distinguished. OBS. 4. The Third Method of Analysis, described above, is an attempt very briefly to epito- mize the chief elements of a great scheme to give, in a nutshell, the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians, then mixed with something of their own, next reads thus : ''Away modifies can take ; can take is CONNECTED with ran give by and; WHICH is governed by CAN GIVE, and relates to security ; sfcurity is the object of finding, which is RELATED BY of to conviction ; conviction is the object of with, which RELATES IT to can look; to expresses the relation bc-tween whom aud can look, and whom relates to Being, which is the subject of is.' : Wells's School Gram., 113th Ed., p. 192. Neither this nor the sub- sequent method has been often called u analysis; " for, in grammar, each user of this term has commonly applied it to some one method only the method preferred by himself. CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. BIETHODS OF ANALYSIS. 453 amplified with small details, and, in some instances, branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length. Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, " The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences ; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to sub- ject UulLpntUcate, and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. * * * This exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analyses, the i>rii><-i/>: It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instruct- ed mil irom the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual La u>ed with reference to cither form of analysis adopted by the author. So the foil.. n, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of " the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: "It is particu- larly desirable that pupils should pass as ear/;/ a practicable from the formalities ot common FARS- impftrfonl exercue of ANALYZING critically the structure of language. The me- chanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while Me \nt ami liffi' idapted to call the mind of the learner i: -ion, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest ;.. 1S1 ; 113th Th. p. 184. Oits. 8. An is: >l one, is almost as unlucky ingrammar, as an ill method < n ill use of a good one, would be in arithmetic. From the strong contrast cited ai" -. de\ising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etyniol... ix, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his tVllow>. Not only is 'it implied, that parsing is no critical ' in opposition to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for The ponecrive phrase h-n- -Oifiild !>. t An>lrrn-< \Vr!ls and others write it. The adding of the apostn ruuT name i wrong, even by tl. rn absurd and Mlf-ooatxa- Kulr : to wit,'- U !i-ii tw 'no pofvemive case an- com,. \t-termi- i should br a>: as, ' Thefe ;ir liur. if ol'jcrts arc possessed iii couiiiKiii li\ t\\<> i r ii it any intorv tiTii'.inati'iu ,-.-'/ .lohn'< .-in ; 's books and Elija's: Ai. .: .- and Stoddard's Latin Grammar " = "Andrews' (or Andrews's) Latin Grammar and Stod- 454 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. a definition of Syntactical Parsing " the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of icords in a sentence ! " If this " practice," well ordered, can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner, so may parsing. Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less " important " to the users of his book, or less valued by teach- ers, than the analysis which he sets above it. OBS. 9. S. S. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed " demand for a. -more philosophical plan of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus : " The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called analysis." Greene's Analysis, p. 14. " Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifications, relation, agreement or dependence, and the rule for its construction. Analysis consists in point- ing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis should precede parsing." Ib. p. 26. "A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the sub- stantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them. This advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing." Ib. p. 3. OBS. 10. On these passages, it may be remarked in the first place, that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear, or well drawn. Nor indeed could it be ; because parsing is a species of analysis. The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter : thus, " The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called parsing" Next r the "Parsing" spoken of in the second sentence, is Syntactical Parsing only; and, without a limitation of the species, neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true. Again, the suggestion, that, "Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups intelligi same thing, " learn the force of the words combined" before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what " advantage" over parsing this truth givea to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of " this advantage," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers. OBS. 11. Greene's Analysis is the most expanded form of the Third Method above. Its nucleus, or germinating kernel, was the old partition of subject and predicate, derived from the art of logic. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus : Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of icords, phrases, and clauses three grand classes of elements, called the first, the second, and the third class. From these, each sentence must have two elements ; the Subject, or Substantive element, and the Predicate, or Predicative element, which are principal ; and a sentence may have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes. The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate ; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired onlv for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted. OBS. 12. Dr. Bullions, the projector of the " Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on the same plan," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of 1841, a short sketch of the new analysis- by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in 1834, was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language. In his later English Grammar, of 1849 r however, paying little regard to sameness of "plan" or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: "The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here introduced in its proper place ; and to an extent in accord- ance with its importance." Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram. p. 3. OBS. 13. In applying any of the different methods of analysis, as a school exercise, it will in general perhaps be best to use each separately ; the teacher directing which one is to be applied, and to what examples. The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will he found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar ; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing ; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is IUH commonly denominated analysis. The relation which other methods should bear to parsing, is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. Etymological parsing and Syntactical are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, ;md also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, " Analysis should precede parsing ," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But Syntactical Parsing being, when complete in form, the most horough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exer- cise, or to one an other ; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed. CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. ANALYSIS. PARSING. PBAXIS XII. 455 OBS. 14. Dr. Bullions suggests, that, "Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing, be- cause, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole." Ana/i/tiarl ktl'Hr. r active-transitive verb, from know, kiinc, knowing, knowti ; found in the infinitive mood, . rson. or number: and is governed by /,) ; according to Rale 18th, which savs, "The governs the Infinitive mood, and commonlv connects it to a Unite verb." Because the mean- ow. 1 pronoun, representing r>m, in the third person, simrnlar number, and masculine gender; Uule loth. v. -A pronoun must agree with its or the noun or pronoun whieh it re, imber, and gender :" and is in the possessive case, being governed bv \-/,n,ir: . tofan activc-t ran.-itive to ki,,,,r his ,//,/. Ail i- v, hi, ]i follows it. to that which precedes ; according entences." Because the 'i says, "Adverbs relate to '''d, bending, bent or to nouns or pronouns, yenied bv p, il i'.;d. Mhichsays, 'Trep- , .rcs.M-d by them." Because the ''Hf: nnd is governed by p- -e the men! '-onal pronoun. repvem ; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case. ' ' Because the meaning is-/rom sin or folly. In is a preposition : and shows the relation between indulge and which ; according to Rule 23d, which says, " Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is indulge in which or, which they indulge in. Which is a relative pronoun, representing sin or folly,' in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender ; according to Kule 13th, which says, " When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor r it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together:" and is in the objective case, being governed by in ; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is gov- erned by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is in which i. e. in which sin or folly. The is the definite article : and relates to multitude ; according to Rule 1st, which says. " Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. ' ' Because the meaning is the multitude. Multitude is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality , masculine gender, and nominative case : and is the subject of indulge ; according to Rule 2d, which says, " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is multitude indulge. Thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner: and relates to indulge; according to Kule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs. " Because the meaning is thoughtlessly indulge. Indulge is a regular active-transitive verb, from indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative multitude ; according to Rule 15th, which says, " When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Because the meaning is multitude indulge. Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, representing multitude, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule llth, which says, " When the antecedent is a collective noun convey- ing the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number :" and is in the objective case, being governed by indulge ; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is indulge themselves i. e. the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves. But is a disjunctive conjunction : and connects what precedes and what follows ; according to Rule 22d, which says, " Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences. " Because the meaning is A young man, &c. but, ah! d, which says, " A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning Is halit, a traitor. Exert is a regular active-transitive verb, from exert, exerted, exerting, exerted; found in the Indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and a i? roes with its two nominatives inclination and habit ; according to Rule Itlth. which savs, " When a vert) hits two or more nominatives connected l>v and, it must with tliem jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Because the meaning is inclina- tion and ha'i it .1 Their is a personal pronoun, representing inclination and habit, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which gays, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected bv /mil. it must a^ree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:" and is in the pos- sessive case, being governed bj ord Ing to Bule 4th, which says, " A noun or a pronoun in the pc.~s,--sivi -lii-d by the name of the thing possessed. " Because the meaning is their sway 1. e. the swav of Inclination and habit. Sway is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case : and is govern- ed bv fj-i-f! : according to Kule ;'onal pronoun, representing the speakers, in the flrst person, plural number, and masculine gender; din-.' to Kule luth, -\\hich says, " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it reuresents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by prin- ciple ; aecord'n;,' to Kule 4th, which savs. "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thini: possessed. Because the meaning' is our principle i. e. the speakers' principle. On I ft is a jiroiiominal adjective, not compared: and relates to principle} according to Rule 9th, which says, lives relate to nouns or pronouns." lieeause the meanin.i: is <*///// />rinciple. vittij is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it mc&n& frugal, but not compared in the sense here Intended: and relates to prmct^/; according to Role 9tb, wbieb says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pro- nouns." Because the meaning is sariny principle. Prfoctpfe is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is ule -7 ; aeei.rdinv to Kule 7th, which says, " A noun or a pronoun made the object of aprepo- .sitiun, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is against principle. LESSON I. ARTICLES. " In English heroic verse, the capital pause of every line, is determined by the sense to be after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth or the seventh syllable." Kames, El. of Orit. ii, 105. " When, in considering the structure of a tree or a plant, we observe how all the parts, the roots, the stem, the bark, and the leaves, are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole ; when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal ; or when we examine any of the curious works of art such as a clock, a ship, or any nice machine ; the pleasure which we have in the survey, is wholly founded on this sense of beauty." Blair's Rhet. p. 49. "It never can proceed from a good taste, to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree; for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon." Kames, EL ofCrit.n, 3.")1. " In an epic poem, a history, an oration, or any work of genius, we always require a fitness, or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view." Blair' s Rhet. p. 50. " llhi'tn . and Grammar, are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well ; and the third, that of speaking with propriety." Formey's Bellcs-Lettres, p. 114. k" Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, Kock'd in the cradle of the western breeze." Cowper. LESSON II. NOUNS. '* There goes a rumour, that I am to be banished. And let the sentence come, if ( Jod so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side." Rutherford. " (ientlemen, there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power. The lightning has it.s power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power, than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is the threatened indig- nation of the whole civili/.ed world." Dunit-l ll'rbsfrr. " And Isaac sent away Jacob; and he went to Padan Aram, unto Laban, son of llethuel the Syrian, and brother of Rebecca, Jacob's and Esau's mother." See y, ii, ]>. 'J:)l. " When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity ; when he describes, we ex- pect embellishment; when he divides, or relates, we desire plainness and simplicity." Blair's Rhet. p. 1 \\. " Livy and Herodotus are diffuse ; Thucydides and Sallust are succinct yet all of thorn arc IgnMble." Ih. p. 178. " Whenever petulant imionmco, pride, malice, malignity, or envy, interposes to cloud or sully his faiw, I will take upon me to pronounce that the eclipse will not last long." Dr. Debut*/. 11 She said >he had nothing to say, for she was resigned, and I knew all she knew oncerned us in this world ; but she desired to be alone, that in the presence of God only, she might \\ithoutinterruption do her last duty to me." _ Spect. No. 520. " \\ "isdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal; while cunning and deception, the meteors of the earth, after glittering for a moment, must pass away." Robert Hall. " See, I have this day set thee over the nations, and over the kino-- doms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to olant." Jeremiah, i, 10. 460 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " God might command the stones to be made bread, or the clouds to rain it; but he chooses rather to leave mankind to till, to sow, to reap, to gather into barns, to grind, to knead, to bake, and then to eat." London Quarterly Review. " Eloquence is no invention of the schools. Nature teaches every man to be elo- quent, when he is much in earnest. Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion." Blair's Rhet. p. 235. " It is difficult to possess great fame and great ease at the same time. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation." Art of Thinking, p. 50. " Pope, finding little advantage from external help, resolved thenceforward to direct himself, and at twelve formed a plan of study which he completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence." Johnson s Lives of Poets, p. 498. " Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore." Young. LESSON VI. PARTICIPLES. " The child, affrighted with the view of his father's helmet and crest, and clinging to the nurse ; Hector, putting off his helmet, taking the child into his arms, and offer- ing up a prayer for him ; Andromache, receiving back the child with a smile of pleas- ure, and at the same instant bursting into tears ; form the most natural and affecting picture that can possibly be imagined." Blair's Rhet. p. 435. " The truth of being, and the truth of knowing are one ; differing no more than the direct beam and the beam reflected." Ld. Bacon. "Verbs denote states of being, considered as beginning, continuing, ending, being renewed, destroyed, and again repeated, so as to suit any occasion." William Ward's Gram. p. 41. " We take it for granted, that we have a competent knowledge and skill, and that we are able to acquit ourselves properly, in our native tongue; a faculty, soldy acquired by use, conducted by habit, and tried by the ear, carries us on without reflec- tion." Lowth's Gram p. vi. " I mean the teacher himself; who, stunned with the hum, and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room, has spent the whole day in controlling petulance, excit- ing indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and labouring to soften obstinacy." Sir W. Scott. " The inquisitive mind, beginning with criticism, the most agreeable of all amuse- ments, and finding no obstruction in its progress, advances far into the sensitive part of our nature ; and gains imperceptibly a thorough knowledge of the human heart, of its desires, and of every motive to action." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 42. " They please, are pleased ; they give to get esteem ; Till, seeming blest, they grow to what they seem." Goldsmith. LESSON VII. ADVERBS. "How cheerfully, how freely, how regularly, how constantly, how unweariedly, how powerfully, how extensively, he communicateth his convincing, his enlightening, his heart-penetrating, warming, and melting ; his soul-quickening, healing, refreshing, directing, and fructifying influence ! " Brown's Metaphors, p. 96. " The passage, I grant, requires to be well and naturally read, in order to be promptly comprehended ; but surely there are very few passages worth comprehend- ing, either of verse or prose, that can be promptly understood, when they are read unnaturally and ill." ThelwalVs Lect. " They waste life in what are called good resolutions partial efforts at reformation, feebly commenced, heartlessly conducted, and hopelessly concluded." Maturings Sermons, p. 262. " A man may, in respect of grammatical purity, speak unexceptionably, and yet speak obscurely and ambiguously ; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak properly, and at the same time speak unintelligibly, yet this last case falls more nat- CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. SENTENCES. PARSING. PRAXIS XII. 461 urally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propri- ety." Jamiesoris Rhet. p. H>4. " Ye are witnesses, and God also, how holily and justly and unblamably we behaved ourselves among you that believe." 1 Thes. ii, 10. " The question is not, whether they know what is said of Christ in the Scriptures; but whether they know it savingly, truly, livingly, powerfully." Peningtori's Works, iii, 28. 11 How gladly would the man recall to life The boy's neglected sire ! a mother too, That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still, Might he demand them at the gates of death ! " Cowper. LESSON VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 1 ' Every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed ; for if one man may do harm without suffering punishment, every man has the same right, and no person can be safe." Webster's Essays, p. 38. " When it becomes a practice to collect debts by law, it is a proof of corruption and degeneracy among the people. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle contro- verted points between man and man ; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it." Ib. p. 42. " The liar, and only the liar, is invariably and universally despised, abandoned, and disowned. It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided." Hawkcsworth . " When a man swears to the truth of his tale, he tacitly acknowledges that his bare word does not deserve credit. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth." Red Book, p. 108. " John Adams replied, ' I know Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very determination determines me on mine. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Ilubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unal- terable determination.' " SEWARD'S Life of John Quincy Adams, p. 26. " I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happen to them all." Eccle- s tastes, ix, 11. " Little, alas ! is all the good I can ; A man oppress'd, dependent, yet a man." Pope, Odys. B. xiv, p. 70. LESSON IX. PREPOSITIONS. 11 He who legislates only for a party, is engraving his name on the adamantine pillar of his country's history, to be gazed on forever as an object of universal detestation." Wfii/ltfitfl's Monti Science, p. 401. " Tin? (lri''k language, in the hands of the orator, the poet, and the historian, must be allowed to bear away the palm from every other known in the world ; but to that only, in my opinion, need our own yield the precedence." Harrow's Essays, p. 91. " For my part, I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation, is incomparably the best; since, not content witli serving up a few barren mid lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew." Jitirke, on Tast<\ p. -'>7 . Better "on which truths grow" " All that I have done in this difficult part of grammar, concerning the proper use of prepositions, has been to make a few general remarks upon the subject; and then tc give a collection of instances, that have occurred to me, of the improper use of some of them.'' I'ricstleys Gram. p. 155. " This is not an age of encouragement for works of elaborate research and real 462 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. utility. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such pro- ductions." ThelwaWs Lect. p. 102. " At length, at the end of a range of trees, I saw three figures seated on a bank of moss, with a silent brook creeping at their feet." Steele. " Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt, Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak." Shdkspeare. LESSON X. INTERJECTIONS. " Hear the word of the Lord, king of Judah, that sittest upon the throne of David ; thou, and thy servants, and thy people that enter in by these gates : thus saith the Lord, Execute ye judgement and righteousness, and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor." Jeremiah, xxii, 2, 3. " Therefore, thus saith the Lord concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah, They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother ! or, Ah sister ! they shall not lament for him, saying, Ah lord ! or, Ah his glory ! He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem." Jer. xxii, 18, 19. " thou afflicted, tossed with tempest, and not comforted, behold, I will lay thy stones with fair colours, and lay thy foundations with sapphires." Isaiah, liii, 11. " prince ! friend ! lo ! here thy Medon stands ; Ah ! stop the hero's unresisted hands." Pope, Odys. B. xxii, 1. 417. " When, lo ! descending to our hero's aid, Jove's daughter Pallas, war's triumphant maid! " 11. B. xxii, 1. 222. " friends ! oh ever exercised in care ! Hear Heaven's commands, and reverence what ye hear ! " Ib. B. xii, 1. 324. " Too daring prince ! ah, whither dost thou run? Ah, too forgetful of thy wife and son ! "Pope's Iliad, B. vi, 1. 510. CHAPTER II. -ARTICLES. In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise, similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful.* RULE I. ARTICLES. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit : f as, "At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged elm." " See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, The sot a hero, lunatic a king." Pope's Essay, Ep. ii, 1. 268. * I will not take upon me to say, whether we have any Grammar that sufficiently instructs us by rule and example ; but I am sure we have none, that in the manner here attempted, teaches us what is right, by showing what is wrong ; though this perhaps may prove tlie more useful and effectual method of instruction." Lowtli's Gram. Prff. p. viii. t With the possessive case and its governing noun, we use but one article ; and sometimes it seems questionable, to which of the two that article properly relates : as, " This is one of tkf. Hebrews' children." Exodus, ii, 6. The sentence is plainly equivalent to the following, which has two articles : " This is one of the children of the Hebrews." Not because the one article is equivalent to the two, or because it relates to both of the nouns ; but because the possessive relation itself makes one of the nouns sufficiently definite. Now, if we change the latter construction back into the former, it is the noun children that drops its article ; it is therefore the other to which the remaining article relates. But we sometimes find examples in which the same analogy does not hold. Thus, " a summers /a?/," means, " a day of summer ; ' and we should hardly pronounce it equivalent to " the day of a. summer." So the questionable phrase, " a three days' 1 journey," means, " a journey of three days : " and, whether the construction be right or wrong, the article a cannot be said to relate to the plural noun. Possibly such a phrase as, " the three years' warf might mean, u the war of three years; " so that the article must relate to the latter noun. But in general it is the latter noun that is rendered definite by the possessive relation : thus the phrase, " man's works," is equivalent to " the works of man," not to " works of the man ; " so, " the man's works," 1 is equivalent, not to, " the works of man," but to " the works of the man." CHAP. H.] SYNTAX. RULE I. ARTICLES. OBSERVATIONS. 463 EXCEPTION FIRST. The definite article used intensively, may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree ; as, "A land -which was the mightiest." Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity." Dr. Johnson. " He chooses it the rather." Cowper. See Obs. 10th, below. EXCEPTION SECOND. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number ; as, " Thou hast a few names even in Sardis." Rev. iii, 4. "There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory." Spectator, No. 468. "The centurion commanded a hundred men." Webster. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 26. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I. Ons. 1. The article is a kind of index, usually pointing to some noun; and it is a gen- eral, if not a universal, principle, that no one noun admits of more than one article. Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns ; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun under- stood; as, "The grave [people] rebuke the gay [people], and the gay [people] mock the grave" [people]. Matt/rin's Sermons, p. 103. "The wise {persons} shall inherit glory." Fror. iii, 35. "The vile [person] will talk villainy." Coleridge's Lay Sermons, p. 105: see Isaiah, xxxii, 6. "The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple" [ones]. Psal. xix, 7. "The Old [ Testament} and the New Testament are alike authentic." "The animal [irorld] and the vegetable world are adapted to each other." "An epic [poem] and a dra- matic poem are the same in substance." Ld. Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 274. " The neuter verb is conjugated like the active " [vc-rb]. Murray's Gram. p. 99. " Each section is supposed to contain a heavy {portion} and a light portion ; the heavy {portion} being the accented sylla- ble, and the light [portion] the unaccented" [syllable], Rush, on the Voice, p. 364. OBS. 2. Our language does not, like the French, require a repetition of the article before every noun in a series ; because the same article may serve to limit the signification of sev- eral nouns, provided they all stand in the same construction. Hence the following sentence is bad English : " The understanding and language have a strict connexion." Murray's dram, i, p. 3oO. The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expres- sion therefore should have been, "Language and the understanding have a strict connexion," or, " The understanding has a strict connexion with language." In some instances, one article seems to limit the sense of several nouns that are not all in the same construction, thus : "As it proves a greater or smaller obstruction to the spca/cer's or writer's aim." Campbell's Rhet. p. 200. That is " to the aim of the speaker or the writer." It is, in fact, the possessive, that limits the other nouns ; for, " a man's foes" means, " the foes of a man ; " and, " num'* ii-isdom" means, "the wisdom of man." The governing noun cannot have an article immediately before it. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly by ellipsis, as some grammarians declare it to be ; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun. Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense ; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article. If such a sign be in any wise necessary, it ought to be used ; and if not needed in any respect, it cannot be said to be understood. The definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns, we in this case repeat it before every term in a series; as, "They are singled out from among their fellows, as the kind, the amiable, the sweet-tempered, the upright." Dr. Chalmers. "The great, the gay, shall they partake The heav'n that thou alone canst maker" C 1 mrp,^. . 3. The articli its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after it ; as, "Pas- sion is the drunkenness of thf mind." Southcy. "NVhen an diljtrfire likewise precedes the noun, the article is usually placed before the adjective, that its power of limitation may ex- tend over that also; as, "A concise writer compresses his thoughts into the fewest possible words." Blairs Rhet. p. I 7 . /ft acts of men, It' noble, far tin- noblest of their lives." Young. . 4. The relative position of the article and the adjective is seldom a matter of indif- ference. Thus it U good English to say, "toth ; " but wu can by no me -'/I- buth nn'/i," or, tl tiroth- ;aiu, the two phrases, " half a dollar," and " half dollar," though both good, are I >y no means equivalent. Of the pronominal -ome exclude the article; some precede it; and some follow it, like other adjec- tives. The word .rim<- is seldom, if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive lici'.ire it ; as, " On the same day," " In that, smm- hour," "These sanu- gentle- tr.en." After the adjective both, the definite article nun/ be u^ed, but it i- generally u, st.ry, and this is a sufficient reason for omitting it : as, "The following sentences will fully exemplify, to the young grammarian, both the parts of this rule." Murray's Gram, i, p. 192. 464 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Say, " both parts" The adjective few may be used either with or without an article, but not with the same import : as, "The few who were present, were in the secret ; " i. e. All then present, knew the thing. "Few that were present, were in the secret ; " i. e. Not many then present knew the thing. " When I say, There were few men with him,' I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say, * There were a few men with him,' I evidently intend to make the most of them." Mur- ray's Gram. p. 171. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 28. OBS. 5. The pronominal adjectives which exclude the article, are any, each, either, every, much, neither, no, or none, some, this, that, these, those. The pronominal adjectives which pre- cede the article, are all, both, many, such, and what ; as, "All the world," "Both the judges,'' "Many a * mile," "Such a chasm," "What a freak." In like manner, any adjective of quality, when its meaning is limited by the adverb too, so, as, or how, is put before the article ; as, "Too great a study of strength, is found to betray writers into a harsh manner." Blair's Rhet. p. 179. " Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the ill conse- quences of so foolish an indulgence." "Such a gift is too small a reward for so great a labour." Brightland's Gram. p. 95. " Here flows as clear a stream as any in Greece. How beautiful a prospect is here ! " BicknelVs Gram. Part ii, p. 52. The pronominal adjectives which follow the article, are few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, others, and same ; as, "An author might lean either to the one [style] or to the other, and yet be beautiful." Blair 3 Ehet. p. 179. Many, like few, sometimes follows the article ; as, "The many favours which we have received." " In conversation, for many a man, they say, a many men." Johnson's Diet. In this order of the words, a seems awkward and needless : as, "Told of a many thousand warlike French." Shak. OBS. 6. When the adjective is preceded by any other adverb than too, so, as, or how, the article is almost always placed before the adverb : as, " One of the most complete models ; " "An equally important question ; " "An exceedingly rough passage ; " "A very impor- tant difference." The adverb quite, however, may be placed either before or after the article, though perhaps with a difference of construction: as, "This is quite a different thing ; " or, " This is a quite different thing." " Finding it quite an other thing ; " or, "Finding it a quite other thing." Locke, on Ed. p. 153. Sometimes two adverbs intervene between the article and the adjective; as, " We had a rather more explicit account of the Novii." Philol. Museum, i, 458. But when an other adverb follows too, so, as, or how, the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun ; as, " Who stands there in so purely poetical a light." Ib. i, 449. Better, perhaps : "In a light so purely poetical.' OBS. 7. The definitives this, that, and some others, though they supersede the article a>i or a, may be followed by the adjective one; for we say, "this one thing," but not "this i thing." Yet, in the following sentence, this and a being separated by other words, appear to relate to the same noun : "For who is able to judge this thy so great a people?" 1 Kings, iii, 9. But we may suppose the noun people to be understood after this. Again, the following example, if it is not wrong, has an ellipsis of the word use after the first a : " For highest cordials all their virtue lose By a too frequent and too bold a use." Pomfret. OBS. 8. When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article generally retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective : as, "A man ignorant of astronomy;" "The primrose pale." In Greek, when an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is applied to the noun, it is repeated before the adjective; as, "'H TKM/S /; jueyuAf/," "The city the great;" i. e. "The great city." OBS. 9. Articles, according to their own definition and nature, come before their nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed after the noun to which they both relate : as, " Section the Fourth ; " " Henry the Eighth." Such exam- ples, however, may possibly be supposed elliptical ; as, " Section, the^fourth division of the chapter ; " " Henry, the eighth king of that name : " and, if they are so, the article, in English, can never be placed after its noun, nor can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construction of it. Priestley observes, " Some writers affect to trans- pose these words, and place the numeral adjective first; [as,] 'The first Henry ' Hume's History, Vol. i, p. 497. This construction is common with this writer, but there seems to be a want of dignity in it." Rudiments of E. Gram. p. 150. Dr. Webster cites the word Great, in "Alexander the Great," as a name, or part of a name ; that is, he gives it as an in- stance of " cog nomination." See his American Diet. 8vo. And if this is right, the article may be said to relate to the epithet only, as it appears to do. For, if the word is taken substantively, there is certainly no ellipsis ; neither is there any transposition in putting it last, but rather, as Priestley suggests, in putting it first. OBS. 10. The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and superlatives; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowth,) "to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely : as, The more I examine it, the better I like it.' * Home Tooke says, " The use of A after the word MANY is a corruption for of; and has no connection whatever with the article A, i. e. one." Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 324. With this conjecture of the learned etymolo- gist, I do not concur : it is hardly worth while to state here, what may be urged pro and con. CHAP II.] SYNTAX. RULE I. - ARTICLES. - OBSERVATIONS. 465 ' I like this the least of any.' " Murray s Gram. p. 33 ; Lowth's, 14. " For neither if we eat, are we the better ; neither if we eat not, are we the worse." 1 Cor. via, 8. " One is not the more agreeable to me for loving beef, as I do ; nor the less agreeable for preferring mut- ton." Kumc.i, ill. of ('fit. Vol. ii, p. 365. "They are not the men in the nation, the most difficult to be replaced." Priestley's Gram. p. 148. In these instances, the article seems to be used 'y, and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following it. (See observa- tion fourth, on the Etymology of Adverbs.) Yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned M-> an adverb'. After the adject ice, the noun might perhaps be supplied ; but when the word tin- is added to an adverb, we must either call it an adverb, or make an exception to Rule 1st above : and if an exception is to be made, the brief form which I have given, cannot well be improved. For even if a noun be understood, it may not appear that the article relates to it, rather than to the degree of the quality. Thus: "The deeper the well, the clearer the water." This Dr. Ash supposes to mean, " The deeper well the well is, tho clearer irater the water is." Ash's Gram. p. 107. But does the text specify a particular " deeper well " or " clearer water : " I think not. To what then does the refer, but to the proportionate degree of da per and cl DBS. 11. The article the is sometimes elegantly used, after an idiom common in the French language, in lieu of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him full in the face ; i. e. in ///< fare." I'riextlcy's dram. p. 150. "Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of Baal." Rom. xi, 4. That is, their knees. . \'l. The article an- or a, because it implies unity, is applicable to nouns of the singular number only ; yet a collective noun, being singular in form, is sometimes preceded by this article even when it conveys the idea of plurality and takes a plural verb : as, " There arc- a very great number [of adverbs] ending in ly." Buchanan s Syntax, p. 63. "A plurality of them arc. sometimes felt at the same instant." Kames, EL of Crit. Vol. i, p. 114. In support of this construction, it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers ; but still, as it seems not very consistent, to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular, we ought rather to avoid this if we can, and prefer words that literally agree in number : as, " Of adverbs there are very many ending in ly" "More than one of them are sometimes felt at the same instant." The word plural- ity > like other collective nouns, is literally singular ; as, " To produce the latter, a plurality of objects iff necessary." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. ii24. . lo. Respecting the form of the indefinite article, present practice differs a little from that of our ancient writers. An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require a: thus, we read in the Bible, "An help," "an house," "an hundred," "an one," " an ewer," " an usurer ; " whereas we now say, "A help," " a house," " a hundred," " a one," " a ewer," "a usurer." OBS. 14. Before the word humble, with its compounds and derivatives, some use an, and tors, a ; according to their practice, in this instance, of sounding or suppressing the aspi- .tion. "NVebster and Jameson sound the h t and consequently prefer a; as, "But a imblincj image is not always necessary to produce that effect." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 205. Owhat a humble mind!" Christian Experience, p. 342. But Sheridan, Walker, 1' . and perhaps a majority of fashionable speakers, leave the h silent, and would <-ou>e [\u -ntly say, "An humbling image," " an humble mind," &c. . lo. An observance of the principles on which the article is to be repeated or not repeated in a sentence, is of very great moment in respect to accuracy of composition. These principles are briefly stated in the notes below, but it is proper that the learner should know the r the distinctions which arc there made. By a repetition of the article befort i'^.-tivcs in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives, in all fairness of interpretation, are con- fined to one and the same noun : as, "No figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting." /; . p. 134. Here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things. "The metaphorical and the literal meaning are im- properly mixed." M /.-<. p. 339. Here the verb arc has two nominatives, one of which i '1, and the other understood. " But the third and the last of these [forms] are seldom u^ed." I Here the verb " are tt.ied " has two nomina- i >oth of which are understood ; namely, " the third form " and " the last form." Again : :nitication i* always retained." Dr. Murray's Hi fit. of Lang. Vol. ii, p. 14!). Here <>nr *'.//*//''-.< fimi is characteri/.ed as being both original and present. "A loose and n rbnsr manner never ails to create disust." Blair's llhet. . 261. That i loose and n rbnsr manner never fails to create disgust." Blair's llhet. p. 261. That is, on* manner, loose and verbosr. a short and yet clear and plain answer to this propo- sition." liar, './y'.v \l'l, Vol. ii. p. lo.'j. Say . ' crrrrl." 1 So in an enumeration ; as, "There are three participles: the present, the perfect, and the compound perfect participles.- 1 Inger soil's Gram. p. 42. Expunge- this last word, "jNtfftetpto." Sometimes a sentence is wrong, not as being in itself a solecism, but a* being unadapted to the author's thought. Kxample : " Other tendencies will be noticed in the Etymological and Syntactical part." Fowler's E. Gram., N. Y.. 1>.">). p. 75 This implies, what appears not to be true, that the author meant to treat Etymology and Syntax toytther in a single part of his work. Had he put an s to the noun "parr,"' he might hare been understood in either of two other ways, but not in this. To make sure of his mean- ing, therefore, he should have said " in the Etymological Part and the Syntantical." 468 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Gram. p. 145. "The thoughts which passion suggests aro always plain and obvious ones." Blair's JKhet. p. 468. "The things which are impossible with men, are possible with God." Luke, xviii, 27. See Etymology, Chap. V, Obs. 26th, &c., on Classes of Pronouns. NOTE XV. The article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun; as, "The completing of tins, by the working-out, of sin inherent, must be by the power and spirit of Christ in the heart." Wm. Penn. "They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh." Isaiah, Ixvi, 24. " For the dedicating of the altar." Numb, vii, 11. NOTE XVI. The article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun ; as, " For the dedicating the altar." " He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, and let dedicating and giving here stand as participles only ; for in the construction of nouns, they must have not only a definitive before them, but the preposition of after them. NOTE XVII. The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position, of this part of speech. For example : " When the verb is a passive, the agent and object change places." Lowth's Gram. p. 73. Better: " When the verb is passive, the agent and the ob- ject change places." " Comparisons used by the sacred poets, are generally short." JZusscirs Gram. p. 87. Better: "The comparisons," &c. "Pronoun means for noun, and is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun." Infant School Gram. p. 89. Say rather: " The pronoun is put for a noun, and is used to pre- vent too frequent a repetition of the noun." Or : "The word PRONOUN means for noun ; and a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I. d^T 5 " [The examples of False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, are to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the fonnules given, or according to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.] EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I. AN on A. " I have seen an horrible thing in the house of Israel." Hosea, vi, 10. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the article an is used before horrible, which begins with the sound of the conso- nant A. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, " When the indefinite article is required, a should alwaj be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a; thus, " have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel."] " There is an harshness in the following sentences." Priestley's Gram. p. 188. " Indeed, such an one is not to be looked for." Blair's Rhet. p. 27. " If each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen." Ib. p. 263. " Land with them had acquired almost an European value." Webster's Essays, p. 325. "He endeavoured to find out an whole- some remedy." Neef's Method of Ed. p. 3. " At no time have we attended an Yearly Meeting more to our own satisfaction." The Friend, v, 224. " Addison was not an humour- ist in character." Kames, El. ofCrit.\, 303. " Ah me ! what an one was he?" Lily's Gram. p. 49. "He was such an one as I never saw." Ib. "No man can be a good preacher, who is not an useful one." Blair 's Rhet. p. 283. " An usage which is too fre- quent with Mr. Addison." Ib. p. 200. " Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse." Locke's Essay, p. 298. " An universality seems to be aimed at by the omis- sion of the article." Priestley's Gram. p. 154. " Architecture is an useful as well as a fine art." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 335. " Because the same individual conjunctions do not pre- serve an uniform signification." Nutting's Gram. p. 78. " Such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit." Johnson's Life of Morin. "Resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity." Rambler, No. 185. "His bravery, we know, was an high courage of blasphemy." Pope. "Hyssop; a herb of bitter taste." Pike's Ileb. Lex. p. 3. " On each enervate string they taught the note To pant, or tremble through an Eunuch's throat." Pope. UNDER NOTE II. AN on A WITH PLURALS. "At a sessions of the court in March, it was moved," &c. Hutchinson's Ilist. of Mass, i, 61. " I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept a memoranda." Duchess D' Abr antes, p.^26. "I took another dictionary, and with a scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS." A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Diet. p. 12. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, of a forty-five years old." Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 338. "And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings." Luke, ix, 28. " There were slain of them upon a three CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. RULE I. ARTICLES. ERRORS. 469 thousand men." 1 Mac. iv, 15. "Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed another Alps of snow." Addison, Tut. No. 161. "To make them a satisfac- tory amends for all the losses they had sustained." Goldsmith's Greece, p. 187. "As a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered." Barclay's Works, i, 506. " It makes indeed a little amends, by inciting us to oblige people." Sheffield's Works, ii, 229. "A large and lightsome back-stairs leads up to an entry above." Ib. p. 260. " Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest." Murray's Gram. p. 162 ; Smith's, 138. " With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on." Robertson' i, 166. " In the midst of a thick woods, he had long lived a voluntary recluse." G. Ii. "The flats look almost like a young woods." Mornin;/ . " As we went on, the country for a little ways improved, but scantily." Essex Cjunty Freeman, Vol. ii. No. 11. " Where- by the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a seventy years captivity at Babylon." /,' Hist. Vol. ii, p. 20. "He did not go a great ways into the country." Gilbert's Gra/n. p. 85. "A large amends by fortune's hand is made, And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd." Rowe's Lucan,iv, 12 il. UNDER NOTE III. NOUNS CONNECTED. "As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers." Kamcs, El. of C fit. i, 117. " The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and softness of its pause." Ib. ii, 113. " Before the use of the loadstone or knowl- edge of the compass." Dryden. "The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded." Murray's Gram, ii, 292. "In proportion as the taste of a poet, or orator, becomes more refined." Blair's li/ict. p. 27. "A situation can never be intricate, as long as there is an angel, devil, or musician, to lend a helping hand." Kames, El.ofCrit. ii, 285. "Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken." " Not a word was uttered, nor sign given." Brown's Inst. p. 125. " I despise not the doer, but deed." Ibid. " For the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound." Lou-th. "The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history." Bulinybntke, on Hist. p. 115. UNDER NOTE IV. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. " It is proper that the vowels be a long and short one." Murray's Gram. p. 327. " Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before." Ib. p. 70 ; Fisk's, 72. " There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 8. "The numbers are two; Singular and Plural." Ib. p. 80; Gould's, 77. "The persons are three ; First, Second, [and] Third." Adam, et al. " Nouns and pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, possessive, and objective." Comly's Gram. p. 19 ; IngrrsolFs, 21. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive." Bullions' s E. Gram. p. 35 ; Lcnnie's, 20. " How many numbers have pronouns ? Two, th singular and plural." Bradley's Gram. p. 82. " To distinguish between an inter- rogative and exclamatory sentence." Murray's Gram. p. 280 ; Comly's, 163 ; InycrxoU's, 292. " The first and last of which are compounded members." Lowth's Gram. p. 123. " In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner." Blair % Rhet. p. 183. " The passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future conversation." dram. p. (I 1 .). " There are two voices; the Active and Passive." Adams Gram. <".s, 87. " U 'hose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of irh ic.h." Dr. John- sons (/'/ 1 1. 1. p. 7. " To feel the force of a compound, or derivative word." Town's Analysis, p. 4. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions." Murr |; I /it/Orson's, 233. " E has a long and short sound in most languages," Birkiit-ll'x Hnnn. Tart ii, p. 13. "When the figurative and literal sense are mixed and iumbU'd together." Blair's Rhet. p. 151. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and 1'hu'i:: 1 in connection." CONVN; : /;. d'tam. 8vo, 1850, p. 28. "The lan- guages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and Swedish. Fowler, ib. p. 31. No IT. V. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. " The path of truth is a plain and a safe path." Murray's Key, p. 236. " Directions for ac- quiring a just and a happy elocution." Kirkham's Elnniiini, p. 1 11. " Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method." Kirkham'x dram. p. 9. " How can it choose but wither in a lomj and a sharp winter."- .",--/'. p. vi. " Into a dark and a distant un- known." dial, -ronomy, p. 230. " When the bold and the strong enslaved his follow man." C ;>. 21. " We now proceed to consider the things most tialto an accurate and a perfect sentence." Murray's Gram. p. 306. "And hence a: second and a very considerable source of the improvement ot 'taste." Blair's Rhct. p. 18. " Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion." Ib. p. 50. " The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation." Dr. M' Ric. "A great and a good man looks beyond time." Brmrnn I-istittiii-t, p. 125. "They made but a weak and an ineffectual resist- ance." /';. "The light and the worthless kernels will float." Ib. " I rejoice that there is an other and a better world." Ib. For he is determined to revise his work, and present to 470 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. the publick another and a better edition." Kirkham's Gram. p. 7. " He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority." Murray's Gram. p. 172 : see Priestley's, 147. "There is however another and a more limited sense." Adams's Rhet. Vol. ii, p. 232. UNDER NOTE VI. ARTICLES OR PLURALS. " This distinction forms, what are called the diffuse and the concise styles." Blair's Rhet. p. 176. " Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic and the Asiatic manners." Adams's Rhet. Vol. i, p. 83. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and the French monarchies under the former was laid." Bolingbroke, on History, p. 180. " In the solemn and the poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected."- W. Allen's Gram. p. 68. " They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 151 ; Ingersoll's, 239 ; R. C. Smith's, 127. " They are named the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the SUPERLATIVE degrees." Smart's Accidence, p. 27. " Certain Adverbs are capable of taking an Inflection, namely, that of the comparative and the superlative degrees." Fowler's E. Gram. Svo, 1850, $ 321. " In the subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense." L. Murray's Gram. p. 187; Fisk's, 131. " The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative." Kirkham's Gram. p. 145. " What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person ?" Ib. p. 116. " Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb." Ib. p. 55. " The verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative." Ib. p. 47. " They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stresses." Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. " In a sonnet the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth line rhyme to each other : so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh line ; the ninth, eleventh, and thir- tenth, line; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth line." Churchill's Gram. p. 311. "The iron and the golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed." Wright's Athens, p. 74. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden ages are past, the youth and the manhood of the world." Ib. "An Exposition of the Old and New Testament." Matthew Henry's Title- page. " The names and order of the books of the Old and New Testament." Friends' Bible, p. 2 ; Bruce 's, p. 2 ; et al. " In the second and third person of that tense." L. Murray's Gram. p. 81. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures." Gurney's Evidences, p. 59. "Among whom arose the Italian, the Spanish, the French, and the English languages." L. Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 111. "Whence arise these two, the singular and the plural Numbers." Burn's Gram. p. 32. UNDER NOTE VII. CORRESPONDENT TERMS. "Neither the definitions, nor examples, are entirely the same with his." Ward's Prcf. to Lilys Gram. p. vi. " Because it makes a discordance between the thought and expres- sion." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 24. " Between the adjective and following substantive." Ib. ii, 104. "Thus, Athens became both the repository and nursery of learning." Chazotte's Essay, p. 28. " But the French pilfered from both the Greek and Latin." Ib. p. 102. "He shows that Christ is both the power and wisdom of God." The Friend, x, 414. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and living." Rom. xiv, 9. "This is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words." Blair's Rhet. p. 209. " Sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood." Adam's Gram. p. 155 ; Gould's, 158. "In some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promis- cuously." Adam, p. 156; Gould, 159. "Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood." Adam, p. 157 ; Gould, 160. " Many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself." Pope. " The verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification." Murray's Gram. p. 108. "How shall we distinguish be- tween the friends and enemies of the government ? " Webster's Essays, p. 352. " Both the ecclesiastic and secular powers concurred in those measures." Campbell's Rhet. p. 260. "As the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion." Adams's Rhet. ii, 245. " Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory." Kames, on Crit. i, 39. UNDER NOTE VIII. CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR. " When both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable, they are called a Circumflex or Wave." Kirkham's Elocution, pp. 75 and 104. "The word that is used both in the nominative and objective cases." Sanborn's Gram. p. 69. "But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are con- jugated at large." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 81. "Some w r riters on Grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods." Ib. p. 82. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety." Ib. p. 207. " The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense." Ib. p. 208. " I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or English languages." Chazotte's Essay, p. 7. " It is as necessary to make a distinction between the CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. RULE I. ARTICLES. ERRORS. 471 active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb, as between the active and passive forms." Nixon's Parser, p. 13. UNDER NOTE IX. A SERIES OF TERMS. " As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and husbandman." Chazotte's fasa>/, p. 24. "They may be divided into four classes the Humanists, Philan- thropists, Pestaloy./ian and the Productive Schools." Smith's New Gram. p. iii. "Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses." Kirkhams Gram. p. 138 ; L. Murray's, 68 ; R.C. Smith's, 27 ; Alger's, 28. " 7s is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular.'" Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. '2. "Should give is an irregular verb active, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural." Ibid. " Us is a personal pronoun, first person plural, and in the objective case." Jbid. " Them is a personal pro- noun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case." Ibid. "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, of admiration, or a parenthesis." Wilson's Hebrew Gram. p. 47. " The fifth, sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse." (). B. l'i:ir'',-'s Gram. -p. 263. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, Second, and the Third." Ib. p. 34. "John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by wife, by Rule I." Smith** New Gram. p. 48. " Nouns in the English language have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and objective." Barrett's Gram. p. 13; Alexander's, 11. "The Potential [mood] has four [tenses], viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect." Ingcrsoll's Gram. p. 96. " Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend, And own the patron, patriot, and the friend." Savage, to Walpole. :.R NOTE X. SPECIES AND GENUS. "A pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun." Paul's Accidence, p. 11. "A verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense." Ib. p. 15. " A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb." lh. p. 38. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification." Ib. p. 40. " A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together." Ib. p. 41. " A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts." Ib. p. 42. " An interjection is a part of speech, which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind." Ib. p. 44. " An enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory." Blair's Rhct. p. 151; Murray's Gram. 343. "We may take from the Scrip- tures a very line example of an allegory." Ib. Blair, 151; Mur. 341. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art." HARRIS : in 1'riesf ley's Gram. p. 176. " We may 4 imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes." Churchill's Gram. p. 71. " But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of a very beautiful met- aphor, that I may show the figure to full advantage." Blair's Rhct. p. 143. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word ; as a whole put for the part, or a part for a whole ; the species for the genus, or a genus for the species." Ib. p. 142. "It shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking." Klrkham's Gram. p. 69. " Cleon was another sort of a man." Goldsmith'* Greece, Vol. i, p. 124. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of a reserved body." Ib. ii, Thi< part of speech is called a verb." Mack's Gram. p. 70. " What sort of a thing i* it:" I! //<>,'* Gram. p. 20. "What sort of a charm do they possess?" Bullions' s Principles of /,'. Gram. p. 7;;. " Dear Welstrd. mark, in dirty hole, That painful animal, a Mole." Note to Dunciad, B. ii, 1. 207. UNDKK NOTE XI. ARTICLES XOT REQUISITE. " Either thou or the boys were in the fault." ('unity's AVy, in Gram. p. 174. " It may, at the first view, appear to be too general." Murray's Grant, p. 222 ; Imjcrsolfs, 275. "When tin- verb has a reference to future time." Ib. M. p. 207; Ing. 2G4. "No; they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion." Blair's Rkat. p. 165. "The dislike of the Knglish (irammar, which has so generally prevailed, can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax." /,'//,//'* Gram. p. iv. "Is that ornament in a good taste?" . /;/. i if 'crit. ii, :I2C.. "There are not many fountains in a good taste." Ib. ii, 329. "And I persecuted this way unto the death." Arts, xxii, 4. " The sense of the feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of e\tciinn." Blair's Rlut. p. 196. "The distributive adjec- tive pronouns, i with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only." Murray's Gram. v. !">; /..,/ Y/,-'.V, s'j. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other f speech." Blair's Ulut. p. B4. "I'.y the certain muscle* which operate all at the same time." Murray's Grain, p. !'.. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in i.he general concerning them." Campbell'* Ji/ut. p. 112. "Nothing disgusts us sooner i.han the empty pomp of language." Murray's Gram. p. 319. 472 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. UNDER NOTE XII. TITLES AND NAMES. "He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman." Broivn's Inst. p. 120. " Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector." Ib. " Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl." Ib. "The chief magistrate is styled a President." Ib. " The highest title in the state is that of the Governor." Ib. " That boy is known by the name of the Idler/' Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 205. " The one styled the Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion." Balbi's Geog. p. 360. " Ranging aU that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class, a tree" Blairs Rhet. p. 73. " For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of objects." Ib. p. 73. " It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure." Ib. p. 133. " The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus." J. Q. Adams's Rhet, Vol. ii, p. 217. " We hesitate to determine, whether the Tyrant alone, is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the spy." Cobbett's E. Gram. U 246. " Hence origin- ated the customary abbreviation of twelve months, into a ticelvemonth ; seven nights into te'niffht; fourteen nights into a fortnight" Webster's Improved Gram. p. 105. UNDER NOTE XIH. COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES. 44 He is a better writer than a reader." W. Allen's False Syntax, Gram. p. 332. " He was an abler mathematician than a linguist." Ib. " I should rather have an orange than apple." Brown's Inst. p. 126. " He was no less able a negotiator, than a courageous war- rior." Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. i, p. 181. "In an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram." Kames, EL of Crit. Vol. i, p. 18G. " That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball." Harris's Hermes, p. 258. UNDER NOTE XIV. ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH. "Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy." List. p. 126. "The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time." Ib. " Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation." Murray's Gram. p. 279; Comly's, 162; Ingcrsoll's, 291. "The work is designed for the use of persons, who may think it merits a place in their Libraries." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. iii. '* That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at." Ib. p. 298. " Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, do not reflect." Ib. p. 75. " Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession." Ib. p. 132. "To these may be added verbs, which chiefly among the poets govern the dative." Adam's Gram. p. 170 ; Gould's, 171. " Conso- nants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vow el." Bnckc's Gram. p. 9. " To employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar." Murray's Gram. Pref, p. iii. '* This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing or rela- tion." Ib. i. p. 204. " So that things which are seen, were not made of things which do appear." Heb. xi, 3. "Man is an imitative creature ; he may utter sounds, which he has heard." Wilson's Essay on Gram. p. 21. " But men, whose business is wholly domes- tic, have little or no use for any language but their own." Webster's E&says, p. 5. UNDER NOTE XV. PARTICIPIAL NOUNS. " Great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories." Sewel's Hist. p. iii. "And some attempts were made towards writing of history." Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 110. "It is In- vading of the Priest's Office for any other to Offer it." Right of Tythcs, p. 200. "And thus far of forming of verbs." Walker's Art of Teaching, p. 35. "And without shedding of blood is no remission." Heb. ix, 22. " For making of measures we have the best method here in England." Printer's Gram. " This is really both admitting and denying, at once." Butler '3 Analogy, p. 72. "And hence the origin of making of parliaments." Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 71. " Next thou objectest, that having of saving light and grace presupposes conver- sion. But that I deny : for, on the contrary, conversion presupposcth having light and grace." Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 143. " They cried down wearing of rings and other super- fluities, as we do." Ib. i, 236. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel." 1 Peter, iii, 3. " In spelling of derivative Words, the Primitive must be kept whole." British Gram. p. 50 ; Buchanans Syntax, 9. "And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar." Numbers, vii, 10. "Boasting,i9 not only telling of lies, but also many unseemly truths." Sheffield's Works, ii, 214. "We freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful." Barclay, i, 316. "For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy." Inst. E. Gram. p. 126. " He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state." Rottin'* Ancient Hist. Vol. ii, p. 38. UNDER NOTE XVI. PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. " It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in." Barclay, i, 210. " For in the receiving and embracing the testimony CIIAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE I. ARTICLES. RULE II. NOMINATIVES. 473 of truth, they felt their souls eased." Ib. i, 469. "True regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it." Plti'ol. Museum, i, 664. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth the attending to." Life of Tho. Say, p. 144. "To be the deliverer of the cap- tive Jews, by the ordering their temple to be rebuilt," &c. Hot/in, ii, 1 2 1. "And for the pre- serving them from being defiled." X. I-'. lHx;-ij>lin<>, p. 133. "A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles." Art of Thinking, p. 80. " Ilirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book." Rambler, No. 177 ; Wri'jht's Gram. p. 190. " To the being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 114. "And to the being well heard, and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than power of voice." Ib. p. 117. "Potential means the having power or will ; As, If you would improve, you should be still." Tobitt's Gram. p. 31. UNDER NOTE XVII. VARIOUS ERRORS. " For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become a passive." Lowth's Gram. p. 74. "The period is the whole sentence complete in itself." Ib. p. 115. "The colon or member is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence." Ib. " The semi- colon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision, of a sentence or mem- ber." Ib. "A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments." Ib. p. 116. "The first error that I would mention, is, a too general attention to the dead lan- guages, with a neglect of our own." Webster's Essays, p. 3. "One third of the importa- tions would supply the demands of people." Ib. p'. 119. "And especially in grave stile." 7V/< //. p. 72. " By too eager pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed." Murray' * A""/, (Maco Gram. Vol. ii, p. 201. "Letters are divided into vowels and conso- nants." Murray's Gram, i, p. 7 ; and others. " Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- vowels." Ib. i, 8 ; and others. "The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom." Ib. i, 176. "Iftheygain.it is a too dear rate." Barclay's Works, i, 504. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent a too frequent repetition of it." Maun- der' s Gram. p. 1. " This vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the Latin."/ ,nm. Pref. p. iv. " The groans which a too heavy load extorts from her." Ilitc/i : ,'^ />*>/, p. 50. "The numbers [of a verb] are, of course, singular and plural." Bucket <;/e who think slavery no very pitiable a lot." Channinfj, on Emancipation, p. 52. "The auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense." Murray's Gram, i, 75. "There are som rei ba winch are defective with respect to persons." Ib. i. 109. " In youth, the habits of industry arc most easily acquired." Murray's Key, ii, 235. "Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out." Bullions, Eny. Gram. p. 156. CHAPTER III. -CASES, OR NOUNS. The rules for the construction of Nouns, or Cases, are seven ; hence this chapter, according to the order adopted above, reviews the scries of rules from the second rule to the eighth, inclusively. Though Nouns are here the topic, all these seven rules apply alike to Xvttns and to Pronouns ; that is, to all the words of oui; language which are susceptible of Cases. RULE II. NOMINATIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative ease : as, " The ',o were covetous, heard all these tilings ; and tht-y derided him." L 14. " But where the meekness of self-knowledge veileth the front of self-respect, there look thoa for the man whom none can know bub they will honour. Book of Thotiyhts, p. GG. " Dost t/tou mourn Philander* s fate ? 1 know thou sayst it : says thy life the same ? " Young, N. ii,l. 2 k 2. 474 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE II. OBS. 1. To this rule, there are no exceptions; and nearly all nominatives, or far the greater part, are to be parsed by it. There are however four different ways of disposing of the nominative case. First, it is generally the subject of a verb, according to Rule 2d. Secondly, it may be put in apposition with an other nominative, according to Rule 3d. Thirdly, it may be put after a verb or a participle not transitive, according to Rule 6th. Fourthly, it may be put absolute, or may help to form & phrase that is independent of the rest of the sentence, according to Rule 8th. OBS. 2. The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb ; as, "Peace dawned npon his mind." Johnson. "WJtat is written in the law ?" Bible. But, in the following nin* cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed after it, or after the first auxiliary : 1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case ; as, "Shall mortals be implacable?" Ilooke. "What art thou doing?" Id. "How many loave* hare yef " Bible. ''Are they Israelites ? so am I." Ib. 2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, "Go thou." "Come ye." But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood ; as, " Philip sailh unto him, Come and see* John, i, 46. "And he saith unto them, .Be not ctjfriyhtcd." Mark, xvi, o. 3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, 'is expressed; as, "May she be happy !" " How were ice struck ! " Young. " Not as the world giveth, give I unto you." Bible. 4. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, "Had they known it;" for, "If they had known it." "Were it true;" for, "If it were true." "Could we draic by the covering oX the grave ;" for, "//"we could draw," &c. 5. When neither or'nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; as, " This was his fear ; nor was his apprehension groundless." " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it." Gen. iii, 3. 6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it ; as, " Here am I." " Narrow is the way." " Silver and gold havelnone ; but such as I have, give /thee." Bible. 1. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself cm phatical ; as, " Echo the mountains round." Thomson. ' 'After the Light Infantry marched the Grenadiers, then followed the Horse." Buchan- an's Syntax, p. 71. 8. When the verbs, say, ansiccr, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue ; as, " ' Son of affliction,' said Omar, ' who art thou : ' ' My name,' replied the stranger, ' is Hassan.' " Dr. Johnson. 9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, " There lived a. man." Montgomery. " In all worldly joys, there is a secret tvound." Oicen. This use of there, the general introductory adverb of place, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality ; as, " Because there was much water there." John, iii, 23. OBS. 3. In exclamations, and some other forms of expression, a few verbs are liable to be sup- pressed, the ellipsis being obvious ; as, " How different [is] this from the philosophy of Greece and Rome ! " DR. BEATTIE : Murray's Sequel, p. 127. " What a lively picture [is here] of the most disinterested and active benevolence ! " HERVEY: ib. p. 94. " When Adam [spake] thus to Eve." MILTON : Paradise Lost, B. iv, 1. 610. OBS. 4. Though we often use nouns in the nominative case to show whom we address, yet th9 imperative verb takes no other nominative of the second person, than the simple personal pro- noun, thou, ye, or you, expressed or understood. It would seem that some, who ought to know better, are liable to mistake for the subject of such a verb, the noun which we put absolute in the nominative by direct address. Of this gross error the following is an example : "Study boys. In this sentence"," (says its author.) "study is a verb of the second person, plural number, and agrees with its nominative case, boys according to the rule : A verb must agree with its nomi- native case in number and person. Boys is a noun of the second person, plural number, masculine gender, in the nominative case to the verb study." In(/ersoll's Gram. p. 17-* Now the fact is, that this laconic address, of three syllables, is written' wrong ; being made bad English, for want of a comma between the two words. Without this mark, boys must be an objective, governed by study ; and with it, a nominative, put absolute by direct address. But, in either case, study agrees with ye or you understood, and has not the noun for its Mibject, or nominative. OBS. 5. Some authors say, and if the first person be no exception, say truly : " The nominative case to a verb, unless it be a pronoun, is always of the third person." Churchill's Gram. p. 141. But W. B. Fowle will have all pronouns to be adjectives. Conseqiiently all his verbs, of every sort, agree with nouns " expressed or understood." This, and every other absurd theory of lan- guage, can easily be made out, by means of a few perversions, which may be called corrections, and a sufficient number of interpolations, made under pretence of filling up ellipses. Thus, accord- ing to this author, "They fear," means, "They things spoken o/'fcar." True Eng. Gram. p. 33. And, "John, open the door," or, "Boys, stop your noise," admits no comma. And, " Be grateful, ye children," and, " Be ye grateful children," are, in his view, every way equivalent : the comma in the former being, in his opinion, needless. See ib. p. 39. OBS. 6. Though the nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form, it is never- theless, in the opinion of many of our grammarians, improper to place any noun in both relations at once, because this produces" a confusion in the syntax of the word. Examples : " He then goes * Oliver B. Peirce, in his new theory of grammar, not only adopts Ingersoll's error, but adds others to it. II rapposes no ellipsis, and declares it grossly improper ever to insert the pronoun. According to him. the follow- ing text is wrong : u My son, di-spiie not thou the chastening of the Lord.'- Heb. xii, 5. See Ptirce's Gram. p. 255. Of this gentleman's book 1 sha.ll say the less, because its faults are so many and so obvious. Yet this is " Thf. Grammar ofthr English Lnn%itne^ and claims to be the only work which is' worthy to be called an English Grammar. " The first and only Grammar of the English Language ! " Ib. p. 10. In punctuation, it is a very cAaos, as one rniidit guess from the following Rule : "A word of the second person* and in the subjt r.ti> case, must have a semicolon after it: as, .John; hear me." Ib. p 282. Behold his practice! "John, beware." P. 84. "Children, study." P. 80. "Henry; study." P. 249. "Pupil: parse.' 1 P. 211; and many other places. " Be thou, or do thou be writing? Be ye or you, or do ye or you be writing? "P. 110. According to his Rule, tills tense requires six semicolons ; but the author points it with two commas and two notes of interrogation ! CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE II. NOMINATIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 475 on to declare that there arc, and distinguish of, four manners of saying Pi-rsc." Walker's Trea- tise of Particles, p. xii. Better: " He then proceeds to show, that JMT .sr is sa.-ceptible of four different senses." " In just allegory and similitude there is always a propriety, or, if you choose to call it, coiigruity, in the literal sense, a.s well as a distinct meaning or lentil i sted, which is called the figurative sense." C , p. --'1. Better: "In just allegory or similitude, there is always a propriety or, it' >ou choose to rail it so, a con in the literal - "It mtut then be meant of hi's sins who tti'ikcs, not of Ins who becomes, the convert." Att> . t : " It must then be meant of his sins who makes the convert, not of his who becomes conrertcd." "Eye finth not scui, nor ar h<-ard. neither hucc ottered into the heart of man, tin- things which God hatli prepared for them that love him." 1 C^r. ii, 9. A more regular construction would be : " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to cam-dec, the thing! which God hath prepared for them that love him." The following example, from Pope, may perhaps be conceded to th poet, as an allowable ellipsis of the words "a friend," after is : " In who obtain defence, or who defend ; In him who ix, or him \v\\nfmds, dfrioid." 7.'^ -y on Man, Ep iv, 1. 60. Dr. Lowth cites the last three examples, without suggesting any forms of correction; and says of them, " There seems to be an impropriety in these sentences in which the same noun stands in a double capacity, performing at the same time the oliices both of the nomhiathe and oi case." /Mirth's dram. p. 73. lie should have said "of lotJt the nominative and the objective case." Dr. Webster, citing the line, " In him who is, and him who finds, a friend," adds, "Lowth condemns this use of the noun in the nominative and objective at the same time ; but witliuut reason, as the cases arc not distinguished in English." Improved Gram. p. 175. Ons. 7. In Latin and Greek, the accusative before the infinitive, is often reckoned the subject of the latter verb ; and is accordingly parsed by a sort of exception to the foregoing rule or rather, to that general rule of concord which the grammarians apply to the verb and its nomina- te e. This construction is translated into English, and other modern tongues, sometimes literally, or nearly so, but much oftener, by a nominative and a finite verb. Example: " Etnir cot." .!/'/ /.-, x, 1'J. " Ait ilium vocari." Letisden. " Jussit cum vocari." Beza. " Pruxepit ilium vocari." Vultjute. " He commanded him to be called." English Bible. " He commanded that he should be called." Milm-.-i's (>r. .- Sacy't .V. Te.it. Ous. S. In English, the objective case before the infinitive mood, although it may truly denote the agent of the infinitive action, or the subject of the infinitive passion, is nevertheless taken as the object of the preceding verb, participle, or preposition. Accordingly our language does not admit a literal translation of the above-mentioned construction, except the preceding verb be such as can be interpreted transitively, "(iavdco tc rA~/r," " I am glad that thouart well," can- not be translated more literally ; because, " I am glad thee to be well," would not be good Eng- lish. "Aiutif reiji-m (idrentnrc" " They say the king is coming," may be otherwise rendered " They declare, the king to be coming;" but neither version is entirely literal; the objective being retained only by a change ot ' uinnf, *:/>/, into such a verb as will govern the noun. OBS. 9. The following sentence is a literal imitation of the Latin accusative before the infini- tive, and for that reason it is not good English : " But experience teacheth us, both these opinions to be alike ridiculous." Barclay' 9 Works, Vol. i, p. 262. It should be, " But experience teacher us, that both these opinions are alike ridiculous." The verbs bc-lierc, thi/ik, imagine, and others expressing mental fiction, I suppose to be capable of governing nouns or pronouns in the objective case, and consequently of being interpreted transitively. Hence I deny the correctness of the following explanation : LIT. The objective case precedes the infinitive mode ; [as,] ' I vour brut/a od man.' Here oelieve docs not govern brother, in the objective 1C it is not the object after it. Brother, in the objective case, third person singular, precedes the neuter verb to be, in the infinitive mode, present time, third person singular." >'. Ban; tt'n Cram p. 13-3. This author teaches that, " The infinitive mode ayrccs with the objective case in number and person." Ibid. Which doctrine is d'enied ; because the infinitive has no number or person, in any language. Nor do I s>ce why the noun brother, in the foregoing exam- ple, may not be both the" obj . live verb bdieve, and the subject of the neuter infinitive to be, at the same time; for the subject of the infinitive, if the infinitive can be said to have a fcubject, is not necessarily in the nominati\e case, or necessarily independent of what precedes. QMS. 10. There are many teachers of English grammar, who still adhere to the principle of the Latin and Greek grammaiians, which refers th< or objective to the latter verb, and supposes the former to be intransitive, or t ly the infinitive. Thus Nixon: "The objective case is frequently put before the infinitive mood, as its subject; as, ' Sulfcr me to de- part.'"* Enali*' " When an objective case stands before an infinitive mood, as " I understood it to be him,' ' Suii" ;>>irt,' such objective should be parsed, not as gov- erned by the preceding .^e before the infinitive ; that is, the subject of it. The reason of this is the former verb r;ui govern one object only, and that is (in such sen- tences) the infinitive mood ; the inter v i .-.% the subject of the infinitive following, and not governed by the former verb; as, in that instance, it icoulii be 'joverniny two objects." Ib. Note.\ * In Bailor's I'rartii-.-il Gnimni.ir, first published in 1^."), this dootrinr is taught as a norrlty. Hi* puMi-On-r*, in their circular ; "f it as one of "the p'nilmr n / mmar orer preceding works," n4 an important matt >tmttni hv ^ . I r>f his filse principle: "A vrrluu tin- infinitive j, ott- n j>r. <>un or pronoun in Hit- oijir i\v. \\liirh has no um if tiff on any <>;h'-r wnrd. Kxamples : ( Colon -.< of wood ami |>1 i.-tt-r to :/ 'Imii^ here should make i/s trnnble ' i \ Sl Unun. p 147. t "Sonu'tiun-s ind i^rh Hath tteo rrgnnfii.*, and then the nrrt-sary to one of them ; a*, ' I ddren raj-wlf to my judges.' r Cumuli's P/ulosophy of Rhetoric, p. 178. Here the verb addrtsi governs tht 476 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III, OBS. 11. The notion that one verb governs an other in the infinitive, just as a transitive verb governs a noun, and so that it cannot also govern an objective case, is not only contradictory to my scheme of parsing the infinitive mood, but is also i'alse in itself, and repugnant to the princi- ples of General Grammar. In Greek and Latin, it is certainly no uncommon thing for a verb to govern two cases at once ; and even the accusative before the infinitive is sometimes governed by the preceding verb, as the objective before the infinitive naturally is in English. But, in regard to construction, every language differs more or less from every other; hence each must have its own syntax, and abide by its own rules. In regard to the point here in question, the reader may compare the following examples: " "E/ta Aruyx^v iztAStiv." Luke, xiv, 18. " Habeo necesse exire." Lcusdcn. English : " I have occasion to go away." Again : " r O *'/> or axaouiv, X'TCI>." Luke, xiv, 3o. " Habens aures audiendi, audiat." Leusden. " Qui habet aures ad audiendum, audiat." Bezel. English : " He thai hath cars to hear, let him hear." But our most frequent use of the infinitive after the objective, is in sentences that must not be similarly con- structed in Latin or Greek;*- as, "And he commanded the porter to watch." Mark, x'iii, 34. "And he delivered Jesus to be crucified." Mark, xv, 15. "And they led him out to crucify him." Mark, xv, 20. " We heard him say." Mark, xiv, 58. " That I might make thee know'" Prov. xxii, 21. OBS. 12. If our language does really admit any thing like the accusative before the infinitive, in the sense of a positive subject at the head of a clause, it is only in some prospective descrip- tions like the following : " Let certain studies be prescribed to be pursued during the freshman year ; some of these to be attended to by the whole class ; with regard to others, a choice to be allowed ; ivhich, when made by the student, (the parent or guardian sanctioning it,) to be binding during the freshman year : the same plan to be adopted with regard to the studies of the succeed- ing years." GALLAUDRT: Journal of the N. Y. Literary Convention, p. 118. Here the four words, some, choice, which, nndplan, may apppear to a Latinist to be so many objectives, or accusatives, placed before infinitives, and used to describe that state of things which the author would pro- mote. If objectives they are, we may still suppose them to be governed by let, would have, or something of the kind, understood : as, "Let some of these be attended to ; ""or, " Some of these I would have to be attended to," &c. The relative which might with more propriety be made nominative, by changing "to be binding " to " shall be binding ;" and as to the rest, it is very doubtful whether they are not now nominatives, rather than objectives. The infinitive, as used above, is a mere substitute for the Latin future participle ; and any English noun or pronoun put absolute with a participle, is in the nominative case. English relatives are rarely, if ever, put absolute in this manner: and this may be the reason why the construction of which, in the sen- tence above, seems awkward. Besides, it is certain that the other pronouns are sometimes put absolute with the infinitive ; and that, in the nominative case, not the objective : as, "And I to be a. corporal in his field, And wear his colours like a tumbler's hoop ! What ? // Hove! I sue! I seek a wife ! "Shak. Love's Labour Lost. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II. THE SUBJECT OF A FINITE VERB. " The whole need not a physician, but them, that are sick." Bunyan's Law $ Gr. p. iv, [FosMor,E. Not proper, because the objective pronoun them is here made the subject of the verb neerl, under- stood. But, according to Rule 2d, " A nouu or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, them should be they ; thus, " The whole need not a physician, but they that are sick."J " He will in nojwise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him." Robert Hall. " He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, whom he saw were off their guard." Hutchinson's Massa- chusetts, ii, 133. " Whomsoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain." Dymond's Essays, p. 48. "The idea's of the author have been conversant with the faults of Other writers." Swift's T. T. p. 55. " You are a much greater loser than me by his death." pronoun myself, and is also the antecedent to the preposition to ; and the construction would be similar, if th preposition governed the infinitive or a participle : as, " I prepared myself to swim ; " or, " 1 prepared myself for swimming." But, in any of these cases, it, is not very accurate, to say, "tin verb has two reghnens ; ^ for the latter term is properly the regimen of tibe preposition. Cardtll, by robbing the prepositions, and supposing ellip- ses, found two regimens for f.very verb. \V. Allen, on the contrary, (from whom Nixon gathered his doctrine above,) by giving the "accusative ;) to the infinitive, makes a multitude of our active-transitive verbs u neuttr." See Allen's G/am. p. 166. But Nixon absurdly calls the verb "active-transitive," because it governs the infinitive; i. e. as he supposes ami, except when to is not used, rrronromly .supposes * A certain new tktorist, who very innocently fogs himself and his credulous readers with a deal of impertinent pedantry, after denouncing my doctrine that to before the infinitive is a preposition, appeals to me thus: " Let me ask you, G. B. u not the infinitive in Latin the same as in the English ? Thus, I de.-ire to tenrh Latin Ego Cupio docere. 1 saw Abel came Ego videbam Abelem venire. The same principle is recognized by the Greek grammars and thoi-e of most of the modern languages." O. B. Ptirce's Grain, p. 358. Of this gentleman I know nothing but from what appears in his book a work of immeasurable and ill-founded vanity a whim- sical, dogmatical, blundering performance. This short sample of hi- Latin, 'with six puerile errors in seven words,) is proof positive that be knows nothing of th;>iri,'' and not what is given above: or, according to St. Jerome and others, who wrote, "Abel" without declension, we ought rather to say, "Vidi Abel venientem." If they are right, "Ego vidtbam Abelem is every word of it wrong ! CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE II. ERRORS. RULE III. APPOSITION. 477 Strife (o Pope, 1. 63. " Such peccadillo's pass with him for pious frauds." Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 279. " In whom I am nearly concerned, and whom I know would be very apt to justify my nrhole procedure." 76.1,560. " Do not think such a man as me contemptible for my garb." Addison. " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Priest : p. 107. " So that, 'He is greater than me,' will be more grammatical than, 'He is greater than/.' " Ib. p. 106. " The Jesuits had more interests at court than him." SMOU.KTT : in Pr. dram. p. 106.* "Tell the Cardinal that I understand poetry better than him." Id. ib. "An inhabitant of Grim Tartary was far more happy than him." Id. i'>. " My father and him have been very intimate since." Fair Anu-rlean, ii, 53. " Who w;is the agent, and whom the Abject struck or kissed? " Infant School (it-urn, p. 32. "To find the person whom he imagined was concealed there." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 225. " He offered a great recompense to whomsoever would help him." lion; : in Pr. Cram. p. 104. "They would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of whomsoever might cxcrci//Ji'jni\ /'/->(/, late a dweller upon the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of Palmyra." Zenobia. " But he, our graciou- . kind as just, Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." Barlauld. OBSERVATIONS OX RULE III. Ons. 1. Apposition is that peculiar relation which one noun or pronoun bears to an other, tc the same person Golinh ;" " Which for many ; " " I I* of the United State*." This piadng-togelher ol nouns and pronouns in the same case, was reckoned by the old grammarians fLfiffin . and from them it received, in their elaborate detail of" the grammatical and rhetorical figures, its present name of n: They reckoned it a species of t////;.v.\v, and sup- plied between the words, the participle being, the infinitive to be, or some other part of their "substantial is, " Cicero " " To make him to be king ; " " I who am thy schoolmaster." But the later Latin grammarians have usually placed it ame examples as avthnritifx. not as fnhr syntax. The errors which T thus quote at secondhand fi-om other grammarians, and nmrk with ilouk .m- in general such as the first quoter? have allowed, and made Ui for; but this is not, the instance, ^uch credit ha* sometime?, though rarely, been given, where the expression was disapproved. O. nowv. 478 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. some, with no great regard to consistency, treating it both as a figure and as a regular concord, at the same time. OBS. 2. Some English grammarians teach, " that the words in the cases preceding and follow- ing the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 181 ; JR. C. Smith's, 155 ; Fisk's, 126; Ingersoll's, 146; Merchant's, 91. But this is entirely repugnant to the doctrine, that apposition is *. figure ; nor is it at all consistent with the original meaning of the word apposition ; because it assumes that the literal reading, when the supposed ellipsis is supplied, is apposition still. The old distinction, however, between apposition and same cases, is generally preserved in our grammars, and is worthy ever to be so. The rule for same cases ap- plies to all nouns or pronouns that are put after verbs or participles not transitive, and that are made to agree in case with other nouns or pronouns going before, and meaning the same thing. But some teachers who observe this distinction with reference to the neuter verb be, and to cer- tain passive verbs of naming, appointing, and the like, absurdly break it down in relation to other verbs, neuter or active-intransitive. Thus Nixon : " Nouns in apposition are in the same case ; as, 'Hortensiiis died a martyr ; ' 'Sydney lived the shepherd's friend.' " English Parser, p. 55. It is remarkable that all this author's examples of " nominatives in apposition," (and he grves eighteen in the exercise,) are precisely of this sort, in which there is really no apposition at all. OBS. 3. In the exercise of parsing, rule third should be applied only to the explanatory term; because the case of the principal term depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some other rule. In certain instances, too, it is better to waive the analysis which might be made under rule third, and to take both or all the terms together, under the rule for the main relation. Thus, the several proper names which distinguish an individual, are always in ap- position, and should be taken together in parsing ; as, William Pitt Marcus Tullius Cicero. It may, I think, be proper to include with the personal names, some titles also ; as, Lord Bacon Sir Isaac Neioton. Win. E. Russell and Jonathan Ware, (two American authors of no great note,) in parsing the name of "George Washington," absurdly take the former word as an adjective belong- ing to the latter. See Russell's Gram. p. 100 ; and Ware's, 17. R. C. Smith does the same, both with honorary titles, and with baptismal or Christian names. See his New Gram. p. 97- And one English writer, in explaining the phrases, John Wicklijfe's influence," "Robert Bruce's ex- ertions," and the like, will have the first nouns to be governed by the last, and the intermediate ones to be distinct possessives in apposition with the former. See Nixon's English Parser, p. 59. Wm. B. Fowle, in his " True English Grammar," takes all titles, all given names, all possessives, and all pronouns, to be adjectives. According to him, this class embraces more than half the words in the language. A later writer than any of these says, " The proper noun is philosophically an adjective. Nouns common or proper, of similar or dissimilar import, may be parsed as adjec- tives, when they become qualifying or distinguishing words ; as, President Madison, Doctor Johnson, Mr. Webster, Esq. Carleton, Miss Gould, Professor Ware, lake Erie, the Pacific ocean, Franklin House, Union street." Sanborn's Gram. p. 134. I dissent from all these views, at least so far as not to divide a man's name in parsing it. A person will sometimes have such a multitude of names, that it would a flagrant waste of time, to parse them all separate' y : for example, that wonderful doctor, Paracelsits, who called himself, "Aureolus Philippics Thuo- phrastus Bombastus Paracelsus de Hoenheim." Univ. Biog. Diet. OBS. 4. A very common rule for apposition in Latin, is this: " Substantives signifying 1he game thing, agree in case." Adam's Latin Gram. p. L56. The same has also been applied to our language : " Substantives denoting the same person or thing, agree in case." Bull ions' s E. Gram. p. 102. This rule is, for two reasons, very faulty : first, because the apposition of pronouns seems not to be included in it; secondly, because two nouns that are not in the same case, do sometimes " signify " or " denote " the same thing. Thus, " the city of London" means only th* city London; " the land of Egypt," is onl^Effypt ; and " the person of Richard," is Richard hhn- self. Dr. Webster defines apposition to be, " The placing of two nouns in the same case, without a connecting word between them." Octavo Diet. This, too, excludes the pronouns, and has ex- ceptions, both various and numerous. In the first place, the apposition may be of more than two nouns, without any connective; as, "Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law." Ezra, vii, 21. Secondly, two nouns connected by a conjunction, may both be put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun ; as, " God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ." Acts, ii, 36. " Who made me a judge or a divider over you." Luke, xii, 14. Thirdly, the apposition may be of two nouns immediately connected by and, provided the two words de- note but one person or thing ; as, "This great ^philosopher and statesman was bred a printer." Fourthly, it may be of two words connected by as, expressing the idea of a partial or assumed identity ; as, " Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother." 2 Thcss. iii, 15. " So that he, as God, sitteth in the temple of God." Ib. ii, 4. Fifthly, it may perhaps be of two words connected by than ; as, "He left them no more than dead men." Law and Grace, p. 28. Lastly, there is a near resemblance to apposition, when two equivalent nouns are connected by or ; as, " The back of the hedgehog is covered wilh prickles, or spines." Webster's Diet. ORS. 5. To the rule for apposition, as I have expressed it, there are properly no exceptions. But there are many puzzling examples of construction under it, some of which are but little short of exceptions ; and upon such of these as are most likely to embarrass the learner, some further observations shall be made. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal term, with which the other word, or subsequent noun or pronoun, is in apposition ; and it generally is so : but th explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among the poets ; as, " From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." Thomson. OBS. 6. The pronouns of the .first and second persons are often placed before nouns merely to dis- tinguish their person ; as, "I John saw these things." Bible. " But what is this to you receivers? " Clarkson's Essay on Slavery, p. 108. " His praise, ye brooks, attune." Thomson. In this case of apposition, the words are in general closely united, and either of them may be taken as the ex- planatory term. The learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule third ; or both nouns, it CIIAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE III. APPOSITION. OBSERVATIONS. 479 there be two : as, " I thy father-in-law Jcthro am come unto thee." Exod. xviii, G. There are many other examples, in which it is of no moment, which of the terms we take for the principal ; and to all such the rule may be applied literally: as, " Thy son Benhadad kiity of Syria hatli sent me to thee." 2 Kinf/s, viii, 9. Ons. 7. When two or more nouns of the posscssire case are put in apposition, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of both or all; as, " For Hcrodins' sake, his brother Philip's ir iff." Matt, xiv. 3 ; Mark, vi, 17. Here icifc is in apposition with Herorfias', andbroth- er with Philip's : consequently all these words are reckoned to be in the possessive case. The Greek text, which is better, stands essentially thus : " For the sake of Herodias, the wife of Philip his brother." " For Jacob my servant's sake, and Israel mine elect." Isaiah, xlv, 4. Here, as Ja- cob and /.smtVare only different names for the same person or nation, the four nouns in Italic according to the rule", all made posscssives by the one sign used ; but the construction is r be commended : it would be better to say, " For the sake of Jacob my servant, and Israel elect." " With Hi/reanus the high priest's consent." Wood's Diet. w. Herod. " I call 006 and /.swtVare only different names for the same person or nation, the four nouns in Italics are, mine priest's consent." Wood's Diet. w. Herod. " I called at Smith's, the bookseller; or, at Smith the bookseller's." Bi'llions's E. (Irani, p. 10.5. Two words, each having the possessive sign, can never be in apposition one with the other; because that sign has immediate reference to the governing noun expressed or understood after it ; and if it be repeated, separate governing nouns will be implied, and the apposition will be destroyed.* Ons. 8. If the foregoing remar*k is just, the apposition of two nouns in the possessive case, requires the possessive sign to be added to that noun which immediately precedes the governing word, whether expressed or understood, and positively excludes it from the other. The sign of the case is added, sometimes to the former, and sometimes to the latter noun, but never to both: or, if added to both, the two words are no longer in apposition. Example : " And for that rea- on they ascribe to him a great part of his father Ximrod's, or Belus's actions." Rollings An. Hist. Vol. ii, p. 0. Here father and Ximrod's are in strict apposition; but if actions governs Belus's, the same word is' implied to govern Nint rod's, and the two names are not in apposition, though they are in the same case and mean the same person. !'. Dr. Priestley says, " Some would say, ' I left the parcel at Mr. Smith's the book* others, 'at Mr. Smith the bookseller's;' and perhaps others, at ' Mr. Smith's the bookseller's.' The last of these forms is most agreeable to the Latin idiom, but the first seems to be mor natural in ours; and if the addition consist [consists, says Murray,] of two or more words, th ms to be vert/ clear; as, ' I left the parcel at Mr. Smith'* the bookseller and stationer; ' i. c. at Mr. Smith's, irho is a, bookseller and stationer." Priestley's Gram. p. 70. Here the exam- ples, if rightly pointed, iconld all be- right ; but the ellipsis supposed, not only destroys the ap- position, but converts the explanatory noun into a nominative. And in the phrase, " at Mr. Smith's, the bookseller's," there is no apposition, except that of Mr. with Smith's ; for the govern- ing noun hoiise or store is understood as clearly after the one possessive sign as after the other. Churchill imagines that in Murray's example, " I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor," the last two nouns are in the nominative after " who was," understood; and also erroneously suggests, that their joint apposition with Stormont's might be secured, by saying, less elegantly, " I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor's." Churchill's New Gram. p. 285. Lindley Murray, who tacitly takes from Priestley all that is quoted above, except the term " Mr.," and the notion of an elipsis of" who is," assumes each of the three forms as an instance of apposition, but pronounces the first only to be " correct and proper." If, then, the first is elliptical, as Priestley suggests, and the others are ungrammatical, as Murray pretends to prove, we cannot have in reality any such construction as the apposition of two possessives ; for the sign of the case cannot possibly be added in more than these three ways. But Murray does not adhere at all to his own decision, as may be seen by his subsequent remarks and examples, on Ihe same page; as, "The emperor Leopold's;" " Dionyaius the tyrant's;" "For David my .t's sake ; "- -" (Jive me here John the Baptist's head ; " " Paul the apostle's advice." See Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 176; Smith's New Gram. p. 150; and others. in. An explanatory noun without the possessive sign, seems sometimes to be put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case ; and, if introduced by the conjunction as, it may ejther precede or follow the pronoun : thus, " I rejoice in your success as an instnafcr." Sanborn's (h\',,i. p. I'll. "As an author, his 'Adventurer' is his capital work." Murray' i Sequel, p. " Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, The promised father of a future age." P ope. P.ut r h examples may be otherwise explained on the principle of ellipsis ; as, [1ft the promised fithir," t Vc. " As [lie was] an author," &c. "As [you are] an instructer." Onx. 11. Whf-n a noun or pronoun ?.v r the sake of emphasis, or for the adding of an epithet, the word which is repi-atfd may properly be said to be in apposition with that which "is first introduced; or, if not, the repetition "itself implies sameness of case : as, "They have forsaken * I.irdley Murrnv thought it not imprartirnble fo put two or more nouns In apposition and add the . l '0 any positive im propriety in so doing. His words, on thic point, arc these: ' On thr - /iication of "ti , io both or all of the nouns in apposi- ti'.ii. vsi.nl .1 ]> -.-.'I'mlly h irsh -. au.l yrriinj.x in some cases incorrect: as, ' The Kinperor's Lco- jold's; KSiv:'- -nithX the bookseller's and stationer's.' Oftai 177. Wheiht-r h- i of these to be " incorrect " or not, does not appear ! Under the next rule, I shall give a short note which will show them all to be so. The author, however, after presenting these uncouth ti-tion-, which show nothing l.u rammar, has done the world the favour liot to pronounce them very ttmvenitnt phrases; for he continues the pirajraph as follows : "The rules which v>e hare endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent the inroni-fnirncrs of both these modes of expression ; and they ppear to be < uaux, and c>in*i*ttnt with the idnm of the language." Ib. This undeserved praiaa U" his o\vn rii'u--!. h,- mi^ht as well have left to some other hand. They have had the fortune, however, to pleaa* undry critics, and to become the prey of many thieves ; but are certainly very deficient in the three qualities he ramed ; and, taken together with their illustrations, they form little else than a tissue of errors, partly bis own, and partly copied from Lowth and Priestley. 480 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. me, the fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." Jcr. ii, 13. " I find the total of their hopes and fears Dreams, empty dreams." Coicper's Task, p. 71. OBS. 12. A noun is sometimes pxit, as it were, in apposition to a sentence; being used (perhaps clliptically) to sum up the whole idea in one emphatic word, or short phrase. But, in such instances, the noun can seldom be said to have any positive relation that may determine its case; and, if alone, it will of course be in the nominative, by reason of its independence. Examples: " He permitted me to consult his library, a kindness which I shall not forget." IF. Allen's Gram. p. 143. " I have offended reputation ; a most unnoble sioerving." Shakspeare. " I want a hero, an uncommon want." Byron. " Lopez took up the sonnet, and after reading it several times, frankly acknowledged that he did not understand it himself; a discovery which the poet probably never made before." Campbell's Rhet. p. 280. " In Christian hearts O for a pagan zeal ! A needful, but opprobrious prayer !" Young, N. ix, 1. 995. " Great standing miracle, that Heav'n assign'd Its only thinking thing this turn of mind." Pope. OBS. 13. A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently construed in apposition with a comprehensive plural; as, " They reap vanity, every one with his neighbour." Bible. " Go ye every man unto his city." Ibid. So likewise with two or more singular nouns which are taken conjointly ; as, " The Son and Spirit have each his proper office. "Butler's Analogy, p. 163. And sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series of particulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition, interest, glory, all concurred." Letters on Chivalry, p. 11. "Royal- ists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties concurred in the illusion." Hume's History, Vol. yiii, p. 73. The foregoing examples are plain, but similar expressions sometimes require care, lest the distributive or collective term be so placed that its construction and meaning may be misapprehended. Examples : " We have turned every one to his own way." Isaiah, lili, 6. Better: " We have every one turned to his own way." " For in many things we offend all." James, iii, 2. Better: "For in many things we all offend." The latter readings doubtless convey the true sense of these texts. To the relation of apposition, it may be proper also to refer the construction of a singular noun taken in a distributive sense and repeated after by to denote order ; as, " They went out one by one." Bible. " Our whole company, man by man, ventured in." Goldsmith. " To examine a book, 'page by page ; to search a. place, house by house." Ward's Gram. p. 106. So too, perhaps, when the parts of a thing explain tka whole; as, " But those that sleep, and think not on their sins, Pinch them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins." Shak. OBS. 14. To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjectives each other r nd one an of her are employed : as, " They love each other ; " " They love one an otJier." The words, separately considered, are singular ; but, taken together, they imply plurality ; and they can be properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. Each other is usually ip- plied to two persons or things ; and one an other, to more than two. The impropriety of apply- ing them otherwise, is noticed elsewhere ; (see, in Part II, Obs. 15th, on the Classes of Adjec- tives ;) so that we have here to examine only their relations of case. The terms, thovgh reciprocal and closely united, are seldom or never in the same construction. If such expressions be analyzed, each and one will generally appear to be in the nominative case, and other in the objective; as, " They love each other ;" i. e. each loves the other. "They love one another;" i. e. any or every one loves any or every other. Each and one ( if the words be taken as casies, and not adjectively,) are properly in agreement or apposition with they, and other is governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions; as, "Be ye helpers one of an other." Bible. Here owe is in apposition with ye, and other is governed by of. "Ye are on* an other's joy." Ib. Here one is in apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed by joy. "Love will make you one an other's joy." Here one is in the objective case, being in apposition Avith you, and other's is governed as before. "Men's confidence in one an other ; " " Their dependence one upon an other." Here the word one appears to be in appo- sition with the possessive going before ; for it has already been shown, that words standing in that relation never take the possessive sign. But if its location after the preposition must make it objective, the uihole object is the complex term, " one an other." " Grudge not one against an other." James, v, 9. " Ne vous plaignez point les uns dcs autres." French Bible. " Ne suspirate a/ins adversus alium." Beza. " Ne ingemiscite adversus alii alios." Leusden. "A/, ortruLfTs y.ar' c>j.).i' t f.wv." Greek New Testament. OBS. 15. The construction of the Latin terms alius alium, alii alios, &c., with that of the French I'un I'autre, I'un de Vautre, &c., appears, at first view, sufficiently to confirm the doctrine of the preceding observation; but, besides the frequent use, in Latin and Greek, of a reciprocal adverb to express the meaning of one an other or each other, there arc, from each of these lan- guages, some analogical arguments for taking the English terms together as compounds. The most common term in Greek for one an other, (14 II, fan dat. &il$oif, uic, OK, ace. uMtfavc,: ab ;./oc, alius,) is a single derivative word, the case of which is known by its termination ; and each other is sometimes expressed in Latin by a compound: as, " Et osculantes se dlterutrum, fleverunt pariter." Vulgate. That is : "And kissing each other, they wept together." As this text speaks of but two persons, our translators have not expressed it well in the common ver- sion : " And they kissed one an other, and wept onewith an other." 1 Sam. xx, 41. Alter-utrum is composed of a nominative and an accusative, like each-other ; and, in the nature of things, there is no reason why the former should be compounded, and the latter not. Ordinarily, there seems to be no need of compounding either of them. But some examples occur, in which it is not CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE III. APPOSITION. ERRORS. 481 easy to parse cwh other and one an other otherwise than as compounds : as, " He only recom- mended this, and not the washing of one another's feet." Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 143. " The Temple late two brother sergeants saw, Who deem'c <-nrh other oracles of law." Pope, B. ii, Ep. 2.* Ons. 16. Tho cn/nmon and the proper name of an object are very often associated, and put hi apposition; as, ' '/'//<;/ - 7'A/ ship Albion" "The pm-t Coirper," ''Lake Erie," ' //," "Mount Atlnx." But, in English, the proper name of a place, when accom- panied by the common name, is generally put in the objective case, and preceded by of; as, " The city of New York," " The land of Canaan," " The island of Cuba," " The peninsula of Yucatan." Yet in some instances, even of this kind, the immediate apposition is preferred ; as, " That the x mid be subordinate to the city YY/v/V'/v." /,/// of Josephus, p. 142. In the following sentence, the preposition of is at least needless: "The law delighteth herself in the number of twelve ; and the number of twelve is much respected in holy writ." Coke, on Jurii-s. Two <>r three late grammarians, supposing of always to indicate a possessive relation be- tween one thing and an other, contend that it is no less improper, to sav, "The city of London, the city of New Haven, the month of March, the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the towns of Exeter and Dover," than to say, "King of Solomon, Titus of the Roman Emperor, Paul of the apostle, or, Cicero of the orator." See oomtft Gram. p. 101 ; Emmcms's, 16. I cannot but think there is some mistake in their mode of finding out what is proper or improper in gram- Emmons scarcely achieved two pages more, before he forgot his criticism, and adopted the phrase, " in the city of New Haven." Gram. p. 19. Ons. 17. When "an object acquires a new name or character from the action of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the active verb, and in the nominative after the passive: as, "They named the child John;" "The child was named John.' 1 "They elected him president ; "" " He was elected .president." After the active verb, the acquired nams must be parsed by Rule 3d ; after the passive, by Rule 6th. In the following example, the pro- nominal adjective some, or the noun men. understood after it, is the direct object of the verb gave, and the nouns expressed are in apposition with it : "And he gave some, apostles ; and some, pro- >-any<-lixtx ; and XO/HC, jxistors and trm-hcm," Ephetsiam, iv, 11. That is, " He / *n,ne [men] as apostles ; and some as prophets ; and some as evunyeliats ; and some as pas- tnrx and faodtarv." The common reader might easily mistake the meaning and construction of this text, in two different ways ; for he might take some to be either a ttatwe rasr, meaning to I, or an adjective to the nouns which are here expressed. The punctuation, however, is calculated to show that the nouns are in apposition with some, or some men, in what the Latins call //, . But the version ought to be amended by the insertion of as, which would ! \press sign of the apposition intended. authors teach that words in apposition must agree in person, number, and gender, as well as in case ; but such agreement the following examples show not to be always necessary : " The /"/'irs. " But how can you a soul, still either hunger or thirst ? " Lii'-inn'* l)i'ulot/ncs, p 14. " Vv'ho sei/ed the wife of me his host, and fled. Ib. p. Id. Thy gloomy grandeurs (Nature's most august, Iii>piring a.ipect I) claim a grateful verse." Young, N. ix, 1. 566. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UXDER RULE III. ERRORS OF "\VORDS ix APPOSITIOX. " Xow, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, I and thou." Gen. xxxi, 44. 1 .cause the pronouns /and thou, of the nominative case, are here put in apposition i 1/5, which is objective. But, according to Rule 3d, "A noun or a personal pronoun, noun or pronoun, is put, by appo-i-iuii. in the same case." Therefore, / and thou me ; (the first person, in our idiom, being usually put last :) thus, " Now, therefore, com* thou, let us make a covenant, thee and ni'."] " Xow, therefore, come thou, we will make a covenant, thee and me." Variation of Gen* * In l'n>fp->r Filler's recent rind copious work, "Tin- I'nirlish I.ansruap- in its Elements and Forms," our pre- minimal A-- nid are spoken fit", in the first instance, A KKrn-Ro. AL I'RONorN is MM that implies flu- mutual action of different agents. EACH OTHER, nri'l ON: al Pit ins, ir / f.r/irtly as if t/iti/ were compound pronoun*, taking for thii; r 'vr i- pvoJBtrijr VMd Of (WO, aiid one another of more. 1 ' i-putalilc, that nirli otltrr^ or " one another,' 1 ' 1 is nol HOIK- cf his thrtM- important positions here taken, does the author hinwlt "-her.' Here enrh is in the nom- inative CO.T in nppi-: 1 !,,. v helped one another.' Here one it in appo- hy this ino.lo of paryinp. the reciprocal termn L -ar.- treated," not a- t" distinct or separable words: and, as oraeparabla word-. \ ;\,>,,r I'roiiouns. tlicy conform not to his definition n showing, l,,-'li:is misapplied one or the other I Art differ from one another as the on- j - ':i y u from enrh other ; " or >; onr from tht : iN-o each other." Ib - to one another ; because ; . the Germans. lOu the French and tht / nth'-r in t'.imiliar rouvi-rsiition by the Scci i _'iilar." V>. '^1- Say "d- sentences ;>: i in the way of co-ordination [,] hi>n they an- r.<>t :'., \\\v\\ rark other;" or "one upon tht ' !it two. (5.) i; The-=e two r. .. from one another." Ib. $ 617. from rnrh otln-r ; " or '-one from thr other." (6.) " The trees [in the Forest of Bombast} are close, t preading, and twined into earh other." Ib. $ 617. Say " into one an other." 31 482 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III "The word came not to Esau, the hunter, that stayed not at home ; but to Jacob, the plain man, he that dwelt in tents." Wm. Pcim. "Not to every man, but to the man of God, (i. e.) he that is led by the spirit of God." Barclay's Works, i, 266. "For, admitting God to be a creditor, or he to whom the debt should be paid, and Christ he that satisfies or pays it on the behalf of man the debtor, this question will arise, whether he paid that debt as God, or man, or both ? " Wm. Fenn. " This Lord Jesus Christ, the heavenly Man, the Emmanuel, God with us, we own and believe in : he whom the high priests raged against," &c. George Fox. " Christ, and Him crucified, was the Alpha and Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust." Experience of Paul, p. 399. " Christ and Him crucified ' is the head, and the only head, of the church." Dem- son's Sermon. " But if ' Christ and Him crucified ' are the burden of the ministry, such disastrous results are all avoided." Ib. " He never let fall the least intimation, that himself, or any other person, whomsoever, was the object of worship." Hannah Adams's View, p. 250. " Let the elders that rule well, be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine."! Tim. v, 17. " Our Shepherd, him who is styled King of saints, will assuredly give his saints the victory." Sermon. " It may seem odd to talk of we subscribers." Foicles True Eng. Gram. p. 20. "And they shall have none to bury them, them, their wives, nor their sons, nor their daughters ; for I will pour their wickedness upon them." Jeremiah, xiv, 16. " Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you, Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow- soldier, but your messen- ger, and he that ministered to my wants." PMippiana, ii, 25. "Amidst the tumult of the routed train, The sons of false Antimachus were slain ; He, who for bribes his faithless counsels sold, And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold." Pope, Iliad, B. xi, 1. 161. " See the vile King his iron sceptre bear His only praise attends the pious Heir ; ' He, in whose soul the virtues all conspire, The best good son, from the worst wicked sire." Dr.. LOWTH : Union Poems, p. IV. " Then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song To thy Redeemer ! yea, it poured along In most melodious energy of praise, To God, the Saviour, he of ancient days." Arm Chair, p. 15. RULE IV. POSSESSIYES. A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed: as, "6rW* mercy prolongs man's life." Allen. ."TJteirs is the vanity, the learning thine; Touch' d by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine." Pope. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IV. OBS. 1. Though the ordinary syntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy, there is perhaps, among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar, nothing more diffi- cult of decision, than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case. That its usual construction is both clearly and properly stated in the foregoing rule, i> what none will doubt or deny. But how many and what exceptions to this rule ought to be allowed, or whether any arc justly demanded or not, arc matters about which there may be mucii diversity of opinion. Having heretofore published the rule without any express exceptions. I am not now convinced that it is best to add any ; yet arc there three different modes of expression which might be plausibly exhibited in that character. Two of these would concern only the parser ; and, for that reason, they seem not to be very important. The other involves the ap- proval or reprehension of a great 'multitude of very common expressions, concerning which our ablest grammarians differ in opinion, and our most popular digest plainly contradicts itself. These points are ; first, the apposition of possessives, and the supposed ellipses which may affect that construction; secondly, the government of the possessive case after is, was, &c., when the ownership of a thing is simply affirmed or denied ; thirdly, the government of the possessive by a participle, as such that is, while it retains the government and adjuncts of a participle. OBS. 2. The apposition of one possessive with an other, (as, " For David my servant's sake,") might doubtless be consistently made a formal exception to the direct government of the posses- sive by its controlling noun. But this apposition is only a sameness of construction, so that what governs the one, virtually governs the other. And if the case of any noun or pronoun is known and determined by the nile or relation of apposition, there can be no need of an exception to the foregoing rule for the purpose of parsing it, sUlcc that purpose is already answered by rule third. If the reader, by supposing an ellipsis which I should not, will resolve any given instance of this kind into something else than apposition, I have already shown him that some great gram- marians have differed in the same way before. Useless ellipses, however, should never be sup- posed; and such perhars is the following: "At Mr. Smith's [who is] the bookseller." See Dr. Priestley's Gram. p. 71. OBS. 3. In all our Latin grammars, the verb sum, fui, esse, to be, is said (though not witn CTJAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE IT. POSSESSIVJSS. OBSERVATIONS. 483 strict propriety) sometimes to signify possession, property, or duty, and in that sense to govern the genitive case : as, ' " " It is the kind's." " Hominis cst errare ; " " It is man's to err.'' " Fecit* . ' The flock is Melibrrus's." And sometimes, with like import, this verb, expressed or understood, may govern the dative ; as, " Ego sum] dilecto meo,et dilectut incus [cst] nii/ti." 1'ulyate. "I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine." Solomon's Song, vi, 3. Here, a- both the genitive and the dative are expressed in English by the possessive, if the former arc governed by the verb, there seems to he precisely the same reason from the nature of the expression, and an additional one from analogy, for considering the latter to be so too. But all the annotators upon the Latin syntax suggest, that the genitive thus put after sum or est, is really governed, not by the verb, but by some noun understood ; and with this idea, of an ellipsis in the construction, all our English grammarians appear to unite. They might not, how- ever, find \\ to tell by what'noun the word beloved's or mine is governed, in the last example above"; and so of many others, which are used in the same way: as, "There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of Israel." Exod. ix, 4. The Latin here is, " Ut nihil omnino pereat ex his qutr pertinent ad filios Israel." Vulgate. That is, "of all those which belong to the children of Israel." " For thou art Freedom's now and Fame's, One of the few, the immortal names That were not born to die." HALLECK : Marco Bozzaris. OBS. 4. Although the possessive case is always intrinsically an adjunct, and therefore incapa- ble of being used or comprehended in any sense that is positively abstract; yet we see that there are instances in which it is used with a "certain degree of abstraction, that is, with an actual separation from the name of the thing possessed ; and that accordingly there are, in the simple personal pronouns, (where such a distinction is most needed,) two different forms of the case ; the one adapted to the concrete, and the other to the abstract construction. That form of the pronoun, however, which is equivalent in sense to the concrete and the noun, is still the pos- sessive case, and nothing more; as, "And all mine are thine, and thine are mine." John, xvii, 10. For if we suppose this equivalence to prove such a pronoun to be something more than the sive case, as do some grammarians, we must suppose the same thing respecting the pos- sessive case of a noun, whenever the relation of ownership or possession is simply affirmed or denied with such a noun put last : as, " For all things are yours ; and ve are Christ's and Christ Is God's." 1 Cor. iii, 21. By the second example placed under the mle, I meant to suggest, that the possessive case, when placed before or after this verb, (be,) might be parsed as being governed by the nominative; as we may suppose " theirs" to be governed by " vanity" and "thine" by ing," these nouns being the names of the things possessed. But then we encounter a difficulty, whenever a pronoun happens to be the nominative ; as, " Therefore glorify God in Your body, and in your spirit, which are God's." 1 Cor. vi, 20. Here the common resort would be to some ellipsis ; and yet it must be confessed, that this mode of interpretation cannot but make some difference in tlie sense: as, " If ye be Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed." Gal. iii, 29. Here some may think the meaning to be, " If ye be Christ's seed, or children." But a " er version of the text would be, " If ye are of Christ, then are ye Abraham's seed." " Que vous >'tcs a Christ, vous etes done la posterity" d' Abraham." French Bible. OILS. .5. Possession is the having of something, and if the possessive case is always an ad- inct, referring either directly or indirectly to that which constitutes it a possessive, it would cm but reasonable, to limit the government of this case to that part of speech which is under- tood substantively that is, to "the name of the tiling possessed." Yet, in violation of this pstriction, many grammarians admit, that a participle, with the regimen and adjuncts of a par- ticiple, may govern the possessive case ; and some of thorn, at the same time, with astonishing '-tcncy, aver, that the possessive case before a participle converts the latter into a noun, d necessarily deprives it of its regimen. ^Vhether participles are worthy to form an exception my rule or not, this palpable contradiction is one of the gravest faults of L. Murray's code of ,'ntax. After copying from Lowth the doctrine that a participle with an article before it becomes noun, and must drop the government and adjuncts 01 a participle, this author informs us, that tie same principles are applicable to the pronoun and participle: as, "Much depends on their IK/ of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it; " in stead of, ^ tin i ihe rule," and " t/ieir neyh-rdng /'." And this doctrine he applies, with yet ore positiveness, to the noun and participle ; as if the error were still more glaring, to make an stive participle govern a possessive noun : saying, "We shall perceive this more clearly, if we ubstitute a noun for the pronoun : as, ' Much depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule,' &c. ; rhich is the same a>, Much depends on ! '-once of the rule.' But, as this construction ounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in the following. \r some other form : ' Much depends on the rule's being observed ; and error will be the conse- quence of // : ccted:' or ' on observing the rule; and of neglecting it.'" Murray'* Uram. 8vo, ]>. and others. OHS. 6. Here it is assumed, that "their observing the rule," or " Tyro's observing the rule," is a ungrammatical phra^ oral different methods being suggested for its correction, a reference is at length given t not less objectionable than the original phrase iclf. The last form offered, " on o ., is indeed correct enough in itself; but, a substitute for the other, it is both inaccurate and insufficient. It merely omits the possee- ive case, and leaves the action of the participle undetermined in respect to the agent. For thr ive case before a real participle, denotes not the possessor of something, as in other stances, but the agent of the action, or the subject of the being or passion; and the simple uestion here is, whether this extraordinary use of the possessive case is, or is not, such an idiom if our language as ought to be justified. Participles may become nouns, if we choose to use them substantive!}' ; but can they govern the possessive case before them, while they govern also the objective after them, or while they have a participial meaning which is qualified by adverbs ? If they can, Lowth, Murray, and others, are wrong in supposing the foregoing phrases to be un- 484 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III, grammatical, and in teaching that the possessive case before a participle converts it into a noun ; and if they cannot, Priestley, Murray, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and others, are wrong in supposing that a participle, or a phrase beginning with a participle, may properly govern the possessive case. Compare Murray's seventh note under his Rule 10th, with the second under his Rule 14th. The same contradiction is taught by many other compilers. See Smith's Neic Grammar, pp. 152 and 162; Comly's Gram. 91 and 108; Ingersoll's, 180 and 199. OBS. 7- Concerning one of the forms of expression which Murray approves and prefers, among his corrections above, the learned doctors Lowth and Campbell appear to have formed very different opinions. The latter, in the chapter which, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, he de- votes to disputed points in syntax, says : " There is only one other observation of Dr. Lowth, on which, before I conclude this article, I must beg leave to offer some remarks. ' Phrases like the following, though very common, are improper: Much depends upon the ride's being observed; and error will be the consequence of its beinq neglected. For here is a noun and a pronoun repre- senting it, each in the possessive case, that is, under the government of another noun, but without other noun to govern it : for being observed, and being neglected, are not nouns : nor can you supply the place of the possessive case by the preposition of before the noun or pronoun.'* For my part," continues Campbell, " notwithstanding what is here very speciously urged, I am not satisfied that there is any fault in the phrases censured. They appear to me to be perfectly in the idiom of our tongue, and such as on some occasions could not easily be avoided, unless by recurring to circumlocution, an expedient which invariably tends to enervate the expression." Philosophy of Rhetoric, B. ii, Ch. iv, p. 234. OBS. 8. Dr. Campbell, if I understand his argument, defends the foregoing expressions against the objections of Dr. Lowth, not on the ground that participles as such may govern the posses- sive case, but on the supposition that as the simple active participle may become a noun, and in that character govern the possessive case, so may the passive participle, and with equal propriety, notwithstanding it consists of two or more words, which must in this construction be considered as forming "one compound noun." I am not sure that he means to confine himself strictly to this latter ground, but if he does, his position cannot be said in any respect to contravene my rule for the possessive case. I do not, however, agree with him, either in the opinion which he offers, or in the negative which he attempts to prove. In view of the two examples, " Much de- pends upon the rule's being observed," and, "Much depends upon their observing of the rule," he says : " Now, although I allow both the modes of expression to be good, I think the first situpler and better than the second." Then, denying all faults, he proceeds: "Let us consider whether the former be liable to any objections, which do not equally affect the latter." But in his argu- ment, he considers only the objections offered by Lowth. which indeed he sufficiently refutes. Now to me there appear to be other objections, winch are better founded. In the first place, the two sentences are not equivalent in meaning; hence the preference suggested by this critic and others, is absurd. Secondly, a compound noun formed of two or three words without any hyphen, is at best such an anomaly, as we ought rather to avoid than to prefer. If these considerations do not positively condemn the former construction, they ought at least to prevent it from dis- placing the latter ; and seldom is either to be preferred to the regular noun, which we can limit by the article or the possessive at pleasure : as, " Much depends on an observance of the rule." Much depends on their observance of the rule." Now these two sentences are equivalent to the two former, but not to each other ; and, vice versa : that is, the two former are equivalent to these, but not to each other. f OBS. 9. From Dr. Campbell's commendation of Lowth, as having "given some excellent directions for preserving the proper distinction between the noun and the gerund," that is, be- tween the participial noun and the participle, it is fair to infer that he meant to preserve it himself ; and yet, in the argument above mentioned, he appears to have carelessly framed one ambiguous or very erroneous sentence, from which, as I imagine, his views of this matter have been misconceived, and by which Murray and all his modifiers have been furnished with an ex* ample wherewith to confound this distinction, and also to contradict themselves. The sentence is this : " Much will depend on your pupil's composing, but more on his reading frequently." Philos. of Rhct. p. '23'). Volumes innumerable have gone abroad, into our schools and elsewhere^ which pronounce this sentence to be " correct and proper." But after all, what does it mean i Does the adverb "frequently" qualify the verb "will depend" expressed in the sentence ? or " will depend" understood alter more '{ or both ? or neither ? Or does this adverb qualify the ac- tion of "reading?" or the action of "composing?" O r both? or neither? But composing and reading, if they are mere nouns, cannot properly be qualified by any adverb ; and, if they are called participles, the question recurs respecting the possessives. Besides, composing, as a par- ticiple, is commonly transitive; nor is it very fit for a noun, without some adjunct. And, when participles become nouns, their government (it is said) falls upon of, and their adverbs are usually * For this quotation, Dr. Campbell gives, in his margin, the following reference: " Introduction, &c. Sentences, Note on the b'ch Phrase." But in my edition of Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar, (a Philadelphia edition of 1799,) I . 94. These sentences, without doubt, are nearly equivalent to each other in mean- ing. To make them exactly so, " depends " or " will depend " must be changed in tense, and " its being neglected " must bo its b>im> ntgUcted by him." But who that has looked at the facts in the case, or informed himself on the points here in dispute, wilt maintain that either the awkward phraseology of the latter example, or the mixed and questionable construction of the former, or the extensive rule under which they are here presented, is ainpng " the established principles and best usages of the English language 1 " lb. p. 1. CIIAP. III.] SYNTAX. BULB IV. POS3ESSIYES. OBSERVATIONS. 485 converted into adjectives ; as, " Much will depend on your pupiFs composing of themes ; but more, on 7//.v freyiunf reading." This may not be the author's meaning, for'the example was originally composed as a mere mock sentence, or by way of "experiment;" and one may doubt whether lU meaning was ever at all thought of by the philosopher. But, to make it a respect- able example, some correction there must be ; for, surely, no man can have any clear idea to communicate, which he cannot better express, than by imitating this loose phraseology. It is scarcely more correct, than to say, "Much will depend on an author's using, but more on his learn! ii her train, . ll'hat is the meaning of this lady's holding up her train; just as we say, What is the pl< e, that is either conceived or worded properly. Yet, coming from a Doctor of Laws, and Fellow of the Royal Society, it is readily adopted by Murray, and for his sake by others ; and so, with all its blunders, the vain gloss passes uncensured into the schools, as a rule and model for elegant composition. Dr. Priestley pretends to appreciate the difference between participles and participial nouns, but he rather contrives a fanciful distinction in the sense, than a real one in the construction. His only note on this point, a note about the "horse running to-day," and the "horses running to-day," I shall leave till we come to the syntax of participles. OHS. 11. Having prepared the reader to understand the origin of what is to follow, I now cite from L. Murray's code a paragraph whicli appears to be contradictory to his own doctrine, as ted in the fifth observation above; and not only so, it is irreconcilable with any proper distinction between the participle and the participial noun. "When an entire clause of a sen- tence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on trhirh if depends may be put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, ' What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ? ' that is, ' What is the reason of this person, in dismissing his servant so hastily?' we may say, and perhaps ought tn iar, What is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?' Just as . ' What is the reason of this person's Jiasti/ dismission of his servant?' So also, we say, ' I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' or more properly, 'I remember its being reck- oned.' \-e. The following sentence is correct and proper: 'Much will depend on the pupil's com/inshir/, but more on his reading frequently.' It would not be accurate to say, ' Much will de- pend on the ]>n]n! composing,' &c. We also properly say ; ' This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently :' instead of, ' Of the pupil composing frequently.' The participle, in such constructions, docs the -. \brid.-ed KdiM'T.." i improperly called a " participial noun,' 1 ' was, in his " original work," still ni" t.-rin.Ml a participial rinns'." "This gentleman, who has lately amended his general rule for pueai MlTC* by wrongfully copying or imitating mine, has al-o as widely varied his conception of the particij'ial u my judgement, a change still greater might not be amiss. " The possessive is often h will depend on the {mini'.* composing frequently. Pupil's is governed frtifitmtli/.' 1 NOTE. Th. uld he nnnexed to the word governed by the \\i\-z it."- ''lion. p. 150. Again : " The possessive is often governed by Much will depend mi the /nif>it'x composing frequently. Pupil's is governed by the participial noui NOTE. Th. >iM he annexed to the word governed by the participial noun following it p. 117. ('ho.i.-inu the possessive case, where, both by analogy and by autli'M-i inite as grammatical, if not more so; destroying, as far as possible, all syntac- tical distinction between the participle ami the participial noun, by confounding them purposely, even in name; thi- author, like Wells, whom he too often in, , , untie f the question here discussed, and seems quite uncon-ci'iiis t'. - partly nnde nouns ran /iro/lurr false syntax. To the foregoing instructions, he ! the followi- Tli" pnrtirij'/f uted ns a noun, still rrtnins it* nrbal prop- govern the i fie l by an adverb or adjunct, like the verb from which it is derived.' i i'i When one part of tpe< % the learner may be greatly pn/zi.-d to mull r-"ind t" n in. Dg8, If" t/ir fitntiri/,!,- //.<, /n n noun, still retains it-i verbal prop- erties." if is. manife --ill : not a participial noun, but a mninnl ;> u'ir,p!f. whether the thing be allowable or i i are incunsUvnt. Wells says, "Participlts ar. riiere w v.- a.-ain the -.;nnr/\ i;i- of whips, the rl,ttt> rin^ of hoof A, and the glittering of harne*!. laVIHG." ScAool (irani.\t l.'.l. Thi- . these are participial naiinx, and not ' j>'irtiri/>'"i." What Wells calls ' participial nouns," ditler fr I an- nil spurious, all mongrels, all participles rather than nouns. In regard to powtessives before participles, no instructions appear to be more de- i oses the pupil always to know when and why the poeaun i ind only instructs him nut tn ' it t/ir xi^u .' It is this: * ; Whon a noun or a ;i, prei-ediiiii a partici/>!r i/.w / as n nmni. is i>ri'/rli/ in tin ise, the -i_'n of po.-session should >'/!()<'/ Grain, p. 121. All tin- examples put under this rule, are inappropriate: each will 1 the learner. Those which are called U C<- l think, erroneous ; and those which are called t( False Syntax,"' the adding of the possessive sign will not amend. 486 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. others, is both weakly conceived and badly written, I should neither have detained the reader so long on this topic, nor ever have placed it among the most puzzling points of grammar. Let it be observed, that what these writers absurdly call "an entire CLAUSE of a sentence," is found on examination to be some short PHRASE, the participle with its adjuncts, or even the participle alone, or with a single adverb only; as, "holding up her train," "dismissing his servant so hastily," " composing," " reading frequently,"" composing frequently." And each of these, with an opposite error as great, they will have to be " one name," and to convey but " one idea :" admissible, and in our language, no participle ever can depend on any other than the nominative or the objective case. Every participle so depending is an adjunct to the noun ; and every pos- sessive, in its turn, is an adjunct to the word which governs it. In respect to construction, no terms differ more than a participle which governs the possessive case, and a participle which does not. These different constructions the contrivers of the foregoing rule, here take to be equiva- lent in meaning ; whereas they elsewhere pretend to find in them quite different significations. The meaning is sometimes very different, and sometimes very similar ; but seldom, if ever, are the terms convertible. And even if they were so, and the difference were nothing, would it not be better to adhere, where we can, to the analogy of General Grammar ? In Greek and Latin, a version is, " Puisque vous cherchez une preuve que Christ jmrle par moi ; " and this, too, might be imitated in English: " Since ye seek a proof that Christ speaks by me." OBS. 13. As prepositions very naturally govern any of our participles except the simple per- fect, it undoubtedly seems agreeable to our idiom not to disturb this government, when we would express the subject or agent of the being, action, or passion, between the preposition and the participle. Hence we find that the doer or the sufferer of the action is usually made its possessor, whenever the sense does not positively demand a different reading. Against this construction there is seldom any objection, if the participle be taken entirely as a noun, so that it may be called a participial noun ; as, " Much depends on their observing of the rule." Lowth, Campbell, and L. Murray. On the other hand, the participle after the objective is unobjectionable, if the noun or pronoun be the leading word in sense ; as, " It would be idle to profess an apprehension of serious evil resulting in any respect from the utmost publicity being given to its contents." London Eclectic Revieic, 1816. "The following is a beautiful instance of the sound of words corresponding to motion." Murray's Gram, i, p. 333. "We shall discover many things par- taking of both those characters." West's Letters, p. 182. " To a per 'son following the vulgar mode of omitting the comma." Churchill's Gram. p. 365. But, in comparing the different construc- tions above noticed, writers are frequently puzzled to determine, and frequently too do they err in determining, which word shall be made the adjunct, and which the leading term. NOAV, wherever there is much doubt which of the two forms ought to be preferred, I think we may well conclude that both are wrong ; especially, if there can easily be found for the idea an other ex- pression that is undoubtedly clear and correct. Examples : " These appear to be instances of the present participle being used passively." Murray's Gram. p. 64. "These are examples of the past participle being applied in an active sense." Ib. 64. " We have some examples of ad- verbs being used for substantives." Priestley's Gram, p. 134; Murray's, 198; Ingersoll's, 206; Fisk's, 140 ; Smith's, 165. " By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to the substantive." Murray's Gram. p. 39 ; also Ingersoll's, Fisk's, Alger's, Maltby's, Merchant's, Bacon's, and others. Here, if their own rule is good for any thing, these authors ought rather to have pre- ferred the possessive case ; but strike out the word being, which is not necessary to the sense, and all question about the construction vanishes. Or if any body will justify these examples as they stand, let him observe that there are others, without number, to be justified on the same princi- ple; as, " Much depends on the rule being observed." " Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently." Again: "Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him." Rollin, ii, 86. " Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians' coming to attack him." That is " for their coming," and not, " for them coming ;" but much better than either: "Cyrus did not Avait for the Babylonians to come and attack him." Again : " To prevent his army's being enclosed and hemmed in." Rollin, ii, 89. " To prevent his army being enclosed and hemmed in." Both are wrong. Say, " To prevent his army from being enclosed and hemmed in." Again : " As a sign of God's fulfilling the promise." Rollin, ii, 23. "As a sign of God fulfilling the promise." Both are objectionable. Say, " As a sign that God ivould fulfill the promise." Again : " '1 here OBS. 14. NOAV, although thousands of sentences might easily be quoted, in which the posses- sive case is actually governed by a participle, and that participle not taken in every respect ;is a noun; yet I imagine, there are, of this kind, few examples, if any, the meaning of which might not be better expressed in some other way. There are surely none among all the examples which are presented by Priestley, Murray, and others, under their rule above. Nor Avould a thousand such as are there given, amount to any proof of the rule. They are all cf them unreal or feigned sentence; , made up for the occasion, 'and, like most others that are produced in the same way, made up badly made up after some ungrammatical model. If a gentleman could possibly de- mand a lady's meaning in such an act as the holding-lip of her train, he certainly Avould use none of Priestley's three questions ; but Avould probably say, " Madam, what do you mean by holding CHAP, in.] SYNTAX. RCLB IV. - POS8ES3IVES. - OBSERVATIONS. 487 meaning better than he. The text is therefore not to be corrected by inserting a hyphen and an ore cited ; as, " What is the meaning of this lady's holding-up of up your train ?" It was folly for the doctor to ask an of her /.erson, as if an other could guess her meaning better than he. The tex of, after Murray's doctrine before ner train ? " Murray did well to reject this example, but as a specimen of English, his own is no better. The question which he asks, ought to have been, " If'//// did this p< rson OTMM*M his ser- vant so hastily ?" Fisk has it in the following form: "What is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily " Etn;/i.s/< Grammar Simplified^ p. 108. This amender of gram- mars omits the of which Murray and others scrupulously insert to govern the noun servant, and boldly avows at once, what their rule implies, that, " Participles are sometimes used both as verbs and as nouns at the same time; as, 'By the mind's chmujinu the object,' &c." Ib. p. 134; so Emmons's Gram. p. 64. But he errs a.s "much UN they, and contradicts both himself and them. For one ought rather to say, " By the mina"fi changing of the object; " else changing, which " does the office of a noun," has not truly " a correspondent regimen." Yet of is useless after dismiss- ing, unless we take away the adrcrb by which the participle is prevented from becoming a noun. "^Dismissing of his servant so kattily," is in itself an ungrammaticul phrase; and nothing but to omit cither the preposition or the two adverbs, can possibly make it right. Without the latter, it may follow the possessive : but without the former, our most unproved grammars say it cannot. Some critics, however, object to the of, because the dis/niyxinf/ is not the serrant's act ; but this, as 1 shall hereafter show, is no valid objection : they stickle lor a false rule. OBS. l~). Thus these authors, differing from one an other as they do, and each contradicting himself and some of the rest, are, as it would seem, all wrong in respect to the whole matter at issue. For whether the phrase in question be like Priestley's, or like Murray's, or like Fisk's, it is still, according to the best authorities, unfit to govern the possessive case ; because, in stead of being a substantive, it is something more than a participle, and yet they take it substantively. They form this phrase in many different fashions, and yet each man of them pretends that what be approves, is just like the construction of a regular noun : ''Just as we say, ' What is the reason of this person's hasty tlixmixsion of his servant.' " Murray, Fi*k, and others. "Just as we say, 'What is the meaning of this lady's dress,' d th " Murray's Key, p. 223. Say, " Why dt laved this business?" (4.) " What can be the cause of the parliament's important a business : " 1*>. p. 1:' II7/y doe* the parliament neglect so im- artant The time of U'Hiimn's making the experiment, at length arrived." -Ib. ]>. - ."The time Jr William to make the experiment, at length arrived." (6.) "I )po this is the hi>t time of / , imprudently." Ib. p. 263. Say, "I hope 1 shall never lain nrf so imprudently. t reason for their looking so well, it would be, at they rise early." 'lh. p. _'<;:>. Say, " I should attribute their healthful appearance to their rly rising." (8.) " The tutor said, that diligence and application to study were necessary to g good scholars." Coo/>i /'.> (inm,. p. 1 1~>. Here is an anomaly in "the construction of ' /ro!;n-s. Say, " The tutor said, that diligent application to strnt'y wv/.v necessary to our irning." ./,/ //r/v f / //j///r manner he did, was not fully ex- plair.ed." .l/// . mthor has a very singular mode of giving " BTBBN0TB " -L -entences. The l.nilty text here was, "The reason why he acted in the manner he did, is not fully explained." i , p. 131. This M much better than the other, but I should choose, to sa , . ison of A/.v - not fully explained." For, surely, the " one idea or circumstance " of his " ha\ ing a ./ted in the manner in which he did act," may be uite as forcibly named by the one \\ '. as by all this verbiage, this "substantire hrase," or " entire clause," of such cumbrous length. | The foregoing observations tend to show, that the government of posses- ticiples, is in general a construction little to lie commended, if at all allowed. I thus narrow )wn the application of the principle, but do not hereby determine it to be altogether wrong. . 'trier arguments, both for and against the doctrine, which must be taken into the ac- int, bet"' . tally decide the question. The double construction which may be given to initivc verbs ; the Greek idiom which allows to such verbs an article before them and an 488 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. objective after them ; the mixed character of the Latin gerund, part noun, part verh ; the use or substitution of the participle in English for the gerund in Latin ; all these afford so many reasons by analogy, for allowing that our participle except it be the perfect since it participates the properties of a verb and a noun, as well as those of a verb and an adjective, may unite in itself a double construction, and be taken substantively in one relation, and participially in an other. Accordingly some grammarians so define it ; and many writers so use it ; both parties disregard- ing the distinction between the participle and the participial noun, and justifying the con- struction of the former, not only as a proper participle after its noun, and as a gerundive after its preposition; not only as a participial adjective before its noun, and as a participial noun, in the regular syntax of a noun ; but also as a mixed term, in the double character of noun and parti- ciple at once. Nor are these its only uses ; for, after an auxiliary, it is the main verb; and in a few instances, it passes into a preposition, an adverb, or something else. Thus have we from, the verb a single derivative, which fairly ranks with about half the different parts of speech, and takes distinct constructions even more numerous ; and yet these authors scruple not to make of it a hybridous thing, neither participle nor noun, but constructively both. " But this," says Lowth, " is inconsistent; let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction." Gram. p. 82. And so say I as asserting the general principle, and leaving the reader to judge of its exceptions. Because, without this mongrel character, the participle in our language has a multiplicity of uses unparalleled in any other ; and because it seldom happens that the idea intended by this double construction may not be otherwise expressed more elegantly. But if it sometimes seem proper that the gerundive participle should be allowed to govern the possessive case, no exception to my rule is needed for the parsing of such possessive ; because whatever is invested with such government, whether rightly or wrongly, is assumed as " the name of some- thing possessed." OBS. 18. The reader may have observed, that in the use of participial nouns the distinction of toice in the participle is sometimes disregarded. Thus, "Against the day of my burying," means, "Against the day of my being buried." But in this instance the usual noun burial or funeral would have been better than either : "Against the day of my burial." I. e. " In diem funerationis meee." Beza. " In diem sepultura mece." Leusden. " ^Etgr'^v i^ifoar rov fatty iota U6V uov." John, xii, 7- In an other text, this noun is very properly used for the Greek infinitive, and the Latin gerund ; as, " For my < burial." Matt, xxvi, 12. "Ad funerandum me." Beza. "Ad sepeliendum me." Leusden. Literally: "For burying me." '<77(>oc ro traynrfat ut." Nearly: " For to have me buried." Not all that is allowable, is commendable ; and if either of the un- compounded terms be found a fit substitute for the compound participial noun, it is better to dis- pense with the latter, on account of its dissimilarity to other nouns: as, "Which only proceed upon the question's being begged" Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 361. Better, " Which only pro- ceed upon a begging of the question" "The king's having conquered in the battle, established his throne." Nixon's Parser, p. 128. Better, "The king's conquering in the battle ; " for, in the participial noun, the distinction of tense, or of previous completion, is as needless as that of voice. " The fleet's having sailed prevented mutiny." Ib. p. 78. Better, " The sailing of the fleef," or, "The fleet's sailing," &c. "The prince's being murdered excited their pity." Ibid. Better, " The prince's murder excited their indignation." OBS. 19. In some instances, as it appears, not a little difficulty is experienced by our gram- marians, respecting the addition or the omission of the possessive sign, the terminational apos- trophic s, which in nouns is the ordinary index of the possessive case. Let it be remembered that every possessive is governed, or ought to be governed, by some noun expressed or under- stood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are put in apposition with others so governed; and for every possessive termination there must be a separate governing word, which, if it is not expressed, is shown by the possessive sign to be understood. The possessive sign itself may and must be omitted in certain cases ; but, because it can never be inserted or dis- carded without suggesting or discarding a governing noun, it is never omitted bij ellipsis, as Buchanan, Murray, Nixon, and many others, erroneously teach. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in every instance, when it must be used, and when omitted ; but Murray, after as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it perplexed and undetermined. If a person knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the Note, and he will not fail to use just as many apostrophes and Esses as he ought. How absurd then is that common doctrine of ignorance, which Nixon has gathered from Allen and Murray, his chief oracles ! " If several nouns in the genitive case, are immediately connected by a conjunction, the apos trophic s is annexed to the last, but tinderstood to the rest; as, Neither John (i. e. John's) nor Eliza's books." English Parser, p. 115. The author gives fifteen other examples like this, all of them bad English,'or at any rate, not adapted to the sense which he intends ! OBS. 20. The possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing noiin, ex- pressed or understood ; as, "All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace." Pope. "Lady! be thine [i.e. thy walk] the Christian's walk." Chr. Observer. " Some of sEschylus's [plays] and Euripidcs's plays are opened in this manner." Blair's Rhet. p. 459. And in this order one possessive sometimes governs another: as, "Peter's wife's mother;" "Paul's sister's son." Bible. But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some exceptions : as, 1. When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene ; as, " Flora's earliest smells." Milton. " Of man's first disobedience." Id. In the following phrase from the Spec- tator, " Of Will's last night's lecture," it is not very clear, whether Witt's is governed by night's or by lecture ; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose the latter ; because, on this supposition, two possessive?, each having the sign, will be governed by one noun. 2. When the possession is affirmed or denied ; as, " The book is mine, and not John's." But here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place ; and, in some such instances, it must be, else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word : as, " Ye are Christ's [dis- ciples, or people]; and Christ is God's" [son]. St. Paul. "Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable. See Obs. 4th, in this series. CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE IV. POSSESSIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 489 3. When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by connexion ; as, " In her brother Af>M t lorn' a house." Bible "David and Jonathan's friendship." Aden. "Adam and morning hymn." />/. At>h. "Behold, the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's thy God."Deut. \, It. " For peace and auiet's sake." Cowper. "To the beginning of King James the First's reign." Boliiitjbruke, on Hist. p. 32. 21. The possessive case is in general (though not always) equivalent to the proposition of ami the iibjiTtin- ; as, " Of Judas Iscariot, Sit/ton's son." Jo/in, xiii, 2. "To Judas Iscariot, the son ( ./N////r///." //;. xiii, 26. On account of this one-sided equivalence, many grammarians erroneously reckon the latter to be a " yen it ire case " as well as the former. But they ought to ;'ier, "that the preposition is used 'more frequently than the possessive, ami in a variety of senses that cannot be interpreted by this rase ; as, " <)f some of the books of each of these classes of literature, a catalogue will be given at the end o/'the work." L. Murray's Gram. p. 178. Murray Calls this a " laborious mode of expression," and doubtless it might be a little improved by substituting tn for the third of; but my argument is, that the meaning conveyed cannot be expressed by possessives. The notion that of forms a genitive case, led Priestley to suggest, that our language admits a " double f/cnifire ;" as, "This book of my friend's." Pri (jram. p. 71. "It is a discovery of S'/V haac Xew ton's." Ib. p. 72. " T"his exactness of his." STKUNK : ib. The doctrine has since passed into nearly all our grammars; yet is there no double ease here, as I shall presently show. Ous. 22. Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often omitted by ellipsis: At the alderman's" [/muse] ; "St. Paul's" [church]; "A book of my brother's" i-'s " [subjects'] ; "A friend of mine ; " i. e., one of my friends. . /? I J > . ^ _r y? , yli.^/V'' ro/.' [books] ; " A subject of the emperor's Shall we say that Sacrificing was a pure invention of Adam's, or of Cain or Abel's?" Leslie, on Tythes, p. 93. That is of Adam's inventions, or of Cain or Abel's inventions. The Rev. David Blair, unable to resolve this phraseology to his own satisfaction, absurdly sets it down among what he calls "EKUONKOUS OK TVMAB FHUASES." His examples are "these: "A poem of Pope's;" "A soldier of the king's;" "That is a horse of my father's." Blair's Practical ( i rant. p. 110, 111. He ought to have supplied the plural nouns, poems, soldiers, horses. Thia is the true explanation of all the "double genitives" which our grammarians discover; for when the first noun is jiartitice, it naturally suggests more or other things of the same kind, belong- ing to this possessor; and when such is not the meaning, this construction is improper. In thii following example, the noun eyes is understood after his : "Ev'n his, the womor'j ei/i-s, were forced to yield, That saw, without a tear, Fharsalia's field." Roicc's Lucan, B. viii, 1. 144. Ons. 23. When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way connected, they usually refer to things individually different but of the same name ; and when such is the meaning, the governing noun, which we always suppress somewhere to avoid tautology, is understood wherever the sign is added without it; as, " A father's or mother's sister is an aunt." Dr. Webster. That is, "A father's sister or a mother's sister is an aunt." "In the same com- memorative acts of the senate, were thy name, thy father's, thy brother's, and the emperor's." -, Vol. i, p. 231. "From Stiles's pocket into Xokcs's" [pocket]. Hud ib rets, B. iii, C. iii, 1. 71o. "Add Xaf- m't t Rriixon's, Passion's strife." Pope, Brit. Poets, Vol. vi, p. 383. nd name, which At the residence quite as agreeable ; and, as for the plural, one would hardly think Of saying, " Men's wedding parties are usually held at their fathers-in-hnr's houses." When the compound is formed with of, to prevent a repetition of this particle, the possessive sign is some- times addf d as above ; and yet the hyphen is not commonly inserted in the phrase, as I think it ought to be. Examples: "The duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of LandafF's at book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority;" "The captain of the guard's house." Murray's (Jram. p. 1~<>. "The Bishop of Cambrav's writings on eloquence." Blair's li/nf. i>. ';!>. "The bard of Lomond's lay is done." (Jun-ii's Wake, p. '.):. " For the kingdom of God's sake." Lufo; \\iii, 2i). "Of the children of Israel's half." Xton'xrs, xxxi, 30. From these examples it would seem, that the possessive sii^n ha> a less intimate alliance with the vian with the governing noun; or, at any rate, a dependence less close than that of the objective noun which here si the two nouns here so intimately joined by f, car.not be explained separately as forming two cases, but must be parsed together us one i ned in the usual way, I should either adopt some other phraseology, or write the compound term with hyphens, th'us : "The D*b+i>f-Brulpetoater t * canal;" "The Bishop- '.lent book;" "The Bard^f-LomOM't lay is done." But there is commonly Home better mode of correcting such phrases. ' With deference to Murray and others, " The Kintj of (in-at ttritnii' ',"* is but an OBS. 21. The -ignis sometimes annexed to that part of a compound is, of itself, in the objective case ; as, "At his fathcr-in-lair's residence. " Here, "At of his f''i'.'ti-r-i'n-hni-," would be quite as agreeable ; and, as for the plural, one would untoward v. ,;*, " The prerogative of tit* * It is r.-iiKirk.nMp. that I.itxllpy Murray, with nil hN <-:iri- in revising his work, <1M not si-<- flu- inronsittrni-y of Ms in-' o phrmw* of tnis kind. ! rioe, literally and aaonjnuMUly t from the Doctor's 17 "When the thing to whfchomX ux-um- locution, <>r ! - commonly Great / 1,,. ,-,,,,, l ( . mn s thi~ : " The . ml in the eenitiv D IMPROPERI\ i, ' from tha expcrim "f IJimiinjrhani.' "I". \<- IT.",, knd ;I-:MII he makes : which the v. I .in. I .|i-|..']i.li-ii*. ;is to admit Lake, p. 121. So much for the ss ; nor is the rule for'the termination encc, or (as Smith has it) nee, more true. Prince's and dunce's are as good po- - I any ; and so are the following : " That vice should triumph, virtue vice obey ; This sprung some doubt ot Providences -way." Farncll. " And sweet Benevolence's mild command." Lord Lyttelton. " I heard the lance's shivering crash, As when the whirlwind rends the ash." Sir Walter S<.ott. OBS. 30. The most common rule now in use for the construction of the possessive case, is a shred from the old code of Latin grammar : " One substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case." L. Murray's itttle X. This i-anon not only leaves occasion for an additional one respecting pronouns of the possessive case, but it i> also obscure in its phraseology, and too negligent of the various modes in which nouns may come together in English. All nouns used adjcctively, and many that are compounded together, seem to form exceptions to it. But who can limit or enumerate these exceptions/ Different combinations of nouns have so often little or no difference of meaning, or of relation to each other, and so fiequently is the very same v< pression written variously by our best scholars, and ablest lexicographers, that in many ordinary instances it seems scarcely possible to determine who or what is right. Thus, on the au- thority of Johnson, one might write, a stone's cast, or stona's throw ; but Webster has it, stones- (MSt,ox stones-throtr ; Maunder, stonecast, stunethrotc ; Chalmers, ttonescast; Worcester, stone's- cast. So Johnson and Chalmers write ston<-smick!e, a bird ; Webster has it stone' s-mickle ; yet all three refer to Ainsworth as their authority, and his word is st>. Littleton has it utont'-smieh. Johnson and Chalmers write, popeseye and sheep's eye; Walker, Maunder, and Wore* p's-cyc ; Scott h;i and s/teepy ' and bird-eye and birds-eye. Ainsworth has (/oat's beard, for the name of a plant ; John- son, goatbeard; Webster, goat-beard and yoat's-brnrd. Ainsworth ! ' fmthcr, for the amaranth; Johnson, Chalmers, Walker," and Maunder, write it princes-feather ', Webster and ttlnr: and here they 'are all wrong, for the word should be prince* 8-feather. There are hundreds more of such terms ; all as uncertain in their orthography as t! OHS. ol. While descrepances like the foregoing abound in our best dictionaries, none of our grammars supply any hints tending to show which of these various forms we ought to prefer. Perhaps the following suggestions, together with the six Rules for the Figure of Words, in Part First, may enable the reader to decide these questions with sufficient accuracy. (I.) Two short radical nouns are apt to unite in a permanent compound, when the former, taking the sole accent, expresses the main purpose or chief characteristic of 'the thing named by the latter ; as, teacup, aystar, horseman, shcepfold, houndfsh, hourglass. (2.) Temporary compounds of a like nature may be formed with the hyphen, when there remain two accented syllables ; as, .(///, bosom-friend^ j'<-lloir-si mi,,- '-/nut, goat-marjoram, marsh-marigold. (3.) The former of two nouns, if it be not plural, may be taken adjectively, in any relation that differs from apposition and from possession; as, " 'J he silctr cu])," " The jiarent birds," "My pil- "Thy hn-i:iit cell." "Two hfoihi-r sergeants." (4.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form a literal name, may be joined together without either hy- phen or apostrophe : as, tradesman, ratsbane, doomsday, kinswoman, < . (").) The posses- sive case and its governing noun, combining to form a mctapJiori'-ul name, should be written with both apostrophe and hyphen; as, Job's-' < ar's-foof, eolt's-tooth, sheep's-head, ' , Jady's-l I's-toni/ue. ; lady's-stipper, Jady's-l tc. ((>.) The . iiing noun, combining to form an adject ire, whether literal or ineta- ,1, >hould generally be writen with both apostrophe and hyphen; ;>, "Xmt's-fant oil," v/ow/j/e drill," -'A /..' . -- ! tes' -rights p*rtj" ! -<;t a triple compound noun maybe for/tied with one 'hyphen only : as, " In doomsday-book i " (Jok, Diet.;] "An armt*d-Uft." Garden, wlio will have all posses- sives to be adject: an example thus: " John'sVanul's hair girdle'." Elements of Eng. Gram. p. 39. This is as if John's mind had a hair oirdh! (1.) When the possessive ca'se and \erning noun merely help to t'unn a n -ul.a phrase, the compounding of them in any fashion may be reckoned improper ; thus the \>-. ,,r, on AW : \I1 fools' Day, the xniiifx' bell, the /imrt's blood, for doi/'s /,uat, though often written ot!i- -land as they do here. Ous. 32. The existence of a permanent compound of any two words, does not necessarily pre- clude the use of the possessive relation between the .-ame w'onls. Thus, we ma\ sju-ak of head<;,-i<-i-n'u\\.u the weather." None of these c.escrij)tions is very well written. -,,n/>>/ir condition f 9i as well as, "Our desire, your intention, their res- ignation." L. Murray's Gram. p. 1G9. A noun taken figuratively may also be singular, when the literal meaning would require the plural : such expressions as their face, their neck, their hand, their head, their heart, our mouth, our life, are fre- quent in the Scriptures, and not improper. -NuTK V. The possessive case should not be needlessly used before a participle that is not taken in other respects as a noun. The following phrase is therefore wrong: "Adopted by the Goths in their pronouncing the Greek." Walker's p. 17. Expunge their. Again: " Here we speak of their becoming both in form and signification passive." Campbells Rhet. p. 226. Say rather, " Here we speak of them as becoming passive, both in form and signification." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IV. E\AM!M.!.S VNDKR XoTK I. - TlIE FosSK SSIVK FollM. " Mans chief good is an upright mind." See Broim's Institutes ofE. Gram. p. 179. [FoRMi'LE. Not proper, because the noun wa/i*. which is intended for the possessive singular of man, has not the appropriate form of that cn.*p and number. I?ut. according to Note 1st under Rule 4th, " In the syntax of the ppropriate form, Mtigular or plural, should be observed, agreeably to the sense and declension of the word.'' Therefore, >/tans should be man's, with th apostrophe before the 5 ; thus, "Man 's chief good is an upright inn. "The translator of Mallets History ha/ the following note." Webster's Essays, p. 263. "The act, while it gave live years lull pay to the officers, allowed but one year's pay to the privates." //>. p. 184. " For the study of English is preceded by several years atten- tion to Latin and Greek." Ib.p.7. "The first, the Court Baron, is the freeholders or freemens court." f.W.r, Lift. p. 74. " I affirm, that Vaugelas' definition labours under an essential delect." fV/,v//W/'s Rhrt. p. in:;. "I affirm, 'that Vangelas's definition labours under an essential defect." Murray's Ocfaro dram., Fourth Amer. Ed., Vol. ii, p. 360.* "There is a chorus in Aristophane's plays." Blair s KJit-t. p. 480. "It denotes the same perception in my mind as in their's." 'Duncan's Logic, p. 65. "This afterwards enabled him to read Ilicke's Saxon Grammar." Life of J)r. Murray, p. 76. "I will not do it for tens sake." /;/-. . !s/,'\ Cr^nn. p. 56. "I arose, and asked if those charming infants were her's." MV/vV/-, p. 21. " They divide their time between milliners shops and taverns." ittmate. Vol. i, p. 65. "The angels adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud." .s/t.-'.v Koran, p. C>. "Quarrels arose from the winners insulting of those who -/'>. ]>. 171. "The vacancy, occasioned by Mr. Adams' resignation." Adams's Hhet, Vol. i, p. vii. " Read I'm- instance Junius' address, commonly called his letter to the king." I' 1 -- :-petujil struggle against the tide of Hortensius' influence." Ib. ii, 23. " Which, for distinction sake, I shall put down severally." Jo/neon's Gram. Com. p. 302, "The fifth c:is- is in a rl:m>r Minifying the matter of ones fear." Ib. p. 312. "And they took counsel, and bought with them the potters' field." ALGKU'S BM:I.K : Maff. xxvii, 7. "Arise lor thy servant's help, and redeem them for thy mercy's sake." ./ r.v, p. 865. "Shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of their's be our- .- " SCOTT'S Bim.i. : <;,u. xxxiv. 23. "And every beast of their's," be our's " FRIKNDS' BIBLE: ib. "It's regular plural, biiUwis, i- u.-rd by Bacon." Chun hil'C. * tiratn. p. 213. "Mor- decai walked every day before the court of 'the womcns hou-e." SCO-IT'S BIHM: : ii, 11. "Behold, they that wear soft clothing are in kind's houses." lit. and FKII:XI>S* BIHLE: Matt, xi, M: also II W< 1-1. "By all the fame aequir'd in ten years war." /W/'.v Lunm, ]}. i. 1. 674. "Nor glad vile poets with true eritics gore." /', . ', p. 175. " Man only of a softer mold is made, -Not tor his fellow's ruin, but their aid." Drydens Poems, p. 92. VAV.I-.I. \s was a noted French critic, who died in lfi4. "The nonsense about ichieh's relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation." Foicle's True E. Grain. p. 18. "Who, upon his breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription." Roll in, Vol. ii, p. 33. "A prince will quickly have reason to repent his having exalted one person so high." Id. ii, 116. "Notwith- standing it's being the immediate subject of his discourse." Churchill's Gram. p. 294-. " "With our definition of its being synonymous with time." Booth's Iiitrod. p. 29. " It will considerably increase the danger of our being deceived." ('nm]ib>-H'>i Jthct. p. 293. "His beauties can never be mentioned without their suggesting his blemishes also." Blair '.i Rhet. p. 442. " No example has ever been adduced of a man's conscientiously approving of an action, because of its badness." Gt/r/ic;/'* l*.cidrnr<>s, p. 90. "The last episode of the aniriTs shewing Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined." Blair s Rhct. p. 4-VJ. "And the news came to my son, of his and the bride being in Dublin." fasti* Ttackratt, p. 44. "There is no room for the mind's exerting any great effort." Blair x Rhet. p. 32. " One would imagine, that these eriticks never so much as heard of Homer> having written first." Popes Preface to Homer. " Condemn the book, for its not being a geography." O. B. Peirces Gram. p. 317. "There will be in many words a transition from their being the figurative to their being the proper signs of certain ideas." Camp- bfll's Rhet. p. 322. " The doctrine of the Pope's being the only source of ecclesiastical power." Religions World., ii, 200. "This has been the more expedient from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners." Murray's Exercises, Introd. p. v. " This was occasioned by the Grammar's having been set ?/;;, and not admitting of enlargement." Ib. Advertisement, p. ix. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or par- ticiple, is governed by it in the objective case : as, " I found her assisting him" " Having finished the work, I submit it." " Preventing fame, misfortune lends him icings, And Pompey's self his own sad story brings." Howe's Lucan, B. viii, 1. 60. OBSERVATIONS ON HULK V. 1. To this rule there are no exceptions; but to the old one adopted by Murray and . "Active verbs govern the objective case," thrre are more than any writer will ever think it worth his while to enumerate. In point of brevity, the latter has the advantage, but in noth- ing else ; for, as a general rule for NOTNS AN;> ntoxorxs, this old brief assertion is very defec- tive ; and, as a rule for "THK SYNTAX <>r YI.KHS," under which head it has been oftener ranked, it is entireh 1 inapplicable. As there are four different constructions to which the nominative case is liable, so there are four in which the objective may be found ; and two of :ire common to both ; namely, apposition, and i Every objective is governed ,< n-r'i or jtttrtifiple. according to Rule ->tli, or by OBMJWiMaMflOft, according to Rule 7th ; except such as are put in apjiox/fimi with others, according to Rule 3d, or after an infinitive or * participle not transit irr, according to Rule 6th: ns, Mistaking one for the other, they took !tim, a sturdy fellorc, called Red Billy, to he tin-." Here is every construction which the objective k." Again: " He docs not care the rind of n h'mon for her all thv while." Ib. p. 10S. "We turn our eyes this iraij or f/iaf inn/." jr//j\.'V/-'.v Pltilos. (ham. p. 172; 'j drum. Io7. Among his instances of "the onj- rrstricfivc," or of the noun 'UM-d in the objective, without a go\erning word," Dr. Bullions gives this: "Let us go home." Hut, according to the better opinion of Worcester, home is here an adverb, and not a nouu. JSee 4 and 194. And again : "Part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pronoun, may be said to be in t/ie objective case, or to be put objectively, governed by the active verb ; as, ' We sometimes see virtue in distress, but we should consider how great will be her ultimate reward.' Sentences or phrases tinder this circumstance, may be termed objective sentences -or phrases." Ib. p. 189. OBS. 5. If we admit that sentences, parts of sentences, infinitives, participles with their adjuncts, and other phrases, as well as nouns and pronouns, may be " in the objective case ;" it will be no easy matter, either to define this case, or to determine what words do, or do not, gov- ern it.* The construction of infinitives and participles will be noticed hereafter. But on one of * Wells, whose Grammar, in its first edition, divides verbs into "transitive, intransitive, and passive;" but whose late editions absurdly make all passives transitive ; says, in his third edition, "A transitive verb is a verb that has some noun or pronoun for its object ; " (p. 78 ;) adopts, in his syntax, the old dogma, " Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; " (3d Ed. p. 154;) and to this rule subjoins a series of remarks, so singularly fit to puzzle or mislead the learner, and withal so successful in winning the approbation of committees and teachers, that it may be wortli while to notice most of them here. " HEM. 1. A sentence or phrase often supplies the place of a noun or pronoun in the objective case ; as, ' Yon see hoiv few of these men have returned.' " Wells' 's School Gram., " Third Thousand," p. 154 ; late Ed. 215. According to this, must we not suppose verbs to be often transitive, when not made so by the author's definition? And if " see ' i* here transitive, would not other forms, such as are told, have been told, or are aware, be just as much so, if put in its place 1 " REM. 2. An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective, when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of kindred signification ; as, ' To live a blameless life; ' ' To run a race.' " Ib. Here verbs are ab- surdly called ' ; intransitive.," when, both in fact and by the foregoing definition, they are clearly transitive ; or, at least, are, by many teachers, supposed to be so. " REM. 3 Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which intransitive verbs are followed by objectives depend- ing upon them ; as, ' To look the subject fully in the face.' C/i'inning. ' They laughed him to scorn.' Matt. 9 : 24. 'And talked^ the night away.' Goldsmith.'' Ib. Here, again, verbs evidently made transitive by the con- ftruction, are, with strange inconsistency, called " intransitive.'' By these three remarks together, the distinction between transitives and intransitives must needs be extensively obscured in the mind of the learner. " REM. 4. Transitive verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, are often employed to govern two objectives ; as, l Ask him his opinion; ' ' This experience taught me a valuable lesson.' 'Spare me yet this bitter cup.' ffemam. 'I thrice presented him a kingly crown.' Shakspeare." Ib. This rule not only jumbles together several different constructions, such as would require different cases in Latin or Greek, but is evidently repugnant to the sense of many of the passages to which it is meant to be applied. Wells thinks, the practice of applying a preposition, "is, in many cases, arbitrary, and does violence to an important and well established CHAP. III.] SXXTAX. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS 497 Murray's examples T would here observe, thnt the direct use of the infinitive for an objective nmtn is ;i manifest dm is,,i ; as, "For to will is present with me; but to perform that which is good, I find not." (),-tf that which is Rood, I find not." Or perhaps we may supply a noun after the verb, and take this text to mean, " Uut to perform that which is gooa, I find" not the ahi/ify." Our Bible has it, " But hoir to perform that which is good,, I find not; " a-s if tin' manner in which he might do Rood, was what the apostle found not : but Murray cites it differently, omitting the word Aoto, as we sec above. All active verbs to wliich something is subjoined by -irln-n, ////>, u-Jtence, how, or wJnj, must be accounted intransitive, unless we suppose them to govern such nouns of time, place, degree, manner, or cause, as correspond to these connectives ; as, " I know icliy she blushed." Ik-re we might sup- ply the noun . I know tin- reason why she blushed;" but the word is needless, and I should rather parse hnoir as bring intransitive. As for " rirtvc in r//,y//-<,v.v,'' if this is an " tin- /j/trafir," and not to be analyzed, we have millions of tlie same sort; but, if one should say, " I'irtue in ///V/r.v.v excites pity,' the same phrase would demonstrate the absurdity of Murray's doctrine, because the two nouns here take tico dljt'erent rat.es. <>!;>. 0. The word that, which is often employed to introduce a dependent clause, is, by some grammarians, considered as a prvnoun, representing the clause which follows it ; as, " 1 know thnt Mrssias cometh." JoJin,'\\, 2~). This text they would explain to mean, reth t I know that ; " and their opinion seems to be warranted both by the origin and by the usual import of the particle. But, in conformity to general custom, and to his own views of the practical pur- poses of grammatical analysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks it better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by that and a dependent clause, than. to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other explanation supposes. To explain it as u conjunction, connecting an active-transitive verb and its object, as several respectable gram- marians do, appears to involve some inconsistency. If that'is a conjunction, it connects what precedes and what follows ; but a transitive verb should exercise a direct government, without the intervention of a conjunction. On the other hand, the word that has not, in any such sen- tence, the inherent nature of a pronoun. The transposition above, makes it only a pronominal idiom of the language." Ih. But how can any idiom be violated by a mode of parsing, which merely expounds its true meaning .* If the da f ive ca-e ha* the meaning of to, and the ablative has rhe inclining of from, how can they ho expounded, in Kngh'sh. 1 'ing the jmrtirte. where i' is omirted .' For example : Spare me yet [ from] this hitter nip." " Spnrv [to] me yet this joyous cup." This author says, ' T/ifrule for the govern- ment of nvu objectives by ;i verb, without the "aid of a prvpo-Hon, is adopted h\- \\Vl.~t\ h\ which all his various examples are assumed to be regular and right, be very incon- cntlv add* this note : This form of expression is nnninnlnns, and might, in many cases, be improved. Thus, tfn'l of saving, ' He w.-i? offered a seat in the council.' ir would be preferable to say, >A seat in the council offered [to] him.'" I f >. p. I'.o, 215. By admitting here the ellipsis of the preposition to, he evidently refutes vine of his own text, so far as it relates >, and. by implication, the doctrine of his fourth rmiiirk abo. For the ellipsis of tn, hefore him." is just as e\ident in the active expression, 1 thrice ' him a kiiu in the p:i--ivc. --A kingly crown was tkrirf prnn this usage altogether." >;. The (i-i-- In eonncciion with a prtpositinn, forming a compound inlency to be guarded against.' A bitter -rjifd nn.'i' ".. The words here called //r>},<>*irn,>i,a$ carried ' or u I'VM rnrri.il tot :,.- like. |{F.M. 7. hlioiiiari' ur in wliich a IIMHI in tlie objective is preceded by a passive verb, d followed by 'i }>r> , . : t;ii ii!U>je vr> i/uule use of." 1 I, fourth, and fifth, f > <>f at half past eight.' Kmithf >/. ' Tlie Pinta was inner of th i *m>morepi- rbinll*i." > * \en if the former j and the thing coneeiv.-ible. here no instance of it : for " -f " here modi' ijecMve. o r adverh. 'i'he i-.-nsntiction i> .in nn) -narl, whieh no irratnmarian should h . cai-h he C.M Sa\ kfy made \\ instriunent: (.bird, tne foin rli, and ' ii,r fifth, tfi'y :< _!it." ooii dit'ippmr'!/ iii the d.irkness of tl )( . niiht." lb-r la pu/./le> his pup : which half justifies nnd half c. ., School Gram. 1st Ed. p. : S There are som*. verbs whie ; trinitiv<-ly or inr- iril! rrtitrn in ' He trill return the J,ok.' " /'-. |> 1-17 : !"/'> : .Sec. According to Dr. Johnson, ti. and Lindley Murray a^.-erts it of " mtm'i." There :ire, I thiiik, but feir which may >'t. in some | Other, be u.-*-d l.o-li w:i\s. 1 1 el ,ee t h^ T U le. " Tfn II > i : : ' ili'nit, - vern rhc o 1 on |\ upon a Jistiiictiou which. itself creates, between transitive.* and intransitive.* ; and therefore it amounts to little. 32 me; 498 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III- Tooke and Webster must resort to more than one imaginary ellipsis, and to such an inversion as will scarcely leave the sense in sight. OBS. 7. In some instances the action of a transitive verb gives to its direct object an additional name, which is also in the objective case, the two words being in apposition; as, "Thy saints proclaim thee king" Coicper. "And God called the firmament Heaven." Bible. "Ordering them to make themselves masters of a certain steep eminence." Rollin, ii, 67. And, in such a construction, the direct object is sometimes placed before the verb; though the name which results from the action, cannot be so placed : as, "And Simon he surnamed Peter." Mark, iii, 15. "Him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple of my God." Rev. iii, 12. Some grammarians seem not to have considered this phraseology as coming within the rule of apposi- tion. Thus Webster : " We have some verbs which govern two toorat in the objective case ; as, ' Did I request thee, maker, from my clay To mold me man ?' Milton, 10, 744. 'God seems to have made him what he was.' Life of Cowpcr."* Philosophical Gram. p. 170; Improved Gram. p. 120. See also Weld's Gram. 2d Ed. p. 154; "Abridged Ed." p. 119; and Foivler's E. Gram. 450. So Murray : " Some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the ob- jective case ; as, ' The Author of my being formed me man.' * They desired me to call them brethren.' ' He seems to have made him whathe was.'" Octavo Gram. p. 183. Yet this latter writer says, that in the sentence, " They appointed me executor" and others like it, " the verb to be is understood." Ib. p. 182. These then, according to his own showing, are instances of ap- position ; but I pronounce them such, without either confounding same cases with apposition, or making'the latter a species of ellipsis. See Obs. 1st and 2d, under Rule 3d. OBS. 8. In general, if not always, when a verb is followed by two objectives which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction, one of them is governed by a preposition under- stood ; as, " I paid [to] him the money." " They offered [to] me a seat." " He asked [of] them the question." "I yielded, and unlock'd [to] her all my heart." Milton. In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nomi- native ; as, "He was paid the money" in stead of, " The money was paid [to] him" "I was offered a seat," in stead of, "A seat was offered [to] me." This kind of error is censured by Murray more than once, and yet he himself has, in very many instances, fallen into it. His first criticism on it, is in the following words : " We sometimes meet with such expressions as these : ' They were asked a question ; ' * They were offered a pardon ; ' ' He had been left a great estate by his father.' In these phrases, verbs passive are made to govern the objective case. This license is not to be approved. The expressions should be : 'A question was put to them ; ' 'A pardon was offered to them;' 'His father left him a great estate.'" L. Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 183 See Obs. 12, below. OBS. 9. In the Latin syntax, verbs of asking and teaching are said to govern two accusatives ; as, "Posce Deum veniam, Beg pardon of God." Grant's Latin Gram. p. 207. "Docuit me gram- maticam, He taught me grammar." Grant, Adam, and others. And again: " When a verb in the active voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains the latter case ; as, Doceor grammaticam I am taught grammar." Adam's Gram. p. 177. These writers however suggest, that in reality tht latter accusative is governed, not by the verb, but by a preposition understood. In general the English idiom does not coincide with what occurs in Latin under these rules. We commonly insert a preposition to govern one or the othe? of the terms. But we sometimes leave to the verb the objective of the person, and sometimes that of the thing; and after the two verbs ask and teach, we sometimes seem to leave both : as, "When thou dost-ask me blessing, I'll kneel down, thy children." Ib. vi, 7. " Ye shall teach them your children." Ib. xi, 19. " Shall any teach God knowledge?" Job, nxi, 22. " I will teoeA you the fear of the Lord." Psal. xxxiv, 11. "He will teach us of his ways." Isaiah, ii, 3; Micah, iv, 2. "Let him that is taught in the word, communicate." Gal. vi, 6. OBS. 10. After a careful review of the various instances in which more than one noun or pro- noun may possibly be supposed to be under the government of a single active verb in English, I incline to the opinion that none of our verbs ought to be parsed as actually governing two cases, except such as are followed by two objectives connected by a conjunction. Consequently I do not admit, that any passive verb can properly govern an objective noun or pronoun. Of the ancient Saxon dative case, and of what was once considered the government of two cases, there yet appear some evident remains in our language ; as, " Give him bread to eat." " Bread shall be given him" Bible. But here, by almost universal consent, the indirect object is referred to the " preposition understood ; " and in many instances this sort of ellipsis is ( government of a " preposition understood ; " and in many tainly no elegance : as, " Give \to] truth and virtue the sat falsehood, and the former are likely to prevail." Blair's Rhet. p. 235 tainly no elegance: as, " Give \to~\ truth and virtue the same arms which you give [to] vice and "35. The questionable expres- * To these examples, Webster adds two others, of a different sort, with a comment, thus : " 'Ask him his opin- ion ; ' ' You have asked me the nnvs.' 1 Will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical, for ' ask of him his opinion? ' I apprehend this to be a mistake. According to the true idea of the government of a transitive verb, him must be the object in the phrase under consideration, as much as in this, 'Ask him for a guinea ; ' or in this, 'ask him to go.' " Ibid, ut supra; Frnzee^x Gram. p. 152 ; Fowler's, p. 480. If, for the reason here stated it is a " mistake " to supply o/in the foregoing instances, it does not follow that they are not elliptical. On the con- trary, if they are analagous to, "Ask him/or a guinea ; " or, "Ask him to go ; " it is manifest that the construction must be this : "Ask him [ for} his opinion ; " or, "Ask him [to tell} his opinion." So that the question resolves itself into this: What is the best way of supplying the ellipsis, when two objectives thus occur after ask? Q. BROWN. CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 499 sion, "Ask tneblesfiina" if interpreted analogically, must mean, "Ask fur me a blessing," which, is more correct and explicit ; or, if me be not supposed a dative, (ami it does not appear to be so, above,) the sent once is still wrong, and the correction must be, "Ask of me a blessing," or "Ask tni/ blessing." So, "Ask your master /cure,'" ought rather to be, "Ask o/' your master leave," "Ask vour master for leave," or, "Ask your matter's leave." The example from Mark ought to be. " they asked htm about the parable." Again, the elliptical sentence, "Teach them thy sons," is less perspicuouft, and therefore less accurate, than the full expression, " Teach them to thy sons." Totetre/i is to tell things to persons, or to instruct persons i,t things; to ask is to request or demand things of or from persons, or to interrogate or solicit persons about or for things. These verbs cannot be proved to govern two cases in English, because it is more analogical and more reasonable to supply a preposition, (if the author omits it,) to govern one or the other of the olr OHS. 11. Some writers erroneously allow passive verbs to govern the objective in English, not only where they imagine our idiom to coincide with the Latin, but even where they know that it does not. Thus Dr. Crombie : " Whatever is put in the accusative case after the" verb, must be the nominative to it in the passive voice, while the other case is retained under the government of the verb, and cannot become its nominative. Thus, ' I persuade you to this or of this,' Per- 11 ere. the person persuaded is expressed in the dative case, and cannot, there- fore, be the nominative to the passive verb. We must, therefore, say, Hoc tibi per stiadetur, ' You arc persuaded of this ;' not, TwperMMuferi*. He trusted me tcith this affair,' or ' He believed me in this,' Hoc mihi credidit. Passively, Hoc tnilii creditum est. ' I told you this,' ]1<>r tibi. di.ri. ' Yor YVEUE TOLD THIS,' Hoc tibi diction' cxt ; not, Tudictus es." [No, surely : for, ' Tu diet uses,' means, ' You were called,' or, 'Thou art reputed; ' and, if followed by any case, it must be the nominative.'} " It is the more necessary to attend to this rule, and to these distinctions, as the idioms of the two languages do not always concur. Thus, Hoc tibi dictum cxt, means not only ' This was told to you,' but ' You WERE TOLD THIS.' Liber miMapctirtpromusiu eat, means both ' A book was promised (to) me by my father,' and ' I WAS PROMISED A BOOK.' Is primhm roaattis <,s7 s,-nf<>ntiain, ' He was first asked t /b/- his opinion,' and ' An opinion was first asked of him ; ' in which last the accusative of the person becomes, in Latin, the nominative in the passive voice." Sec (iranfs Latin (tram. p. 210. Os. VI. Murray's second censure upon passive government, is this: "The following sen- tences, which give [to] the passive voice the regimen of an active verb, are very irreaular, and by tto means to n, nnitnl'd. ' The bishops and abbots were allowed tlteir seats in the house of lords.' * Thrasea trus forbidden (In- presence of the emperor.' ' He was shown that very story in one of his own books.'* These sentences should have been; ' The bishops and abbots were allowed to /nrre (or to take) their seats in the house of lords ; ' or, ' Seats in the house of lords were allowed to the bishops and abbots : ' ' Thrasea was forbidden to approach the presence of the emperor ; ' or, ' The presence of the emperor was forbidden to Thrasea : ' ' That very story was shown to him in one of his own books.' " Octavo (train, p. 223. See Obs. 8, above. One late grammarian, whose style is on the whole highly commendable for its purity and accuracy, forbears to condemn the phraseology here spoken of; and, though he does not expressly defend and justify it, he seems disposed to let it pass, with the license of the following canon. "For convenience, it may be well to state it as a rule, that I'assirc verbs (jovern an ob/eef/re, wJicn tJie -nominative to the is not the proper object of tit e (ftive voice." Barnard's Analytic Gram. p. 134. An oilier asserts the government of two cases by very many of our active verbs, and the government of one by almost any passive verb, according to the following rules : " Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others of a. similar nature, govern two objectives, the one of a person and the other of a thing ; as, lie taught ////; <: ram mar : Bis tutor gave /'///* a lesson : lie promised me a reward, \ passive verb may govern an objective, when the words immediately preceding and following it, do not refer to the" same thing ; as, Henry was offered a (foliar by his father to induce him to remain." J. M. Putnam's (Irani, pp. 110 and 112. 13. The common dogmas, that an active verb must govern an object, and that a neuter or intransitive verb must not, amount to nothing as directions to the composer; because the at ion of verbs depends upon this very matter, whether they have, or have not, an object after them; and no general principle his been, or can be, furnished beforehand, by which their or unfitncss for taking such go\ eminent can be determined. This must depend upon must conform to the sense intended. Very many verbs probablv avastmajor- vern an ol -it not always: many that are commonly intransitive or neuter, are not in all thei :nl many that are commonly transitive, have sometimes no apparent n. The distinction, then, in our dictionaries, of verbs active and neuter, or transitive and fly any other purpose, than to show how the presence or absence of the object L In some instances the signification of the verb nlmost merged in that of its object; as, to I use, to lake care. In others, the transitive character of the word is partial ; as, ' He /t ri/d my board ; I told yon so." Some will goM-rn any object;-. .,<, ( mmtion. What is there that cannot be named or mention n are restricted to one noun, or to a few; as, to transgress a \ rule. "NVhatca: 1, but a law, a limit, or something equivalent?' Some Miu, or its pronoun, but scarcely any other; as, "He lived a vir- '//;." "Hear, 1 ;>rav you, this dream -which I bare dreunii'd." 1 Gen. XXXvii, 6. "I will also OOHUnand the clouds that th< :, >n it." Jsuinh, v, ('. Ur.s. 11. Our grammarians, when they conic to determine what verbs are properly transitive, and what are not so, do not in all instances aurce in opinion. In short, plain as they think the matter, they arc much at odds. Many of them say, that, "In the phrases, ' To dream a dream,' * Thcw examples Murray borrowed from Wrhsf.-r. who pnl.Iished them, withr. fences, under his 34th Rule. "With MO little t'.iirli in tin- oorrtt-tive power of ^niniinar. t!. upon the construction as follows: u This idiom is outrageously anomalous, but perhaps incorrigible.'' Wtbster'f Plulos. Gram. p. 180 ; Imp. Gr. 128. 500 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. ' To live a virtuous life,' ' To run a race,' ' To walk a horse,' ' To dance a child,' the verbs assume a transitive character, and in these cases may be denominated active." See Guy's Gram. p. 21 ; Murray's, 180 ; IngersolVs, 183 ; Fisk's, 123 ; Smith's, 153. This decision is undoubtedly just ; yet a late writer has taken a deal of pains to find fault with it, and to persuade his readers, that, " No verb is active in any sense, or under any construction, that will not, in every sense, permit the objec- tive case of a personal pronoun after it." Wright's Gram. p. 174. Wells' absurdly supposes, "An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective." Gram. p. 145. Some imagine that verbs of mental action, such as conceive, think, believe, &c., are not properly transitive; and, if they find an object after such a verb, they choose to supply a preposition to govern it : as, " I conceived it (of it) in that light." Guy's Gram. p. 21. " Did you conceive (of)"him to be me ? " Ib. p. 28. With this idea, few will probably concur. OBS. 15. We sometimes find the pronoun me needlessly thrown in after a verb that either governs some other object or is not properly transitive, at least in respect to this word ; as, " It ascends me into the brain; dries me there all the foolish, dull, and crudy vapours." Shakspeare's Falstaff. " Then the vital commoners and inland petty spirits muster me all to their captain, the heart." Id. This is a faulty relic of our old Saxon dative case. So of the second person : " Fare you well, Falstaff." Shak. Here you was written for the objective case, but it seems now to have become the nominative to the verb fare. "Fare thee well." W. Scott. "Farewell to thee." Id. These expressions were once equivalent in syntax ; but they are hardly so now ; and, in lieu of the former, it would seem better English to say, " Fare thou well." Again : " Turn thee aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay thee hold on one of the young men, and take thee his armour." 2 Sam. ii, 21. If any modern author had written this, our critics would have guessed he had learned from some of the Quakers to misemploy thee for thou. The construction is an imitation of the French reciprocal or reflected verbs. It ought to be thus: "Turn thou aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay hold on one of the young men, and take to thyself his armour." So of the third person : " The king soon found reason to repent him of his pro- voking such dangerous enemies." HUME : Murray's Gram, i, p. 180. Here both of the pronouns are worse than useless, though Murray discerned but one error. " Good Margaret, run thee into the parlour ; There thou shalt find my cousin Beatrice." SHAK. : Much Ado. NOTES TO RULE V. NOTE I. Those verbs or participles which require a regimen, or which signify action that must terminate transitively, should not be used without an object ; as, "She affects [kindness,] in order to ingratiate [herself] with you." "I must caution [you,] at the same time, against a servile imitation of any author whatever." Blair's Met. p. 192. NOTE II. Those verbs and participles which do not admit an object, or which express action that terminates in themselves, or with the doer, should not be used transitively; as, " The planters grow cotton." Say raise, produce, or cultivate. " Dare you speak lightly of the law, or move that, in a criminal trial, judges should advance one step beyond what it permits them to go?" Blair's llhet. p. 278. Say, " beyond the point to which it permits them to go." NOTE III. No transitive verb or participle should assume a government to which its own meaning is not adapted ; as, "Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun personal, it personates 'man.'" Kirkham's Gram. p. 131. Say, " It rep- resents man." "Where a string of such sentences succeed each other." Blairs JKhet. p. 168. Say, " Where many such sentences come in succession." NOTE IV. The passive verb should always take for its subject or nominative the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which it is derived ; as, (Active,) " They denied me this privilege." (Passive,) " This privilege was denied me;" not, "JT was denied this privilege : " for me may be governed by to understood, but privilege cannot, nor can any other regimen be found for it. NOTE V. Passive verbs should never be made to govern the objective case, be- cause the receiving of an action supposes it to terminate on the subject or nominative.* Errors: "Sometimes it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis." L. Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 197. Say, " Sometimes it is used" &c. " His female * This seems to be a reasonable principle of syntax, and yet I find it contradicted, or a principle opposite to it set up, by some modern teachers of note, who venture to justify all those abnormal phrases which I here condemn as errors. Thus Fowler : " Note 5. When a Verb with its Accusative case, is equivalent to a fingle verb, it may take this accusative after it in the passive voice ; as, ' This has been pvt an end toS " Fowler's English Language, 8vo, 552. Now what is this, but an effort to teach bad English by rule? and by such a rule, too, as is vastly- more general than even the great class of terms which it was designed to include ? And yet this rule, broad as it is, does not apply at all to the example given ! For ''put an end." without the important word " /o," is not equiv- alent to stop or terminate. Nor is the example right. One ought rather to say, " This has been ended; " or, " This has been stopped." See the marginal Note to Obs. 5th, above. In, su I T) CIIAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. EURO US. 501 characters have been found fault with as insipid." HazlitCs Led. p. 111. Say, " have been censured ; or, " have been blamed, decried, dispraised, or condemned." NOTE VI. The perfect participle, as such, should never be made to govern any objective term ; because, without an active auxiliary, its signification is almost always passive : as, " We shall set down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary sounds." L. Murray's Gram. p. 5 ; Fish's, 34. Say, " the charac- ters employed, or used." NOTE VII. As the different cases in English are not always distinguished by their form, care must be taken lest their construction be found equivocal, or am- biguous ; as, "And we shall always find our sentences acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched." Blair's Rhet. p. 111. Say, " We shall always find that our sentences acquire more vigour," &c. ; or, "We shall always find our sentences to acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched." NOTE VIII. In the language of our Bible, rightly quoted or printed, ye is not found in the objective case, nor you in the nominative ; scriptural texts that preserve not this distinction of cases, are consequently to be considered inaccurate. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. THE OBJECTIVE FORM. " Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ! " Spectator, No. 32. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun who is in the nominative case, and is used as the object of the art i vi!- transitive verb should men. But, according to Kulc 5th, '" A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active- f.r.in-irive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Therefore, who should be whom; thus, " \Ynoin should i meet," &.C.] " Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but he that takes it off." Barclay's Works, " Let none touch it, but they who are clean." Sale's Koran, 95. "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein." Psalms, xcviii, 7. " Pray be private, and careful who you trust." Mrs. Gojfes Letter. " How shall the people know who to entrust with their property and their liberties?" District School, p. 301. " The chaplain entreated my comrade and I to dress as well as possible." World Displayed, i, 163. " He that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out." Tract, No. 3, p. 6. " Who, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke." Hope of Israel, p. 84. Whoever or whatever owes us, is Debtor; whoever or whatever we owe, is Creditor." Ii iok-Ki-i j>inij, p. 23. "Declaring the curricle was his, and he should have ho he chose in it." Anna lioss, p. 147. "The fact is, Burke is the only one of all the o>t of brilliant contemporaries who we can rank as a first-rate orator." The Knickerbocker, Mai/, 1833. " Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the M it' our time." Browns Estimate, ii, 53. "They would rind in the Roman list both the Scipio's." lb. ii, 70. "He found his wife's clothes on fire, and she just ex- piring." Xeir-York Observer. "To present ye holy, unblameable, and unreproveable in iit." Jiurclui/'ji Works, i, 353. "Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence ; he who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness." st uur('s ]{in-ni\, xii, 9. "If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, who will they inindr" Collier's Antoninus, p. 106. "He having none but them, they having none but hee." Di; I -'iiolhion. "Thou, nature, partial nature, I arraign ! Of thy caprice maternal I complain." Burns's Poems, p. 50. "Nor knows he who it is his arms pursue With eager clasps, but loves he knows not who." Addison's, p. 218. I'NDKR NOTE I. OF VERBS TRANSITIVE. " When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction." L. Murray's Gram. p. llf>. "Though thou wilt not acknowledge, thou canst not deny the fact." Murray's Key, p. 209. " They specify, like many other adjectives, andtvwmr/ sentences." Kirkhams dram. p. 1 11. " The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences." Murray's (iru/n. p. o!2. "A few l'.j-,'reim-s are subjoined to each important definition, for him to practice, upon as he proceeds in commit- ing." A 'n't in'/' .v dram. 3d Ed. p. vii. "A verb signifying actively governs the accusative." ''.v <;ru/n.p. 171 ; (i'l.rJ.i"*, 17_; Ci rant's, 199; and others. "Or, any word that will conjugate, is a verb." Kirk hum's dram. p. 11. " In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to finish, appears to write rather carelessly." Blair s Rhet. p. 216. 502 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then finishes." Ib. p. 306. " Praise to God teaches to be humble and lowly ourselves." ATTEKBURY : ib. p. 304. " This author has endeavored to surpass." Green's Inductive Gram. p. 54. " Idleness and plezure fateeg az soon az bizziness." Noah Webster's Essays, p. 402. "And, in conjugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied." Kirkham's Gram. p. 140. " He said Virginia would have emancipated long ago." The Liberator, ix, 33. "And having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience." 2 Cor. x, 6. " However, in these cases, custom generally determines." Wright's Gram. p. 50. " In proof, let the fol- lowing cases demonstrate." Ib. p. 46. " We must surprise, that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles." Ib. p. 147. " How should we surprise at the expression, This is a soft question ! ' " Ib. p. 219. "And such as prefer, can parse it as a possessive adjective." Goodenow's Gram. p. 89. " To assign all the reasons, that induced to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity." Alexander's Gram. p. 4. " The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares." Farnum's Gram. p. 33. UNDER NOTE II. OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE. " In his seventh chapter he expatiateth himself at great length." Barclay's Works, iii, 350. "He quarrelleth my bringing some testimonies of antiquity, agreeing with what I say." Ib. iii, 373. " liepenting him of his design." Humes Hist, ii, 56. " Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail of operating the most dangerous efFects."- II). ii, 165. "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." Macaulay's Hist, iii, 177. "He is always master of his subject; and seems to play himself with it." Blair's Rhet. p. 445. "But as soon as it comes the length of disease, all his secret infirmities shew themselves." Ib. p. 256. "No man repented him of his wicked- ness." Jeremiah, viii, 6. " Go thee one way or other, either on the right hand, or on the left." Ezekiel, xxi, 16. " He lies him down by the rivers side." Walker's Particles, p. 99. " My desire has been for some years past, to retire myself to some of our American plan- tations." Coicley's Pref. to his Poems, p. vii. "I fear me thou wilt shrink from the payment of it." Zenobia, i, 76. " We never recur an idea, without acquiring some com- bination." Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. xxxii. " Yet more ; the stroke of death he must abide, Then lies him meekly down fast by his brethren's side." Milton. UNDER NOTE III. OF VERBS MISAPPLIED. " A parliament forfeited all those who had borne arms against the king." Hume's Hist, ii., 223. " The practice of forfeiting ships which had been wrecked." Ib. i, 500. "The nearer his military successes approached him to the throne." Ib. v. 383. " In the next example, you personifies ladies, therefore it is plural." Kirkham's Gram. p. 103. "The first its per- sonates vale ; the second its represents stream." Ib. p. 103. " Pronouns do not always avoid the repetition of nouns." Ib. p. 96. "Very is an adverb of comparison, it compares the adjective good." Ib. p. 88. " You will please to commit the following paragraph." Ib. p. 140. "Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses." Murray's Gram. p. 100. "The deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses." Ib. p. 100. "I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has done since." Ib. p. 145. "A uniform variety assumes as many set forms as Proteus had shapes." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 72. "When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession." Nixon's Parser, p. 57. "Where such sentences frequently succeed each other." L. Murray's Gram. p. 349. " Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper." Blairs Rhet. p. 99 ; Murray's Gram, i, 303. " Jul. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague ? Rom. Neither, fair saint, if either thee dislike." Shak. UNDER NOTE IV. OF PASSIVE VERBS. "We too must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws." L. Murray's Gram. p. 134. " For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet," kc.Ib. p. 259; Kirkham's Elocution, 143; Jamieson's Rhet. 310. "By what code of morals am I denied the right and privilege ? " Dr. Bartlett's Lect. p. 4. " The children of Israel have alone been denied the possession of it." Keith's Evidences, p. 68. "At York fifteen hundred Jews were refused all quarter." Ib. p. 73. "He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided he was paid fifty-five dollars in advance." Chazotte's Essay, p. 4. "And when he was demanded of the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come." Luke, xvii, 20. "I have been shown a book." Campbell's Rhet. p. 392. "John Home Tooke was refused admission only because he had been in holy orders." Diversions of Purley, i, 60. " Mr. Home Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar." Churchill's Gram. p. 145. "Its reference to place is lost sight of." Bullions' s E. Gram. p. 116. " What striking lesson are we taught bythe tenor of this history ? " Bush's Questions, p. 71. " He had been left, by a friend, no less than eighty thousand pounds." Priestley's Gram. p. 112. " Whtere there are many things to be done, each must be allowed CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE V. OBJECTIVES. ERRORS. 503 its share of time and labour." Johnsons Prcf. to Diet. p. xiii. " Presenting the subject in a far more practical form than it has been heretofore given." Kirk/tarn's Phrenology, p. v. "If a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies." Scott's Pref. to Bible, p. vii. " He was ottered the command of the British army." Grimshaw's Hist. p. 81. " Who had been unexpectedly left a considerable sum." Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. " Whether a maid or a widow may be granted such a privilege." Spectator, Xo. 536. "Happily all these affected terms have been denied the public suffrage." Campbell's Rhet. p. 199. " Let him next be shewn the parsing table." Nutting's Gram. p. viii. "Thence, he may be shown the use of the Analyzing Table." Ib. p. ix. "Pittacus was offered a great sum of money." Sanborn's Gram. p. 228. " He had been allowed more time for study." Ib. p. 229. "If the walks were a little taken care of that lie between them." Addison, Spect. Xo. 414. " Suppose I am offered an office or a bribe." Pierpont's Discourse, Jan. 27, 1839. "Am I one chaste, one last embrace deny'd ? Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side r " Eowes Lucan, B. ix, 1. 103. UNDER XOTE V. PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE. " The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion." Murray's Gram. p. 203 ; Ingersoll's, 231 ; Greenleaf's, 35 ; Fish's, 1 lo ; Smith's, 170; Guy's, 90; Foicler's, 555. "They were refused entrance into the house." Murray's Key, ii, 204. "Their separate signification has been lost sight of." Home Tooke, ii, 422. " But, whenever ye is made use of, it must be in the nominative, and never in the objective, case." Cobbett's Gram. If 58. " It is said, that more persons than one are paid handsome salaries, for taking care to see acts of parliament properly worded." f'/turrhi/l's Gram. p. 334. "The following Rudiments of English Grammar, have been made use of in the University of Pennsylvania." DR. ROGERS : in Harrison's Gram. p. 2. " It never should be lost sight of." Xcicman's Rhetoric, p. 19. "A very curious fact hath been taken notice of by those expert metaphysicians." Campbell's Rhet. p. 281. "The archbishop interfered that Michelet's lectures might be put a stop to." The Friend, ix, 378. "The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely put an end to." Daily Advertiser. '.;ose that are taken notice of in these exceptions." Priestley's Gram. p. 6. "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are made use of." Ib. p. 24. "The arguments which have been made use of." Addi.ion's 1-A-idences, p. 32. "The circumstance is properly taken notice of by the author." Blair's Rhet. p. 217. "Patagonia has never been taken posses- sion of by any European nation." Cumming's Geog. p. 62. " He will be found fault withal no more, i. e. not hereafter." Walker s Particles, p. 226. " The thing was to be put an end to somehow." Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 15. "In 1798, the Papal Territory was taken pos- session of by the French." Pinnock's Geog. p. 223. " The idea has not for a moment been :ht of by the Board." Common School Journal, i, 37. " I shall easily be excused the labour of more transcription." Johnsons Life of Dryden. "If I may be allowed that ex- ::." ('amji'fi il'.-i Itlttt. p. 259, and 288. "If without offence I may be indulged the observation." Ib. p. 295. " There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition." Murray's Gram. p. 281; Ingersolfs, 293. "Such unaccountable in- firmities might 1)0 in many, perhaps in most, cases got the better of." Beattie's Moral Science, i, 1 >'',. " Which ought never to be had recourse to." 76. i, 186. " That the widows may be taken care of." B-u; './;/' \ Works, i, 499. "Other cavils will yet be taken notice of." /' . " Which implies, that all Christians are offered eternal salva- tion." West's Letters, p. 119. " Yet even the dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from their ; ihle." dunpfn '" M-tff. xv, 27. "For we say the light within must be taken hoed unto." Barclay's U'wAv, i, 148. "This sound of a is taken notice of in Steele's ( irammar." II . . . One came to be paid ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles." c n(, p. 104. "Let him, therefore, be carefully shewn the application of the several questions in the table." Xutti/tf/'s dram. p. 8. "After a few time-, it is no In D notice of by the hearers." Sheridan's Lect. p. 182. "It will not admit of the >r be allowed the same indulgence, by people of any dis- """'"" Ibid. "Inanimate thing* may be made property of." Baattfe't M. N /. p*. 355. "And, when he's bid a lil>eraller pri<-e, Will not be sluggish in the work, nor nice." Butler's Poems, p. 162. Vxi>: . r PARTIC: "All the words made use of to denote spiritual and intellectual things, are in their origin metaphors." Cm >'> "A tepl] _ument commonly made use of ')y unbelievers." Hi. tofore the only form made use of in i he preter tenses." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 47. " Of the points, and other characters made ise of in writing." Ib. p. xv. "It" thy be the personal pronoun made use of." W'alkcr's unction is a word made use of to connect sentences." Burn' a Gram. p. The {joints made u-e t' to answer tb > are the four following." Harrison's p. 07. "Incense signifies perfumes exhaled by fire, and made use of in religious THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GEAMMAKS. [PART III. ceremonies." Murray's Key, p. 171. " In most of his orations, there is too much art ; even carried the length of ostentation." Blair's Rhet. p. 246. " To illustrate the great truth, so often lost sight of in our times." Common School Journal, i, 88. " The principal figures, made use of to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Imprecation." Formey's Belles- Lettres, p. 133. " Disgusted at the odious artifices made use of by the Judge." Junius, p. 13. "The whole reasons of our being allotted a condition, out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise." Butler's Analogy, p. 109. " Some characteristic al circumstance being generally invented or laid hold oL"Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 246. "And by is likewise us'd with Names that shew The Means made use of, or the Method how." Ward's Gram. p. 105. UNDER NOTE VII. CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS. " Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison as well as adjectives." Priestley's Gram, p. 133. "But the author, who, by the number and reputation of his works, formed our language more than any one, into its present state, is Dryden." Blair's Rhet. p. 180. "In some States, Courts of Admiralty have no juries, nor Courts of Chancery at all." Web- ster's Essays, p. 146. " I feel myself grateful to my friend." Murray's Key, p. 276. " This requires a writer to have, himself, a very clear apprehension of the object he means to present to us." Blair's Rhet. p. 94. " Sense has its own harmony, as well as sound." Ib. p. 127. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i which was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word." Priestley's Gram. p. 67. "There are few, whom I can refer to, with more advantage than Mr. Addison." Blair's RJiet. p. 139. " DEATH, in theology, [is a] perpetual separation from God, and eternal torments." Web- ster's Diet. " That could inform the traveler as well as the old man himself ! " O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 345. UNDER NOTE VIII. YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE. " Ye daughters of Rabbah, gird ye with sackcloth." ALGER'S BIBLE : Jer. xlix, 3. " Wash ye, make you clean." Brown's Concordance, w. Wash. "Strip ye, and make ye bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins." ALGER'S BIBLE: Isaiah, xxxii, 11. "You are. not ashamed that you make yourselves strange to me." FRIENDS' BIBLE : Job, xix, 3. " You are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me." ALGER'S BIBLE : ib. " If you knew the gift of God." Brown's Concordance, 10. Kneiv. " Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity, I know ye not." Peningtons Works, ii, 122. RULE VI. SAME CASES. A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing : at, "It is /." " These are they: 1 "The child was named John." " It could not be he." " The Lord sitteth King forever." Psalms > xxix, 10. " What war could ravish, commerce could bestow, And he return'd a friend, who came a foe" Pope, Ep. iii, 1. 20(>. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VI. OBS. 1. Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pluperfect participles, always govern the objective case ; but active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their participles, take the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing. The latter are rightly supposed not to govern* any case; nor are they in general followed by any noun or pronoun. But, because they are not transitive, same of them become connectives to such words as are in the same case and signify the same thing. That is, their finite tenses may be followed by a nom- inative, and their infinitives and participles by a nominative or an objective, agreeing with a noun or a pronoun which precedes them. The cases are the same, because the person or thing is one ; as, "/ am he." " Thou art Peter." " Civil government being the sole object of forming societies, its administration must be conducted by common consent." Jefferson's Notes, p. 129. Identity is both the foundation and the characteristic of this construction. We chiefly use it to affirm or deny, to suggest or question, the sameness of things; but sometimes figuratively, to illustrate the relations of persons or things by comparison : f as, "/ am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman." John, xv, 1. "/ am the vine, ye are the branches." John, \\, 5. Even the names of direct opposites, are sometimes put in the same case, under this rule; as, " By such a change thy darkness is made light, Thy chaos order, and thy toeakness might." Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88. OBS. 2. In this rule, the terms after and preceding refer rather to the order of the sense and construction, than to the mere placing of the words ; for the words in fact admit of various posi- * Some, however, have conceived the putting of the Fame case after the verb as before it, to be government ; as, " Neuter verbs occasionally govern either the nominative or [the] objective case, after them." Alexander's Gram. p. 54. " The verb to be, always governs a Nominative, unless it be of the Infinitive Mood." Buchanan's Gram. p. 94. This latter assertion is, in fact, monstrously untrue, and also solecistical. f Not unfrequently the conjunction as intervenes between these " same cases," as it may also between words m apposition ; as, " He then is as the head, and we as the members : he the vine, and we the branches." Barclay'* Works, Vol. ii, p. 139. CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE VI. SAME CASES. OBSERVATIONS. 505 tions. The proper subject of the verb is the nominative to it, or before it, by Rule 2d ; and the other nominative, however planed, is understood to be that which comes after it, by Rule 6th. In general, however, the proper subject precedes the verb, and the other word follows it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But when the proper subject is placed after the verb, as in cer- uc " the contrary, there is a transposition of the entire lines, and the verb agrees with the two nomi- natives in the latter : " To thee were solemn toys or empty show, The robes of pleasure and the veils of wo." Dr. Johnson. Ons. 3. In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed,* or both are placed after the verb ; as, "Am / a Jeio f " John, xviii, 35. "Art thou a king then ? " Ib. ver. 37. " What is truth f " Ib. ver. 38. " Who art thouf" Ib. i, 19. "Art thou Elias? " Ib. i, 21. "Tellme, Alciphron, is not distance a line turned endwise to the eye ? " Berkley's Dialogues, p. 161. " Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ? " Milton. " Art thou that traitor angel f art thou he / " Idem. OBS. 4. In a declarative sentence also, there may be a rhetorical or poetical transposition of one or both of the terms; as, "And I thy victim now remain." Francis's Horace, ii, 4-3. ''To thy own dogs a prey thou shalt be made." Pope's Homer. " I was eyes to the blind, &nd. feet was / to the lame." Job, xxix, 15. " Far other scene is Thrasymene now." Byron. In the following sentence, the latter term is palpably misplaced : " It does not clearly appear at first what tin- antecedent is to they." Blair's Rhet. p. 218. Say rather : " It does not clearly appear at first, trh'tt is tJtc antecedent to [the pronoun] they." In examples transposed like the following, there is an elegant ellipsis of the verb to which the pronoun is nominative ; as, am, art, &c. :ien pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou." Scott's Marmion. " The forum's champion, and the people's chief, Her new born Xuma thou with reign, alas! too brief." Byron. " For this commission'd, I forsook the sky X:ty, cease to kneel thy fellow-servant I." Parnell. OBS. 5. In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before the verb ; as, " I know not who sin- is." " Who did you say it was ? " " I know not how to tell thee who /am." i. " Inquire thou whose son the stripling is." 1 Sam. xvii, 06. " Man would not be the creature which he now is." Blair. " I could not guess who it should be." Addison. And they uetimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or transposition ; as, " Yet he it is." Yuuny. ntemptible orator he was." Dr. Blair. "He it is to whom I shall give a sop." John, xiii, 2'5. "And a very noble personage Cato is." Blair's Rhet. p. 457. "Clouds they are without ter." Jurte, 12. " Of worm or serpent kind it something looked, ^^^^^^^^B But monstrous, with a thousand snaky heads." Pollok, B. i, 1. 183. OBS. 6. As infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own, such of them as are not transitive in their nature, may take different cases after them ; and, in order to determine what case it is that follows them, the learner must carefully observe what preceding word denotes me person or thing, and apply the principle of the rule accordingly. This word being often remote, and sometimes understood, the sense is the only clew to the construction. Exam- ples : " Who then can bear the thought of being an outcast from his presence ? " Addison. Here ..ill who, and not with thought, "/cannot help being so passionate an admirer ;i> 1 HMI." >'.'/,-. Hi-re admirer agrees with /. " To recommend ichat the soberer part of man- kind look upon to be a trifle." St<->-lc. Here trifle agrees with ic/tnt as relative, the objective :ld be a romantic madness, for a man to be a lord in his closet." Id. In the nominative ease, agreeing with it ; and lord, in the objective, agreeing with mnn. "To alfect to br a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness." In this sen- tence also, lord is in the objective, after to be ; and madness, in the nominative, after would be. //Hits ! ' if that will not do, , and be Odd you." J'upr, B. ii, Ep. ii, 143. 7. An active intransitive or a neuter participle in ing, when governed by a preposition, wed by a noun or a pronoun the case of which depends not on the preposition, but on the case which i^oes before. Example: "The Jews were in a particular manner ridiculed for a credulous " ! J ,! e j s in the nominative case, " The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being a credulous people." Here people is in the object \ the preceding noun Jcirs is so. In both instances the preposition/ I the participle being, and nothing else. " The atrocious crime of :iull neither attempt to palliate- or deny." 1'rrr: llniiii>nx's /.'. Cram. p. 82 ; text, with "nor " "tor "or." Analiftiml drum. p. 190. This example has been erroneously cited, as one in which the case of the noun after the partici- ple is not detcnnint by its relation to any other word. Sanborn absurdly supposes it to be "in the noininutice independent." Bullions as strangely tells us, "it may correctly be called the -'Whose house is that?' This parwi, should be transposed : thu., ' Whoso is that house?' Tin- at a Miuilar omMruclion." (.'Imiuil'T's ole i\. scholar, as it it for him to be a yam> .v^r." " To be an eloquent speaker, in the proper sense of the word, is far from being a common or an easy attainment." Blair's Ehet. p. 3U7. Here attainment is in the nominative, after is or, rather, after hdny, for it follows both ; and speaker, in the objective after to he. " It is almost as hard a thing [for a man] to be a poet in despite of fortune, as it is [for one to be apoet] in despite of nature." Cotcley's Preface to his Poems, p. vii. Ons. 13. Where precision is necessary, loose or abstract infinitives are improper; as, " But to ? jirt-cise, signifies, that they express that idea, and no more." Blair's Rhet. p. 94; Murray'* C ra in, 301 ; JamiesoiCs Rhet. 64. Say rather : " But, /bran author's words to be precise, signifies, that they express his exact idea, and nothing more or less." OHS. 14. The principal verbs that take the same case after as before them, except those which are passive, are the following : to be, to stand, to sit, to lie, to live, to grow, to become, to turn, to commence, to die, to expire, to come, to go, to range, to wander, to return, to seem, to appear, to remain, to continue, to reign. There are doubtless some others, which admit of such a construc- tion ; and of some of these, it is to be observed, that they are sometimes transitive, and govern the objective : as, " To commence a suit." Johnson. " O continue thy loving kindness unto them." Ptalm, xxxvi, 10. "A feather will turn the scale." Shak. "Return him a trespass offering." 1 Strmut-/. " For it becomes me so to speak." Dryden. But their construction with like < easily distinguished by the sense; as, " When /commenced author, my aim was to amuse." /. ii, 286. "Men continue men's destroyers." Nixon's Parser, p. 56. " *Tis most just, that thou turn rascal." SHAK. Timon of Athens. " He went out mate, but he returned captain."' Murmy's dram. p. 182. "After this event he became physician to the king." Ib. That is, " When I began to be an author," &c. " Ev'n mean self-lore becomes, by force divine, The scale to measure others' wants by thine." Pope. Oiis. l->. The common instructions of our English grammars, in relation to the subject of the preceding rule, arc exceedingly erroneous and defective. For example : " The verb TO BIJ, has always a nominative case after it, ittueu it be in the infinitive mode." Lmrth'* Cram. p. 77. " The verb TO UK rc'/nires the same case after it as before it." Churchill's Gram. p. 142. " The verb TO BE, through all its variations, has the same case after it, expressed or understood, as that which next pre- r." Mui-ray's Cram. p. 181; Al;/cr\s,(52; Merchant's, 91 ; Putnam's, 116; Smith's, 97 ; and many others. " The verb TO BE has usually the same case after it, as that which immediately pre- cedes it." Hairs Cram. p. 31. ""Xeuter verbs have the same case after them, as that which next pre- cedes them." Fol/icr's Cram. p. 14. " Passive verbs which signify naminy, and others of a similar . have the same case before and after them." Murray's Gram. p. 182. " A Noun or Pro- noun used in predication with a verb, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES ' Thou art a ' It is /.' ' God is /ore.' " '. H*. Clark's Pract. Cram. p. 149. So many and monstrous are the faults of these rules, that nothing but very learned and reverend authority, could possibly impose such teaching anywhere. The first, though written by Lowth, is not a whit wiser, than to say, " The preposition to has always an infinitive mood aftefit, unless it be a preposition." And this latter absurdity is even a better rule for all infinitives, than the former for all predicated nom- inatives. Nor is there much more fitness in any of the rest. " The verb TO BE, through all," or vcn in "in/, of its parts, has neither "always" nor usually a case " expressed or understood " after it ; and, even when there is a noun or a pronoun put after it, the case is, in very many instances, not Luther, p. 13. " The devil otters his service ; he is sent with a positive commission to be a lying spirit in the mouth of all the prophet-;." Calrin's Institutes, p. 131. It is perfectly cer- tain that in these four texts, the words, sum, kin>/, reliance, and npirit, are iwmtitnticex, after the : participle; and not '/ they must be, if there were any truth in the common as- sertion, " that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always he alike." Smith's Xetc Cram. p. !S. Not only may the nominative before the verb he followed by an objective, but the nominative after it may" be preceded by a possessive ; mot, the herdsman of : not a prophet's son." " It'is the kiny's chapel, and it is v, vii, 13. How ignorant then must that person be, who cannot see the 1 ity of the instructions above cited! How careless the reader who overlooks it ! NOTES TO RULH VI. XOTK T. The putting of a noun in an unknown case after a participle or a par- ticipial noun, prudiuM.'.s an anomaly which it sec-ins better to avoid ; for the cases ought to be clear, even in exceptions to the common rules of construction. KxampK-s : 1. " WinowiiooD, n. The state oflnntj a widmr.^ JIVAx/r/.v Diet. Say rather, " WIDOWHOOD, n. The State of a widow." Julmson, H1///.-r, Worcester. (2.) "I had a suspicion of the fellow's being a swindler. 1 ' Say rather, " I had a suspicion in- lin-5 this conclusion : u Hence, in abridgim* the following proposition, ' T was not aware that it icux fit, 1 we *huulil suy'o/itj >- 1. p. 171. N nonn, no case after it appears f. be \>>ry yr]*'T ; but this author, thus u'm i-^m^ ' iur syllables into Jive, pro- duces an anomalous coustructiou which it would be much butter to avoid. 508 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. that the fellow was a swindler." (3.) " To prevent zVs being a dry detail of terms. " Buck. Better, " To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms."* NOTE II. The nominative which follows a verb or participle, ought to accord in signification, either literally or figuratively, with the preceding term which is taken for a sign of the same thing. Errors : (1.) "To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable." Blair's Rhet. p. 265. To be convicted of a crime, is not the crime itself; say, therefore, "Bribery was then a crime altogether unpardon- able." (2.) " The second person is the object of the Imperative." Murray's Gram. Index, ii, 292. Say rather, M The second person is the subject of the imperative ; " for the object of a verb is the word governed by it, and not its nominative. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI. UNDER, THE RULE ITSELF. OP PROPER IDENTITY. " Who would not say, ' If it be me,' rather than, If it be I? " Priestley's Gram. p. 105. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun me, which comes after the neuter verb be, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, the verb's nominative,! which refers to the same thing. But, according to Rule 6th, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Therefore, me should be I ; thus. " Who would not say. ' If it be /,' rather than, ' If it be me ? ' "] " Who is there ? It is me." Priestley, ib. p. 104. " It is him." Id. ib. 104. " Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes, they are them." Id. ib. 104. "It is not me you are in love with." Addison's Sped. No. 290 ; Priestley's Gram. p. 104 ; and Campbell's Rhet. p. 203. " It cannot be me." SWIFT : Priestley's Gram. p. 104. "To that which once was thee." PRIOR: ib. 104. "There is but one man that she can have, and that is me." CLARISSA: ib. 104. "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become, in some measure, him." ADAM SMITH : ib. p. 105. "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not thee." Shak. Timon. "He knew not whom they were." Milnes, Greek Gram. p. 234. "Who do you think me to be?" Priestley's Gram. p. 108. " Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am ?" Matt, xvi, 13. " But whom say ye that I am ? " Ib. xvi, 15. " Whom think ye that I am? I am not he." Acts, xiii, 25. "No; I am mistaken ; I perceive it is not the person whom I supposed it was-" Winter in London, ii, 66. "And while it is Him I servo, life is not without value." Zenobia, i, 76. "Without ever dreaming it was him." Life of Charles XII, p. 271. " Or he was not the illiterate personage whom he affected to be." Montgomery's Lect. "Yet was he him, who was to be the greatest apostle of the Ger- tiles." Barclay's Works, i, 540. " Sweet was the thrilling ecstasy ; I know not if 'twas lovo, or thee." Queen's Wake, p. 14. "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was me." Dryden, Prol. "No matter where the vanquish' d be, nor whom." Rowe's Lucan, B. i, 1. 676. " No, I little thought it had been him." Life of Gratton. "That reverence and godly fear, whose object is * Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.' " Maturin's Sermons, p. 312. "It is us that they seek to please, or rather to astonish." West's Letters, p .28. "Let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac." Gen. xxiv, * Parkhurst and Sanborn, by what they call "A NEW RULE," attempt to determine the doubtful or unknown cnse which this note censures, and to justify the construction as being well-authorized and hardly avoidable. Their rule is this : "A noun following a neuter or [a] passive participial noun, is in the nominative independent. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, always precedes the participial noun, either expressed or understood, signifying the same thing as the noun does that follows it." To this new and exceptionable dogma, Sanborn adds : " This form of expression is one of the most common idioms of the language, and in general composition cannot be well avoided. In confirmation of the statement made, various authorities are subjoined. Two grammarians only, to our knowledge, have remarked on this phraseology : ' Participles are sometimes preceded by a possessive case and followed by a nominative ; as, There is no doubt of his being a great statesman.' 1 B. GKEENLEAF. ' We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained unchanged in connexion with it; as, I have some recollection of his father's being a judge..' GOOLD BROWN." Sanborn's Analytical Cham. p. 189. On what principle the words statesman and judge can be affirmed to be in the nominative case, I see not ; and certainly they are not nominatives " independent,'' 1 because the word bthtg, alter which they stand, is not itself independent. It is true, the phraseology is common enough to be good English : but 1 dislike it ; and if this citation from me, was meant for a confirmation of the reasonless dogmatism preceding, it is not made with fairness, because my opinion of the construction is omitted by the quoter. See Institutes of English Gram. p. Iti2. In an other late grammar, a shameful work, because it is in great measure a tissue of petty larcenies from my Institutes, with alterations for the worse, 1 find the following absurd ' Note," or Rule : "An infinitive or participle is often followed by a substantive explanatory of an indefinite person or thing. The substantive is then in the objective case, and may be called the objective after the infinitive, or participle ; [as,] It is an honor to be the author of such a work, llis being a great man, did not make him a happy man. By being an obedient child, you will secure the approbation of your parents." Farnum's Practical Gram. 1st Ed. p. 25. The first of these examples is elliptical ; (see Obs. 12th above, and the Marginal Note ;) the second is bad English or, at any rate, directly repugnant to the rule for same cases ; and the third parsed wrong by the rule : u child " is in the nominative case. See Obs. 7th above. T When the preceding case is not " the verb's nominative," this phrase must of course be omitted ; and when the word which is to be corrected, does not literally follow the verb, it may be proper to say, " constructively follows, 11 in lieu of the phrase, u comes after." CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE VI. SAME CASES. ERRORS. 509 14. "Although I knew it to be he." Dickens s Notes, p. 9. " Dear gentle youth, is't none but thee : " Dorset's J'o>;n.i, p. 4. " Whom do they say it is r " Fowler's E. Gram. 493. " These are her garb, not her ; they but express Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress." Hannah More. UNDER NOTE I. THE CASE DOUBTFUL. "I had no knowledge of there being any connexion between them." Stone, on Freema- sonry, p. 25. "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same as being the actors of it ourselves." Murray's Key, p. 170. " It must arise from feeling delicately ourselves." Blair's Rhct. p. 330 ; Murray's Gram. 248. " By reason of there not having been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement." Mass. Legislature, 1839. " PUPILAGE, n. The state of being a scholar." Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester. " Then the other part's being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description." O. B. Peirces Gram. p. 343. "John's being my friend,* saved me from inconvenience." Ib. p. 201. " William's having become a judge, changed his whole demeanor." Ib. p. 201. " William's having been a teacher, was the cause of the interest which he felt." Ib. p. 216. " The being but one among many stifleth the chidings of conscience." Book of Thoughts, p. 131. "As for its being esteemed a close translation, I doubt not many have been led into that error by the shortness of it." Pope's Pref. to Homer. "All presumption of death's being the destruction of living bodies, must go upon supposition that they are compounded, and so discerptible." Butkrs Analogy, p. 63. "This argues rather their being proper names." Churchill's Gram. p. 382. "But may it not be retorted, that its being a gratification is that which excites our resentment:" Campbell's Rhct. p. 145. " Under the common no- tion, of its being a system of the whole poetical art." Blair's Rhct. p. 401. "Whose time or other circumstances forbid their becoming classical scholars." Literary Convention, p. 113. " It would preclude the notion of his being a merely fictitious personage." Philo- '/, i, 446. "For, or under pretence of their being heretics or infidels." The 'i : (rco. Ill, 31st. "We may here add Dr. Home's sermon on Christ's being the Object of religious Adoration." R<>ti", . "A greater instance of a man's being a blockhead." Sped. No. 620. " We may insure or promote its being a happy state of existence to ourselves." sf>. " By its often falling a victim to the same kind of unnatural treatment." Kirkhnm's Elocution, p. 41. "Their appearing foolishness is no presumption ngainst this." ]{itf?>-r's Analogy, p. 189. " But what arises from their being offences; . e. from their being liable to be perverted." Ib. p. 185. "And he entered into a certain man's house, named Justus, one that worshipped God." Acts, xviii, 7. UNDER NOTE II. OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION. " But to be popular, he observes, is an ambiguous word." Blair's Rhet. p. 307. "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is often the nominative case to a verb." L. Murray's -n. Vol. ii, p. 290. " When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.'" R. ('. Smith's New Gram. p. 43. "The name of the person spoken to, is the second person; as, 'James, come t > me.' " 1'ii'l. "The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third per- irnes has come.' " Ibid. "The object [of a passive verb] is always its subject or nominative case." Ib. p. 62. "When a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor." Kirk ham' a Gram. p. 41. "And the person commanded, is its nomi- native." Ingrrs-itt's Cram. p. 120. "The lirst person is that who speaks." Fasquicr's 1 . " The ( 'onjugation of a Verb is its different variations or inflections through- out the Moods and TenttO." VfnpAft Gram. p. 80. "The first person is the speaker. The second person is the one spoken to. The third person is the one spoken of." J'ur/crr 1'art i, p. 6 ; Ifilcy's, 18. "The first person is the one that speaks, or the speaker." .sVi//Wn'.t Gr,nn. pp. 2:; and 7-1. "The second person is the one that is spoken to, or addressed." Jbi,l. "The third person is the one that is spoken of, or that is the topic of conversation." Ibid. "/, is the first person Singular. II V, i-; the first ; Plural." Murray's Cram. p. "> 1 : '>'., and many afh,r*. "Thau, is the second person Singular. }V or yon, is the second person Plural. ' Ibid. "//<, s/tr, or if, is the third person Singular. They, is the third person Plural." Ibid. "The nominative < the actor, or subject of the verb." Kirkh<: . p. 43. "The noun John is the actor, * The author of this i-xumple supposes frirnd to be In the nominative case, though John's: is in the po- ;i words driniv Mi' Kilt this is not onlv cnntr.-irv to the prm-nil rii'i 1 f>r sain* 1 CM cc ntrary t<> his own apjilic i hi- m\n nil- - . to instruct her pupils." H. r ." nriifT\< in the;>o\- i relation to the name Mario, denoting th mm* -11. TbU explanation, L account of to grammatical racy, lit- mr.-ux. h"-,M-v.-r. Miat. . fpim its relation to the name Mfi'ia't, the two words denoting tin word can be po'~ iv from its relation to the name Maria," ex- ctpt by standing immediately before it, in the usual uuiuner of popsesv. 510 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. therefore John is in the nominative case." Ibid. "The actor is always the nominative case." Smith's New Gram. p. 62. "The nominative case is always the agent or actor." Mark's Gram. p. 67. "Tell the part of speech each name is." J. Flint's Gram. p. (5. " What number is boy ? Why ? What number is pens ? Why ? " Ib. p. 27. " The speaker is the first person, the person spoken to, the second person, and the person, or thing spoken of, is the third person." Ib. p. 26. " What nouns are masculine gender ? All males are masculine gender." Ib. p. 28. "An interjection is a sudden emotion of the mind." Barrett's Gram. p. 62. RULE VII. OBJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case : as, " The temple of fame stands upon the grave : the flame that burns upon its altars^ is kindled from the ashes of great men" Hazlitt. " Life is His gift, from whom whate'er life needs, With ev'ry good and perfect gift, proceeds." Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII. OBS. 1. To this rule there are no exceptions ; for prepositions, in English, govern no other case than the objective.* But the learner should observe, that most of our prepositions may take the imperfect participle for their object, and some, the pluperfect,, or preperfect ; as, "On opening the trial, they accused him of having defrauded them." "A quick wit, a nice judgment, &c., could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot of contributing to mirth and diver- sion." Steele. And the preposition to is often followed by an infinitive verb ; as, "When one sort of wind is said to wnistut, and another to roar; when a serpent is said to hiss, a fly to buzz, and falling timber to crash; when a stream is said to flow, and hail to rattle ; the analogy between the word and the thing signified, is plainly discernible." Blair's Rhet. p. 55. But let it not be supposed that participles or infinitives, when they are governed by prepositions, are therefore in the objective case ; for case is no attribute of either of these classes of words : they are indeclinable in English, 'whatever be the relations they assume. They are governed as participles, or as injinitires, and not as cases. The mere fact of government is so far from creating i\\e modification governed, that it necessarily presupposes it to exist, and that it is something cognizable in etymology. OBS. 2. The brief assertion, that, " Prepositions govern the objective case," which till very lately our grammarians have universallv adopted as their sole rule for both terms, the governing and the governed, the preposition and its object, is, in respect to both, somewhat exception- able, being but partially and lamely applicable to cither. It neither explains the connecting na- ture of the preposition, nor applies to all objectives, nor embraces all the terms which a prepr si- tion may govern. It is true, that prepositions, when they introduce declinable words, or wo- -da that have cases, always govern the objective ; but the rule is liable to be misunderstood, and is in fact often misapplied, as if it meant something more than this. Besides, in no other instance do grammarians attempt to parse both the governing word and the governed, by one and ;he same rule. I have therefore placed the objects of this government here, where they belong in the order of the parts of speech, expressing the rule in such terms as cannot be mis- taken ; and have also given, in its proper place, a distinct rule for the construction of the prepo- sition itself. See Rule 23d. OBS. 3. Prepositions are sometimes ellipticalhj construed with adjectives, the real object of the relation being ihought to be some objective noun understood : as, in vain, in secret, atjtrst, on hiah ; i. e. in a vain manner, in secret places, at the first time, on high places. Sxich phrases usually imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply the ellipsis. OBS. 4. In some phrases, a preposition seems to govern a perfect participle ; but these expres- sions are perhaps rather to be explained as being elliptical : as, " To give it up for lost ; " " To take that for granted which is disputed." Murray's Gram. Vol. i, p. 109. That'is, perhaps, " To give it up for a tliinq lost ; " " To take that for a thing granted," &c In the following passage, the words might and should are employed in such a manner that it is difficult to say to what part of speech they belong : " It is that very character of ourjht and should which makes justice a law to us ; and the same character is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more faintly than to justice." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. 286. The meaning seems to be, " It is that very charac- ter of being owed and required, that makes justice a law to us ; " and this mode of expression, as it is more easy to be parsed, is perhaps more grammatical than his Lordship's. OBS. 5. In some instances, prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at once, at unawares, from thence, from above, till now, till very lately, for once, for ever. Here the adverb, though an indeclinable * Dr. Webster, who was ever ready to justify almost any usage for which he could find half a dozen respectable authorities, absurdly supposes, that ivho may sometimes be rightly preferred to whom, as the object of a preposi- tion. His remark 'is this : " In the use of who as an interrogative, there is an apparent rlerintinn from regular construction it being ued without distinction of case : as. ' Who do you speak tn?> ' Who is she married to ? ' ' Who is this reserved for ? ' ' Who was it made by? ' This idiom is not merely colloquial : it is found in the writ- incrs of our bst authors." Webster's Philoxvphic.nl Gram. p. 194 ; his Improved Gram. p. 130. " Tn this phrase, * Who do you speak to?" 1 there is a cferiation from regular construction; but the practice of thus using i"ho, in certain familiar phrases, seems to be established by the best authors." Webster's Rudiments of E. Gram. p. 72. Almost any other solecism may be quite as well justified as this. The present work shows, in fact, a great mass of authorities for many of the incongruities which it ventures to rebuke. CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE VII. OBJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 51 1 word, appears to be made the object of the preposition. It is in fact used substantively, and gov- erned by the preposition. The term forever is often written as one word, and, as such, is obviously an adverb. The rest are what some writers would call adverbial phrases ; a term not very con- sistent with itself, or with the true idea of parsing. If different parts of speech are to be "taken together as bavins: the nature of an adverb, they ought rather to coalesce and be united ; for the verb to narsc, being derived from the Latin jxirs, a part, implies in general a distinct recognition of the elements or words of every phrase or sentence. . 6. Nouns of time, measure, distance, or rahie, have often so direct a relation to verbs or nouns are in the objective case, and, in parsing them, the learner may supply the ellipsis ; * or, perhaps it might be as well, to say, as do B. H. Smart and some others, that the noun is an ob- qualify the time or measure. OBS. 7- After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or vnto is often under- stood ; f as, " It is like [to or unto] silver." Allen. " How like the former." Dryden. " Near yonder copse." Goldsmith. " Nigh this recess." Garth. As similarity and proximity are rela- tions, and not qualities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions ; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Johnson seems to be inconsistent in calling near a preposition, in the phrase, " So near thy heart," and an adjective, in the phrase, " Being near their master." See his Quarto Diet. I have not placed them with the prepositions, for the fol- lowing four reasons : (1.) Because they are sometimes compared ,- (2.) Because they sometimes have (tdi-t-rhs evidently relating to them ; (3.) Because the preposition to or nnfo is sometimes ex- pressed after them; and (4.) Because the words which usually stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives.^ But like, when it expresses similarity of manner, and near and nigh, when they express proximity of degree, are adcerbs. 8. The word irort/i is often followed by an objective, or a participle, which it appears to govern ; as, (i If your arguments produce no conviction, they are worth nothing to me." Bmttir. "To reign is worth ambition." Milton. "This is life indeed, life worth preserving." Addison. It is not easy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs. Dr. Johnson calls it an adject ire, but says nothing of the object after it, which some suppose to be goveined by of under- stood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously assumed, that worth is equivalent to worthy, after which of should be expressed ; as, " Whatsoever is worthy of their love, is worth their anger." >. But as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjective, some call it a noun, ;nid suppose a double ellipsis ; as, " My knife is worth a shilling ; " i. e. " My knife is of the worth of a shilling." Kirkham's Gram. p. 163. '"The book is worth that sum ;' that is, * Grammarians differ much as to the proper mode of parking such nouns. Wells snys, " This Is the rase inde- ' draw. p. 123. But the idea of xm-h a ease. is a flat absurdity. Ellipsis occurs only where F-nnethitis. IT implied: and where a preposition is thns wanting, the noun is, of course, it* ahj'ct ; and therefore Tint in UVI>-ter. with too much contempt for the opinion of " Lowth, followed l.v the whole tribe of \critrrs on th;- .-lares it a palpahle error," to suppose " prepositions to be under- md, by two new rules, his 22d and 28th, teaches, that, " Names of measure or dimension, followed by an adjective." and " Names of certain portions of time and space, and especially words inuance of time or progrMrion, an u-'d without a gnvernim* U'ord."Philos. Gram, pp/165 and ]7'J ; hup. d'rtnn. 11'', and l.'J : i:>i-/>ni f nti. r, and 67. Hut this is no account at all of the ronttnirtinn, or of the \" the nominative, or the case which we may use independently, is never a subject of fjOTern- ini-nt. t!, ' implies that the case is nhj,rtivf : and how can this case be known, except t ing word/' of which it. is the ohjrrt? \\> find, however, many such rules n-e, are put in the objective case without a preposition/' which denor,. time. .|inntity, measure, distance, value, or direction are often T"' f i" ' : uttkm." TTeWj dram, p, ir,:; : "Ahrid-fd lid." US. "Names si-nifv- in dur quality, nnd valuation, are in the obj -,- ;,out a governing wor !." visa similar rule. To estimate th.-- rules aright, one should observe l..ow off ire found with a goreming word. UVld. of late, contradicts himself bv ndmit- wiih hi< admi-M.,11. mo-t absurdly dmirx ih fmjvfnt vst of tlie prepo- ' h nouns of time, >; -Tiption, th' rllip*i* 'nfn proposition is . . f.,n- Mi.-h words." TfVtt'j ^Abridzi ! Eilition " p. 118. . .-sor Fi.w ler absur ar, n*rt, like, who n followpd by the i.l j.-rt ivo rase, m /.8vo,18oO. " /" ' ' that no one of these words can be accounted a preposition, but by sn; the preposition t,, 1 c complex, and to )v .. ,., nn ; il( . whim . nrid> ilways positive and exclusive, to refer smv particular wor-l riMvely t.. " eitker " of two classes, is certainly n -, than to say, " I do not know of which sort ; call it what \r>u j ^e points : " These Verbs, and all others lilt m them, were like MAO '' Dr. V 28. ' Tin- -M i.Yriiian. nnd evm tin- modern (Ji-rnmn, i-e much lik'r tn the Yisi-othir than they are r Proximus fin.-ni. - ntarfr to our own lantcuaffe." Dr. 'Blair'* fry lital." Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 201. " Which thou dost confess, were fit for thee to use, as they to claim." Ib. p. 196. "To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour, than thou of them." Ib. p. 197. " There are still a few who, like thou and I, drink nothing but water." (Ill Bias, Vol. i, p. 104. " Thus, I shall fall; Thou shalt love thy neighbour ; He sh r ! he rewarded, express no resolution on the part of /, thou, he." Lcnnies E. Gram. p. '2- ; /,' . 32. " So saucy with the hand of she here What's her name ? " S/KI.':. and ('>',->/>. Act iii, Sc. 11. "All debts are cleared between you and I." Iff. Merchant of Venice, Act iii, Sc. 2. " Her price is paid, and she is sold like thou." Milmans Fall oj " Search through all the most flourishing era's of Greece." Browns Estimate, ii, 1'i. "The family of the Rudolph's had been long distinguished." The Friend, Vol. v, p. 54. "It will do well enough for you and I." Castle liackreiit, p. 120. " The public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and he who is the teacher." Chazotte's Essay, p. 10. " We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." Locke. " What do you call it? and who does it belong tor " Collier 's Cebcs. " He had received no lessons from the Socrates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age." Halter's Let- ters. " I cannot tell who to compare them to." llunyun's P. P., p. 128. " I see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and I." Pilgrim's Progress, p. 298. " They by that means have brought themselves into the hands and house of I do not know who." Ih. p. 193. " But at length she said there was a great deal of difference between Mr. Cot- ton and we." Hutchinso/is Muss, ii, 430. " So you must ride on horseback after we."* Mus. (JII.IMN: c.nrprr, i, 275. "A separation must soon take place between our minister and I." \\'crter, p. 109. "When she exclaimed on Hasting, you, and I." Shakspeare. "To who- to thee? What art thou ?" Id. "That they should always bear the certain marks who they came from." Butler s Analogy, p. 221. " This life has joys for you and I, And joys that riches ne'er could buy." Burns. UXDKU tHl NOTE. OF TIME OK MEASURE. Such as almost every child often years old knows." Toini's Analysis, p. 4. "One winter's school of four months, will carry any, industrious scholar, of ten or twelve years old, completely through this book." lh. p. 12. "A boy of six years old may be taught to speak as eorm-tly, as Cicero did before the Roman Senate." nv/v/r/-'* Essays, p. 27. "A lad of about twelve years old, who was taken captive by the Indians." Ib. p. 235. " Of nothing else but that individual white figure oi' five inches long which is before him." >. "Where lies the fault, that boys of eight or ten years old, art- with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles ? " Guy's Gram. p. v. " Where language of three ccntviries old is employed." Booth's Introd. to Diet. p. 21. "Let .! ie of fifty cubits high." Esther, v, 14. "I say to this child of nine Id bring me that hat, he hastens and brings it me." Osborns Key, p. 3. " He laid it long, and nine feet wide ; that is, over the extent of twelve feet long, and nf nine feet wide." .U;v/. .sy/w/ Cram. p. 95. "The Goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand strong." Examiner, No. 71. RULE VIII. NOM. ABSOLUTE. A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case de- pends on no other word : as, "He failimj, who shall meet success ? " k - Your /(///*, where are they? and the 2'fojJietSj do they live forever ? " Zech. i, 5. " Or / only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear * Cowper here purposely i ' ; i'pin use had English ; but this is no rea.on why a school-boy may not b taught to correct it. ' Dr. 1'ru-stU'y support that the word tcf, in the example, "To poor we, thine enmity," &o. f ww also used hv Miakspcnrc, " in :i dml! hium T<>HS \va\ ." dram. p. 1U3. lie surely did not know the connex- ion of the text. It is in ' Volumnia's pathetic speech " to her victorious son. See Coriolanus, Act V, Sc. 3. 33 514 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. working?"! Cor. ix, 6. " Nay but, man, who art thou that repliest against God?" Rom. ix, 20. "0 rare we! " Cowper. "Miserable they ! " TJiomson. " The hour conceal'd, and so remote the fear, Death still draws nearer, never seeming near." Pope. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. Ons. 1. Many grammarians make an idle distinction between the nominative absolute and the nominative independent, as if these epithets were not synonymous ; and, at the same time, they are miserably deficient in directions for disposing of the words so employed. Their two rules do not embrace more than one half of those frequent examples in which the case of the noun or pronoun depends on no other word. Of course, the remaining half cannot be parsed by any of the rules which they give. The lack of a comprehensive rule, like the one above, is a great and glaring defect in all the English grammars that the author has seen, except his own, and such as are indebted to him for such a rule. It is proper, however, that the different forms of expression which are embraced in this general rule, should be discriminated, one from an other, by the scholar : let him therefore, in parsing any nominative absolute, tell how it is put so ; whether with a participle, by direct address, by pleonasm, or by exclamation. For, in discourse, a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, after four modes, or under the following four cir- cumstances : (of which Murray's "case absolute," or "nominative absolute," contains only the first:) I. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant fact; as, " I say, this being so, the law being broken, justice takes place." Law and Grace, p. 27. " Pontius Pilate be- ing governor of Judea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Itiirea," &c. Luke, iii, 1. " / being in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's brethren." Gen. xxiv, 27. " While shame, thou looking on, Shame to be overcome or overreach'd, Would utmost vigor raise." Milton, P. L., B.ix, 1. 312. II. When,5y direct address, h is put in the second person, and set off from the verb, by a com- ma or an exclamation point ; as, "At length, Seged, reflect and be wise." Dr. Johnson. " It may be, drunkard, swearer, liar, thief, thou dost not think of this." Law and Grace, p. 27. "This said, he form'd thee, Adam! thee, O man! Dust of the ground, and in thy nostiils breath'd The breath of life." Milton's Paradise Lost, B vii, 1. 524. III. When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis, and is not made the subject or the object of any verb ; as, "He that hath, to him shall be given." Mark, iv, 2o. " Tie that is holy, let him be holy still." Rev. xxii, 11. "Gad, a troop shall overcome him." Get',. xlix, 19. "The north and the south, thou hast created them." Psalms, Ixxxix, 12. "And thty that have believing masters, let them not despise them." 1 Tim. vi, 2. "And the leper in whom the plague is, his clothes shall be rent, and his head bare." Levit. xiii, 4o. "They who serve rr e with adoration, I am in them, and they [are] in me." R. W. EMEKSON: Liberator, No. 99'). " What may this mean, That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel, Revisitst thus the glimpses of the moon, Making night hideous ; and, we fools of nature,* So horribly to shake our disposition With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls ? " Shak. Hamlet. IV. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and without other words expressed or implied to give it construction; as, "And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed, the Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth." Exodus, xxxiv, 6. " O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! " Rom. xi, 33. " I should not like to see her limping back, Poor beast ! " Southcy. " Oh ! deep enchanting^Wnrfe to repose, The dawn of bliss, the tioilight of our woes ! " Campbell. OBS. 2. The nominative put absolute with a participle, is often equivalent to a dependent clause commencing with when, while, if, since, or because. Trms, " I being a child," may be equal to, " When I was a child," or, " Because I was a child." Here, in lieu of the nominative, the Greeks used the genitive case, and the Latins, the ablative. Thus, the phrase, vOTfor/navroc oi'rov," "And the wine failing," is rendered by Montanus, "Et dtficicntc vivo;" but by Beza, "Et cum defecissct vinum ; " and in our Bible, "And when they wanted wine." John, ii, 3. After a noun or a pronoun thus put absolute, the participle being is frequently understood, especially if an adjective or a like case come after the participle ; as, " They left their bones beneath unfriendly skies, His worthless absolution [being} all the'pnze." Cowper, Vol. i, p. 84. "Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, Whether he thinks too little or too much." Pope, on Man. OT?S. 3 The case which is put absolute in addresses or invocations, is what in the Latin and Creek grammars is called the Vocative. Richard Johnson says, " The only use of the Vocative * Dr. Enfield misunderstood this passage ; and, in copying it into his Speaker, (a very popular Fchool-book,) he has perverted the text, by changing we to ?/,s : is if the meaning were. ' Making us fools of nature.'' But it i* plain, that all "fools of nature " must be fools of nature's own making and not persons temporarily frighted out of their wits by a ghost ; nor does the meaning of the last two lines comport with any objective construction of this pronoun. See Enfieltfs Speaker, p. 364. CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. RULE VIII. NUM. ABSOLUTE. OBSERVATIONS. 515 Case, is, to call upon a Person, or a thing put Personally, which we speak to, to give notice to what we direct our Speech ; and this is therefore, properly speaking, the only Case absolute or in- dependent which we may make use of without respect to any other Word." Gram. Commentaries, p. 131. This remark, however, applies not justly to our language; for, with us, the vocative case, is unknown, or not distinguished from the nominative. In English, all nouns of the second per- son are either put absolute in the nominative, according to Rule 8th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, according to Rule 3d : as, " This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders.' 1 '' Acts, iv, 11. " How much rather ought you receivers to be considered as abandoned and execrable! " Clarkson's Essay, p. 114. " Peace ! minion, peace ! it boots not me to hear The selrish counsel of you ha m/era -on." Brown's lust. p. 189. ' )', Sylj,/i>i and Sylphids, to your chief give ear ; Fays, Farics, < '. and Demons, hear! " Pope, R. L. ii, 74. Ons. 4. The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on something understood; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put absolute, unless the ellipsis be that of the participle. The following example^ may perhaps be resolved in this man- ner, though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity : "A horse! ahorse! my kingdom for a horse ! " Shsik. "And he said unto his father, My head! my head!" 2 Kings, iv, 19. "And Samson said, With the jaw-bone of an ass, heaps upon heaps, with the jaw of an ass, have I slain a thousand men." Jud* r/">n heaps," may mean, " heaps being piled upon heaps ; " and Scott's, " man to man, and stcrl to steel," may be interpreted, " man being opposed to man, and steel being opposed to steel: " " Now, man to man, and steel to steel, A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." Lady of the Lake. OBS. 6. Cobbctt, after his own hasty and dogmatical manner, rejects the whole theory of nominaiives absolute, and teaches his "soldiers, sailors, apprentices, and ploughboys," that, " The supposition, that there can be a noun, or pronoun, which has reference to no verb, and no preposition, is certainly a mistake." Cobbctt's E. Gram. IT 201. To sustain his position, he lays violent hands upon the plain truth, and even trips himself up in the act. Thus : " For want of a little thought, as to the matter immediately before us, some grammarians have found out ' an absolute ca^c,' as they call it; and Mr. Lindley Murray gives an instance of it in these words: 4 Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.' The full meaning of this sentence is this : 'It being, or the ttate of thitu/s bcinq such, that shame is lost, all virtue is lost.' " Cobbetfs E. Gram. IT 191. Again: "There must, you will bear in mind, always be a verb expressed or understood. One would think, that this was not the case in [some instances : as,] ' Sir, 1 beg you to give me a bit of bread.' The sentence which follows the Sir, is complete ; but the Sir appears to stand wholly without connexion. However, the full meaning is this : ' I beg you, who are a Sir, to give me a bit of bread.' Now, if you take time to reflect a little on this matter, you will never be puzzled for a moment by those detached words, to suit which grammarians have invented vocative cases and cases absolute, and a great many other appellations, with which thev puzzle themselves, and confuse and In-wilder and torment those who read their books." Ib. Let. xix, HIT 225 and 226. All this is just like Cobbett. But, let his admirers reflect on the matter as long as they please, the t'.v it and state, in the text, "It being, or the state of tilings I., inn tuch," wii'. :.d a glaring confutation both of his doctrine and of his censure : " the case absolute" . in fact, only converted the single example into a double one ! f-\ - _ T T \ir Tf^ ... ^ -*- - - - I JUS /Ol/t-M-tC iM I 11 VI V BfclAI . -Ill UU> f Ill ItVV, L, WUI1 1,'MitVJLVU. lilt- O(/CyC'O C A U I UJ J 1 C 7. The Irish philologer, J. \V. Wright, is even more confident than Cobbett, in cnouri' nd more severe in his reprehension of " Grammarians in gen- ral, and Lowth and Murray in particular," for entertaining the idea of such a case. "Surprise uist c-' a an acquaintance with thefact, that persons who imbibe such fantastical octrine should be destitute of aft-rHng information on the subject of English grammar. The Inglis'n '.ranger to ti ak thus, with confidence, conscious of the justness of our opinion : an opinion, not precipitately formed, but one which is the result of mature and last, all virtue is lost : ' The meaning of this is, When shame is being lost, all virtue is lost.' Here, the words ?.v being lost form the true jrresent Wril, fVTio r of the p ; in which voice, all verbs, thus expressed, 'are t//*mv; '/jy with tho noun // nominative of the first member of the sentence." i(jJd's 1'.' drum. n. l'.>2. With all his deliberation, this gentleman has committed one oversight here, which, as it goes to contradict his scheme of the passive verb, some of his ixtv venerable commcnders ought to have pointed out to hi'n. My old friend, the " Professor of Elocution in Columbia College," who finds by this work of " superior excellence," thai " the nature of the rrrb, the most difficult part of grammar, has been, at length, satisfactorily ex- plained," ought by no means, after his " very attentive examination" of the book, to have left this service to me. In the clause, " all virtue is lost," the passive verb " is lost " has the form which Murray gave it the form which, till within a year or two, all men supposed to be the only right one; buti according to this new philosophy of the language, all men have been as much in error in this matter, as in their notion of the nominative Absolute. If Wright's theory of th 516 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. verb is correct, the only just form of the foregoing expression is, " all virtue is being lost." If this central position is untenable, his management of the nominative absolute falls of course. To me, the inserting of the word being into all our passive verbs, seems the most monstrous absurdity ever broached in the name of grammar. The threescore certifiers to the accuracy of that theory, have, I trow, only recorded themselves as so many ignoramuses ; for there are more than three- score myriads of better judgements against them. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VIII. NOUNS OR PRONOUNS PUT ABSOLUTE. " Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed." Browns Inst. p. 190. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun Aim, whose case depends on no other word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule 8th, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore, him should be he; thus, "He having ended his discourse, the assembly dis- persed."] "Me being young, they deceived me." Inst. E. Gram. p. 190. "Them refusing to com- ply, I withdrew." Ib. " Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew." Ib. " The child is lost ; and me, whither shall I go ? " Ib. " Oh ! happy us, surrounded with so many blessings." Murray's Key, p. 187 ; Merchant's, 197 ; Smith's Neio Gram. 96 ; Farnum's, 63. " ' Thee too ! Brutus, my son ! ' cried Caesar overcome." Broion's Inst. p. 190. "Thee ! Maria ! and so late ! and who is thy companion?" New- York Mirror, Vol. x, p. 353. " How swiftly our time passes away ! and ah ! us, how little concerned to improve it! "Comly's Gram. Key, p. 192. " There all thy gifts and graces we display, Thee, only thee, directing all our way." CHAPTER IV. -ADJECTIVES. The syntax of the English Adjective is fully embraced in the following brief rule, together with the exceptions, observations, and notes, which are, in due order, subjoined. RULE IX. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns : as, "Miserable comforters are yo all." Job, xvi, 2. "JVo worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers of an immortal spirit." Blair. " Whatever faction's partial notions are, No hand is wholly innocent in war." Howe's Lucan^ B. vii,l. 191. EXCEPTION FIRST. An adjective sometimes relates to & phrase or sentence which is made the subject of an in- tervening verb ; as, "To insult the afflicted, is impious." Dillwyn. "That he should refuse, is not strange." " To err is human." Murray says, "Human belongs to its substantive ' nature ' understood." Gram. p. 233. From this I dissent. EXCEPTION SECOND. In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates to an other, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun ; as, " One thousand four hundred and fifty-six men." " Six dol- lars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every Jive days' service." " In the one hundred and twenty-second year." "One seven times more than it was wont to be heated." Daniel, iii, 19. EXCEPTION THIRD. With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject ;) as, " To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe" Hawkesworth. "Ca- pacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold." Crabb's Synonymes. "Indeed, the main secret of being sublime, is to say great things in few and plain words."- Hiley's Gram. p. 215. " Concerning being free from sin in heaven, there is no question." Barclay's Worfo, iii, 437. Better: " Concerning freedom from sin," &c. EXCEPTION FOURTH. Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns ; (perhaps, in most instances, ellipticalli/, like Greek neuters ;) as, " The sensations of sublime and beau- CIIAP. IV.] SYNTAX. RULE IX. ADJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 517 tifid are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries." Blair's Rhet. p. 47. That is, "of sublimity and beauty." "The faults opposite to t/ie sublime are chiefly two : the frigid, and tit,-. bombast" Ib. p. 44. Better : "The faults opposite to sublimity, are chiefly two ; frir/idify and bombast." " Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and cru,:l." Brown' Estimate, ft, 26. That is, " of barbarity and cruelty." "In a word, .1 disagreeable are qualities of the objects we perceive ; " &c. Kamcs, EL of Crit. i, 99. "Polished, or refined, was the idea which the author had in view." Blair's Rhet. p. 219. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX. Ons. 1. Adjectives often relate to nouns or pronouns understood; as, "Anew sorrow recalls all the former" [sorrows]. Art of Thinking, p. 31. [The place] " Farthest from him is best." Milton, I'. L "To whom they all gave heed, from the least [person] to the greatest" [per- son]. Acts, viii, 10. " The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a / [God], and a terrible" [God]. Dcut. x, 17. "Every one can distinguish an angry from /, a cheerful from a melancholy, a thoughtful from a thoughtless, and a dull from a penetrat- mrt ?? came unto his own (creatures,} and his own (creatures) received him not." PL and Pract. Gram. p. 41. This ambitious editor of Virgil, abridger of Murray, expounder of the Bible, and author of several "new and improved" grammars, (of different languages,) should have understood this text, notwithstanding the obscurity of our version. " Elg rui'J/u //.#, *i t ISioi uvr thinf/s, most grammarians teach, that, "Adjective* are capable of being added to nouns only." Bvcnanan'a Syntax, p. 26. Or, as Murray expresses the doctrine : " Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood." Octavo Gram. p. 161. "The adjective always relates to a substantive." Ib. p. 169. This teaching, which is alike repugnant to the true definition of an adjective, to the true rule for its construction, and to all the exceptions to this rule, is but a sample of that hasty sort of induction, which is ever jumping to false conclusions for want of a fair comprehension of the facts in point. The position would not be tenable, even if all our pronouns were admitted to be nouns, or " mbstantivet ; " and, if these two parts of speech are to be distinguished, the conse- ence must be, that Murray supposes a countless number of unnecessary and absurd ellipses. . 'liciently evident, that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to jironoHiin, and only through them to the nouns which they represent. Examples: "I should like to know who has been carried off, except poor dear me." Byron. " To poor us there is not much hope remaining." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 201. " It is the final pause which alone, on many OCCi 2! asions, marks the difference between prose and verse." Murray's Gram. p. 260. "Andsome- th" Ib. p. 196. "All men hail'd me happy." Milton. " To receive unhappy me." Dryden. "Superior to them all." Blair's Rhet. p. 419. " They returned to their own country, full of the discoveries which they had made." Ib. p. 350. "All ye are brethren." Matt, xxiii, 8. "And hi//i only shalt thou serve." Matt, iv, 10. " Go wiser thou, and in thy scale of sense ;h thy opinion against Providence." Pope. Ons. 3. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb; as, "/ am glnd that the door is made wide " "An unbounded t doth not long continue aum able." Katncs. El. of Crit. i, 244 "Every thing which is , or unn-orthy, is despicable to him, though all the world should approve it." Spec- < tcioits, and amrorthy, relate to irhich ; and despicable relates to thing. The p. his followers, of supplying a "substantive " in all such eases, is ab- __j Yi \ .1 * ,.*: r ~*i jj^.*L..j__r T\ - i i *i_ . r surd. "When t' forms the Attribute of a Proposition, it belongs to the noun [or pronoun] w. tion, and cannot be joined to any other noun, since it is of the Subject that we aiiirm trie qualiu . Ijective." DC. Sacy, on i Gram. p. 37. In some peculiar phra : . such as, to fa/I short of, to make bold with, to sit lio. Some will suppose the word short to be her,- used . or to qualify falls only; but perhaps it may . be parsed at an adjective relating to the nnmln'itive. (2.) "And that I have made BO <''<>', Fly in the train of Autumn ? " Akenside, P. of I. Book i, p. 27. " Wilt thou fly With laughing Autumn to the Atlantic isles, And range with him t/i' Hesperian field?" Id. Buckets Gram. p. 120. 2. When technical usage favours one order, and common usage an other ; as, "A notary public," or, " A public notary ; " " The heir presumptive" or, " The presumptive heir." See Johnson's Diet, and Webster's. 3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being infinitely wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical. 4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous woman." Here again, Murray, Comly, and others, approve only the former order ; but I judge the latter to be quite as good. 5. When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last; as, "Weighty is the anger of the righteous." Bible. "Blessed are the pure in heart." Ib. "Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his course." 1 Esdras, iv, 34. " The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the country." Goldsmith's Essays, p. 151. OBS. S. By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, "in particular ; " that is, "In a particular manner ; " equivalent to particularly. So " in general" is equivalent to generally. It has already been suggested, that, in parsing, the scholar should here supply the ellipsis. See Obs. 3d, under Rule vii. Oiis. 9 Though English adjectives are, for the most part, incapable of any agreement, yet such of them as denote unity or plurality, ought in general to have nouns of the same number ; as, this man, one man, two men, many men. * "in phrases of this form, the rule is well observed; * In Clark's Practical Grammar, of 1S4S. is found this NOTE: u The Noun should correspond in number with the Adjectives. EXAMPLES A two feet ruler. A ten feet pole." P. 165. These examples are wrong : the doc- CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. RULE IX. ADJECTIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 519 but in some peculiar ways of numbering things, it is commonly disregarded ; for certain nouns are taken in a plural sense without assuming the plural termination. Thus people talk of many stone of cheese, many anil of vessels, many stand of arms, many head of cattle. many dozen of eggs, many hrarr of partridges, many pair of shoes. So we read in the Bible of " two hundred pennyworth of bread," and "twelve manner of fruits." In all such phraseology, there is, in regard to the fnrm of the latter word, an evident disagreement of the adjective with its immediate noun: but sometimes, (where the preposition of does not occur,) expressions that -mi' what like these may be elliptical: as when historians tell of many thousand foot (soldiers), or many Inindn-d horse (troops). To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede a plural one; as, 'One hundred men," "Every six weeks." And to denote pluralitv. the adjective many may, in like manner, precede an or a with a singular noun ; as, "Th" ndvs/, and many a landscape of nature." lllair's lihit. p 436. " There start-up many a writer." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 306. " Full many a fltnr<-r is horn to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air." Gray. Ons 10. Though this and that cannot relate to plurals, many writers do not hesitate to place them before singulars taken conjointly, which are equivalent to plurals; as, "'/'///,? power and tri'l do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to do." Sale's Koran, i, 220. "That sohrli-tif and self-denial which are essential to the support of virtue." Murray's Key, Hvo, p. 218. "This ttir>di-*fi/ and decency were looked upon by them as a law of nature." Rolliu's Hist, ii, 4.5. Her" the plural forms, these and those, cannot he substituted ; but the singular may be repeated, if the repetition be thought necessary. Yet. when these same pronominal adjectives are placed afti-r the nouns to suggest the things again, they must be made plural ; as, "Modesty nnd di'rencv were thus carefully guarded, for these were looked upon as being enjoined by the law of nature." OHS. 11. In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper; but, in poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is sometimes elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle ; as. "(Ira.dital sinks the breeze Into a perfect calm." Thomson's Seasons, p. 31. " To Thee I bend the knee ; to Thee my thoughts Continual climb." Ih. p. 48. "As on he walks drn^eful, and crows defiance." Ih. p. 56. "As through the falling glooms PCI. I stray." Ib.'p. 80. " They, sportive, wheel ; or, sailing down the stream, Are snatch'd immediate bv the quick-eyed trout." Ih p. 82. "-In'-essant still you flow." Ih. p. 91. "The shatter'd clouds T">iiii'fi/ftns rove, the interminable sky SnhH/ner swells." Ih. p. 116. In order to deter- mine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, qua iit 11 is to be expressed, or manner : if the former, an adjective is always proper ; if the latter, an adverb. That is, in this case, the adverb, though not always required in poetry, is specially requisite in prose. The following examples will illustrate this point: " She looks cold;" "She looks ro'dly on him " " I sat silent; " " I sat silently musing." " Stand firm ; maintain your /.o, 1se firmly ." See Etymology t Chap, viii, Obs. 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, on the Modifications of 0s. 12. In English, an adjective and its noun are often taken as a sort of compound term, to which other adjectives may be added; as, "An old man ; a good old man; a very learned, s, good old man." L. Murray's dram. p. 169; Brit. Gram. 19'1 ; linrhanan's, 79. "Of an o'hcr d<-terminnfe jxjxitire m ir birth, subsequent to baptism, we know nothing." West's . p. 183. When adjectives are thus accumulated, the subsequent ones should convey such ! the former mav consistently qualify, otherwise the expression will he objectionable. Thus the ordinal adjectives first, second, third, next, and last, may qualify the cardinal numbers, but they cannot very properly be qualified by them. When, therefore, we specify any part of a irdinal adjective ought, by good fight, to follow the ordinal, and not, as in the folio-w- ing phrase, be placed before it: " In reading the nine la^f chapters af John." Fuller. Properly speaking, there is but one last clnpter in any hook. Say, therefore, "the l"st nine chapters;*' for, out of the twentv-one chapters in John, a man may select several different nines. (See Degrees of Comparison. ) TVhen one of the adjectives merely qualifies the other, thev should be joined together by a hyphen; as, "A red-hot, iron," "A dead-ripe melon." And when both or all refer equally and solely to the noun, they ought either to be conn ' '(junction, or to be separated by a comma. The following example is therefor' faulty: "It is the business of an epic poet, to form a prohahlr inttrcsfhxi tale." HJu-t. p. 427. Say. "probable and interesting;" or else insert a comma in lieu of the conjunction. "Around him wide a sable army stand, A hi" selfish, servile band." Dnnriad, B. ii, 1. 355. Ons. 13. Dr. Priestley has observed : " There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the gative adjec'ive 7i" ; and I do not he. "how it can be remedied in any language. It' .Vo lairs are hfffrr than the r'.ntdish,' it is onlv my known sentiments that can in: whether I mean to praise, or dispraise them." Vr'n xf/t >/'s Cram. p. 136. It may not he possible to remove the ambiguity from the ph- , d. but it is easy enough to avoid the form, nnd say in stead of it. "The English lairs are n-nrse than none," or, "The Kin/listi laics it any ;" and, in neither of these expressions is there any ambiguity, though the other may doubtless be taken in either o Sueh an ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose ; as when one man says of an other, " He is no small knave ; " or, " He is no small fool." irino in misapplied in both. With this author, a, as well an two or tfn, is an a'/jtftirr of number: and, uince TIT in numlxT. what sort "f < .. n .nl or rrm ; a, "A tn-,ii ,nt/ toy," "a ttraf'u/r/ error," " thrft-cont plasterinp,'' "a itirr'r>'iini/ lo;if," ' a ftniT>r/n>irr fi_Miro," " of ticrnty-tuir.ir power." And no carpenter ). ay. "a "!]." "a tenfoot pole : '* which phrases are right; while Clark's are not only unusual, but unnnalogi- <;il, ungrammatical. = con 520 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. NOTES TO RULE IX. NOTE I. Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number : as, "That sort, those sorts ; " "This hand, these hands"* NOTE II. When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily singular, the noun should be made so too: as, "Twenty pounds" not, "Twenty pound;" "'Four feet long," not, " Four foot long; " " One session," not, " One sessions." NOTE III. The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, to more than two; as, "Verse and prose, on some occasions, run into one another, like light and shade." Blair's Rhet. p. 377 ; Jamieson's, 298. Say, " into each other" " For mankind have always been butchering each other" Webster's Essays, p. 151. Say, " one another" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th, on the Classes of Adjectives. NOTE IV. When the comparative degree is employed with than, the latter term of comparison should never include the former ; nor the former the latter : as, "Iron is more useful than all the metals." "All the metals are less useful than iron" In either case, it should be, " all the other metals." NOTE V. When the superlative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison, which is introduced by of, should never exclude the former ; as, "A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vain." Here the word other should be ex- punged ; for this latter term must include the former : that is, the fondness for show must be one of the follies of which it is the vainest. NOTE VI. When equality is denied, or inequality affirmed, neither term of the comparison should ever include the other ; because every thing must needs be equal to itself, and it is absurd to suggest that a part surpasses the whole : as, "No writ- ings whatever abound so much with the bold and animated figures, as the sacred books." Blair's Rhet. p. 414. Say, " No other writings whatever; " because the sacred books are " writings" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 6th, on Regular Com- parison. NOTE VII. Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison ; and all double compara- tives and double superlatives should be avoided : as, "So universal a complaint : " say rather, " So general." " Some less nobler plunder : " say, " less noble."- " The most straitest sect: " expunge most. See Etymology, Chap, iv, from Obs. 5th to Obs. 13th, on Irregular Comparison. NOTE VIII. When adjectives are connected by and, or, or nor, the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first; as, " He is older and more respectable than his brother." To say, "more respectable and older" would be obviously inelegant, as possibly involving the inaccuracy of " more older.' 1 NOTE IX. When one adjective is superadded to an other without a conjunction expressed or understood, the most distinguishing quality must be expressed next to the noun, and the latter must be such as the former may consistently qualify ; as, "An agreeable young man," not, "A young agreeable man." " The art of speaking, like all other practical arts, may be facilitated by rules." Enjield's Speaker, p. 10. Example of error: " The Anglo-Saxon language possessed, for the two first persons, a Dual number." Fowler's E. Gram. 1850, p. 59. Say, "the first two persons ; " for the second of three can hardly be one of the first ; and "two first," with the second and third added, will clearly make more than three. See Obs. 12th, above. NOTE X. In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is a vulgar error; the adverb alone being proper, when manner or degree is to be expressed, and not quality : as, " He writes elegant ; " say, " elegantly." " It is a remarkable good likeness ; " say, " remarkably good." * Certain adjectives that differ in number, are sometimes connected disjunctively by or or than, while the noun literally agrees with that which immediately precedes it, and with the other merely hy implication or supplement, under the figure which is called zfu.ma: us, "Two or more nouns joined together by onf or more copulative conjunctions." Lowth's Gram. p. 75 ; L Murray's, 2d Ed. p. 106. " He speaks not to one or a few judges, but to a large assembly." Blairs Rhet p. 280. " More than one object at a time." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 801. See Obs. 10th on Rule 17th. CIIAP. IV.] SYNTAX. - RULE IX. - ADJECTIVES. - NOTES. 521 NOTE XI. The pronoun them should never be used as an adjective, in lieu of those: say, "Thought those books;" not, "them books." This also is a vulgar error, and chiefly confined to the conversation of the unlearned.* NOTE XII. When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, or these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the former : as, "And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." Pope. " Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! My peace with these, my love with those!" Burns. XTK XIII. The pronominal adjectives either and neither, in strict propriety of syntax, relate to two things only ; \vhen more are referred to, any and none, or any ml no one, should be used in stead of them : as, "Any of the three." or, "Any :' the three ; " not, "Either of the three." "None of the four," or, "No one of the four ; " not, "Neither of the four."f NMTK XIV. The adjective whole must not be used in a plural sense, for all; nor less, in the sense of fewer ; nor more or most, in any ambiguous construction, where it may be either an adverb of degree, or an adjective of number or quantity : as, "Almost the whole inhabitants were present." Hume: sec Priestley's Gram. p. 190. | Say, "Almost all the inhabitants." " No less than three dictionaries have been published to correct it." Dr. Webster. Say, "No fewer." " This trade enriched some people more than them." Murray s Gram. i, p. 215. This passage rle.'ir in its import : it may have either of two meanings. Say, " This trade enriched some other people, besides them." Or, "This trade enriched some others more than it did them." XV. I Virticipial adjectives retain the termination, but not the government of participles; when, therefore, they are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be- inserted to govern it : as, ''The man who is most sparing of his words, is generally most dwn-\ng of attention." NOTE XVI. When the figure of any adjective affects the syntax and sense of the sentence, care must be taken to give to the word or words that form, simple or com- pound, which suits the true meaning and construction. Examples: " He is forehead bald, yet he is clean " FRIENDS' BIBLE : Lev. siii, 41. Say, "forehead-bald." Ar.;i-.u'< HIBLE, and SCOTT'S. "From such phrases as, 'New England scenery, 1 uience requires the omission of the hyphen." Sanborn's Gram p. 89. This ilse notion. Without the hypbtB, the phrase properly means, "New scenery in England ; " but Neu'-Kn(jlyl>sh Gram. I'.-l. '/' m grammarians, [i. e.] fAoxe grammarians. Titty i- i an other Bpelitojr of fAf, and of conne mean* aim, th. n. lh." f, r " those .'.-"i/i-," though rhe vulgar do not t;ik. pronoun, if a fit counter* part to that of some other franm -;most ever\ noun. Thus: " The i . i : as. Man" (he) is the Lord of this !,,\vei \VorM. Wo it) stands on a llill Men anil \Vo?i:en (rhry) arc nfimial Cn ' . r,n r hn nun's. 1"1. It wouM h;..ve 1'een worth agre.it . men. to hnve known irhnt forever hoi.oun-.l i: t -An Illegitimate and m i, eAAr and tutJAr, has lately been creeping into the K.l.c into tin- house, tA^r of them could > * 'ii will fm.i of them will do.' M MATT. HARRISON, on th' English Istnzi and , it/,/ r. nppli,.,] f ( , any number n . is ;i iniTc so'.. in OR rfit/i- J Dr. i ion, on the jj-mmul, tlistt the \\OP! n-h<>lr is n " attnf/i/t' <\f unity,'" 1 and then-fun- improperly added to a plural noun. l!ut. in far-, tive is not H- '! ir, iior is all necessarily plural. 'Yet there is a dilfer. .-.juivalent to all only \\ !.en the noun is singular: tor then only do entiren A i:ian rna> .- 1 ..,/- ?/',.' .' . -'-.-. ii. n }.< means, " all th' thing ;" hut he nn In the f. l!o\\inp example. ".'/ i I-ut lor ichole, and taken fubsUn lively; but the express! n i-- .1 >|uain>. 01 . article and pri-p'^ition secin needless: Which doth encompass and embrace the aii of things." The Dial, Vol. i. p 522 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. "I am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking." BP. SHERLOCK: Loicttis Gram. p. 87. [FORMULA. N T ot proper, because the adjective these is plural, and does not agree with its noun kin tf, which is singular. Bur. accordirg; t<> Nore 1st under Rule 9th. ''Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." Therefore, these should be this ; thus, k ' I am not recommending this kind of sufft- rings. : '] "I have not been to London this five years." Webster s Philos. Gram. p. 152. "These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, Vol. ii, p. 163. " Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with that vermin." Art of Thinking, p. 66. " But it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours." Roderick Random, Vol. ii, p. 87. " If I had not left off troubling myself about those kind of things." Swift. " For these sort of thing* are usually join'd to the most noted fortune." Bacon's Essays, p. 101. "The nature of that riches and long-suffering is, to lead to repentance." Barclay's Works, iii, 380. " I fancy they arc these kind of gods, which Horace mentions." Addison, on Medal?, p. 74. " During that eight days they are prohibited from touching the skin." Hope of Israel, p. 78. "Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 86. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?" Ib. p. 192. "It distinguished still more remarkably the feelings of the former from that oi the latter." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i. p. xvii. "And this good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world." Campbell's Gospels, Matt, xxiv, 14. "This twenty years have I been with thee." Gen. xxxi, 38. " In these kind of expressions some words seem to be under- stood." Walkers Particles, p. 179. "He thought these kind of excesses indicative of greatness." Hunt's Byron, p. 1 17. " These sort of fellows are very numerous." Spect. No. 486. " Whereas these sort of men cannot give account of their faith." Barclay's Works, i, 444. " Hut the question is, whether that be the words." Ib. iii, 321. " So that these sort of Expressions are not properly Optative." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 276. "Many things are not that which they appear to be." Sanborn's Gram. p. 176. "So that every possible means are used." Formey's Belles -Lettres, p. iv. " We have strict statutes, and most biting laws, Which for this nineteen years we have let sleep." Shak. " They could not speak ; and so I left them both, To bear this tidings to the bloody king." Id. Richard III. UNDER NOTE II. OF FIXED NUMBERS. "Why, I think she cannot be above six foot two inches high." Sped. No. 533. " The world is pretty regular for about forty rod east and ten west." Ib. No. 535. "The stand- ard being more than two foot above it." BACON: Joh. Diet. 10. Standard. "Supposing, (among other Things) he saw two Suns, and two Thebes." Bacons Wisdom, p. 25. "On the right hand we go into a parlour thirty three foot by thirty nine." Sheffield's Works, ii, 258. "Three pound of gold went to one shield." 1 Kings, x, 17. " Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that sessions." The Friend, x, 389. "And, truly, he hath saved me this pains." Barclay's Works, ii, 266. " Within this three mile may you see it coming." SHAK.: Joh. Diet. w. Mile. "Most of the churches, not all, had one or more ruling elder." Hutchinson's Hist, of Mass, i, 375. " While a Minute Philosopher, not six foot high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe." Berkley's Alciphron, L151. "The wall is ten foot high." Harrison's Gram. p. 50. "The stalls must be ten t broad." Walkers Particles, p. 201. "A close prisoner in a room twenty foot square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty foot southward, not to walk twenty foot northward." LOCKE : Joh. Diet. w. Northward. " Nor, after all this pains and industry, did they think themselves qualified." Columbian Orator, p. 13. " No less than thirteen gypsies were condemned at one Suffolk assizes, and executed." Webster's Essays, p. 333. "The king was petitioned to appoint one, or more, person, or persons." MACAULAY : Priestley's Gram. p. 194. "He carries weight! he rides a race ! ' Tis for a thousand pound ! " C.ncpcr's Poems, i, 279. "They carry three tire of guns at the head, and at the stern there are two tire of guns." Joh. Diet. w. Galleass. " The verses consist of two sort of rhymes." Formey's Belles -Lettres, p. 112. "A present of 40 camel's load of the most precious things of Syria." Wood's Diet. Vol. i, p. 162. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutiae." N. Barrett's Gram., Tenth Ed., Pref. p. iii. " So many spots, like nreves on Venus' soil, One jewel set off with so many foil." Drydcn. " For, of the lower end, two handful It had devour' d, it was so manful." Iludibras, i, 365. CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. - RULE IX. - ADJECTIVES. - ERRORS. 523 UNDER NOTE III. OF RECIPUOCALS. "That shall and will might be substituted for one another." Priestley's Gram. p. 131. " We u use great liberties with one another." Ib. p. 244. "That greater separation of the two i one another." 76.466. "Most of whom live remote from each other." Webster's Essays, p. 39. " Teachers like to see their pupils polite to eich other." ll'. >!;, p. 28. "In a little time, he and I must keep company with one another only." Spact. No. 474. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon each other." /w//v.v f /,'/. of Cr'). " Yet we deny that the knowledge of him, as outwardly crucified, is the best of all other knowledge of him." Barclay' a Works, i, 141. " Our ideas of numbers are of all others the most accurate and distinct." I Han-ail's Loyic, p. 35. " This ! is of all others the ease when it can be least necessary to name the agent." ./. f your lives." V>. i, 394. " Perry's royal octavo is esteemed : of any pronou 'ionary yet known." 7,W Bo;>k, p. x. " Tin's is tin- tenth 'f all the foregoing, the most bloody." Sammy's Antiqui'tii-*, Chap. xiii. "The ! -t sux-eptihle of .sublime imagery, of any language in the world." S ' ,'ram. p. 111. " Horn r is universally allowed to have had the great- est Invention of any w. , er." P<>-. f,, lLu>i<-r. " In a version of this par- ticular work, which most of any other seems to require a venerable antique cast." Ib. . think him th" he-t informed of any naturalist who has ever written." Je/fer- ton's A . "Man N capable of b; ing the most social of any animal." Sheridan' 3 Elocution, p. 1 l">. " It is of all others that which most moves us." Ib. L3S. "Which of all others, i.s the : .trtiele." lh. p. " < Juoth he ' this gambol thou Is, of all others, the unwi>est.' " Hudibras, iii, 316. I'M.! it Norr. VI.- id his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood." II"-' El. Sfi . p. 101. "I think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet had." lh\ B,'>n'r's /IT. in Murray's Cram. Vol. ii, p. 300. " We have had no grammarian * This is not a more repetition of the last example rited under Note 1 Jth .above ; but it is Murray's interpreta- tion of the text there quoted. Both forms anj faulty, but not in the same way. G. BROWN. 524 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. who has employed so much labour and judgment upon our native language, as the author of these volumes." British Critic, ib. ii, 299. " No persons feel so much the distresses of others, as they who have experienced distress themselves." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 227. "Never was any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation." Ib. p. 185; Frazets Gram. 135. "No tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek." Blair's Rhet. p. 85. " Never sovereign was so much beloved by the people." Murray's Exercises, II. xv, p. 68. " No sovereign was ever so much beloved by the people." Murray's Key, p. 202. " Nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child." Ib. p. 203 ; Mer- chant's, 195. " Of all the figures of speech, none comes so near to painting as metaphor/' Blair's Rhet. p. 142 ; Jamiesons, 149. "I know none so happy in his metaphors as Mr. Addison." Blair s Rhet. p. 150. " Of all the English authors, none is so happy in his metaphors as Addison." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 157. " Perhaps no writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle." Blair, p. 177 ; Jamicson, 251. "Never was any writer so happy in that concise spirited style as Mr. Pope." Blair's Rhet. p. 403. "In the harmonious structure and disposition of periods, no writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero." Blair, 121 ; Jamieson, 123. "Nothing delights me so rmich as the works of nature." Murray's Gram, i, p. 150. " No person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day." Murray's Key, ii, 216. "In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only." Maunder' s Gram. p. 15. "For nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uni- formity." Blair's Rhet. p. 102. " No writing lifts exalted man so high, As sacred and soul-moving poesy." Sheffield. UNDER NOTE VII. EXTRA COMPARISONS. "How much more are ye better than the fowls ! " Luke, xii, 24. " Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest." 2 Esdras, iv, 34. "This word peer is most principally used for the nobility of the realm." Cowell. " Because the same is not only most universally received," &c. Barclay's Works, i, 447. "This is, I say, not the best and most principal evidence." Ib. iii, 41. "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most Highest." The Psalter, Ps. 1, 14. " The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most Highest." Ib. Ps. xlvi, 4. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first greatest lesson that should be taught them is to admire frugality." Goldsmith's Essays, p. 152. "More universal terms are put for such as are more restricted." Browns Metaphors, p. 11. "This was the most unkindest cut of all." Dodd's Beauties of Shak. p. 251 ; Singer's Shak. ii, 264. " To -take the basest and most poorest shape." Dodd's Shak. p. 261. " I'll forbear : and am fallen out with my more headier will." Ib. p. 262. "The power of the Most Highest guard thee from sin." Percival, on Apostolic Succession, p. 90. " Which title had been more truer, if the dictionary had been in Latin and Welch." VEUSTEGA> : Harrison's E. Lang, p. 254. "The waters are more sooner and harder frozen, than more further upward, within the inlands." Id. ib. "At every descent, the worst may become more worse." H. MANN : Louisville Examiner, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 149. " Or as a moat defensive to a house Against the envy of less happier lands." Shakspcare. "A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far Than arms, a sullen interval of war." Dryden. UNDER NOTE VIII. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. "It breaks forth in its most energetick, impassioned, and highest strain." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 66. " He has fallen into the most gross and vilest sort of railing." Barclay's Works, iii, 261. " To receive that more general and higher instruction which the public affords." District School, p. 281. "If the best things have the perfectest and best operations." HOOKER: Joh. Diet. "It became the plainest and most elegant, the most splendid and richest," of all languages. See Bucke's Gram. p. 140. "But the most fre- quent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense." Blair's Rhet. p. 331; Murray's Gram. 248. "That every thing belonging to ourselves is the perfectest and the best." Clarkson's Prize Essay, p. 189. "And to instruct their pupils in the most thorough and best manner." Report of a School Committee. UNDER NOTE IX. ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED. " The Father is figured out as an old venerable man." Dr. Brownlee's Controversy. "There never was exhibited such another masterpiece of ghostly assurance." Id- "After the three first sentences, the question is entirely lost." Sped. No. 476. " The four last parts of speech are commonly called particles." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 14. "The two last chapters will not be found deficient in this respect." Student's Manual, p. 6. " Write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns." Abbott's Teacher, p. 85. " We have a few remains of other two Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion." Blair s Rhet. p. 393. " The nine first chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical." Ib. p. 417. " For of these five Leads, only the two first have any particular relation to the sublime."- Ib. p. 35. " The resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the "The is an article, relating to the noun balm, agreeable to Rule 11." Comly's Gram. p. is an adjective relating to the noun mans, agreeable to llule llth." Ibid. 12th CnAP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE IX. ADJECTIVES. ERRORS. 525 whole." Kames, Kl. nf Cnt. ii, 69. "The three last are arbitrary." Ib. p. 72. " But in the phrase ' She hangs the curiains,' the verb hany* is a transitive active verb." Comly's Gram. p. 30. " If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of transitive or intransitive active, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood." Ib., 1,5th Ed., p. 30. "These two last Hues have an embarrassing construction." Hush, on the Voice, p. 1GO. " God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and other seven persons." Wood's Dict.ii, 129. "The six first books of the JEneid arc extremely beautiful." Forim-ifs Ilfl(,:*-L/t(r// \~<-rb, p. 302. " But we fear that not such another man is to be found." lti:v. ED. IKVIM; : on Homes Psalms, p. xxiii. " Oh such another sleep, that I might see But such another man ! " SHAK. Antony and Cleopatra. UXDI ;i XOTI: X. ADJECTIVES FOR ADVKKHS. 133. 12th Ed. often. " To whom 1 . that the beer was extreme good." Goldsmith's Essays, p. "He writes remarkably elegant." O. B. Feirces Gram. p. 152. "John behaves truly civil to all men." Ib. p. 153. "All the sorts of words hitherto considered have each of them some meaning, even when taken separate." Bcatties Moral Science, i, 44. "He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example." Sprat'* Sermons, p. 80. "Marvel- lous graceful." ]). 18. "The Queen having changed her ministry suitable to her wisdom." Sic iff, E.r,i,n. X<>. 21. "The assertions of this author are easie'r detect- ed." Swift: censured in Loicth's (-ram. p. 93. "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger than that." Bentlcy : ibid. "If one author had spoken nobler and loftier than an other." LI. ib. " Xenophon says express." Id.ib. "lean never think so very mean of him." Id. ib. " To convince all that are ungodly among them, o all their ungodly deeds, which they have ungodly committed." Judc, loth : ib. " I think it very masterly written." 'v^ I'Ct. 7i: ib. "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it lively represents." Addison, on. Me-lals : ib. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." BUKDKU: approved in Webster's Lnpr. dram. p. lu7 : />..-" 'v, HO ; Maltby's, 93. "Agreeable to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents." W(b.iter's Imp. Gram. p. 109. "Words taken independent of their meaning are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender." Maltby's Gr. 96. " Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works." Beaut, of Shak. p. 236. L'XDEH NOTE XI. THEM FOR THOSE. "Though he was not known by them letters, or the name Christ." Wm. Bayly's Works, p. 94. "In a gig, or some of them things." E:lf the Lake, Canto ii, Stanza 29. " Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids, In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades; M by Apollo's silver bow were slain, Those Cynthia -retched upon the plain." Pope, 11. xxiv, 760. >ry and forecast just returns enj Thi-s pointing back to youth, that on to age." See Key. UN;.;.;; NOTl XIII. F.ITIIKU AND NEITHER. "These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed towards either of them are generically distinct." Blair's Jl/n-t. p. :J18. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still either of them nay be correct in principle. For these divisions and their technical terms, are all arbitra- ry.'"'/.'. II "' p- vi. " Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient, as it has but seven vowels, to represent thirteen different sounds ; and has no letter to represent either of five simple consonant sounds." Churchill's Gram. p. 19. " Then neither 526 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. of these [five] verbs can be neuter." Oliver B. Peirce's Gram. p. 343. "And the asserter is in neither of the four already mentioned." Ib. p. 356. "As it is not in either of these four." Ib. p. 356. " See whether or not the word comes within the definition of either of the other three simple cases." Ib. p 51. " Neither of the ten was there." F razee s Gram. p. 108. " Here are ten oranges, take either of them." Ib. p. 102. " There are three modes, by either of which recollection will generally be supplied ; inclination, practice, and asso- ciation." Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. xxix. "Words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads." Fowler s E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, pp. 335 and 340. " Now a sentence raay be analyzed in reference to either of these [four] classes." Ib. p. 577. UNDER NOTE XIV. WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST. " Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates the whole departm3nts of the state ? ' ' Blair s Rhet. p, 278. "A messenger relates to Theseus the whole particulars." Kamcs, EL of Grit. Yol. ii, p. 313. " There are no less than twenty diphthongs in the English language." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. xii. " The Kedcross Knight runs through the whole steps of the Chris- tian life." Spectator, No. 540. "There were not less than tifty or sixty persons present." Teachers' Report. " Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression." Blair s Rhet. p. 152 ; Murray's Gram, i, 351. " By which means knowledge, much more than oratory, is become the prin- cipal requisite." "Blair's Rhet. p. 254. "No less than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets." Lemp. Diet. n. Homer. "Temperance, more than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. " I do not suppose, that we Britons want genius, more than our neighbours." Ib. p. 215. "In which he saith, he has found no less than twelve untruths." Barclay's Works, i, 460. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and the whole operations fixed." HUME: see Priestley's Gram. p. 190. "In these rigid opinions the whole sectaries con- curred." Id. ib. " Out of whose modifications have been made most complex modes." LOCKE : Sanborn's Gram. p. 148. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no less than five different tones." Blair's Rhet. p. 58. "These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. " 'Tis certain, we believe ourselves more, after we have made a thorough Inquiry into the Thing." Brightlantfs Gram. p. 244. "As well as the whole Course and Reasons of the Operation." Ib. "Those rules and principles which are of most practical advantage." Neioman's Rhet. p. 4. "And there skall be no more curse." Rev. xxii, 3. "And there shall be no more death." Rev. xxi, 4. " But in recompense, we have more pleasing pic- tures of ancient manners." Blair's Rhet. p. 436. "Our language has suffered more injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it htd suffered before, in the period of three centuries." Webster's Essays, Ed. of 1790, p. 96. " Tl e whole conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society.' 7 Kamts t El. of Grit. Vol. i, p. 166. , UNDER NOTE XV. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. "To such as think the nature of it deserving their attention." Butler's Analogy,}). 84. "In all points, more deserving the approbation of their readers." Keepsake, 1830. "But to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature." Lcmpriere's Diet. n. Zeno. " The following extracts are deserving the serious perusal of all." The Friend, Vol. v, p. 135. "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving attention." Bulwer's Dis- oicned, ii, 95. " The opinions of illustrious men are deserving great consideration." Porter's Family Journal, p. 3. "And resolutely keep its laws, Uncaring consequences." Burns' s Works, ii, 43. "This is an item that is deserving more attention." Goodell's Lectures. "Leave then, thy joys, unsuiting such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage." Dryden. UNDER NOTE XVI. FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES. " The tall dark mountains and the deep toned seas." Sanborn's Gram. p. 278. " O ! learn from him To station quick eyed Prudence at the helm." ANON. : Frost's El. of Gram. p. 104. " He went in a one horse chaise." Blair's Gram. p. 113. "It ought to be, ' in a one horse chaise.' " Dr. Crombie's Treatise, p. 334. "These are marked with the above men- tioned letters." Folker's Gram. p. 4. "A many headed faction." Ware's Gram. p. 18. " Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammars for the perhaps heaven in- spired effort." Fowle's True English Gram. Part 2d, p. 25. " Common metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines ; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourteen syllable lines." Goodenow' s Gram. p. 69. " Short metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines ; the third of eight, the rest of six syllables." Ibid. "Par- ticular metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight." Ibid. "Halleluiah metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six." Ibid. " Long metre stanzas are merely the union of f.iur Iambic lines, of ten syllables each." Ibid. "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the Old Testament poets.'" Blair's Rhet. p. 418. CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE X. PRONOUNS. EXCEPTIONS. " You sulphurous and thought executed fires, Vaunt couriers to oak cleaving thunderbolts, Singe my white head ! And thou, all shaking thunder Strike flat the thick rotundity o' the world ! "Beauties of Shak. p. 2f>4. CHAPTER V.-PRONOliNS. The rules for the agreement of Pronouns with their antecedents arc four ; hence this chapter extends from the tenth rule to the thirteent'i, iiulusively. The cases of Pronouns are embraced with those of nouns, in the seven rules of the third chapter. RULE X. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender : * as, " This is the friend of whom I spoke ; he has just arrived." " This is the book ivhich I bought ; it is an excellent work." "10, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too." Cowper. " Speak thou, whose thoughts at humble peace repine, Shall Wolsey's wealth with Wolsey's end be thine ? " Dr. Johnson. EXCEPTION FIRST. When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite, or unknown to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable ; because the person, number, and gender, are rather assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent : as, " I do not care W/o knows it." Steele. "Who touched me f 1 Tell me u-'ho it was." " We have no knowledge how, or by whom, it is inhabited." ABBOT: Joh. Diet. EXCEPTION SECOND. The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex ; as, " Which is the real friend to the child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the per- son who, considering only ifs health, resists its importunities:" Opie. "He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view it." Murray's Gram. p. 301. "The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the night." Bucke's Gram. p. 62. EXCEPTION THIRD. The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent, and is some- times a mere expletive, and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb ; as, " Whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy." Chalmers. " Seek- ing to lord it over (iod's heritage." The Frirnrl, vii, 'Jo3. "/C is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink." r>-<\ xxxi, 4. " Having no temptati >n to it, God cannot act unjustly without defiling his nature." Broicn's Divinity, p. 11. " Come, and trip it as you go, On the light fantastic toe." Milton. PTION FOURTH. A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause ; as, Hard has been the fate of many a great gcniiis, that while they have conferred immortality on others, they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity." HW/n- ,an. " In Ilawick twinkled many a Unfit, Behind him soon they set in night." W. Scott. m FIFTH. When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it docs not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb; as, " \\' c [Lindlcy Murray] have followed those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribu- * Some authors erroneously Fay, "A prrtnnnl pronoun docs not always nprec in person with its antecedent ; as, 'John said. / will do it.' "Gooitrnnw'n (irarn. " When I Fay, < ., those children, you inu.-t mine perceive that the noun children in of the r ;it th- pronoun you is of the sKoml ; jet you itan'ds tor r/iilffrrn.'' In^irant/'x drum, p. f,}. H, ... FpeMkers, with Feparatv speeche* ; mid these ire iiruiil'oth 'I..- circumstance. It is not to b<- MU-IM.^-.!. that th.- nouns K-\T ipeaker'x pronouns, are to be found or sought, in what an other speaker u-terc. '1 In 1 pronoun / dot s i <>t here ;tand for the noun John which H of the third person ; it is John's own word, rrprost -nHi / mysflf, A/m, of the./?r.t< j lf r*on. will dn it." Nor d.*-s ymt ffand for cliHilrni as spoken r,f by ;i : imt for childnn of the second person, uttered or implied in tue address ol his messenger : a*, " Children, you must come in." 528 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III- tion." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 29. "We sliall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it." Ib. " My lord, you know I love you." Shakspeare. EXCEPTION SIXTH. The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense, because it takes it in an other; as, "I have perused Mr. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, and find it* a very laborious, learned, and useful Work." Tho. Kn'pe, D. D. "Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one." Smith's New Gram. p. 8. "Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male." Ib. " The Utica Sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous." Evening Post. (Better: "The editor <$ the Utica Sentinel says, he has not heard," &c.) " There is little Benjamin with their ruler. ' Psalms, Ixviii, 27. "Her end when emulation misses, She turns to envy, stings, and hisses." Sicift's Poems, p. 415. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE. X. OBS. 1. Respecting a pronoun, the main thing is, that the reader perceive clearly for what it stands and next, that he do not misapprehend its relation of case. For the sake of completeness and uniformity in parsing, it is, I think, expedient to apply the foregoing rule not only to those pronouns which have obvious antecedents expressed, but also to such as are not accompanied by the nouns for which they stand. Even those which are put for persons or things unknown or indefinite, may be said to agree with whateA 7 eris meant by them ; that is, with such nouns as their own properties indicate. For the reader will naturally understand something by every pronoun, unless it be a mere expletive, and without any antecedent. For example : " It would depend upon who the forty were." Trial at Steubenville, p. 50. Here who is an indefinite relative, equivalent to what persons ; of the third person, plural, masculine; and is in the nominative case after were, by Rule 6th. For the full construction seems to be this : " It would depend upon the persons who the forty were." So which, for which person, or which thing, (if we call it a pronoun rather than an adjective,) maybe said to have the properties of the noun person or thing understood ; as, " His notions fitted things so well, That lohich was which he could not tell." Tludibras. OBS. 2. The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself and others, and is there- fore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of fiction, in stead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker is not alone in his opinions ; or, perhaps more frequently, to evade the charge of egotism ; for this modest assumption of plurality seems most common with those who have some- thing else to assume: as, "And so lately as 1809, Pope Pius VII, in excommunicating his 'own dear son,' Napoleon, whom he crowned and blessed, says: 'We, unworthy as we are. represent the God of peace.'" Dr. Brownlee. Monarchs sometimes prefer we to 7, in immediate con- nexion with a singular noun; as, "We Alexander, Autocrat of all the Russias." "We tie Emperor of China," &c. Economy of Human Life, p. vi. They also employ the anomalox s compound ourself, which is not often used by other people ; as, " Witness ourself at Westmh - ster, 28 day of April, in the tenth year of our reign. CHARLES." "Ourself to hoary Nestor will repair." Pope, Iliad, B. x, 1. 65. OBS. 3. The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now generally applied alike to one person or to more. Several observations upon this fashionable substitution of the plural number for the singular, will be found in the fifth and sixth chapters of Etymology. This usage, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, observes, " When language was plain and simple, the English always said thou, when speaking to a single person. But when an affected politeness, and a fondness for continental manners and customs began to take place, persons of rank and fashion said you in stead of thou. The innova- tion gained ground, and custom gave sanction to the change, and stamped it with the authority of law." English Gram. Third Edition, 1793, p. 107. This respectable grammarian acknowledged both thou and you to be of the second person singular. I do not, however, think it necessary or advisable to do this, or to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing the lat- ter pronoun, and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. f It is manifestly better to say, that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure Enallag. For if you has literally become singular by virtue of this substitution, we also is singular for the same reason, as often as it is substituted for /; else the axithority of innumerable authors, editors, compilers, and crowned heads, is insufficient to make it so. And again, if you and the corresponding form of the verb are literally of the secondperson singular, (as Wells contends, with an array of more than sixty names * The propriety of this construction is questionable. See Obs. 2d on Rule 14th. t Among the authors who have committed this great fault, are. Alden, the Aliens, C. Adams, the author of the Brit- ish Grammar, Buchanan, Cooper, Cutler, Davis, Dilworth, Felton, Fisher, Fowler, Frazee, Goldsbury, Hallock. Hull, M'Culloch, Morley, J Putnam, Russell, Sanborn, R. C. Smith, Weld, Wells, Webster, and White. " You is plu- ral, whether it refer to only one individual, or to more." Dr. Crombie, on Etym. and Synt. p. 240. " The word you, even when applied to one person, is plural, and should never be connected with a singular verb." Alexan* der'i Gra.rn.Tf>. 53; Emmons's. 26. " You is of the Plural Number, even though used as the Name of a single Person." W. Ward's Gram. p. 88. "Altho' the Second Person Singular in both Times be marked with thou, to distinguish it from the Plural, yet we, out of Complaisance, though we speak but to one particular Person, use the Plural you, and never thou, but when we address ourselves to Almighty God, or when we speak in an emphatical Manner, or make a distinct and particular Application to a Person." British Gram. p. 126 ; Buchanan's, 37. " But you, tho' applied to a single Person, requires a Plural Verb, the same as ye ; as, you love, not you lovest or loves; you were, not you was or ivast." Buchanans Gram. p. 37. CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE X. PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 529 of English grammarians to prove it,) then, by their own rule of concord, since thou and its verb are still generally retained in the same place by these grammarians, a verb that agrees with one of these nominatives, must also agree with the other ; so that you hast and thou have, you scent and thou sec, may bo, so i';ir as appears from their instructions, as good a concord as can be made of these words"! OKS. 4. The putting of yon for thou has introduced the anomalous compound yourself, which is now very generally used in >tead of thi/sr/f. In this instance, as in the less frequent adoption Ototmelflot inysrlf, 'Fashion so tramples upon the laws of grammar, that it is scarcely possible to frame an intellig on in her favour. These pronouns arc essentially singular, both in form and meaning; and yet they cannot be used with /or thou, with IIK- or f/x-r, or with any verb that is literally si:. .-self am :" but, on the contrary, they must bo connected only with such plural terms as arc put for the singular; as, ' Jf'e ow>c[f are kina " " Undoubtedly you your.-" n innovator." L. Murray's drum. p. 3G1 ; CampbeW I Bhet* 167. " Try touch, or sight, or smell ; try what you will, strangely ,/SfM nought but yourself alone." Pollok, C. of T., B. i, 1. 1G2. OlJS. 5. Such terms of address, as your Mftje.sti/, your Ilif/hness, your Lordship, your Honour, are sometimes followed by verbs and pronouns of the' second person plural, substituted for the singular; and sometime-; bywords literally singular, and of the third person, with no other figure than a substitution of ir.'t'i for n-hirh : as, " Wherein your Lonk/iij), u-Jio sJiint-s with so much dis- tinction in the noblest assembly in the world, peculiarly excels." I)edicati(.n <[f Sale's Koran. " We have good cause to give yo> the first place ; who, by a continued series of favours, httrf'. Dot only while you wo ceil in a lower orb, but since the Lord hath called your Ilii/hnrts to supreme authority." Musixn-husctts to Cromwell, in Hi-; I. Ons. 6. The general usage of the French is like that of the English, you for thou ; but Span- ish, Portuguese, or German politeness requires that the third person be substituted for the sec- ond. And when they would be very courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, as they for thou. Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person : as, they, denoting the highest degree of respect ; he, a less degree ; you-, a degree still less ; and tJtou, none at all, or absolute reproach. Yet, even among them, the last is used as a term of endearment to children, and of veneration to God ! Thou, in English, still retains its place firmly, and without dispute, in all addresses to the Supreme Being ; but in respect to the Jirst person, an observant clergyman has suggested the following dilemma : ' Some men will be pained, if a minister says ice in the pul- pit; and others will quarrel with him, if he says /." Abbott's Yomui Christian, p. 268. 7. Any extensive perversion of the common words of a language from their original and proper use, is doubtless a matter of considerable moment. These changes in the use of the pro- nouns, being some of them evidently a sort of complimentary fictions, some religious people have made it a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have published their reasons for so doing. But the moral objections which may lie against such or any other applications of words, do not come within the grammarian's province. Let every one consider for himself the moral bear- ing of what he utters: not forgetting the text, " But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement ; for by thy trords thou shalt be justified," and by thy words thou shalt be condemned." Matt, xii, 36 and 37. What scruples this declaration ottt/ht to raise, it is not my business to define. But if such be God's law, what shall be the reckoning of those who make no conscience of uttering continually, or when they will, not idle words only, but expressions the most absurd, insignificant, false, exagger- ated, vulgar, indecent, injurious, wicked, sophistical, unprincipled, ungentle, and perhaps blas- phemous, or profane ? OBS. 8. The agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, it is necessary to observe, is liable to be controlled or affected by several of the figures of rhetoric. A noun used figuratively often suggests two different senses, the one literal, and the other tropical ; and the agreement of the pronoun must be sometimes with this, and sometimes with that, according to the nature of the trope. If the reader be unacquainted with tropes and figures, he should turn to the explanation of them in P;irt Fourth of this work ; but almost every one knows something about them, and such ;st here be named, will perhaps lie made sufficiently intelligible by the examples. There D to introduce under this head more than four ; namely, personification, metaphor, metonymy, 9. When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object personified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the literal sc: ! here were others who -r crime it was rather to :. 'mson. "Pcnanre dreams her life a v, ^hroud." Id. Here if the pronoun were made neuter, th" tion would be destroyed ; as, " By the progress which Jlnr/lntifl had already m.v: -<>d for advancing farther." linhcrt- \. ii. p. 341. If the pronoun it was here intvnde-d to represent lino/and, the feminine she would have been much hi [f such was not the author's meaning, the sen- tence ha^ finilt than the :; : a pronoun with its noun in a wrong sense. Oi!-. 1". When the antec :,oun usual!-, 'hit in its literal, and not in 'cA upheld the state. "The , "'u'ch the builders reje<" ;_'. According t would be better than trho/n, in the following text : " I considered the horns, and, behold, there came up among them an other litth horn, before tchom there were three of t' u plueked UM by the roots." /J./,W. \ii, S. In Rom. ix, 33, there is something similar : "Belio! aid rock of offence : and whosoever bclieveth on him shall not be ashanied." I!-:- '* a metaphor for Christ. and the pronoun him i :red to the sixth exception above; but the construction is not c it is not regular : it would be more grammatical, to change on him to t' te following example, the noun "wohcs," which literally requires irhich, and not who, is 34 "O 530 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. used metaphorically for selfish priests ; and, in the relative, the figurative or personal sense is allow- ed to prevail : "Wolves shall succeed for teachers, grievous icolves, Who all the sacred mysteries of Heaven To their own vile advantages shall tu-n." Milton, P. L., B. xii, 1. 508. This seems to me somewhat forced and catachrestieal. So too, and worse, the following ; which makes a star rise and speak : " So spake our Morning star then in his rise, And looking n;und on every side beheld A pathless desert, dusk with horrid shades." Id. P. R., B. i, 1. 294. OBS. 11. When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different properties, the pro- noun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and sometimes in the literal sense; as, " When Israel vras a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt. As they called them, so they went from them : [i. e. When Moses and the prophets called the Israelites, they often refused to hear :] they sacrificed unto Baalim, and burnt incense to graven images. I taught Ephraim also to go, taking them by their arms; but they knew not that I healed them." Hosea, xi, 1, 2, 3. The mixture and obscurity which are here, ought not to be imitated. The name of a man, put for the nation or tribe of his descendants, may have a pronoun of either number, and a nation may be figuratively represented as feminine ; but a mingling of different genders or numbers Ought to be avoided: as, "Moab is spoiled, anil gone up out of her cities, and his chosen young men are gone down to the slaughter." Jeremiah, xlviii, 15. " The wolf, who [say that] from the nightly fold, Fierce drags the bleatingyjre?/, ne'er drunk her milk, Nor wore her warming fleece." Thomson's Seasons. " That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, A hero perish or a sparrow fall." Pope's Essay on Man. "And heaven beholds its image in his breast." Ib. " Such fate to suffering worth is given, Who long with wants and woes has striven." Burns. OBS. 12. When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less that it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in the literal sense ; as, "A dauntless soiil erect, who smiled on death." Thomson. " But to the generous still improving mind, That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, To him the long review of ordered life Is inward rapture only to be felt." Id. Seasons. OBS. 13 Pronouns usually/b//ow the words which they represent; but this order is sometime? reversed : as, " Whom the cap fits, let him put it on." " Hark ! they whisper ; angels say," &c. Pope. "Thou, O Lord, art a God full of compassion." Old Test. And in some cases of apposi tion, the pronoun naturally comes first; as, "7 Tertius" "Ye lawyers." The pronoun it, like wise, very often precedes the clause or phrase which it represents ; as, " Is it not manifest, that the generality of people speak and write very badly ? " Campbell's Rhet. p. 160 ; Murray's Gram i, 358. This arrangement is too natural to be called a transposition. The most common forn. of the real inversion is that of the antecedent and relative in poetry ; as, " Who stops to plunder at this signal hour, The birds shall tear him, and the dogs devour." POPE: Iliad, xv, 400. OBS. 14. A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or a sentence ; and in this case the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter: as, " Surely the Lord is in this place, and 1 knewzV not." Gen. xxviii, 10. " Yet men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity ; which is to talk and act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood." Butler's Analogy, p. 269. " When it is asked wherein personal identity consists, the answer should be the same as if it were asked, wherein consists similitude or equality." Ib. p. 270. "Also, that the soul be without knowledge, it is not good." Prov. xix, 2. In this last example, the pronoun is not really necessary. "Thai the soul be without knowledge, is not good." Jenks's Prayers, p. 144. Sometimes an infinitive verb is taken as an antecedent ; as, " He will not be able to think, without which it is impertinent tt> read; nor to act, without which it is impertinent to think." Bolingbroke, on History, p. 103. OBS. 15. When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb between them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either of them, but not often with the same mean- ing : as, 1. " I am the man, who command." Here, who command belongs to the subject I. and the meaning is, " i who command, am the man." (The latter expression places the relative nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "I am the man who commands." Here, who commands belongs to the predicate man, and the meaning is, " I am the commander." Again : " I perceive thou art a pupil, who possessest good talents." Cooper's PL and Pract. dram. p. 136. Here the construction corresponds not to the perception, which is, of the pupil's talents. Say, therefore, " I perceive thou art z. pupil possessing (or, icho jiossesscs) good talents." OBS. 16. After the expletive it, which maybe employed to introduce a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender, the above mentioned distinction is generally disregarded ; and the relative is most commonly made to agree with the latter word, especially if'this word be of the first or the second person: as, " It is no more I that do it." Rom. vii, 2D. "'For it is not ye that speak." Matt, x, 20. The propriety of this construction is questionable. In the following examples, the relative agrees with the if, and not with the subsequent nouns : "It is the combined excellen- cies of all the denominations that gives to her her winning beauty and her powerful charms." Bible Society's Report, 1838, p. 89. "It is purity and neatness of expression which is chiefly to be Studied." Blair's Rhct. p. 271. "It is not the difficulty of the language, but on the contrary the simplicity and facility of it. that occasions this neglect " Lowth's Gram. p. vi. "It is a wise head and a good heart that constitutes a great man." Child's Instructor, p. 22. CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. - ROLE X. - PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 531 OBS. 17. The pronoun it very frequently refers to something mentioned subsequently in the sentence ; as, '/ is useless to complain ot what is irremediable." This pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of any sentence in which the verb is followed by a phrase or a clause which, by transposition, ini^'lit he made the subject of the verb; as, "It is impossible to please every one.'' H . Allen's dram. "It was requisite that the papers xhoultl he sent. Ib. The following example is censured by the Ilev. Matt Harrison: "It is really curious, the course which balls will sometimes take." AberiMtkjf't Lectures. "This awkward expression," says the critic, "miijht have been avoided by saving, ' The course which balls will sometimes take is really curi- ous.'" Harrison, on the /,'/i///.v/< Lnnuuaijc, p. 1 17. If the construction is objectionable, it may, in this instance, be altered inns : " It is really curious, to obscrce the course which balls will some- times take ! '' So, it appears, we may avoid a jid'onaxm by an addition. But he finds a worse ex- ample "Aiiain, in an article from the New Monthly,' No. 103, we meet with the same form of expression, out with anaaoravatfd aspect : ' It is incredible, the number of apothecaries' ss i the original form is not allowable, the following line, we seem to have something like it : " It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze." Sir W. Scott. OBS. 13. Relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or near the beginning of their own clauses ; and the learner must observe that, through all their cases, they almost invariably retain this situation in the sentence, and are found before their verbs even whfn the order of the con- struction would reverse this arrangement : as, " He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, wlujse I am, and ichom I serve, is eternal." Murray, p. 1-V.). " He whom you seek." Lowtli. " The good must merit God's peculiar care ; But ic/io, but God, can tell us who they are ? " Pope. OBS. 19. A relative pronoun, being the representative of some antecedent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person, number, and gender, but not its case. By taking an other relation of case, it helps to form an other clause; and, by retaining the essential meaning of its antecedent, serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent is found. No relative, therefore, can ever be used in an independent simple sentence, or be made the subject of a sub- junctive verb, or be put in apposition with any noun or pronoun; but, like other connectives, this pronoun belongs at the head of a clause in a compound sentence, and excludes conjunctions, ex- cept when two such clauses are to be joined together, as in the following example: " I should be glad, at least, of an easy companion, who may tell me his thoughts, and to icJiom I may com- municate mine." Goldsmith's Essays, p. 196. OBS. 20. The two special rules commonly given by the grammarrians, for the construction of relatives, are not only unnecessary,* but faulty. I shall notice them only to show my reasons for discarding them. With whom they originated^ it is difficult to say. Paul's Accidence has them, and if Dean Colet, the supposed writer, did not take them from tome earlier author, they must have been first taught by him, about the year 1510; and it is certain that they have been copied to al: grammar published since. The first one is faulty, because, " When there comith nomi, ; ntwcen the relative and the verb, the relative shall [not always] be the nominative eto(, as may be seen by the following examples : " Many are the works of human idustr\ begin and finish are [say is] hardly granted to the same man." Dr. Johnson's dr. to Diet. " They aim at his removal; which there is reason to fear they will effect." /id, I cut them olf." Shuk. lien. IV. The second rule is faulty, because, "When re co, n tltc rdatirc and the re,-'), tin rciultce shall [not always] be h en .ay be seen by the following examples; "The author . -icf-d any ia './'// he does not think are pertinent." Murray's Gram, i, 192. :.ave reason to think was the case with the Greek and Latin." Ib. 112. " Is this your son, ;r/ 75 born blind ? " John, i\, 19. The case of the relative cannot be accurately detcrmint <1 by any rules of mere location. It may be nominative to a verb afar off, or it may be \^'l/n, i, Gil. Both these particular rules are useless, be- use \] rules for the iven in chapter third above, are applicable to relatives, fficient to all the purpose, and not liable to any exceptions. Jl. In pyntacti* each word, in general, is to be resolved by some one rule; ng of a pronoun commonly requires tiro ; one for its agreement with the noun or ouns for wi. is, and an other for its case. The rule of agreement will be one of the l.apter ; and the rule for the case will be one of the seven which : that the whole syntax of pronouns requires the application of eleven differ nt rules, while that of nouns or Braced in six or seven, and that of any other i < h, in one only. In respect to their case?, relatives and interrogatives admit of every eor>tructinn common to nouns, or to the personal pronouns, except apposition. This id proved by the following exan 1. Not!/- i write; Thou who writcst ; He who writes; The imnl ii 'hat sparcth his rod, hatcth his son." Salomon. ' He io does any thing w/< ires on dangerous ground." "M7/rr/ will be- come of us without religion ? " Blair. " Here I determined to wait the hand of death ; which, "M:-. ' ' /,W/u>M'., p. 90. The two roles hirli - Knit- VI; Men-ham 's Kul* IX; Ineersoll'a ile XII; Kirklinni'fl Knl- JCXII ; I'lornl.!.-'.- \Mi-l XI: Nixon's Obs. 86th .-.TV found in Lowth's Gram. p. 100 ; Churchill's, Io6; A.' . Allen's, 156 ; Blair's, 75; and many other books. 532 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III, I hope, when at last it comes, will fall lightly upon me." Dr. Johnson. "What is sudden and unaccountable, serves to confound." Crabb. "They only are wise, ^oho are wise to salvation." Goodwin. 2. Nominatives by Rule 6th : (i. e. words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though mostly transpOvScd :) " Who art thou ? " Bible. " What were we ? " Ib. " Do not tell them who I am." " Let him be who he may, he is not the honest fellow that he seemed." " The general conduct of mankind is neither ichat it was designed, nor what it ought to be." 3. Nominatives absolute by Rule 8th : " There are certain bounds to imprudence, which being 202. This construction of the relative is a Latinism, and very seldom used by the best English writers. 4. Possessives by Rule 4th : " The chief man of the island, whose name was Publius." Acts. " Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none can escape." Dr. Johnson. " To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is light." Steele. 5. Objectives by Rule oth : " Those whom she persuaded." Dr. Johnson. " The cloak that I left at Troas." St. Paul. "By the things whic h he suffered." Id. "A man whom there is reason to suspect." " What are we to do ? " Burke. "Love refuses nothing that love sends." Gtirnall. " The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality ; to incul- cate ichich, is to be the design of his work." Blair's Rhet. p. 421. " Whomsoever you please to appoint." Lowth. "Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper." Bible. "What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think before God." Sibs. " Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I dp ? " Gen. xviii, 32. " Shall I hide from Abraham what I am going to do ? " " Call imperfection what thou fanciest such." Pope. 6. Objectives by Rule 6th : (i. e. pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs, though they stand before them:) " He is not the man that I took him to be." "Whom did you suppose me to be ? " " If the lad ever become what you wish him to be." 7. Objectives by Rule 7th : " To whom shall we go ? " Bible. " The laws by which the world is governed, are general." Bp. Butler. "Whom he looks upon as his defender." Addison. "That secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to." Id. "I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of ichom I am speaking was master of, a more melan- choly instance." Steele. " Grammar is the solid foundation upon which all other science rests." Buchanan's Eng. Synt. p. xx. OBS. 22. In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently understood ; as, " The man [whom] I trust." Cowper. " Here is the letter [which] I received." So in the fol- lowing sentences : "This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are these the Gods they worship ? Is this the woman you saw ? " Ash's Gram. p. 96. This ellipsis seems allowable only in the familiar style. In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express this relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity; as, "The next error [that] I shall mention [,] is a capital one." Kames, El. of Crit. ii. 157. " It is little [that] we know of the divine perfections." Scougal, p. 94. "The faith \iohich] we give to mem- ory, may be thought, on a superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as that [which] we give to the immediate impressions of sense." Campbell's Rhet. p. 53. " We speak that [which] we do know, and testify that [which] we have seen." John, iii, 11. The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always inelegant ; as, " This is the worst thing [rod ichich is but an other name for cruelty." (i In every prescription of duty, God propOM-th himself as a rewarder ; rr/iich he is only to those that please" him." Dr. ./. (hem, Which would perhaps be more proper than ir/ti>in, in the following passage: "They did not destroy the nations, concerning whum the " \i, 34. Dr. Blair has preferred it in the following inst Lord commanded them." 7 '*1. lie meant, ' tc I coni f with theirs ;" and not, that he joined the person of Achilles to a lion, or that of a minister to a pillar. Os. 2(5. When two or more relative clauses pertain to the same antecedent, if they are connected by a conjunction, the same relative ought to be employed in each, agreeably to the doctrine of the seventh note below; but if no conjunction is expressed or understood between them, the pronouns ought rather to be different ; as, *' There are many things (Jiat you can speak of, cannot be seem." 7?. I' f //v///;.p. 11. This distinction is noticed in the fifth chapter of Ktymoli . ih, on the Classes of Pronouns. Dr. Priestley Btys. " Whatever relative be used, in a .series of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in them ail. ' It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and /hat, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.' ////',/>,// History, Vol. '!'>, p. 117. It ought to have been, //,-_y'.v Cram. p. 102. L. Murray, (as I have shown in the Introduction, Ch x, 22. > ,.>.sumes all this, without references ; adding as a salvo the word "generally," which merely impairs the certainty of the rule: "the same relative ought generally to be used in them all." Octavo dram. p. 1-3-3. And. of who and that, Cobbett says : "Either may do ; but both never ought to be relatives of the same antecedent in the same sentence." Gram. 1 202. The inaccuracy of these rules is as great as that of tf.c phraseology which is corrected under them. In the following sentence, the first relative only is ud consequently the other may be different : " These were the officers that were cafled lloniot'iHoi, and ic/to signalized themselves afterwards so gloriously npon all occasions." Rollings Hist, ii, 62. See also in Rev. x, Gth, a similar example without the conjunction. Oi:s. 27. In conversation, the possessive pronoun your is sometimes used in a droll way, being shortened into yur in pronunciation, and nothing more being meant by it, than might be ex- pressed by the article an or a : as, " Rich honesty dwells, like your miser, sir, in a poor house ; as, your pearl in your foul oyster." Sha!:s]>carc. NOTES TO RULE X. . i: I. A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an other pronoun ; as, "And then there ia good use for Pallas her glass." Bacon's Wisdom, p. 22. Say " for Pallas' s glass." My banks tkty are furni.sh'd with bees, Whose murmur invites one to sleep." Shenstone, p. 284. is lu.-t instance, however, is only an example of pleonasm ; which is allowable and uent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other. Our grammarians have ndemned it too positively. It occurs sundry times in the Bible; as, "Know ye at the LOUD he is God." Psalms, < .: II. A change of number in the second person, or even a promiscuous use ye and yon in the same case and the same style, is inelegant, and ought to be ided ; as, "Vox wept, and I for tltec." "Harry, said my lord, don't cry; I'll ive you something towards thy loss." Steffi's Poems, p 207. " Ye sons of sloth, yVo//-/r,x- Mctapliors, p. 96. Our pools have very often adopted the former sole'-i-m. to accommodate their meas- ure ! or to avoid the harshness of the old verb in the second person singular: as, K"Tliy heart is yet blameless, fly while >/<>/' inny." Queen's Wake, p. -ID. " Oh ! i ' ,, hen tlmu f/oest to brew, ynn're about to do." Ki)ig's Poems, p. 594. ':i that lov'd Athenian 1 >!///'t>ok irhirti was- given me." NOTK IV. Xouns of multitude, unless they expn-ss persons uin-ctly as such, should not i :ited by the relative who: to say, " The /& o/i/)(isifit.m was anticipated." Or: "The man opposed me, as was antici- pated." Or: l< as I expected he would." Again: *' The captain disobeys orders, 'hick is puni.>hed." Ib. p. 1*JS. This is an other factitious sentence, formed after same model, and too erroneous for correction : none but a conceited grammatist M ever have framed such a construction. XV. The possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, her, its, &c., should be sorted or repeated as often as the sense or construction of the sentence requires them ; their omission, like that of the articles, can scarcely in any instance constitute /.T ellipsis: as, "Of Princeton and vicinity." Say, "Of Princeton and its ' The man and wife." Say, " The man and his wife." " Many verbs :ilii.-atinn and construction." Adam's Gram. p. 170; Gould's, v, "and their construction." \VL In the correcting of any discord between the antecedent and its noun, if the latter for any sufficient reason is most proper as it stands, the former i to accord with it : a is discuss what relates to each particu- r in their order : iVs or I-T." /'/-i-stlry's Gram. p. 1 !:',. Better thus : " Let us what relates to the several particulars, in their order." For the order of ings implies plurality. IMPROPRIETIES I- Oil CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. B r, OF AGRKEMENT. ect is to be joined with hi* predicate." Kv. WII.KIXS : Lotcth's Gram. p. 42. [FORMi LE. Not pr < f the masculine gender, and docs not correctly ;i ir, n'titfT. But, according to Kule ! wliKti j- re; -r. .- nf*. in person, number, and i:i-l wirli I'M Every one must jml^r- of tlu-ir own feeling." Hymn's Letters. "Everyone in the >uld know their duty." I! .duoc its possessor into 'that way which it should ^o.' " Infmtt - i. p. T. " Do not they say, every true believer has the Spirit of God in theni : "JLirday's Worlu, iii, 388. " There is none in their natural 538 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III, UNDER NOTE VI. THE RELATIVE THAT. (1.) " This is the most useful art which men possess." Murray's Key, Svo, p. 275. "The earliest accounts which history gives us concerning all nations, bear testimony to these facts." Blairs Rhet. p. 379 ; Jamieson's, 300. "Mr. Addison was the first who attempted a regular inquiry" [into the pleasures of taste]. Blair's Rhct. p. 28. "One of the first who introduced it was Montesquieu." Hurray's Gram. p. 125. " Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons which modern times have produced." Blair's Rhet. p. 289. " The greatest barber who ever lived, is our guiding star and prototype." Hart's Figaro, No. 6. (2.) " When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same which are subjoined to the verbs, from which the nouns are derived." Priestley's Gram. p. 157. " The same proportions which are agreeable in a model, are not agreeable in a large build- ing." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 343. "The same ornaments, which we admire in a private apartment, are unseemly in a temple." Murray's Gram. p. 128. "The same whom John Ba\v also in the sun." Milton, P. L., B. iii, 1. 623. (3.) " Who can ever be easy, who is reproached Avith his own ill conduct?" Thomas a Kcmpis, p. 72. " Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? " List. p. 143. " Who who has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity r" (4.) "The second person denotes the person or thing which is spoken to." Compendium in Kirkham's Gram. "The third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of." Ibid. "A passive verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is its nominative." Ibid, and Gram. p. 157. "The princes and states who had neglected or favoured the growth of this power." Bolingbroke, on History, p. 222. " The nominative expresses the name of the person or thing which acts, or which is the subject of discourse." Hiley's Gram. p. 19. (5.) "Authors who deal in long sentences, are^cry apt to be faulty." Blair's Rhet. p. 108, " Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty." Murray's Gram. p. 313. " The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor female." Merchant's Gram. p. 25. "The neuter gender denotes things which have no sex." Kirkham's Com- pendium. " Nouns which denote objects neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender." Wells'* Gram. 1st Ed. p. 49. "Objects and ideas which have been long familiiir, make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties." Blair s Rhct. p. 50. *' Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province." Murray's Gram. p. 164. " Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit." Ib. p. 132. "After all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accu.- rate," c. Ib. p. 36. "Possibly, all which I have said, is known and taught." A. 11. Johnson s Plan of a Diet. p. 15. (6.) " It is a strong and manly style which should chiefly be studied." Blair's Rhet. ]). 261. " It is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant." Ib. p. 313. " I hope it is not I with whom he is displeased." Murray's Key, li. 17. "When it is this alone which renders the sentence obscure." Campbell's Rhet. p. 242. "This sort of full and ample assertion, it is this which,' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down." Blair's Rhet. p. 197. " She is the person whom I understood it to have been." See Murray's Gram. p. 181. "Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door?" lust. p. 143. " It was not I who shut it." Ib. (7.) " He is not the person who it seemed he was." Murray's Gram. p. 181 ; Inyersoll's, 147. "He is really the person who he appeared to be." Same. "She is not now the woman whom they represented her to have been." Same. "An only child, is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by itself." Blair s Rhet. p. 93 ; Jamieson's, 71; Murray's Gram. 303. UNDER NOTE VII. RELATIVE CLAUSES CONNECTED. (1.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of a thing ; of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist, or of which we have any notion." Loicth's Gram. p. 14. (2.) "A Substan- tive or noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion." L. Murray's Gram. p. 27 ; Alyer's, 15 ; Bacon's, 9 ; E. Devis's, 8 ; A. Flint's, 10 ; Folker's t 5; Hamlins, 9; Inyersoll's, 14; Merchant's, 25; Pond's, 15; S. Putnam's, 10; Rand's, 9; Russell s, 9; T. Smith's, 12; and others. (3.) "A substantive or noun is the name of any person, place, or thing that exists, or of which we can have an idea." Frost's El. of E. Gram. p. 6. (4.) "A noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we form an idea." Hallock's Gram. p. 37. (5.) "A Noun 'is the name of any person, place, object, or thing, that exists, or which we may conceive to exist." D. C, Allen's Grammatic Guide, p. 19. (6.) " The name of every thing that exists, or of which we can form any notion, is a noun." Fisk's Murray's Gram. p. 56. (7.) "An allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it." Murray's Gram. p. 341. (8.) "Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds, or which were of a trivial or injurious nature." Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. v. (9.) " Man would have others obey him, even his own kind ; but he will not obey God, that is CBAP. Y.] SYNTAX. - RULE X. - PRONOUNS. - ERRORS. 539 so much above him, and who made him." Penn's Maxim*. (10.) " But what we may con- sider here, and which tew Persons have taken Notice of, is," &e. Brf if /Aland's Gram. p. 117. (11.) "The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or disco'irse, and which are improperly terminated by t, instead of cd." Murray's drum. p. 107; /Y,.y.v, 81 ; Hart's, 68 ; lugcrsoll's, 104 ; Merchant' t t 63. (12.) " The remain- ins: parts of si!( o'-h, which art- called the indeclinable parts, or that admit of no variations, will not detain us long." Blair a l\ltct. p. 81. \"III. THE RELATIVE AND PIIEPOSITIOX. " In the temper of mind he was then." Add/ No. 54. " To bring them into the condition I am at present." >>'>/. No. .520. "In the posture I lay." Swift's Gulliver. 'In the sense it is sometimes taken." Barclay's Works, i, ~)27. "Tools and utensils are said to be //////, when they serve for the uses they were made." ('olli'-r's Axfnniints, p. 99. "If, in the extreme danger I now am, I do not imitate the behaviour of those," &c. Gold- . i, I 1 ).'!. " News was brought, that Darius was but twenty miles from the place they then were." Ib. ii, 113. "Alexander, upon hearing this news, continued four days in the |>l;i-e he then was." Ih. ii, 113. "To read, in the best manner it is now taught." /' '. p. '-'in. " It may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it should he studied." Ualloek's Gram. p. 9. "Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the acting of an agent, or the suffering of an objedt, with, the time it . .U^/r-/y'.v Gi-am. p. 50. " Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal rv'd my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies." Beauties of Shak. p. 173. NOTE IX. ADVKUHS FOU KKLATIVI:<. "In compositions where pronunciation has no place." Blair's lihet. p. 101. "They framed a protestation," where they repeated their claims." Humes Hint. " Which have reference to Substances, where Sex never had existence." Harris's Hermes, p. 43. " Which denotr ere .sex never had existence." Murray's Gram. p. 38; Fisk's, 57. "There is n> rule given how truth may be found out." Walker's Particles, p. 160. "The nature of t'; whence they are taken." Blair's llhet. p. 105. "That darkness of character, where we can see no heirt." M >/, 8vo, p. 230. "The states -where they negotiated." Formcy's Belles- Lettres, p. 159. "Till the motives whence men act be known." B . n. '2'\'2. ' lie assigns the principles whence their power ;i >w>;." B'a/r'fi li/i.'t. p. 19. " But I went on, and so finished this History in that form as it now appears." Seicel's Preface, p. v. "15y prepositions \ve express the cause why, the instrument by which, wherewith, or the manner how a thing is done." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. l_ )v < ; .J>lm Hum's, 1'Jl. "They are not such in the language whence tii"V are derived." Tmni's Analysis, p. 13. " I find it very hard to persuade sev- eral, that their passions arc a'l'cctcd by words from whence they have no ideas." Burke, ' The known end, then, why we are placed in a state of so nmch af- fliction, ha/:ird,and difficulty, i> our improvement in virtue and piety." Butler s Anal. p. 109. " Vet such h: -recks unborn shall tell, And curse the battle where their fathers fell." Pope, II. B. x, 1. 61. NI.TI: X. Itr.iTAT THK N< " Youth may be thoughtful, but it is not very common." Webster's El. Spell ing -Book, p. 85. "A proper n . :t given to .mo person or thing." Unrllett's School Manual, ii, 27. *'A common name is that given to many things of the same sort." Ibid. "This rule is often \ n'_ r is that in which both the vowels are sounded." Murray's Gram. p. 9; Aider's, 11 ; / "An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two You tded." !. nine's Gram. p. 5. "Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his descendant's arc called Hebrew-;." HVW.v l)i<-t. "Every word in our lan- than one syllable, has one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner." Murray's Grant. "Two consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated ; as, i'a-ble, sti-t!c. lint when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided; as, ut-most, nn-der." Ih. p. 2 1 -'. "Shall the intellect a 1 ,'v, when we allow them to the grossest energies ol' appetite .md Benaer" Hiwnw'i // n. I'S"). "No man hath a propensity to vice as such : on the contrary, a wicked deed di-^usts him, and makes him abhor the author."- , / ' Crit. i, 66. "The same tnat bclom long to nouns, belong "What is Language? communicating thoughts from one to another. 1 so to pronoun*." Greenleaf* Gram. p. 8. "What is Language? It is the means of :"(). B. Prim's Gram. p. 15. "A simple word 540 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. is that which, is not made up of more than one." Adam's Gram. p. 4 ; Gould's, p. 4. "A compound \vord is that which is made up of two or more words." Ib. " When a conjunc- tion is to be supplied, it is called Asyndeton." Adam's Gram. p. 235. UNDER NOTE XI. PLACE OP THE RELATIVE. " It gives a meaning to words, which they would not have." Murray's Gram. p. 244. " There are many words, in the English language, that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs." Ib. p. 114. " Which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the potential mood." Ib. p. 67. " These accents make different impressions on the mind, which will be the subject of a following speculation." Kames, EL of Crit. ii, 108. "And others very much differed from the writer's words, to whom they were ascribed." Pref. to Lily's Gram. p. xii. " Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated, an easy fall will be proper." Murray's Gram, i, p. 250; Bullions 's E. Gram. 167. "There is an ellipsis of the verb in the last clause, which, when you supply, you find it necessary to use tho adverb not." Campbell's Rhet. p. 176 ; Murray's Gram. 368. " Study is singular number, because its nominative I is, with which it agrees." Smith's New Gram. p. 22. "John is the person, or, thou art who is in error." Wright's Gram. p. 136. " For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin." 2 Cor. v, 21. " Take that of me, my friend, who have the power To seal the accuser's lips." Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 268. UNDER NOTE XII. WHAT FOR THAT. "I had no idea but what the story was true." Brown's lust. p. 144. "The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle." Ib. " He had no intimation but what the men were honest." Ib. " Neither Lady Haversham nor Miss Mildmay will ever believe, but what I have been entirely to blame." See Priestley's Gram. p. 93. "I am not satisfied, but what the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world." Ibid. "There is, indeed, nothing in poetry, so entertaining or descriptive, but what a didactic writer of genius may be allowed to introduce in some part of his work." Blair's Rhet. p. 401. "Brasidas, being bit by a mouse he had catched, let it slip out of his fingers : 'No creature, (says he,) is so contemptible but what may provide for its own. safety, if it have courage.' " PLUTARCH : Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. 81. UNDER NOTE XIII. ADJECTIVES FOR ANTECEDENTS. "In narration, Homer is, at all times, remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable." Blair's Rhet. p. 435. "It is usual to talk of a nervous, a feeble, or a spirited style ; which are plainly the characters of a writer's manner of thinking." Ib. p. 92. " It is too violent an alteration, if any alteration were necessary, which none is." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 134. "Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which, there can be no docility." Berkley's Alciphron, p. 385. "Judas declared him innocent; which he could not be, had he in any respect deceived the disciples." Portens. "They supposed him to be innocent, which he certainly was not." Murray's Gram, i, p. f>0 ; Emmons's, 25. "They accounted him honest, which he certainly was not." Felch's Com])- Gram. p. 89. "Be accurate in all you say or do ; for it is important in all the concerns of life." Brown's Inst. p. 145. " Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; which indeed he is, if the law is just." Ib. " To be pure in heart, pious, and benevolent, which all may be, constitutes human happiness." Murray's Gram. p. 232. " To be dexterous in danger, is a virtue ; but to court danger to show it, is weakness." Penn's Maxims. UNDER NOTE XIV. SENTENCES FOR ANTECEDENTS. " This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate." Murray's Gram. p. 175. "The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word ; which is favourable to the melody." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 86. " Every line consists of ten syllables 5 , five short and five long ; from which there are but two exceptions, both of them rare." Ib. ii, 89. "The soldiers refused obedience, which has been explained."- Nixon's Parser, p. 128. "Caesar overcame Pompey, which was lamented." Ib. "The crowd hailed William, which was expected." Ib. "The tribunes resisted Scipio, which was anticipated." Ib. " The censors reproved vice, which was admired." Ib. " The generals neglected discipline, Avhich has been proved." Ib. "There would be two nominatives to the verb was, which is improper." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 205 ; Gould's, 202. "His friend bore the abuse very patiently ; which served to increase his rudeness : it produced, at length, contempt and insolence." Murray's Gram, i, p. 50; Emmons's, 25. "Almost all compounded sentences, are more or less elliptical ; some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech." Murray's Gram. p. 217 ; Guy's, 90 ; R. C. Smith's, 180 ; Ingersoll's, 153; Fisk's, 144; J. M. Putnam's, 137; Weld's, 190. UNDER NOTE XV. REPEAT THE PRONOUN. "In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or external structure, beauty and design are equally conspicuous." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 269. " It CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE XI. PRONOUNS. OBSERVATIONS. 541 puz/.lcs the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative sense." //>. ii, 2'M. "Neither my obligations to the inures, nor expectations from them, are so great. " (' "The Fifth Annual Keport of the Anti- ciety of Ferrisburgh and vicinity." Liberator, ix, (J9. "Meaning taste in its figurative as well as proper sense." . , ;/' ('n't. ii, SCO. "Every measure in which either your personal or political character is concerned." Junius, Let. ix. "A jealous, righteous U.vl has often punished such in themselves or offspring."' ;>. 179. "c their civil and religious history are inseparable." MUm-m'* ,// r-s, i, 7. " K-au thus carelessly thrc-.v away both his civil and religious inheritance." //>. i, 21. "This intelli- gence excited not only our hopes, but fears likewise." Jfitntnn'* Grant, p. 170. "In what manner our defect of principle and ruling manners have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union." !>,- . "Considering her descent, her connexion, and present intercourse." U ./.?, p. 85. "Ills own and wife's wardrobe arc packed up in a firkin." I'arh-r and /Vr's drum. Part i, p. 73. I'M';:::. Nrn: XVI. CH\N;I: TIM: ANTKCEDENT. "The sound of r and o Icng, in their due degrees, will be preserved, and clearly di^tin- guished." Murrni/'.'i .p. 21-. " If a;iy person should be inclined to think," &c., "the author takes the liberty to suggest to them," ice. Ib. Pn'f. p. iv. "And he walked in all the ways of Asa his father; he turned not aside from it." 1 Kit/f/x, xxii, 43. "If ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses." Matt, xviii, 35. "Nobody ever fuvii-d they were slighted by him, or had the courage to think themselves his betters." Co/tiff's An' . s. " And Rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son Esau, which were with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob her younger son." ucvii, l~>. "Where all the attention of man is given to their own indulgence." s p. isi. "The idea of a father is a notion superinduced to the substance, or man let man be what it will." I^ockcs Essay, i, 219. "Leaving every one to do as they list." U . 4GO. "Each body performed his part handsomely." T>. 1-1. "This block of marble rests on two layers of stone, bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them." Parkt / every power a double power, ve their functions and their offices." Shakspcare. RULE XL PRONOUNS. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number : as, " The council were divided in their sentiments." " The Christian ivorld are beginning to awake out of thdr slumber." C. Simeon. "Whatever Adam's posterity lost through him, that and more ihnj gain in Christ." J. Ph' "To this, one pathway gently-winding leads, Where inarch a train with baskets on their heads." Pope, II. B. xviii, 1. 657. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XL Ons. 1. The collective noun, or noun of multitude, being a name that signifies many, may in general be taken in cither of two : to the intention of the user: that is, either with i . thing, i a which sense it will accord with the neuter pronoun it or ir/nr/, , or with reference to the /- M> as to accord with a plural pronoun they, /'//, or tr//o, masculine, or fcminino, as the individuals of the assemblage may happen to be. The noun itself, bring literally singular hoth in form and in fact, has not unfrequently some article or a .re it that implies unity ; so that the interpretation of it in a plural sense by the pronoun or verb, was perhaps not improperly regarded by the old grammarians as an exam- ple of the fij I reach e\ ery individual of a people, as they all share one common nature. 287. 44 Thus urg'd the chief; //;>. p. 118. "The number of such compo-it: y clay i:ici easing, and appear to be limited only by the pleasure or conveuiuncy of the writer." Jivoth's lntr;>i!. to Diet. p. 37. " The church of Christ hath the same power now as ever, and are led by the same Spirit into the same practices." Barclay's Mw/.v, i, 477. "The army, whom its chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile their miserable march." J^ockharCs Napoleon, ii, 165. RULE XII. PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it mu.st agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together : as, "Mtnoa and Thales sung to the lyre the laws which they composed." STRAUO : Blair's lUiet. p. 379. "Sanl and Jonathan were lovely and pleas- ant in their lives, arid in thtdr death tln'ij were not divided." 2 Sam. i, 23. * J!h'.ui? and Jihoduis then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down the stony hills." Pope, 11. B. xii, 1. 17. EXCEPTION- FIRST. "When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural pronoun ; as, "This great /./n'^/s'tphar and I ontinued in public life till his eighty- second year." "The : <", li'jht, and life, which en'l'/It'nt<:(h, also sanctih'eth, and there is not an other." /' "' : ' 'xnfit's and rhi/etits confesseth me two years older when I writ it." (WiYy'.v Preface. " Kemember these, O Jacob and Israel! for thou ant." Isaiah, xliv, '21. Jn that strength and cogency ichich renders eloquence powerful." Blair 's Rhct. p. EXCEPTION* SECOND. When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural pronoun; as, "Thefotffer, and not the hakrr, was restored to his office." " The yood man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward." ft Truth, and truth on/i/, is worth seeking for its own sake." "It is the sense in which the word is ii>ed, and not tin- I'-tters of which it is composed, that determines what is the part of speech to which it belongs." Cobbctt's dram. U 130. EXCEPTION THIUD. When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, r ,i, they arc taken separately, and do not require a plural pronoun ; as "Every plant ind erery tree produces others after its own kind." " It is the cause of every reproach and o'isirc.'i.'i which //./ > \ ur government." Juuius, Let. xxxv. But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural ; as, "Each minister and each church act accord- ing to thi-ir own imp: -Dr. M'Curtce. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XII. Ons. 1. "\Vlicn the antecedents arc of different persons, the first person is preferred to the sec- mi the second to the third; as. ././///, and t/iou, and /, arc attached to nnr country." '.v\ t/i'iti are attached : :itry." " The Lord open some light, and show botn you ETK! me our inheritance ! " /?'./< /-. " Thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesth' \unthrrs, xviii, 1. " For all are friends in heaven ; all faithful friends; And many friendships in t lime Bf>mm. ar< i L growing still : >//!<." Polloh, C. of T., B. v, 1. 33-5. Ons. 2. The (j words are tak i] . !,cy ought not to he v.niterl in In the following example, therefore, (/inn should he it : " The first has a leuis, and the other an asper over them." 1'> inter's Grain. \>. 2lG. Better thus : " The first has a ', nnd the other, an asper." that stand as nominatives or nnteecdents, are sometimes taken conjointly 'here is no conjunction expr Thohist" ; tor, the philosopher, address \r direct aim H, to inform, to persuade, to instruct." The copulative tin,/ may here be said to lie understood, because the verb pronouns are plural; but it seems b< tl either to introduce the connective r to take the nouns disjunctively: as, "Tln-v ha\e all the copiousness, the fervour, the indicating method, that is allo\yable and graceful in an orator; perhaps too much of it for a 544 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. writer." Blair's Rhct. p. 343. To this, however, there may be exceptions, cases in which the plural form is to be preferred, especially in poetry ; as, " Faith, justice, heaven itself, now quit /teiYhold, When to filse fame tbe captive heart is sold." Brown, on Satire. OBS. 5. When two or more antecedents connected by and are nominally alike, one or more of them may be understood; and, in such a case, the pronoun must still be plural, as agreeing with all the nouns, whether expressed or implied: as, " But intellectual and moral culture ought to go hand in hand ; they will greatly help each other." Dr. Weeks. Here they stands for intellec- tual culture and. moral culture. The following example is incorrect: "The Commanding and Unlimited mode, may be used in an absolute sense, or without a name or substitute on which it can depend." O. B. Pierce's Gram. p. 80. Change it to they, or and to or. See Note 6th to Rule 16th. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII. PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND. "Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance." Brown's Inst. p. 146. [FORMULK. Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow, which are connected by ar?r/. aud taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 12th, " When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by a<7 ? it, must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, itself should be themselves; thus, " Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance."] " Both, conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain, such, as we now find it." Blair's Rhet. p. 59. " Idleness and ignorance, it' it be suffered to proceed, &c." JOHNSON : Priestley's Gram. p. 186. "Avoid questions and strife ; it shows a busy and con- tentious disposition." Wm. Pcnn. " To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanks- giving, and witness it blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us." Barclay's Works, i, 213. "Both minister and magistrate arc compelled to chose between his duty and his reputation." Junius, p. 9. "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve it, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God." Browns Divinity, p. 12. " Your levity and heedlessness, if it con- tinue, will prevent all substantial improvement." Brown's Inst. p. 147. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive." Ib. " Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection." Ib. "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : it implies a want of solid mer :.t." Ib. "If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one an other's joy.' Ib. " Suifer not jealousy and distrust to enter ; it will destroy, like a canker, every gerrr of friendship." Ib. " Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity : guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it." Ib. " Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others." Ib. " With the azure and vermilion Which is mix'd for my pavilion." Byron's Manfred, p. 9. RULE XIII. PRONOUNS. When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together : as, "James or John will favour us with his company." " Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries." " What virtue or what mental grace, But men unqualified and hase Will boast it their possession ? " Cowper^ on Friendship. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. OBS. 1. "When two or more singular antecedents are connected by or or nor, the pronoun which represents them, ought in general to be singular, because or and nor are disjunctives ; and, to form a complete concord, the nouns ought also to be of the same person and gender, that the pro- noun may agree in all respects with each of them. But when plural nouns are connected in this manner, the pronoun will of course be plural, though it still agrees with the antecedents singly ; as, " Neither riches nor honours ever satisfy their pursuers." Sometimes, when different numbers occur together, we find the plural noun put last, and the pronoun made plural after both, espe- cially if this noun is a mere substitute for the other ; as, " What's justice to a man, or laics, That never comes within their claws ? " Iludibras. OBS. 2. "When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are connected by or or nor, they cannot very properly be represented by any pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The following sentences are therefore inaccurate ; or at least they contradict the teach- CI1AP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE XIII. PRONOUNS. ERRORS. 545 ings of their own authors: " Either thou or I am greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this sub- ject." Murray's Key, p. 181. " Your character, which /, or any other writer, may now value our- selves by (upon) drawing." SWIFT: Lowth's Gram. p. 96. " Either you or I will be in our place in due time." Cooper's Grant, p. 127. .But different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents taken separately; as, " By requiring greater labour from such slave or slaves, than he or site or they arc able to perform." Prince's Diyest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculiue may involve the feminine by implication ; as, " If a man smite the eye of his ser- vant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish, he shall let him go free for At* eye's sake." Exodus, . 2'.}. Ons. 3. It is however very common to resort to the plural number in such instances as the fore- going, because our plural pronouns are alike in all the genders; as, " When either man or wo/nan .shall separate tho/ixc/rcs to vow a vow of a Nazarite." Numbers, vi, 2. "Then shall thou bring forth thn: /minor that irornanunto thy gates, and shall stone themvfith stones, till they die." Dcut, xvii, "). "Nut on outward charms cuuld he or she build their pretensions to please." Opie, on Lying, p. 148. " Complimenting either mnn or iro/n/in on ii^reeable qualities which they do not possess, in hopes of imposing on their credulity." Jb. p. 108. "Avidieit, or his wife, (no matter which,) sell their presented partridges and fruits." Pope, Sat. ii, 1. 50. " Beginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are the same." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 79. " Did ever Proteus, Merlin, any *////< , Transform themselves so strangely as the rich ? " Pope, Ep. i, 1. 152. OBS. 4. From the observations and examples above, it may be perceived, that whenever there is a difference of person, number, or gender, in antecedents connected disjunctively, there is an inherent difficulty respecting the form of the pronoun personal. The best mode of meeting this inconvenience, or of avoiding it by a change of the phraseology, may be different on differ- ent occasions. The disjunctive connexion of explicit pronouns is the most correct, but it savours too much of legal precision and wordiness to be always eligible. Commonly an ingenious mind may invent some better expression, and yet avoid any syntactical anomaly. In Latin, when nouns are connected by the conjunctions which correspond to or or nor, the pronoun or verb is so often made plural, that no such principle as that of the foregoing Rule, or of Rule 17th, is taught by the common grammars of that language. How such usage can be logically right however, it is difficult to imagine. Lowth, Murray, Webster, and most other English grammarians, teach, that, " The conjunction disjunctive has an effect conlrary to that of the copulative ; and, as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular num- ber." Lowth' s Gram. p. 7-"s L. Murray's, 151; ChurchiIVs, 142 ; W. Allen's, 133 ; Lennie's,'S3 ; and many others. If there is any allowable exception to this principle, it is for the adoption of the plural when the concord cannot be made by any one pronoun singular ; as, " If I value my friend's tcife or son upon account of their connexion with him." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 73. " Do not drink wine nor strong drink, thou nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the tabernacle of the con- gregation." Lev it. x, 8. These examples, though they do not accord with the preceding rule, seem not to be susceptible of any change for the better. There are also some other modes of expression, in which nouns that are connected disjunctively, may afterwards be represented together ; as, [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents prelate and prie\ or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together." Therefore, their should be his ; thus,*" Neither prelate nor priest can give Aw flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors "J "And is there a heart of parent or of child, that docs not beat and burn within them ? " s p. 3t>7. " This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for their service to the body." Colliet's Antoninus, p. 178. "If thy hand or thy foot offend thce, rut thorn off, and cast them from thee." Matt, xviii, 8. "' The same might a-; well be said of Virgil, or any great author, whose general character will infallibly many casual additions to their reputation." Jape's Pref* to Homer. " Either James or John, one of them, will come." Smith'* \>'ir Gram, p.' 37. "Even a rugged rock or barren heath, though in thi-m- ^rceable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole." A i, is.',. -'That neither Count Hechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved themselves right in this affair." Sped. No. 481. " If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions, they are 'martyrs.' " Gospel its oirn Witness, p, 80. " If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die ; then the ox shall be surely stoned." 1-lrodu*, x\i, -JS. " She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Hahit was ensnaring them." DR. JOHNSON : Murray's Sequel, 181. " Here is a Task put upon Children, th;it neither this Author, nor any other h;i\ undergone rhomx-lve-*." .Jnhii^ . ''Hence, if an adjective or iple be subjoined to the verb, when of the singular number, they will agree both 35 544: TIIE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. writer." Blair's Rhct. p. 343. To this, however, there may be exceptions, cases in which the plural form is to be preferred, especially in poetry ; as, " Faith, justice, heaven itself, now quit theirhuld, When to f-ilse fame the captive heart is sold." Brown, on Satire. OBS. 5. When two or more antecedents connected by and are nominally alike, one or more of them may be understood; and, in such a case, the pronoun must still be plural, as agreeing with all the nouns, whether expressed or implied: as, " But intellectual and moral culture ought 1,0 go hand in hand ; they will greatly help each other." Dr. Weeks. Here they stands for intellec- tual culture and moral culture. The following example is incorrect: "The Commanding and Unlimited mode, may be used in an absolute sense, or without a name or substitute on which it can depend." O. B. Pierce 's Grant, p. 80. Change it to they, or and to or. See Note 6th o Rule 16th. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII. PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND. "Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance." Brown's Inst. p. 146. [FORMTJLE. Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow, which are connected by anrl. and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 12th, " When a pronoun has two or more antecedent connected hv ac/, it must atjree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, itself should be themselves; thus, " Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance."] " Both, conversation and public speaking became more simple and p'lain, such as we now find it." Blair's Rhet. p. 59. " Idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, &c." JOHNSON: Priestley's Gram. p. 186. "Avoid questions and strife; it shows a busy and con- tentious disposition." Wtn. Perm. " To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanks- giving, and witness it blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us." Barclay's Works, i, 213. "Both minister and magistrate are compelled to chose between his duty and his reputation." Junius, p. 9. "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve it, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God." Brown's Divinity, p. 12. " Your levity and heedlessness, if it con- tinue, will prevent all substantial improvement." Browns Inst. p. 147. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive." Ib. " Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection." 2b. "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : it implies a want of solid merit." Ib. " If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one an other's joy.' Ib. " Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter ; it will destroy, like n canker, every germ of friendship." Ib. " Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity : guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it." Ib. " Every man is entitled to liberty if conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others." Ib. " With the azure and vermilion Which is mix'd for my pavilion." Byron's Manfred, p. 9. RULE XIII. PRONOUNS. \ it When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together : as, "James or John will favour us with his company." " Neither ivealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries." " What virtue or what mental grace, But men unqualified and base Will boast it their possession ? " Coivper, on Friendship. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. OBS. 1. "When two or more singular antecedents are connected by or or nor, the pronoun which represents them, ought in general to be singular, because or and nor are disjunctives ; and, to form a complete concord, the nouns ought also to be of the same person and gender, that the pro- noun may agree in all respects with each of them. But when plural nouns are connected in this manner, the pronoun will of course be plural, though it still agrees with the antecedents singly ; as, " Neither riches nor honours ever satisfy their pursuers." Sometimes, when different numbers occur together, we find the plural noun put last, and the pronoun made plural after both, espe- cially if this noun is a mere substitute for the other ; as, " What's justice to a man, or laws, That never comes within their claws ? " Hudibras. OBS. 2. When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are connected by or or nor, they cannot very properly be represented by any pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The following sentences are therefore inaccurate ; or at least they contradict the teach- CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. RULE XIII. PRONOUNS. ERROR3. 545 ings of their own authors: " Either thou or I am greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this sub- ject." Murray's Key, p. 181. " Your character, which /, or any other writer, may now value our- selves by (upon) drawing." SWIFT: Lowth' s Gram. p. 96. " Either you or I will'be in our place in due time." ('upper's drum, p. 127. .But different pronouns may be so connected as to rei'er to such antecedents taken separately; as, "By requiring greater labour from such slave or slaves, than he or she or tliry arc able to perform." Prince's Diyest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculiue may involve the feminine by implication ; as, li If a man smite the eye of his ser- vant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish, he shall let him go free for his eye's sake." Exodus, xxi, 20. Or,.s. 3. It is however very common to resort to the plural number in such instances as the fore- going, because our plural pronouns are alikem all the genders; as, " When either manor tcontun sliall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite." Numbers, vi, 2. "Then shalt thou bring forth thu: mnn or that troman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till they die." Deut. xvii, '). "Not on outward charms could he or she build their pretensions to pleu>e." Opie, on Lyiny, p. 148. " Complimenting either /nun or troman on agreeable qualities which they do not possess, in hopes of imposing on their credulity." Ih. p. li)X. "Avit/ii-n, or his irife, (no matter which,) sell their presented partridges and fruits." P ope, Sat. ii, 1. oO. " Beginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are the same." Katnes, El. of Crit. i, 79. " Did ever Protnw, Merlin, any tcitch, Transform themselves so strangely as the rich ? " Pope, Ep. i, 1. 152. OBS. 4. From the observations and examples above, it may be perceived, that whenever there is a difference of person, number, or gender, in antecedents connected disjunctively, there is an inherent difficulty respecting the form of the pronoun personal. The best mode of meeting this inconvenience, or of avoiding it by a change of the phraseology, may be different on differ- ent occasions. The disjunctive connexion of explicit pronouns is the most correct, but it savours too much of legal precision and wordiness to be always eligible. Commonly an ingenious mind may invent some better expression, and yet avoid any syntactical anomaly. In Latin, when nouns are connected by the conjunctions which correspond to or or nor, the pronoun or verb is so often made plural, that no such principle as that of the foregoing Rule, or of Rule 17th, is taught by the common grammars of that language. How such usage can be logically right however, it is difficult to imagine. Lowth, Murray, Webster, and most other English grammarians, teach, that, " The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the copulative ; and, as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular num- ber." Lowth' s Gram. p. 7-3; L. Murray's, 151; Churrhi/l's, 142 ; IT. Allen's, 133 ; Lennie's,'S3 ; and many others. If there is any allowable exception to this principle, it is for the adoption of the plural when the concord cannot be made by any one pronoun singular ; as, " If I value my friend's wife or son upon account of their connexion with him." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 73. " Do not drink wine nor strong drink, thou nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the tabernacle of the con- gregation." Lev it. x, 8. These examples, though they do not accord with the preceding rule, seem not to be susceptible of any change for the better. There are also some other modes of expression, in which nouns that are connected disjunctively, may afterwards be represented together ; as, *' Foppery is a sort of folly much more contagious THAN pedantry ; but as t/iey result alike from affectation, they deserve alike to be proscribed." Campbell's Wiet. p. 217. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIII. PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY OR OR NOR. Neither prelate nor priest can give their flocks any decisive evidence that you are law- il pastors." l>r. Brotcnfre. [FoHMCLE. Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural Dumber, and does not correctly represent its 'cdents prelate and print, which are connected by nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 5th, ' When A pronoun has two or more antecedents .-\ or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and jt as if taken together." Then-fore, their should be his; thus, " Neither prelate nor priest can give Aw flocks iy dec: that you are lawful pastors "J And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within them ? " latnriii '. Sermons, p. oi>7. " This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary >r their servk-e to the body." n>llio's Ant/minus,* p. 178. "If thy hand or thy foot fend thee, cut thorn off, and cast them from thee." Matt, xviii, 8. *' The same might well be said of Virgil, or any <:p i ut author, whose general character will infallibly lise many casual additions to" their reputation." Pope's Pref. to Homer. " Either Fames or John, one of thorn, will come." Smith's \eir dram. p. 37. "Even a rugged or barren heath, though in t). ,reeable, contribute by contrast to ic beauty of the whole." A////I, ,, /:/. tf Grit, i, isr,. "That neither Count Rechteren >r Monsieur Mesnu^er had behaved themselves ri^ht in this affair." Spec/. No. 481. If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions, they are ' martyrs.' " -Gospel its own Witness, p, 80. " If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die ; icnthe ox shall be surely stoned." llrodus, \\. -lie was calling out to one or an ther, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring them." DR. JOHNSON : Murray' 's Sequel, 181. Task put upon Children, thnt neither this Author, nor any other have yet ulorirone themselves." Jo/in- " Hcnco, if an adjective or [>le be subjoined to tho verb, whon of the singular number, they will agree both 35 546 THE GKAMMAR OF ENGLISH GKAMMAES. [PART III. in gender and number with the collective noun." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 154 ; Gould's, 158. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, be pleased to point them out too." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 16. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, a trissyllable, or a polysyllabic, point them respectively out." Ib. p. 25. "The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic have intrenched themselves." Christian Spcct. viii, 185. " While the man or woman thus assisted by art expects their charms will be imputed to nature alone." Opie, 141. " "When you press a watch, or pull a clock, they answer your question with precision; for they repeat exactly the hour of the day, and tell you neither more nor less than you desire to know." Bolingbroke, on History, p. 102. * Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary, Are in their houses Monarch more than I." KING : Brit. Poets, Vol. iii, p. 613. CHAPTER VI- -VERBS. In this work, the syntax of Verbs is embraced in six consecutive rules, with the necessary exceptions, notes, and observations, under them ; hence this chapter extends from the fourteenth to the twentieth rule in the series. RULE XIV. FINITE VERBS. Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number : as, " I know ; thou knowst, or knowest; he knows, or knoweth" " The bird flies; the birds/?/." " Our fathers' fertile fields by slaves are tiWd^ And Rome with dregs of foreign lands is fill' W." Howe's Lucan, B. vii, 1. 600. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. OBS. 1. To this general rule for the verb, there are properly no exceptions ;* and all the spe- cial rules that follow, which prescribe the concord of verbs in particular instances, virtually accord with it. Everyjtfttzfe verb, (that is, every verb not in the infinitive mood,) must have some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the subject of the being, action, or passion ; f and with this subject, whether expressed or understood, the verb must agree in person and number. The infinitive mood, as it does not unite with a nominative to form an assertion, is of course exempt * In their speculations on the personal pronouns, grammarians sometimes contrive, by a sort of abstraction, to reduce all the persons to the third; that is, the author or speaker puts I, not for himself in particular, but for any one who utters the word, and thou, not for his particular hearer or reader, but for any one who is addressed ; and, conceiving of these as persons merely spoken of by himself, he puts the verb in the third person, and not in the first or second : as, " J is the speaker, thou [is] the hearer, and he, she, or it, is the person or thing spoken of. AH denote qualities of existence, but such qualities as make different impressions on the mind. Us the being of con- sciousness, thou [is the being] of perception, and he of memory." Booth's Introd. p. 44. This is such syntax as I should not choose to imitate ; nor is it very proper to say, that the three persons in grammar " denote qualities of existence." But, supposing the phraseology to be correct, it is no real exception to the foregoing rule of concord ; for /and thou are here made to be pronouns of the third person, go in the following example, which I take to be bad English : " I, or the person who speaks, is the first person ; you, is the second ; he, she, or it, is the third person singular." BarUetfs Manual, Part ii, p. 70. Again, in the following ; which is perhaps a little better : " The person 4 J' is spoken of as acted upon." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Edition, p. 29. But there is a manifest absurdity in saying, with this learned " Professor of Languages," that the pronouns of the different per- sons are those persons : as. "Its the first person, and denotes the speaker. Thou is the second, and denotes the person spoken to." Ib. p. 22. t (1.) Concerning the verb need, Dr. Webster has the following note : " In the use of this verb there is another irregularity, which is peculiar, the verb being without a nominative, expressed or implied. ' Whereof here needs no account.' Milt. P. L. 4. 235. There is no evidence of the fact, and there needs none. This is an established use of need." Philos. Gram. p. 178 ; Improved Gram. 127; Greenleafs Gram. Simp. -p. 38; Fowler's E. Gram. p. 537. " Established use ? " To be sure, it is " an established use ; " but the learned Doctor's comment is a most unconscionable blunder, a pedantic violation of a sure principle of Universal Grammar, a perversion worthy only of the veriest ignoramus. Yet Greenleaf profitably publishes it, with other plagiarisms, for " Grammar Simplified ! " Now the verb " needs," like the Latin eget, signifying is necessary, is here not active, but neuter ; and has the nominative set after it, as any verb must, when the adverb there or here is before it. The verbs lack and want may have the same construction, and can have no other, when the word there, and not a nominative, precedes them ; as, " Peradvenfcure there shall lack five of the fifty righteous." Gen. xviii, 28. There is therefore neither " irregularity," nor any thing "peculiar," in thus placing the verb and its nominative. (2.) Yet have we other grammarians, who, with astonishing facility, have allowed themselves to be misled, and whose books are now misleading the schools, in regard to this very simple matter. Thus Wells : " The transitive verbs need and want, are sometimes employed in a general sense, without a nominative, expressed or implied. Examples: 'There needed a new dispensation.' Caleb Gushing. 'There needs no better picture.' Irving. ' There wanted not patrons to stand up.' Sparks. ' Nor did there want Cornice, or frieze.' Milton." Wells' s School Gram. 1st Ed. p. 141; 113th Ed. p. 154. In my edition of Milton, the text is, "Nor did they want Cornice or frieze." P. L., B. i, 1. 715, 716. This reading makes want a " transitive " verb, but the other makes it neuter, with the nominative following it. Again, thus Weld : U A verb in the imperative mode, and the transitive verbs need, want, and require, sometimes appear to be used indefinitely, without a nominative ; as. let there be CUAP. VI.] SYNTAX. HULK XIV. VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 547 from any such agreement. These may be considered principles of Universal Grammar. The Greeks, "however, had a strange custom of using a plural noun of the neuter gender, with a verb of the third person singular ; and, in both Greek and Latin, the infinitive mood with an accusa- tive before it was often equivalent to a finite verb with its nominative. In English, we have nei- ther of these usages ; and plural nouns, even when they denote no absolute plurality, (as shears, s, trowsers, pantaloons, tongs,) require plural verbs or pronouns : as, " Your shears come too late, to clip the bird's wings." SIDNEY : Churchill's Gram. p. 30. OBS. 2. When a book that 'bears a plural title, is spoken of as one thing, there is sometimes presented an apparent exception to the foregoing rule; as, " The Pleasures of Memory was pub - fuAat/inthejear 1792, and became at once popular." Allan Cunningham. "The ' Sentiments of a Chorch-of-England Man' is written with great coolness, moderation, ease, and perspicuity." Johnson's Lift of Strift. " The ' Pleasures of Hope' is a splendid poem ; it was written for per- petuity." Samuel L. Knapp. In these instances, there is, I apprehend, an improper ellipsis of the common noun, with which each sentence ought to commence ; as, " The poem entitled," ' The icork entitled," c. But the plural title sometimes controls the form of the verb; as, " My laves are reprinting." Dr. Johnson. OBS. 3. In the figurative use of the present tense for the past or imperfect, the vulgar have a habit of putting the third person singular with the pronoun /,- as, " Thinks I to myself." Rev. J. Marriott. " O,says I, Jacky, are you at that work ? " Day's Sandford andMerto'n. " Huzza ! huzza ! Sir Condy llackrent forever, was the first thing / hears in the morning." Edaetcorth's Castle llackrent, p. 97. This vulgarism is to be avoided, not by a simple omission of the termi- national s, but rather by the use of the literal preterit: as, "Thought I to myself;" " O,said I ; " "The first thing I heard." The same mode of correction is also proper, when, under like circumstances, there occurs a disagreement in number; as, "After the election was over, there comes shoal* of people from all parts." Castle Rackrent, p. 103. " Didn't ye hear it ? says they that were looking on." Ib. p. 147. Write, " there came," " said they." OHS. 4. It has already been noticed, that the article a, or a singular adjective, sometimes pre- cedes an arithmetical number with a plural noun; as, "A thousand years in thy sight are but as yes- terday." Psalms, xc, 4. So we might say, " One thousand years are," "Each, thousand years are," "Every thousand years are," &c. But it would not be proper to say, "A thousand years is" or, " Every thousand years is ; " because the noun years is plainly plural, and the anomaly of putting a singular verb after it, is both needless and unauthorized. Yet, to this general rule for the verb, the author of a certain" English Grammar on the Producti 'vc System," (a strange perversion of Murray's compilation, and a mere catch-penny work, now extensively used in New England,) is endeavouring to establish, by his own bare word, the following exception : "Every is sometimes associated with a plural noun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, " Every hundred years constitutes a cen- tury." Smith's New Gram. p. 103. His reason is this ; that the phrase containing the nomina- tive, " signifies a single period of time, and is, therefore, in reality singular." Ib. Cutler also, a more recent writer, seems to have imbibed the same notion; for he gives the following sentence as an example of "false construction: Every hundred years are called a century." Cutler's Grammar and Parser, p. 145. But, according to this argument, no plural verb could ever be used with any definite number of the parts of time ; for any three years, forty years, or threescore years and ten, are as single a period of time, as " every hundred years," " every four years," or " every twenty-four hours." Nor is it true, that, "Every is sometimes associated with a plural noun ;" r "every years," or " every hours," would be worse than nonsense. I, therefore, acknowledge such exception ; but, discarding the principle of the note, put this author's pretended cor- tions among my quotations of Jalse syntax. ~>. Different verbs always have different subjects, expressed or understood; except hen two or more verbs are connected in the same construction, or when the same word is repeated >r the sake of emphasis. But let not the reader believe the common doctrine of our grammari- ns, respecting either the ellipsis of nominatives or the ellipsis of verbs. In the text, " The man was old and crafty," Murray sees no connexion of the ideas of age and craftiness, but thinks the text a compound sentence, containing two nominatives and two verbs ; i. e. " The man was old, and light ; There required haste in the business ; There needs no argument for proving, &c. There wanted not men who would, &c. The last expressions have an active Jonn with a passive sense, and should perhaps rather be con- ' flliplical than u anting a nominative ; as, " haste is rtquired, no argument is needed, &c.'' Wtld's Eng- !lish Grammar Illustrated, p. 143. Is there anywhere, in print, viler pedantry than this? The only elliptical example, ~ L't there be light," a kind of sentence from which the nominative id usually suppressed, is here absurdly represented as being full, yet without a subject for its verb ; while other examples, which are full, and in which the nominative must/olloic the verb, because the adverb there " precedes, are tirst denied to have nom- inatives, and then most bungliugly tortured with false ellipses, to prove that they have them ! (3.) The idea of a command wherein no person or thing is commanded, seems to have originated with Webster, by whom it has been taughc, since ISO", as follows -In ,-ume i-;i. 507, Note 3 and Note 7 ; also 520, Note 2. Wells : s authorities for " Imperatives Absolute," are, " F razee, Allen :vnd Cornwell, Nutting, Lynde, and Chapin : " and. with reference to " NEED and WAM," he says, " *-r- \' ^erley, and Ingersoll/' School Gram., 1850, i 209. 548 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. the man was crafty." * And all his other instances of " the ellipsis of the verb," are equally fan- ciful ! See his Octavo Gram. p. 219 ; Duodecimo, 175. In the text, " God loves, protects, supports, and rewards the righteous," there are four verbs in the same construction, agreeing with the same nominative, and governing the same object; but Buchanan and others expound it, " God loves, and God protects, and God supports, and God rewards the righteous." English Syntax, p. 76; British Gram. 192. This also is fanciful and inconsistent. If the nominative is here " elegantly understood to each verb," so is the objective, which they do not repeat. " And again," they imme- diately add, "the verb is often understood to its noun or nouns ; as. He dreams of gibbets, hal- ters, racks, daggers, &c. i. e. He dreams of gibbets, and he dreams of halters, &c." Same works and places. In none of these examples is there any occasion to suppose an ellipsis, if we admit that two or more words can be connected in the same construction ! OBS. 6. Verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun thou, ye, or you> understood after them; as, " Heal [ye~\ the sick, cleanse [ye} the lepers, raise [ye] the dead, cast [ye] out devils." Matt, x, 8. "Trust God and be doing, and leave the rest with him." Dr. Sibs. When the doer of a thing must first proceed to the place of action, we sometimes use go or come before an other verb, without any conjunction between the two ; as, " Son, go work to- day in my vineyard." Matt, xxi, 28. "Come see a man who [has] told me all things that ever I did." John, iv, 29. " Pie ordered his soldiers to go murder every child about Bethlehem, or near it." Wood's Diet, of Bible, w. Herod. " Take a present in thine hand, and go meet the man of God." 2 Kings, viii, 8. " I will go see if he be at home." -Walker's Particles, p. 169. OBS. 7. The place of the verb has reference mainly to that of the subject with which it agrees, and that of the object which it governs ; and as the arrangement of these, with the instances in which they come before or after the verb, has already been noticed, the position of the latter seems to require no further explanation. See Obs. 2d under Rule 2d, and Obs. 2d under Rule 5th. OBS. 8.-r-The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, (and, according to some authors, the par- ticiple in ing, or a phrase beginning with this participle,) is sometimes the proper subject of a verb, being equivalent to a nominative of the third person singular; as, " To play is pleasant." Lowth's Gram, p 80. " To write well, is difficult; to speak eloquently, is still more difficult." Blair's Rhet. p. 81. "To take men oft from prayer, tends to irreligiousness, is granted." Barclay's Works, i, 214. " To educate a child perfectly, requires profounder thought, greater wis- dom, than to govern a state." Channing's Self-Culture, p. 30. "To determine these points, be- longs to good sense." Blair's Rhet. p. 321. "'How far the change would contribute to his welfare, comes to be considered." Id. Sermons. " That too much care does hurt in any of our tasks, is a doctrine so flattering to indolence, that we ought to receive it with extreme caution." Life of Schiller, p. 148. " That there is no disputing about taste, is a saying so generally received as to have become a proverb." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 360. " For what purpose they embarked, is not yet known." " To live in sin and yet to believe the forgiveness of sin, is utterly impossible." 'Dr. J. Owen. " There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, But drinking largely sobers us again." Pope. OBS. 9. The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun it be placed before the verb, and the infinitive, phrase, or sentence, after it; as, "It is pleasant to play." "It is difficult to tcrite well ; " &c. The construction of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omis- sion of this pronoun : " Why do ye that which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days ? " Luke, vi, 2. " The show-bread, which [if] is not lawful to eat, but for the priests only." Ib. vi, 4. " We have done that which [if] was our duty to do." Ib. xvii, 10. Here the relative which ought to be in the objective case, governed by the infinitives ; but the omission of the word it makes this relative the nominative to is or was, and leaves to do and to eat without any regimen. This is not ellipsis, but error. It is an accidental gap into which a side piece falls, and leaves a breach elsewhere. The following is somewhat like it, though what falls in, appears to leave no chasm: "From this deduction, [it] may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure." Blair's Rhet. p. 155. " Whether the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, [it] is not easy to determine." Murray's Gram, i, p. 298. "That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, [it] is very reasonable to believe." Ib. p. 144. These also need the pronoun, though Murray thought them complete without it. OBS. 10. When the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb, it is most commonly used to express action or state in the abstract; as, " To be contents his natural desire." Pope. Here to be stands for simple existence ; or if for the existence of the Indian, of whom the author speaks, that relation is merely implied. "To define ridicule, has puzzled and vexed every critic." Kames, El. of Crit. i. 300. Here "to define " expresses an action quite as distinct from any agent, as would the participial noun ; as, " The defining of ridicule," &c. In connexion with the infin- itive, a concrete quality may also be taken as an abstract ; as, " To be good is to be happy." Here good and happy express the quality of goodness and the state of happiness considered abstractly ; and therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular noun. So also the passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense ; as, "To be satisfied with a little, is the greatest wisdom." "To appear discouraged, is the way to become so." Here the satisfaction and the dis- couragement are considered abstractly, and without reference to any particular person. (See Obs. 12th and 13th on Rule 6th.) So too, apparently, the participles doing and suffering, as well as the adjective weak, in the following example : "Fallen Cherub, to be weak is miserable, Doing or suffering." Milton's Paradise Lost. * This interpretation, and others like it, are given not only by Murray, but by many other grammarians, one of whom at least was earlier than he. See BickneU's Gram. Vol. 1, p. 123 ; IngersoWs, 153 ; Guy-s, 91 ; Alger's, 73 ; Merchant's, 100 ; Picket's, 211 : Fish's, 146; D. Adams's, 81 ; JR. C. Smiths, 182. CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XIV. VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 549 OBS. 11. "When the action or state is to be expressly limited to one class of beings, or to a particular person or thing, without making the verb finite ; the noun or pronoun may be intro- duced before the infinitive by the preposition for: as, "For men to search their own glory, is not glory." Prov. xxv, 27. "Fora prince to be reduced by villany to my distressful circumstances, is calamity enough." Translation of Sallust. "For holypersons to be /nnnb/c, is as hard, as for a prince to s'.;j/Miimsclf to be guided by tutors." TAYLOR: Priestley's Gram. p. 132; Murray's, 184. But such a limitation is sometimes implied, when the expression itself is general ; as, "A0< to know me, argues thyself unknown." Milton. That is, "For tJiee not to know me." The phrase is put for, " Thy ignoranc e of me ; " for an other's ignorance would be no argument in regard to the individual addressed. "I, to bear this, that never knew but better, is some burden." Beauties of Shak. p. 327. Here the infinitive to bear, which is the subject of the verb is, is lim- ited in sense by the pronoun /, which is put absolute in the nominative, though perhaps improp- erly ; because, "For me to bear this" &c., will convey the same meaning, in a form much more common, and perhaps more grammatical. In the following couplet, there is an ellipsis of the infinitive ; for the phrase, " fool with fool," means, " for fool to contend with fool," or, " for one fool to contend with an other : " " Blockheads with reason wicked wits abhor, Rvit fool with fool is barb'rous civil war." Pope, Dunciad, B. iii, 1. 175. OBS. 12. The objective noun or pronoun thus introduced by for before the infinitive, was erro- neously called by Priestley, the sulyect of the affirmation; " (Gram. p. 132 ;) and Murray, Inger- soll, and others, have blindly copied the blunder. See Murray's Gram. p. 184; I nyer soil's, 244. Again, Ini^ersoll says, "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the subject of a verb, andis, therefore, its NOMINATIVE." Conversations on English Gram. p. 246. To this erroneous deduction, the phraseology used by Murray and others too plainly gives countenance: "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nominative case to the verb." Murray's Gram. p. 144; Fish's, 123; Ktrkham's, 188 ; Lennie's, 99 ; Bullions's, 89 ; and many more. Now the objective before the infinitive may not improperly be called the subject of this form of the verb, as the nominative is, of the finite ; but to call it ""the subject of the affirmation," is plainly absurd ; because no infinitive, in English, ever expresses an affirmation. And again, if a whole phrase or sentence is made the subject of a finite verb, or of an affirmation, no one word contained in it, can singly claim this title. Nor can the whole, by virtue of this relation, be said to be " in the nominative case ; " because, in the nature of things, neither phrases nor sentences are capable of being declined by cases. OBS. 13. Any phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a finite verb, must be taken in the sense of one thing, and be spoken of as a whole ; so that the verb's agreement with it, in the third person singular, is not an exception to Rule 14th, but a construction in which the verb may be parsed by that rule. For any one thing merely spoken of, is of the third person singular, what- ever may be the nature of its parts. Not every phrase or sentence, however, is fit to be made the subject of a verb; that is, if its own import, and not the mere expression, is the thing whereof we affirm. Thus Dr. Ash's example for this very construction, " a sentence made the subject of a verb," is, I think, a palpable solecism : " The King and Queen appearing in public was the cause of my going." Ash's Gram. p. 52. What is here before the verb was, is no "sentence;" but a mere phrase, and such a one as we should expect to see used independently, if any regard were had to its own import. The Doctor would tell us what " was the cause of his going : " and here he has two nominatives, which are equivalent to the plural they ; q. d. "They appearing in pub- lic was the cause." But such a construction is not English. It is an other sample of the false illustration which grammar receives from those who invent the proof-texts which they ought to quote. Ons. 14. One of Murray's examples of what he erroneously terms " nominative sentences" i. e., " sentences or clauses constituting the subject of an affirmation," is the following : " A desire to excel others in learning and virtue [,] is commendable." Gram. 8vo, p. 144. Here the verb is agrees regularly with the noun desire, and with that only ; the whole text being merely a simple sentence, and totally irrelevant to the doctrine which it accompanies.* But the great " Compiler " supposes the adjuncts of this noun to be parts of the nominative, and imagines the verb to agree with all that precedes it. Yet, soon after, he expends upon the ninth rule of Webster's Philo- sophical Grammar a whole page of useless criticism, to show that the adjuncts of a noun are not to be taken as parts of the nominative; and that, when objectives are thus subjoined, " the assertion grammatically respects the first nouns only." Ib. p. 148. I say useless, because the * The same may be said of Dr. Webster's '-'nominative sentences;' 1 ' 1 three fourths of which are nothing but phrases that include a nominative with which the following verb agrees. And who does not know, that to call the adjuncts of any thing :ui t *v ntial part of it," is :i ll.i^ :i!iMirg. p. 44. "A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it." HUMK : Murray's Gram. p. 145 ; Ingersoll's, 172 ; Sanfcrrn's, 192 ; Smith's, 123 ; and others. "Here two tall ships becomes the victor's prey." Howe's Lucan, B. ii, 1. 1098. "The expenses incident to an outfit is surely no object." The Friend, Vol. iii, p. 200. " Perhaps their loves, or else their sheep, Was all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep." Milton. UNDER NOTE VI. CHANGE THE NOMINATIVE. " Much pains has been taken to explain all the kinds of words." Infant School Gram. p. 128. " Not less [time] than three years are spent in attaining this faculty." Music of Na- ture, p. 28. " "Where this night are met in state Many a friend to gratulate His wish'd pres- ence." Milton's Comus, 1. 948. "Peace ! my darling, here's no danger, Here's no oxen near thy bed." Watts. " But every one of these are mere conjectures, and some of them very unhappy ones." Coleridge 's Introduction, p. 61. " The old theorists, calling the Inter - rogatives and Itepliers, adverbs, is only a part of their regular system of naming words." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 374. " Where a series of sentences occur, place them in the order in which the facts occur." Ib. p. 264. "And that the whole in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 275. "The origin of the Grecian, and Roman republics, though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction." Adams's Rhet. i, 95. "In these respects, mankind is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature." Butler's Analogy, p. 144. " The scripture are the oracles of God himself." HOOKER : Joh. Diet. w. Oracle. "And at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits." Solomons Sony, vii, 13. " The preterit of pluck, look, and toss are, in speech, pronounced pluckt, lookt, tosst." Fowler s E. Gram. 1850, 68. " Severe the doom that length of days impose, To stand sad witness of unnumber'd woes ! " Melmoth. UNDER NOTE VII. ADAPT FORM TO STYLE. 1 . Forms not proper for the Common or Familiar Style. " Was it thou that buildedst that house ? " Inst. p. 151. " That boy writeth very elegant- ly." Ib. " Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book?" Ib. " Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day ? " Ib. " Doth not your cousin intend to visit you ? " Ib. " That boy hath torn my book." Ib. "Was it thou that spreadest the hay?" Ib. "Was it James, or thou, that didst let him in?" Ib. "He dareth not say a word." Ib. "Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me." Ib. " Whom see I ? Whom seest thou now ? Whom sees he ? Whom lovest thou most ? What dost thou to-day ? What person seest thou teaching that boy r He hath two new knives. Which road takest thou ? What child teaches he ? " Ingersolts Gram. p. 66. "Thou, who makestmy shoes, sellest many more." Ib. p. 67. " The English language hath been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It hath been considerably polished and refined." Lowth's Gram. Pref. p. iii. " This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing." Priestley's Gram. p. 82. " But custom hath now appropriated icho to persons, and which to things." Ib. p. 97. "The indicative mood sheweth or declareth ; as, Ego amo, I love : or else asketh a question ; as, Amos tu f Dost thou love ? " Paul's Accidence, Ed. of 1793, p. 16. "Though thou canst not do much for the cause, thou mayst and shouldst do something." Murray's Gram. p. 143. "The support of so many of his relations, was a heavy tax ; but thou knowest he paid it cheer- fully." Murrni/'s fey, K. 1, p. 180. " It may, and often doth, come short of it." Campbell's Rhetoric, p. 160. '* T\vas thou, who, while thou Beem'dst to chide, To give me all thy pittance tried." Mitford's Blanch, p. 78. -. Forms not proper for t/ic Solemn or Biblical Style. " The Lord has prepar'd his throne in the heavens ; and his kingdom rules over all." " Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God : thou was a God that forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions." "Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said, I have laid help upon one that is mighty." "So then, it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God that shows mercy ; who dispenses his blessings, whether temporal or spiritual, as seems good in his sight." " Thou, the mean while, was blending with my thought ; Yea, with my life, and life's own secret joy." Coleridge. UNDER NOTI-: VIII. EXPRESS THE NOMINATIVE. "Who is here so base, that would bo a bondman?" Beauties nf Makspcarc, p. 249. " Who is hero so rude, that would not be a Roman ?" Ib. "There is not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice." Murray's Gram. p. 300. " In order to adjust them so, 558 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period." Ib. p. 324 ; Blair's Rhet. 118. "But, sometimes, there is a verb comes in." Cobbett's English Gram. H 248. " Mr. Prince has a genius would prompt him to better things." Spectator, No. 466. " It is this removes that impenetrable mist." Harris's Hermes, p. 362. " By the praise is given him for his courage." Locke, on Education, p. 214. " There is no man would be more welcome here." Steele, Spect. No. 544. " Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and immediately follows." Blair's Rhet. p. 141. "And as connected with what goes before and follows." Ib. p. 354. " There is no man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake." Lord Bacon. "All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly, and might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this." Butler's Analogy, p. 108. "Ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality, so far at least as respect justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures."- Gospel its own Witness, p. 56. " Indeed, if there be any such, have been, or appear to be of us, as suppose, there is not a wise man among us all, nor an honest man, that is able to judge betwixt his brethren ; we shall not covet to meddle in their matter." Barclay's Works, i, 504. " There were that drew back ; there were that made shipwreck of faith ; yea, there were that brought in damnable heresies." Ib. i, 466. " The nature of the case rendered this plan altogether proper, and in similar situations is fit to be imitated." Blair's Rhet. p. 274. " This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and was formerly very prevalent." Churchill's Gram. p. 150. " His roots are wrapped about the heap, and seeth the place of stones." Job, viii, 17. "New-York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. "Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss; but hope it maybe retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B." "New-York, May 3d, P, M., 1823. " Dear sir, Have just received the kind note favoured me with this morning ; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, find have not lost so much as at first supposed ; and believe shall still be able to meet all my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D." See Brown's Institutes, p. 151. "Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, And never, never be to Heaven resign'd ? " Pope,Odys. xii, 145. UNDER NOTE IX. APPLICATION OF MOODS. First Clause of the Note. For the Subjunctive Present. "He will not be pardoned, unless he repents." Browns Institutes, p. 191. [FOBMULE. Not proper, because the verb repents, which is here used to express a future contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A future contingency is best expressed by a rerb in the subjunctive present." Therefore, repents should be repent; thus, " He will not be pardoned, unless he repent,"] " If thou findest any kernelwort in this marshy meadow, bring it to me." Neef's Method of Teaching, p. 258. "If thou leavest the room, do not forget to shut that drawer." Ib. p. 246. " If thou graspest it stoutly, thou wilt not be hurt." Ib. p. 196. " On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay." Murray's Exerc. p. 74. " If he is but discreet, he will succeed." hist. p. 191. "Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob." Ib. "If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable." Ib. " Send them to me if thou pleasest." Ib. "Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly." Ib. "Though a liar speaks the truth, he will hardly be believed." Common School Manual, ii, 124. "I will go unless I should be ill." Murray's Gram. p. 300. " If the word or words understood are supplied, the true construction will be apparent." Murray's Exercises in Parsing, p. 21. " Unless thou shalt see the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy support." Murray's Key, p. 209. "Unless thou shouldst make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoida- ble." Ib. p. 209. "We may live happily, though our possessions are small." Ib. p. 202. "If they are carefully studied, they will enable the student to parse all the exercises." Ib., Note, p. 165. "If the accent is fairly preserved on the proper syllable, this drawling sound will never be heard." Murray's Gram. p. 242. " One phrase may, in point of sense, be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essentially different." Ib. p. 108. "If any man obeyeth not our word by this epistle, note that man." Dr. Webster's Bible. "Thy skill will be the greater, if thou hittest it." Putnam's Analytical Reader, p. 204. " Thy skill will be the greater if thou hit'st it." Cobb's N. A. Reader, p. 321. " We shall overtake him though he should run." Priestley's Gram. p. 118; Murray's, 207; Smith's, 173. "We shall be disgusted if he gives us too much." Blair's Rhet. p, 388. " What is't to thee, if he neglect thy urn, Or without spices lets thy body burn." DRYDEN : Joh. Diet. w. What. CHAP. VI.] 8XNTAX. BULE XIV. VERBS. ERRORS. 559 Second Clause of Note IX. For the Subjunctive Imperfect. "And so would I, if I was he." Brown's Institutes, p. 191. [FoRMCLB. Not proper, because the Terb , which is here used to express a mere supposition, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, '-A mere supposi- tion, with indefinite timo, ia best expressed by a Terb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore, was should be were; thus, "And so would I, if I were he."] " If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism." Cardelfs Elements of Gram. p. 80. "If he was to go, he would attend to your business." Ib. p. 81. "If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide." Inst. p. 191. "Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool." Ib. " If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it." Ib. " If thou couldst convince him, he would not act accord- ingly." Murray's Key, p. 209. " If there was no liberty, there would be no real crime." L'ormey's Belles -Lettres, p. 118. "If the house was burnt down, the case would be the same." Foster' s Report, i, 89. "As if the mind was not always in action, when it prefers any thing ! " West, on Agency ', p. 38. " Suppose I was to say, ' Light is a body.' " Harris's lli'rmes, p. 78. " If either oxygen or azote was omitted, life would be destroyed." Gurney's ^es, p. 155. " The verb dare is sometimes used as if it was an auxiliary." Priestley's fii-(im. p. 132. "A certain lady, whom I could name, if it was necessary." Spectator, No. 536. "If the e was dropped, c and g would assume their hard sounds." Buchanan's Syntax, p. 10. "He would no more comprehend it, than if it was the speech of a Hotten- tot." Necf's Sketch, p. 112. "If thou knewest the gift of God," &c. John, iv, 10. "I wish I was at home." O. B. Pcirce's Gram. p. 260. " Fact alone does not constitute right : if it does, general warrants were lawful." Juniiu, Let. xliv, p. 205. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessest it." Putnam's Analytical Reader, p. 202. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it." Cobb's N. A. Reader, p. 320. " He fought as if he had contended for life." Hiley's Gram. p. 92. " He fought as if he had been con- tending for his life." Ib. 92. "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf, I As if thou knew'st my tale of grief, As if thou seem'st to shed a tear ; Felt all my sufferings severe." Alex. Letham. Last Clause of Xote IX. For the Indicative Mood. " If he know the way, he does not need a guide." Broicn's Institutes, p. 191. [FoRMULB. Not proper, because the verb Amotc, which is used to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to the last clause of Xote 9th to Rule 14th, "A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood." Therefore, know should be knows; thus, " If he knows the way, he does not need a guide."] "And if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected." Murray's Gram. p. 149. "I cannot say that I admire this construction, though it be much used." Priestley's Gram. p. 172. " We are disappointed, if the verb do not immediately follow it." Ib. p. 177. " If it were they who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 223. " If art become apparent, it disgusts the reader." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 80. "Though perspicuity be more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book." Campbell's Rhet. p. 238. "Although the efficient cause be obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open." Blair's Rhet. p. 29. "Although the barrenness of language, and the want of words be doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes." Ib. p. 135. "Though it enforce not its instructions, yet it furnishes us with a greater variety." Ib. p. 353. "In other cases, though the idea be one, the words remain quite separate." Priestley's Gram. p. 140. "Though the Form of our Language be more simple, and has that peculiar Beauty." Biichu >r, p. v. " Human works are of no significancy till they be completed." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 245. " Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish altogether." Ib. i, 338. "And our relish improves by use, till it arrive at perfection." Ib. i, 338. " So long as he keep himself in his own proper element." CORK : 76. i, 233. " Whether this trans- lation were ever published or not I am wholly ignorant." Sale's Koran, i, 13. "It is false to aHirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually be day." Harris's Hermes, p. 246. " But we may at midnight affirm, If it be day, it is light.' "Ibid. " If the Bible be true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest." Dickinson. "Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the thing* which he suffered." Heb. v, 8. " If David then call him Lord, how is he his son r "Matt, xxii, 4,5. " Ti> hard to say, if greater want of skill Appear in writing or in judging ill." Pope, Ess. on Crit. UXDER NOTE X. FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES. If a man have built a house, the house is his." \\ 'ay/and's Morn! Science, p. 286. [FORMCLK. Not proper, because the verb have built, which extends the subjunctive mood into the perfect tout, h;is the appeanmr.- of .lisn-n-.-inic with iu nominative man. Hut, ;wi-orlin^ to Net*- Imh to Kule 14th. Kv.-ry surli u<- .fnn '.v Parser, p. I'o this, his main text, the author appends a note, from which the following passages are extracted: " There are few persons acquainted with Grammar, who may not have noticed, in many authors as well as speakers, an irregularity in supposing collective nouns to have, at one time", a singular meaning, and consequently to require a singular verb ; and, at an other time, to . plural meaning, and therefore to require a plural verb. This irregularity appears to have :'rom the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun. This "defect the author has endeavoured to supply ; and, upon his definition, he has founded the two rules above. It is allowed on all sides that, hitherto, no satisfactory rules have been produced to enable the pupil to ascertain, with any degree of certainty, when a collective noun should have a singular verb, and when a plural one. A rule that simply tells its examiner, that when a collective noun in the nominative case conveys the idea of unity, its verb should be singular; and when it implies plu- rality, its verb should be plural, is of very little value ; for such a rule will prove the pupil's being in t/ic riijht, whether he should put the verb in the singular or the plural." Ibid. OHS. 4 The foregoing explanation has many faults ; and whoever trusts to it, or to any thing like it, will certainly be very much misled. In the first place, it is remarkable that an author who could suspect in others " the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun," should have hoped to supply the defect by a definition so ambiguous and ill-written as is the one above. Sec- ondly, his subdivision of this class of nouns into two sorts, is both baseless and nugatory ; for that plurality which has reference to the individuals of an assemblage, has no manner of connexion or affinity with that which refers to more than one such aggregate ; nor is there any interference of the one with the other, or any ground at all for supposing that the absence of the latter is, has been, or ought to be, the occasion for adopting the former. Hence, thirdly, his two rules, (though, so far as they go, they seem not untrue in themselves,) by their limitation under this false division, exclude and deny the true construction of the verb with the greater part of our collective nouns. For, fourthly, the first of these rules rashly presumes that any collective noun which in the sin- gular number implies a plurality of individuals, is consequently destitute of any other plural ; and the second accordingly supposes that no such nouns as, council, committee, jury, meeting, society, assembly, court, college, company, army, host, band, retinue, train, multitude, number, part, half, portion, majority, minority, remaind'er, set, sort, kind, class, nation, tribe, family, :id a hundred more, can ever be properly used with a plural verb, except when they assume the plural form. To prove the falsity of this supposition, is needless. And, finally, the objection which this author advances against the common rules, is very far from proving them useless, or not greatly preferable to his own. If they do not in every instance enable the student to ascer- tain with certainty which form of concord he ought to prefer, it is only because no rules can possibly tell a man precisely when he ought to entertain the idea of unity, and when that of plural- ity. In some instances, these ideas are unavoidably mixed or associated, so that it is of little or no quence which form of the verb we prefer; as, "Behold, the people is one, and t/iey have all one language." Gen. xi, 6. " Well, if a king's a lion, at the least The people AKE many-headed beast." Pope, Epist. i, 1. 120. OHS. o. Lindley Murray says, " On many occasions, where a noun of multitude is used, it is very difficult to decide, whether the verb should be in the singular, or in the plural number ; and this difficulty has induced some grammarians to cut the knot at once, and to assert that every noun of multitude must always be considered as conveying the idea of unity." Octavo Grant, p. NVhat these occasions,* or who these grammarians, are, I know not ; but it is certain that the difficulty here imagined docs not concern the application of such rules as require the verb and pronoun to conform to the sense intended ; and, where there is no apparent impropriety in adopting cither number, there is no occasion to raise a scruple as to which is right. To cut knots by dogmatism, and t r > tie them by sophistry, are employments equally vain. It cannot be denied that there are in every multitude both a unity and a plurality, one or the other of which must be preferred as the principle of concord for the verb or the pronoun, or for both. Nor is the number of nouns small, or their use unfrequent, which, according to our best authors, admit of either construction ; though Kirkham assails and repudiates his turn rules, because, " Their application is quite limit p. -")'.). ()u^. i;. Murray'* doctrine seems to be, not that collective nouns are generally susceptible of two si ! i-ct to number, but that some naturally convoy the idea of unity, others, that of plurality, and a few, either of these senses. The last", which ar" probably ten times more nu- merous than all the rest, he somehow merges or fn to speak of tiro classes only: say- ing, " Some nouns of multitude certain the mind an idua of plurality, others, that of a whole as one thing, and others again, sometimes that of unity, and sometimes that of plu- rality. On this ground, it is warrantable, and consistent with tlv; nature of things, to apply a plural verb and pronoun tot' rular verb and pronoun to the nt/n-r. We shall immediately perceive the impropriety of the following constructions: 'The clergy /inn withdrawn Tom the temporal courts ; ' pinion ; ' dtc." <>, tarn Grant. p. l'")3. The simple fact is, that r/rryy, assembly, and perhaps every other collective noun, may sometimes convey the idea of unity, 'and sometimes that of plurality; but an "opinion" or a vol- untnrv " iritlulr<''- <""/ act or quality it is hrre more consistent to adopt the plural N ainc "'< tnkr> th^ collodion ns individ 30 562 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. OBS. 7. Although a uniformity of number is generally preferable to diversity, in the construc- tion of words that refer to the same collective noun ; and although many grammarians deny that any departure from such uniformity is allowable ; yet, if the singular be put first, a plural pronoun may sometimes follow without obvious impropriety : as, " So Judah was carried away out of their land." 2 Kings, xxv, 21. "Israel is reproved and threatened for their impiety and idolatry." Friends' Bible, Hosea, x. " There is the enemy who wait to give us battle." Murray's Intro- ductory Reader, p. 36. When the idea of plurality predominates in the author's mind, a plural verb is sometimes used before a collective noun that has the singular article an or a ; as, " There are a sort of authors, who seem to take up with appearances." Addison. " Here are a number of facts or incidents leading to the end in view." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 296. " There are a great number of exceedingly good writers among the French." Maunder' s Gram. p. 11. " There in the forum swarm a numerous train, The subject of debate a townsman slain." Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, 1. 578. OBS. 8. Collective nouns, when they are merely partitive of the plural, like the words sort and number above, are usually connected with a plural verb, even though they have a singular defin- itive ; as, "And this sort of adverbs commonly admit of Comparison." Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 64. Here, perhaps, it would be better to say, "Adverbs of this sort commonly admit of comparison." "A part of the exports consist of raw silk." Webster's Improved Gram. p. 100. This construction is censured by Murray, in his octavo Gram. p. 148 ; where we are told, that the verb should agree with the first noun only. Dr. Webster alludes to this circumstance, in improv- ing his grammar, and admits that, "A part of the exports consists, seems to be more correct." Improved Gram. p. 100. Yet he retains his original text, and obviously thinks it a light thing, that, "in some cases," his rules or examples "may not be vindicable." (See Obs. 14th, 15th, and 16th, on Rule 14th, of this code.) It would, I think, be better to say, "The exports consist partly of raw silk." Again : "A multitude of Latin words have, of late, been poured in upon us." Blair's Rhet. p. 94. Better, perhaps : " Latin words, in great multitude, have, of late, been poured in upon us." So : " For the bulk of writers are very apt to confound them with each other." Ib. p. 97. Better : " For most writers are very apt to confound them with each other." In the follow- ing example, (here cited as Kames has it, El. of Crit. ii, 247,) either the verb is, or the phrase, "There are some moveless men," might as well have been used: " There are a sort of men, whose visages Do cream and mantle like a standing pond." Shak. OBS. 9. Collections of things are much less frequently and less properly regarded as individu- als, or under the idea of plurality, than collections of persons. This distinction may account for the difference of construction in the two clauses of the following example ; though I rather doubt whether a plural verb ought to be used in the former : " The number of commissioned officers in the guards are to the marching regiments as one to eleven : the number of regiments given to the guards, compared with those given to the line, is about three to one." Junius, p. 147. When- ever the multitude is spoken of with reference to a personal act or quality, the verb ought, as I before suggested, to be in the plural number ; as, " The public are informed." " The plaintiff's counsel have assumed a difficult task." "The committee were instructed to prepare a remon- strance." "The English nation declare they are grossly injured by their representatives." Junius, p. 147. " One particular class of men are permitted to call themselves the King's friends." Id. p. 176. "The Ministry have realized the compendious ideas of Caligula." Id. p. 177. It is in accordance with this principle, that the following sentences have plural verbs and pro- ^ le thus gathered have not wanted those trials." Barclay's Works, i, 460. The following examples, among others, are censured by Priestley, Murray, and the copyists of the latter, with- out sufficient discrimination, and for a reason which I think fallacious; namely, "because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind:" " The court of Rome were not without solicitude." Hume. " The house of Lords were so much influenced by these rea- sons.''/^ See Priestley's Gram. p. 188; Murray's, 152; R. C. Smith's, 129; Ingersoll's, 248: and others. OBS. 10. In general, a collective noun, unless it be made plural in form, no more admits a plu- ral adjective before it, than any other singular noun. Hence the impropriety of putting these or those before kind or sort ; as, "These kind of knaves I know." Shakspeare. Hence, too, I infer that ca^Zeis not a collective noun, as Nixon would have it to be, but an irregular plural which has no singular ; because we can say these cattle or those cattle, but neither a bullock nor a herd is ever called a cattle, this cattle, or that cattle. And if " cavalry, clergy, commonalty," &c., were like this word, they would all be plurals also, and not " substantives which imply plurality in the singular number, and consequently have no other plural." Whence it appears, that the writer who most broadly charges others with not understanding the nature of a collective noun, has most of all mis- conceived it himself. If there are not many clergies, it is because the clergy is one body, with one Head, and not because it is in a particular sense many. And, since the forms of words are not necessarily confined to things that exist, who shall say that the plural word clergies, as I have just used it, is not good English ? OBS. 11. If we say, "these people," " these gentry," "these folk," we make />/r , (/entry, and folk, not only irregular plurals, but plurals to which there are no correspondent singulars ; for, by these phrases, we must mean certain individuals, and not more than one people, gentry, or folk. But these names are sometimes collective nouns singular ; and, as such, they may have verbs of either number, according to the sense ; and may also form regular plurals, as peoples, and folks ; though we seldom, if ever, speak of gentries ; and folks is now often irregularly ap- plied to persons, as if one person were a folk. So troops is sometimes irregularly, if not improp- erly, put for soldiers, as if a soldier were a troop; as, "While those gallant troops, by whom every hazardous, every laborious service is performed, are left to perish." Ju/riu.-\ p. 147. In CHAP. \l.] SISTAX. RULE XV. VERBS. NOTE. ERRORS. Genesis, xxvii, 29th, we read, " Let people serve thee, and nations bow down to thee." But, according to the Vulgate, it ought to be, " Let peoples serve thee, and nations bow down to thee; " according to the Scptuagint, " Let nations serve thee, and rulers bow down to thee." Auuiii .; their mouth," \c (>> ' pie draw near to me with their mouth. ; syntax," we rind the text, " This people draweth near to me with Jram. Vol. ii, p. 4'J. This is corrected in his Key, thus : "T/i vse peo- ?ir month." Ib. ii, 185. The Bible has it: " T'his people dru inc with their mouth." I* " In France th toot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." Hv: - in that which should cause sor- row." Set- Mit,-- .;>le is' foolish, they have not known me." /" n . '') "For the people speaks, but does'not write." Philological Museum, i. that all the people that was in the camp, trembled." Exodus, xix, 16. " No company likes to confess that they are ignorant." Hit //, p. U17. 44 Far the greater part of their captives was anciently sacrificed." Robertson's America, i, 339. "Above one hilt' of them was cut off brt'.in- tho'return ol' spring." Ib.ii, 419. "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, supposes the words t-> be used in their proper and literal meanini:." Wuir's lthij a conjunction tcith th< j,/-<>t/<>/. "Little and often///* the purse." Treasury of Knowledge, Part i, p. 446. "Fair and softly goes far." These maxims, by universal custom, lay i-laim to a singular verb ; and, for my part, 1 know not how they can well be considered either real options to the foregoing rule, or real inaccuracies under it; for, in most of them, the words connected are not nouns; and those which are so, may not be nominatives. And it is clear, that every exception must have some specific character by which it may be distinguished; else it destroys the rule, in stead of confirming it, as known exceptions are said to dp. Murray appears to have thought the singular verb wrong ; for, among his examples for parsing, he has, "Fair and softly go far," which instance is no more entitled to a plural verb than the rest. See his Ot ' Vol. ii, p. ;1. Why not suppose them all to be elliptical ? Their meaning may be as follows : "To hare all work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy." " \\'lmt /N slow and steady, often iititfrurflx haste." "7b put in little and often, Jills the purse." " ]V hat proceeds fair and softly, goes far." The following lino from Shakspt-arr appears to be still more elliptical: " Poor and content is rich, and rich enough." Othello. This may ho supposed to moan, "Ife who is poor and content," &c. In the following sentence again, we may suppose an ellipsis of the phrase To have, at the beginning ; though here, perhaps, to have pluralizcd the verb, would have been as well : " One eye on death and one full fix'd on heaven, mcs a mortal and immortal man." Yuung. Ons. 3. The names of two persons are not unfroquently used jointlv as the'namc of their story; in which sense, they must have a singular verb, if they have any : as, " 1'riur's Henry and Emma con- tains an other beautiful example." Jamieson's Wtcturic, p. 179. I somewhat hesitate to call this * In his English Rrad'r, (Part II, Chap. 5th, Sec. 7th,) Murray has this Hnr> in its proper form, as it hero stands in the words of Thomson ; but, in his (imnnnnr. he rorrujitod it, first iu his Exercises, and then still more in his Key . Among his exam i i rands thus : " What. bl;u-k despair, what horror,. /Z//s his mind! ''Rrercis'S, Rule 2. So the error is propagated in the name of L, anting, and this verse goes from grammar to grammar, as one that must have a " plural " verb. See IngersoWs Gram. p. 242 ; Smith's New Gram. p. 127 ; Fisk's Gram. p. 120 ; Weld's E. Gram. p. 189. 566 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. an exception to the foregoing rule, because here' too the phraseology may be supposed elliptical. The meaning is, " Prior's little poem, entitled, ' Henry and Emma,' contains," &c. ; or, " Prior's story of Henry and Emma contains," &c. And, if the first expression is only an abbreviation of one of these, the construction of the verb contains may be referred to Rule 14th. See Exception 1st to Rule 12th, and Obs. 2d on Rule 14th. OBS. 4. The conjunction and, by which alone we can with propriety connect different words to make them joint nominatives or joint antecedents, is sometimes suppressed and under- stood; but then its effect is the same, as if it were inserted: though a singular verb might some- times be quite as proper in the same sentences, because it would {merely imply a disjunctive conjunction or none at all : as, " The high breach of trust, the notorious corruption, are stated'm the strongest terms." Junius, Let. xx. " Envy, self-will, jealousy, pride, often reign there." Abbott's Corner Stone, p. 111. (See Obs. 4th on Rule 12th.) "Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." Beattie. " Her heart, her mind, her love, is his alone." Cowley. In all the foregoing examples, a singular verb might have been used without impropriety ; or the last, which is singular, might have been plural. But the following couplet evidently requires a plural verb, and is therefore correct as the poet wrote it ; both because the latter noun is plural, and because the conjunction and is understood between the two. Yet a late grammarian, per- ceiving no difference between the joys of sense and the pleasure of reason, not only changes " lie " to " lies," but uses the perversion for a proof text, under a rule which refers the verb to the first noun only, and requires it to be singular. See Oliver B. Peirce's Gram. p. 250. " Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words health, peace, and competence." Pope's Ess. Ep.iv, 1. 80. OBS. 5. When the speaker changes his nominative to take a stronger expression, he commonly uses no conjunction ; but, putting the verb in agreement with the noun which is next to it, he leaves the other to an implied concord with its proper form of the same verb: as, " The man whose designs, whose whole conduct, tends to reduce me to subjection, that man is at war with me, though not a blow has yet been given, nor a sword drawn." Blair's Rhet. p. 265. "All Greece, all the barbarian ivorld, is too narrow for this man's ambition." Ibid. " This self- command, this exertion of reason in the midst of passion, has a wonderful effect both to please and to persuade." Ib. p. 260. "In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." Murray's Gram. "Vol. i, p. 150. If the principle here stated is just, Murray has written the following models erroneously : " Virtue, honour, ray, even self-interest, conspire to recommened the measure." Ib. p. 150. " Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand our submission to just and lawful government." Ibid. In this latter instance, I should prefer the singular verb demands ; and in the former, the expression ought to be otherwise altered, thus : " Virtue, honour, and interest, all conspire to rec- ommend the measure." Or thus : " Virtue, honour nay, even self-interest, recommends the meas- ure." On this principle, too, Thomson was right, and this critic wrong, in the example cited at the close of the first observation above. This construction is again recurred to by Murray, in the second chapter of his Exercises ; where he explicitly condemns the following sentence because the verb is singular : " Prudence, policy, nay, his own tme interest, strongly recommends the line of conduct proposed to him." Octavo Gram. Vol. ii, p. 22. OBS. 6. When two or more nominatives are in apposition with a preceding one which they explain, the verb must agree with the first word only, because the others are adjuncts to this, and not joint subjects to the verb ; as, " Loudd, the ancient Lydda and Diospolis, appears like a place lately ravaged by fire and sword." Keith's Evidences, p. 93. " Beattie, James, a philoso- pher and poet, ivas born in Scotland, in the year 1735." Murray's Sequel, p. 306. "For, the quantity, the length, and shortness of our syllables, is not, by any means, so fixed." Blair's Rhet. p. 124. This principle, like the preceding one, persuades me again to dissent from Murray, who cor- rects or perverts the following sentence, by changing originates to originate: "All that makes a figure on the great theatre of the world ; the employments of thebusy,'the enterprises of the ambi- tious, and the exploits of the warlike ; the virtues which form the happiness, and the crimes which occasion the misery of mankind ; originates in that silent and secret recess of thought, which is hidden from every human eye." See Murray's Octavo Gram. Vol. ii, p. 181 ; or his Duodecimo Key, p. 21. The true subject of this proposition is the noun all, which is singular ; and the other nominatives are subordinate to this, and merely explanatory of it. OBS. 7- Dr. Webster says, "Enumeration and addition of numbers are usually expressed in the singular number-, [as,] two and two is four ; seven and nine is sixteen ; that is, the sum of seven and nine^ is sixteen. But modern usage inclines to reject the use of the verb in the singular number, in these and similar phrases." Improved Gram. p. 106. Among its many faults, this passage exhibits a virtual contradiction. For what " modern usage inclines to reject," can hardly be the fashion in which any ideas "are usually expressed." Besides, I may safely aver, that this is a kind of phraseology which all correct usage always did reject. It is not only a gross vulgarism, but a plain and palpable violation of the foregoing rule of syntax ; and, as such it must be reputed, if the rule has any propriety at all. What "enumeration" has to do with it, is more than I can tell. But Dr. Webster once admired and commended this mode of speech, as one of the " wonderful proofs of ingenuity in the framers of language ; " and laboured to defend it as being " correct upon principle ; " that is, upon the principle that " the sum of" is understood to be the subject of the affirmation, when one says, " Two andt\vo is four," in stead of, ' Two and two are four." See Webster's Philosophical Gram. p. 153. This seems to me a " wonderful proof" of ignorance in a very learned man. OBS. 8. In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the nearest nominative, and is understood to the rest ; and this construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially if the nouns follow the verb : as, " Nw/ 6e MENEI martf, /brif, uyuKr), ra rpia ravra." "Nunc vero manet fides, spes, charitas ; tria ha?c." "Now abideth faith, hope, charity; these three." 1 Cor. xiii, 13. "And now abideth confession, prayer, and praise, these three; but the greatest of these is CIIAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVI. VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 567 praise." ATTERBUUY: Blair's Rhet. p. 300. The propriety of this usage, so far as our language is concerned, I doubt. It seems to open a door for numerous deviations from the foregoing rule, and deviations of such a sort, that if they are to be considered exceptions, one can hardly tell why. The practice, however, is not uncommon, especially if there are more nouns than two, and each is emphatic; as, " Wonderful was the patience, fortitude, self-denial, and bravery of our ances- tors." Webster's Hist, of I'. N. p. 118. "It is the very thing I would have you make out; for therein consists the force, and use, and nature of language." Berkley'* Alfiphron, p. 161. " There t* the proper noun, and the common noun. There in the singular noun, and the plural noun." Emmons's dram. p. 11. "From him proceeds power, sanctification, truth, grace, and every other blessing we can conceive." Calriiis Institutes, B. i, Ch. 13. " To what purpose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and the sweet cane from a far country ? " Ji-r. vi, 20. " For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever." Matt, vi, 13. In all these instances, the plural verb might have been used; and yet perhaps the singular may be justified, on the ground that there is a distinct and emphatic enumeration of the nouns. Thus, it would be proper to say, " Thine arc the kingdom, the power, and the glory; " but this construction seems less emphatic than the preceding, which means, " For thine is the kingdom, thine is the power, and thine is the glory, forever; " and this repetition is still more emphatic, and perhaps more proper, than the elliptical form. The repetition of the conjunction " and," in the original text as above, adds time and emphasis to the reading, and makes the singular verb more proper than it would otherwise be ; for which reason, the following form, in which the Rev. Dr. Bullions has set the sentence down for bad English, is in some sort a perversion of the Scripture: "Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory." Bullions' 's E. dram. p. 141. OHS. 9. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third; for thou and /, or he, thon, and /, are equivalent to we; and thou and he are equivalent to you: as, "Why speakest thou any more of thy matters ? I have said, thou and Ziba dicidc the land." 2 Sam. xix, 29. That is, "divide ye the land." "And livi- thou and thy children of the rest." 2 Kings, iv, 7. " That I and thy / found grace in thy sight." 'Exodus, xxxiii, 16. "/and my kingdom fin- guiltless. "2 .Saw. iii, 2tJ. " /, and you, "and Piso perhaps too, are in a state of dissatisfac- tion." Zefiobia, i, 114. " Then 7, and you, and all of us, fell down. Whilst bloody treason flourish'!! over us." Shak., J. Ctcsar. 1". When two or more nominatives connected by and are of the same form but distin- guished by adjectives or -;, one or more of them may be omitted by ellipsis, but the verb must be plural, and agree with them all : as, "A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, - // in one room." }'> . p. 2>>o. Here four different men are clearly spoken of. " Else the rising and the falling emphasis are the same." Knoicles's Elocutionist, p. 33. Here the noun emphasis is understood after risint/. " The singular and [the] plural form seem to br confounded." Loirth's Cram. p. 22. Here the noun form is presented to the mind twice; and therefore the article should have been repeated. See Obs. loth on Rule 1st. " My farm and William's are adjacent to each other." JY/Vrr'.v Cram. p. 220. Here the noun farm is understood tenee is written wrong, unless each man had more than one farm. "Was not Demos- ... and his muster Plato's, perfectly Attic; and yet none more lofty?" Milnes's ii-itm. ]>. 2-1 1. Here str/le is understood after Phito's ; wherefore was should rather be fiould be changed to as icfll as. But the text, as it stands, is not much unlike noticed above. " The character of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are no -fully contrasted." A" f Crit. Vol. i, p. 2o(>. Here the ellipsis is not TV proper. Say, " the character of a fop, and that of a rough warrior," &c. Again : " We may . that the eloquence of the bar, of the legislature, and of public assemblies, are seldom or .ml united t>, lii<;h jx-rfn-tiun in the same person." J. Q. A/ A , in the same person." OHS. 11. The conjunction as, when it connects nominatives that are in apposition, or signifi- cant of the - n or thing, is commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, so that I .tii its proper nominative following the explanatory word; thus, "As a poet, he high rank." M . "Asa poet, Addition <-I,tims a high praise." Ib.p. 301. "Js a modi! of English pne, his ;/, the greatest praise." Ib. p. 305. But when this conjunction denot< n diltcrcnt persons or things signified by two noinn: : must be two verbs expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own sub- ject ; as, "Such' /'mre no reputation worth any man's envy." * " Such ini-ii as /// [is] }>c never at ; Whili id a greater than themselves." Shakspcare. Oi:s. 12. When two nominath< they must in fact have two verbs, though in most instances only one is expressed; as, "Such is the mutual dependence of words in that several --veil as [is] the////v//r, , ,in- not to be used alone." If .mtion was to be the one fundamental law of the land, to which all, as well Stat, . should submit." W. I. BOWDITC:, r, No. A- well thosi \\hidi history, as tho-c which experience offers to our reflection." Baling- broke, on History. the words " offers to our rqfl understood after " history." * S. W. Clark, by reckoning ".' a " prtpiritmx jura da-hunt, Yirg." Latin and EnffliM Gram. p. 207; Gould's Adam's Latin Gram. p. 2i'i; If'. A//< n's Kmjlish Gram. 131. This example is not fairly cited ; though many have adopted the perversion, as if they knew no better. Alexander has it in . still : "" Quirinus, cum fratre, jura dabunt." 'Latin Gram. p. 47. Virgil's words are, . i BTA, /'- mo '-in fratre (juirinus, Jura dabunt." JEneid, B. i, 1. 296. Nor is cu>n here "put for et," unless we suppose also an antiptosis of Remo fratre for Remus frater ; and then what shall the literal reading be, and how shall the rules of syntax be accommodated to such changes ? Fair examples, that hear upon the point, may, however, be adduced from good authors, and in various languages; but the question is, are they correct in syntax? Thus Dr. Robertson: "The palace of Pizarro, toi/etJter irith the houses of several of his adherents, were pillaged by the soldiers." ///.v/. of Anu-r. Vol. ii, p. 133. To me, this appears plainly ungram- matical ; and, certainly, there are ways enough in which it may be corrected. First, with the present connective retained, " irere " ought to be was. Secondly, if were be retained, ll to(/ct/irr tritli " oujht to be changed to and, or and also. Thirdly, we may well change both, and say, " The palace of Pi/arro, .v well as the houses of several of his adherents, was pillaged by the soldiei . in Mark, ix, 4th, we read : "And there appeared unto them Elias, with Moses; and Mry were talking with Jesus." If this text meant that the three disciples were talking with t would be right as it stands ; but St. Matthew has it, "And, behold, there appeared unto Ikitui with him ; " and our version in Luke is, "And, behold, there talked with him two men, which w- . f>rnrr-{ t<> ho singular or plural, I cannot tvll : and he did not extend, lid quotation to the pronoun they, which immediately follows, and in which alone the incongruity lies, 570 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART in. OBS. 20. Cobbett, who, though he wrote several grammars, was but a very superficial gram- marian, seems never to have doubted the propriety of putting with for and; and yet he was confessedly not a little puzzled to find ovit when to use a singular, and when a plural verb, after a nominative with such "a sort of addition made to it." The 246th paragraph of his English Grammar is a long and fruitless attempt to fix a rule for the guidance of the learner in this matter. After dashing off a culpable example, " Sidmouth, with Oliver the spye, have brought Bran- drethto the block ;" or, as his late editions have it, "The Tyrant, ivith the Spy, have brought Peter to the block ; " he adds : " We hesitate which to employ, the singular or the plural verb ; that is to say, has or have. The meaning must be our guide. If we mean, that the act has been done by the Tyrant himself, and that the spy has been a mere involuntary agent, then we ought to use the singular ; but if we believe, that the spy has been a co-operator, an associate, an accom- plice, then we must use the plural verb." Ay, truly ; but must we not also, in the latter case, use and, and not with? After some further illustrations, he says: "When with means along with, together with, in company with, and the like, it is nearly the same as and ; and then the plural verb must be used: [as,] ' He, with his brothers, are able to do much.' Not, 'is able to do much.' If the pronoun be used instead of brothers, it will be in the objective case : ' He, with them, are able to do much.' But this is no impediment to the including of the noun (represented by them) in the nominative." I wonder what would be an impediment to the absurdities of such a dogmatist ! The following is his last example: " ' Zeal, with discretion, do much ; ' and not ' does much ; ' for we mean, on the contrary, that it does nothing. It is the meaning that must determine which of the numbers we ought to employ." This author's examples are all fictions of his own, and such of them as here have a plural verb, are wrong. His rule is also wrong, and contrary to the best authority. St. Paul says to Timothy, " Godliness with contentment is great gain: " 1 Tim. vi, 6. This text is right; but Cobbett's principle would go to prove it erroneous. Is he the only man who has ever had a right notion of its meaning ? or is he not rather at fault in his interpretations ? OBS. 21. There is one other apparent exception to Rule 16th, (or perhaps a real one,) in which there is either an ellipsis of the preposition with, or else the verb is made singular because the first noun only is its true subject, and the others are explanatory nominatives to which the same verb must be understood in the plural number ; as, "A torch, snuff and all, goes out in a moment, when dipped in the vapour." ADDISON : in Johnson's Diet. w. All. " Down comes the tree, nest, eagles, and all." See All, ibidem. Here goes and comes are necessarily made singular, the former agreeing with torch and the latter with tree ; and, if the other nouns, which are like an explana- tory parenthesis, are nominatives, as they appear to me to be, they must be subjects of go andcome understood. Cobbett teaches us to say, "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen," and not, was stolen. " For," says he, "if we say was stolen, it is possible for us to mean, that the lag only was stolen." English Gram. IT 246. And I suppose he would say, " The bag, guineas, dollars, and all, were stolen," and not, " was stolen ; " for here a rule of syntax might be urged, in addition to his false argument from the sense. But the meaning of the former sentence is, " The bag was stolen, with the guineas and dollars in it; " and the meaning of the latter is, " The bag was stolen, guineas, dollars, and all." " Nor can there be any doubt about the meaa- ing, place the words which way you will ; and whatever, in either case, may be the true construc- tion of the words in the parenthetical or explanatory phrase, they should not, I think, preve it the verb from agreeing with the first noun only. But if the other nouns intervene without affecting this concord, and without a preposition to govern them, it may be well to distinguish them in the punctuation; as, " The bag, (guineas, dollars, and all,) was stolen." NOTES TO RULE XVI. NOTE I. When the conjunction and between two nominatives appears to require a plural verb, but such form of the verb is not agreeable, it is better to reject or change the connective, that the verb may stand correctly in the singular number ; as, " There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure." Kames, El. of Grit, ii, 224. Better: "There is a peculiar force, as well as a peculiar beauty, in this figure." " What means this restless stir and commotion of mind? " Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 242. Better : " What means this restless stir, this commotion of mind?" NOTE II. When two subjects or antecedents are connected, one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to the other: as, "Diligent industry, and not mean savings, produces honourable compe- tence." " Not a loud voice, but strong proofs bring conviction." "My poverty, but not my will, consents." Shakspeare. NOTE III. When two subjects or antecedents are connected by as well as, but, or save, they belong to different propositions; and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not,) the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be under- stood to the latter : as, " Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life." Butler's Analogy, p. 283. " The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, may boast that thousands of his fellow-creatures are employed for him." Percival's Tales, ii, 177. "These principles, as well as every just rule of criticism, are founded upon the sensitive part of our nature." Kames, EL of Grit. Vol. i, p. CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVI. VERBS. NOTES. ERRORS. 571 xxvi. "Nothing, but wailings, was heard." "None, but thou, can aid us." " No mortal man, save he," &c., "had e'er survived to say he saw." Sir W. Scott. NOTE IV. When two or more subjects or antecedents are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately ; and, (except no be followed by a plural noun,) they require the verb and pronoun to be in the singular number: as, "No rank, no honour, no fortune, no condition in life, makes the guilty mind happy." ' * Every phrase and every figure which he uses, tends to render the picture more lively and complete." Blair's Rhet. p. 179. 11 And every sense, and every heart, is joy." Thomson. "Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." Pope. NOTE V. When any words or terms are to be taken conjointly as subjects or antecedents, the conjunction and, (in preference to with, or, nor, or anything else,) must connect them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate ; with should bo tni'l ; or else were should be was : " One of them, [the] wife of Thomas Cole, with her husband, were shot down, the others escaped." Hulchinsori's Hist. Vol. ii, p. So, in the following couplet, or should be and, or else engines should be engine : " What if the head, the eye, or ear, repined To serve mere engines to the ruling mind? " Pope. NOTE VI. Improper omissions must be supplied ; but when there occurs a true ellipsis in the construction of joint nominatives or joint antecedents, the verb or pro- noun must agree with them in the plural, just as if all the words were expressed : as, " The second and the third Epistle of John are each but one short chapter." " The metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed." Murray's Gram. p. )J.'5!. " The Doctrine of Words, separately consider'd, and in a Sentence, are Things distinct enough." Brightland's Gram. Pref. p. iv. Better perhaps: "The doc- trine of words separately considered, and that of words in a sentence, are things distinct enough." " The Carii's and the Camillis little feld To vast extended territories yield. " Rowe's Lucan, B. i, 1. 320. NOTE VII. Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by and, require a plural verb, and generally a plural noun too, if a nominative follow the verb ; as, 11 To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise >'n the sif/Jtt of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to coincide." ninir. " ' TkU picture of my friend? and l This picture of my friend's, 1 suggest v(;ry different ideas." Priestley's Gram. p. 71 ; Murray's, i, 178. " Head of this burgess on the stone appear, How worthy he ! how virtuous ! and how dear ! " Crabbe. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX VXDER RULE XVI. UHOT . THE YKIIH AFTER JOINT XOMINA " So much ability and merit is seldom found." Murray's Key, 12mo, p. 18; Merchant's School Gram. p. 190. [FoRMtTLE. Not proper, bccixus* the Tcrb is is in the 8in much ability and .to much merit are seldom found."] " The syntax and etymology of the language i* thus spread before the learner." Dull ions' s n dram. 'Jd Edition, Ki-c. p. iii. " Dr. Johnson tells us, that in English poetry the accent and the quantity of syllables is the same thing." J. '>. "The boldness, freedom, and variety of our ilank verse, is infinitely more favourable than rhyme, to all kinds of sublime poetry." > Rhct. p. 40. "The vivacity and sensibility of the Greeks sr ems to have been much greater than ours." Ih. p. 1M3. "For sometimes the Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb, sometimes they are signified of the Verb by something else." Johnsons Gram, Corn* 572 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. p. 254. " The Verb and the Noun making a complete Sense, which the Participle and the Noun does not." Ib. p. 255. " The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through all their mazes, is a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 108. "The true meaning and etymology of some of his words was lost." Knight, on the Greek Alph. p. 37. " When the force and direction of personal satire is no longer understood." Junius, p. 5. " The frame and condition of man admits of no other principle." Brown's Estimate, ii, 54. " Some considerable time and care was neces- sary." Ib. ii, 150. "In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure has been thrown upon Milton." Blair's Rhet. p. 428. "With rational beings, nature and reason is the same thing." Collier's Antoninus, p. 111. "And the flax and the barley was smitten." Exod. ix, 31. "The colon, and semicolon, divides a period, this with, and that without a connective." J. Ware's Gram. p. 27. " Consequently wherever space and time is found there God must also be." Sir Isaac Newton. "As the past tense and perfect participle of love ends in ed, it is regular." Chandler's Gram. p. 40 ; New Edition, p. 66. "But the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevents this from being readily seen." Butler's Practical Gram. p. 3. ".Do and did simply implies opposition or emphasis." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 41. "/ and another make we, plural ; Thou and another is as much as ye ; He, she, or it and another make they." Ib. p. 124. "I and another, is as much as (we) the first Person Plural ; Thou and another, is as much as (ye) the second Person Plural ; He, she, or it, and another, is as much as (they) the third Person Plural." British Gram. p. 193 ; Buchanan's Syntax, p. 76. " God and thou art two, and thou and thy neighbour are two." The Love Conquest, p. 25. " Just as an and a has arisen out of the numeral one." Foicler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, 200. "The tone and style of each of them, particularly the first and the last, is very different." Blair s Rhet. p. 246. " Even as the roebuck and the hart is eaten." Deut. xiii, 22. "Then I may conclude that two and three makes not five." Barclay's Works, iii, 354. " Which at sundry times thou and thy brethren hast received from us." Ib. i, 165. "Two and two is four, and one is five." POPE : Lives of the Poets, p. 490. " Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, excels pride and ignorance under costly array." Day's Gram. Parsing Lesson, p. 100. "A page and a half has been added to the section on composition." Bullions's E. Gram., 5th Ed., Pref. p. vii. "Accuracy and expertness in this exercise is an important acquisition." Ib. p. 71. " Woods and groves are of thy dressing, Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing." Milton's Poems, p. 139. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES. "There is a good and a bad, a right and a wrong in taste, as in other things." Blai-'s Rhet. p. 21. " Whence has arisen much stiffness and affectation." Ib. p. 133. "To tl.is error is owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and harshness, in his figurative language, which I before remarked." Ib. p. 150; Jamieson's Rhet. 157. "Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there prevails an obscurity and hardness in his style." Blair's Rhet. p. If 0. "There is, however, in that work much good sense, and excellent criticism." Ib. p. 4(1. "There is too much low wit and scurrility in Plautus." Ib. p. 481. "There is too much reasoning and refinement ; too much pomp and studied beauty in them." Ib. p. 4(>8. " Hence arises the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation." Rush, on the Voice, p. 229. "And such pilots is he and his brethren, according to their own confession." Barclay's Works, iii, 314. "Of whom is Hymeneus and Philetus; who concerning the truth have erred." 2 Tim. ii, 17. " Of whom is Hymeneus and Alexander ; whom I have delivered unto Satan." 1 Tim. i, 20. "And so was James and John, the sons of Zebedee." Luke, v, 10. "Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing." James, iii, 10. " Out of the mouth of the Most High proceedeth not evil and good." Lam. iii, 38. "In which there is most plainly a right and a wrong." Butler's Analogy, p. 215. " In this sentence there is both an actor and an object." Smith's Inductive Gram. p. 14. "In the breast-plate was placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim." Milman's Jews, i, 88. " What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first ? " Smith's Productive Gram. p. 19. " There seems to be a familiarity and want of dignity in it." Priestley's Gram. p. 150. "It has been often asked, what is Latin and Greek?" Literary Convention, p. 209. " For where does beauty and high wit But in your constellation meet ? " Hudibras, p. 134. "Thence to the land where flows Ganges and Indus." Paradise Lost, B. ix, 1. 81. " On these foundations seems to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies." Browns Estimate, ii, 46. " But what has disease, deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell ? " Johnsons Life of Swift, p. 492. " How is the gender and number of the relative known? " Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 32. " High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust, And feebler speeds the blow and thrust." Sir W. Scott. UNDER NOTE I. CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE. "In every language, there prevails a certain structure and analogy of parts, which is un- derstood to give foundation to the most reputable usage." Blair's Rhet. p. 90. "There CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVI. VERBS. ERRORS. 573 runs through his whole manner, a stiffness and affectation, -which renders him very unfit to be considered a general model." Ib. p. 102. " But where declamation and improvement in speech is the sole aim." Ib. p. 257. " For it is by these chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, and the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of all kinds, is laid open." Lotcth's Gram. p. 103. " In all writing and discourse, the proper composition and structure of sentences is of the highest importance." Blair's Rhct. p. 101. " Here the wishful look and expectation of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts." Campbell's Rhet. p. 386. " Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, and signing with the cross, puts away devils." Barclay's Works, i, 146. "By which an oath and penalty was to be imposed upon the members." Jnnht.i, p. 6. " Light and knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God." Butlers Analogy, p. 264. " For instance, sickness and untimely death is the conse- quence of intemperance." Ib. p. 78. " When grief, and blood ill-tempered vexeth him." s- nf S/takspc.arc, p. 256. " Does continuity and connexion create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?" Collier's Antoninus, p. 111. "His greatest concern, and highest enjoyment, was to be approved in the sight of his Creator." Murray's Key, p. '2'2 L " Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel r " 2 m. iii, 38. " What is vice and wickedness ? No rarity, you may depend on it." Collier's Antoninus, p. 107. "There is also the fear and apprehension of it." Butler's Analogy, p. 87. " The apostrophe and s, ('*) is an abbreviation for is, the termination of the old Eng- lish genitive." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 17. "Ti, ce, and ci, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of sh ; as in partial, special, ocean." Weld's Gram. p. 15. "Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear Compels me to disturb your season due." Milton's Lycidas. "Debauches and excess, though with less noise, As great a portion of mankind destroys." Waller, p. 55. UNDER NOTE II. AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION. "Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem." Brown's Inst. p. 156. "Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame." Ib. " Not fear, but labour have overcome him." Ib. " The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference." Ib. " Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention." Ib. " It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention." Ib. " It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attract attention." Ib. " His belly, not his brains, this impulse give : He'll grow immortal ; for he cannot live." Young, to Pope. UNDER NOTE III. AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE. " Common sense as well as piety tell us these are proper." Family Commentary, p. 64. "For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, have nothing left but to abandon themselves to chance." Kamcs, El. of Crit. i, 42. "And accordingly hatred as well as love are extinguished by long absence." Ib. i, 113. " But at every turn the richest melody as well as the sublimest sentiments are conspicuous." Ib. ii, 121. " But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defy all translation." Coleridge's Introduc- fi). "But their religion, as well as their customs, and manners, were strangely misrepresented." BOLINGBROKE ON HISTORY, p. 123: Priestley's Gram. p. 192; Murray's Exercises, p. 47. " But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, were conspicuous." Robertson's America, i, 191. " When their extent as well as their value were, unknown." Ib. ii, 138. "The Etymology, as well as the Syntax, of the more diffi- cult parts of speech are reserved for his attention [at a later period]." Part;i r ami l',,r's E. m. Tart i, p. 3. " What I myself owe to him, no one but myself know." See Wright's A' : . " Xone, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow." Inst. p. 156. " Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent." Ib. " Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, were heard." G. B. P"A11 songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute." G. B. V. EACH, EVERY, OR NO. " ( I i\ urd, and every member, their due weight and force." Blair s Rhct. p. 110. 'And to one of th noun, and every third person of every verb." Wilson's . p. 74. "No i traint, no regulation, are required to keep him in bounds." L< that time, every window and every door in the street were full of heads." .V. )". < -,. m () f religion, and every school of philosophy, stand back from this Held, and leave Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example." , 17. I'.arh day, and eaeh hour, bring their portion of duty." Inxt. p. I-)'!. "A; nc that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that \\a> discontented, irathered themselves unto him." 1 Sam. x.xii, 2. >-ery private Christian ami member of the church ought to read and peruse the Scrip- -, that they may know their faith ami belief founded upon them." fiorefey'j Wor ; , '. "And every mountain and island were moved out of their pi II. "No bandit tierce, no tvrunt mad with pride, No cavern'd hermit re.-t >elf-.-h'ed." 574 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. UNDER NOTE V. WITH, OR, &c. FOR AND. "The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." Tahiti's Gram. p. 48; Felch's, 69 ; Ware's, 12. " The stream, the rock, or the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination." Blair's Rhet. p. 390. " While this, with euphony, constitute, finally, the whole." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 293. " The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen." Cobbett's E. Gram. H 246. " Sobriety, with great industry and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds." Ib. U 246. "The it, together with the verb to be, express states of being." Ib. IT 190. "Where Leonidas the Spartan king, with his chosen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man." Kames, El. of Grit. Vol. i, p. 203. "And Leah also, with her children, came near and bowed themselves." Gen. xxxiii, 7. "The First or Second will, either of them, by themselves coalesce with the Third, but not with each other." Harris's Hermes, p. 74. "The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy or Comedy are hurtful and dangerous repre- sentations?" Formey's Belles -Lettres, p. 215. "Grief as well as joy are infectious: the emotions they raise in the spectator resemble them perfectly." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 1,57. " But in all other words the Qu are both sounded." Ensell's Gram. p. 16. "Q,u (which are always together) have the sound of ku or k, as in queen, opaque." Goodenow's Gram. p. 45. " In this selection the ai form distinct syllables." Walker's Key, p. 290. "And a consider- able village, with gardens, fields, &c. extend around on each side of the square." Liberator, Vol. ix, p. 140. "Affection, or interest, guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life ; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 171. " She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, or anger, produce among children." Rambler, No. 189. "The King, with the Lords and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government." Crombie's Treatise, p. 242. " If we say, I am the man, who commands you/ the relative clause, with the antecedent man, form the predicate." Ib. p. 266. " The spacious firmanent on high, I And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame, With all the blue ethereal sky, | Their great Original proclaim." ADDISON. Murray's Key, p. 174 ; Day's Gram. p. 92 ; Farnum's, 106. UNDER NOTE VI. ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. "There is a reputable and a disreputable practice." Adams's Rhet. Vol. i, p. 350. " This and this man was born in her." Milton's Psalms, Ixxxvii. " This and that man was born in her." Psal. Ixxxvii, 5. "This and that man was born there." Hcndrick's Gram. p. 34. " Thus le in lego and legi seem to be sounded equally long." Adam's Gram. p. 253 ; Gould's, 243. "A distinct and an accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery.' Kirkham's Elocution, p. 25. "How is vocal and written language understood?" C. W. Sanders, Spelling -Book, p. 7. " The good, the wise, and the learned man is an ornament to human society." Bartlett's Reader. " On some points, the expression of song and speed L is identical." Rush, on the Voice, p. 425. "To every room there was an open and secret passage." Johnson's Rasselas, p. 13. " There iz such a thing az tru and false taste, andi;he latter az often directs fashion, az the former." Webster's Essays, p. 401. "There is sue 1 ! a thing as a prudent and imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs." Butler's Analogy, p. 210. "The lot of the outcasts of Israel and the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in another corresponded with wonderful exactness." Hope of Israel, p. 301. " On these final syllables the radical and vanishing movement is performed." Rush, on the Voice, p. 64. "To be young or old, good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events." SPURZIIEIM : Felch's Gomp. Gram. p. 29. " The eloquence of George Whitfield and of John Wesley was of a very different character each from the other." Dr. Sharp. " The affinity of m for the series b, and of n for the series t, give occasion for other Euphonic changes." Foivler's E. Gram. 77. "Pylades' soul, and mad Orestes', was In these, if we believe Pythagoras." Cowley's Poems, p. 3. UNDER NOTE VII. DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. " To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure success." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 206. " To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, is all one." Locke's Essay, p. 300. " With whom to will and to do is the same." Jamieson's Sacred History, Vol. ii, p. 22. " To profess, and to possess, is very different things." Inst. p. 156. "To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is duties of universal obligation." Ib. "To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally alien from the nature of thought." Ib. "The resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech and stating the Accidents which belong to these, is called PARSING."- Bullions, Pract. Lessons, p. 9. "To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, was once a girl's employment ; but now to dress and catch a beau, is all she calls enjoyment." Lynn Vol. 8, No. 1. CIIAP. VI.] SYNTAX. - RULE XVII. - VERBS. - OBSERVATIONS. 575 RULE XVII. FINITE VERBS. When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together : as, " Fear or jealousy affects him. W. Alleris Gyam. p. 133. " Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: creation sleeps." Young. "Neither character nor dialogue was yet understood." L. Murray's Gram. p. 151. " The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks, Safest and seemliest by her husband stays." Milton, P. L., ix, 207. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII. OBS. 1. To this rule, so far as its application is practicable, there are properly no excep- tions ; for, or and nor being disjunctive conjunctions, the nominatives are of course to assume the verb separately, and as agreeing with each. Such agreement seems to be positively required by the alternativeness of the expression. Yet the ancient grammarians seldom, if at all, insisted on it. In Latin and Greek, a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus con- nected; us, " Tune nee mens mihi, nee color Certa sede manent." HORACE. See W. Allen's Gram. p. 133. " 'Edv 6e ude'Ad? // u6&r cold his course delay : Hide, blushing Glory ! hide Pultowa's day." Dr. Johnson. " No monstrous height, or breadth, or length, appear ; The whole at once is bold and regular." Pope, on Crit. 1. 250. OBS. 2. When two collective nouns of the singular form are connected by or or nor, the verb :rec with them in the plural number, because such agreement is adapted to each of them, according to Rule 15th ; as, " Why mankind, or such a. part of mankind, are placed in this con- dition." Butler's Analogy, p. 213. " But neither the Board of Control nor the Court of Direct- (u -s /Ktrr any scruples about sanctioning the abuses of which I have spoken." Glory and Shame '. t to it : as, ' I or thou art to blame ; ' ' Thou or I am in fault ; ' ' I, or thou, or he, is the author of it ; ' ' George or I am the person.' But it would be better to say ; ' Either I am to blame, or thou art,' &c. (2.) When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun : as, ' Neither poverty nor riches //v/v injurious to him ; ' ' I or they irrrr offended by it.' But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb." Murriii/'.'i drum. BYO, p. !")!; Sm ifh's AV/r Gram. 1'JS ; A/; J'i< /.vC'.s-, 17-) ; and many more. There are other grammarians who that the verb in,. ;h the nominative which is placed next to it, whether this be singular or plum' . ther the servants nor the master is respected ; " " Neither the mas- /r<7//'.s Cram. p. (}'>. "But if neither thewri- nor the author is in existence, the Imperfect should be used." SV/xWx'.v Gram. p. 107. . o. On this point, a new author has just given us the following precept and criticism : Ncv.-r conned by or, or /mr, two or more names or substitutes that have the same asserter [i.e. i'-pending on them t'nr sense, if when taken separately, they require different forms of the ' Neither you nor I am Either he or thou HV/.V/ there. Either 576 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. OBS. 6. Cobbett also while he approves of such English as, "He, with them, are able to do much," for, "He and they are able to do much" condemns expressly every possible example in which the verb has not a full and explicit concord with each of its nominatives, if they are con- nected by or or nor. His doctrine is this : " If nominatives o different numbers present them- selves, we must not give them a verb which disagrees with either the one or the other. We mast not say : ' Neither the halter nor the bayonets are sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights.' We must avoid this bad grammar by using a different form of words : as, ' We are to be prevented from obtaining our rights by neither the halter nor the bayonets.' Arid, why should we wish to write bad grammar, if we can express our meaning in good grammar ? " Cobbett's E. Gram. H 242. This question would have more force, if the correction here offered did not convey a meaning icidely different from that of the sentence corrected. But he goes on: " We cannot say, ' They or I am in fault ; I, or they, or he, is the author of it ; George or I am the person.' Mr. Lindley Murray says, that we may use these phrases ; and that we have only to take care that the verb agree with that person which is placed nearest to it ; but, he says also, that it would be better to avoid such phrases by giving a different turn to our words. I do not like to leave any thing to chance or to discretion, when we have a clear principle for our guide." Ib. U 243. This author's " clear principle " is merely his own confident assumption, that every form of figurative or implied agreement, every thing which the old grammarians denominated zeugma, is at once to be condemned as a solecism. He is however supported by an other late writer of much greater merit. See Churchill's New Gram. pp. 142 and 312. OBS. 7. If, in lieu of their fictitious examples, our grammarians would give us actual quota- tions from reputable authors, their instructions would doubtless gain something in accuracy, and still more in authority. "lor they were offended by it," and, "/, or thou, or he, is the author of it," are expressions that I shall not defend. They imply an egotistical speaker, who either does not know, or will not tell, whether he is offended or not, whether he is the author or not ! Again, there are expressions that are unobjectionable, and yet not conformable to any of the rules just quoted. That nominatives may be correctly connected by or or nor without an express agree- ment of the verb with each of them, is a point which can be proved to as full certainty as almost any other in grammar ; Churchill, Cobbett, and Peirce to the contrary notwithstanding. But with which of the nominatives the verb shall expressly agree, or to which of them it may most properly be understood, is a matter not easy to be settled by any sure general rule. Nor is the lack of such a rule a very important defect, though the inculcation of a false or imperfect one may be. So judged at least the ancient grammarians, who noticed and named almost every pos- sible form of the zeugma, without censuring any as being ungrammatical. In the Institutes of English Grammar, I noted first the usual form of this concord, and then the allowable excep- tions ; but a few late writers, we see, denounce every form of it, exceptions and all : and, stand- ing alone in their notions of the figure, value their own authority more than that of all other critics together. OBS. 8. In English, as in other languages, when a verb has discordant nominatives connected disjunctively, it most commonly agrees expressly with that which is nearest, and only by impli- cation, with the more remote; as, " When some word or words are dependent on the attribute." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 153. "To the first of these qualities, dulness or refinements are dangerous enemies." Broicn's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 15. " He hazards his own life with tha ; of his enemy, and one or both are very honorably murdered." Webster's Essays, p. 235. " The c )n- sequence is, that they frown upon every one whose faults or negligence interrupts or retards tl.eir lessons." W. C. Woodbridge: Lit. Conv. p. 114. " Good intentions, or at least sincerity of pur- pose, -was never denied her." West's Letters, p. 43. " Yet this proves not that either he orwe judge them to be the rule." Barclay's Works, i, 1.57. " First clear yourselves of popery before you or thou dost throw it upon us." Ib. i, 169. "Js the gospel or glad tidings of this salvation brought nigh unto all? " Ib. i, 362. "Being persuaded, that either they, or their cause, is naught. ' Ib. i, 504. " And the reader may judge whether he or I do most fully acknowledge man's fall." /. ii^ 332. " To do justice to the Ministry, they have not yet pretended that any one, or any bacco nor hides loere imported from Caraccas into Spain." Ib. ii, 507. " The keys or seed-ves- sel of the maple has two large side-wings." The Friend, vii, 97. "An example or two are suffi- cient to illustrate the general observation." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, i, 58. " Not thou, nor those thy factious arts engage, Shall reap that harvest of rebellious rage." Dryden, p. 60. OBS. 9. But when the remoter nominative is the principal word, and the nearer one is ex- pressed parenthetically, the verb agrees literally with the former, and only by implication, with the latter; as, " One example, (or ten,) says nothing against it." Leigh Hunt. "And we, (or future ages,) may possibly have a proof of it." Bp. Butler. So, when the alternative is merely in the words, not in the thought, the former term is sometimes considered the principal one, and is therefore allowed to control the verb; but there is always a harshness in this mixture of different numbers, and, to render such a construction tolerable, it is necessary to read the latter term like a parenthesis, and make the former emphatic : as, "A. parenthesis, or brackets, consists of two angular strokes, or hooks, enclosing one or more words." Whiting's Reader, p. 28. "To show us that our own schemes, or prudence, have no share in our advancements." Addison. " The Mexican figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words ; they exhibit images to the eye, not ideas to the understanding." Murray's Gram. p. 243 ; English Reader, p. xiii. "At Tra- van'core, Koprah, or dried cocoa-nut kernels, is monopolized by government." Maunder' s Gram. p. 12. " The Scriptures, or Bible, are the only authentic source." Bp. Tomline's Evidences. " Nor foes nor fortune take this power away ; And is my Abelard less kind than they? "Pope, p. 334. OBS. 10. The English adjective being indeclinable, we have no examples of some of the forms of zeugma which occur in Latin and Greek. But adjectives differing in number, are sometimes CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVII. VERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 577 connected without a repetition of the noun; and, in the agreement of the verb, the noun which is understood, is less apt to be regarded than that which is expressed, though the latter be more remote; as, "There are one or two small irregularities to be noted." Lotrth's Gram. p. 63. " There are one or two persons, and but one or two." Hazlitt's Lectures. " There are one or tiro others." Crombic's Treatise, p. 206. " There are one or tiro." Blair's Rhet. p. 319. "There are one or more seminaries in every province." //. E. Dmit the concord of tenses, and enumerate certain conjunctions which " couple like cases and moods." Hut all of them acknowledge some exceptions to their rules. The instructions of Limlley Murray and others, on this point, may be summed up in the following canon: "When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have * This order of the persons, is not i/m'r/r.W/y maintained in those languages. The words of Blary to her son, " Thy father and /have sought thee sorrowii,.- ;v to ghe'the ]*< i-l.-nc.- to her husband ; and i'ir iirranirt mi-nt i;: < t-k. :ui'l in thi- I.:itin v. rM"i)H. as well as in others. t The hackneyed example, "/a -which makes such a figure in the grammars, both Latin and English, and yet i* a . -n> him-clf. .rd of explanation. Cieero the orator, havinir with him his young son MI- \\ Athens, while his (Invrd daughter Tullia TV her mother in Italv. thus wrote ' 'ilftis; 'A'"? ft *"*'" \;> FAM. LU>. xiv. Kp. v. That is. It" then. an. I Tullia. our joy. are well ; I, and the 1 Cicero, are likewise well." This literal translation is good KnglUh, mid not to be amended l>y im> 1C 'i-xf and version of Ir. Adam puzzled me not a little ; because I could not conceive how Cirrro could ever have snid. / ; < The garhled citation is now much oftcner read than the original. eu i: in Cmmbies Treatise, p. 243 ; ATCullock's Gram.p 153; and othere. 37 578 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. separate nominatives expressed." This rule, (with a considerable exception to it, which other authors had not noticed,) was adopted by myself in the Institutes of English Grammar, and also retained in the Brief Abstract of that work, entitled, The First Lines of English Grammar. It there stands as the thirteenth in the series of principal rules : but, as there is no occasion to re- fer to it in the exercise of parsing, I now think, a less prominent place may suit it as well or bet- ter. The principle may be considered as being less certain and less important than most of the usual rules of syntax : I shall therefore both modify the expression of it, and place it among the notes of the present code. See Notes 5th and 6th below. OBS. 14. By the agreement of verbs with each other in form, it is meant, that the simple form and the compound, the familiar form and the solemn, the affirmative form and the negative, or the active form and the passive, are not to be connected without a repetition of the nominative. With respect to our language, this part of the rule is doubtless as important, and as true, as any other. A thorough agreement, then, in mood, tense, and form, is generally required, when verbs are connected by and, or, or nor ; and, under each part of this concord, there may be cited certain errors which ought to be avoided, as will by-and-by be shown. But, at the same time, there seem to be many allowable violations of the rule, some or other of which may perhaps form excep- tions to every part of it. For example, the tense may be varied, as it often is in Latin : thus, "As the general state of religion hasbeen, is, or shallbe, affected by them." Butler's Analogy, p. 241. " Thou art righteous, O Lord, which art, and wast, and shalt be, because thou hast judged thus." Rev. xvi, 5. In the former of these examples, a repetition of the nominative would not be agreeable ; in the latter, it would perhaps be an improvement: as, " wJio art, and who wast, and icJio shalt be." (I here change the pronoun, because the relative which is not now applied as above.) " This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has been, or shallbe published." Campbell's Rhet. p. 207; Murray's Gram. p. 222. "It ought to be, ' has been, is, or shall be, published.' " Crombie's Treatise, p. 383. " Truth and good sense are firm, and will establish themselves." Blair's Rhet. p. 286. " Whereas Wilton folloived a different plan, and has given a tragic conclusion to a poem otherwise epic in its form.'" Ib. p. 428. "I am certain, that such are not, nor ever were, the tenets of the church of England." West's Letters, p. 148. "They deserve, and will meet with, no regard." Blair's Rhet. p. 109. " Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, Thinks what ne'er icas, nor is, nor e'er shallbe." Pope, on Crit. OBS. 15. So verbs differing in mood or form may sometimes agree with the same nominative, if the simplest verb be placed first rarely, I think, if the words stand in any other order: as, "One maybehee from affectation and not have merit." Blair's Rhet. p. 189. "There is, and can be, no other person." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 224. " To see what is, and is allowed to be, the plain natural rule." Butler's Analogy, p. 284. " This great experiment has worked, and is work- ing, well, every way well." BRADBURN: Liberator, ix, 162. "This edition of Mr. Murray's works on English Grammar, deserves a place in Libraries, and will not fail to obtain it." BRITISH CRITIC: Murray's Gram. 8vo, ii, 299. " What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy." Pope. " Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." Id. OBS. 16. Since most of the tenses of an English verb are composed of two or more words, to prevent a needless or disagreeable repetition of auxiliaries, participles, and principal verbs, those parts which are common to two or more verbs in the same sentence, are generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest ; or reserved, and put la^t, as the common supplement of each: as, " To which they do or can extend." Butler's Analogy, p. 77. " He may, as any one may, if he will, incur an infamous execution from the hands of civil justice." Ib. p. 82. " All that has usurped the name of virtue, and [has] deceived us by its semblance, must be a mockery and a delusion." Dr. Chalmers. " Human praise, and human eloquence, may acknowledge it, but the Discerner of the heart never will" [acknowledge it]. Id. " We use thee not so hardly, as prouder livers do" [use thee}. Shale. "Which they might have foreseen and [might have] avoided." Butler. " Every sincere endeavour to amend, shall be assisted, [shall be] "accepted, and [shall be] rewarded." Carter. " Behold, I thought, He will surely corne out to me, and [*#J stand and [will] call on the name of the Lord his God, and [will] strike his hand over the place, and [will] recover the leper." 2 Kings, v, 11. " They mean to, and will, hear patiently." Salem Register. That is, " They mean to hear patiently, and they will hear patiently." " Virtue may be assail' d, but never hurt, Surpris'd by unjust force, but not inthrall'd." Milton. " Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, First wish to be imposed on, and then are." Cowper. OBS. 17. From the foregoing examples, it may be seen, that the complex and divisible struc- ture of the English moods and tenses, produces, when verbs are connected together, a striking peculiarity of construction in our language, as compared with the nearest corresponding con- struction in Latin or Greek. For we can connect different auxiliaries, participles, or principal verbs, without repeating, and apparently without connecting, the other parts of the mood or tense. And although it is commonly supposed that these parts are necessarily understood wher- ever they are not repeated, there are sentences, and those not a few, in which we cannot express them, without inserting also an additional nominative, and producing distinct clauses ; as, ' ' Should it not be taken up andpiirsued? " Dr. Chalmers. " Where thieves do not break through nor steal." Matt, vi, 20. "None present could either read or explain the writing." Wood's Diet. Vol. i, p. 159. Thus we sometimes make a single auxiliary an index to the mood and tense of more than one verb. OBS. 18. The verb do, which is sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb, is thought by some grammarians to be also fitly made a substitiite for other verbs, as a pronoun is for nouns ; but this doctrine has not been taught with accuracy, and the practice under it will in many instances be found to involve a solecism. In this kind of substitution, there must either be a true ellipsis of the principal verb, so that do is only an auxiliary ; or else the verb do, with CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. BULE XVII. VEKBS. NOTES. 579 its object or adverb, if it need one, must exactly correspond to an action described before ; so that Destroy the city, as had been threatened. Where do is an auxiliary, there is no real substitution ; and, in the other instances, it is not properly the verb do, that is the substitute, but rather the word that follows it or perhaps, both. For, since every action consists in doimj something or in dniiui somehoic, this general verb do, with this, that, it, thus, or so, to identify the action, may as- sume the import of many a longer phrase. But care must be taken not to substitute this verb for any term to which it is not equivalent ; as, " The a is certainly to be sounded as the English do."\\'d . A. Say, " as the English sound it ; " for do is here absurd, and gi solecistical. il The duke had not behaved with that loyalty with which he ought to have done." Lowlh's Gram. p. Ill ; Murray's, i, 212; Churchill's, 966 \ Fisk's, 137; InyersolVs, 269. Say, " with which he ought to have behaved; " for, to have done with loyalty, is not what was meant far from it. Clarendon wrote the text thus: "The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty, as he ought to have done." This should have been corrected, not by changing "as" to ir/iirh," but by saying " with that loyalty which he ought to have observed; " or, " which would 'a /nr hi/ii. " . 19. It is little to the credit of our grammarians, to find so many of them thus concur- ring in the same obvious error, and even making bad English worse. The very examples which have hitherto been given to prove that do may be a substitute for other verbs, are none of tin in in ]>(>int, and all of them have been constantly and shamefully misinterpreted. Thus : " They [rfo and did] sometimes also supply the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, ' You attend not to your studies as he does ; ' (i. e. as he attends, &c.) 'I shall come if I can ; but if I do not, please to excuse me ; ' (i. e. if I not.)" L. Murray's Gram. Vol. i, p. 88; R. C. Smith's, 88; Ingersoll's, 13o ; Fisk's, 78; A. Flint's, 41 ; Hiley's, 30. This remark, but not the examples, was taken from Loirth's Gram. p. 41. Churchill varies it thus, and retains Lowth's example : " It [i. e. do] is used also, to sup- ply the place of another verb, in order to avoid the repetition of it : as, ' He loves not pla thou dost, Antony.' SH LIB." .\>?r Gram. p. 96. Greenleaf says, "To prevent the repetition of on rbs, in the same, or [a] following sentence, we frequently make use of do AND .l.ick learns the English language as fast as Henry does ; ' that is, 'as fast as Henry I shall come if I can ; but if I rfo not, please to excuse me; ' that is, ' if I come not.' " Vrf, p. 27. Sanborn says, "/>o is also used instead of another verb, and not un- frequontly instead of both the verb and its object ; as, ' he loves trork as well as you rfo; ' that is, i as you Inre -irnrk." Anahjt. Gram. p. ll'J. Now all these interpretations are wrong; the word do, d'ost, or does, being simply an auxiliary, after which the principal verb (with its object where it has one) is understood. But the first example is bad English, and its explanation is still . i-'ui . ". Is he attends, &c.," means, "As he attends to your studies ! " And whatgood sense is there in this : The sentence ought to have been, " You do not attend to your studies, as he does to his." That is "as he does attend to his studies." This plainly snows that there is, in the text, no real substitution of does for attends. So of all other examples exhibited in our grammars, under this head: there is nothing to the purpose, in any of them; the common prin- ciple of ellipsis resolves them all. Yet, strange to say, in the latest and most learned of this sort of text-books, we find the same sham example, fictitious and solecistical as it is, still blindly re- 1, to show that " does " is not in its own place, as an auxiliary, but " supplies the place of another verb." Fowler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, p. 265. NOTES TO RULE XVII. ; H I. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers,* con- nected by or or nor, it must agree with the nearest, (unless an other be the principal term,) and must be understood to the rest, in the person and number required ; Neither you nor I am concerned." W. Allen. " That neither they nor ye also die." Numb, xviii, '.j. " But neither god, nor shrine, nor mystic rite, Their city, nor her walls, his soul delight." Rome's Lucan, B. x, 1. 26. NOTE II. But, since all nominatives that require different forms of the verb, virtually produce separate clauses or propositions, it is better to complete the concord whenever we conveniently can, by expressing the verb or its auxiliary in connexion with each of them ; as, " Either thou art to blame, or I am." Comfy 9 s Gram. p. 7v ' Neither were their numbers, nor was their destination, known." W. Allen s Grain, p. 1-U. So in clauses connected by and: as, " But declamation it idle, and murmurs fruitless." Webster's Essays, p. 82. Say, "and murmurs are fruitless." NOTE III. In English, the speaker should always mention himself last; unless * Two singulars connected by and, when they form a part of such a disjunction, are still equivalent to a plu- ral : and are to be treated as such, in the syntax of tl lie following construction appears to be iniucr.nir*' : "A single consonant or a mute and a liquid before an accented vowel, is joined to that vowel/' Dr. Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. li. 580 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. his own superior dignity, or the confessional nature of the expression, warrant him in taking the precedence : as, "Thou or I must go." " He then addressed his dis- course to my father and me." "Ellen and I will seek, apart, the refuge of some forest cdl"Scrtt. See Obs. llth above. NOTE IV. Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or or nor, require a singular verb ; and, if a nominative come after the verb, that must be singular also : as, " That a drunkard should be poor, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange." " To give an affront, or to take one tamely, ism mark of a great mind." So, when the phrases are unconnected : as, " To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, to propagate scandal, requires neither labour nor courage." Rambler, No. 183. NOTE V. In general, when verbs are connected by and, or, or nor, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or the simplest in form must be placed first ; as, " So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed, and went and returned, and dwelt at Nineveh." Isaiah, xxxvii, 37. "For if I be an offender, or have committed any thing worthy of death, I refuse not to die." Acts, xxv, 11. NOTE VI. In stead of conjoining discordant verbs, it is in general better to re- peat the nominative or insert a new one ; as, " He was greatly heated, and [he~] drank with avidity." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 201. "A person may be great or rich by chance ; but cannot be wise or good, without taking pains for it." Ib. p. 200. Say, " but no one can be wise or good, without taking pains for it." NOTE VII. A mixture of the forms of the solemn style and the familiar, is inele- gant, whether the verbs refer to the same nominative or have different ones expressed ; as, " What appears tottering and in hazard of tumbling, produceth in the spectator the painful emotion of fear." Kames, EL of Grit, ii, 356. "And the milkmaid sincjeth blithe, And the mower whets his sithe." Milton's Allegro, 1. 65 and 66. NOTE VIII. To use different moods under precisely the same circumstances, is improper, even if the verbs have separate nominatives ; as, " Bating that one speak and an other answers, it is quite the same." Blair's Rhet. p. 368. Say,. " that one speaks ; " for both the speaking and the answering are assumed as facts. NOTE IX. When two terms are connected, which involve different forms of the same verb, such parts of the compound tenses as are not common to both forms, should be inserted in full : except sometimes after the auxiliary do ; as, "And then \\efalls, as I do." Shak. That is, "as I do fall." The fpllowing sentences are therefore faulty: " I think myself highly obliged to make his fortune, as he has mine." Spect. No. 474. Say, " as he has made mine." " Every attempt to remove them r has, and likely will prove unsuccessful." Gay's Prosodical Gram. p. 4. Say, "has proved, and likely will prove, unsuccessful." NOTE X. The verl> do must never be substituted for any term to which its own meaning is not adapted ; nor is there any use in putting it for a preceding verb that is equally short : as, " When we see how confidently men rest on groundless surmises in reference to their own souls, we cannot wonder that they do it in reference to others." Simeon. Better: "that they so rest in reference to the souls of others ; " for this repeats the idea with more exactness. NOTE XI. The preterit should not be employed to form the compound tenses of the verb ; nor should the perfect participle be used for the preterit or confounded with the present. Thus: say, " To have gone," not, "To have went;" and, "I did so," not, "I done so ; " or, " He saw them," not, " He seen them." Again : say not, " It was lift or hoist up ; " but, " It was lifted or hoisted up." NOTE XII. Care should be taken, to give every verb or participle its appropiate form, and not to confound those which resemble each other; as, to flee and to fly, to lay and to lie, to sit and to set, to jfa//and to fell, &c. Thus : say, " He lay by the fire ; " not, " He laid by the fire ; " " He has become rich ; " not, " He is be- come rich ; " " I would rather stay ; " not, " I had rather stay" NOTE XIII. In the syntax of words that express time, whether they be verbs, adverbs, or nouns, the order and fitness of time should be observed, that the tenses may be used according to their import. Thus : in stead of," I have seen him last week ; " CHAP. VI.] SXNTAX. RULE XVII. VERBS. ERRORS. 581 say, " I saw him last week ; " and, in stead of, "I saw him this week ; " say, " I have seen him this week." So, instead of, "I told you already ; ' ; or, ''I have told you before ; " say, " I have told you already ; " " I told you before." * NOTE XIV. Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, per- mitting, and some others, in all their tenses, refer to actions or events, relatively pre- sent or future : one should therefore say, " I hoped you would come ; " not, " 1 hoped you would have come ;" and, " I intended to do it ; " not, " I intended to have done it ;" &c. NOTE XV. Propositions that are as true now as they ever were or will be, should generally be expressed in the present tense : as, " He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four; " not, " made." Blair's Gram. p. 65. "He will tell you, that whatever is, is right." Sometimes the present tense is improper with the conjunction that, though it would be quite proper without it ; as, " Others said, That it is Elias. And others said, That it is a prophet." Mark, vi, lo. Here That should be omitted, or else is should be was. The capital T is also improper. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVH. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR. *' We do not know in what either reason or instinct consist." Rambler, No. 41. [FoRMCLE. Not proper, because the verb consist is of the plural number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, reason and instinct, which are connected by or, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 17th, U'hcn a verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.-' Therefore, consist should be consists; thus, " We do not know in what either reason or instinct consists."] "A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, constitute a nominative case absolute." Bicknell's Gram. Part ii, p. 50. " The relative will be of that case, which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, use to govern." Dr. Adam's Gram. p. 203. " Which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, usually govern." Gould's Adam's Gram. p. 200.* " In the different modes of pronunciation which habit or caprice give rise to." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 14. " By which he, or his deputy, were authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest." Junius, p. 251. " Wherever objects were to be named, in which sound, noise, or motion were concerned, the imitation bywords was abundantly obvious." Blairs Rhet. p. 55. " The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, are a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes." Kames, EL of Grit, i, 262. "Because their foolish vanity or their criminal ambition represent the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect." Life of Madam* 1>< stael, p. 2. "Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties." Brown's Estimate, ii, 37. "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent believer, arc characters no where to be found." Tract, No. 183. "Copying whatever is peculiar in the tulk of all those whose birth or fortune entitle them to imitation." Rambler, X'o. 191. " Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, arc often of decisive influence." Duncan 's , p. 119. "A lucky anecdote or an enlivening tale relieve the folio page." D' Israeli's . Vol. i, p. 15. For outward matter or event, fashion not the character within." Book of Thoughts, p. 37. " Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, have warmed cold bram*." Dry&n'j /V/.v, p. 76. " Motion is a Genus ; Flight, a Species ; this Flight or that Flight are Individuals." Hurra's 11, run-, s, p. 38. "When et, aut, vcl, sivc, or nec t are joined to different members of tl. uteuce." Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram. p. 206 ; Gould's Lat. Gram. 203 ; Grant's, 260. " Wisdom or folly govern us." Fisk's English <''nttn. ]). St. ".1 or an are styled indefinite articles." Folki-Sn Gram. p. 4. "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoot up intoprodi;/. -.tor, Xo. 7. "Are either the subject or the predicate in the second si ntencc modified: " / -\nrl> r'.v I'.. Gram. Svo, 1850, p. 578, 589. " Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, Are lost on hearers that our merits know." 1'opc, Iliad, B. x, 1. 293. UXDEII THE lit I . XoMIN.YTlVr.S CoNNIX I I.I) BY NOR. "Neither he nor she have spoken to him." Pen-ins Gram. p. 237. "For want of a M of events, neither knowledge nor elegance preserve the reader from weariness." Jt.ii NSUN- : in Crabb's N//;. p. 51 1. " Neither history nor tradition furnish such information." <>1. i, p. 2. "Neither the form nor power of the liquids have varied materially." Knight, on the Greek Alph. p. 16. "Where neither noise nor motion are * Murray the schoolmaster has it, " usrrf to govern.'' En-'h.k Urum. p. CI. He puts the verb in a wrong tense. Dr. Bullions has it, " usually governs." Lat. Gram. p. 202. This is right. G. B. 582 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. concerned." Blair's Rhet. p. 55. "Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a system." Junius, p. 250. " When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion, serve, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track." Campbell's Rhet. p. 381. " In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, are fairly laid before men." Butlers Analogy, p. 269. " Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven." Abbott's Teacher, p. 20. " Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana are in any way connected with the Sun or Moon." Coleridge's Introd. p. 199. " Of which, neither he, nor this Grammar, take any notice." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 346. "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight extend so far." Robertson s Amer. Vol. i, p. 287. "Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, consider Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first discoverers of the continent of America." Ib. Vol. i, p. 471. "Neither the general situa- tion of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, have been thought worthy of a moment's consideration." Junius, p. 174. " Nor War nor Wisdom yield our Jews delight, They will not study, and they dare not fight." Crabbe's Borough, p. 50. "Nor time nor chance breed such confusions yet, Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great." Route's Lucan, B. iii, 1. 213. UNDER NOTE I. NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE. "The definite article the, designates what particular thing or things is meant." Mt chant's ScJwol Gram. p. 23 and p. 33. " Sometimes a word or words necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, is not expressed, but omitted by ellipsis." Burr's Gram. p. 26. "Ellipsis, or abbreviations, is the wheels of language." Maunder' s Gram. p. 12. " The conditions or tenor of none of them appear at this day." Hutchinson's Hist, of Mass, Vol. i, p. 16. "Neither men nor money were wanting for the service." Ib. Vol. i, p. 279. " Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, require frequent emphatic distinction." Barber's Exercises, p. 13. " Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature are uppermost: now I am for the latter part of the disjunction." Collier's Anto- ninus, p. 181. " Their riches or poverty are generally proportioned to their activity or indolence." Ross Cox's Narrative. " Concerning the other part of him, neither you nor he seem to have entertained an idea." Bp. Home. " Whose earnings or income are so small." N. E. Discipline, p. 130. " Neither riches nor fame render a man happy." Day's Gram. p. 71. "The references to the pages, always point to the first volume, unless the Exercise* or Key are mentioned." Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. 283. UNDER NOTE II. COMPLETE THE CONCORD. " My lord, you wrong my father ; nor he nor I are capable of harbouring a thought against your peace." Walpole. "There was no division of acts; no pauses or interval between them ; but the stage was continually full ; occupied either by the actors, or the chorus." Blair's Rhet. p. 463. " Every word ending in B, P, F, as also many in V, are of this order." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, i, 73. "As proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than the general system of human life and human knowledge." Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 347. " By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we cleansed." Barclay's Works, i, 165. "And those were already converted, and regeneration begun in them." Ib. iii, 433. " For I am an old man, and my wife well stricken in years." Luke, i, 18. " Who is my mother, or my brethren ?" Mark, iii, 33. "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering." Isaiah, xl, 16. " Information has been obtained, and some trials made." Society in America, i, 308. " It is as obvious, and its causes more easily understood." Webster's Essays, p. 84. "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English as many as any other." Priestley's Gram. p. 157. "The winters are long, and the cold intense." Morse's Geog. p. 39. "How have I hated instruction, and my heart despised reproof!" Prov. v, 12. "The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta extinguished." Lempriere, to. Vestales. "Riches beget pride; pride, impatience." Bullions' s Practical Lessons, p. 89. " Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters sounds."- Enclytica, p. 90. " Words are implements, and grammar a machine." Ib. p. 91. UNDER NOTE III. PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON. " I or thou art the person who must undertake the business proposed." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 184. " I and he were there." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 51. "And we dreamed a dream in one night, I and he." Gen. xli, 11. "If my views remain the same as mine and his were in 1833." GOODELL : Liberator, ix, 148. "I and my father were riding out." Inst. p. 158. " The premiums were given to me and George." Ib. " I and Jane are invited." Ib. "They ought to invite me and my sister." Ib. " I and you intend going." Guy's Gram. p. 55. "I and John are going to Town." British Gram. p. 193. "I, and he are sick. I, and thou are well." James Brown's American Grain., Boston Edition of 1841, p. 123. "I, and he is. I, and thou art. I, and he writes." Ib. p. 126. " I, and they are well. I, thou, and she were walking." Id. p. 127. CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. KULE XVII. VERBS. ERRORS. 583 UNDER NOTE IV. DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To practice tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great injustice." Brown's lust. p. 159. " To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible perfidy." Ib. " To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude them from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought offences too small for animadversion ; but the evil of innovation is always something." Dr. Barroic's Essays, p. 88. " To live in such families, or to have such servants, are blessings from God." Family Commentary, p. 64. "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, or what wars they maintained, are utterly unknown." Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 4. "To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, are attainments of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or writing*, to address the public." Blairs lihet. p. 11. r.NDKK NOTE V. MAKE THE VERBS AGRKK. " Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray:" Matt, xviii, 12. "Did he not fear the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced:" Jer. xxvi, 19. "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such an one, and bringest me into judgement with thee : " Job, xiv, 3. "If any man among you seem to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain." James, i, 26. " If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or buyest aught of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one an other." I^eviticus, xxv, 14. "And if thy brother that dwelleth by thee, shall have become poor, and be sold to thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant." i ER'S BIBLE : Lev. xxv, 39. " If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there remem- berest that thy brother hath aught against thee," &c. Matt, v, 23. "Anthea was content to call a coach, and crossed the brook." Rambler, No. 34. "It is either totally suppressed, or appears in its lowest and most imperfect form." Blairs Rhet. p. 23. "But if any man be a worshiper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth." John, ix, 31. " Whereby his righteousness and obedience, death and sufferings without, become profitable unto us, and is made ours." Barclay s Works, i, 164. " Who ought to have been here before thee, and object, if they had aught against me." Acts, xxiv, 19. "Yes ! thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see That man hath yet a soul, and dare be free." Campbell. UNDER NOTE VI. USE SEPARATE NOMINATIVES. "// is only an aspiration or breathing ; and sometimes at the beginning of a word is not sounded at all." Loicth's Gram. p. 4. " Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men." Ib. p. 12 ; Murray's, i, 170. "There is, and must be, a supreme being, of infinite goodness, power, and wisdom, who created and supports them." Seattle's Moral Science, p. 201. " Were you not affrighted, and mistook a spirit for a body?" <'s Apology, p. 122. " The latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction n or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed understood." Murray's Gram. p. 214; Riisselt's, 103; Bacons, 51; Alger's, 71; R. C. ith's, 179. "He had mistaken his true interests, and found himself forsaken." Mur- .o, p. 201. "The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and saved the patient's life." Ib. p. 191. " The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many [,] might have been, and probably were good." Ib. p. 216. "This may be true, and yet will not justify the practice." i 1 \.iays, p. 33. " From the practice of those who have had a liberal education, and are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and p. 161. "'For those energies and bounties which created and preserve the universe."./. <}. An-nn^.t H/n-f. i, 327. " I shall make it once for all, and hope it will be afterwards remembered." Blair's Led. p. 45. "This consequence is drawn too abruptly, and needed more explanation." Ib. p. 229. "They must be used with more caution, and require more preparation." Ib. p. 153. " The apostrophe denotes the omission . whi.-h was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word." p. U7. "The succession may be rendered more various or more uniform, but in one shape or an other is unavoidable." Kamcs, El. of Crit. i, 253. "It excites neither terror nor compassion, nor is agreeable in any respect." Ib. ii, 277. " Ch. arts, whose narrowness affords No flight for thoughts, but poorly stick at words." Denham. VII. MIXTURE OF 1 ' STYLES. " Let us read the living page, whose every character delightcth and instructs us." M>t under'* Cram. p. 5. " For if it be in any decree obscure, it puzzles, and doth not please." Kames, i "When a speaker addrosscth himself to the under- standing, lie proposes the instruction of his hearers." Ctitnj'Mrs Rhet. p. 13. "As the wine whieh strengthens and refroshcth the heart."//. A'fama's I'/"/-, p. 221. "This truth he wrappeth in an allegory, and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other." Pojtes Work*, iii, 40. "God sei searcheth and understands the heart." 584 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Thomas a Kcmpis. " The grace of God, that brings salvation hath appeared to all men." Barclay's Works, i, 366. "Also we speak not in the words, which man's wisdom teaches ; but which the Holy Ghost teacheth." Ib. i, 388. "But he hath an objection, which he urgeth, and by which he thinks to overturn all." Ib. iii, 327. "In that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it giveth unto them who love it." Ib. i, 142. "Thou here misunderstood the place and misappliedst it." Ib. iii, 38. "Like the barren heath in the desert, which knoweth not when good comes." Friends' Extracts, p. 128 ; N. E. Discip. p. 75. " It speaketh of the time past, but shews that something was then doing, but not quite finished." E. Devis's Gram. p. 42. "It subsists in spite of them; it advanceth unobserved." PASCAL : Addison's Evidences, p. 17. " But where is he, the Pilgrim of my song ? Methinks he cometh late and tarries long." Byron, Cant, iv, St. 164. UNDER NOTE VIII. CONFUSION OF MOODS. " If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, &c." Kirkham's Gram. p. 227 with 197. "As a speaker advances in his discourse, especially if it be somewhat impassioned, and increases in energy and earnestness, a higher and louder tone will natu- rally steal upon him." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 68. "If one man esteem a day above another, and another esteemeth every day alike ; let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind." Barclay's Works, i, 439. " If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are only two, there will want a casting voice." Addison, /Spec*. No. 287. " Should you come up this way, and I am still here, you need not be assured how glad I shall be to see you." Ld. Byron. " If he repent and becomes holy, let him enjoy God and heaven." Brownson's Elwood, p. 248. " If thy fellow approach thee, naked and destitute, and thou shouldst say unto him, ' Depart in peace ; be you warmed and filled ; ' and yet shouldst give him not those things that are needful to him, what benevo- lence is there in thy conduct ? " Kirkham's Elocution, p. 108. " Get on your nightgown, lest occasion calls us, And show us to be watchers." Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 278. " But if it climb, with your assisting hands, The Trojan walls, and in the city stands." Dryden's Virgil, ii, 145. " Though Heaven's king Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, TJs'd to the yoke, draw'st his triumphant wheels." Milton, P. L. iv, 1. 973. "Us'd to the yoke, draw'dst his triumphant wheels." Lowth's Gram. p. 106. UNDER NOTE IX. IMPROPER ELLIPSES. " Indeed we have seriously wondered that Murray should leave some things as he has." Education Reporter. " Which they neither have nor can do." Barclay's Works, iii, 73. " The Lord hath, and doth, and will reveal his will to his people, and hath and doth raise up members of his body," &c. Ib. i, 484. " We see then, that the Lord hath, and doth give such." Ib. i, 484. "Towards those that have or do declare themselves members." Ib. i, 494. " For which we can, and have given our sufficient reasons." Ib, i, 507. " When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what is the exercise called ?" Smith's New Gram. p. 12. " It is, however to be doubted whether this peculiarity of the Greek idiom, ever has or will obtain extensively in the English." Nutting's Gram. p. 47. " Why did not the Greeks and Romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we ? " Murray's Gram, i, p. 111. " Who delivers his sentiments in earnest, as they ought to be in order to move and per- suade." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 151. UNDER NOTE X. DO, USED AS A SUBSTITUTE. "And I would avoid it altogether, 'if it could be done." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 36. " Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic, and must elevate the mind to the greatest height that can be done by a single expression." Ib. i, 204. " Successive images making thus deeper and deeper impressions, must elevate more than any single image can do." Ib. i, 205. "Besides making a deeper impression than can be done by cool reasoning." Ib. ii, 273. " Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, can rise higher than a public speaker can do." Blair's Rhct. p. 338. "And the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have done, should have induced them to go farther." Priestley's Gram. Pref. p. vii. " The pupil should commit the first section perfectly, before he does the second part of grammar." Bradley's Gram. p. 77. " The Greek ch was pronounced hard, as we now do in chord." Booth's Introd. to Diet. p. 61. " They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."- Murray's Eng. Reader, p. xi. "And give him the formal cool reception that Simon had done." Dr. Scott, on Luke vii. " I do not say, as some have done." Bolingbrokc, on Hist. p. 271. "If he suppose the first, he may do the last." Barclay's Works, iii, 406. "Who are now despising Christ in his inward appearance, as the Jews of old did him in h5s out- CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVII. VERBS. ERRORS. 585 ward." Ib. i, 506. "That text of Revelations must not be understood, as he doth it." Ib. iii, 309. " Till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily." Smith'* \>'n- Gm/n. p. 13. "Perhaps it is running the same course which Rome had done before." Middlcton's Life of Cicero. " It ought even on this ground to be avoid- ed; which may easily be done by a different construction." Churchill's Gram, p. 312. " These two languages are now pronounced in England as no other nation in Europe does besides." Crcir/hton's Dirt. p. xi. " Germany ran the same risk that Italy had done." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211 : see Priestley's Gram. p. 196. UNDER NOTE XI. PRETERITS AND PARTICIPLES. "The Beggars themselves will be broke in a trice." Swift's Poems, p. 347. "The hoop is hoist above his nose." Ib. p. 404. " My heart was lift up in the ways of the Lord. 2 Cuuox." Joh. Diet. w. Lift. "Who sin so oft have mourned, Yet to temptation ran." Burns. " Who would not have let them appeared." Stecle. " He would have had you sought for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality." Pilgrim's Progress, p. 31. "From me his madding mind is start, And wooes the widow's daughter of the glen." SPENSER : Joh. Diet. IF. Gkn. "The man has spoke, and still speaks." Ash's Gram. p. 54. "For you have but mistook me all this while." Beauties of Shak. p. 114. "And will you rent our ancient love asunder:" Ib. p. 52. "Mr. Birney has plead the inexpediency of passing such resolutions." Liberator, Vol. xiii, p. 194. " Who have wore out their years in such most painful Labours." Littleton's Diet. Pref. "And in the conclusion you were chose proba- tioner." Spectator, No. 32. " How she was lost, took captive, made a slave ; And how against him set that should her save." Bunyan. UNDER NOTE XII. VERBS CONFOUNDED. "But Moses preferred to wile away his time." Parker's English Composition, p. 15. " His face shown with the rays of the sun." Calvin's Inst. 4to, p. 76. " Whom they had sat at defiance so lately." Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 320. "And when he was set, his disciples came unto him." Matt, v, 1. " When he was set down on the judgement-seat." Ib. xxvii, 19. "And when they had kindled a fire in the midst of the hall, and were set down together, Peter sat down among them." Luke, xxii, 55. " So after he had washed their feet, and had taken his garments, and was set down again, he said unto them, Know ye what I have done to you ?" John, xiii, 12. "Even as I also overcame, and am set down with my Father in his throne." Rev. iii, 21. " We have such an high priest, who is set on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens." Heb. viii, 1. "And is set down at the right hand of the throne of God." Ib. xii, 2.* "He sat on foot a furious persecution." Payne's Geog. ii, 418. " There layeth an obligation upon the saints, to help Huch." Barclay's Works % i, 389. "There let him lay." Byron's Pilgrimage, C. iv, st. 180. " Nothing but moss, and shrubs, and stinted trees, can grow upon it." Morse's Geog. p. 43. " Who had lain out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves." Goldsmith's , i, 132. "Whereunto the righteous fly and are safe." Barclay's Works, i, 146. ''He raiseth from supper, and laid aside his garments." Ib. i, 438. "Whither Oh! whither shall I fly? "Murray's English Reader, p. 123. "Flying from an adopted mur- derer." Ib. p. 122. " To you I fly for refuge." Ib. p. 124. "The sign that should warn his disciples to fly from approaching ruin." Keith's Evidences, p. 62. " In one she sets as a prototype for exact imitation." AW/, on the I 'aiir, p. xxiii. " In which some only bleat, bark, me\v, winnow, and bray, a little better than others." Ib. p. 90. "Who represented to him the unreasonableness of being effected with such unmanly fears." liollin's Hist, ii, 106. "Thou sawedst every action." Guy's School Gram. p. 40. "I taught, thou taught- he or she taught." Coar's dram. p. 79. " Valerian is taken by Sapor and Head alive, A. D. 260." Lcmpriere's Chron. Table, Di,-t. p. xix. " What a fine vehicle is it now become for all conceptions of the mind ! " Blair s lihvt. p. 139. " What are become of so many production '///?, p. 8. " What arc become of those ages of abundance and of life : " AW// s p. 107. "The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont." Guldxmith'a Greece, i, 1-50. "As soon as he was lauded, the multitude thronged about * The two verbs to sit and to set are in general quite different in their meaning ; but the passive verb to be set sometimes comes pretty near to the sen . : ,er, which is for tin- most p;irt neu-er. ll.-ure, we not only Und the Latin word \ huge supper II 1 .': Ui:. i: nutet, ,*<.. with n t'.-rence to the ,.d posture of sitting. Thi., in t I >r. Lowth :m without any >le-i-nation of the posture of the person placed : \vhi.-h is ;i circumstance of inr -<y the / .not/i's Gram. p. 63 : Churchill'.*. ;iic-n fii.' three of theso seven examples, and refer to the other four ; but they do not tell u< how they would amend any of them except that .they prefer .- souring to restore an old participle which i.> cer- tainly obsolete. If any critic dislike my VTM-.IJ <.f tin- lost, two . 1 UM . the prwenl tense for what in the Greek <.< the first aorist : let him notice that this has been done in both bv our translators, ami in one by Ihose of the Vulgate. In the precedm^ example, too, the same aorist is rendered, "am set," and by Beza, "sedeo;-' thou-h M.nitunis and the Vulgate render it literally by " jtv/i," as I do by sat. See Key to False I. Note xii. 586 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. him." Ib. i, 160. " Cyrus was arrived at Sardis." Ib. i, 161. " Whose year was expired." Ib. i, 162. "It had better have been, 'that faction which.'" Priestley's Gram. p. 1)7. "This people is become a great nation." Murray's Gram. p. 153 ; IngersolVs, 249. "And here we are got into the region of ornament." Blair's Rhet. p. 181. "The ungraceful parenthesis which follows, had far better have been avoided." Ib. p. 215. " Who forced him under water, and there held him until drounded." Indian Wars, p. 55. " I had much rather be myself the slave, And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him." Cowper. UNDER NOTE XIII. WORDS THAT EXPRESS TIME. " I had finished my letter before my brother arrived." Kirkham's Gram. p. 139. " I had written before I received his letter." Blair's Rhet. p. 82. " From what has been formerly delivered." Ib. p. 182. "Arts were of late introduced among them." Ib. p. 245. " I am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use, unless persons saw them exemplified." Ib. p. 336. " If we use the noun itself, we should say, This composition is John's.' " Murray's Gram. p. 174. " But if the assertion referred to something, that is not always the same, or sup- posed to be so, the past tense must be applied." Ib. p. 191. " They told him, that Jesus of Nazareth passeth by." Luke, xviii, 37. " There is no particular intimation but that I con- tinued to work, even to the present moment." R. W. Green's Gram. p. 39. " Generally, as was observed already, it is but hinted in a single word or phrase." Campbell's Rhet. p. 36. " The wittiness of the passage was already illustrated." Ib. p. 36. "As was observed already." Ib. p. 56. "It was said already in general." Ib. p. 95. "As I hinted already." Ib. p. 134. " What I believe was hinted once already." Ib. p. 148. " It is obvious, as hath been hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion." Ib. p. 282. " They have done anciently a great deal of hurt." Bolinabroke, on Hist. p. 109. " Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he is the High Priest." Dr. Webster's Bible : Acts, xxiii, 5. " Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place, and have been thence transferred to denote by similitude other relations." Lowth's Gram. p. 65 ; ChurchilFs, 116. " His gift was but a poor offering, when we consider his estate." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 194. " If he should succeed, and should obtain his end, he will not be the hap- pier for it." Murray's Gram, i, p. 207. "These are torrents that swell to-day, and have spent themselves by to-morrow." Blair's Rhet. p. 286. " Who have called that wheat to-day, which they have called tares to-morrow." Barclay's Works, iii, 168. " He thought it had been one of his tenants." Ib. i, 11. " But if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent." Luke, xvi, 30. " Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead ." Ib. verse 31. " But it is while men slept, that the archenemy has always sown his tares." The Friend, x, 351. " Crescens would not fail to have exposed him." Addison's Evidences, p. 30. " Bent was his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound ; Fierce as he mov'd, his silver shafts resound." Pope, Iliad, B. i, 1. 64. UNDER NOTE XIV. VERBS OF COMMANDING, &c. "Had I commanded you to have done this, you would have thought hard of it." G. B. "I found him better than I expected to have found him." Priestley's Gram. p. 126. " There are several smaller faults, which I at first intended to have enumerated." Webster's Essays, p. 246. "Antithesis, therefore, may, on many occasions, be employed to advantage, in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object should make." Blair's Rhet. p. 168. " The girl said, if her master would but have let her had money, she might have been well long ago." See Priestley's Gram. p. 127. "Nor is there the least ground to fear, that we should be cramped here within too narrow limits." Campbell's Rhet. p. 163 ; Murray's Gram, i, 360. " The Romans, flushed with success, expected to have re- taken it." Hooke's Hist. p. 37. " I would not have let fallen an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of Misery, to be entitled to all the wit that ever Rabelais scat- tered." STERNE : Enjield's Speaker, p. 54. " We expected that he would have arrived last night." hist. p. 192. " Our friends intended to have met us." Ib. " We hoped to have seen you." Ib. " He would not have been allowed to have entered." Ib. UNDER NOTE XV. PERMANENT PROPOSITIONS. " Cicero maintained that whatsoever was useful was good." " I observed that love con- stituted the whole moral chracter of God." Dwight. " Thinking that one gained nothing by being a good man." Voltaire. " I have already told you that I was a gentleman."- Fontaine. " If I should ask, whether ice and water were two distinct species of things." Locke. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse." Murray's Gram, 12mo, p. 260. "The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst." Inst. p. 192. " The ancients asserted, that virtue was its own reward." Ib. " They should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the infinitive was a mere noun." Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 288. " It was observed in Chap. Ill, that the distinctive or had a double use." Churchill's Gram. p. 154. " Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there was no God." Swift. CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XYIII. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 587 RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES. The preposition TO governs the Infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb : as, " I desire TO learn" Dr. Adam. " Of me the Ro- man people have many pledges, which I must strive, with my utmost en- deavours, TO preserve, TO defend, TO confirm, and TO redeem" Duncan's Cicero, p. 41. " What if the foot, ordain' d the dust TO tread, Or hand TO toil, aspir'd TO be the head ? " Pope. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII. Ons. 1. No word is more variously explained by grammarians, than this word TO, which is put before the verb in the infinitive mood. Johnson, Walker, Scott, Todd, and some other lexicog- says, "jectives, and express some circumstance or ,. Murray, Webster, Wilson, S. W. Clark, _, , , . , , Webber, and others, call it a preposition; and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb, while others do not. Lowth says, " The preposition TO, placed before the verb, makes the infinitive mood." Short Gram. p. 42. this," says Home Tooke, " is manifestly not so : for TO placed before the verb loveth, will not make the infinitive mood. He would have said more truly, that TO placed before some nouns, makes verbs." Diversions of Purlcy, Vol. i, p. 287. -^kinner, in his Canones Etymologici, calls this TO " an equivocal article" Tooke, ib. i, 288. Nutting, a late American grammarian, says: " The sign TO, is no other than the Greek article to; as, to agapan [, to love] ; or, as some say, it is the Saxon do" Practical Gram. p. 66. Thus, by suggesting two false and inconsistent derivations, though he uses not the name equivo- cal article, he tirst makes the word an article, and then equivocal equivocal in etymology, and of course in meaning.* Nixon, in his English Parser, supposes it to be, unequivocally, the Greek article m, the. See the work, p. 83. D. Booth says, " To is, by us, applied to Verbs ; but it was the neuter Article (the] among the Greeks." Introd. to Analyt. Diet. p. 60. According to Home Tooke, " Minshew also distinguishes between the preposition TO, and the sign of the infinitive TO. Of the former he is silent, and of the latter he says : ' To, as to make, to walk, to d<3, a Graeco articulo re>.' But Dr. Gregory Sharpe is persuaded, that our language has taken it from the Hebrew. And Vossius derives the correspondent Latin preposition AD from the same source." Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 293. OHS. 3. Tooke also says, " I observe, that Junius and Skinner and Johnson, have not chosen to give the slightest hint concerning the derivation of TO." Ibid. But, certainly, of his adverb TO, Johnson gives this hint: "TO, Saxon; te, Dutch." And Webster, who calls it not an ad- verb, but a preposition, gives the same hint of the source from which it comes to us. This is as much as to say, it is etvmologically the old Saxon preposition to which, truly, it is the very word that, for a thousand years or more, has been used before nouns and pronouns to gov- ern the objective case. Tooke himself does not deny this ; but, conceiving that almost all par- whether English or any other, can be traced back to ancient verbs or nouns, he hunts for the root of this, in a remoter region, where he pretends to find that to has the same origin as do ; and though he detects the former in a Gothic noun, he scruples not to identify it with an auxil- ittri/ verb ! Yet he elsewhere expressly denies, " that any words change their nature by use, so as to belon g sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another." Die. of ]'ur. Vol. i, p. 68. OHS. 4. From this, the fair inference is, that he will have both to and do to be " nouns sitb- sfrutfirc" still! " Do (the auxiliary verb, as it has been called) is derived from the same root, and is indeed the same word as TO." Ib. Vol. i, p. 290. " Since FROM means commencement or be- ij inning, TO must mean end or termination." Ib. i, 283. " The preposition TO (in Dutch written * Nutting, I suppose did not imagine the Greek article, TO, the, and the English or Saxon rerb do, to be equiva- lent or kindred words. But then- is no knowing what terms conjectural etymology may not contrive to identify, or at least to approximate and ttlly. The in-i -i. :, ,oth, if he does "not actually" identify do, with td, the, has discovered synonymes and cognates that arc altogether as u nap parent to common ohservers : as, "It and fA," s:t i<* is not attended to, are tynonymous. Each is expressive of Being in general, and when u-^u.l Verbally, siirni' ., ; vt we already see. The, it, and, add, at, to, and do, \vnkindredwoTds. They mark that an ! mass of existence. To, which literally Hignifles piler says on the i.. . . and [when] jtroper '.imits :i: :t< great attention ! ''Ib. p. ulf.s f or inter- pretinc '." .-uij the ' relative pronoun tcith a comma before it," he ue the >nterpretation of the words what it may. For, if to means action or to act, then our little infinitive phrase, to be. mist mean, action be, or to act be ; and what is this, but nonsense ? 588 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [pART III. TOE and TOT, a little nearer to the original) is the Gothic substantive Tj\.TlI or TjUlhlTS, i. e. act, effect, result, consummation. Which Gothic substantive is indeed itself no other than the past participle of the verb TjV.npi^N, agcre. And Avhat is done, is terminated, ended, finish- ed." lb. i, 285. No wonder that Johnson, Skinner, and Junius, gave no hint of this derivation : it is not worth the ink it takes, if it cannot be made more sure. But, in showing its bearing en the verb, the author not unjustly complains of our grammarians, that, " Of all the points which they endeavour to shuffle over, there is none in which they do it more grossly than in this of the infinitive." .ft. i, 287. OBS. 5. Many are content to call the word TO a prefix, a particle, a little word, a sign of the infin- itive, apart of the infinitive, apart of the verb, and the like, without telling us whence it conies, how it differs* from the preposition to, or to what part of speech it belongs. It certainly is not what we usually call a prefix, because we never join it to the verb ; yet there are three instances in which it becomes such, before a noun : viz., to-day, to-night, to-morrow. If it is a roperly omitted ; as, ' I heard him say it ; ' instead of ' to say it.' " Productive Gram. p. 156. See Jftmy** Rule 12th. OBS. 11. Most English grammarians have considered the word to as a part of the infinitive, a part of t/te verb ; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the government of this mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give, is partial, and often inapplicable; and their ex- ceptions to it, or the heterogeneous parts into which some of them divide it, are both numerous and puzzling. They teach that at least half of the ten different parts of speech "frequently gov- ern the infinitive : " if so, there should be a distinct rule for each ; for why should the government of one part of speech be made an exception to that of an other ? and, if this be done, with re- spect to the infinitive, why not also with respect to the objective case ? In all instances to which their rule is applicable, the rule which I have given, amounts to the same thing ; and it obviates the :ty tor their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment arising from other construc- tions of the infinitive not noticed in them. Why then is the simplest solution imaginable still so frequently rejected for so much complexity and inconsistency ? Or how can the more common rule in question be suitable for a child, if its applicability depends on a relation between the two which the preposition to sometimes expresses, nnd sometimes does not? 1- All authors admit that in some instances the sign to is " superfluous and improper " the construction and government appearing complete without it; and the " Rev. Peter Bullions, 1) I)., l'rotVs>r of Languages in the Albany Academy," has recently published a grammar, in which he adopts the common rule, " One verb governs another in the infinitive mood ; as, I desire to learn ; " and then remarks, " The infinitive after a verb is governed by it only when the attri- Now the _ and badly resolved. The single particle to is quite sufficient, both to govern the infinitive, and to connect it to any antecedent term which can make sense with such an adjunct. But, in fact, the nd author must have meant to use the " little word" but once ; and also to deny that it is a preposition ; for he elsewhere says expressly, though, beyond question, erroneously. "A prep- osition should MMT be used before the infinitive." Ib. p. 92. And he also says, "The Infini- "'lin/j in a general manner, without distinction of number, person, or time, and commonly h-i- cond Edition, p. 3o. Now if TO is " before " the mood, it is certainly not apart of it. And again, if this mood had no distinction of " time," our author's f it, and his two special rules for their application, would be as absurd as is his no- tion of its government. See hN O',.s. ami 7, ib. p. 121. OBS. 13. Richard Ililoy, too, a grammarian of perhaps more merit, is equally faulty in his explanation of the infinitive mood. In the first place, he absurdly says, " TO before the infiiitice mood, is considered as forming part of the verb ; but in er,-n/ other situation it is a preposition." IH/ei/'x drum.. Third Edition, p. 23. To teach that a "part of the verb " stands " before the mood," is an absurdity manifestly greater, than the very opposite notion of Dr. Ash, that what is m>t apart of t/u >< rh, may yet be included in the mood. ' There is no need of either of these false suppositions; or of the oth< r n, doubly false, that to, " in every other situation!, is a preposition." What does/// Is to a preposition when it is placed after a verb, it ; as, to move. Its general character is to represent the action in prospect, or to do ; or in retrospect, as to have il< ne. As a v. s to do the action ; and as object of the proposition TO, it stands in the place of a noun for th>- :nd its prefix to are used much like a preposition and ita noun ot> ; (2.) '-The .irtii.il ->r othi n of a v, rl. may be expressed in its widestand mog t general sense, without ai y limitation by a person or a^.-iif. l-ut inrrrly a< th- ,. of som.- other action, state of being, quality, or thing; it i.-<, from thi> n i 1 to )><> in the Infinitive j/n"/, : :m I is ( \| r. - ! 1.-. the vrrh with i ue man is not fit to die; ' It was not ri^ht for him t n(ilcdic<- ft ))tli-r dare < t ttccipt >'< .' Seneca, de Ben. 1. 5, c. 10." [That i t' any one bestows a benefit on himself, there is no difference bcttcccn give and take; "* or, in;/-"] See Johnson's (iranunnticdl Com. p. 342. But I deny that a preposition is a " sure si^n of a substantive." (See Obs. 2d on the Prepositions, and also Obs. 1st on the List of Prepositions, in the tenth chapter of Etymology.) And if we appeal to philological authorities, to determine whether infinitives are nouns or verbs, there will certainly be found more for the latter name, than for the former ; that is, more in number, if not in weight ; though it must Foxtlirk'x De Sari/, p. 131. In short, he expounds the word to in this relation, just as ho does when it stands vunpk', in the phrase, ' btlnn^m^ to linn nlum. : to,' Kxponent of a re.. which the Ant'-ced'-r .< nt. linn t ru>L herself.' " l!u: iions. if allowable, are too uiifre.iucnt to be noticed in .-my u'eneral Kule of -siitax. In tli- : retty evidently governs the infinitive: Intemperance rh.ua. ;eri/cs our diacussious, that is calcu- lated to embitter in stead of conciliate." CISCINXATI HZEALD : Liberator, No. 592 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. be confessed, that many of the old Latin grammarians did, as Priscian tells us, consider the infinitive a noun, calling it Nomen Verbi, the Name of the Verb.* If we appeal to reasons, there are more also of these ; or at least as many, and most of them better : as, 1. That the infinitive is often transitive ; 2. That it has tenses ; 3. That it is qualified by adverbs, rather than by adjectives ; 4. That it is never declined like a noun ; 5. That the action or state expressed by it, is not commonly abstract, though it may be so sometimes ; 6. That in some languages it is the root from which all other parts of the verb are derived, as it is in English. OBS. 21. So far as I know, it has not yet been denied, that to before a. participle is a preposition, or that a preposition before a participle governs it; though there are not a few who erroneously suppose that participles, by virtue of such government, are necessarily converted into nouns. Against this latter idea, there are many sufficient reasons ; but let them now pass, because they belong not here. I am only going to prove, in this place, that to before the infinitive is jtist such a word as it is before the participle ; and this can be done, call either of them what you will. It is plain, that if the infinitive and the participle are ever equivalent to each other, t^ie same word to before them both must needs be equivalent to itself. Now I imagine there are some examples of such equivalence ; as, " When we are habituated to doing [or to do] any thing wrong, we becorae blinded by it." Young Christian, p. 326. " The lyre, or harp, was best adapted to accompanying [or to accompany} their declamations." Music of Nature, p. 336. " The new beginner should be cases of constructional ambiguity, the noun and the verb having the same form, and the to not determining which is meant : as, " He was inclined to sleep." " It must be a bitter experience, to be more accustomed to hate than to love." Here are double doubts for the discriminators : their " sign of the infinitive " fails, or becomes uncertain ; because they do not know it from a prep- osition. Cannot my opponents see in these examples an argument against the distinction which they attempt to draw, between to and to f An other argument as good, is also afforded by the fact, that our ancestors often used the participle after to, in the very same texts in which we have since adopted the infinitive in its stead ; as, "And if yee wolen resceyue, he is Elie that is to comynge." Matt, xi, 14. " Ihesu that delyueride us fro wraththe to comynge" 1 Thess. i, 10. These, and seventeen other examples of the same kind, may be seen in Tooke's Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, pp. 457 and 458. OHS. 22. Dr. James P. Wilson, speaking of the English infinitive, says : " But if the appella- tion of mode be denied it, it is then a verbal noun. ' This is indeed its truest character, because its idea ever represents an object of .approach. To supplies the defect of a termination characteristic of the infinitive, precedes it,' and marks it either as that, towards which the preceding verb is directed ; f or it signifies act, and shows the word to import an action. When the infinitive is the expression of an immediate action, which it must be, after the verbs, bid, can, dare, do, fed, hear, let, make, may, must, need, see, shall, and icill, the preposition TO is omitted." Essay en Grammar, p. 129. That the truest character of the infinitive is that of a verbal noun, is not to be conceded, in weak abandonment of all the reasons for a contrary opinion, until it can be shown that the action or being expressed by it, must needs assume a substantive character, in order lo be "that towards which the preceding verb is directed." But this character is manifestly net supposable of any of those infinitives which, according to the foregoing quotation, must folio *v other verbs without the intervention of the preposition to: as, "Bid him come;" "He can walk." And I see no reason to suppose it, where the relation of the infinitive to an other word is not " immediate," but marked by the preposition, as above described. For example : "And r e laboured till the going-down of the sun TO deliver him." Dan. vi, 14. Here deliver is governed bv to, and connected by it to the finite verb laboured; but to tell us, it is to be understood .substan- tively rather than actively, is an assumption as false, as it is needless. * This doctrine has been lately revived in English by William B. Fowle, -who quotes Dr. Rees, Beanzee, Harris, Tracy, and Crombie, as his authorities for it. He is right in supposing the English infinitive to be generally governed by the preposition to, but wrong in calling it a noun, or " the name of the verb," except this phrase be used in the sense in which every verb may be the name of itself. It is an error too, to suppose with Beauzc- 3, " that the infinitive never in any language refers to a subject or nominative ; " or, as Harris has it, that infinitives " have no reference at all to persons or substances." See Fowlers True English Gram. Part ii, pp. 74 and 75. For, though the infinitive verb never agrees with a subject or nominative, like a finite verb, it most commonly has a very obious reference to something which is the subject of the being, action, or passion, which it expresses ; and (his reference is one of the chief points of difference between the infinitive and a noun. S. S. Greene, in a recent t, r, i in mar, absurdly parses infinitives "as nouns," and by the common rules for nouns, though he begins with calling them verbs. Thus: " Our honor is to be maintained. To be maintained, is a regular passive VERB, infin- itive mode, present tense., and is used as a NOUN in the relation of predicate; according to Rule II. A noun or jironoun used with the copula to form the predicate, must be in the nominative case." Greene's Gram. 1848, p. 93. (See the Rule, ib. p. 29.) This author admits, " The ' to ' seems, like the preposition, to perform the office of :i niiiiifctivf ; " but then he ingeniously imagines, " The infinitive differs from the preposition awl its object, in that, the ' to ' is the only preposition used with the verb," And so he concludes, " The two [or more] parts of the infmitivi! are taken together, and, thus combined, may become a NOUN in any relation." Ib., 1st Edition, p. 87. S. S. Greene will also have the infinitive to make the verb before it transitive ; for he says, " The only form [of phrase] used as the dirrct object of a transitive verb is the infinitive ; as, 'We intend (YThat?) to leave [town] to-day ; ' ' They tried (What?) to conceal their fears.' "/ft. p. 99. One mi^ht as well find transitive verbs in these equivalents : "// />' our purpose to leave town to-day." '' They endeavoured to conceal their fears." Or in this : " They blustered to conceal their fears." t It is remarkable that the ingenious J. E. Worcester could discern nothing of the import of this particle l.eion- a verb, lie expounds it, with very little consistency, thus : " To, or To, ad. A particle employed as the usual siirn or prefix of the infinitive mood of the verb ; and it might, in such use, be deemed a syllable of the verb. It is and inrrrli/ a* n sign <>( the infinitive, without having any distinct or separate meaning ; as, 'He loves to iv.-nl.' " --1'nii-. an/I Cnt. liirt. Now is it not plain, that the action expressed by " read " is " that towards \\ hirh the alVeetion signified by " tow ,s is directed > It is only because we can use no other word in lieu of this to. that ittt meaning is iiot readily Feen. For calling it " a syllable of the verb," there is, I think, no reason or analogy whatever. Theie is absurdity iu calling it even " 9. part of the verb." CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 593 OBS. 23. To deny to the infinitive the appellation of mood, no morn makes it a verbal noun, than does the Doctor's solecism about what " ITS IDKA ever represents." " The infinitive there- fore," as Home Tooke observes, "appears plainly to be what the Stoics called it, tfu> rt'nf rcr't if.se/ f, pure and uncompounded." Diversions of Put Icy, Vol. i, p. 286. Not indeed as including the particle to, or ;is it stands in the English perfect tense, but as it occurs in the simple root. But I cited Dr. Wilson, as above, not so much with a design of animadverting again on this point, as with reference to the import of the particle to ; of which he furnishes a twofold explana- tion, leaving the reader to take which part he will of the contradiction. He at first conceives it to convey in general the idea of " towards," and to mark the infinitive as a term " towards /////< " something else "is directed." If this interpretation is the true one, it is plain that to before a verb is no other than the common preposition to ; and this idea is confirmed bv its ancient usage, and by all that is certainly known of its derivation. But if we take the second solution, and say, " it signifies act," we make it not a preposition, but either a noun or a verb ; and then the ques- tion arises, Wkich of t, : < besides, what sense can there be, in supposing to go to mean act f/o, or to be equivalent to do go f* Ous. 21. Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb, yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech, or even to an other infinitive. The prepo- sition to being its only and almost universal index, we seldom find any other preposition put the idiom is left to the uneducated. But it seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech, except the article: as, 1. To a noun ; as, " If there is any precept to obtain felicity." Hawkesworth. " It is high time tit nir'ii;i- out of sleep." Ruin. xiii. 11. " To flee from the icrath to come." Matt. iii. 7. 2. To an adjective ; as, "lie seemed desirous to speak, yet unwilling to offend" Haickatirorth. " He who is the slowest to pro mi si-, is the quickest to perform" Art of Thinking, p. 35. 3. To a pronoun ; as, " I discovered fil/nto he a scholar." W. Allen's Gram. 166. " Is it lawful for us to yice tribute to Ctcsar ? " Luke, xx, 2'J. " Let me desire you to reflect impartially." * As there is no point of grammar on which our philologists are more at variance, so there seems to be none on which they arc more at fault, tlrm in their treatment of the infinitive mood, with its usual sign, or governing . to. For the inform. irion <>f tin- reader, 1 wouM gladly cite every explanation not consonant with my own, and show wherein i' is oLj-.-ri'maMc ; nut so mum-runs arc the firms <>f error under this head, that such as . i>r an- nut, likely to l;e repeated, must in general be left to run their course, exempt i mill.-. i:.inn-r. i: was formerly thought best to prefix the word TO, to words u.'lien used as verbs. For there is no difference he'uven the >ou.\. l-- : and tin; VERB, to hive : but what is shown by the prfjix TO, which signifies art ; i. e. to lore ' : a nnnn : and so, " to act love," (where " love" is also a noun,) must mean wiiidi is tautological nonsense. Our nouns and verbs are not, t'n general, spelled alike ; nor are :. in iff '/'!/. preceded hy to ; norcould a particle which may govern either, have been specifically intended, at lir.st, to murk their difference. By some, as we have seen, it is argued from this very sign, that the infinitive w illy a noun. (2. ) 'f is the root or simple form of the verb, used to express an action or state indefinitely ; a*, to heir, to : nerally distinguished by the sign to. When the particle to is employed in forming the inf:: as a part of t/if. verb. In every other cast it is a preposition," Wells's School so. "A Preposition is a word which is used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun other word in the sentence." Id. pp. 40 and IDS. ' The passive form of a verb is '. forming a rntnptiu. rb. Examples : ' He was listened to without a murmur.' A. H. KVKKKTT. ' Nor i> this enterprise to be scoffed a/.' CHANGING." Jb. p. 140. "A verb iii ' >i Tflntff. to some noun or pronoun. Thus, in the sentence. * lie desires to improve,' to the pronoun he while it is governed by . sires." Ib. p. 150. " ' The agent to a verb ' NITTIM;." l'i. p. 14S. These citations from Wells, tho . . by way of authority, are in many respects self- contradictory, and in nearly all respects U7itrue. l|.,,v can tiie infinitive I. e only " the root or simple form of the verb," and yet consist " gen- eralls " of tw.i di-M- f three, iotir. or five; as, " to hear,'-' "to have heanl^ " to be listened How can to be a in the phrase, "He was listened to," 1 and not so at all in ' to *.t. i/v intiniuvc tion or state indefinitely," if it " usually man ? '' Why mtt.\t its a<;nit ' be in the objectn-r ease, " if ' to improve relates to the proimii' -'t'r r, t ^f a //r>;-."w/K,/i," and not such before a verb or a participle? Must every vern some "noun or pronoun ?" And yet are there some prepositions which govern nothing, pre- iiing ! CM The }-rr),n>. p. de fbttoion ' r>,, ;.<,,;/i,(,r a'lj'rln-- ." lh. jqi. 7*1 and 166. "A verb in the Infinitive may follow: As or than . . 6. Prepositi The Infinittre is of . : The Iti'initi\. i in the office of a verbal i> unitn-e rate to the verb, and a* t /' p. I 1 '". These last cwo counts are ubsurdly in. follow : " and is it not rather queer, that this rnood should In- f.-uiid t<> /> Inw " every tiling else, :nj,| nm - the preposition TO,'' which comes " hrforr " ' >\ which it is " prer. . :' 'Mowing absurd and needless rule : "The Infinitive . :IAT M tmiitttd ; as, I believe the sun to be the centre of the uolar system ; 1 know him to be a man of veracity." 76. p. s. loth on I; iibore.) >'// " is here - ,V,T! I !.n>- -: i >n ; as, ' The sbipmen were about to Jlre.' 1 ' 1 ' 1 Wells's School Gram. lt Ed p 14J ; 3d Ed p. 158. WelLi ha altered this, and for "preposition " put ' adverb." Ed. of 1850, ]). 163. 38 594 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. come to seen ana 10 save inat wnicn was lost. i^u/ce, xix, w. 5. To an other infinitive; as, "T*o go to enter into Egypt." Jer. xli, 17. " V willing to wait to consider." J. Abbott. " For what had he to do to chide 6. To a participle ; as, " Still threat' nint/ to devour me." Milton. " Or as a thie: BLAIR : Murray's Eng. Reader, p. 77. " Whom hast thou then or what t' accuse?" Mil- ton, P. L. iv, 67. 4. To a finite verb ; as, " Then Peter began to rebuke him." Matt, xvi, 22. " The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost." Luke, xix, 10. We are not often at me ? "Shak. thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich burgher." Id. 7. To an adverb ; as, " She is old enough to go to school." " I know not how to act." Ntitlinc/'s. Gram. p. 106. " Tell me when to come, and where to meet you." " He hath not where to lay his head." 8. To a conjunction ; as, " He knows better than to trust you." " It was so hot as to melt these ornaments." " Many who praise virtue, do no more than praise it." Dr. Johnson. 9. To a preposition ; as, " 1 was about to lorite." Rev. x, 4. " Not for to hide it in a hedge." Burns's Poems, p. 42. "Amatum iri, To be about to be loved." Adam's Gram. p. 95.* 10. To an interjection; as, "O to forget her! " Young's Night Thoughts. OBS. 25. The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation, without person or number, and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. (See Obs. 8th on Rule 2d.) But, in most instances, it is not without limitation of the being, action, or passion, to some particular person or persons, thing or things, that are said, supposed, or denied, to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is taken abstractly, and has some resemblance to a noun ; because it then suggests the being, action, or passion alone : though, even then, the active infinitive may still govern the objective case ; and it may also be easy to imagine to whom or to what the being, action, or passion, naturally pertains. The uses of the infinitive are so many and various, that it is no easy matter to classify them accurately. The following are unquestion- ably the chief of the things for which it may stand : 1. For the supplement to an other verb, to complete the sense ; as, " Loose him, and let him go" John, xi, 44. " They that go to seek mixed wine." Prov. xxiii, 30. "His hands refuse to "labour." Ib. xxi, 25. " If you choose to have those terms." Tooke's D. P., ii, 374. " How our old translators first struggled to express this." Ib. ii, 456. " To any one who will please to examine our language." Ib. ii, 444. " They are forced to give up at last." Ib. ii, 375. " Which ought to be done." Ib. ii, 451. " Which came to pass." Acts, xi, 28. " I dare engage to make it out." Swift. 2. For the purpose, or end, of that to which it is added; as, " Each has employed his time and pains to establish a criterion." Tooke's D. P., ii, 374. "I shall not stop now, "to assist in their elucidation." Ib. ii, 75. " Our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known." Ib. ii, 74. [A] " TOOL is some instrument taken up to work with." Ib. ii, 145. " Labour not to be rich." Prov. xxiii, 4. " I flee unto thee to hide me." Ps. cxliii, 9. "Evil shall hunt the violent man to overthroiv him." Ib. cxl, 11. 3. For the object of an affection or passion ; as, " He loves to ride." " I desire to hear her speak again." Shak. " If we wish to avoid important error." Tooke's D. P., ii, 3. " Who rejoice to do evil." Prov. ii, 14. "All agreeing in earnestness to see him." Shak. " Our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 334. 4. For the cause of an affection or passion; as, "I rejoice to hear it." " By which I hope to have laid a foundation," c. Blair's Ilhet. p. 34. "For he made me mad, to see him shine so brisk, and smell so sweet." Beauties of Shak. p. 118. "Thou didst eat strange flesh, which some did die to look on." Ib. p. 182. "They grieved to see their best allies at variance." Rev. W. Allen's Gram. p. 165. to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than of love to justice." Seattle's Mor. Sci. i, 177. 6. For the predicate of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate; as, " To enjoy is to obey. ""-Pope. "The property of rain is to wet, and fire, to burn." Beauties of Shak. p. 15. Tr> rMp is fn hf> f>fi.tt->'sJ>prf. frnm rnvsplf " 77> n. 89,. " Tbfi hpst wnv is. f.n sln.tidpr V;ilf>nt.inf> " 77). " ine nignway 01 me uprigni is 10 aeparc irom evu. rrov. xvi, i/. T a coming event, or what will be ; as, "A mutilated structure soon to fall." Cowper. jing dead, and I speedily to follow him." Tooke's D. P., ii, 111. "She shall rejoice in come." Prov. xxxi, 25. " Things present, or things to come." 1 Cor. iii, 22. 1 To die is to be banished from myself." Ib. p. 82. " The best way is, to slander Valentine." Ib. p. 83. " The highway of the upright is to depart from evil." Prov. xvi, " He being time to come. . _ _ 8. For a necessary event, or what ought to be ; as, " It is to be remembered." " It is never to be forgotten." Tooke's D. P., ii, 2. "An oversight much to be deplored." Ib. ii, 460. " The sign is not to be used by itself, or to stand alone ; but is to be joined to some other term." Ib. ii, 372. " The Lord's name is to be praised." Ps. cxiii, 3. 9. For what is previously suggested by an other word ; as, " I have^/azYA to believe" " The glos- sarist did well here not to yield to his inclination." Tooke's D. P., ii, 329. "It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord." Ps. xcii, 1. "It is as sport to a fool to do mischief." Prov. x, 23. " They have the gift to know it." Shak. " We have no remaining occupation but to take care of the public." Art of Thinking, p. 52. 10. For a term of comparison or measure; as, " He was so much affected as to weep." " Who could do no less than furnish him." Tooke's D. P., ii, 408. " I shall venture no farther than to * Some grammatists, being predetermined that no preposition shall control the infinitive, avoid the conclusion' by absurdly calling FOR, a conjunction; ABOUT, an adverb; and TO no matter what but generally, nothing. Thus : " The conjunction FOR, is inelegantly used before verbs in the infinitive mood ; as, ' He came for to study Latin.'" Greenleafs Gram. p. 38. " The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, 'An object so high as to be invisible ; ' ' The army is about, to march.' 1 Kirkkam>s Gram. p. 188. This is a note to that extra rule which Kirkham proposes for our use, " if we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood ! "76. CHAP. VI.] 8YNTAX. RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 595 explain the nature arid convenience of these abbreviations." Ib. ii, 439. "I have already said enough to shoic what sort of operation that is." Ib. ii, 358. Oi;s. 26. After dismissing all the examples which may fairly be referred to one or other of the ten heads above enumerated, an observant reader may yet find other uses of the infinitive, and those so dissimilar that they can hardly be reduced to any one head or rule ; except that all are governed by the preposition to, which points towards or to the verb : as, "A great altar to see to." Joshua, xxii, 10. " Bufidv piyav roil ititiv." Scptuagint. That is, "An altar yreat to behold." "Altare infinita? magnitudtnis." Vulgate. "Un fort grand autel." French Bible. " Easy to be entreated." Jos. iii, 17. " There was none to help." Ps. cvii, 12. " He had rained down manna upon them to eat." Ps. Ixxviii, 24. " Remember his commandments to do them." Ps. ciii, 18. " Preserve thou those that are appointed to die." Ps. Ixxix, 11. "As coals to burning coals, and as wood to fire ; so is a contentious man to kindle strife." Prov. xxvi, 21. " These are far beyond the reach and power of any kings to do away." Tooke's D. P., ii, 126. " I know not indeed what to dn with those words." Ib. ii, 441. " Thev will be as little able to justify their innovation." Ib. ii, 448. '* I leave you to compare them." Ib. ii, 458. " There is no occasion to attribute it." Ib. ii, 375. " There is no day for me to look upon." Beauties of Shak. p. 82. " Having no external thing to lose." Ib. p. 100. " I'll never be a gosling to obey instinct." Ib. p. 200. "Whereto serves mercy, but to confront the visage of offence ? " Ib. p. 233. " If things do not go to suit him." Liberator, ix, 182. "And, to be plain, I think there is not half a kiss to choose, who loves an other best." Shak. p. 91. " But to return toll. Johnson's instance of good man." Tooke's D. P., ii, 370. Our common Bibles have this text: and a certain woman cast a piece of a mill- stone upon Abimelech's head, and all to break his skull." Judges, ix, 53. Perhaps the interpre- tation of this may be, "and so as completely to break his skull." The octavo edition stereotyped by " the Bible Association of Friends in America," has it, "and ail-to brakehis scull." This, most probably, was supposed by the editors to mean, " and completely broke his skull ; " but ail-to is no proper compound word, and therefore the change is a perversion. The Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the common French version, all accord with the simple indicative construction, " and broke his skull." OBS. 27. According to Lindley Murray, " The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on [say of] the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood : as, 'To confess the truth, I was in fault ; ' 'To begin with the first ;' 'To proceed;' 'To conclude ;' that is. "'That I may confess,' &c." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 184; -//'A' Gram. p. 244. Some other compilers have adopted the same doctrine. But on what ground the .su'ixtitutivn of one mood for the other is imagined, I see not. The reader will observe that this potential mood is here just as much "made absolute," as is the infinitive; for there is nothing expressed to which the conjunction that connects the one phrase, or the preposition to the other. But possibly, in either case, there may be an ellipsis of some antecedent term ; and surely, if we imagine the construction to be complete without any such term, we make the conjunction the more anomalous word of the two. Confession of the truth, is here the aim of speaking, but not of what is spoken. The whole sentence may be, "/ order to confess the truth, I admit that I was in fault." Or, "In order that I may confess the truth, I admit that I was in fault." I do not deny, that the infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, is sometimes put absolute; for, if it is not so in any of the foregoing examples, it appears to be so in the following : " For every object has several faces, so to speak, by which it may be presented to us." Blair's Rhct. p. 41. "To declare a thing shall be, long before it is in'being, and then to bring about the accomplishment of that very thing, according to the same declaration; this, or nothing, is the work of God." Justin Martyr. " To be, or not to be ; that is the question." Shakspeare. " To die to sleep ; To sleep ! perchance, to dream ! " Id. Hamlet. Ons. 28. The infinitive usually follows the word on which it depends, or to which the particle r>cts it ; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "To beg I am ashamed." Luke, xvi, 3. To keep them no longer in suspense, [1 say plainly,] Sir Roger de Coverly is dead." Addison. " To suffer, as to do, Our strength is equal." Mi/ton. " To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand." Thomson. 29. Though, in respect to its syntax, the infinitive is oftener connected with a verb, a par- ticiple, or an adjective, than with a noun or a pronoun, it should never be so placed that the reader will be liable to mistake the person to whom, or the thing to which, the being, action, or :i, pertains. Examples of error : " This system will require along time to be executed as it should be." Journal ot \. ' A, 1890, p. 91. It is not the time, that is to be execut- ed ; therefore say, "This system, to be > j it should be, will require a longtime." "lie spoke in a mnnn'rr distinct enough to be heard by the whole assembly." Murray'* Key, 8vo, p. 192. This implies that the orator's nmnnirw.* hmrd ! But the grammarian interprets his own mean- ing, by the following alternative: "Or //> xpnkc distinctly enough f<> >>,- /mini by the whole as- sembly." Ibid. This su<^rsts that the man himself was heard. " When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, they arc loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate." Murray's dram. p. 341. Is it the authors, or their foure, that becomes tedious and intricate ? If the latter, strike out, " so long, as to become," and say, " till it becomes." - are always of the gr -'juence to -, d during the course of the plead- ing." Blair's Hint. j). 27-. The rhetorician here meant: "The facts stated in an argument, are always those parts of it, which it is most important that the hearers should be made to remember." 30. According to some grammarians, "The Infinitive of the verb to be, is often undtr- s'ood; as, ' I considered it [to be] necessary to send the dispatches.' " W. Allen's dram. p. 166. In . tmple, as in thousands more, of various forms, the verb to be may be inserted without affecting the sense ; but I doubt the necessity of supposing an ellipsis in such sentences. The adjective or participle that follows, always relates to the preceding objective; and if a noun is used, it is but an other objective in apposition with the former : as, " I considered it an imposition." 596 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. This verb to be, with the perfect participle, forms the passive infinitive ; and the supposition of such an ellipsis, extensively affects one's mode of parsing. Thus, " He considered himself in- sulted," " I will suppose the work accomplished," and many similar sentences, might be supposed to contain passive infinitives. Allen says, " In the following construction, the words in italics are (elliptically) passive infinitives ; I saw the bird caught, and the hare killed ; we heard the let- ters read." W. Allen's Gram. p. 168. Dr. Priestley observes, " There is aremarkable ambiguity in the use of the participle preterite, as the same word may express a thing either doing, or done ; as, I went to see the child dressed." Priestley's Gram. p. 125. If the Doctor's participle is ambigu- ous, I imagine that Allen's infinitives are just as much so. " The participle which we denomi- nate past, often means an action whilst performing : thus, I saw the battle fought, and the standar d lowered." Wilson's Essay, p. 158. Sometimes, especially in familiar conversation, an infinitive verb is suppressed, and the sign of it retained ; as, " They might have aided us ; they ought to " [have aided us]. Herald of Freedom. " We have tried to like it, but it's hard^o." Lynn News. OBS. 31. After the verb make, some writers insert the verb be, and suppress the preposition to ; as, " He must make every syllable, and even every letter, in the word which he pronounces, be heard distinctly." Blair's Rhet. p. 329 ; Murray's E. Reader, p. 9. " You must make yourself beheard with pleasure and attention." Duncan's Cicero, p. 84. "To make himself be heard by all." Blair's Rhet. p. 328. " To make ourselves be heard by one." Ibid. " Clear enough to make me be understood." Locke, on Ed. p. 198. In my opinion, it would be better, either to insert the to, or to use the participle only ; as, " The information which he possessed, made his company to be courted." Dr. M'Rie. " Which will both show the importance of this rule, and make the appli- cation of it to be understood." Blair's Rhet. p. 103. Or, as in these brief forms : " To make him- self heard by all." " Clear enough to make me understood." OBS. 32. In those languages in which the infinitive is distinguished as such by its termina- tion, this part of the verb may be used alone as the subject of a finite verb ; but in English it is always necessary to retain the sign to before an abstract infinitive, because there is nothing else to distinguish the verb from a noun. Here we may see a difference between our language and the French, although it has been shown, that in their government of the infinitive they are in some degree analogous : " HAIR est un tourment; AJMS&estun besoin de 1'ame." M. de Segur. " To hate is a torment ; to love is a requisite of the soul." If from this any will argue that 'to is not here a preposition, the same argument will be as good, to prove that^br is not a preposition when it governs the objective case ; because that also may be used without any antecedent term of relation : as, " They are by no means points of equal importance, for me to be deprived of your affections, and. for him to be'defeatedin his prosecution." Anon, in W. Allen's Gram. p. 166. I said, the sign to must always be put before an abstract infinitive : but possibly a repetition of this sign may not always be necessary, when several such infinitives occur in the same construction: as, " But, to Jill a heart with joy, restore content to the afflicted, or relieve the necessitous, these fill not within the reach of their five senses." Art of Thinking, p. 66. It may be too much to affirm, that this is positively ungrammatical ; yet it would be as well or better, to express it thus : " But to relieve the necessitous, to restore content to the afflicted, and to fill a heart with joy, these fill not within the reach of their five senses." OBS. 33. In the use of the English infinitive, as well as of the participle \ning, the distinction of voice is often disregarded ; the active form being used in what, with respect to the noun before it, is a passive sense: as, "There's no time to ivaste." W. Allen's Gram. p. 82. "You are to blame." Ib. "Ihe humming-bird is delightful to look upon." Ib. "Whatpair.it was to drown." Shak. " The thing's to do." Id. " When deed of danger was to do." Scott. " The evil I bring upon myself, is the hardest to bear." Home's Art of Thinki-.ig, p. 27- "Pride is worse to bear than cruelty." Ib. p. 37. These are in fact active verbs, and not passive. We may suggest agents for them, if we please ; as, " There is no time for us to waste." That the simple participle in ing may be used passively, has been proved participle, many of our grammarians are obviously hypercritical. For example : " The active voice should not be used for the passive ; as, I have work to do ; a house to sell, to let, instead of to be done, to be sold, to be let." Sanborn's Gram. p. 220. "Active verbs are often used improp- erly with a passive signification, as ' the house is building, lodgings to let, he has a house to sell, nothing is wanting ; ' in stead of the house is being built, lodgings to be lett, he has a house to be sold, nothing is wanted.' " Blair's Gram. p. 64. In punctuation, orthography, and the use of capitals, here are more errors than it is worth while to particularize. With regard to such phraseology as, " The house is being built," see, in Part II, sundry Observations on the Com- pound Form of Conjugation. To say, " I have work to do" " He has a house to sell," or, " We have lodgings to let," is just as good English, as to say, " I have meat to eat." John, iv, 32. And who, but some sciolist in grammar, would, in all such instances, prefer the passive voice ? IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVIII. INFINITIVES DEMANDING THE PARTICLE To. "William, please hand me that pencil." Smith's New Gram. p. 12. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the infinitive verb hand is not preceded by the preposition to. But, according to Rule 18th, " The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, to should be here inserted ; thus, " William, please to hand me that pencil."] " Please insert points so as to make sense." Davis' 's Gram. p. 123. " I have known Lords abbreviate almost the half of their words." Cobbetfs English Gram. H 153. " We shall find CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XIX. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 597 the practice perfectly accord with the theory." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 23. " But it would tend to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject." L. Murray's Gram. p. 95. "Please divide it for them as it should be." Wilktts's Arith. p. 193. "So as neither to embarrass, nor weaken the sentence." Blair's Rhet. p. 11G; Murray's Gram. 322. "Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare,* and hear his heavenly discourse." SHERLOCK : Blair s Rftet. p. 157 ; Murray's Gram. 347. " That we need not be surprised to find this hold in elo- quence." Blair's Rhet. p. 174. " Where he has no occasion either to divide or explain." Ib. p. 305. "And thcv will find their pupils improve by hasty and pleasant steps." Russell's . Pref. p. 4. " 'the teacher however will please observe," &c. Infant School Gram. p. 8. ' Please attend to a few rules in what is called syntax." Ib. p. 128. "They may dispense with the laws to favor their friends, or secure their office." Webster's Essays, p. 39. " To take back a gift, or break a contract, is a wanton abuse." Ib. p. 41. " The legislature haz nothing to do, but let it bear its own price." Ib. p. 315. " He is not to form, but copy characters." /;};/. No. 536. "Finding this experiment answer, in every respect, their wishes." Sandford and Mcrton, p. 51. "In fine let him cause his argument conclude in the term of the question." Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 443. " That he permitted not the winds of heaven Visit her face too roughly." Shakspcare, Hamlet. RULE XIX. INFINITIVES. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition to : as, " If he bade thee depart, how darest thou stay ? " " I dare not let my mind be idle as I walk in the streets." Cotton Mather. " Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, Shall neither hear thee sigh, nor see thee weep" Pope's Homer. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. OBS. 1. Respecting the syntax of the infinitive mood when the particle to is not expressed before it, our grammarians are almost as much at variance, as I have shown them to be, when they find the particle employed. Concerning verbs governed by verbs, Lindley Murray, and some others, are the most clear and positive, where their doctrine is the most obviously wrong ; and, where they might have affirmed with truth, that the former verb governs the latter, they only tell us that " the preposition TO is sometimes properly omitted," or that such and such verbs t> hate commonly other verbs following them without the sign TO." Murray's Gram. p. 183 ; Alger's, 63 ; Allen's, 167 ; and others. If these authors meant, that the preposition to is omitted by ellip- sis, they ought to have said so. Then the many admirers and remodellers of Murray's Grammar might at least have understood him alike. Then, too, any proper definition of ellipsis must have proved both them and him to be clearly wrong about this construction also. If the word to is really " understood," whenever it is omitted after bid, dare, feel, &c., as some authors affirm, then is it hn/tn>p*'r, though it may be unnecessary. But all our grammarians admit, that to before the infinitive is sometimes " superfluous and improper." Murray's Gram. p. 183. I imagine, there cannot be any proper ellipsis of to before the infinitive, except in some forms of comparison ; because, wherever else it is necessary, either to the sense or to the construction, it ought to be inserted. And wherever the to is rightly used, it is properly the governing word; but where it cannot be inserted without impropriety, it is absurd to say, that it is " understood" The infini- tive that is put after such a verb or participle as excludes the preposition to, is governed by this verb or participle, if it is governed by any thing : as, '!') make them do, undo, eat, drink, stand, move, , think, an i he chose." Pollok, p. 69. OBS. 2. Ingersoll, who converts:! Murrav's Grammar into "Conversations," says, "Iwilljust remark to you, that the verbs in the infinitive mood, that follow make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, aiid their participles, are always by them." Conv. on Eng. Gram. p. 120. Kirkham, who pretended to turn the same book into "Famili/ir Lectures," says, "To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the verb; as, ' Let me proceed;' that is, Let me to proceed." drntn. it p. 137. The lecturer, however, does not suppose the infinitive to be here governed by the preposition to. or by the verb let, but rather by the pronoun me. For, in an other place, he avers, that the infinitive may be governed by a noun or a pronoun ; as, " Let him (fa it." Ib. p. 187- Now if the government of the infinitive is to be referred to the objective noun or pronoun that intervenes, none of those verbs that take the infinitive after them without the preposition, will usually be found to govern it, except dare and need ; and if need, in such a * After the word "/ore," Murray put a semicolon, which shows that he misunderstood the mood of the verb " hfnr.'' 1 It in not always necessary to repeat the particle to, when two or more infinitives are connected ; and this fact Is an other good argument against calling the preposition to " a part of the verb." But in this example, and some others hero exhibited, the repetition id requisite. G. B. 598 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. case, is an auxiliary, no government pertains to that. R. C. Smith, an other modifier of Murray, having the same false notion of ellipsis, says, "Tb, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes un- derstood ; as. ' Let me go,' instead of, ' Let me to go.' " Smith's New Gram. p. 65. According to Murray, whom these men profess to follow, let, in all these examples, is an auxiliary, and the verb that follows it, is not in the infinitive mood, but in the imperative. So they severally contra- dict their oracle, and all are wrong, both he and they ! The disciples pretend to correct thoir master, by supposing "Let me to go," and "Let me to proceed," good English ! OBS. 3. It is often impossible to say by ichat the infinitive is governed, according to the instruc- tions of Murray, or according to any author who does not parse it as I do. Nutting says, " Tie infinitive mode sometimes follows the comparative conjunctions, as, than, and how, WITHOUT GOVERNMENT." Practical Gram. p. 106. Murray's uncertainty* may have led to some part of this notion, but the idea that how is a " comparative conjunction," is a blunder entirely new. Kirkham is so puzzled by " the language of that eminent philologist," that he bolts outright from the course of his guide, and runs he knows not whither ; feigning that other able writers have well contended, "that this mood is NOT GOVERNED by any particular word." Accordingly he leaves his pupils at liberty to " reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood ; " and even frames a rule which refers it always " to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor." Kirkham's Gram. p. 188. Murray teaches, that the object of the active verb some- times governs the infinitive that follows it ; as, " They have a desire to improve." Octavo Gram. p. 184. To what extent, in practice, he would carry this doctrine, nobody can tell ; probably to every sentence in which this object is the antecedent term to the preposition to, and perhaps further : as, " I have a house to sell." Nutting's Gram. p. 106. " I feel a desire to excel." " I felt my heart within me die." Merrick. OBS. 4. r Nutting supposes, that the objective case before the infinitive always governs it wher- ever it denotes the agent of the infinitive action ; as, " He commands me to write a letter." Practical Gram. p. 96. Nixon, on the contrary, contends, that the finite verb, in such a sentence, objective case preced- )t governed by the preceding " In the examples, ' He is endeavouring to persuade them to learn,' 'It is pleasant to see the sun,' the pronoun them, the adjective pleasant, and the participle endeavouring, I consider as governing the following verb in the infinitive mode." Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram. p. 144. " Some erroneously say that pronouns govern the infinitive mode in such examples as this : ' I expected him to be present.' We will change the expression : ' He was expected to be present.' All will admit that to be is governed by was expected. The same verb that governs it in the passive voice, governs it in the ac- tive." Sanborn's Gram. p. 144. So do our professed grammarians differ about the government of the infinitive, even in the most common constructions of it ! .Often, however, it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, which of the two words is considered the governing or ante- cedent term; but where the preposition is excluded, the construction seems to imply some im- mediate influence of the finite verb upon the infinitive. OBS. 5. The extent of this influence, or of such government, has never yet been clearly deter- mined. " This irregularity" says Murray, " extends only to active or neuter verbs : [' active and neuter verbs,' says Fisk :] for all the verbs above mentioned, when made passive, require the preposi- tion to before the following verb : as, ' He was seen to go ; ' ' He was heard to speak ; ' ' They were bidden to be upon their guard.' " Murray's Gram. p. 183. Fisk adds, with no great accuracy, " In the past and. future tenses of the active voice also, these verbs generally require the sign, to, to be prefixed to the following verbs ; as, ' You have dared to proceed without authority ; ' ' They will not dare to attack you.' "Gram. Simplified, p. 125. What these gentlemen here call " neuter verbs" are only the two words dare and need, which are, in most cases, active, though not always transitive ; unless the infinitive itself can make them so an inconsistent doctrine of theirs which I have elsewhere refuted. (See Obs. 3rd on Rule 5th.) These two verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition, only when they are intransitive ; while all the rest seem to have this power, only when they are transitive. If there are any exceptions, they shall presently relishing the latter example, changes it thus : " I wish nothing more, than to knoic his fate." He puts a comma after more, and probably means, " I wish nothing else than to know his fate." So does Fisk, in the other version ; and probably means, " He desired nothing else than to know his own imperfections." But Murray, Alger, and Weld, accord in punctuation, and their meaning seems rather to be, " He desired nothing more heartily than [he desired] to know his own imperfections." And so is this or a similar text interpreted by both Ingersoll and Weld, who suppose this infinitive to be " governed by another verb, understood : as, 'He desired nothing more than to see his friends ; ' that is, ' than he desired to see,' &c." IngersoWs Gram. p. 244 ; Weld's, Abridged, 124. But, obvious as is the ambiguity of this fictitious example, in all its forms, not one of these five critics perceived the fault at all. Again, in their remark above cited, Ingersoll, Fisk, and Merchant, put a comma before the preposition " after,'' 1 and thus make the phrase, " after a comparison," describe the place of the infinitive. Bnt Murray and Alger probably meant that this phrase should denote the place of the conjunction u than." The great " Compiler " seems to me to have misused the phrase " a comparison," for, " an adjective or adverb of the comparative degree; " and the rest, I suppose, have blindly copied him, without thinking or knowing what he ought to have said, or meant to say. Either this, or a worse error, is here apparent. Five learned grammarians severally represent either "than" or "the infinitive," as being "AFTER a comparison;" of which one is the copula, and the other but the beginning of the latter term ! Palpable as is the absurdity, no one of the five perceives it ! And, besides, no one of them says any thing about the government of this infinitive, except Ingersoll, and he supplies a verb. "Than and as," says Greenleaf, "sometimes appear to govern the infinitive mood; as, 'Nothing makes a man suspect much more, than to know little ; ' An object so high as to be invis- ible.' " Gram. Simp. p. 38. Here is an other fictitious and ambiguous example, in which the phrase, " to know little," is the subject of makes understood. Nixon supposes the infinitive phrase after as to be always the subject of a finite verb understood after it : as, "Au object so high as to be invisible is, or implies." See English Parser, p. 100. CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XIX. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 599 be considered. A more particular examination of the construction proper for the infinitive after each of these eight verbs, seems necessary for a right understanding of the rule. OBS. 6. Of the verb BID. This verb, m any of its tenses, when it commands an action, usually governs an object and also an infinitive, which come together; as, "Thou bid-tit the world adore." Thomson, " If the prophet had bidthee do some great thing." 2 Kings, v, 13. But when it means, to promise or offer, the infinitive that follows, must be introduced bv the preposition to ; as, " He bids fair to excel them all." " Perhaps no person under heaven bids more unlikely to be saved." Br<>, said he, my prey." Dryden. The phrase, let go, is sometimes spoken for, let go your hold; and let be, for let him "be. I, f ?Ar, ( Vc. In such instances, therefore, the verb let is not really intransitive. This verb, even in the passive form, may have the infinitive after it without the preposition to; as, " Nothing is let slip." Walker's English Particles, p. 165. " They were . xv, 33. "The staire was never empty, nor the curtain let fall." Blair's lihit. p. 15 :). " The pye's question wa- f'tll without a replv." UEttranoe. With re- let is now obsolete. 11. Of tin- vc-rl) MAKE. This verb, like most of the others, never immediately governs nn infinitive, unless it al,>e >>hislt." " This only made the youngster laugh." ' : 'ling- Book. " Which soon made the young chap hasten down." Ib. 'But in very many instances it is quite proper to insert the preposition where this verb is transitive ; a>, " He waketh both the deaf to hear, and the dumb tn speak." Mark, vii. .",7. " He makes the excellency of a sentence to consist in four things." It/air'.? R/iet. p. 122; Jam the observ- ance of the dramatic unities to be of consequence." Blair's Rhet. p. 464. " In making some of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary." Murray's Gram. p. 76. When make is intransitive, it has some qualifying word after it, besides the sign of the infinitive ; as, " I think he trill make out (o pay his debts." Formerly, the preposition to was almost always in- PART III. 600 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [ serted to govern the infinitive after make or made ; as, " Lest I make my brother to offend." 1 Cor. viii, 13. " He made many to fall." Jer. xlvi, 16. Yet, in the following text, it is omitted, even where the verb is meant to be passive : "And it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man." Dan. vii, 4. This construction is improper, and not free from ambiguity ; because stand may be a noun, and made, an active verb governing it. There may also be uncer- tainty in the meaning, where the insertion of the preposition leaves none in the construction ; for made may signify either created or compelled, and the infinitive after it, may denote either the purpose of creation, or the effect of any temporary compulsion : as, "We are made to be servicea- ble to others." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 167. " Man ivas made to mourn." Burns. " Taste was never made to cater for vanity." Blair. The primitive wovd make seldom, if ever, produces a con- struction that is thus equivocal. The infinitive following it without to, always denotes the effect of the making, and not the purpose of the maker. But the same meaning may be conveyed when the to is used ; as, " The fear of God is freedom, joy, and peace ; And makes all ills that vex us here to cease." Waller, p. 56. OBS. 12. Of the verb NEED. I incline to think, that the word need, whenever it is rightly fol- lowed by the infinitive without to, is, in reality, an auxiliary of the potential mood ; and that, like may, can, and must, it may properly be used, in both the present and the perfect tense, with- out personal inflection : as, " He need not go, He need not have gone ; " where, if need is a princi- pal verb, and governs the infinitive without to, the expressions must be, " He needs not go, He needed not go, or, He has not needed go." But none of these three forms is agreeable ; and the last two are never used. Wherefore, in stead of placing in my code of false syntax the numer- ous examples of the former kind, with which the style of our grammarians arid critics has fur- nished me, I have exhibited many of them, in contrast with others, in the eighth and ninth ob- servations on the Conjugation of Verbs ; in which observations, the reader may see what reasons there are for supposing the word need to be sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb. Because no other author has yet intentionally recognized the propriety of this distinction, I have gone no farther than to show on what grounds, and with what authority from usage, it might be acknowledged. If we adopt this distinction, perhaps it will be found that the regular or principal verb need always requires, or, at least, always admits, the preposition to before the fol- lowing infinitive ; as, "They need not to be specially indicated." Adams's Rhet. i, 302. "We need only to remark." Ib. ii, 224. "A young man needed only to ask himself," &c. Ib. i, 117. " Nor is it conceivable to me, that the lightning of a Demosthenes could need to be sped upon the wings of a semiquaver." Ib. ii, 226. " But these people need to be informed." Campbell's Rhet. p. 220. " No man needed less to be informed." Ib. p. 175. " We need only to mention the diffi- culty that arises." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 362. "CVm there need to be argument to prove so plain a point?" Graham's Lect. " Moral instruction needs to have a more prominent place." Dr. Weeks. " Pride, ambition, and selfishness, need to be restrained." Id. "Articles are sometimes omitted, where they need to be used." Sanborn's Gram. p. 197. " Whose power needs not to bj dreaded." Wilson's Hebrew Gram. p. 93. "A workman that needcth not to be ashamed." 2 Tim. ii, 15. " The small boys may have needed to be managed according to the school system." T. L. Woolsey. " The difficulty of making variety consistent, needs not to disturb him." Rambler, No. 122. "A more cogent proof needs not to be introduced." Wright's Gram. p. 66. " No per- son needs to be informed, that you is used in addressing a single person." Wilcox's Gram. p. 19. " I hope I need not to advise you further." Shak., All's Well. " Nor me, nor other god, thou needst to fear, For thou to all the heavenly host art dear." Congreve. OBS. 13. If need is ever an auxiliary, the essential difference between an auxiliary and a prin- cipal verb, will very well account for the otherwise puzzling facts, that good wi'iters sometimes inflect this verb, and sometimes do not ; and that they sometimes use to, after it, and sometimes do not. Nor do I see in what other way a grammarian can treat it, without condemning as bad English a great number of very common phrases which he cannot change for the better. On this principle, such examples as, "He need not proceed," and " He needs not to proceed," may bo perfectly right in either form; though Murray, Crombie,* Fisk, Ingersoll. Smith, C. Adams, and many others, pronounce both these forms to be wrong; and unanimously, (though contrary to what is perhaps the best usage,) prefer, ' He needs not proceed." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 180. OBS. 14. On questions of grammar, the practice of authors ought to be of more weight, than the dogmatism of grammarians ; but it is often difficult to decide well by either; because errors and contradictions abound in both. For example : Dr. Blair says, (in speaking of the persons represented by / and thou,} " Their sex needs not be marked." Rhet. p. 79. Jamieson abridges the work, and says, "needs not to be marked." Gram, of Rhet. p. 28. Dr. Lowth also says, " needs not be marked." Gram, p 21. Churchill enlarges the work, and says, " needs not to be marked." New Gram. p. 72. Lindley Murray copies Lowth, and says, "needs not be marked." * Dr. Crombie, after copying the substance of Campbell's second Canon, that, " In doubtful cases analogy should be regarded," remarks : " For the same reason, 'it needs ' and ' he dares,"* are better than ' he, need ' and 'he dare." 1 " On Etym. and Synt. p. 826. Dr. Campbell's language is somewhat stronger: '-In the verbs to dare and to need, many say, in the third person present singular, dare and need, as, ' he need not go ; he dnre not do it.' Others say, dares and needs. As the first usage is exceedingly irregular, hardly any thing less than uniform practice could authorize it." Philosophy of Rhet. p. 175. Dare for dares I suppose to be wrong ; but if need is an auxiliary of the potential mood, to use it without inflection, is neither "irregular," nor at all incon- sistent with the foregoing canon. But the former critic notices these verbs a second time, thus : " ' He dare not,' ' he need not,' may be justly pronounced solecisms, for 'he dares,' 'he needs.' 1 " Crombie, on Etym. and Synt. p. 378. He also says, "The verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, are not followed by the sign of the infinitive : ' Ib. p. 277. And yet he writes thus : " These are truths, of which, I am persuaded, the author, to whom I allude, needs not to be reminded." Ib. p. 123. So Dr. Bullions declares against need in the singular, by putting down the following example as bad English : " He need not be in so much haste." Bullion^s E. Gram. p. 134. Yet he himself writes thus : ' A name more appropriate than the term neuter, need not be desired." Ib. p. 196. A school-boy may see the inconsistency of this. CIIAF. VI.] SYNTAX. RULE XIX. INFINITIVES. OBSERVATIONS. 601 Gram. 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 39; 23d Ed., p. 51; and perhaps all other editions. He afterwards enlarges his own work, and says, " needs not to be marked." Octaro Gram. p. 51. But, accord- ing to Greenleaf they all express the idea ungrammatically ; the only true form being, " Their sex need not be marked." See Gram. Simplified, p. 48. In the two places in which the etymology and the syntax of this verb are examined, I have cited from proper sources more than twenty examples in which to is used after it, and more than twenty others in which the verb is not inflected in the third person singular. In the latter, need is treated as an auxiliary ; in the former, it is a principal verb, of the regular construction. If the principal verb need can also govern the infinitive without to, as all our grammarians have supposed, then there is a third form which is unobjectionable, and my pupils may take their choice of the three. But still there is a fourth form which nobody approves, though the hands of some great men have furnished us with exam- ples of it : as, "A figure of thought need not to detort the words from their literal sense." /. Q. -'* Lectures, Vol. ii, p. 254. " Which a man need only to appeal to his own feelings imme- diately to evince." Clarkson's Prize-Essay on Slavery, p. 106. OBS. 15. Webster and Greenleaf seem inclined to justify the use of dare, as well as of need, for the third person singular. Their doctrine is this : " In popular practice it is used in the third person, without the personal termination. Thus, instead of saying, ' He dares not do it ; ' WE Vy say, ' He dare not do it.' In like manner, need, when an active verb, is regular in its inflections ; as, 'A man needs more prudence.' But when intransitive, it drops the personal termi- nations in the present tense, and is followed by a verb without the prefix to ; as, 'A man need not be uneasy.'" Greenleaf ''s Grammar Simplified, p. 38; Webster's Philosophical Gram. 178; Improved Gram. 127. Each part of this explanation appears to me erroneous. In popular prac- tice, one shall oftener hear, " He dares n't do it," or even, "You dares n't doit," than, "Hedarenot do it." But it is only in the trained practice of the schools, that he shall ever hear, " He needs n't do it," or, "He needs not do it." If need is sometimes used without inflection, this peculiarity, or the disuse of to before the subsequent infinitive, is not a necessary result of its " intransitive " character. And as to their latent nominative, " whereof there is no account," or, "whereof there needs no account;" their fact, of which "there is no evidence" or of which " there needs no evidence ; " I judge it a remarkable phenomenon, that authors of so high preten- sions, could find, in these transpositions, a nominative to " is," but none to "needs!" See a marginal note under Rule 14th, at p. 546. Ous. 16. Of the verb SEE. This verb, whenever it governs the infinitive without to, governs also an objective noun or pronoun; as, "See me do it." "I sate him do it." Murray. When- over it is intransitive, the following infinitive must be governed by to ; as, "I will see to have it done." Comly's Gram. p. 98; Greenleaf 's, 38. " How could he see to do them ? " Beauties of Xftak. p. 43. In the following text, see is transitive, and governs the infinitive ; but the two verbs are put so far apart, that it requires some skill in the reader to make their relation apparent: " When ye therefore shall see the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy place," etc. Matt, xxiv, 15. An other scripturist uses the participle, and says "standing where it ought not," ifcc. Mark, xiii, 14. The Greek word is the same in both ; it is a participle, agreeing with the noun for abomination. Sometimes the preposition to seems to be 1 ittea on purpose to protract the expression: as, " Tranio, I saic her coral lips to move, And with her breath she did perfume the air." Shak. OBS. 17. A few other verb?, besides the eight which are mentioned in the foregoing rule and remarks, sometimes have the infinitive after them without to. W. Allen teaches, that, " The sign "rally omitted," not only after these eight, but also after eight others ; namely, "Ji-nd, hare, nteh, and the old preterit (/an, for began ; and sometimes after behold and kti-." I'J.i-mi ntv of Gram. p. 167. Perhaps he may have found some instances of the omis- sion of the preposition after all these, but in my opinion his rule gives a very unwarrantable on to this " irregularity," as Murray calls it. The usage belongs only to particular verbs, and to them not in all their applications. Other verbs of the same import do not in general admit the same idiom. But, by a license for the most part peculiar to the poets, the preposition to is occasionally omitted, especially after verbs equivalent to those which exclude it ; as, "And force them sit." < ;"/.v/t, p. 46. That is, "And make them sit." According lo Churchill, " To use ouqht or cause in this manner, is a Scotticism : [as,] ' Won't you cause them remove the hares?' ' You owjht not walk.' SHAK." \,'>, ix, G. "He will hurt- us to acknowledge him." S<-ow/ril, p. then ? " he would doubtless have said so. Kirkham, by adding help to Murray's list, enun \hich he will have to exclude the sign of the infinitive ; as, "/'. t." drum. . But good writers sometimes use the particle to after this verb ; as, "And Dandy's mutch- less impudence helped to support the knave." DUYDEX : Joh. Diet. ic. IL-'p. Dr. Priestley says, 602 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. , stt's English 16. "We shall always find this distinction obtain." Blair's Rhet. p. 245. Here the prep- disappc time." "I "do not find him reject his authority." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 167. Here too the preposition might as well have been inserted. But, as this use of the infinitive is a sort of Latin- ism, some critics would choose to say, " I do not find that he rejects his authority." " Cyrus was extremely glad to find them have such sentiments of religion." Rollin, ii, 117. Here the infinitive may be varied either by the participle or by the indicative ; as, "to find them having," or, "to find they had." Of the three expressions, the last, I think, is rather the best. OBS. 19. Wnen two or more infinitives are connected in the same construction, one preposition, sometimes governs them both or all ; a repetition of the particle not being always necessary, unless we mean to make the terms severally emphatical. This fact is one evidence that to is not a necessary part of each infinitive verb, as some will have it to be. Examples : " Lord, suffer me first TO go and bury my father." Matt, viii, 21. " To shut the door, means, TO throw or cast the door to." Tooke's D. P., ii, 105. " Most authors expect the printer TO spell, point, and digest their copy, that it may be intelligible to the reader." Printer's Grammar. " I'll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool, To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield." Shak. OBS. 20. An infinitive that explains an other, may sometimes be introduced without the prep- osition to; because, the former having it, the construction of the latter is made the same by this kind of apposition : as, " The most accomplished way of using books at present is, TO serve them as some do lords ; learn their titles, and then brag of their acquaintance." SWIFT: Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 166. OBS. 21. After than or as, the sign of the infinitive is sometimes required, and sometimes excluded ; and in some instances we can either insert it or not, as we please. The latter term of a comparison is almost always more or less elliptical ; and as the nature of its ellipsis depends on Ib. p. 45. " Men are more likely to be praised into virtue, than [they are likely] to be railed out of vice." Ib. p. 48. " It is more tolerable to be always alone, than [it is tolerable'] never to be so." Ib. p. 26. "Nothing [is] more easy than to do mischief [is easy]: nothing [is] more diffi- cult than to suffer without complaining" [is difficult]. Ib. p. 46. Or: "than [it is easy] to do mischief : " &c., " than [it is difficult] to suffer " &c. " It is more agreeable to the nature of most men to follow than [it is agreeable to their nature'] to lead." Ib. p. 55. In all these examples, the preposition to is very properly inserted ; but what excludes it from the former term of a com- parison, will exclud,e it from the latter, if such governing verb be understood there : as, " You no more heard me say those words, than [you heard me] talk Greek." It may be equally proper to say, " We choose rather to lead than follow," or, " We choose rather to lead than to follow." Art of Thinking, p. 37. The meaning in either case is, " We choose to lead rather than ice choose to follow." In the following example, there is perhaps an ellipsis of to before cite: "I need do nothing more than simply cite the explicit declarations," &c. Gurney's Peculiarities, p. 4. So in these : " Nature did no more than furnish the power and means." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 147. " To beg, than work, he better understands ; Or we perhaps might take him off thy hands." Pope's Odyssey, xvii, 260. OBS. 22. It has been stated, in Obs. 16th on Rule 17th, that good writers are apt to shun a repetition of any part common to two or more verbs in the same sentence ; and among the examples there cited is this : " They mean to, and will, hear patiently." Salem Register. So one might say, " Can a man arrive at excellence, who has no desire to? " " I do not wish to go, nor expect to." " Open the door, if you are going to." Answer : " We want to, and try to, but can't." Such ellipses of the infinitive after to, are by no means uncommon, especially in conversation ; nor do they appear to me to be always reprehensible, since they prevent repetition, and may con- tribute to brevity without obscurity. But Dr. Bullions has lately thought proper to condemn them; for such is presumed to have been the design of the following note : "7'o, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infinitive itself. Thus, ' I have not written, and I do not intend to,' is a colloquial vulgarism for, ' I have not written, and I do not intend to write.' " But, from the false syntax furnished, this appears to have been the meaning tive after to.' intended. The examples are severally faulty, but not for the reason suggested not because " to " is used for " write " or " live" not, indeed, for any one reason common to the three but because, in the first, " to write " and " have not written," have nothing in common which we can omit ; in the second, the mood of " tell" is doubtful, and, without a comma after " yourself," we cannot precisely know the meaning ; in the third, the mood, the person, and the number of " live," are all unknown. See Note 9th to Rule 17th, above ; and Note 2d to the General Rule, below. OBS. 23. Of some infinitives, it is hard to say whether they are transitive or intransitive ; as, "Well, then, let us proceed; we have other forced marches to make; other enemies to subdue; more laurels to acquire ; and more injuries to avenge." BONAPARTE : Columbian Orator, p. 136. These, without ellipsis, are intransitive ; but relatives may be inserted. CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. 603 IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX. INFINITIVES AFTER BID, DARE, FEEL, HEAR, LET, &c. " I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence." Murray's Exercises, p. 63. [FORMOLK. Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before proceed, which follows the active verb dare. But, according to Rule 19th, " The active Terbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their parti- ciples, usually take the infinitive after them without the preposition to ; " and this is an instance in which the finite verb should immediately govern the infinitive. Therefore, the to should be omitted ; thus, " I dare not proceed so hastily," &c.] " Their character is formed, and made appear." Butler's Anahgy, p. 115. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the preposition to is not inserted between made and apjxar. the verb ix made being passive. But, according to Obs. 5th and 10th on Rule 19th, those verbs which in the active form govern the infinitive without to, do not so govern it when they are made passive, except the verb let. Therefore, to should be here inserted ; thus, " Their character is formed, and made to appear."] " Let there be but matter and opportunity offered, and you shall see them quickly to revive again." Wisdom of the Ancients, p. 53. " It has been made appear, that there is no presumption against a revelation." Butter s Analogy, p. 252. " MANIFEST, v. t. To reveal ; to make to appear; to show plainly." Webster's American Diet. "Let him to reign like unto good Aurelius, or let him to'bleed like unto Socrates." Kirkham's Gram. p. 169. "To sing I could not; to complain I durst not." S. Fothergitt. "If T. M. be not so fre- quently heard pray by them." Barclay s Works, iii, 132. " How many of your own church members were never heard pray?" Ib. iii, 133. "Yea, we are bidden pray one for another." Ib. iii, 145. " He was made believe that neither the king's death, nor imprison- ment would help him." Sheffield's Works, ii, 291. " I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me." hut. p. 188. " I dare to say he has not got home yet." Ib. " We sometimes see bad men to be honoured." Ib. " I saw him to move." Felch's CompreJiensice Gram. p. 62. "For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world to raise its terrours." Kirkham's Gram. p. But that he make him to rehearse so." Lily's Gram. p. xv. "Let us to rise." Foicte's Ti ni. p. 41. : ipture, you know, exhorts us to it ; Bids us to 'seek peace, and ensue it.'" Swift's Poems, p. 336. " Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel To spurn the rags of Lazarus r Come, brother, in that dust we'll kneel, Confessing Heaven that ruled it thus." Christmas Book. CHAPTER VII. -PARTICIPLES. The true or regular syntax of the English Participle, as a part of speech distinct from the verb, and not converted into a noun or an adjective, is two- fold ; being sometimes that of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and sometimes that of government, or the state of being governed by a preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an adjective ; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive mood : for the participle after a preposition is governed as a participle, and not as a case* To these two constructions, some add three others less regular, using the participle sometimes as the subject of a finite verb, sometimes as the object of a transitive verb, ami sometimes as a nominative after a neuter verb. Of these five constructions, the first two, arc the legitimate uses of this part of speech ; the others are occasional, modern, and of doubtful propriety. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions : as, " Elizabeth's tutor, at one time pnyinij her a visit, found her employed in Some modern grammarians will hare it, that a participle governed by a preposition is a " ]'nrtiri f ,i,,l noun ; runl \-r, when they mmi- toj.ir-i- :in .i'lv "r an nlji-ctiTe fcDowing, their >: n-ntn " \'<-"W* ;i ' // ' >n." To allow wor-l- t'in< :o from one class to an other, is not only unphiloaophical, hut ridiculously ul.sunl. Amoni; those who thus treat this construction of the participle, the chief I think, re Butler, Hart, Well*, and S. S. Greene. 604 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART in. reading Plato." Hume. " I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting^ wit and failing, than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it." Dr. Johnson. "Now, reds' d on Tyre's sad ruins, Pharaoh's pride Soar'd high, his legions threatening far and wide." Dry den. EXCEPTION FIRST. A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which it forms no part; as, "I then quit the society; to withdraw and leave them to themselves, APPEARING to me a duty." " It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we have heard his being continued in office DEFENDED." Professors' Reasons, p. 23. (Better, " his continuance in office," or, "the continuing of him in office." See Obs. 18th on Rule 4th.) " But ever to do ill our sole delight, As being the contrary to his high will." Milton. EXCEPTION SECOND. With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is sometimes also taken abstractly ; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To seem compelled, is disagreeable." "To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible." "It must be disagreeable to be left pausing * on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 323. " To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill, Doing and suffering, his unquestion'd will." Coicper, Vol. i, p. 88. EXCEPTION THIRD. The participle is often used irregularly in English, as a substitute for the infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity ; as, " I saw him enter, or entering" Grant's Lat. Gram. p. 230. " He is afraid of trying, or to try." Ibid. Examples irregu- lar : " Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous drinking : " i. e. to drink. Collier's Tablet of Cebes. " It will be but ill venturing thy soul upon that : " i. e. to venture. Bunyans Laic and Grace, p. 27. "Describing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language : " i. e. to describe. Kames, El. of Crit. i, 93. " In English likewise it deserves remarking:" i. e. to be remarked. Harris's Hermes, p. 232. " Bishop Atterbury deserves being particularly mentioned:" i. e. to be particularly mentioned. Blair's lihet. p. 291. " This, however, is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that predominates : " i. e. tD enjoy. Campbell's Rhet. p. 43. " Habits are soon assum'd ; but when we strive To strip them off, tis being fiay'd alive." Cowper, Vol. i, p. 44. EXCEPTION FOURTH. An other frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of partici- ples ; as, "Your having been well educated will be a great recommendation." W. Allen's Gram. p. 171. (Better : "Your excellent education " or, "That you have been well educated, will be," &c.) " It arises from sublimity's expressing grandeur in its highest degree." Blair's RhcL p. 29. " Concerning the separating by a circumstance, words intimately connected." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. ii, p. 104. "As long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with them." Literary Convention, p. 114. "Which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all hearts." West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 180. "But this again is talking quite at ran- dom." Butler's Analogy, p. 146. " My being here it is, that holds thee hence." Shak. " Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see, And deem aspersing others, praising thee." Savage, to Walpole. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. OBS. 1. To this rule, I incline to think, there are properly no other exceptions than the first two above; or, at least, that we ought to avoid, when we can, any additional anomalies. Yet, not to condemn with unbecoming positiveness what others receive for good English, I have subjoined two items more, which include certain other irregularities now very common, that, when examples of a like form occur, the reader may parse them as exceptions, if he does not choose to censure them as errors. The mixed construction in which participles are made to govern the possessive case, has already been largely considered in the observations on Rule 4th. Murray, Allen, Churchill, and many other grammarians, great and small, admit that participles maybe made the subjects or the objects of verbs, while they retain the nature, government, and adjuncts, of participles ; as, " Not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very common error." Murray's * Dr. Blair, to whom Murray ought to have acknowledged himself indebted for this sentence, introduced a norm, to which, in his work, this infinitive and these participles refer : thus, " It is disagreeable for the mind to be left pausing on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea." Blair's Rhetoric, p. 118. See Obs. 10th and "llth on Rule 14th. CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. OBSERVATIONS. 605 Key, 8vo, p. 200 ; Comly's Gram. 188 ; Weld's Gram. 170. "Polite is employed to signify their being highly civilized." Blair's RJiet. p. 219. " One abhors beiny in debt." Ib. p. 98 ; Jamiesons Rhet. 71; Murray's Gram. 114. ' Who affected being a fine gentleman so unmercifully." Spect. ify their lamieson's Spect. No. 496. " The minister's beiny attached to the project, prolonged their debate." Xixon's Parser, p. 78. " It finds [i. e. the mind finds,] that acting thus would gratify one passion ; not acting, or acting otherwise, would gratify another." Campbell's Rhet. p. 109. " 13 ut further, car filing and objecting upon any subject is much easier ihamclearing up difficulties." Dp. Butler's Charge to the Clergy oj Durham, \7H\. OBS. 2. W. Allen observes, "The use of the participle as a nominative, is one of the peculiarities of our language." Elements of (iram. p. 171. He might have added, that the use of the participle as an objective governed by a verb, as a nominative after a verb neuter, or as a word governing the possessive, is also one of the peculiarities of our language, or at least an idiom adopted by no few of its recent writers. But whether any one of these four modern departures from General Grammar ought to be countenanced by us, as an idiom that is either elegant or advantageous, I very much doubt. They are all however sufficiently common in the style of reputable authors ; and, however questionable their character, some of our grammarians seem mightily attached to them all. It becomes me therefore to object with submission. These mixed and irregular con- structions of the participle, ought, in my opinion, to be generally condemned as false syntax; and for this simple reason, that the ideas conveyed by them may generally, if not always, be expressed more briefly, and more elegantly, by other phraseology that is in no respect anomalous. Thus, for the examples above : "Inattention to this rule, is the cause of a very common error." "Polite is employed to signify a high d&irce of civilization ; " or, " that they are highly civilized." " One abhors debt." "Who affected the fine gentleman so unmercifully." " The minister's partiality to the project, prolonged their debate." " It finds [i. c. th<- mind finds,] that to act thus, would gratify one passion ; and that not to act, or to act otherwise, would gratify another." " But further, to cavil and object, upon any subject, is much easier than to clear up difficulties." Are not these expressions much better English than the foregoing quotations ? And if so, have we not reason to conclude that the adoption of participles in such instances is erroneous and ungrammatical ? 3. In Obs. 17th on Rule 4th, it was suggested, that in English the participle, without governing the possessive case, is turned to a greater number and variety of uses, than in any other language. This remark applies mainly to the participle in ing. Whether it is expedient to make so much of one sort of derivative, and endeavour to justify every possible use of it which can be plausibly defended, is a question well worthy of consideration. W e have already converted this participle to such a multiplicity of purposes, and into so many different parts of speech, that one can well-nigh write a chapter in it, without any other words. This practice may have added something to the copiousness and flexibility of the language, but it certainly has a tendency to impair its strength and clearness. Not every use of participles is good, for which there may be found precedents in good authors. One may run to great excess in the adoption of such deriva- without becoming absolutely unintelligible, and without violating any rule of our common grammars. For example, I may say of somebody, "This very superficial grammatist, supposing language than ours, can a string of words anything like the following, come so near to a fair and literal translation of this long sentence ? " This exceeding trifling witling, considering ranting criticising concerning adopting fitting wording being exhibiting transcending learning, \vus diipla^Log, notwithstanding ridiculing, surpassing boasting swelling reasoning, respecting correct- ::ig writing, and touching detecting deceiving arguing during debating." Here are not all the uses to which our writers apply the participle in ing, but there would seem to be enough, without adding others that are less proper. OHS. 4. The active participles, uil/nitting, allowing, considering, grant ing, speaking, supposing, and the like, are frequently used in discourse so independently, that they either relate to nothing, or to the pronoun / or tcv understood ; as, "Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it ? " p. 1'J.l. This may be supposed to mean, "I, granting this to be true, ask what is to be inferred from it ? " "The very chin was, modestly speaking, as long as my whole be grammariani --;eh participles to be ]>ut absolute in themselves, so as to have no reference to any noun or pronoun ; others, among whom are L. Murray and Dr. James P. Wilson, suppose them to be put absolute with a pronoun understood. On the" former supposition, they form an other exception to the foregoing rule ; on the latter, they do not: the participle relates to the -ronoun, though both be independent of the rest of the sentence. If we supply the ellipsis as 'love, there is nothing put absolute. ORS. '). Participles are almost always placed after the words on which their construction de- . and are distinguished from adjectives by this position ; but when other words depend on the participle, or when several participles have the same construction, the whole phrase may come before the noun or pronoun : >ny my head upon my hand, / began to figure to myself AU ~ miseries of confinement. " I HI mur' d in cypress shades, a sorcerer dwells." Milton. "Brib'd, boutjh't. >ntd bound, they banish shame and fi Tell you they're stanch, and have a soul sincere." ('rabbe. OBS. 6. When participles are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb, ey become adjectives ; and, as such, they cannot govern an object after them. The following construction is therefore inaccurate : " \Vhen Caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity." 606 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. f i History, i, 87. " Costly and gaudy attire, unbecoming godli e to be corrected by Note 15th to Rule 9th, or by changing n r (T //*> VIIQ Hio-rnf v 5> nr < ( 7V T n/ Kornmi-n nr Vnc rlirrrntv " Such errors are to be corrected by Note 15th to Rule 9th, or by changing the particle un to not : as, " Unbecoming to his dignity ; " or, "Not becoming his dignity." OBS. 7. An imperfect or a preperfect participle, preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal or participial noun ; and, as such, it cannot, with strict propriety, govern an object after it. A word which maybe the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires the preposition of, to connect it with the verbal noun ; as, 1. THE PARTICIPLE: "Worshiping idols, the Jews sinned." "Thus worshiping idols, In worship- ing idols, or, By worshiping idols, they sinned." 2. THE VERBAL NOUN: "The worshiping of idols, Such worshiping of idols, or, Their worshiping of idols, was sinful." "In the worshiping of idols, there is sin." OBS. 8. It is commonly supposed that these two modes of expression are, in very many instances, equivalent to each other in meaning, and consequently interchangeable. How far they really are so, is a question to be considered. Example : " But if candour be a confounding of the distinctions between sin and holiness, a depreciating of the excellence of the latter, and at the same time a diminishing of the evil of the former ; then it must be something openly at va- riance with the letter and the spirit of revelation." The Friend, iv, 108. Here the nouns, distinctions, excellence, and evil, though governed by of, represent the objects of the forenamecl actions ; and therefore they might well be governed by confounding, depreciating, and diminishing, if these were participles. But if, to make them such, we remove the article and the preposition, the construction forsakes our meaning ; for be confounding, (be) depreciating, and (be) diminishing, seem rather to be verbs of the compound form ; and our uncertain nominatives after be, thus disappear in the shadow of a false sense. But some sensible critics tell us, that this preposition of should refer rather to the agent of the preceding action, than to its passive object ; so that such a phrase as, "the teaching of boys," should signify rather the instruction which boys give, than that which they receive. If, for the sake of this principle, or for any other reason, we wish to avoid the foregoing phraseology, the meaning may be very well expressed thus : " But if your candour confound the distinctions between sin and holiness ; if it depreciate the excellence of the latter, and at the same time diminish the evil of the former ; then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation." OBS. 9. When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness, let a better ex- pression be sought. Thus the sentence, " He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary," is not entirely free from either of these faults. If the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double construction, which is inadmissible, or at least objectionable. Some would say, "He mentions Neioton writing a commentary." This, though not uncommon, is still more objectionable; because it makes the leading word in sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly expressed thus: "He mentions that Neioton wrote a commentary." " Mr. Dryden makes a very handsome observation on Ovid's writing a letter from Dido to ^Eneas." Spcct. No. 62 ; Campbell's Rhet. p. 265 ; Murray's Key, ii, 253. Here the word writing is partly a noun and partly a participle. If we make it wholly a noun, by saying, " on Ovid's writing of a letter," or wholly a participle, by saying, "on Ovid writing a letter;" it may be doubted, whether we have effected any improvement. And again, if we adopt Dr. Lowth's advice, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction ; " we must make some change ; and therefore ought perhaps to say, " on Ovid's conceit of writing a letter from Dido to JEneas." This is apparently what Addison meant, and what Dryden remarked upon : the latter did not speak of the letter itself, else the former would have said, " on Ovid's letter from Dido to JEneas." OBS. 10. When a needless possessive, or a needless article, is put before the participle, the correction is to be made, not by inserting of, but by expunging the article, according to Note 16th to Rule 1st, or the possessive, according to Note 5th to Rule 4th. Example: "By his studying the Scriptures he became wise." Lennie's Gram. p. 91. Here his serves only to render the sentence incorrect; yet this spurious example is presented by Lenriie, to prove that a parti- ciple may take the possessive case before it, when the preposition of is not admissible after it. So, in stead of expunging one useless word, our grammarians often add an other and call the twofold error a correction; as, " For his avoiding of that precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care." Murray's Key, ii, 201. Or worse yet: "It was from our misunderstanding of the direc- tions, that we lost our way." Ibid. Here, not our and of only, but four other word's, are worse than useless. Again: " By the exercising of our judgment, it is improved. Or thus: By exer- cising our judgment, it is improved." Comly's Key, in his Gram. 12th Ed. p. 188. Each of these pretended corrections is wrong in more respects than one. Say, " By exercising our judgement, ice improve it." Or, " Our judgement is improved by being exercised." Again : "The loving of our enemies is a divine command; Or, loving our enemies [is a divine command]." Ibid. Both of these are also wrong. Say, " 'Loveyour enemies,' is a divine command." Or, "We are divinely com- manded to love our enemies." Some are apt to jumble together the active voice and the passive, and thus to destroy the unity even of a short sentence ; as, " By exercising our memories, they are improved" Kirkham's Gram. p. 226 and 195. "The error might have been avoided by re- peating the substantive." Murray's Gram. p. 172. "By admitting such violations of established grammatical distinctions, confusion would be introduced." Ib. p. 187. In these instances, we have an active participle without an agent ; and this, by the preposition by, is made an adjunct to a passive verb. Even the participial noun of this form, though it actually drops the distinction of voice, is awkward and apparently incongruous in such a relation. OBS. 11. When the verbal noun necessarily retains any adjunct of the verb or participle, it seems proper that the two words be made a compound by means of the hyphen ; as, " Their hope shall be as the giving-up of the ghost." Job, xi, 20. " For if the casting-away of them be the reconciling of the world." Rom. xi, 15. "And the gather ing -tog ether of the waters called he seas." Gen. i, 10. " If he should offer to stop the runnings-out of his justice." Law and Grace, p. 26. " The stopping-short before the usual pause in the melody, aids the impression that is CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. - RULE XX. - PARTICIPLES. - OBSERVATIONS. 607 made by the description of the stone's stopping -short." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 106. I do not find these words united in the places referred to, but this is nevertheless their true figure. Our authors and printers are lamentably careless, as well as ignorant, respecting the figure of words : for which part of grammar, see the whole of the third chapter in Part First of this work; also observations on the fourth rule of syntax, from the 30th to the 35th. As certain other compounds may sometimes be broken by tmesis, so may some of these ; as, " Not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is." Heb. x, 25. Adverbs may relate to participles, but nouns require adjectives. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: " For the more easily reading of large numbers." Yet if we say, " For reading large numbers the more easily" the construction is different, and not inaccurate. Some calculator, I think, has it, " For the more easily reading large numbers." But Hutton says, " For the more easy reading of large numbers." Hutton's Ari'th. p. 5 ; so Babcock's, p. 12. It would be quite as well to say, " For the greater ease in reading large numbers." Oi-.s. 12. Many words of a participial form are used directly as nouns, without any article, adjective, or possessive case before them, and without any object or adjunct after them. Such is commonly the construction of the words spelling, reading, writing, ciphering, surri-ying, drawing, parsing, and many other such names of actions or exercises. They are rightly put by Johnson with the parti- among " nouns derived from verbs ; " for, " The [name of the] action is the same wit ciple present, as loving, frighting, /?.-/// C////y, striking." Dr. Johnson's Gram. p. 10. Thus : " I like u-ritimi." \\~. Al.'i-n's (iruri. p. 171. " He supposed, with them, that affirming and denying were operations of the mind." Tooke's Diversions, i, 35. " ' Not rendering,' said Polycarp the disciple of John, ' evil for evil, or railing for railing, or striking for striking, or cursing for cursing." " Dym-md, tin ir/ir. Against this practice, there is seldom any objection; the'words are wholly nouns, both in sense and construction. We call them participial nouns, only because they resem- ble participles in their derivation ; or if we call them verbal nouns, it is because they are derived from verbs. But we too frequently find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of participles, used as nouns before or after verbs ; or, more properly speaking, used as mongrels and nondescripts, a doubtful species, for which there is seldom any necessity, since the infinitive, the verbal or some other noun, or a clause introduced by the conjunction that, will generally express the idea in a better manner : as, *' Exciting such disturbances, is unlawful." Say rather, ich disturbances, The exciting of such disturbances, The excitation of such disturb- ances, or, That one should excite such disturbances, is unlawful." 13. Murray says, " The word th-e, before the active participle, in the following sentence, and in all others of a similar construction, is improper, and should be omitted: 'The advising, or Me attempting, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful.' It should be, * Advising or attempting to Octuro Gram. p. !!)). But, by his own showing, " the present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive." Ib. p. 192. And substantives, or nouns, by an other of his notes, can govern the infinitive mood, just as well as participles ; or just as well as the verbs which he thinks would be very proper here ; namely, " To advise or attempt to excite such disturbances." Ib. p. 196. It would be right to say, "Any advice, or attempt, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful." And I see not that he has improved the text at all, by expunging the article. Adrinin / and attempting, being disjunct nominatives to is, are nothing but nouns, whether the article be used or not ; though they are rather less obviously such without it, and therefore the change is for the worse. 14. Lennic observes, " When a preposition" (he should have said. When an other pre- position ) " follows the participle, of is inadmissible ; as, His depending on promises proved his ruin. HM neglecting study when'young, rendered him ignorant all his life." Prin. of E. ">th Ivl. p. r>"> ; 13th Ed. 91. Here on and to, of course, exclude of; but the latter may be changed to of, which will turn the infinitive into a noun: as, "His neglecting of study," &c. 'lint/ " and " neglecting," being equivalent to dependence and neglect. are participial nouns, and not " participles." Professor Bullions, too, has the same faulty remark, examples and all; (for his book, of the same title, is little else than a gross plagiarism from Lennie's ;) though he here forgets his other erroneous doctrines, that, "A.frtpont*m should never be used before the infinitive," and that, "Active verbs do not admit a preposition after them." See Bullions' s Prin. Gram pp. '.)!, 02, and 107. OBS. 15. The participle in ing is, on many occasions, equivalent to the infinitive verb, so that the speaker or writer may adopt either, just as he pleases : as, " So their gerunds are sometimes found hftn'ntf [or to harr\ an absolute or apparently neuter signification." (Grant's Lat. Gram. p. >/'/ " [or to floir\ Milton. " I would willingly have him producing \prnrtur f >,or to produce] his credentials.'"' Barclay's Works, iii, 273. There are also instances, and according to my notion not a few, in which the one is put improperly for the other. The participle however is erroneously used for the infinitive much oftener than the infinitive for the participle. The lawful uses of "both are exceedingly numerous; though the syntax of the participle, strictly speaking, does not include its various into other parts of speech. The principal instances of regular equivalence between infinitives and participles, may be reduced to the following 1 1. Afr.T the rerbl we, & '>, and/cW, the participle in w/;, relating to the objective, is often equiv- alent to the infinitive governed by the verb ; as, ' I >a\v him running." " I heard it howling." W. Allen. " I feel the wind MotMMf." Here the verbs, run, />///, and blow, mi^ht be substituted. 2. After intransitive ifying to begin or to continue, the participle in ing, relating to the nominative, may be used in sthn,\[\\. w ipuruvref a&rdv." Latin, " Cum ergo perseverarent intcrroganti-s cum." Vuhjute. "Cum autem preseverarentcum interrogare." Beza. "Then shall ye 'continue following the Lord your God." 1 .Sam. xii, 14. " Eritis 608 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. sequentes Dominum Deum vestrum." Vulgate. "As she continued praying before the Lord." 1 Sam. i, 12. " Cum ilia multiplicaret preces cor am Domino." Vulgate. "And they went on beating dmcn one an other." 2 Sam. xiv, 16. " Make the members of them go on rising and. grow- ing in their importance." Blair's Rhet. p. 116. " Why do you keep teasing me ? " 3. After for, in, of, or to, and perhaps some other prepositions, the participle may in most cases be varied by the infinitive, which is governed by to only ; as, " We are better fitted/or receiving the tenets and obeying the precepts of that faith which will make us wise unto salvation." West's trouble to inqui) OBS. 16. One of our best grammarians says, "The infinitive, in the following sentences, should be exchanged for the participle: 'I am weary to bear them.' Is. i, 14. 'Hast thou, spirit, per- form'd to point the tempest?' Shak." Allen's Gram. p. 172. This suggestion implies, that the participle would be here not only equivalent to the infinitive in sense, but better in expression. It is true, the preposition to does not well express the relation between weary and bear; and, doubtless, some regard should be had to the meaning of this particle, whenever it is any thing more than an index of the mood. But the critic ought to have told us how he would make these corrections. For in neither case does the participle alone appear to be a fit substitute for the infinitive, either with or without the to ; and the latter text will scarcely bear the participle at all, unless we change the former verb ; as, " Hast thou, spirit, donepointing the tempest ? " The true meaning of the other example seems somewhat uncertain. The Vulgate has it, ''Laboravi sws- tinens," " I have laboured bearing them ;" the French Bible, "Je suis las de les souffrir," " I am tired of bearing them ;" the Septuagint, " Ou/cm avqau rdf auapria^ vutiv" " I will no more forgive your sins." OBS. 17. In the following text, the infinitive is used improperly, nor would the participle in its stead make pure English : " I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, to have been continually before me." Ps. 1, 8. According to the French version, " to have been" should be "which are;" but the Septuagint and the Vulgate take the preceding noun for the nominative, thus : " I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices, but thy burnt -offerings are continu- ally before me." OBS. 18. As the preposition to before the infinitive shows the latter to be " that towards which the preceding verb is directed," verbs of desisting, omitting , jyreventing , and avoiding, are generally found to take the participle after them, and not the infinitive ; because, in such instances, the direc- tion of effort seems not to be so properly to, or towards, as from the action.* Where the prepo- sitionyrom is inserted, (as it most commonly is, after some of these verbs,) there is no irregularity in the construction of the participle ; but where the participle immediately follows the verb, it is perhaps questionable whether it ought to be considered the object of a verb, or a mere participle relating to the nominative which precedes. If we suppose the latter, the participle may be parsed by the common rule ; if the former, it must be referred to the third exception above. Fc r example : 1. After verbs of DESISTING; as, " The Cryer used to proclaim, DIXEIUTNT, i. e. They hare done speaking." Harris's Hermes, p. 132. "A friend is advised to put off making love to Lalage. ' Philological Museum, i, 446. " He forbore doing so, on the ground of expediency." The Frleni', iv, 35. "And yet architects never give over attempting to reconcile these two incompatibles." Kames, EL of Crit. ii, 338. "Never to give over seeking and praying for it." N. Y. Observer. " Do not leave off seeking." President Edwards. " Then Satan hath done flattering and comfort- ing." Baxter. " The princes refrained talking." Job, xxix, 9. " Principes cessabant loqui." Vulgate. Here it would be better to say, " The princes refrainedy/'om talking." But Murray say;-, "From seems to be superfluous after forbear : as, 'He could not forbear from appointing the pope,' &c." Octavo Gram. p. 203. But "forbear to appoint " would be a better correction; for this verb is often followed by the infinitive: as, "Forbear to insinuate." West's Letters, p. 62. "And he forbare to go forth.'" 1 Sam. xxiii, 13. The reader will observe, that, " never to give over," or " not to leave off" is in fact the same thing as to continue ; and I have shown, by the anal- ogy of other languages, that after verbs of continuing the participle is not an object of govern- ment; though possibly it may be so, in these instances, which are somewhat different. 2. After verbs of OMITTING : as, " He omits giving an account of them." Tooke's Diversions of Purley, i, 251. I question the propriety of this construction; and yet, " omits to give," seems still more objectionable. " Better, " He omits all account of them." Or, " He neglects to give, or for- bears to five, any account of them." L. Murray twice speaks of apologizing, " for the use he has made oi' his predecessors' labours, and for omitting to insert their names. "Octaro Grain. Pref. p. vii ; and Note, p. 73. The phrase, " omitting to insert" appears to me a downright solecism ; and the pronoun their is ambiguous, because there are well-known names both for the men and for their labours, and he ought not to have omitted either species wholly, as he did. " Yet they abso- lutely refuse doing so, one with another." Harris's Hermes, p. 264. Better, " refuse to do so." " I had as repeatedly declined going." Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 15. 3. After verbs of PREVENTING ; as, " Our sex are happily prevented from engaging in these turbu- lent scenes." West's Letters to a Lady, p. 74. " To prevent our frail natures from deviating into bye paths [write by-paths'] of error." Ib. p. 106. " Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting improp- erly." Blair's Rhet. p. 99; Murray's Gram. p. 303; Jamieson's Rhet. p. 72. This construction, * The perfect contrast between from and to, -when the former governs the participle and the latter the infini- tive, is an other proof that this to is the common preposition to. For example: "These are the four spirits of the heavens, which go forth from standins; before the Lord of all the earth.'' Zech. vi. 5. Now, if this were rendered, u which go forth to stand," &c., it is plain that these prepositions would express quite opposite rela- tions. Yet, probably from some obscurity in the original, the Greek version has been made to mean, " going forth to stand ; " and the Latin, " which go forth, that they may stand : " while the French text conveys nearly the same sense as ours, " which go forth from the place where they stood.'' CHAP. VII.] SXNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. OBSERVATIONS. 609 pronunciation to borrow from singing." Kames, EL of Cnt. ii, 70. Here the infinitive is used, merely because it does not sound well to say, "from borroicing from singing ; " but the expression might very well be changed thus, "from being indebted to singing." " ' This by no means hinders p. 281. " But carefully avoid being at any p. 233. " Here I cannot avoid mentioning* the assistance I have received." Churchill's Gram. p. iv. "It is our duty to avoid leading others into temptation." West's Letters, p. 33. " Nay, such a garden should in some measure avoid imitating nature." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 251. ' " These would sometimes very narrowly miss being catched away." Steele. " Carleton very nar- rowly escaped being taken." Grimshaw's Hist. p. 111. Better, " escaped/rom being taken ; " or, d capture." OBS. 19. In sentences like the following, the participle seems to be improperly made the object of the verb : " I intend doing it." " I remember meeting him." Better, " I intend to do it." " I remember to have met him." According to my notion, it is an error to suppose that verbs in general may govern participles. If there are any proper instances of such government, they would seem to be chiefly among verbs of quitting or avoiding. And even here the analogy of General Grammar gives countenance to a different solution; as, " They leftbeating of Paul." Acts, xxi, 32. Better, "They left beating Paul;" or, "They quit beating Paul." Greek, " 'EiravaavTO ruTrrovref TOV HavAov." Latin, " Cess&veTunt percutientes Paulum." Montanus. " Cessarunt ccedere Paulum." Beza. " Cessaverunt percutere Paulum." Vulgate. It is true, the English participle in ing differs in some respects from that which usually corresponds to it in Latin or Greek ; it has more of a substantive character, and is commonly put for the Latin gerund. If this difference does not destroy the argument from analogy, the opinion is still just, that lift and quit are here intransitive, and that the participle beating relates to the pronoun they. Such is unequivocally the construction of the Greek text, and also of the literal Latin of Arias Monta- nus. But, to the mere English grammarian, this method of parsing will not be apt to suggest itself ; because, at first sight, the verbs appear to be transitive, and the participle in ing has nothing to prove it an adjunct of the nominative, and not the object of the verb unless, indeed, the mere fact that it is a participle, is proof of this. Ons. 20. Our great Compiler, Murray, not understanding this construction, or not observing what verbs admit of it, or require it, has very unskillfully laid it down as a rule, that, " The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case, gov- erned by the preposition or verb, expressed or understood : as, ' By promising much, and performing but little, we become despicable.' ' He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.' " Octavo . \). 194.f This very popular author seems never to have known that participles, as such, may he governed in English by prepositions. And yet he knew, and said, that " prepositions do not, lihf articles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive." r>i pretends that the whole phrase is in the objective case, " the truth is, crtion grammatically affects the first word only; " which in one aspect he regards as a noun, and in an other as a participle : whereas he himself, on the preceding page, had adopted from Lowth a different doctrine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in ing, " as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs ;" that is, " partly nouns and partly participles ;" for, according to Murray, Lowth, and many others, participles are verbs. The term, "substantive phrase," itself a solecism, was invented merely to cloak this otherwise bald inconsistency. Copying Lowth again, the great Compiler defines a phrase to be " two or more words rightly put together ;" and, surely, if we have a well-digested system of grammar, whatsoever words are rightly put together, may be regularly parsed by it. But how can one indi- visible word be consistently made two different parts of speech at once ? And is not this the situation of every transitive participle that is made either the subject or the object of a verb ? Adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction of the words on which they depend; and participial nouns differ from participles in both. The former express actions as things ; the latter generally attribute them to their agents or recipients. OBS. 21. The Latin gerund is " a kind of verbal noun, partaking of the nature of a partici- ple." Webster' s Diet. "A gerund is a participial noun, of the neuter gender, and singular number, declinable like a substantive, having no vocative, construed like a substantive, and * Cannot, with a verb of avoiding, or with the negative but, is equivalent to must. Such examples may there- fore be varied thus : ' 1 cannot but tntntion : " i. e. '' I must mention.'' u I cannot help exhorting him to assume courage." Knox. That is, " I cannot but exhort him. 1 ' t See the same thing in Kirkham's (irammar, p. 189; in In^frsoWs, p. 200; in Smith's Nfw Grammar, p. i 1 in other modifications find mutilations of Murray's work. Kirkham, in an other place, adopts the doctrine, that, " Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case; as, ' In cae of hi.s majesty's ilytng without issue, &c. ; Upon God's having rnded all his works, &c. ; I remember its being reckoned a great exploit ; At my coming in he said,' &c." Ktrknam's Gram. p. 181. None of these examples are written according to my notion of elegance, or of accuracy. Better: "In case his M'ijtsty die without issue.'' ' God having ended all his work*." ' I remember it was reckoned a great exploit.' 1 " At my entrance, he said," &c. 39 610 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. governing the case of its verb." Grant's Lat. Gram. p. 70. In the Latin gerund, thus defined, there is an appearance of ancient classical authority for that "amphibious species" of words of which so much notice has already been taken. Our participle in ing, -when governed by a prop- osition, undoubtedly corresponds very nearly, both in sense and construction, to this Latin gerund ; the principal difference being, that the one is declined, like a noun, and the other is not. The analogy, however, is but lamely maintained, when we come to those irregular constructions in which the participle is made a half-noun in English. It is true, the gerund of the nominative case may be made the subject of a verb in Latin ; but we do not translate it by the English par- ticiple, but rather by the infinitive, or still oftener by the verb with the auxiliary must : as, "Vivendum est mihi recte, I must live well." Grant's L. Gram. p. 232. This is better English than the nearer version, " Living correctly is necessary for me ; " and the exact imitation, " Liv- ing is to me correctly," is nonsense. Nor does the Latin gerund often govern the genitive like a noun, or ever stand as the direct object of a transitive verb, except in some few doubtful instances about which the grammarians dispute. For, in fact, to explain this species of words, has puzzled the Latin grammarians about as much as the English ; though the former do not appear to have fallen into those palpable self-contradictions which embarrass the instructions of the latter. OBS. 22. Dr. Adam says, " The gerund in English becomes a substantive, by prefixing the Lowth, Priestley, Murray, Comly, Chandler, and many others ; most of whom extend the prin ciple to all participles that govern the possessive case ; and they might as well have added all such as are made either the subjects or the objects of verbs, and such as are put for nominatives after verbs neuter. But Crombie, Allen, Churchill, S. S. Greene, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and some others, teach that participles may perform these several offices of a substantive, without dropping the regimen and adjuncts of participles. This doctrine, too, Murray and his copyists absurdly endeavour to reconcile with the other, by resorting to the idle fiction of " substantive phrases " endued with all these powers : as, "His being at enmity with Ccesar was the cause of perpetual discord." Crombie's Treatise, p. 237; Churchill's Gram. p. 141. "Another fault is attaining it to supersede the use of a point." Churchill's Gram. p. 372. "To be sure there is a possibility of some ignorant reader's confounding the two vowels, in pronunciation." Ib. p. 375. It is much better to avoid all such English as this. Say rather, " His enmity with Ccesar was the cause of perpetual discord." "An other fault is the allowing of it to supersede the use of a point." " To be sure, there is a possibility that some ignorant reader may confound the two vowels, in pronun- ciation." OBS. 23. In French, the infinitive is governed by several different prepositions, and the gerundive by one only, the preposition en, which, however, is sometimes suppressed; as, " en passant, en faisant, il alloit courant." Traite des Participes, p. 2. In English, the gerundive is governed by several different prepositions, and the infinitive by one only, the preposition to, which, in like manner, is sometimes suppressed; as, "to pass, to do, 7 sate him run." Tlie difficulties in the syntax of the French participle in ant, which corresponds to ours in ing, a -e apparently as great in themselves, as those which the syntax of the English word presents ; but they result from entirely different causes, and chiefly from the liability there is of confoundirg the participle with the verbal adjective, which is formed from it. The confounding of it with tl e gerundive is now, in either language, of little or no consequence, since in modern French, as well as in English, both are indeclinable. For this reason, I have framed the syntactical rule for participles so as to include under that name the gerund, or gerundive, which is a participle gov- erned by a preposition. The great difficulty with us, is, to determine whether the participle ought, or ought not, to be allowed to assume other characteristics of a noun, without dropping- those of a participle, and without becoming wholly a noun. The liability of confounding the English participle with the verbal or participial adjective, amounts to nothing more than the occa- sional misnaming of a word in parsing ; or perhaps an occasional ambiguity in the style of some writer, as in the following citation : " I am resolved, ' let the newspapers say what they please of canvassing beauties, haranguing toasts, and mobbing demireps,' not to believe one syllable." Jane West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 74. From these words, it is scarcely possible to find ou% even with the help of the context, whether these three sorts of ladies are spoken of as the can- vassers, haranguers, and mobbers, or as being canvassed, harangued, and mobbed. If the prolixity and multiplicity of these observations transcend the reader's patience, let him consider that the questions at issue cannot be settled by the brief enunciation of loose individual opinions, but must be examined in the light of all the analogies and facts that bear upon them. So considerable are the difficulties of properly distinguishing the participle from the verbal adjective in French, that that indefatigable grammarian, Girault Du Vivier, after completing his Grammaire des Gram- maires in two large octavo volumes, thought proper to enlarge his instructions on this head, and to publish them in a separate book, (Traite des Participes,) though we have it on his own author- ity, that the rule for participles had already given rise to a greater number of dissertations and particular treatises than any other point in French grammar. OBS. 24. A participle construed after the nominative or the objective case, is not in general equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive. There is sometimes a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two constructions. For the leading word in sense, should not be made the adjunct in construction. The following sentences exhibit a disregard to this princi- ple, and are both inaccurate : " He felt his strength's declining." " He was sensible of his strength "frit e f ., , declining; " i. e. " of its decline." These two sentences state the same fact, but, in construction, they are very different ; nor does it appear, that where there is no difference of meaning, the two constructions are properly interchangeable. This point has already been briefly noticed in Obs. 12th CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. OBSERVATIONS. 611 and 13th on Rule 4th. But the false and discordant instructions which our grammarians deliver respecting possessives before participles; their strange neglect of this plain principle of reason, that the leading word in sense ought to be made the leading or governing word in the construc- tion; and the difficulties which they and other writers arc continually falling into, by taking their choice between two errors, in stead of avoiding both : these, as well as their suggestions of sameness or difference of import between the participle and the participial noun, require some further extension of my observations in this place. OBS. 25. Upon the classification of words, as parts of speech, distinguished according to their natures and uses, depends the whole scheme of grammatical science. And it is plain, that a bad distribution, or a confounding of such things as ought to be separated, must necessarily be attended with inconveniences to the student, for which no skill or learning in the expounder of such a system can ever compensate. The absurdity of supposing with Home Tooke, that the same word can never be used so differently as to belong to different parts of speech, I have already alluded to more than once. The absolute necessity of classing words, not according to their derivation merely, but rather according to their sense and construction, is too evident to require any proof. Yet, different as are the natures and the uses of verbs, participles, and nouns, it is no uncommon thing to find these three parts of speech confounded together; and that too to a very great extent, and bv some of our very best grammarians, without even an attempt on their part to distinguish them, For instances of this glaring fault and perplexing inconsistency, the reader may turn to the books of W. Allen and T. O. Churchill, two of the best authors that have ever written on English grammar. Of the participle the latter gives no formal definition, but he represents it as " a form, in which the action denoted by the verb is capable of being joined to a noun as it's quality, or accident." Churchill's AV?r Gram. p. 85. Again he says, "That the participle is a mere mode of the verb is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted." Ib. p. 242. While he thus identi- fies the participle with the verb, this author scruples not to make what he calls the imperfect participle perform all the offices of a noun: saying, " Frequently too it is used as a noun, admits a preposition or article before it, becomes a plural by taking s at the end, and governs a possessive case : as, ' He who has the comings in of a prince, maybe ruined by his own gaming, or his wife's st/uaitderim/.' " Ib. p. 144. The plural here exhibited, if rightly written, would have the s, not at the end, but in the middle; for cominys-in, (an obsolete expression for revenues,) is not two words, but one. Nor wee gaming and tyuemaervtg. to be here called participles, but nouns. Yet, among all his rules and annotations, I do not find that Churchill any where teaches that participles nvun.i when they are used substantively. The following example he exhibits for the express purpose of showing that the nominatives to "is" and "may be" are not nouns, but participles: " Walking is the best exercise, though riding may !>/ more pleasant." Ib. p. 141. And, what is far worse, though his book is professedly an amplification of Lowth's brief grammar, he so completely annuls the advice of Lowth concerning the distinguishing of participles from participial nouns, that he not only misnames the latter when they are used correctly, but approves and adopts well-nigh all the various forms of error, with which the mixed and irregular construc- tion of participles has filled our language: of these forms, there are, I think, not fewer than a dozen. ()i:s. 26. Allen's account of the participle is no better than Churchill's and no worse than what the reader may find in many an English Grammar now in use. This author's fault is not so much a lack of learning or of comprehension, as of order and discrimination. We see in him, that it is possible for a man to be well acquainted with English authors, ancient as well as modern, and to read Greek and Latin, French and Saxon, and yet to falter miserably in describing the nature and uses of the English participle. Like many others, he does not acknowledge this sort of words to be one of the parts of speech ; but commences his account of it by the following absurdity: "The participles are adjectives derived from the verb ; as, pursuing, pursued, having 1 i,ts <>f E. Gram. p. 62. This definition not only confounds the participle witn the participial adjective, but merges the whole of the former species in a part of speech of which lie had not even recognized the latter as a subdivision: "An adjective shows the quality of a thing. Adjectives may be reduced to five clusses : 1. Common 2. Proper 3. Numeral 4. Pronominal o. Compound." Ib. p. 47. Now, if "participles are adjectives," to which of these five classes do they belong ? But there are participial or verbal adjectives, very many ; a sixth .vithout which this distribution is false and incomplete : as, " a loving father ; an approved copy." The participle differs from these, as much as it does from a noun. But says our author, " Participle*, as simple adjectives, belong to a noun; as, a loving father; an approved copy; as parts of the verb, they have the same government as their verbs have; as, his father, recalling the pleasures of past years, joined their party." Ib. p. 170. What confusion is this ! a com- plete jumble of adjectives, participles, and "parts of verbs !" Again : " Present participles are often construed as substantives; as, early rising is conducive to health; I like writing; we depended on s.r//i// you." Ib. p. 171. Here rising and writing are nouns ; but seeing is a partici- ple, because it is active and governs you. Compare this 'second jumble with the definition above. Again he proceeds: "To participles thus used, many of our best authors prefix the article ; as, ' The being chosen did not prevent disorderly behaviour.' Bp. Tomline. ' The not know- ing haw to pass our vacant hours.' Seed." Ib. p. 171. These examples I take to be bad English. Say rather, " The stat< lid not prevent disorderly behaviour." " The want of some en- ,'- rtainmcnt for our vacant hours." The author again proceeds : " If a noun limits the meaning of a participle thus used, that noun is put in the genitive ; as, your father's coming was unex- pected." Ib. p. 171. Here coming is a noun, and no participle at all. But the author has a mar- ginal note, "A possessive pronoun is equivalent to a genitive ; " (ibid. ,) and he means to approve of possessives before active participles: as, " Some of these irregularities arise from our having d the words through a French medium." Ib. p. 116. This brings us again to that difficult and apparently unresolvable problem, whether participles as such, by virtue of their mixed gerundive character, can, or cannot, govern the posessive case ; a question, about which, the more a man examines it, the more he may doubt. 612 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. OBS. 27. But, before we say any thing more about the government of this case, let us look at our author's next paragraph on participles : "An active participle, preceded by an article or by a genitive, is elegantly followed by the preposition of, before the substantive which follows it ; as, the compil- ing of that book occupied several years ; "his quitting of the army was unexpected." Allen's Gram. p. 171. Here the participial nouns compiling and quitting are improperly called active participles, from which they are certainly as fairly distinguished by the construction, as they can be by any means whatever. And this complete distinction the author considers at least an elegance, if not an absolute requisite, in English composition. And he immediately adds : " When this construc- tion produces ambiguity, the expression must be varied." Ib. p. 171. This suggestion is left with- out illustration ; but it doubtless refers to one of Murray's remarks, in which it is said : "A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and preposition. ' He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing o/'the philosopher,' is capable of a different sense from, ' He expressed the pleasure he hud in hearing the philosopher.' " Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 193; Smith's Gram. 161; Ingersoll's, 199; and others. Here may be seen a manifest difference between the verbal or participial noun, and the participle or gerund ; but Murray, in both instances, absurdly calls the word hearing a " present participle ; " and, having robbed the former sentence of a needful comma, still more absurdly supposes it am- clear. But let us recur to the mixed example from Allen, and compare it with his own doctrines. To say, " from our having received o/'the words through a French medium," would certainly be no elegance ; and if it be not an ambiguity, it is something worse. The expression, then, " must be varied." But varied how ? Is it right without the of, though contrary to the author's rule for elegance ? OBS. 28. The observations which have been made on this point, under the rule for the posses- sive case, while they show, to some extent, the inconsistencies in doctrine, and the improprieties of practice, into which the difficulties of the mixed participle have betrayed some of our principal grammarians, bring likewise the weight of much authority and reason against the custom of blending without distinction the characteristics of nouns and participles in the same word or words ; but still they may not be thought sufficient to prove this custom to be altogether wrong ; nor do they pretend to have fully established the dogma, that such a construction is in no instance admissible. They show, however, that possessives before participles are seldom to be approved; and perhaps, in the present instance, the meaning might be quite as well expressed by a common substantive, or the regular participial noun: as, "Some of these irregularities arise from our reception of the words or our receiving of the words through a French medium." But there are some examples which it is not easy to amend, either in this way, or in any other ; as, " The miscarriages of youth have very much proceeded from their being imprudently indulged, or lej't to themselves." Friends' N. E. Discipline, p. 13. And there are instances too, of a similar char- acter, in which the possessive case cannot be used. For example: " Nobody will doubt of this being a sufficient proof." Campbell's Rhet. p. 66. " But instead of this being the fact of the case, &c." Butler's Analogy, p. 137. " There is express historical or traditional evidence , as ancient as history, of the system of religion being taught mankind by revelation." Ibid. " From things in it appearing to men foolishness." Ib. p. 175. "As to the consistency of the members of our society joining themselves to those called free-masons." N. E. Discip. p. 51. " In either of these cases happening, the person charging is at liberty to bring the matter before the church, who are the only judges now remaining." Ib. p. 36 ; Extracts, p. 57. " Deriving its efficacy from the power of God fulfilling his purpose." Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 235. " We have no idprn rendered more sure than ever." " When there is no longer a possibility that a proper candi- /// he nominated by either \r\'.-i\ " \- toontu ti, iras thrown, then wis r >. tnrned a fire of musketry." "To raise a cry, as if an innorent person hadbeen circumvent Bribery." " Whose principles forbid them to ta'cc part in the administration of the government." 614 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " It can have no other ground than some such imagination, as that our gross bodies are our- selves." "In consequence of this revelation whichisma.de." OBS. 33. A recent grammarian quotes Dr. Crombie thus : " Some late toriters have discarded a phraseology which appears unobjectionable, and substituted one that seems less correct ; and instead of saying, ' Lady Macbeth' s walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror/ would say, ' Lady Macbeth walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror.' This seems to me an idle affectation of the Latin idiom, less precise than the common mode of expression, and less consonant with the genius of our language : for, ask what was an incident full of tragic horror, and, according to this phraseology, the answer mustbe, Lady Macbeth; whereas the meaning is, not that Lady Macbeth, but her walking in her sleep, is an incident full of tragic horror. This phraseology also, in many instances, conveys not the intended idea; for, as Priestley remarks, if it is said, What think you of my horse's running to-day ? ' it is implied that the horse did actu- ally run. _ If it is said, 'What think you of my horse running to-day?' it is intended to ask whether it be proper for my horse to run to-day. This distinction, though frequently neglected, deserves attention ; for it is obvious that ambiguity may arise from using the latter only of these phraseologies to express both meanings." Maunder' s Compendious Eng . Gram. p. 15. (See Crombie' s Treatise, p. 288 290.) To this, before any comment is offered, let me add an other quotation : " RULE. A noun before the present participle is put in the possessive case ; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently. Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive case ; thus, What do you think of my horse running to-day ? means, Do you think I should let him run ? but, What do you think of my horse's running? means, he Aasrun, do you think he ran well ? Lennie's Gram. p. 91 ; Brace's Gram. 94. See Bullions' s Gram. p. 107; Hiley's,; Murray's, Svo, 195; Ingersoll's, 201 ; and many others. OBS. 34. Any phraseology that conveys not the intended idea, or that involves such an absurd- ity as that of calling a lady an "incident," is doubtless sufficiently reprehensible ; but, compared with a rule of grammar so ill-devised as to mislead the learner nine times in ten, an occasional ambiguity or solecism is a mere trifle. The word walking, preceded by a possessive and followed by a preposition, as above, is clearly a noun, and not a participle ; but these authors probably in- tend to justify the use of possessives before participles, and even to hold all phraseology of this kind " unobjectionable." If such is not their design, they write as badly as they reason ; and if it is, their doctrine is both false and inconsistent. That a verbal noun may govern the pos- sessive case, is certainly no proof that a participle may do so too ; and, if these parts of speech are to be kept distinct, the latter position must be disallowed : each must " abide by its own con- struction," as says Lowth. But the practice which these authors speak of, as an innovation of " some late writers," and " an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," is in fact a practice as differ- ent from the blunder which they quote, or feign, as their just correction of that blunder is differ- ent from the thousand errors or irregularities which they intend to shelter under it. To call a lady an " incident," is just as far from any Latin idiom, as it is from good English ; whereas the very thing which they thus object to at first, they afterwards approve in this text : " What thi ik you of my horse running to-day ? " This phraseology corresponds with " the Latin idiom ; " and it is this, that, in fact, they begin with pronouncing to be " less correct " than, " What think you of my horse's running to-day ? " OBS. 35. Between these expressions, too, they pretend to fix a distinction of signification ; as if, " the horse's running to-day," must needs imply a past action, though, (they suppose,) " the pupil's composing frequently," or, " the horse running to-day," signifies a future one. This dis- tinction of time is altogether imaginary ; and the notion, that to prefer the possessive case before participles, is merely to withstand an error of " some late ivriters," is altogether false. The in- structions above cited, therefore, determine nothing rightly, except the inaccuracy of one very uncommon form of expression. For, according to our best grammarians, the simple mode of cor- rection there adopted will scarcely be found applicable to any other text. It will not be right where the participle happens to be transitive, or even where it is qualified by an adverb. From their subsequent examples, it is plain that these gentlemen think otherwise ; but still, who can understand what they mean by " the common mode of expression? " What, for instance, would they substitute for the following very inaccurate expression from the critical belles-lettres of Dr. Blair ? "A mother accusing her son, and accusing him of such actions, a* having first bribed of expression ? " and if it is, do they not make " common " what is no better English than the Doctor's ? If, to accuse a son, and to accuse him greatly, can be considered different circum- stances of the same prosecution, the sentence may be corrected thus : "A mother's accusing of her son, and her charging upon him such actions, as those o/having first bribed judges to condemn her husband, and having afterwards poisoned him, were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against Cicero's client." OBS. 36. On several occasions, as in the tenth and twelfth observations on Rule 4th, and in certain parts of the present series, some notice has been taken of the equivalence or difference of meaning, real or supposed, between the construction of the possessive, and that of an other case, before the participle ; or between the participial and the substantive use of words in ing. Dr. Priestley, to whom, as well as to Dr. Lowth, most of our grammarians are indebted for some of their doctrines respecting this sort of derivatives, pretends to distinguish them, both as consti- tuting different parts of speech, and as conveying different meanings. In one place, he says, " When a word ending in ing is preceded by an article, it seems to be used as a noun ; and there- fore ought not to govern an other word, without the intervention of a preposition." Priestley's Gram. p. 157. And in an other : " Many nouns are derived from verbs, and end in ing, like par- ticiples of the present tense. The difference between these nouns and participles is often over- looked, and the accurate distinction of the two senses not attended to. If I say .What think you of my horse's running to-day, I use the NOUN running, and suppose the horse to have actually OIIAP. VII.] SYNTAX. - RULE XX. - PARTICIPLE9. OBSERVATIONS. 615 run; for it is the same thing as if I had said, What think you of ttic running of my horse. But if I say, What think you of my horse running to-day, I use the PARTICIPLE, and 1 mean to ask, whether it be proper that my horae should run or not ; which, therefore, supposes that he had not then run." Ib. p. 122. "Whatever our other critics say about the horse running or the horse's running, they have in general borrowed from Priestley, with whom the remark originated, as it here stands. It appears that Crombie, Murray, Maunder, Lennie, Bullions, Ingersoll, Barnard, Hilcy, and others, approve the doctrine thus taught, or at least some part of it; though some of them, if not all, thereby contradict themselves. DBS. 37. By the two examples here contrasted, Priestley designed to establish a distinction, not for these texts only, but for all similar expressions a distinction both of the noun from the participle, and of the different senses which he supposed these two constructions to exhibit. In all this, there is a complete failure. Yet with what remarkable ductility and implicitness do other professed critics take tor granted what this superficial philologer so hastily prescribes ! By ac- knowledging, with reference to such an application of them, that the two constructions above are both good English, our grammarians do but the more puzzle their disciples respecting the choice between them; just as Priestley himself was puzzled, when he said, " So we may either say, I remember it being reckoned a great exploit ; or, perhaps more elegantly , I remember its being reck- oned, kc." Gram. p. 70. Murray and others omit this "jMTAqpt," and while they allow both forms to be good, decidedly prefer the latter ; but neither Priestley, nor any of there'st, ever pre- tended to discern in these a difference of signification, or even of parts of speech. For my part, in stead of approving either of these readings about the "great exploit," I have rejected both, for reasons which have already been given ; and now as to the first two forms of the horserace question, so far as they may strictly be taken for models, I cannot but condemn them also, and tor the same reasons : to which reasons may be joined the additional one, that neither expression. is well adapted to the sense which the author himself gives to it in his interpretation. If the Doctor designed to ask, " Do you think my horse ran well to-day ?" or, " Do you think it proper for my horse to run to-day ? " he ought to have used one or the other of these unequivocal and unobjectionable expressions. There is in fact, between the others, no such difference of meaning as he imagines; nor does he well distinguish "the Norx running" from the PARTICIPLE running; because he apparently allows the word, in both instances, to be qualified by the adverb to-day* OBS. 38. It is clear, that the participle in ing partakes sometimes the nature of its verb and an 're ; so that it relates to a noun, like an adjective, and yet implies time, and, if transitive, governs an object, like a verb: as, " Horses running a race." Hence, by dropping what here dis- tinguishes it as a participle, the word may become an adjective, and stand before its noun ; as, '/ling brook." So, too, this participle sometimes partakes the nature of its verb and a noun ; so that it may be governed by a preposition, like a noun, though in itself it has no cases or numbers, but is indeclinable: as, " In running a race." Hence, again, by dropping what dis- tinguishes it as a participle, it may become a noun ; as, "Running is a safer sport than wrestling." thus give to the participle a substantive character or relation, there is reason to think, that we ought, in like manner, to take away its regimen, and its adverb too, if it have any, and be careful also to distinguish this noun from the participial adjective; as, "The running of a race," "No racing of horses," "Your deserving of praise," "A man's compromising of his principles." With respect to the articles, or any adjectives, it seems now to be generally conceded, that these are signs of substantives ; and that, if added to participles, they must cause them to be taken, in \>ect8,8ubstantivcty. But with respect to possessives before participles, the common prac- \Vo have seen that Priestley's doctrine, aa well as Lowth's, is, that when a participle is taken substantively, it " ought not to govern another word; " and, for the same reason, it ought not to have an adverb relating to it. But inanv of our modern grammarians disregard there principles, and do not restrict their li participial nouns " i'-tinn of nouns, in either of these respects. For example : Because one may say, t; To read super- f\rmllH : 4k We have laid it down as a rule, that the possessive case belongs, like an ri'ljuftive. to a noun. What shall be said of the following? 'Since the days of Samson, there has been no e of a man's accomplishing a task so stupendous.' The entire clause following marts, is taken as a noun. 4 Of a n iu a task so stupendous,' would present no difficulty. A part of a sentence, or even a single participle. tiivs oft' .roinp will depend on my" fathers giving his consent,' or 'on my A participle thus used as a noun, may be called a PARTICIPIAL NOCN." Ib. p. 131. I dislike i n the first example, man may well be made the leading word in sense ; and, as such, it must !* in rh <>l>j.- There has been no instance of a man accomplishing a task so stupendous." It to say. "Mi/ t'oiH-,' will depend on my father's consenting.'- or, " on my father's consent.'' But an action poMow 4 to be transitive. If, therefore, you make this the leading idea, insert of; thu of a man's accomplishing of a. task ; r> stupendous.'' " My going will -n my ftith'r'* i.'i-ii nfhis con- brother's a>-(/uiring [of] the French language will be a useful preparation for his travels.'' Barnard's thaw. p. 227. If participial nouns retain the power of participles, why in it wrong to say, "A superficial reading books is useless ? " Again, Barnard approves of the question, " What 's ntnn<- " and adds, " Between this form of expression and the following, ' What do you think of my kortt running to-, lay ' it is sometimes said, th; ; t we should make a distinction ; because the former implies that the horse had actually run, and the latter, that i' is in contemplation to have him do so. T/ie !, !>ut ic would seem more judicious to treat the latter as an improper mode of speaking. What can be more uncouth than to say, ' What do you think of mr going to ' ' We should B*y my going, notwithstanding the ambiguity. " We ought, therefore, to introdtir xplanatory ; a*. ' What do you think of the propriety of my going to Niagara ? ' '-Analytic (jram. p 227. I'riety of .1 iat action is as proper a subject of remark as that of a future one ; the explanatory phrase lii-re introduced has therefore nothing to do with 1'ri. --tinn. or with the alleged ambiguity. S the uucouthness of an objective j,r..iioun wi'h the lea.Hn^ word in sense improperly taken as an adjunct, prove that a participle may properly take to itself a possessive adjunct, and still rvtaiu the active nature of a participle. 616 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. tice of our -writers very extensively indulges the mixed construction of which I have said so much, and concerning the propriety of which, the opinions of our grammarians are so various, so con- fused, and so self-contradictory. OBS. 39. Though the participle with a nominative or an objective before it, is not in general equivalent to the verbal noun or the mixed participle with a possessive before it ; and though the significations of the two phrases are often so widely different as to make it palpably absurd to put either for the other ; yet the instances are not few in which it makes little or no difference to the sense, which of the two forms we prefer : and therefore, in these instances, I would certainly choose the more simple and regular construction; or, where a better than either can readily be found, reject both. It is also proper to have some regard to the structure of other languages, and to the analogy of General Grammar. If there be " some late writers " who are chargeable with "an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," there are perhaps more who as idly affect what qui est ainsi emue ? " French Bible. Liter- ally : " What means this noise of the city which is so moved? " Better English : " What means this noise with which the city rings?" In the following example, there is a seeming imitation of the foregoing Latin or Greek construction ; but it may well be doubted whether it would be any improvement to put the word ' disciples " in the possessive case; nor is it easy to find a third form which would be better than these : " Their difficulties will not be increased by the intended disciples having ever resided in a Christian country." West's Letters, p. 119. OBS. 40. It may be observed of these different relations between participles and other words, that nouns are much more apt to be put in the nominative or the objective case, than are pro- nouns. For example : "There is no more of moral principle in the way of abolitionists nomina- ting their own candidates, than in that of their voting for those nominated by others." GERBJT SMITH : Liberator, Vol. x, p. 17. Indeed, a pronoun of the nominative or the objective case is hardly everused in such a relation, unless it be so obviously the leading word in sense, as to preclude all question about the construction.* And this fact seems to make it the more doubtful, whether it be proper to use nouns in that manner. But it may safely be held, that if the noun can well be considered the leading word in sense, we are at least under no necessity of subjecting it to the government of a mere participle. If it be thought desirable to vary the foregoing example, it may easily be done, thus : "There is no more of moral principle topi-event abolitionists from or in opposition to each men's combining -tor/ ether," or, " from tie j or their opposition to one an other." Take an other example : " If illorum be governed here of negotii, it must be in this order, gratid negotii illor.um videndi ; and this is, for the sake of their business being seen, ani not, for the sake of them being seen." Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, p. 352. Here the learned critic, in disputing Perizonius's resolution of the phrase, "illorum videndi gratia," has written disputable English. But, had he affected the Latin idiom, a nearer imitation of it woul I have been, " for the sake of their bminess's being seen, and not for the sake of their beina seen." Or nearer still, " for the sake of seeing of their biisiness, and not, for the sake of seeing of them." An elegant writer would be apt to avoid' all these forms, and say, " for the sake of seeing their business ; " and, " for the sake of seeing them : " though the former phrase, being but a version of bad Latin, makes no very good sense 'in any way. OBS. .41. Idioms, or peculiarities of expression, are never to be approved or valued, but ac- cording to their convenience, utility, or elegance. By this rule, some phrases that are not posi- tively barbarous, may yet be ungrammatical ; and a construction that is sometimes allowable, may yet be quite unworthy to be made or reckoned, "the common mode of expression." Thus, in Latin, the infinitive verb is occasionally put for a noun, and taken to signify a property pos- sessed; as, " Tuum scire, [thy to know,] the same as tua scientia, thy knowledge. Pers." Adam's Gram. p. 153. So, in English, the participle in ing is often taken substantively, when it does not actually become a substantive, or noun ; as, " Thy knowing this," " Our doing so." West. Such forms of speech, because they are idiomatical, seldom admit of any literal trans- lation, and are never naturalized by any transfer from one language or dialect into an other ; nor is it proper for grammarians to justify them, in vernacular speech, except as figures or anom- alies that ought not to be generally imitated. It cannot be truly affirmed, that the genius of our language ever requires that participles, as such, should assume the relations of a noun, or gov- ern the possessive case ; nor, on the other hand, can it be truly denied, that very excellent and learned writers do sometimes make use of such phraseology. Without disrespect to the many users and approvers of these anomalies, I set down forbad English every mixed construction of the participle, for which the language can furnish an equivalent expression that is more simple and more elegant. The extent to which these comparative barbarisms now abound in English * The following is an example, but it is not very intelligible, nor would it be at all amended, if the pronoun were put in the possessive case ; " I sympathize with my sable brethren, when I hear of them being spared even one lash of the cart- whip." REV. Da. THOMSON: Garrison, on Colonization, p 89. And this is an other, in which the possessive pronoun would not be better : " But, if the slaves wish to return to slavery, let them do so ; not an abolitionist will turn out to stop them going bajck. r 'Antislavety Reporter, Vol. IV, p. 223. Yet it mi-lit be more accurate to say " to stop them from going back/' In the following example from the pen nf Pric^flcy, the objective is correctly used with cw, where some would be apt to adopt; the possessive : ; ' It gives us an idea of Aiwr, as being the only person to whom it can be applied." Priestley's Gram. p. 151. Is not this better English than to saj, t: of his being the only person ? " CHAP. Vn.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. OBSERVATIONS. 617 books, and the ridiculous fondness for them, which has been shown by some writers on English grammar, in stead of amounting to any argument in their favour, are in fact plain proofs of the necessity of an endeavour to arrest so obvious and so pernicious an innovation. OBS. 42. A late author observes as follows : " That the English gerund, participle, or verbal noun, in ing, has both an active and a passive signification, there can be little doubt. Whether the Latin gerund has precisely a similar import, or whether it is only active, it may be difficult, and, indeed, after all, it is not of much moment, to ascertain." Grant's Latin 'Gram. p. 234. The gerund in Latin most commonly governs the case of its own verb, as does the active parti- ciple, both in Latin and English : as, " Efferor studio patres vestros ridendi. Cic. de sen. 23." Lily's Gram. p. 96. That is, "I am transported with a desire of seeing your fathers." But sometimes we find the gerund taken substantively and made to govern the genitive. Or, to adopt the language of an old grammarian : " Interdum non invenustt additur gerundiis in di etiam genitivus pluralis : ut, ' Quum illorum ridendi gra.tiiimc in forum contulissem.' 'Xoi'arum [qui] spectandi faciunt copiam.' Ter. Heaut. prol. 29." Lily's Gram. p. 97. That is, "To ge- runds in di there is sometimes not inelegantly added a genitive plural : as, ' When, for the sake of seeing of them, I went into the forum.' ' Who present an opportunity of attending of neio ones : ' i. e. new comedies." Here the of which is inserted after the participle to mark the geni- tive case which is added, forms rather an error than an elegance, though some English writers do now and then adopt this idiom. The gerund thus governing the genitive, is not analogous to our participle governing the possessive ; because this genitive stands, not for the subject of the being or action, but for what would otherwise be the object of the gerund, or of the participle, as may be seen above. The objection to the participle as governing the possessive, is, that it retains its object or its adverb ; for when it does not, it becomes fairly a noun, and the objection is re- moved, li. Johnson, like many others, erroneously thinks it a noun, even when it governs an objective, and has merely a preposition before it ; as, " For the sake of seeing them. Where see- ing (says he) is a Substantive." Gram. Com. p. 353. OKS. 43. If the Latin gerund were made to govern the genitive of the agent, and allowed at the same time to retain its government as a gerund, it would then correspond in every thing but declension, to the English participle when made to govern both the possessive case and the ob- jective. But I have before observed that no such analogy appears. The following example has been quoted by Sever, as a proof that the gerund may govern the genitive of the agent : "Cujus >n (/ici-nd'i (tli'iuid reprehensum est Cic." Grant's Lat. Gram. p. 236. That is, (as I un- derstand it,) " But in whose speaking something is reprehended." This seems to me a case in point ; though Crombie and Grant will not allow it to be so. But a single example is not suffi- cient. If the doctrine is true, there must be others. In this solitary instance, it would be easier possessive adjective, or genitive of a noun substantive, where the person is not the patient, but the agent ; as, direndum mcum % cjus diccndum, cvjus diccndum. [That is. my speaking, his speak- ing, whose speakintj.} In truth, these phraseologies appear to me, not only repugnant to the idiom of the language, but also unfavourable to precision and perspicuity.'" Grant's Latin Gram. 8vo, p. 236. OBS. 44. Of that particular distinction between the participle and the participial noun, which depends on the insertion or omission of the article and the preposition of, a recent grammarian of considerable merit adopts the following views : " This double nature of the participle has led to much irregularity in its use. Thus we find, indulging which,' 'indulging of which,' 'the indulging which,' and ' the indulging of which,' used indiscriminately. Lowth' very properly instructs us, either to use both the article and the preposition with the participle; as, * the in- dulging of which : ' or to reject both ; as, ' indulging which : ' thus keeping the verbal and sub- stantive forms distinct. But he is wrong, as Dr. Crombie justly remarks, in considering these two modes of expression as perfectly similar. Suppose I am told, ' Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had in hearing Fawcet : ' I understand at once, that the eloquence of Fawcetgave Bloomfield great pleasure. But were it said, Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had "t: ' I should be led to conclude, merely that the orator was within hear- ing, when the poet spoke of the pleasure he felt from something, about which I have no infor- mation. Accordingly Dr. Crombie suggests as a general rule, conducive at least to perspicuity, and perhaps to elegance ; that, when the noun connected with the participle is active, or doing .ing, the article should be inserted before the participle, and the preposition after it: and, when the noun is passive, or represents the object of an action, both the article and the preposi- tion should be omitted :f agreeably to the examples just adduced. It is true, that, when the noun following the participle denotes something incapable of the action the participle expresses, no mistake can vise from using either form : as, ' The middle condition seems to be the most ad- ;couslv situate for the gaining of wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying oj our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities.' Addison, Sped., 464. Yet * Sometimes the passive form is a.lo;.i-.l, when tln-rv is no rrnl n 1 of it, anf being < mi'in.Ty." Dr. Barrow' &MfB, p. 10U. Better, p< rth the tn.nl>!e ..f committing tt active would iiig cornrnitt'il to pi-rh:ips:--" worth the truil-!- at committing t memory:" or,'' worth the trouble of ronnnitttni; tktm to im-morv/' A -a in : ' What N w,, r rh >>. ins: >m,r,< /'man was there gathering of sticks." \Kings, xvii, 10. " The priests were busied in 'ering of burnt-offerings." 2 Chrun. xxxv, 14. " But Asahel would not turn aside from lowing of him." 2 Sum. ii, 21. " He left off building of Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah." 1 Kinys, xv, 21. "Those who accuse us of denying of it, belie us." Barclay's Works, 280. "And breaking of bread from house to "house." Ib. i, 192. "Those that set \it repairing of the walls." Ib. i, 459. "And secretly begetting of divisions." Ib. i, "Whom he had made use of in gathering of his church." Ib. i, 535. "In tining and distinguishing of the acceptions and uses of those particles." Walker's Par- p. 12. " In punishing of this, we overthrow The laws of nations and of nature too." Dryden, p. 92. 1'xDKu NOTE II. ARTICLES REQUIRE OF. "The mixing them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction." Kames, El. of Crit. ii. :}'>7. "The same objection lies against the employing statues." Ib. ii, 358. "More efficacious than the venting opulence upon the Fine Arts." Ib. Vol. i, p. viii. "It is the giving different names to the same object." Ib. ii, 19. " When we have in view the erecting a column." Ib. ii, 56. " The straining an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not BO frequent." 1>>. i, 20<>. "The cutting evergreens in the shape of animals is very an- cient." Ib. ii, 327. "The keeping juries, without meet, drink or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea." Webster's Essays, p. 301. "The writing the verbs at length his slate, will be a very useful exercise." Beck's Gram. p. 20. " The avoiding them is t an object of any moment." s/n-riflan's I^ect. p. 180. " Comparison is the increasing or decreasing the Signification of a Word by Degrees." British dram. p. 97. " Comparison is the Increasing or Decreasing the Duality by Degrees." Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 27. " The placing a Circumstance before the Word with which it is connected, is the easiest of all Inversion." Ib. p. 140. " What is emphasis It is the emitting a stronger and fuller sound of voice," c. Bradley Gram. p. 108. " Besides, the varying the terms will render the use of them more familiar." Afar. Murray's Gram. p. 25. "And yet the confining themselves to this true principle, has misled them ! " Horne Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 15. g lAsi s A~ THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " What is here commanded, is merely the relieving his misery." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 417. "The accumulating too great a quantity of knowledge at random, overloads the mind instead of adorning it." Formey's Belles -Lettres, p. 5. "For the compassing his point." Rollin's Hist, ii, 35. "To the introducing such an inverted order of things." Butler's Analogy, p. 95. " Which require only the doing an external action." Ib. p. 185. " The imprisoning my body is to satisfy your wills." GEO. Fox : Seivel's Hist. p. 47. " Who oppose the conferring such extensive command on one person." Duncan's Cicero, p. 130. " Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating their forces." Safe's Koran, p. 49. " The keeping one day of the week for a sabbath." Barclay's Works, i, 202. " The doing a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it." Ib. i, 527. "The doubling the Sigma is, how- ever, sometimes regular." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 29. "The inserting the com- mon aspirate too, is improper." Ib. p. 134. " But in Spenser's time the pronouncing the ed seems already to have been something of an archaism." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 656. "And to the reconciling the effect of their verses on the eye." Ib. i, 659. " When it was not in their power to hinder the taking the whole." Brown's Estimate, ii, 155. " He had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting the gates." Ibid. " So his whole life was a doing the will of the Father." Penington, iv, 99. " It signifies the suffering or receiving the action expressed." Priestley's Gram. p. 37. "The pretended crime therefore was the declaring himself to be the Son of God." West's Letters, p. 210. "Parsing is the resolving a sentence into its different parts of speech." Beck's Gram. p. 26. UNDER NOTE II. ADJECTIVES REQUIRE OF. " There is no expecting the admiration of beholders." Baxter. " There is no hiding you in the house." Shakspeare. " For the better regulating government in the province of Massachusetts." British Parliament. "The precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government." J. Q. Adams's Rhet. Vol. ii, p. 6. " [This state of discipline] requires the voluntary foregoing many things which we desire, and setting ourselves to what we have no inclination to." Butler's Analogy, p. 115. "This amounts to an active setting themselves against religion." Ib. p. 264. " Which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing our Christian discipline." N. E. Discip. p. 117. " Some men are so unjust that there is no securing our own property or life, but by opposing force to force." Brotvn's Divinity, p. 26. "An Act for the better securing the Rights and Liberties of the Subject." Geo. Ill, 31st. " Miraculous curing the sick is discontinued." Barclay's Works, iii, 137. "It would have been no transgressing the apostle's rule." Ib. p. 146. "As far as consistent with the proper conducting the business of the House." Elmore, in Congress, 1839. " Because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning them at that day." Law and Grace, p. 42. " That transferring this natural manner will ensure propriety." Rush, on the Voice, p. 372. " If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the key." Macbeth, Act ii, Sc. 3. UNDER NOTE II. POSSESSIVES REQUIRE OF. " So very simple a thing as a man's wounding himself." Blair's Rhet. p. 97 ; Murray's Gram.i, p. 317. "Or with that man's avowing his designs." Blair, p. 104; Murray, p. 308 ; Parker and Fox, Part III, p. 88. " On his putting the question." Adams's Rhet. Vol. ii, p. 111. "The importance of teachers' requiring their pupils to read each section many times over." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 169. "Politeness is a kind of forgetting one's self in order to be agreeable to others." Ramsay's Cyrus. " Much, therefore, of the merit, and the agreeableness of epistolary writing, will depend on its introducing us into some acquaint- ance with the writer." Blair's Rhet. p. 370 ; Mack's Dissertation in his Gram. p. 175. "Richard's restoration to respectability, depends on his paying his debts." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 176. " Their supplying ellipses where none ever existed ; their parsing words, of sentences already full and perfect, as though depending on words understood." Ib. p. 375. "Her veiling herself and shedding tears," &c., "her upbraiding Paris for his cowardice," &c. Blair's Rhet. p. 433. "A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a per- sonal pronoun, in the objective case." Murray's Gram. p. 28 ; Alger's, 14 ; Bacon s, 10 ; Merchant's, 18 ; and others. " But this forms no just objection to its denoting time." Murray's Gram. p. 65. " Of men's violating or disregarding the relations which God has placed them in here." Butler's Analogy, p. 164. "Success, indeed, no more decides for the right, than a man's killing his antagonist in a duel." Campbell's Rhet. p. 295. "His reminding them." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 123. "This mistake was corrected by his pre- ceptor's causing him to plant some beans." Ib. p. 235. "Their neglecting this was ruinous." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 82. " That he was serious, appears from his distin- guishing the others as finite.' " Felch's Gram. p. 10. " His hearers are not at all sensible of his doing it." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 119. UNDER NOTE III. CHANGE THE EXPRESSION. "An allegory is the saying one thing, and meaning another ; a double-meaning or dilogy is the saying only one thing, but having two in view." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 461. CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. HULE XX. PARTICIPLES. ERRORS. 623 "A verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense with any of the personal pro- nouns, or the word to before it." Murray's Gram. p. 28 ; Aider's, 13 ; Bacons, 10; Comly's, and many others. "A noun may, in general, be distinguished by its taking an article before it, or by its making sense of itself." Merchant's Gram. p. 17; Murray's, 27; &c. "An seen in the possessive case, from its denoting the possessor of something." Ibid. " The name man is caused by the adname whatever to be twofold subjective case, from its denot- ing, of itself, one person as the subject of the two remarks." Ib. p. 66. "When, as used in the last line, is a connective, from its joining that line to the other part of the sentence." Ib. p. 59. " From their denoting reciprocation." Ib. p. 64. " To allow them the making use of that liberty." file's Koran, p. 116. " The worst effect of it is, the fixing on your mind a habit of indecision." TodtFs Student's Manual, p. 60. "And you groan the more deeply, as you reflect that there is no shaking it off." Ib. p. 47. " I know of nothing that can justify the having recourse to a Latin translation of a Greek writer." Coleridge s Intro- duction, p. 16. " Humour is the making others act or talk absurdly." Hazlitt's Lectures. " There are remarkable instances of their not affecting each other." Butler's Analogy, p. 150. " The leaving Caesar out of the commission was not from any slight." Life of Cicero, p. 44. " Of the receiving this toleration thankfully I shall say no more." Dryden's M 'orhs, p. 88. "Henrietta was delighted with Julia's working lace so very well." O. B. Peirce's 72. "They will aim at something higher than merely the dealing out of harmonious sounds." Kirkhams Elocution, p. 65. "This is intelligible and sufficient ; and going farther seems beyond the reach of our faculties." Butler's Analogy, p. 14". "Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject." Murray's Gram. p. >n's 1'Jiit. lv";. Kven Isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending out a commission to investigate his conduct." Life of Columbus. "For the rg away of the simple shall slay them." I'rov. i, 32. "Thick fingers always should command H Without the stretching out the hand." Kiny's Poems, p. 585. UNDER NOTE V. PARTICIPLES WITH ADJECT i "Is there any Scripture speaks of the light's being inward :" Barclay's Works, i, 367. " For I believe not the being positive therein essential to salvation." Ib. iii, 330. " Our not being able to act an uniform right part without some thought and care." Butl<-r's Analogy, p. 122. "Upon supposition of its being reconcileable with the constitution of nature." Ib. p. 128. "Upon account of its not being discoverable by reason or experi- ence." Ib. p. 170. " Upon account of their being unlike the known course of nature." 624 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART 111. IS. p. 171. " Our being able to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them." Ib. p. 174. "From its not being universal." Ib. p. 175. "That they may be turned into the passive participle in dus is no decisive argument in favour of their being passive." Grant's Lat. Gram. p. 233. "With the implied idea of St. Paul's being then absent from the Corinthians." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 123. " On account of its becoming gradually weaker, until it finally dies away into silence." Ib. p. 32. "Not without the author's being fully aware." Ib. p. 84. "Being witty out of season, is one sort of folly." Sheffield's Works, ii, 172. "Its being generally susceptible of a much stronger evidence." Campbell's Rhet. p. 102. "At least their being such rarely enhanceth our opinion, either of their abilities or of their virtues." Ib. p. 162. "Which were the ground of our being one." Barclay's Works, i, 513. " But they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive." Murray's Gram, i, 60. " To distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's being possible." Churchill's Gram. p. 234. " His being idle, and dishonest too, Was that which caus'd his utter overthrow." Tobitt's Gram. p. 61. UNDER NOTE VI. COMPOUND VERBAL NOUNS. " When it denotes being subjected to the exertion of another." Booth's Introd. p. 37. " In a passive sense, it signifies being subjected to the influence of the action." Fekh's Comp. Gram. p. 60. "The being abandoned by our friends is very deplorable." Gold- smith's Greece, i, 181. "Without waiting for their being attacked by the Macedonians." Ib. ii, 97. " In progress of time, words were wanted to express men's being connected with certain conditions of fortune." Blairs Ehet. p. 135. "Our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow, has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation." Butler's Analogy, p. 121. " The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown ; The general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace ; John's having been writing a long time had wearied him." Murray's Gram. p. 66 ; Sanborn's, 171 ; Cooper's, 96 ; Ingersott's, 46; Fish's, 83; and others. "The sentence should be, 'John's having been writing a long time has wearied him.' " Wright's Gram. p. 186. "Much depends on this rule's being observed." Murray's Key, ii, 195. " He mentioned a boy's having been corrected for his faults ; The boy's having been corrected is shameful to him." Aider's Gram. p. 65 ; Mer- chant's, 93. " The greater the difficulty of remembrance is, and the more important the being remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end." Campbell's Rhet. p. 90. " If the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity, their being compounded would make no odds." Ib. p. 65. " Circumstances, not of such importanse as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being known." Ib. p. 379. "A passive verb expresses the receiving of an action or the being acted upon ; as, 'John is beaten.' " Frost's El. of Gram. p. 16. "So our Language has another great Advantage, namely its not being diversified by Genders." Buchanan's Gram. p. 20. "The having been slandered is no fault of Peter." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 82. " Without being Christ's friends, there is no being justified." William Penn. "Being accustomed to danger, begets intrepidity, i. e. lessens fear." Butler's Analogy, p. 112. "It is, not being affected so and so, but acting, which forms those habits." Ib. p. 113. "In order to our being satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox." Campbell's Rhet. p. 164. "Tropes consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive mean- ing." Blair's Rhet. p. 132 ; Jamieson's, 140 ; Murray's Gram. 337 ; Kirkham's, 222. "A Trope consists in a word's being employed," &c. Hiley's Gram. p. 133. "The scriptural view of our being saved from punishment." Gurney's Evidences, p. 124. " To submit and obey, is not a renouncing a being led by the Spirit." Barclay's Works, i, 542. UNDER NOTE VII. PARTICIPLES FOR INFINITIVES, &c. "Teaching little children is a pleasant employment." Bartlett's School Manual, ii, 68. " Denying or compromising principles of truth is virtually denying their divine Author." Reformer, i, 34. "A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear being retrenched." Blair's Rhet. p. 206. "Never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much."- Ib. p. 323. " I now recollect having mentioned a report of that nature." Whiting's Reader, p. 132. " Nor of the necessity which there is for their being restrained in them." Butler's Analogy, p. 116. " But doing what God commands, because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear." Ib. p. 124. " Simply closing the nostrils does not so entirely prevent resonance." Music of Nature, p. 484. "Yet they absolutely refuse doing so." Harris's Hermes, p. 264. " But Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him."- Goldsmith's Greece, i, 173. " Doing them in the best manner is signified by the name of these arts." Rush, on the Voice, p. 360. " Behaving well for the time to come, may be insufficient." Butler's Analogy, p. 198. " The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself." Dr. Adam, Rom. Antiq. p. v. " To smile upon those we should censure, is bringing guilt upon ourselves." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 108. " But it would be doing great injustice to that illustrious orator to bring his genius down to the same level." Ib. p. 28. " Doubt- ing things go ill, often hurts more than to be sure they do." Beauties of Shak. p. 203. CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. ERRORS. 625 "This is called straining n metar>hor." Blair's Rhet. p. 1-50 ; Murray's Gram, i, 341. "This is what Aristotle calls giving manners to the poem." Blair's Rhet. p. 427. " The painter's being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action." Murray's Gram, i, 195. " It imports retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression." Blair's Rhet. p. 94 ; ton's, 64 ; Murray's Gram. p. 301 ; Kirkham's, 220. " The necessity for our being thus exempted is further apparent." West's Letters, p. 40. " Her situation in life does not allow of her being genteel in everything." Ib. p. 57. "Provided you do not dislike being dirty when you are invisible." Ib. p. 58. " There is now an imperious necessity for her being acquainted with her title to eternity." Ib. p. 120. "Discarding the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness." Ib. p. 105. "The legislature prohibits opening shop of a Sunday." lh. p. 66. "To attempt proving that any thing is right." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 256. " The comma directs making a pause of a second in duration, or less." Ib. p. 280. " The rule which directs putting other words into the place of it, is wrong." Ib. p. 326. " They direct calling the specifying adjectives or adnames adjective pronouns." Ib. p. 338. " William dislikes attending court." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 82. " It may perhaps be worth while remarking that Milton makes a distinction." Philological Museum, i, 659. " Professing regard, and acting differently, discover a base mind." Murray's Key, p. 206 ; Bullions' s E. Gram. pp. 82 and 112 ; Lennie's, 58. " You have proved beyond contradiction, that acting thus is the sure way to procure such an object." Campbells Rhet. p. 92. UNDER NOTE VIII. PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &c. " Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts." Murray's Gram. p, 353 ; Kirkham's, 225 ; Goldsbury 's, 90. " Irony is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what that expression would represent." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 303. "An Irony is dissembling or changing the proper signification of a word or sentence to quite the contrary." Fishers Gram. p. 151. "Irony is expressing ourselves contrary to what we mean." Sanborn's Gram, p, 286. " This is in a great Measure delivering their own Com- positions." Buchanan's Gram. p. xxvi. " But purity is using rightly the words of the language." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 59. " But the most important object is settling the English quantity." Walkers Key, p. 17. "When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to another is taking a very wide step." Campbell's Rhet. p. 293. "It would be losing time to attempt further to illustrate it." Ib. p. 79. "This is leaving the sentence too bare, and making it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense." Cobbett's Gram. No. 227. " This is requiring more labours from every private member." West's Letters, p. 120. " Is not this using one measure for our neighbours, and another for ourselves ? " Ib. p. 200. " Is it not charging God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature ? " Ib. p. 171. "This is not enduring the cross as a disciple of Jesus Christ, but snatching at it like a partizan of Swift's Jack." Ib. p. 175. " What is Spelling? It is combining letters to form syllables and words." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 18. "It is choosing such letters to compose words," Sec. Ibid. " What is Parsing ? (1.) It is describing the nature, :id powers of words." Ib. pp. 22 and 192. (2.) "For parsing is describing the words of a sentence as they are used." Ib. p, 10. (3.) " Parsing is only describing the nature and relations of words as they are used." Ib. p. 11. (4.) "Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is describing facts concerning words ; or representing them in their offices and relations as they are." Ib. p. 34. (5.) " Parsing is resolving and explain- ed* according to the niles of grammar." Ib. p. 326. (6.) "Parsing a word, remember, is enumerating and devribin;.: its various relations and qualities, and its gram- matical relations to other words in the sentence." Ib. p. 325. (7.) "For parsing a word is enumerating and describing its various properties and relations to the sentence." Ib. i s.i "Parsing a noun is tolling of what person, number, gender, and case it is; nd also telling all its grammatical relations in a sentence with respect to other words." p. 16. (9.) "Parsing any part of speech is tolling all its properties and reliitio: i lo. i Parsing is resolving a sentence into its elements." Foicler's E. Grum. 1850, $ 588. " The highway of the righteous, is, departing from evil," O. B. Peirce't Gmm.p. Ids. L6 lirst step towards exhibiting truth should be removing the veil of error." Ib. p. .'J77. " Punctuation is dividing sentences and the words of sentences, by pauses."//*, p. Jso. "Another fault is usin^j the preterimperfect shook instead of the participle shaken." Churchill's Gram, p. 2-V,). " Jl^r employment is drawing maps." Alycr's Gram. p. (j.j. " (ioing to the play, according to his notion, is leading a sensual life, and exposing ones self to the Sti . This is b< gging the question, and therefor requires no answer." I-'urm'-y'a ]> ,p. J!7. " It is overvaluing ourselves to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities." Murray's Gram, i, 193 ; Ingersotfs, 199. " \Vi: -.\ language? It is speaking; or expressing ideas by the human voice." Sanders, Spelling -Book. r.M)i:u NOTK IX. VKHIIS u. NO. 14 The annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment's becoming a law." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 267. " Which prevents the manner's being brief." Ib. p. 365. 40 626 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " This close prevents their bearing forward as nominatives." Rush, on the Voice, p. 153. "Because this prevents its growing drowzy." Formey's Belles- Lettres, p. 5. "Yet this does not prevent his being great." Ib. p. 27. " To prevent its being insipid." Ib. p. 112. " Or whose interruptions did not prevent its being continued." Ib. p. 167. " This by no means prevents their being also punishments." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 123. " This hinders not their being also, in the strictest sense, punishments." Ibid. " The noise made by the rain and wind prevented their being heard." Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 1 18. " He endeavoured to prevent its taking effect." Ib. \, 128. " So sequestered as to prevent their being explored." West's Letters, p. 62. "Who prevented her making a more pleasant party." Ib. p. 65. "To prevent our being tossed about by every wind of doctrine." Ib. p. 123. "After the infirmities of age prevented his bearing his part of official duty." Religious World, ii, 193. " Understanding the literal sense would have prevented their con- demning the guiltless." Butler's Analogy, p. 168. " To prevent splendid trifles passing for matters of importance." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 310. " Which prevents his exerting himself to any good purpose." Seattle's Moral Science, i, 146. "The want of the observance of this rule, very frequently prevents our being punctual in our duties." Student's Manual, p. 65. "Nothing will prevent his being a student, and his possessing the means of study." Ib. p. 127. " Does the present accident hinder your being honest and brave ? " Collier's Antoni- nus, p. 61. "The e is omitted to prevent two es coming together." Foicle's Gram. p. 34, "A pronoun is used for or in place of a noun, to prevent repeating the noun." Sanborn'a Gram. p. 13. " Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents it being tired with the too frequent recurrence of the rhymes." Campbell's Rhet. p. 166. " Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents its being tired," &c. Murray's Gram, i, p. 362. " Timidity and false shame prevent our opposing vicious customs." Murray's Key, ii, 236 ; Sanborn's Gram. 171 ; Merchant's, 205. "To prevent their being moved by such." Campbells Rhet. p. 155. " Some obstacle or impediment, that prevents its taking place." Priestley's Gram. p. 38. " Which prevents our making a progress towards perfection." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 4. "This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled." Ib. p. 67. " That nothing but affectation can prevent its always taking place." Ib. p. 78. "This did not prevent John's being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." HENRY: Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 182; his Improved Gram. 130; Sanborn's Gram. 189 ; Fowler's, 8vo, 1850, p. 541. UNDER NOTE X. THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE. "This would preclude the possibility of a nouns' or any other word's ever being in the possessive case." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 338. "A great part of our pleasure arises from the plan or story being well conducted." Blair's Rhet. p. 18. "And we have no reason to wonder at this being the case." Ib. p. 249. " She objected only, as Cicero says, to Oppia- nicus having two sons by his present wife." Ib. p. 274. "The Britons being subdued by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their having called in these Saxons, to their assistance." Ib. p. 329. " What he had there said, concerning the Saxons expelling the Britons, and changing the customs, the religion, and the language of the county, is a clear and good reason for our present language being Saxon rather than British." Ib. p. 230. "The only material difference between them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it." Ib. p. 151; Murray's Gram. p. 342. "The description of Death's advancing to meet Satan, on his arrival." Rush, on the Voice, p. 156. "Is not the bare fact of God being the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon ? " Chalmers, Serm. p. 286. "As in the case of one entering upon a new study." Beattie's Moral Science, i, 77. " The manner of these affecting the copula is called the imperative mode." BP. WILKINS : Lowth's Gram. p. 43. " We are freed from the trouble, by our nouns having no diversity of endings." Buchanan's Syntax, p. 20. " The Verb is rather indicative of the actions being doing, or done, than the time when, but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable." Booth's Introd. p. 69. " Nobody would doubt of this being a sufficient proof." Campbell's Rhet. p. 66. "Against the doctrine here maintained, of conscience being, as well as reason, a natural faculty." Beattie's M. Sci. i, 263. "It is one cause of the Greek and English languages being much more easy to learn, than the Latin." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 25. "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance of such being the fact." Liberator, x, 40. "An angel's forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror." Wood's Diet. w. Belshazzar. "The prisoners' having attempted to escape, aroused the keepers." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 357. " I doubt not, in the least, of this having been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world." Blair's Rhet. p. 155. " From the general rule he lays down, of the verbs being the parent word of all language." Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 227. " He was accused of himself being idle." Felch's Comp. Gram. p. 52. " Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him so removing." Win. Edmondson. "The spectacle is too rare of men's deserving solid fame while not seeking it." Prof. Bush's Lecture on Swedenborg. " What further need was there of an other priest rising ? " See Key. CHAP. VII.] SYNTAX. RULE XX. PARTICIPLES. ERRORS. G27 UNDER NOTE XI. REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES. "Viewing them separately, different emotions are produced." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 344. " But leaving this doubtful," another objection occurs." lh, ii, 358. " Proceeding from one particular to another, the subject grew under his hand." Ib. i, 27. " But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain broken." Ib. ii, 314. "After some days hunting,' Cyrus communicated his design to his officers." Rollin, ii, 66. "But it is made, without the appearance of making it in form." Blair's Rhet. p. 358. "These would have had a better effect disjoined thus." Ib. p. 119 ; Murray's Gram, i, 309. "An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded." Murray's Gram. p. 9; Alger's, 12; Merchant's, 9; Smith's, 118 ; IngersolFs, 4. "And being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady." Blair's Rhet. p. 95 ; Murray's Gram. 302 ; Jamiesons Rhet* 66. " By often doing the same thing, it becomes habitual." Murray's Key, p. 257. " They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when surrounded with friends and cheerful society." Ib. p. 238. " Besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong." Lowth's Gram. Pref. p. viii. "The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone." Murray's Gram, i, p. 235. " Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying ; You have taken great care indeed.' " Ib. i, 354. "The words preceding and following it, are in appo- sition to each other." Ib. ii, p. 22. " Having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed." Cooper's Pract. Gram. p. 97. " Were the voice to fall at the close of the last "line, as many a reader is in the habit of doing." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 101. "The misfortunes of hia countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, by depriving them of his assist- ance." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 299. " Taking them as nouns, this construction may be explained thus." Grant's Latin Gram. p. 233. "These have an active signification, those which come from neuter verbs being excepted." Ib. p, 233. " From the evidence of it not being universal." Butler s Analogy, p. 84. "And this faith will continually grow, by acquainting ourselves with our own nature." Channing's Mf- Culture, p. 33. " Monosylla- bles ending with any consonant but/, I, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; excepting add, ebb," &c. Murray's Gram. p. 23 ; Picket's, 10 ; Mer- chant's, 13; Ingersott's, 8; Fisk's, 44; Blair's, 7. "The relation of being the object of the action is expressed by the change of the Noun Maria to Mariam." Booth's Introd. p. 38. " In analyzing a proposition, it is first to be divided into its logical subject and predicate." Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Gram. p. 254. "In analyzing a simple sentence, it should first be resolved into its logical subject and logical predicate." Wells's School Gram. 113th Ed. p, 189. UNDER NOTE XII. OF PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS. " The discovering passions instantly at their birth, is essential to our well being." Kames, El. nf Crit. i, 352. " I am now to enter on considering the sources of the pleasures of taste." Itlair's Rhet. p. 28. "The varieties in using them are, indeed many." Murray's Gram. 319. " Changing times and seasons, removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence one." Ib. Key, ii, p. 200. "Adhering to the partitions seemed the cause of France, ac- pting the will that of the house of Bourbon." Bolingbrokc, on Hist. p. 246. "Another urce of darkness in composing is, the injudicious introduction of technical words and rases." Campbells llhct. p. 247. "These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of Inch, you may avoid mistakes," Murray's Gram, i, 192 ; Merchant's, 93 ; Fisk's, 135 ; In- (jersolfs, 198. "By the observing of the rules, you may avoid mistakes." Alger's Gram. Co. " By the observing of these rules he succeeded." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 82. " Being raised was his ruin." Ibid. "Deceiving is not convincing." Ibid. "He never feared sin-; a friend." Ibid " Making books is his amusement." Alger's Gram. p. 65. "We 11 it declining a noun." Ingersolfs Gram. p. 22. " Washington, however, pursued the me policy of neutrality, and opposed firmly, taking any part in the wars of Europe." Hull aud Baker's S-AW ///.s/. p. 294. "The following is a note of Interrogation, or asking a question ()." Infant s. haul dram. p. 132. "The following is a note of Admiration, or expressing wonder (!)." Ib. "Omitting or using the article a forms a nice distinction in the sense." Murray' a Gram, ii, 284. "Placing the preposition before the word it governs more graceful." Churchill's Gram. p. 150. "Assistance is absolutely necessary to their covery, and retrieving their affairs." Butler's Analogy, p. 197. " Which termination, [ish,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality." Murray's Gram. i, 131 ; Kirkham's, 172. "After what is said, will it be thought reiining too much to sug- hat the different orders are qualified for different purposes ? " Kames, El. of Crif. ii, 114. " Who has nothing to think of but killing time." West's Letters, p. 58. " It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or measuring time." Sheridan's Elocution, " The J'ossrssirc Case denotes possession, or belonging to." Hairs Gram. p. 7. T'NOKR NOTE XIII.- -Pi KI r. i PVKTK in i -. as master of the hinirungi- spoke by the Incas." Rob> - ii, !"<) When an interesting story is broke off in the middle." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 244. " Speak- 628 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. ing of Hannibal's elephants drove back by the enemy." Ib. ii, 32. " If Du Ryer had not wrote for bread, he would have equalled them." Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 166. "Pope describes a rock broke off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain." Kames, ii, 106. " I have wrote or have written, Thou hast wrote or hast written, He hath or has wrote, or hatli .or has written ; " &c. Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 47 ; Maltby's, 47. " This was spoke by a pagan.' r Webster's Improved Gram. p. 174. "But I have chose to follow the common arrange- ment." Ib. p. 10. " The language spoke in Bengal." Ib. p. 78. "And sound Sleep thus broke off, with sudden Alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one." Locke* on Ed. p. 32. " This is not only the Case of those Open Sinners, before spoke of." Right of Tythes, p. 26. " Some Grammarians have wrote a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation." Ensell's Gram. p. 340. " There hath a pity arose in me towards thee." Seicel's Hist.fol. p. 324. "Abel is the only man that has underwent the awful change of death." Juvenile Theatre, p. 4. '* Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands, Smote with keen heat, the Trav'ler stands." Union Poems, p. 88. CHAPTER VIII. -ADVERBS. The syntax of an Adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a par ciple, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies ; just as the syntax of an Eng- lish Adjective, (except in a few instances,) consists in its simple relation to- a noun or a pronoun. KULE XXI. ADVERBS. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs : as, "Any passion that habitually discomposes our temper, or unfits us for properly dis- charging the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascen- dency." Blair. "How bless'd this happy hour, should he appear, Dear to us all, to me supremely dear! " Pope's Homer. EXCEPTION FIRST. The adverbs yes, ay, and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs * No. " Can honour set to a leg ? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound No. Honour hath no skill in surgery then ? No." SHAK.: First Part of Hen. IV, Act. v EXCEPTION SECOND. The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer ; and is itself a prayer, meaning, so let it be : as, " Surely, I come quickly. Amen : Even so, come Lord Jesus." Rev. xxii, 20. When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used substantively ; as, " The stranger* among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed amen to the blessings." Wood's Diet. " These things saith the Amen." Rev. iii, 14. EXCEPTION THIRD. An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter, rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object; as, "This mode of pronun- ciation runs considerably beyond ordinary discourse." Blair's Rhet. p. 334. "Yea, all along the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that preserved the witnesses." Peningtons Works, Vol. iv, p. 12. [See Obs. 8th on Rule 7th.] "Right against the eastern gate, Where the great sun begins his state." Milton, L' Allegro. EXCEPTION FOURTH. The words much, little, far, and all, being originally adjectives, are sometimes preceded by the negative not, or (except the last) by such an adverb as too, hoto, thus, so, or as, when they are taken substantively ; as, "Not all that glitters, is gold." "Too much should not be offered at once." Murray's Gram. p. 140. "Thus far is consistent." Ib. p. 161. "Thus far is right." Lowth's Gram. p. 101. n, ! CHAP. VIII.] SYNTAX. RULE XXI. ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 029 OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXI. Ons. 1. On this rule of syntax, Dr. Adam remarks, "Adverbs sometimes likewise qualify substantives ; " and gives Latin examples of the following import : " Homer plainly an orator ;'"' "Truly Metellus ; " "To-morrow morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by such imperfect phrases, nor can it ever be very consistently admitted, because it destroys the charac- teristic difference between an adjective and an adverb. To-morrow is here an adjective ; and as for truly and plainly, they are not such words as can make sense with nouns. I therefore imagine the phrases to be elliptical: "Vert Metellus," may mean, "This is truly Metellus ; " and "IIo- merus plan* orator," " Homer was plainly an orator." So, in the example, " Behold an Israelite indeed," the true construction seems to be, " Behold, here is indeed an Israelite;" for, in the Greek or Latin, the word Israelite is a nominative, thus: "Ecce vert Isratlita." Beza ; also Montamis. " 'I6e aAqduc 'lipa7]/uTT]c,." Greek Testament. Behold appears to be here an in- terjection, like Ecce. If we make it a transitive verb, the reading should be, " Behold a true Israelite ; " for the text does not mean, "Behold indeed an Israelite." At least, this is not the meaning in our version. W. II. Wells, citing as authorities for the doctrine, " Bullions, Allen and Cornwell, Brace, Butler, and Webber," has the following remark: "There are, however, certain forms of expression in which adverbs bear a special relation to nouns or pronouns ; as, * Behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters.' Gen. 6 : 17- ' For our gospel came not unto you in word only, but also in power.' 1 Thes. 1 : 5." Wells'* School Gram. 1st Ed. p. 156 ; late Ed. 168. And again, in his Punctuation, we find this : " When, however, the intervening word is an adverb, the comma is more commonly omitted . ; as, ' It is labor only which gives a relish to pleas- ure.' " Ib. p. 176. From all this, the doctrine receives no better support than from Adam's tion above considered. The word "only" is often an adjective, and wherever its "special relation " is to a noun or a pronoun, it can be nothing else. "Even," when it introduces a word repeated with emphasis, is a conjunction. OBS. 2. When participles become nouns, their adverbs are not unfrequently left standing with them in the original relation; as, "For the fail and rising again of many in Israel." Luke, ii, 'U. " To denote the carrying foncard of the action." Barnard's Gram. p. 52. But in instances like these, the hyphen seems to be necessary. This mark would make the terms risintj-again and carry ing -for ward compound nouns, and not participial nouns with adverbs relating to them. "There is no flying hence, nor tarrying here." Skak., Macbeth. " What ! in ill thoughts again ? men must endure Their going hence, ev'n as their coming hither." Id. OBS. 3. Whenever any of those words which are commonly used adverbially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they must be reckoned adjectives, and parsed bv Rule 9th. Examples : ""The above verbs." Dr. Adam. " To the above remarks." Campbell's llhet. p. 318. " The abore instances." Ib. p. 442. "After the above partial illustration." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, ii, 62. " The above explanation." Cobbett's Gram. II 22. " For very age." Zech. viii, 4. " From its very greatness." Phil. Museum, i, 431. " In his then situation. "Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. " This was the then state of Popery." Id. Life of Dry den, p. 185. " The servant becomes the master of his once master." Shilliioe. " Time when is put in the ablative, time how lotuj is put in the accusative." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 201 ; Gould's, 198. "Nouns signifying the time irhen or how lung, may be put in the objective case without a preposition." Wilbur and . .p. 24.' " T hear the far-off curfew sound." Milton. "Far on the thither I'houghts, p. 08. " My' hither way." "Since my here remain in England." Xhak. " But 'short and seldom truce."-*- Fell. "An exceeding knave." Pope. "According to my so/nrtiint' promise." Zt-mAiu, i, 176. " Thine often infirmities." Bible. "A. far country." 'lb. ".\u wine" "Xv new thing" "_Vo greater joy." Ib. "Nothing else." Blair. "To- morrow noon." Sfott. " Calamity cnow/h." TV. Sullust. " For thou only art holy." Rev. xv, 4. (Mm. 4. It is not mv design to justify any uncouth substitution of adverbs'for adjectives; r.or do I affirm that all the foregoing examples are indisputably good English, though most of them are so ; but merely, that the words, when they are thus used, are adjectives, and not adverbs. Lindley Murray, and his copyists, strongly condemn some of these expressions, and, by implica- tion, most or all of them ; but both he and they, as well as others, have repeatedly employed at least one of the very models they censure. They are too severe on all those which they specify. Their objections stand thus: "Such csprcsxions as the following, though not destitute of au- adjeot 'The then administration;' should be avoided." Bar- nard's Gram. p. - N ami tht-n must not be used for nouns and pronouns ; thus, 'Since tc/i,'n,' ' since then,' ' the (hen ministry,' ought to ho, ' Since which time,' ' since that time,' 'the ministry of that period' " HI ley's Gra>, >r. Priestley, from whom Murray derived many of his critical remarks, noticed these expressions; and, (as 1 suppose,) approvingly ; thus, "Ad' verbs are often put for adject ;t>ly to the idiom of the Greek tongue : [as,] 'The action was ami**.' ' The tht-n ministry.' ' The idea is alike in both.' Addison. -' The aAote discourse.' Harris." Priestley's Gram. p. 133. Dr. Johnson, as may be seen above, thought it not amiss to use then as Priestley here cites it; and for such a use of a'tarr, we may quote the objectors them- selves : "To support the abore construction." Murrm/'s Gram, i, p. 149; Ingersoirs, \> " In all the above inst .nee*. "Mm: p. 2H-J : Inn. 2*). "'To the abor-r r\\\c."Mur. p. 270 ; In,,. 283. " The same as th. " Mvr. p. GO ; Ing. 40. " In such instances as the above." Miir. p. 21: fy.9; A" ;// am, 23. * " Dr Webster eonsMer* the u. " There is none righteous, no, not one." Rom. in, 10. But two negatives in the same clause, if they have any bearing on each other, destroy the negation, and render the meaning weakly afFirmativ. did they not perceive their evil plight." Milton. That is, they did pen-eive it. "'His language, though inelegant, is notitnyranimaticat;' that is, it is grammati- cal.' 1 .Murray's tiram. p. I'.'S. The term not only, or not merely, being a correspondent to but or but also, may be followed by an other negative without this effect, because the two negative words have no immediate bearing on each other; as, " Your brother is not only not present, and not assisting in prosecuting your injuries, !>ut is now actually with Verrcs." Duncan's Cicero, ]>. 1H. " In the latter v/e have not merely not/tint/, to denote what the point should be; but no indication, that any point at all is wanting." ('Inn-chill's dram. p. 373. So the word notliiwj, when taken poftitirelj for nonentity, or that which does not exist, may be followed by an other e ; as, " First, seat him somewhere, and derive his race, Or else conclude that nothing has no place." Dryden, p. 95. 1 J. The common rule of our grammars, " Two negatives, in English, destroy.each other, or are equivalent to an atlirm.it. ve." i> far from being true of all possible examples. A sort of informal exception to it, (which is mostly confined to conversation,) is made by a familiar ti of the word neither from the beginning of the clause to the end of it ; as, " But here is no notice taken of that neither. 1 ' Joli>i*n's dram. <'//i. ]i. l','.l>\. That is, " But neither is any notice here taken of that." Indeed a negation may be repeated, by the same word or others, as often as we ; if no two of the terms in particular contradict each other ; as, " He will never consent, not he. no, .: I n< if /,,-,-." " lie will not have time, no, nor capacity neither." Bolitujbroke, on Hist. p. in.'i. " Many terms and idioms may be common, which, nevertheless, have not the general sanction, no, n'nr even the .-auction of those that use them." Campbell's Rhit. p 100; Murray's Uram. 8vo, p. 358. And as to the equivalence spoken of in the common rule, such an expression 632 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. as, " He did not say nothing," is in fact only a vulgar solecism, take it as you will ; whether for, *' He did not say anything," or for, " He did say something." The latter indeed is what the contradiction amounts to ; but double negatives must be shunned, whenever they seem like blunders. The following examples have, for this reason, been thought objectionable ; though Allen says, " Two negatives destroy each other, or elegantly form an affirmation." Gram. p. 174. "Nor knew I not To be both will and deed created free." Milton, P. L., B. v, 1. 548. "Nor dolh the moon no nourishment exhale From her moist continent to higher orbs." Ib. B. v, 1. 421. OBS. 15. Under this head of double negatives, there appears in our grammars a dispute of some importance, concerning the adoption of or or nor, when any other negative than neither or nor occurs in the preceding clause or phrase : as, " We will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image." Dan. iii, 18. "Ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial, in Jerusalem." Neh. ii, 20. "There is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute about them." Home Tooke, Dii. Vol. i, p. 43. " So as not to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it." Blair's RJiet. p. 115 ; Mur- ray's Gram. p. 322. " He did not mention Leonora, nor her father's death." Murray's Key, p. 264. " Thou canst not tell whence it cometh, nor whither it goeth." Ib. p. 215. The form of this text, in John, iii, 8th, is " But canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth ; ' r which Murray inserted in his Exercises as bad English. I do not see that the copulative and is here ungrammatical ; but if we prefer a disjunctive, ought it not to be or, rather than nor} It appears to be the opinion of some, that in all these examples, and in similar instances innu- merable, nor only is proper. Others suppose, that or only is justifiable; and others again, that either or or nor is perfectly correct. Thus grammar, or what should be grammar, differs in the hands of different men ! "The principle to be settled here, must determine the correctness or incorrectness of a vast number of very common expressions. I imagine that none of these opin- ions is warrantable, if taken in all that extent to which each of them has been, or may be, carried. OBS. 16. It was observed by Priestley, and after him by Lindley Murray, from whom others again have copied the remark: "Sometimes the particles or and nor, may, either of them, be used with nearly equal propriety ; [as,] ' The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure.' Hume. Or would perhaps have been better, but nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression." Priestley's Gram. p. 138; Murray's, i, 212; Ingersoll's, 268; R. C. Smith's, 177. The conjunction or might doubtless have been used in this sentence, but not loith the same mean- ing that is now conveyed ; for, if that connective had been employed, the adjective decisive would! have been qualified by the adverb sufficiently, and would have seemed only an alternative for the former epithet, vigorous. As the text now stands, it not only implies a distinction between vigour of character and decision of character, but denies the latter to the king absolutely, the former, with qualification. If the author had meant to suggest such a distinction, and also tc qualify his denial of both, he ought to have said " not sufficiently vigorous, nor sufficiently deci- sive." With this meaning, however, he might have used neither for not ; or with the former, he might have used or for nor, had he transposed the terms " was not decisive, or sufficiently vigor- ous." OBS. 17- In the tenth edition of John Burn's Practical Grammar, published at Glasgow in 1810, are the following suggestions: "It is not uncommon to find the conjunctions or and nor used indiscriminately ; but if there be any real distinction in the proper application of them, it is to be wished that it were settled. It is attempted thus : Let the conjunction or be used simply to connect the members of a sentence, or to mark distribution, opposition, or choice, without any preceding negative particle ; and nor to mark the subsequent part of a negative sentence, with some negative particle in the preceding part of it. Examples of ou : Recreation of one kind or other is absolutely necessary to relieve the body or mind from too constant attention to labour or study.' 'After this life, succeeds a state of rewards or punishments.' ' Shall I come to you with a rod, or in love ? ' Examples of NOR : ' Let no man be too confident, nor too diffident of his own abilities.' ' Never calumniate any man, nor give the least encouragement to calumniators/ ' There is not a Christian duty to which providence has not annexed a blessing, nor any affliction for which a remedy is not provided.' If the above distinction be just, the following passage seems to be faulty : * Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine.' Milton, P. L., B. iii, 1. 40." Burn's Gr. p. 108. OBS. 18. T. O. Churchill, whose Grammar first appeared in London in 1823, treats this matter thus: "As or answers to either, nor, a compound of not or [ne or] by contraction, answers to neither, a similar compound of not either [ne either]. The latter however does not constitute that double use of the negative, in which one, agreeably to the principles of philosophical grammar, destroys the other; for a part of the first word, neither, cannot be understood before the second, nor : and for the same reason a part of it could not be understood before or, which is sometimes improperly used in the second clause ; while the whole of it, neither, would be obviously improper before or. On the other hand, when not is used in the first clause, nor is improper in the second ; since it would involve the impropriety of understanding not before a compound of not [or ne] with or. ' I shall not attempt to convince, nor to persuade you. What will you not attempt ? To con- vinoe, nor to persuade you.' The impropriety of nor in this answer is clear: but the answer should ccertainly repeat the words not heard, or not understood." Churchill's New Gram. p. 330. OBS. 19. " It is probable, that the use of nor after not has been introduced, in consequence of such improprieties as the following: 'The injustice of inflicting death for crimes, when not of the most heinous nature, or attended with extenuating circumstances.' Here it is obviously not the intention of the writer, to understand the negative in the last clause : and, if this were good is CHAP. VIII.] SYNTAX. RULE XXI. ADVERBS. OBSERVATIONS. 633 English, it would be not merely allowable to employ nor after no, to show the subsequent clause to be negative as well as the preceding, but it would always be necessary. In fact however, the sentence quoted is faulty, in not repeating the adverb when in the last clause ; ' or when attended : ' which would preclude the negative from being understood in it; for, if an adverb, conjunction, or auxiliary verb, preceding a negative, be understood in the succeeding clause, the negative is understood also ; if it be repeated, the negative must be repeated likewise, or the clause becomes affirmative." Ib. p. 331. OBS. 20. This author, proceeding with his remarks, suggests forms of correction for several other common modes of expression, which he conceives to be erroneous. For the information of the student, I shall briefly notice a little further the chief points of his criticism, though he teaches some principles which Thave not thought it necessary always to observe in writing. " 'And seemed not to understand ceremony, or to despise it.' Goldsmith. Here either ought to be inserted before not. ' It is not the business of virtue, to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' Addison. The sentence ought to have been : 'It is the business of virtue, not to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' ' I do not think, that he was averse to the office ; nor do I believe, that it was unsuited to him.' How much better to say : ' I do not think, that he was averse to the office, or that it was unsuited to him ! ' For the same reason nor cannot follow never, the negative in the first clause affecting all the rest." Ib. p. 332. "JVor is sometimes used improperly after no : [as,] ' I humbly however trust in God, that I have hazarded no conjecture, nor have given any explanation of obscure points, inconsistent with the general sense of Scripture, which must be our guide in all dubious passages.' Gilpin. It ought to be : ' and have given no explanation ; ' or, 'I have neither hazarded any conjecture, nor given any explanation.' The use of or after neither is as common, as that of nor after no or not.* 'Neither the pencil or poetry are adequate.' Coxe. Properly, 'Neither the pencil nor poetry is adequate.' ' The vow of poverty allowed the Jesuits individually, to have no idea of wealth.' Domford. We cannot allow a nonentity. It should be : ' did not allow, to have any idea.' " Ib. p. 333. OHS. 21. Thus we see that Churchill wholly and positively condemns nor after not, no, or never ; while Burn totally disapproves of or, under the same circumstances. Both of these critics are wrong, because each carries his point too far ; and yet it may not be right, to suppose both parti- cles to be often equally good. Undoubtedly, a negation may be repeated in English without impropriety, and that in several different ways; as, "There is no living, none, if Bertram be aw;iy." Beauties of Shak. p. 3. " Great men are not always wise, neither do the aged [always] understand judgement." Job, xxxii, 9. " Will he esteem thy riches ? no, not gold, nor all the forces of strength." Ib. xxxiv, 19. Some sentences, too, require or, and others nor, even when a negative occurs in the preceding clause ; as, " There was none of you that convinced Job, or that answered his words." Ib. xxxii, 12. "How much less to him that accepteth not the persons of princes, nor regardeth the rich more than the poor." Ib. xxxiv, 19. " This day is holy unto the Lord your God; mourn not, nor weep." Neh. viii, 9. "Men's behaviour should be like their apparel, not too strait or point-de-vise, but free for exercise." Ld. Bacon. Again, the mere rep- etition of a simple negative is, on some occasions, more agreeable than the insertion of any connective ; as, " There is no darkness, nor shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." Job, xxxiv, 22. Better : " There is no darkness, no shadow of death, wherein the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." "No place nor any object appears to him void of beauty." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 2-5.5. Better: "A'o place, no object, appears to him void of beauty." That passage from Milton which Burn supposes to be faulty, ami that expression of Addison's which Churchill dislikes, are, in my opinion, not incorrect as they stand; though, doubtless, the latter admits of the variation proposed. In the former, too, or may twice be changed to nor, where the following nouns are nominatives; but to change it throughout, would not be well, because the other nouns are objectives governed by of: " Seasons return, but not to me returns I) \\, ni>r the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, / sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine." OBS. 22. Ever and never are directly opposite to each other in sense, and yet they are very frequently confounded and misapplied, and that by highly respectable writers ; as, " Seldom, or neri-r can'w. v c.. Blair's Lectures, p. 30,5. "And seldom, or ever, did any one rise," &c. Ib. p. 272. "Seldom, or nn-er, isf there more than one accented syllable in any English word." Ib. p. ::_". ' Which that of the present seldom or ever is understood to be." Dr. Murray's Hist. of L'tiu/. Vol. ii, p. 120. H-re m r<->- is riirht. and ever is wrong. It is time, that is here spoken of; and the affirmative crrr, inclining aliruys, or at any time, in stead of being a fit alternative for seldom, mul .tcnce, and violates the rule respecting the order and fiti; time: unless we change or to if, and say, "seldom, if over." But in sentences like the follow- ing, tlu- adverb appears to express, not tune, but <> *o little of the spirit of martyrdom is always .t more favourable indication to civilization, than eve)' so much dex- terity of party nnnagement. turbulent protestation of immaculate patriotism." Way land's Moral 111. " Now let man reflect but never no little on himself." Bnrla- . <>/i Law, p. 29. " Which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming nercr so wisely." /'.v. Iviii. ~>. The phra- which ought, I think, to be written as one word.} is now a very common expression to signify inwhatsoti -rso little," " cwso much," " evc.rso wise," " evcrstt wisely." And it is manifestly this, and not time, that is intended by the fale phraseology above; " a form of speech handed down by the best writers, but lately accused, I think with justice, of solecism. * It can only be defended by supplying a very harsh aud unprecedented ellipsis." Johnson's Diet. tc. _N This assertion of Churchill's is very fur from th truth. I am confident that the latter construction occurs, eyen among reputable authors, ton times aa often as the former can In- found in any Knu'li^h books. 0. KROWN. t Should not the Doctor have said, "arc then) more," siuco " more tfian one " must uecdd b plural ? > 10th 011 Rule 17th. con- are the 634 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. OBS. 23. Dr. Lowth seconds this opinion of Johnson, respecting the phrase, " never so wisely," and says, " It should be, ' ever so wisely ; ' that is, ' how wisely soever.' " To which he adds an other example somewhat different : " ' Besides, a slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he had never such opportunities.' Bentley." LowttCs Gram. p. 109. This should be, " had he had everso excellent opportunities." But Churchill, mistaking the common explanation of the meaning of everso for the manner of parsing or resolving it, questions the propriety of the term, and thinks it easier to defend the old phrase never so; in which he supposes never to be an adverb of time, and not to relate to so, which is an adverb of degree : saying, " ' Be it never so true,' is resolvable into, ' Be it so true, as never any thing was.'* ' I have had never so rmich trouble on this occasion,' may be resolved into, ' I have never had so much trouble, as on this occasion : ' while, ' I have had ever so much trouble on this occasion, cannot be resolved, without supplying some very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis indeed." New Gram. p. 337. Why not ? I see no occasion at all for supposing any ellipsis. Ever is here an adverb of degree, and relates to so ; or, if we take everso as one word, this too is an adverb of degree, and relates to much : because the meaning is "everso much trouble." But the other phraseology, even as it stands in Churchill's explanations, is a solecism still ; nor can any resolution which supposes never to be here an adverb of time, be otherwise. We cannot call that a grammatical resolution, which makes a different sense from that which the writer intended: as, "A slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he never had such opportunities." This would be Churchill's interpretation, but it is very unlike what Bentley says above. So, ' I have never had so much trouble,' and, 'I have had everso much trouble,' are very different assertions. OBS. 24. On the word never, Dr. Johnson remarks thus : " It seems in some phrases to have the sense of an adjective, [meaning,] not any but in reality it is not ever: [as,] ' He answered him to never a word.' MATTHEW, xxvii, 14." Quarto Diet. This mode of expression was former- ly very common, and a contracted form of it is still frequently heard among the vulgar : as, " Be- cause he'd ne'er an other tub." Hudibras, p. 102. That is, " Because he had no other tub." " Letter nor line know I never a one." Scott's Lay of L. M. p. 27. This is what the common people pronounce " ne'er a one," and use in stead of neither or no one. In like manner they tract ever a one into "e'er a one;" by which they mean either or any one. These phrases ar same that somebody (I believe it is Smith, in his Inductive Grammar ) has ignorantly written "ary one" and " nary one," calling them vulgarims.f Under this mode of spelling, the critic had an undoubted right to think the terms unauthorized ! In the compounds whoever or whoe'er, whichever or whiche'er, whatever or whate'er, the word ever or e'er, which formerly stood separate, appears to be an adjective, rather than an adverb; though, by becoming part of the pronoun, it has now technically ceased to be either. OBS. 25. The same may be said of soever or soe'er, which is considered as only a part of an other word even when it is written separately ; as, " On which side soever I cast my eyes." In Mark, iii, 28th, wherewithsoever is commonly printed as two words ; but Alger, in his Pronoun- cing Bible, more properly makes it one. Dr. Webster, in his grammars, calls soever a WORD; but, in his dictionaries, he does not define it as such. " The word soever may be interposed between the attribute and the name ; ' how clear soever this idea of infinity,' ' how remote soever it may seem.' LOCKE." Webster's Philosophical Gram. p. 154; Improved Gram. p. 107. " SOEVEII, so and ever, found in compounds, as in whosoever, whatsoever, wheresoever. See these words." Webster's Diet. 8vo. OBS. 26. The word only, (i. e. onely, or onelike,) when it relates to a noun or a pronoun, is a definitive adjective, meaning single, alone, exclusive of others ; as, " The only man," " The only men," " Man only" "Men only," " Jleonly," " They only." When it relates to a verb or a participle, it is an adverb of manner, and means simply, singly, merely, barely ; as, " We fancy that we hate flattery, when we only hate the manner of it." Art of 'Ihinking, p. 38. "A disin- terested love of one's country can only subsist in small republics." Ib. p. 56. When it stands at the head of a clause, it is commonly a connective word, equivalent to but, or except that ; in which sense, it must be called a conjunction, or at least a conjunctive adverb, which is nearly the same thing : as, " Only they would that we should remember the poor." Gal. ii, 10. "For these signs are prepositions, only they are of more constant use than the rest." Ward's Gram. p. 129. OBS. 27- Among our grammarians, the word "only " often passes for an adverb, when it is in fact an adjective. Such a mistake in this single word, has led Churchill to say of the adverb in * This degree of truth is impossible, and therefore not justly supposable. We have also a late American gram- marian, who gives a similar interpretation : " ' Though never so justly deserving of t'f .' Comber. Never is here an emphatic adverb ; as if it were said, so justly as was never. Though well authorized, it is disapproved by most grammarians of the present day ; and the word ever is used instead of never.''' Fetch's Coinp. Gram. p. 107. The text here cited is not necessarily bad English as it stands ; but, if the commenter has not mistaken its meaning, as well as its construction, it ought certainly to be, " Though everso justly deserving of it." " So justly as was never," is a positive degree that is not imaginable ; and what is this but an absurdity 1 t Since this remark was written, I have read an other grammar, (that of the "Rev. Charles Adams,") in which the author sets down among " the more frequent improprieties committed, in conversation, 'Ary one ' for either, and ' nary one ' for neither.' 1 '' Adamses System of Gram. p. 116. Eli Gilbert too betrays the same igno- rance. Among his " Improper Pronunciations," he puts down ''Nary' 1 ' 1 and "Ary,' 1 ' 1 and for "Corrections" of them, gives "neither" and " either." Gilbert's Catechetical Gram. p. 128. But these latter terms, either and neither, are applicable only to one of two things, and cannot be used where many are spoken of; as, " Stealing her soul with many vows of faith, And ne'er a true one." Shakspeare. What sense would there be in expounding this to mean, "And neither a true one ? " So some men both write and interpret their mother tongue erroneously through ignorance. But these authors condemn the errors which they here falsely suppose to be common. What is yet more strange, no less a critic than Prof. William C. Fowler, has lately exhibited, without disapprobation, one of these literary blunders, with sundry localisms, (often descending to slang,) which, he says, are mentioned by "Mr. Bartlett, in his valuable dictionary [Dictionary] of Americanisms." The brief example, which may doubtless be understood to speak for both phrases and both authors, is this : " AuY=eithe." Fowler's E Gram. 8vo, N. Y. 1860, p. 92. e t an aectve eongng to te pronoun. rm not but is equivalent to two negatives that make an affirmative; as, "Xot place." Walker's Particles, p. 89. "Non quo non latus locus sit." Cic. Ac. dy been stated, that cannot but is equal to must; as, " It is an affection which CHAP. VIII.] SYNTAX. - RULE XXI. - ADVERBS. - OBSERVATIONS. 635 general, "It's place is for the most part before adjectives, after nouns, and after verbs ; " &c. ffew Gram. p. 147. But, properly, the placing of adverbs has nothing to do with "nouns," be- cause adverbs do not relate to nouns. In thi author's example, " His arm only was bare," there is no adverb ; and, where he afterwards speaks of the latitude allowable in the placing of adverbs, alleging, " It is indifferent whether we say, ' He bared his arm only ; " or, ' He bared only his arm,' " the wordon/y is an adjective, in one instance, if not in both. With this writer, and some others, the syntax of an adverb centres mainly in the suggestion, that, "It's propriety and force depend on it's position." Ib. p. 147. Illustration: " Thus people commonly say ; 'I only spoke three words : ' which properly implies, that /, and no other person, spoke three words : when the intention of the speaker requires ; ' I spoke only three words ; that is, no more than three words.' " 76. p. 327. One might just as well say, " I spoke three words only." But the interpretation above is hypercritical, and contrary to that which the author himself gives in his note on the other example, thus : "Any other situation of the adverb would make a difference. ' He only bared his arm; ' would imply, that he did nothing more than bare his arm. 'Only he bared his arm ; ' must refer to a preceding part of the sentence, stating something, to which the act of baring his arm was an exception; as, ' He did it in the same manner, only he bared his arm.' If only were placed immediately before arm; as, 'He bared his only arm; ' it would be an adjective, and signify, that he had but one arm." Ib. p. 328. Now are not, "/ only spoke three words," and, "//< only band his arm" analogous expressions ? Is not the former as good English as the latter ? Only, in both, is most naturally conceived to belong to the verb; but either may be read in such a manner as to make it an adjective belonging to the pronoun. OBS. 28. The term but that it is a wide iv, 12. It has alrea cannot but be productive of some distress." Blair's lihet. p. 461. It seems questionable, whether but is not here an adverb, rather than a conjunction. However this may be, by the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, in some other sentences, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only ; and it may, when used with that signification, be called an uilvcrb. Thus, the text, " He hath not grieved me but in part, (2 Cor. ii, 5,) might drop the neg- ative not, and still convey the same meaning : " He hath grieved me but in part ; " i. e. "only in part." In the following examples, too, but appears to be an adverb, like only : "Things but slightly connected should not be crowded into one sentence." Murray's Octavo Gram., Index. " The 'assertion, however, serves but to show their ignorance." Webster's Essays, p. 96. " Reason itself but gives it edge and power." Pope. " Born but to die, and reasoning but to err." Id. OBS. 29. In some constructions of the word but, there is a remarkable ambiguity ; as, " There cannot be but one capital musical pause in a line." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 92. "A line admits but ;iital pause." Ibid. Thus does a great critic, in the same paragraph, palpably contradict himself, and not perceive it. Both expressions are equivocal. He ought rather to have said : "A line admits no more than one capital pause." " There cannot be more than one capital musical pause in a line." Some would say " admits only one " " there can be only one." But here, too, is some ambiguity ; because only may relate either to one, or to the preceding verb. The use of only for but or except that, is not noticed by our lexicographers ; nor is it, in my opinion, a practice much to be commended, though often adopted by men that pretend to write grammat- ically : as, " Interrogative pronouns are the same as relative^ ONLY their antecedents cannot be determined till the answer is given to the question." Comly's Gram. p. 16. "A diphthong is always long; as, Aurutn, Cifxur, Jtc. ONLY prce in composition before a vowel is commonly short." Adam's Gram. p. 254 ; Gould's, 246. Ons. 3 '). It is said by some grammarians, that, " The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case, it precedes the verb and the nomina- tive ; - a person at the door.' " Murray's Gram. p. 197 ; Int/ersoll's, 205 ; Greenleaf's, 33 ; Xixon's Parser, p. 53. It is true, that in our language the word there is thus used idiomat- ically, aj an introductory term, when we tell what is taking, or has taken, place; but still it is a regular adverb of place, and relates to the verb agreeably to the common rule for adverbs. In some instances i't is even repeated in the same sentence, because, in its introductory sense, it is always unemphatical ; us, "Because there was pasture there for their flocks." 1 t'hron. iv, 41. " If there be indistinctness or disorder there, we can have no success." Blair's Rhct. p. 271. <, there are schools adapted to every age." Woodbridye, Lit. Conv. p. 78. The import of the word is more definite, when emphasis is laid upon it; but this is no good reason for saying, with Dr. Webster, that it is " without signification," when it is without emphasis ; or, witli Dr. 1'riestley, that it "seems to have no meaning whatever, except it be thought to give a small degree of emphasis." Rudiments of E. Gram. p. 135. 31. The noun place itself is iust as loose and variable in its meaning as the adverb thi-re. \ ample: "There is never any difference; " i. e. " No difference ever takes p/m-c." Shall we say that "place," in this sense, is'not a noun of place ? To take j>lace, is, to occur someicfr (iinjirhere; and the unemphatic: word there is but as indefinite in respect to place, as those other adverbs of place, or as the noun itself. S. B. Goodenow accounts it a , p. 249 ; Gould, 240. "Personification is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inani- mate beings, or to abstract qualities." lid. ib. "Apostrophe, or Address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some person present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate nature, as if endowed with sense and rea- son." lid. ib. "A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form." Kirkham's Gram. p. 223. " Simile, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another."- Adam's Gram. p. 250 ; Gould's, 240. "Antithesis, or Opposition, is when things contrary or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the more striking light." lid. ib. "De- scription, or Imagery, [is] when any thing is painted in a lively manner, as if done before our eyes." Adam's Gram. p. 250. " Emphasis is when a particular stress is laid on some word in a sentence." Ib. " Epanorthosis, or Correction, is when the speaker either recalls or corrects what he had last said." Ib. " Paralepsis, or Omission, is when one pretends to omit or pass by, what he at the same time declares." Ib. " Incrementum, or Climax in sense, is when one member rises above another to the highest." 76. p. 251. "A Metony- my is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; or the sign for the thing signified." Kirkham's Gram. p. 223. "Agree- ment is when one word is like another in number, case, gender, or person." Frost's Gram. p. 43 ; Greenkafs, 32. " Government is when one word causes another to be in some par- ticular number, person, or case." Webster's Imp. Gram. p. 89 ; Greenleaf's, 32 ; Frost's, 43. " Fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by heat." B. "A Proper Diphthong is where both the Vowels are sounded together ; as, oi in Voice, ou in House."- Fisher's Gram, p, 10. "An Improper Diphthong is where the Sound of but one of the two Vowels is heard; as e in People" Ib. p. 11. UNDER NOTE VII. THE ADVERB NO. "An adverb is joined to a verb to show how, or whether or no, or when, or where one is, does, or suffers." Buchanan's Syntax, p. 62. " We must be immortal, whether we will or no." Maturins Sermons, p. 33. "He cares not whether the world was made for Csesar or no." American Quarterly Review. " I do not know whether they are out or no." Byron's CHAP. IX.] SYNTAX. RULE XXI. EBRORS. CONJUNCTIONS. 639 Letters. " Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing." Butler's Analogy, p. 84. " Whether or no he makes use of the means commanded by God." Ib. p. 164. " Whether it pleases the world or no, the care is taken." L' Estrange' s Seneca, p. 5. " How comes this to be never heard of, nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or no r " Bp. Tomline's Evidences, p. 44. *' Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not." John, ix, 25. " Can I make men live, whether they will or no? " Shak. " Can hearts, not free, be try'd whether they serve Willing or no, who will but what they must ? " Milton, P. L. UNDER NOTE VIII. OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. " We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God." Bentley. " I cannot by no means allow him that." Idem. " We must try whether or no we cannot increase the At- tention by the Help of the Senses." Brightland's Gram. p. 263. " There is nothing more ad- mirable nor more useful." Home Tooke, Vol. i, p. 20. "And what in no time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 345. 44 No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 114. " Prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste." Spurzheim,on Education,-^. 21. "But thr.t scripture, nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith." Bar- clay s Works, i, 172. "But this scripture, nor none other, proves not that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting." Ibid. " The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness." Ib. p. 252. " Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give none of the saints this testimony r " Ib. p. 379. " Which do not continue, nor are not binding." Id. Vol. iii, p. 79. " It not being perceived directly no more than the air." Campbell's Rhet. p. 331. " Let's be no Stoics, nor no stocks, I pray." Shak., Shrew. " Where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style." Blair's Rhet. p. 175. " There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended." Sheridan's Lect. p. 163. "Bates. He hath not told his thought to the king ? ' K. Henry. ' No ; nor it is not meet he should.' " Shak. UNDER NOTE IX. EVER AND NEVER. " The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we never so weak ; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it never so strong." Hooker. " He is like to have no share in it, or to be ever the better for it." Law and Grace, p. 23. " In some parts of Chili, it seldom or ever rains." Willetts's Geog. "If Pompey shall but never so little seem to like it." Walker's Particles, p. 246. " Latin : ' Si Pompeius paulum modb 's, El. of frit, ii, 96. " Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced slow." Ib. ii, 257. " Sure, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save." Barclay's Works, i, 366. " Which is scarce possible at best." Sheridan's Elocu- tion, p. 67. " Our wealth being near finished." HARRIS : Priestley's Gram. p. 80. K CHAPTER IX.- CONJUNCTIONS. he syntax of Conjunctions consists, not (as L. Murray and others errone- ously teach,) in ' their power of determining the iim.ul <.{' \vrh.s," or tho 41 cases of nouns and pronouns," but in the simple faci> that they link 640 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. together such and such terras, and thus " mark the connexions of human thought."- Beattie. RULE XXIL CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences : as, " Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herd- men and thy herdmen ;for we are brethren. " G-en. xiii, 8. "Ah ! if she lend not arms as well as rules, What can she more than tell us we are fools ? "Pope. EXCEPTION FIRST. The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb ;* as, "That mind is not matter, is certain." "That you have wronged me, doth appear in this." Shak. "That time is mine, O Mead ! to thee, I owe." Young. EXCEPTION SECOND. When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word ; as, "Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared." Acts, xxvii, 20. "Whether that evidence has been afforded [or not,] is a matter of investigation." Keith's Evidences, p. 18. EXCEPTION THIRD. Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are sometimes trans- posed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence ; as, " Where then was their capacity of standing, or his either? " Barclay's Works, iii, 359. " It is not dangerous neither" Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 135. "He is very tall, but not too tall neither." Sped. No. 475. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII. OBS. 1. Conjunctions that connect particular words, generally join similar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Hence, if the words connected be such as have cases, they will of course be in the same case; as, "For me and thee." Matt, xvii, 27. " Honour thy father and thy mother." Ib. xviii, 19. Here the latter noun or pronoun is connected by and to the former, and governed by the same preposition or verb. Conjunctions themselves have no government, unless the questionable phrase "than whom" may be reckoned an exception. See Obs. 17th below, and others that follow it. OBS. 2. Those conjunctions which connect sentences or clauses, commonly unite one sentence or clause to an other, either as an additional assertion, or as a condition, a cause, or an end, of what is asserted. The conjunction is placed between the terms which it connects, except then is a transposition, and then it stands before the dependent term, and consequently at the beginning of the whole sentence : as, " He taketh away the first, that he may establish the second." Heb. x, 9. " That he may establish the second, he taketh away the first." OBS. 3. The term that follows a conjunction, is in some instances a phrase of several words, yet not therefore a whole clause or member, unless we suppose it elliptical, and supply what will make it such : as, "And whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, AS to the Lord, AND not unto men." Col. iii, 23. If we say, this means, " as doing it to the Lord, and not as doing it unto men," the terms are still mere phrases ; but if we say, the sense is, " as if ye did it to the Lord, and not as if ye did it unto men," they are clauses, or sentences. Churchill says, " The office of the conjunction is, to connect one word with an other, or one phrase with an other." New Gram. p. 152. But he uses the term phrase in a more extended sense than I suppose it will strictly bear : he means by it, a clause, or member ; that is, a sentence which forms a part of a greater sentence. OBS. 4. What is the office of this part of speech, according to Lennie, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Hiley, Smith, M'Culloch, Webster, Wells, and others, who say that it "joins words and sentences together," (see Errors on p. 415 of this work,) it is scarcely possible to conceive. If they imagine it to connect " ivords " on the one side, to " sentences " on the other ; this is plainly absurd, and contrary to facts. If they suppose it to join sentence to sentence, by merely connecting word to word, in a joint relation ; this also is absurd, and self-contradictory. Again, if they mean, that the conjunction sometimes connects word with word, and sometimes, sentence with sentence ; this sense they have not expressed, but have severally puzzled their readers by an ungrammatical use of the word " and." One of the best among them says, " In the sentence, ' He and 1 must go,' the word and unites two sentences, and thus avoids an unnecessary repetition ; thus instead of saying, ' He must go,' 4 1 must go,' we connect the words He, I, as the same thing is affirmed of both, namely, must go." Hiley's Gram. p. 53. Here is the incongruous suggestion, that by connecting words only, the conjunction in fact connects sentences ; and the stranger blunder con- cerning those words, that " the same thing is affirmed of both, namely, [that they} must go." * The conjunction that , at the head of a sentence or clause, enables us to assume the whole proposition as one thing : as, "All arguments whatever are directed to prove one or other of these three things: that someihiug is true ; that it is morally right or fit ; or that it is profitable and good." Blair's lihet. p. 318. Here each that maybe parsed as connecting its own clause to the first clause in the sentence ; or, to the word things, with which the three clauses are in a sort of apposition. If we conceive it to have no such connecting power, we must make this too an exception, CHAP. IX.] SYNTAX. - RULE XXII. - CONJUNCTIONS. - OBSERVATIONS. G41 it is plain, that nothing is affirmed of either; for "He and I must go" only affirms of him and me, that " we must go." And again it is plain, that and here connects nothing but the two pronouns; for no one will say, that, "He and I must go together," is a compound sentence, capable of being resolved into two ; and if, "He and I must go" is compound because it is equiv- alent to, " He must go, and I must go ; " so is, " We must go" for the same reason, though it has but one nominative and one verb. "He and I were present," is rightly given by Hiley as an exam- ple of tico pronouns connected together by and. (See his Gram. p. 105.) But, of verbs connected to each other, he absurdly supposes the following to be examples : " He spake, and it was done." " I know it, and I can prove it." "Do you say so, and can you prove it ? " Ib. Here and con- nects sentences, and not particular words. OBS. 5. Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, " What rests, but that the mortal sentence pass?" Milton. "Nor yet that he should offer himself often." Heb. ix, 25. These may be severally parsed as " connecting what precedes and what follows," and the observ- ant reader will not fail to notice, that such combinations of connecting particles are sometimes required by the sense ; but, since nothing that is needless, is really proper, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated : as, "But AND if that evil servant say in his heart," Arc. Matt, xxiv, 48. Greek, " 'Euv 6c e'^ry 6 /ea/cdf dor/lof e/cvof," &c. Here is no and. "But AXD if she depart." 1 Cor. vii, 11. This is almost a literal rendering of the Greek, "'Euv tie Kal Xupiodff" yet either but or and is certainly useless. "In several cases," says Priestley, "we content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did [say used]. Ex- ample: 'So AS that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers.' Universal Hist. Vol. 29, p. 601. So that would have been much easier, and better." Priestley's Gram. p. 139. Some of the poets have often used the word tfiat as an expletive, to fill the measure of their verse; as, " When that the poor have cried, Crcsar hath wept." Shakspearc. " If that he be a dog, beware his fangs." Id. " That made him pine away and moulder, As though that he had been no soldier." Butler's Poems, p. 164. Ons. 6. W. Allen remarks, that, "And is sometimes introduced to engage our attention to a following word or phrase; as, ' Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer." [Pope.] ' I see thee full, and by Achilles' hand.' [Id]." Allt-ns E. Grain, p. 184. The like idiom, he says, occurs in these passages of Latin : " ' Forsan ct hajc olim mcminisse juvabit.' Virg. ' Mors ct fugacem persequitur virum.' Jl<>r." Alh-n's Cram. p. 184. But it seems to me, that and and et are here regular connectives. The former implies a repetition of the preceding verb : as, " Part pays, and justly pays, the deserving steer." " I see thee fall, and fall by Achilles 1 hand." The latter refers back to what was said before : thus, " Perhaps it will also hereafter delight yon to recount these evils." "And death pursues the man that flees." In the following text, the conjunction is more like an expletive ; but even here it suggests an extension of the discourse then in progress : "Lord, and what shall this man do?" John, xxi, 21. " Kvpce, ovro 6e rl ; " " Domine, hie / quid ? " Bcza. Ui;s. 7. The conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition, or in the same case; as, He offered himself AS a journeyman." " I assume it AS a fact" Webster's Essays, p. 94. " In ;m other example of the same kind, the <>nrth, AS a common mother, is animated to give refuge it a father's unkindness." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. ii, p. 168. "And then to offer himself sacrifice and propitiation for them." Scoitgal, p. 99. So, likewise, when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Rule 6th; as, "Johnson soon after engaged AS MI a school." L. Murray. "Hi- was employed AS usher." In all these examples, the case that follows a*, is determined by that which precedes. If after the verb "engaged" we supply -. uxhcr becomes objective, and is in apposition with the pronoun, and not in agreement with Johnson: " He engaged himself as u.shcr." One late writer, ignorant or regardless of the analoirv of General Grammar. imnrrinp>s this r-.i^n tn h*> an "Hiegtiyg governed by the conjunction icn it takes the meaning of for, or a writer of prose, is highly distin- p. 113. S. W. Clark, in his grammar published in 1848, sets in his list of ;-/ -v itli this example : " ' That England can spare from her service such 'iijhnm." Clark's Pra< ticnl Grum. p. 92. And again : " When the second term of a Ci,ij>,i, N'oun, or Pronoun, the Preposition AS is commonly used. He hath died to redeem such a rebel o,v MI:.' \V L3 1.. . was never intended for such as if they will." Liberator, Vol. because the text speaks of such as he is it as well as me.' In both places it ought to be /: that is, as I teas, as I did." Churchill's Gram. p. 352. " Rather let such poor souls as you and / Say that the holidays are drawing nigh." Sic iff. OBS. 16 The doctrine above stated, of ellipses after than and as, proceeds on the supposition, that these words arc conjunctions, and that they connect, not particular words merely, but sentences, or clauses. It is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians, and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been, or ever can be, devised in lieu of it. Yet a-* is not always a conjunction ; nor, when it is a conjunction, does it always connect sentences ; nor, when it connects sentences, is there always an ellipsis ; nor, when there is an ellipsis, is it always quite certain, what that ellipsis is. All these facts have been made plain, by observations that have already been bestowed on the word: and, according to some grammarians, the same things may severally be affirmed of the word than. But most authors consider than to be always i conjunction, and generally, if not always, to connect sentences. Johnson and Webster, in their dictionaries, mark it for an adverb ; and the latter says of it, " This word signifies also then, both in ish and Dutch." H \rner. Diet. 8vo, w. Than. But what he means by "also," I know not ; and surely, in no English of this age, is than equivalent to then, or then to than. The ancient practice of putting then for than, is now entirely obsolete ;* and, as we have no other term of the same import, most of our expositors merely explain than as "a particle used in comparison." Johnson, I! - , me absurdly define it thus : " THAX, adv. Placed in compari- son." Walker, (Rhym. Diet.) Jones, Scott. According to this definition, than should be a parti- Hut, since un express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms, it cannot well be denied that than is a connective word ; wherefore, not to detain the reader with ;iny profitless controversy, I shall take, it for granted that this word is always a conjunction. That it always connect s, I do not affirm ; because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words: as, " Less judgement than \\\t is more sail than ballast." Fntfl'l Mnj-fms. " With no less eloquence than freedom. 1'ari eloquentii ar liberUte.' Turitu.t." ll'aikrr's J'artirle.s, p. 200. "Any comparison between th^se two classes of writers, cannot be other than vague and loose." Blair's Rhct. p. 347. " Thi* far more than compensates all those little negligences." Ib. p. 200. member Handel ? Who, that was not born i to harmony, forgets, Or can, the more than Homer of his age ? " Coirper. Ons. 17. When any two declinable words are connected by than or as, they are almost always, according to the true idiom of our language, to be put in the same case, whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter, or not; as, "My Father is greater than/," Bible. " What do ye more than oth '. v, 47. " More nun than women were there." Murray's Gram. p. 114. " Entreat him as a father, and the youn .: rcthren." 1 Tim. V, 1. "I would that all mm wi-n- ev-n as / "myself." 1 Cur. vii, 7. " Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these ?" John, xxi, 1-5. This last text is manifestly ambiguous ; so that some readers will doubt whether it means "more than thou forest these," or "more than these love Is not this because there is an ellipsis in the sentence, and sueh a one as may be variously con- oeived and supplied ? The original too is ambiguous, but not for the same reason: " "Liuuv 'Iwvd, irfalov TOVTUV ;" And so is the Latin of the Vulgate and of Montanus : " Simon Jona| >te, fffjfn and than are distinct Pnrticltt. but use hath made the u?ing of tken for than after a Compar :ire Degree at least passable. See Butitr'i Eng. Uram. Index,"-' \Valktft Eng. Particlet, Tenth Ed., 1691, p. 333. 644 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. diligis me plus his ? " Wherefore Beza expressed it differently : " Simon jtfJi Jonce, diligis me plus quamhif" The French Bible has it: "Simon, fils de Jona, m'aimes-tu plus que ne font ceux- ci ?" And the expression in English should rather have been, " Lovest thou me more than do these?" OBS. 18. The comparative degree, in Greek, is said to govern the genitive case; in Latin, the ablative : that is, the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any con- necting particle corresponding to than, and without producing a compound sentence. We have examples in the phrases, " irhelov TOVTUV" and "plus his," above. Of such a construction our language admits no real example ; that is, no exact parallel. But we have an imitation of it in the phrase than tchom, as in this hackneyed example from Milton : " Which when Beelzebub perceived, than ivhom, Satan except, none higher sat," &c. Paradise Lost, B. ii, 1. 300. The objective, whom, is here preferred to the nominative, who, because the Latin ablative is corn- moiily rendered by the former case, rather than by the latter; but this phrase is no more expli- cable according to the usual principles of English grammar, than the error of putting the objec- tive case for a version of the ablative absolute. If the imitation is to be judged allowable, it is to us a figure of syntax an obvious example of Enallage, and of that form of Enallage, which is com- monly called Antiptosis, or the putting of one case for an other. OBS. 19. This use of whom after than has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians ; many of whom have thence concluded that than must needs be, at least in this instance, a preposition;* and some have extended the principle beyond this, so as to include than which, than whose with its following noun, and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives : as, "I should seem guilty of ingratitude, than ichich nothing is more shameful." See Russell's Gram. p. 104. " Washington, than whose fame naught earthly can be purer." Peirce's Gram. p. 204. " You have given him more than /. You have sent her as much as he." Buchanan's Eng. Syntax, p. 116. These last two sentences are erroneously called by their author, "false syntax ; " not indeed with a notion that than and as are prepositions, but on the false supposition that the preposition to must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns, as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns him and her. But, in fact, " You have given him more than I," is per- fectly good English ; the last clause of which plainly means " more than I have given him." And, " You have sent her as much as he," will of course be understood to mean " as much as he has sent her ; " but here, because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed, it might have been as well to have inserted it : thus, " you have sent her as much as he has." " She reviles you as much as he," is also good English, though found, with the foregoing, among Buchanan's examples of " false syntax." OBS. 20. Murray's twentieth Rule of syntax avers, that, " When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governedby the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb," &c. Octavo Gram. p. 214; Russell's Gram. 103; Bacon's, 51 ; Alger's, 71 ; Smith's, 179; Fish's, 138. To this rule, the great Compiler and most of his followers say, that than whom " is an exception," or, " seems to form an exception ; " to which they add, that, " tie phrase is, however, avoided by the best modern writers." Murray, i, 215. This latter assertion Russell conceives to be untrue : the former he adopts ; and, calling than whom " an exception to the general rule," says of it, (with no great consistency,) " Here the conjunction than has cer- tainly the force of a preposition, and supplies its place by governing the relative." Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram. p. 104. But this is hardly an instance to which one would api ly the maxim elsewhere adopted by Murray: "Exceptio probat regulam" Octavo Gram. p. 2l>5. To ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition, is a very wide step, and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other. OBS. 21. Churchill says, " If there be no ellipsis to supply, as sometimes happens when a pro- noun relative occurs after than ; the relative is to be put in the objective case absolute : as, 'Alfred, than icJiom a greater king never reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.' " New Gram. p. 153. Among his Notes, he has one with reference to this "objective case absolute ," as follows : " It is not governed by the conjunction, for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case: or by any word understood, for we can insert no word, or words, that will rec- oncile the phrase with any other rule of grammar: and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative, as he, which will admit of being resolved elliptically, it must be put in the nomi- native case." Ib. p. 352. Against this gentleman's doctrine, one may very well argue, as he * " When the relative who follows the preposition than, it must be used as in the accusative case." Buckets Gram. p. 93. Dr. Priestley seems to have imagined the word than to be always a preposition ; for he contends against the common doctrine and practice respecting- the case after it : " It is, likewise, said, that the nominative case ought to follow the preposition than ; because the verb to be is understood after it ; As, You are taller than he, and not taller than him; because at full length, it would be, You are taller than he is ; but since it is allowed, that the oblique case should follow prepositions; and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particle than have, certainly, between them, the force of a preposition, expressing the relation of one word to another, they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following." Priestley's Gram. p. 105. If than were a preposition, this reasoning would certainly be right ; but the Doctor begs the question, by assuming that it is a preposition. William Ward, an other noted grammarian of the same age, supposes that, " ME sapientior es, may be translated, Thou art wiser THAN ME." He also, in the same place, avers, that, " The best English Writers have considered than as a Sign of an oblique Case ; as, ' She suffers more THAN ME.' Swift, i. e. more than I suffer. ' Thou art a Girl as much brighter THAN HER, As he was a Poet sublimer THAN ME.' Prior. i. e. Thou art a Girl as much brighter than she was, as he was a Poet sublimer than I am." Ward's Practical Gram. p. 112. These examples of the objective case after than, were justly regarded by Lowth as bad English. The construction, however, has a modern advocate in S. W. Clark, who will have the conjunctions as, but, save, saving, and than, as well as the adjectives like, unlike, near, next, nigh, and opposite, to be prepositions. "After a Comparative the Preposition than is commonly used. Example Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies." Clark's Practical Gram. p. 178. li As, like, than, &c., indicate a relation of comparison. Ex- ample 'Thou hast been wiser all the while than me.' Southey's Letters.''' Ib. p. 96. Here correct usage undoubtedly requires /, and not me. Such at least is uiy opinion. Cn.YP. IX.] SYNTAX. RULE XXII. CONJUNCTIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 645 himself does against that of Murray, Russell, and others; that on no other occasion do we speak of putting "the objective case absolute ;" and if, agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue, our distinguished authors would condescend to say than toko,* surely nobody would think of call- ing this an instance of the nominative case absolute, except perhaps one swaggering new theorist, that most pedantic of all scoffers, Oliver B. Peirce. OBS. 22. The sum of the matter is this : the phrase, than who, is a more regular and more analo- gical expression than than whom ; but both are of questionable propriety, and the former is seldom if ever found, except in some few grammars ; while the latter, which is in some sort a Latinism, may he quoted from many of our most distinguished writers. And, since that which is irregular cannot be parsed bv rule, if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable, it must be set down among the figures of grammar ; which are, all of them, intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words. One late author treats the point pretty well, in this short hint : "After the conjunction than, con- trary to analogy, trhom is used in stead of who." \uttina's Gram. p. 106. An other gives his opin- ion in the following note : " When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the objec- tive case ; as, 'Alfred, than trhom a greater king never reigned ; ' than tchomis not grammatical. It ought to be, than who ; because tr^o is the nominative to iras understood. Than whom is as bad a phrase as ' he is taller than him.' It is true that some of our best writers have used than tchom ,- but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammat- ical ; then why not reject this too ? " Lennic's Grammar, Edition of 1830, p. 105. OBS. 23. On this point, Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence ; that is, without admitting that " than trhom" has ever been used by good writers. See Brace's Gram. p. 90. The former says, "The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even irhc-n the nominative (joes before ; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, than, at first had the forceof a preposition, which it nowretains only when followed by the relative." Bullions, E. Gram, of 1843, p. 112. Again: "A relative after than is put in the objective case ; as, ' Satan, than whom none higher sat.' This anomaly has _ .. i- - . __*./ A. .1 .. -li_: 1 T Al. ;~_ i-ij. i T-. I,- > one higher sat." Foiclfr's E. Gram. $ 482, Note 2. Thus, by one single form of antiptosis, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes ; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English. Oi'.s. 24. Peirce's new theory of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sen- tem-e ever is, or can be, in any wise, elliptical. This is one of the " TWO GRAND PRINCIPLES " on which the author says his " work is based." The Grammar, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation in- volving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated into English in order to be generally understood ; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "Without these grand points, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE." Ib. It follows, that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writrr, hut counsels the learner to " spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the author- ity of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail evrn in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this the >ry, a nominative coining after than or na, is in general to be accounted a nomincrtirr nl>- solt'ti ; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author him- self e.\ ; "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately pre-v-rli'd by Hxm, as, or not, may be used trit/mi/f un ASSKKTKR immediately depending on it for . p. 19o. See also his "Grammutirnl ('hart, Rule I, Part 2." (.'us. 2). " Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, condi- tional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions ; as, if\ /W, thnwih, tin!/''., r.n-rpt '; require, or the subjunctive mood. But in this thev are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Cromtne rightly obs thf verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because this mood expresses contingency, not ln< . folhirt fJic miijunrfion : for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the Following sentence : ' Thotu/h he be displeased at it, I will bolt my door ; and let him break it open, tfhe dire:' may we not as well affirm, that and governs the imperative mood, as that though and [f K' )V . To both, corresponds and; as, " I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians, both to the wise and to the unwise." Rom. i, 14. 0. To such, corresponds a* ; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun ;) as, "An assembly such as earth saw never." Cowper. 7. To such, corresponds that; with a finite verb following, to express a conse- quence : as, " The difference is such that all will perceive it." 8. To as, corresponds as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of dogree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper as white as snow." 2 Kings, v, 27. 9. To as, corresponds so ; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness : as, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve." "^4s the tree falls, so it must lie." 10. So is used before as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by a comparison : as, " How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood? " 11. So is used before as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree : ns, " No lamb was e'er so mild as he." Langhorne. " Relatives are not so useful in language as conjunctions." BEATTIE : Murray's Gram. p. 126. 12. To so, corresponds as; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence : \Ve ought, certainly, to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to tho ear." fair's Rhet. p. 832. 13. To so, corresponds that; with a finite verb following, to express a conse- ouence : as, " No man was so poor that he could not make restitution." Mihuan's Jews, i, 113. "So run that ye may obtain."! Cor. ix, 24. 14. To not only, or not merely, corresponds hut, but also, or but even ; as, " In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous, but [even] absolutely honourable." Maunders Gram. p. 15. "These are questions, not of prudence merely, but of morals also." Dymond's Ess. p. 82. NOTE VIII. " When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second ; but no word following the former, c;m [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter" Churchill's Gram. p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided : "Tones are different both from emphasis and \_from~] pauses." Murray's Gram. 8vo, i, 250. " Though both the intention and [the'] purchase are now past." Ib. ii, 24. 648 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART Lll. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I. Two TERMS WITH ONE. " The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second." Inst. p. 171. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the preposition to is used with joint reference to the two adjectiTea different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, " When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as \ull make sense with it. : ' The sentence may be corrected thus : " The first proposal was essentially diSerent fn>m the second, and inferior to it."] "A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 30. " I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes." Student's Manual, p. 220. " ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained." Webster's Diet. "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed." Ld. Lyttelton. " I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge." Sped. No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?" Baxter's Saints' Rest. " They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it." Blair's Rhet. p. 94. " We may, we ought there- fore to read them with a distinguishing eye." Ib. p. 352. " Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess." Sedgwick's Econ. p. 95. " He is a much better grammarian than they are." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. " He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio." ADDISON, ON MEDALS : in Priestley's Gram. p. 200. " Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition ? " Bolingb. Phil. Es. iv, 19. " The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the com- mon law." Spectator, No. 564; Ware's Gram. p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. " In can- did minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too." Murray's Key, ii, 168. " In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable." Ib. p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully." Ib. p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event." Ib. p. 211. UNDER NOTE II. HETEROGENEOUS TERMS. "Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies." Chazotte's Essay, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success." Duncan's Cicero, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust.' Lit. Conv. p. 15. " Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things.'' DR. LIBBER j ib. p. 64. " Whether provision should or not, be made to meet this exi- gency." Ib. p. 128. " That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernat- ural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted." Murray's Gram, i, 206. " Ifc would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others." II. i, p. 30. " It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established." Ib. i, 59. " To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all." Blair's Rhet. p. 126. "Facts too well known and ob- vious to be insisted on." Ib. p. 233. " In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind." Ib. p. 41. "If the description be too general, and di- vested of circumstances." Ibid. " He gained nothing further than to be commended."- Murray's Key, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place." VETHAK.E: Lit. Conv. p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative." Maunckr's Gram. p. 15. " Slates are stones and used to cover roofs of houses." Webster's El. Spelling- Book, p. 47. " Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the ne- cessity of apologizing for the power he possesses." Influence of Liter attire, Vol. ii, p. 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own." Locke, on Ed. p. 376. " We've both the field and honour won ; The foe is profligate, and run." Hudibras, p. 93. UNDER NOTE III. IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS. "The is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree." />n- nie's Gram. p. 6 ; Bullions' s, 8 ; Brace's, 9. " The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 33 ; Ingersoll's, 33 ; Loivth's, 14 ; Fisk's, 53 ; Merchant's, 24 ; and others. " Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense." Sanborn's Gram. p. 137. " Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form." Ib. " The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness." Day's Gram. p. 88. " In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally." Priestley's Gram. p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they CHAP. IX.] SYNTAX. BULB XXII. CONJUNCTIONS. ERRORS. 649 appear to be." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 85. "I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it." Sj)t-<-t. No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them." Ib. No. 457. " I doubt not but such objections as these will be made." Locke, on Education, p. 169. " I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets." Buchanan's Syntajc, p. vi. " It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses." Priestley's Gram. p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man." Idler, No. 72. " The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences." Mur- ray's Gram. Svo, Vol. ii, p. 290. " Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries ? either a vine, figs " James, iii, 12. " Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence." Swift, Examiner, No. 2i. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine ; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop." Pope, to Swift, Let. 80. "The terms richer poor enter not into their language." Rob- ertsons America, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon." Music of Nature, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness." Butler's Anal. p. 110. " The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace." Matt, xx, 21. UNDER NOTE IV. OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN. "A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison." Adam's Gram. p. 243 ; Gould's, 236. "There being no other dictator here but use." Campbell's Rhct. p. 167. " This Construction is no otherwise known in English but by supplying the first or second Person Plural." J'uchan- an's Syntax, p. xi. " Cyaxares was no sooner in the throne, but he was engaged in a terrible war." Rollins Hist, ii, 62. " Those classics contain little else but histories of murders." Am. Museum, v, 526. "Ye shall not worship any other except God." Sale's Koran, p. 15. " Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place." Campbell's Ji/if-t. p. 260. " For he no sooner accosted her, but he gained his p'oint." Burder's Hist, i, 6. "And all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them." Blair's Rhct. p. 336. " One who had no other aim, but to talk copiously and plausibly." Ib. p. 317. "We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye." Ib. p. 46. ""No more is required but singly an act of vision." Kames, El. of Crit. i," 171. " We find no more in its composition, but the particulars now mentioned." Ib. i, 48. " He pretends not to say, that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise." Ib. ii, 61. " No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself." Johnson's Sketch of Morin. "Ought is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification besides this one." Priestley's Gram. p. 113. " The verb is palpably nothing else but the tie." Xccfs Sketch, p. 66. " Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism : " Blair's Rhet. p. 104. " Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to poly- theism, or atheism : " Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 307. " There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already known." Du. JOHN- SON : Murray's Gram, i, 163 ; Ingersoll's, 214. " O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! " Milton's Poems, p. 132. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise enter- tain the mind, but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 318. " Or, rather they are nothing else but nouns." British Gram. p. 95. "As if religion were intended For nothing else but to be mended." Hudibras, p. 11. Txnr.ii NOTI; V. RELATIVES EXCLUDE COXJCNCTI To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 214. "Has this word which repre- sents an action an object after it, and on which it terminates?" (thorn's AVy, p. 3. " The stores of literature lie before him, and from which he may collect, for use, many ! of wisdom. Knnpji' ;>. :J1. " Many and various great advantages of this Grammar, and which are wanting in others, might be enumerated." i, . p. 6. "About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been intro- duced, and which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right." Jamirvm'* I: 19. " The fundamental rule of the construction of sentences, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others." Blair's lUn-t. p. 120 ; Jamie- son's, 102. " He left a son of a singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison." Murray's AVy, Svo, p. -J21. " He discovered some qualities in the youth, of a cable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable." Ib. p. 213. "An cinphatieal pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want ['desire' M.] to fix the hearer's attention." IMiir's Rln-f. p. :'.'> 1 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 218. " Hut we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing' in raeasure, and which make different impressions on the ear." Murray's dram. Svo, \>. r\Di:ii NOTK VI. Or THE WORD THAT. " It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties." Frost's El. of E. Gram. p. 4. "At the same time that the 650 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART II f, pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. viii. " On the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense." BEATTIE : Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 76. " On the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue." Ib. p. 101. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected." Ib. p. 186 ; Ingersoll's Gram. 254. " The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the time that Home was taken by the Goths." Gould's Lat. Gram. p. 277. " The introduction to the Duo- decimo Edition, is retained in this volume, for the same reason that the original Introduc- tion to the Grammar, is retained in the first volume." Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. ii, p. iv. " The verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is." Ingersoll's Gram. p. 16. "The adjective pronoun their, is plural for the same reason that who is." Ib. p. 84. " The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense that the Noe- tians were so called." Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 122. "This is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 298. " The first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 118. "At the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal." Campbell's Rhetoric, Preface, p. iv. " Peter will sup at the time that Paul will dine." Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 81. " Peter will be supping at the time that Paul will enter." Ibid. "These, at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book." Ib. p. 115. "Time was, like thee, they life possest, And time shall be, that thou shaltrest." PARNELL: Mur. Seq. 241. UNDER NOTE VII. OF THE CORRESPONDENTS. " Our manners should neither be gross, nor excessively refined." Merchant's Gram. p. 11. "A neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a state of being." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 342. " The old books are neither English grammars, or grammars, in any sense of the English Language." Ib. p. 378. " The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be." Kirkham's Gram. p. 7. " The writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable." Ib. p. 10. " Which would be a matter of such nicety, as no degree of human wisdom could regulate." Murray's Gram, i, 26. "No undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct." Duncan's Cic. p. 126. " It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune." Harris's Hermes, 299; Murray's Gram, i, 289. " Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct." Murray's Gram, i, 150 ; Ingersoll's, 238. " Neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view." Blair's Rhet. p. 350. " There is no language so poor, but it hath two or three past tenses." Ib. p. 82. "As far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin." Ib. p. 56. "I have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary." Spect. No. 474. " Conversation with such who know no arts which polish life." Ib. No. 480. "And which can be neither very lively or very forcible." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 78. " To that de- gree as to'give proper names to rivers." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang. i, 327. " In the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed." Barclay's Works, i, 443. " But still so much of it is retained, as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole." Priestley's Gram. Pref. p. vii. " Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance, as to assert," &c. Ib. p. 91. "A teacher is confined not more than a merchant, and probably not as much." Abbott's Teacher, p. 27. " It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come." Matt, xii, 32. "Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to hope." Swift, Drap. Let.v. "For the torrent of the voice, left neither time or power in the organs, to shape the words properly." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 118. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, or diminish his power by using too little." Ib. p. 123. " I have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the Measures of Analogy." Littleton's Diet. Pref. "He is both a prudent and industrious man." Day's Gram. p. 70. " Conjunctions either connect words or sentences." Ib. pp. 81 and 101. " Such silly girls who love to chat and play, Deserve no care, their time is thrown away." Tobitt's Gram. p. 20. " Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As to be hated needs but to be seen." POPE : Mur. Gr. ii, 17. " Justice must punish the rebellious deed ; Yet punish so, as pity shall exceed." DRYDEN : in Joh. Diet. UNDER NOTE VIII. IMPROPER ELLIPSES. "That, whose, and as relate to either persons or things." Sanborns Gram. p. 93. "Which and what, as adjectives, relate either to persons or things." Ib. p. 70. "Whether of a public or private nature." Adams's Rhet. i, 43. "Which are included both among the public and private wrongs." Ib. i, 308. " I might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction." Ib. ii, 66. " Many verbs are used both in CHAP. X.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIII. PREPOSITIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 651 an active and neuter signification." Lotcth's Gram. p. 30 ; Aider's, 26 ; Guy's, 21 ; Murray's, GO. " Its influence is likely to he considerable, both on the morals, and taste of a nation." Blair s Rhet. p. 373. " The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and tender kind." Ib. p. 439. " Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty." Murray's Key, ii, 166 ; IngersolTs Gram. p. 10. "Ad- jective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives." Murray's Gram, i, 55 ; Merchant's, 43 ; Flint's, 22. "Adjective Pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 15. "Pro- nominal adjectives are akind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pro- nouns and adjectives." Xutting's Gram. p. 36. " Nouns are used either in the singular or plural number." Blair's Gram. p. 1 1. " The question is not, whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles than and as ; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions." Campbell's Rhet. p. 204. " In English many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives." Chiirchill's dram. p. 83. "He sendeth rain both on the just and unjust." Guy's Gram. p. 56. "A foot consists either of two or three syllables." Blair's Gram. p. 118. "Because they par- ticipate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions." Murray's Gram, i, 116. Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice." Duncan's Cicero, p. 196. " Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but non- sense." Kirkham's Gram. p. 14. "Hence arises the necessity of asocial state to man both for the unfolding, and exerting of his nobler faculties." Sheridan's Elo- cution, p. 147. " Whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind." Blair's Rhet. p. 454. " Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight." Ib. p. 249. "This rule is applicable also both to verbal Critics and Grammarians." Hilcy's Gram. p. 144. "Both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage." Ib. p. 143. CHAPTER X.- PREPOSITIONS. The syntax of Prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, (though this alone is the scope v.hich most grammarians have given it,) but in their adaptation to the other terms be- tween which they express certain relations, such as appear by the sense of ic words uttered. RULE XXIII. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts ex- ressed by them : as, " He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of lany eminent; men, and passed with them through many cities." Analectic {ayazine. "Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, By truth illumin'd, and by taste refin'd ? " Rogers. EXCEPTION FIRST. The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made ie subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation ; as, " To learn to die, is the jat business of life." Dillwyn. " Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for ." ST. PAUL: Phil, i, 24. "To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." " Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame ; And every godfather can give a name." Shakspeare. EXCEPTION SE< The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation ; as, "For us to irn to die, is the great business of life." "Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, more needful for you." "For an old man to be reduced to poverty, is a very great af- iction." "For man to tell how human life began, Is hard ; for who himself beginning knew " Milton. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII. OBS. 1. In parsing a preposition, the learner should name the two terms of the relation, and iply the foregoing rule, after the manner prescribed in Praxis 12th of this work. The principle 652 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. is simple and etymological, being implied in the very definition of a preposition, yet not the lesa necessary to be given as a rule of syntax. Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless man- ner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing. But the parsers, in general, have at least this excuse, that their text-books have taught them no better ; they therefore call the preposition a preposition, and leave its use and meaning unexplained. OBS. 2. If the learner be at any loss to discover the two terms of relation, let him ask and answer tico questions : first, with the interrogative what before the preposition, to find the antece- dent ; and then, with the same pronoun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. For example : " They dashed that rapid torrent through." Scott. Ques. What through ? Ans. "Dashed through." Ques. Through what? Ans. "Through that torrent." For the meaning is "They dashed through that rapid torrent." If one term is perfectly obvious, (as it almost always is,) find the other in this way ; as, " Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowl- edge." Psal. xix, 2. Ques. What unto day? Ans. "Uttereth unto day." Ques. What unto night ? Ans. "Showeth unto night" For the meaning is " Day uttereth speech unto day, and night showeth knowledge unto night." To parse rightly, is, to understand rightly ; and what is well expressed, it is a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret. But sometimes the position of the two terms is such, that it may require some reflection to find either ; as, " Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose, "Which in I know not what far country grows." Churchill, p. 18. OBS. 3. "When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms of relation, if both are given, are transposed ; as, " To a studious man, action is a relief." Burgh. That is, "Action is a relief to a studious man." "Science they [the ladies] do not pretend TO." Id. That is, " They do not pretend to science." " Until I have done that which I have spoken to thee OF." Gen. xxviii, 15. The word governed by the preposition is always the subsequent term of the relation, however it may be placed ; and if this be a relative pronoun, the transposition is perma- nent. The preposition, however, may be put before any relative, except that and as; and this is commonly thought to be its most appropriate place : as, " Until I have done that ofwhichl have spoken to thee." Of the placing of it last, Lowth says, "This is an idiom which our language is strongly inclined to ; " Murray and others, " This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined: " while they all add, "it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing ; but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style. " Lowth 's Gram. p. 95 ; Murray's, 8vo, p. 200 ; Fish's, 141 ; R. C. Smith's, 167 ; Inaersoll's, 227 ; Churchill's, 150. OBS. 4. The terms of relation between which a preposition may be used, are very various. The former or antecedent term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb : and, in some instances, we find not only one preposition put before an other, but even R conjunction or an interjection used on this side; as, "Because OF offences," "Alas FOR him ! " The latter or subsequent term, which is the word governed by the preposition, may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or an imperfect or preperfect participle: and, in some instances, prepositions appear to govern adverbs, or even whole phrases. See the observa- tions in the tenth chapter of Etymology. OBS. 5. Both terms of the relation are usually expressed; though either of them may, in some instances, be left out, the other being given: as, (1.) THE FORMER, "All shall know me, [reckoning] FROM the least to the greatest." Heb. viii, 11. [I say] " IN a word, it would entirely defeat the purpose." Blair. " When I speak of reputation, I mean not only [reputation] IN regard to knowledge, but [reputation'] IN regard to the talent of communicating knowledge." Campbell's Rhet. p. 163; Murray's Gram, i, 360. (2.) THE LATTER " Opinions and ceremonies [which] they would die FOR." Locke. " IN [those] who obtain defence, or [in those] who de- fend." Pope. " Others are more modest than [ichat] this comes TO." Collier's Antoninus, p. 66. OBS. 6. The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those which are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also to be excepted ; as, " In both, to reason right, is to submit." Pope. But here most if not all grammarians would say, the verb "is" is the antecedent term, or what their syntax takes to govern the infinitive. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, " He is to submit ; " that is, " He mttst submit, or ought to submit : " but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing the more separable infinitive or its preposi- tion, would be a needless refinement. Yet some regard ought to be paid to the different relations which the infinitive may bear to this finite verb. For want of a due estimate of this difference, the following sentence is, I think, very faulty : " The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better." Murray's Gram, i, p. 373. If the author meant to tell what our great business in this life is, he should rather have said: "The great business of this life is, to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better." OBS. 7. In relation to the infinitive, Dr. Adam remarks, that, "To in English is often* taken absolutely ; as, To confess the truth ; To proceed ; To conclude." Latin and Eng. Gram. p. 182. But the assertion is not entirely true ; nor are his examples appropriate : for what he and many other grammarians call the infinitive absolute, evidently depends on something understood ; and the preposition is, surely, in "no instance independent of what follows it, and is therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a verb ; for the phrase or sentence itself often contains that term, as in the following example : "In what way mind acts upon matter, is unknown." Here in shows the relation between acts and way; because the expression suggests, that mind acts IN some way upon matter. OBS. 8. The second exception above, wherever it is found applicable, cancels the first ; because it introduces an antecedent term before the preposition to, as may be seen by the examples given. It is questionable too, whether both of them may not also be cancelled in an other way ; that is, CHAP. X.] SYNTAX. BULE XXIII. PREPOSITIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 653 you, FOK me to abide in the flesh,; but we may say, "It is, on your en-count t more needful rou me to abide in the flesh." If these, and other similar examples, are not to be accounted additional instances in which to and for, and also the conjunction that, are without any proper antecedent terms, we must suppose these particles to show the relation between what precedes and what follows them. OBS. 9. The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which it governs. Yet there are some exceptions. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connectea with the other term of relation ; as, " Whom did he speak to/" But it is more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the pronoun; as, 'To whom did he speak?" The relatives that and as, if of more than one syllable, are sometimes put immediately after their objects, especially in poetry ; as, " Known ull the icorld over.' 1 Walker's Particles, p. 291. " The thing is known all Lesbos over ''Ibid. Lesbos over." Ibid. " "Wild Carron's lonely woods among." Langhorne. "Thy deep racineso.iid dells along." Sir W. Scott. OBS. 10. Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, "Lambeth is over against West- minster abbey." Murray's Gram, i, 118. "And from before the lustre of her face, White break the clouds away." Thomson. "And the meagre fiend Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips." Cowper. These, in most instances, though they are not usually written as compounds, appear naturally to coalesce in their syntax, as was observed in the tenth chapter of Etymology, and to express a sort of compound relation between the other terms with which they are con- nected. When such is their character, they ought to be taken together in parsing ; for, if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or suppose some very awkward ellipsis. Some instances however occur, in which an object may easily be supplied to the former word, and perhaps ought to be ; as, " He is at liberty to sell it at [a price] above a fair remunera- tion." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 258. "And I wish they had been at the bottom of the ditch I pulled you out of, instead of [being] itjton my back." Sandfonl and Merton, \). 29. In such )f ft- meaning is " Iambic verse consists of feet varying in number from two to six ; or (it consists) of syllables varying from four to twelve'." " Trochaic verse consists of feet varying from one foot to three feet." lence, and for, or in favour of, all justice and truth." "For of him, and through him, and to him, are all things." Bible. In fact, not only may the relation be simple in regard to all or any of the words, but it may also be complex in regard to all or any of them. Hence several different prepositions, whether they have different antecedent terms or only one and the same, may refer cither jointly or severally to one object or to more. This follows, because not only may either dents or objects be connected by conjunctions, but prepositions also admit of this construc- tion, with or without a connecting of their antecedents. Examples : " They are capable of, and placed in, different stations in the society of mankind." Butler's Anal. p. Ho. * Our perception of vice and ill desert arises from, and is the result of, a comparison of actions with the nature and capacities of the agent. "//;. p. 279. "And the design of this chapter is, to inquire how far this is :.,jw fur, over and aboce the moral nature which God has given us, anil our natu- ral notion of him, as righteous governor of those his creatures to whom he has given this nature ; I say, how this, the principles fld beginnings of a moral government over the world may be discerned, tlOhmtfatandutg and amidst all the confusion and disorder of it." lb. p. 85. !- The preposition into, expresses a relation produced by motion or change ; and in, the Same relation, without reference to motion as having produced it: hence, "to walk into the gar- den," and, "to walk in the garden," are very different in meaning. " It is disagreeable to rind a word split into two by uf'Crit. ii, s:{. This appears to be right in sense, but because brevity is desirable in unemphatic particle, 1 suppose most persons would say, " split ,'n two." In the Ji. tie ire have the \>:. nt /// tw.tin," "cut in pieces," "brake ni - the rocks," "brake all their bones in pieces," "brake them to pieces," " broken to V "pulled in pieces." In all these, except the first, to may perhaps be considered j able to in ; and into would be objectionable only because it is longer and los simple. " Half of them dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks, lest they shake themselves to pieces." SHAK. : Kami*, ii, 240. l.'j. lii-tn-' in reference to two things or parties ; among, or amon<;st, timid, or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which an other may be surrounded: as, "Thou pendulum bclwijct a smile and tear." Jl>//-<>n.' "The host betir. mountain and the shore."/*/. " To nmlit.Uc amongst decay, and stand a ruin amidst ruin.-. 1 , ., In , the Uowing examples, the import of these prepositions is nut very accurately regarded ; " Ihe Greeks wrote in capitals, and left no spaces between their words." Wilsons Essay, p. 6. This construction may perhaps be allowed, because the spaces by which words are now divided, occur severally between one word and an other ; but the author might as well have said, " K&4 left 654 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. no spaces to distinguish their words." "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox." L' Estrange. Here by or among would, I think, be better than betwixt, because the partners were more than two. "Between two or more authors, different readers will differ exceedingly, as to the preference in point of merit." Campbell's Rhet. p. 162; Jamicson's, 40; Murray's Gram, i, 360. Say, "Concerning two or more authors," because between is not consist- ent with the word more. " Rising one among another in the greatest confusion and disorder." Spect. No. 476. Say, "Rising promiscuously," or, "Rising all at once;" for among is not con- sistent with the distributive term one another. OBS. 14. Of two prepositions coming together between the same terms of relation, and sometimes connected in the same construction, I have given several plain examples in this chap- ter, and in the tenth chapter of Etymology, a very great number, all from sources sufficiently respectable. But, in many of our English grammars, there is a stereotyped remark on this po nt, originally written by Priestley, which it is proper here to cite, as an other specimen of the Doc- tor's hastiness, and of the blind confidence of certain compilers and copyists: "Two different altered thus : " The combat between thirty French against twenty English." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 200 ; Smith's New Gram. 167 ; Fish's, 142 ; Ingersoll's, 228. W. Allen has it thus : " Two different prepositions in the same construction are improper ; as, a combat between twenty French against thirty English." Elements of E. Gram. p. 179. He gives the odds to the latter party. Hiley, with no expense of thought, first takes from Murray, as he from Priestley, the useless remark, " Different rplat.inns. and rHfffirpnt sfmsps. must. hf pvnrpssr>H hv rliffiprpnt. nrpnnsitinns " and then the same ' The combat between thirty French and thirty English.' " Hiley's E. Gram. p. 97. It is manifest that the error of this example is not in the use of two prepositions, nor is there any truth or fitness in the note or notes made on it by all these critics; for had they said, " The combat of thirty French against twenty English," there would still be two prepositions, but where would be the impropriety, or where the sameness of construction, which they speak of ? Between is incom- patible with against, only because it requires two parties or things for its own regimen ; as, " The combat between thirty Frenchmen and twenty Englishmen." This is what Smollett should have written, to make sense with the word " between." OBS. 15. With like implicitness, Hiley excepted, these grammarians and others have adopted from Lowth an observation in which the learned doctor has censured quite too strongly the joint reference of different prepositions to the same objective noun: to wit, " Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different prepositions with the same noun; as, To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves.' Bent- ley, Serm. 6. This [construction], whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is ahcays inelegant ; and should never be admitted, but in forms of law, and the like ; where fulness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration." Lowth's Gram. p. 96 ; Murray's i, 200; Smith's, 167; Fish's, 141; Ingersoll's, 228; Alger's, 67 ; Picket's, 207. Churchill even gees further, both strengthening the censure, and disallowing the exception : thus, " This, whether in the solemn or in the familiar style, is always inelegant, and should never be admitted. It is in awkward shift for avoiding the repetition of a word, which might be accomplished without it by a ny person, who has the least command of language." New Gram. p. 341. Yet, with all their com- mand of language, not one of these gentlemen has told us how the foregoing sentence from Bentley may be amended; while many of their number not only venture to use different preposi- tions before the same noun, but even to add a phrase which puts that noun in the nominative case: as, " Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb." Murray's Gram, i, 191 ; Ingersoll's, 260 ; R. C. Smith's, 159. ' OBS. 16. The structure of this example not only contradicts palpably, and twice over, the doctrine cited above, but one may say of the former part of it, as Lowth, Murray, and others do, (in no very accurate English,) of the text 1 Cor. ii, 9: " There seems to be an impropriety in this sentence, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 224. See also Lowth' s Gram. p. 73*; Ingersoll's, 277; Fisk's, 149; Smith's, 185. Two other examples, exactly like that which is so pointedly censured above, are placed by Murray under his thirteenth rule for the comma; and these likewise, with all faithfulness, are copied by Ingersoll, Smith, Alger, Kirk- ham, Comly, Russell, and I know not how many more. In short, not only does this rule of their punctuation include the construction in question ; but the following exception to it, which is remarkable for its various faults, or thorough faultiness, is applicable to no other : " Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, ' Many states were in alliance icith, and under the protection of Rome.'" Mur- ray's Gram. p. 272; Smith's, 190; Ingersoll's, 284; Kirkham's, 215; Alger's, 79 ; Alfon's, 149; Abel Flint's, 103; Russell's, 115. But the blunders and contradictions on this point, end not here. Dr. Blair happened most unlearnedly to say, "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is ahcays to be avoided. As if I should say, ' Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advan- tages of fortune.'" Lect. XII, p. 112. This too, though the author himself did not always respect the rule, has been thought worthy to be copied, or stolen, with all its faults ! See Jamie- son's Rhetoric, p. 93; and Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 319. OBS. 17. Dr. Lowth says, " The noun aversion, (that is, a turning away,) as likewise the adjective averse, seems to require the preposition from after it; and not so properly to admit of to, or for, which are often used with it." Gram. p. 98. But this doctrine has not been adopted CHAP. X.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIII. PREPOSITIONS. NOTES. 655 by the later grammarians : " The words averse and aversion (says Dr. Campbell) are more properly construed with to tlian with from. The examples in favour of the latter preposition, are beyond comparison outnumbered by those in favour of the former." Murray's Gram, i, 201 ; Fisk's, 142; InyersoU's, 229. This however must be understood only of mental aversion. The expression of Milton, " On the coast averse from entrance," would not be improved, if from were changed to to. So the noun exception, and the verb to except, are sometimes followed by from, which has regard to the Latin particle ex, with which the word commences ; but the noun at least is much more frequently, and perhaps more properly, followed by to. Examples: "Objects of horror must be excepted from the foregoing theory." Kames, El. of Crit. ii. 268. "From which there this rule there are many exceptions." Ib. i, 240. "They are not to be regarded as exceptions from, the rule." Campbell's ll/iet. p. 363. Ous. 18. After correcting the example, " He knows nothing on [of] it," Churchill remarks, " There seems to be a strange perverseness among the London vulgar in perpetually substituting on for of, and of for on." Xcic Gram. p. 34-3. And among the expresssions which Campbell censures under the name of vulgarism, are the following: " 'Tis my humble request you will be particular in speaking to the following points." Guardian, No. 57. " The preposition ought to have been on. Precisely of the same stamp is the on 't for of it, so much used by one class of writers." Philosophy of Rhct. p. 217. So far as I have observed, the use of of for on has never been frequent; and that of on for of, or on't for of it, though it may never have been a polite custom, is now a manifest archaism, or imitation of ancient usage. "And so my young Master, whatever comes on't, must have a Wife look'd out for him." Locke, on Ed. p. 378. In Saxon, on was put for more than half a dozen of our present prepositions. The difference between of and on, or upon, appears in general to be obvious enough ; and yet there are some phrases in which it is not easy to determine which of these words ought to be preferred : as, " Many things they cannot lay hold on at once." HOOKER: Joh. Diet. " Uzzah put forth his hand to' the ark of God, and took hold of it." 2 Sam. ib. "Rather thou shouldst lay hold upon him." BEX JONSON : ib. " Let them find courage to lay hold on the occasion." MILTON : ib. " The hand is fitted to lay hold of objects." RAY: ib. " My soul took hold on thee." ADDISON : ib. " To lay hold of this safe, this only method of cure." ATTERHTRY : ib. "And yice fortune no more hold of h'im." DRY DEN : ib. ' "And his laws take the surest hold of us." TILLOTSON : ib. " It will then be impossible you can have any hold upon him." SWIFT: ib. "The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities." Murray's Key, ii, p. 198. " Then did the officer lay hold of him and execute him." Ib. ii, 219. " When one can lay hold upon some noted fact." Blair's Rhct. p. 311. "But when we would lay firm hold of them." Ib. p. 28. "An advantage which every one is glad to lay hold of." Ib. p. 7o. " To have laid fast hold of it in his mind." Ib p. 94. " I would advise them to lay aside their common-places, and to think closely of their subject." Ib. p. 317. " Did they not take hold of your fathers ? " Zech. i, 6. " Ten me'n shall take hold of the skirt of one that is a Jew." Ib. viii, 2.1 " It is wrong to say, either ' to lay hold of a thing,' or ' to take hold on it.' " Blair's Gram. p. 101. In the following couplet, on neems to have been preferred only for a rhyme : " Yet, lo ! in me what authors have to brag on! Reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon." Pope. Ous. 19. In the allowable uses of prepositions, there may perhaps be some room for choice ; f;o that what to the mind of a critic may not appear the fittest word, may yet be judged not pos- itively ungrammatieal. In this light, I incline to view the following examples: "Homer's plan is still more i.etVi-tivi', upon another account." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 'J'.) 1 .). Say " on an other account.' 1 "It wus almost eight of the clock before I could leave that variety of objects." Spectator, No. 4"> [. Present usage requires " eight o'clock." " The Greek and Latin writers had a considerable advantage above us." Blair's Rhct. p. 114. " The study of oratory has this advantage above that of poetry." Ib. p. 338. "A metaphor has frequently an advantage above u formal comparison." Jatnifton's Rhct. p. 150. This use of above seems to be a sort of Scotti- cism : an Englishman, I think, would say " advantage over us," &c. " Hundreds have all these crowding upon them from morning to night." Abbott's 7'm. //(/-, p. 33. Better "from morning till night." But Home Tooke observes, " \W apply TO indifferently to ;//mr or time ; but TILL to tune only, and never to pluff. Thus \ve may say, ' From morn TO night th" eternal laruin rang; ' or, ' From mom TILL night,' &c." Diversions of Purlcy, i, 284. NOTES TO RULE XXIII. NOTE I. Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended. Example of error: "By which we arrive to the last division." liichard W. Green's (tram. p. vii. Say, " arrive c/." NOTE II. Those prepositions which are particularly adapted in meaning to two objects, or to more, ought to he confined strictly to the government of such terms only as suit them. Example of error : " What is Person ? It is the medium of dis- tinction between the speaker, the object addressed or spoken to, and the object spoken of." 0. 1$. Pcirci-'s (,'nitn. p. 34. "JJetween thrte" is an incongruity ; and the text here cited is bad in several other respects. 656 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. NOTE III. An ellipsis or omission of the preposition is inelegant, except where long and general use has sanctioned it, and made the relation sufficiently intelligible. In the following sentence, of is needed : '* I will not flatter you, that all I see in you is worthy love." Shakspeare. The following requires from : " Ridicule is banished France, and is losing ground in England." Kames, El. of Grit, i, 106. NOTE IV. The insertion of a preposition is also inelegant, when the particle is needless, or when it only robs a transitive verb of its proper regimen; as, " The people of England may congratulate to themselves." DRYDEN: Priestley's Gram. p. 163. " His servants ye are, to whom ye obey." Rom. vi, 16. NOTE Y. The preposition and its object should have that position in respect to other words, which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Examples of error : " Gratitude is a forcible and active principle in good and gener- ous minds." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 169. Better : " In good and generous minds, gratitude is a forcible and active principle." " By a single stroke, he knows how to reach the heart." Blair's Rhet. p. 439. Better: " He knows how to reach the heart by a single stroke." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII. EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I. CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. " You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons." Sicift, on E. Tongue. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the relation between have bestowed and persons is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 23d, " Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This relation would be better expressed by upon ; thus, " You have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons."] " But to rise beyond that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few." Blair's Rhet. p. 351. "This also is a good sentence, and gives occasion to no material remark." Ib. p. 201. " Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation of the elder Cato, and those who were his cotemporaries." Ib. p. 245. " The change that was produced on eloquence, is beau- tifully described in the Dialogue." Ib. p. 249. " Without carefully attending to the va i- ation which they make upon the idea." Ib. p. 367. "All of a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace." Hazlitt's Lect. p. 70. "Alike independent on one another." Camp- bell's Rhet. p. 398. " You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independ- ently on each other." Channing's Self-Culture, p. 15. "Though we say, to depend t-n, dependent on, and independent on, we say, independently of." Churchill's Gram. p. 348. " Inde- pendently on the rest of the sentence." Lowth's Gram. p. 78 ; Guy's, 88 ; Murray's, i, 145 and 184 ; IngersoU's, 150 ; Frost's, 46 ; Fisk's, 125 ; Smith's New Gram. 156 ; Gould's Lat. Gram. 209 ; Nixon's Parser, 65. " Because they stand independent on the rest of the sen- tence." Fisk's Gram. p. 111. "When a substantive is joined with a participle in English independently in the rest of the sentence." Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., Boston Ed. 0/1803, p. 213; Albany Ed. of 1820, p. 166. "Conjunction, comes of the two Latin words con, together, andjungo, to join." Merchant's School Gram. p. 19. " How different to this is the lite of Fulvia ! " Addison, Sped. No. 15. "Loved is a participle or adjective, derived of the word love." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 27. " But I would inquire at him, what an office is ? " Barclay's Works, iu, 463. " For the capacity is brought unto action." Ib. iii, 420. "In this period, language and taste arrive to purity." Webster's Essays, p. 94. "And should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters ? " Kirkham's Gram. p. 13. " Deliv- ering you up to the synagogues, and in prisons." Keith's Evidences, p. 55. " One that is kept from falling in a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one." Barclay's Works, i, 312. "The best on it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots." Addison, tipect. No. 62. " These last Ten Examples are indeed of a different Nature to the former." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 833. "For the initiation of students in the principles of the English language." ANNUAL REVIEW: Murray's Gram, ii, 299. "Richelieu profited of every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded." Bolingbroke, on Hist. p. 177. " In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger life." Murray's Key, ii, 165. " In order to the carrying on its several parts into execution." Butler's Analogy, p. 192. "His abhorrence to the superstitious figure." HUME: Priestley's Gram. p. 164. " Thy prejudice to my cause." DIIYDEN : ib. p. 164. " Which is found among every species of liberty." HUME : ib. p. 169. "In a hilly region to the north of Jericho." Mil-man's Jews, Vol. i, p. 8. " Two or more singular nouns, coupled with AND, require a verb and pro- noun in the plural." Lennie's Gram. p. 83. " Books should to one of these four ends conduce, For wisdom, piety, delight, or use." Denham, p. 239. CHAP. X.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIII. PREPOSITIONS. ERRORS. 657 T'.NDER NOTE II. Two OBJECTS OR MORE. " The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence." Con- stable s Miscellany, xx, p. 59. "The distinctions between the principal parts of speech are founded in nature." Webster'* Essays, p. 7. " I think I now understand the difference be- tween the active, passive, and neuter verbs." Inyersoll's Gram. p. 124. "Thus a figure including a space between three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle." Locke's Essay, p. 303. " We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence." Lowth's Gram. p. 117 ; Murray's, i, 2G7 ; Inffersoll's, 280 ; Guy's, 97. " The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law, to exercise usury among one another." Sale's Koran, p. 177. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among one another." Addison. " This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity between the three cases." Hutting's Gram. p. 98. " When a disjunctive occurs between two or more Infinitive Modes, or clauses, the verb must be singular." Jaudons Gram. p. 95. " Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, not united by and, require a comma between each." Blair's Gram. p. 115. "The difference between the several vowels is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each." Churchill's Gram. p. 2. "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pro- nounced with a sensible interval between each, make a more lively impression than can b3 made by a continued sound." Kames, El. of Grit. Vol. ii, p. 32. " The superlative degree implies a comparison between three or more." Smith's Productive Gram. p. 51. "They are used to mark a distinction between several objects." Lcvizac's Gram. p. 85. U.VUKU NOTE III. OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS. " This would have been less worthy notice." Churchill's Gram. p. 197. " But I passed it, as a thing unworthy my notice."" H V/Wr. " Which, in compliment to me, perhaps, you may, one day, think worthy your attention." Bucke's Gram. p. 81. "To think this small present worthy an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment." Ib. p. iv. " There are but a few miles portage." Jefferson's Xotes on Virginia, p. 17. " It is worthy notice, that our mountains are not solitary." Ib. p. 26. " It is of about one hun- dred feet diameter." Ib. p. 33. " Entering a hill a quarter or half a mile." Ib. p. 47. "And herself seems passing to that awful dissolution, whose issue is not given human fore- sight to scan." Ib. p. 100. "It was of a spheroidical form, of about forty feet diameter at the base, and had been of about twelve feet altitude." Ib. p. 143. " Before this it was covered with trees of twelve inches diameter, and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width." Ibid. " Then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure." !)< ut. xxiii, 24. " Then he brought me back the way of the gate of the outward sanctu- ary." Kzfkii-l, xliv, 1. "They will bless God that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen." Webster's Essays, p. 94. "What use can these words be, till their meaning is known : " Town's Analysis, p. 7. " The tents of the Arabs now are black, or a very dark colour." The Friend, Vol. v, p. 265. " They may not be unworthy the attention of young men." Kirkhatn's Elocution, p. 157. "The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, as well as things." Merchant's Gram. p. 87. "And who is in the same case that man is." Sa/iborn's Gram. p. 148. "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet diameter." The Friend, vii, 409. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was the size of a cart." Ibid. " Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were; expelled Kome." Seneca's Morals, p. 11. "I was prevented* reading a letter which would have undeceived me." Hawkesicorth, Adv. No. .54. "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned the inaccuracy of its demonstration." Booth's Introd. p. 25. " The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but effeminacy." Brown's Estinn- "Afraid of the virtue of a nation, in its opposing bad measures." Ib. i, 73. " The uniting them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy." Music of A p. 34. " I might be excused taking any more notice of it." Watsons Apology, p. 65. " Watch therefore ; for ye know not what hour your Lord doth come." Matt, xxiv, 42. " Here, not even infants were spared the sword." M'Jlcainr's Lectures, p. 313. "To pre- vent men turning aside to corrupt modes of worship." Calvin's Institutes, B. I, Ch. 12, Sec. 1. " God expelled them the Garden of Eden." Murder's Hist. Vol. i, p. 10. "Nor could he refrain expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind." Art of Thinking, p. 123. " Who now so strenuously opposes the granting him any new powers." Duncan's < p. 127. "That the laws of the censors have banished him the forum." Ib. p. 140. " We read not that he was degraded his office any other way." Barclay's Works, iii, 149. "To all whom these presents shall conic, Greeting." Hutchinson's Muss, i, 459. " On the 1st, August, 1834." British Act for the Abolition of iS/m-ery. " Whether you had not some time in your life Err'd in this point which now you censure him." Xhuk. * A few of the examples under this head might be corrected equally well by some preceding note of a more ii peciflc character ; for a general not<> agiiiti-t thi- improper omission of prepositions, of con i>> InelmtM those principles of grammar by which any particular prepositions are to be inserted. So the examples of error which v ere given in the tenth chapter of Etymology, might nearly all of them have been placed under the first note in 42 658 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. UNDER NOTE IV. OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS. "And the apostles and elders came together to consider of this matter." Barclay's Works, i, 481. "And the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter." Acts, xv, 6. "Adjectives in our Language have neither Case, Gender, nor Number ; the only Variation they have is by Comparison." Buchanan's Gram. p. 27. " ' It is to you, that I am indebted for this privilege ; ' that is, ' to you am I indebted ; ' or, It is to you to whom I am indebted.' " Sanbom's Gram. p. 232. "Books is a noun, of the third person, plural number, of neuter gender." Ingersoll's Gram. p. 15. "Brother's is a common sub- stantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case." Murray's Gram, i, 229. "Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case." Ib. i, 228. " When the authori- ties on one side greatly preponderate, it is in vain to oppose the prevailing usage." Campbell's Rhet. p. 173 ; Murray's Gram.i, 367. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering of Home." Collier's Antoninus, p. 51. "And, notwithstanding of its Verbal power, we have added the to and other signs of exertion." Booth's Introd. p. 2$. " Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words." Ib. p. 33. " Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and to bow down his head like a bulrush ? " Bacon's Wisdom, p. 65. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental, instead of, by the necessary antecedent." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 17. "At about the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed." Balbi's Geog. p. 269. " God divided between the light and between the darkness." Burder's Hist, i, 1. " Notwith- standing of this, we are not against outward significations of honour." Barclay's Works, i, 242. "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, be for to be our rule." Ib. i, 243. " Such verb cannot admit of an objective case after it." Loivth's Gram. p. 73. " For which God is now visibly punishing of these Nations." Right of Tythes, p. 139. " In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except to Homer." Blair's Rhet. p. 444. " Notwithstand- ing of the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty." HUME : Priestley's Gram. p. 161. "Their efforts seemed to anticipate on the spirit, which became so general after- wards." Id. ib. p. 167. UNDER NOTE V. THE PLACING OF THE WORDS. " But how short are my expressions of its excellency ! " Baxter. " There is a remark- able union in his style, of harmony with ease." Blair's Rhet. p. 127. " It disposes in tho most artificial manner, of the light and shade, for viewing every thing to the best advan- tage." Ib. p. 139. "Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers for his brevity." Ib. p. 177. "In an introduction, correctness should be carefully studied in tho expression." Ib. p. 308. " Precision is to be studied, above all things in laying down u method." Ib. p. 313. " Which shall make the impression on the mind of something tha: is one, whole and entire." Ib. p. 353. "At the same time, there are some defects which must be acknowledged in the Odyssey." Ib. p. 437. " Beauties, however, there are, in the concluding books, of the tragic kind." Ib. p. 452. "These forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome." Spectator, No. 119. "When she has mado her own choice, for form's sake, she sends a conge-d'-elire to her friends." Ib. No. 475. " Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand." -Ib. No. 12. " Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation." Kames, EL of Crit. ii, 53. " The most frequent measure next to this in English poetry is that of eight syllables." Blair's Gram. p. 121. " To introduce as great a variety as possible of cadences." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 80. " He addressed several exhortations to them suitable to their circumstances." Murray's Key, ii, p. 191. " Habits must be acquired of temperance and self-denial." Ib. p. 217. " In reducing the rules prescribed to practice." Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. iv. " But these parts must be so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind, of one object, not of many." Ib. Vol. i, p. 311 ; Blair's Rhet. p. 106. "Errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writers with, respect to the use of shall and will." Butler's Pract. Gram. p. 106. CHAPTER XL -INTERJECTIONS. Interjections, being seldom any thing more than natural sounds or short yyords uttered independently, can hardly be said to have any syntax ; but jgince some rule is necessary to show the learner how to dispose of them in parsing, a brief axiom for that purpose, is here added, which completes our jthis tenth chapter of Syntax. But it was thought best to illustrate every part of this volume, by some examplw 'of false grammar^ out of the infinite number and variety wiUj which our literature abounds. CHAP. XI.] SXNTAX. RULE XXIY. INTERJECTIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 659 series of rules : and, after several remarks on this canon, and on the com- mon treatment of Interjections, this chapter is made to embrace Exercises upon all the other parts of speech, that the chapters in the Key may corre- spond to those of the Grammar. RULE XXIV. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have no dependent construction ; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as, "O/ let not thy heart despise me." Dr. Johnson. " cruel thou ! "Pope, Odys. B. xii, 1. 333. " Ah wretched we, poets of earth ! " Cowley, p. 28. "Ah Dennis ! Crildon ah ! what ill-starr'd rage Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age ? " Pope, Dunciad, B. iii, 1,173. OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. OBS. 1. To this rule, there are properly no exceptions. Though interjections are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being mere signs of passion or of feeling, they seem not to have any strict grammatical relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of relation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently, if used at all. Yet an emotion signified in this manner, not being causeless, may be accompanied by some object, expressed either by a nominative absolute, or by an objective after for : as, "Alas! Eoor Yorick! " Shak. Here the grief denoted by alas, is certainly for Yorick ; as much so, as the expression were, "Alas for poor Yorick ! " But, in either case, alas, I think, has no de- pendent construction ; neither'has Yorick, in the former, unless we suppose an ellipsis of some governing word. OBS. 2. The interjection O is common to many languages, and is frequently uttered, in token of earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address ; as, "Arise, O Lord; O God, lift up thine hand." Psalms, x, 12. "Oye of little faith ! "Matt, vi, 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, made this interjection the sign of the vocative case; which case is :ue as the nominative put absolute by address in English. But this particle is no positive i:idex of the vocative ; because an independent address may be made without that sign, and the O may bo used where there is no address: as, "O scandalous want! O shameful omission ! " " I'ray, Sir, don't be uneasy." Burgh's Speaker, p. 86. 3. Some grammarians ascribe to two or three of our interjections the power of governing sometimes the nominative case, and sometimes the objective. First, NIXON ; in an exercise en- itled, " NOMIXATIVK ,OYI:UNI;I> HY AN INTERJECTION," thus : " The interjections O ! Oh ! and h ! require after them the nominative case of a substantive in the second person ; as, ' O thou ' O Alexander ! thou hast slain thy friend.' O is an interjection, governing the le, and them the objective case of a substantive in the Jirst or third person; as, 'Oh me!' 'Oh the .' ' Oh is an interjection, governing the objective case humiliations." Ib. p. 63. hese two rules are in fact contradictory, while each of them absurdly suggests that O, oh, and used only with nouns. So J. M. PUTNAM: "Interjections sometimes govern an objec- ts, -ih inn! O the tender ties! O the soft enmity! O me miserable! O wretched ' O cruel reverse of fortune ! When an address is made, the interjection does not perform the office of government." Putnam's Gram. p. 113. So KIHKHAM ; who, under a rule quite different from these, extends the doctrine of governmentto all interjections: "According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them ; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say that these parts of speech govern the objective case. THE SAME PRINCIPLE APPLIES TO THE ix- TIMJJKCTION. ' Inter]i ire the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them ; but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, Ah me! Oh tliou ! O my rniintri/ .' ' To say, then, that interjections require particular oases after thorn, is synonymous with saying, that they govern those cases; and this office of the interjection is in wi'th that which i't performs in the Latin, and many other languages." Kirk- Cram, p. 164. According to this, every interjection has as much need of an object after it, i transitive vorb or a preposition ! The rule has, certainly, no "accordance" with what occurs in Latin, or in any other language ; it is wholly a fabrication, though found, in some shape or other, in well-nigh all English grammars. Ous. 1. I, M :;:: \v's doctrine on this point is thus expressed: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah ! require the objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, ' O me ! oh me ! Ah me ! ' But the nominative case in the second person : as, ' O thou persecutor ! ' 'Oh ye hypocrites ! ' ' O thou, who dwellest,' &c." (>> -f-n-o dram. p. loS. I copies this most f.iulty note literally, adding these words to its abrupt end, i. e. to its inexplicable "&c.,"used by Murray : rned by a preposition understood : as, 'Ah for me !' irh'at trill become of me ! ' Ike. ; and the second person is in the nominative independent, there being a direct address." (' . p. 21 1. So we see that this gramma- rian and Kirkham, both modifiers of Murray, understand their master's false verb "require" very differently. LI.N.MI: too, in renouncing a part of Murray's double or threefold error, "Oh! happy us!" for, "O happy tee!" teaches thus: "Interjections sometimes require the objective case ^ominative case Alexander." English Parser, p.*61. Again, under the title, " OBJECTIVE CASE VLD HY AN INTERJECTION," he says: "The interjections O ! Oh ! and Ah! require after tive case of a substantive in the first or third person; as, 'Oh me!' ' 660 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. after them, bnt they never govern it. " In the first edition of this grammar," says he, "I followed Mr. Murray and others, in leaving we. in the exercises to be turned into us ; but that it should be toe, and not us, is obvious ; because it is the nominative to are understood ; thus, Oh happy are ^ve, or, Oh we are happy, (being) surrounded with so many blessings." Lennie's Gram. Fifth Edition, p. 84 ; Twelfth, p. 110. Here is an other solution of the construction of this pronoun of the first person, contradictory alike to Ingersoll's, to Kirkham's, and to Murray's ; while all are wrong, and this among the rest. Ihe word should indeed be we, and not us ; because we have both analogy and good authority for the former case, and nothing but the false conceit of sundry grammatists for the latter. But it is a nominative absolute, like any other nominative which wo use in the same exclamatory manner. For the first person may just as well be put in the nomi- native absolute, by exclamation, as any other ; as, " Behold / and the children whom God hath, given me ! "- Heb. ii, 13. " Ecce ego et ptieriquos mihi dedit Deus ! " Beza. " O brave we ! " Dr. Johnson, often. So Horace : " ego laevus," &c. Ep. ad Pi. 301. "Ah ! luckless 1 ! who purge in spring my spleen Else sure the first of bards had Horace been." Francis's Hor. ii, 209. OBS. 5. Whether Murray's remark above, on "O/ Oh ! and Ah! " was originally designed for a rule of government or not, it is hardly worth any one's while to inquire. It is too lame and inaccurate every way, to deserve any notice, but that which should serve to explode it forever. Yet no few, who have since made English grammars, have copied the text literally ; as they have,, for the public benefit, stolen a thousand other errors from the same quarter. The reader will find it, with little or no change, in Smith's New Grammar, p. 96 and 134 ; Alger's, 56 ; Alden's, 117 ; Russell's, 92 ; Blair's, 100; Guy's, 89; Abel Flint's, 59 ; A Teacher's, 43; Picket's, 210; Coop- er's* Murray, 136 ; Wilcox's, 95 ; Bucke's, 87 ; Emmons's, 77; and probably in others. Lennie varies it indefinitely, thus: " RULE. The interjections Oh! and Ah! &c. generally require the objective case of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the second'; as, Ah me! O thou fool ! O ye hypocrites ! "-^Lennie's Gram. p. 110; Brace's, 88. M'Culloch, after Crombie, thus : " RULE XX. Interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second; as, Ah me ! O ye hypocrites." Manual 1 of E. Gram. p. 145 ; and Orombie's Treatise, p. 315 ; also Fowler's E. Language, p. 563. Hiley makes it a note, thus : *' The interjections, T Oh ! Ah ! are followed by the objective case of a pronoun of the first person ; as, 'Oh me ! ' f Ah me ! ' but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person ; as, 1 O thou, who dwellest.' " Hiley' s Gram. p. 82.. This is what the same author elsewhere calls " THE GOVERNMENT OF INTERJECTIONS;" though, like some others, he had set it in the " Syntax of PRONOUNS." See Ib. p. 108. Murray, in forming his own little "Abridgment," omitted it altogether. In his other grammars, it is still a mere note, standing where he at first absurdly put it, under his rule for the agreement of pronouns with their antece- dents. By many of his sage amenders, it has been placed in the catalogue of principal rules. But, that it is no adequate rale for interjections, is manifest ; for, in its usual form, it is limited to three, and none of these can ever, with any propriety,, be parsed by it. Murray himself has not used it in any of his forms of parsing. He conceived," (as I hinted before in Chapter 1st,) that, " The syntax of the Interjection is of so very limited a nature, that it does not require a dis- tinct, appi'opriaterule." Octavo Gram. i,. 224. OBS. 6. Against this remark of Murray's, a good argument may be drawn from the ridiculous use which has been made of his own suggestion, in the other place. For, though that suggestion never had in it the least shadow of truth,, and was never at all applicable either to the three- interjections, or to pronouns, or to cases, or to tine persons, or to any thing else of which it speaks ; it has not only been often copied literally, and called a " RULE " of syntax, but many have, yetr more absurdly, made it a. general canon which imposes on all interjections a syntax that belong* to none of them. For example : "An interjection miist be followed by the objective case of a pro- noun in the first person ; and by a nominative of the second person ; as Oh me ! ah me ! oh thou! AH hail, ye happy men ! " Jaudon's Gram. p. 116. This is as much as t& say, that every inter- jection must have a pronoun or two after it! Again: "Interjections musi be folloiced by the objective case of the pronoun in the first person; as, O me ! Ah me! and by the nominative case- of the second person ; as, O thou persecutor ! Oh ye hypocrites ! " Merchant's Murray, p. 80 ; Merchant's School Gram. p. 99. I imagine there is a difference between O and oh,-^ and that this author, as well as Murray, in the first and the last of these examples, has misapplied them both. Again : * l Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person, and the nomi- native case of the second ; a.s,Ahme! Othou." Frost's El. of E. Gram. p. 48\ This, too, is general. * "The Rev. Joab Goldsmith Cooper, A. M.," was the author of two English grammars, as well as of what h* palled "A New and Improved Latin Grammar," with "An Edition of the Works of Virgil, &C.," aH published in Philadelphia. His first grammar, dated 1828, is entitled. u An Abridgment of Murray f x English Giammar, and Exercises." But it is no more an abridgement of Murray's work, than of mine ; be having chosen to steal from, the text of my Institutes, or supply matter of Ins own, about as often as to copy Murray. His second is the Latin Grammar. His third, which is entitled, "A Plain and Practical English Giammar," and dated 1831, is a book Very different from the first, but equally inaccurate and worthless. In this book, the syntax of iuterjections stands thus : " RULE 21. The interjections O, oh and ah are followed by the objective, rase of a noun or pronoun t as : " me ! ah me ! oh me ! In the second person, they are a mark or sign of an address, made to a person or thing, as: thou persecutor! Oh, ye hypocrites! virtue, how amiable thou art J "Page 167. The inaccuracy of all this can scarcely be exceeded. t " Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise. O is used to express wishing, exclamation., or a direct address to a person.'' Lennys Gram,, 12th Ed., p. 110. Of this distinction our grammarians in. general seem to have no conception ; and, in fact, it is so often disregarded by other authors, that the propriety of it may be disputed. Since O and oh are pronounced alike, or very nearly so, if there is no difference in their application, they are only different modes of writing the same word, and one or the other of them is useless. If there is a real difference, as 1 suppose there is, it ought to be better observed ; and O me .' and oh ye .' which I believe are found only in grammars, should be regarded as bad English. Both and oh, as well as ah, were used in Latin by Terence, who was reckoned an elegant writer ; and his manner of applying them favours this distinction : and so do our own dictionaries, though Johnson and Walker do not draw it clearly, for oh is as CHAP. XI.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIV. INTERJECTIONS. OBSERVATIONS. 661 Ons. 7. Of nouns, or of the third person, the three rules last cited say nothing;* though it appears from other evidence, that their authors supposed them applicable at least to some nouns of the second person. The supposition however was quite needless, because each of their gram- mars contains an other Rule, that, " When an address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent : " which, by the by, is far from being universally true, either of the noun or of the pronoun. Russell imagines, " The words tlt>pcn -'vi Icnre of their -sness of the latter; but rather of their iilTeivnoe. and of the impropriety of confounding them. O, oh, ho, and ah. are French words as well as Eng- lish. Hover, in his Quarto Dictionary, confounds thorn all : translating M O ! n only hy ;k Oh .' " " OH ! ou HO ! " by " Ho'' Oli!" and "AH ! " hy oh! alas! wtll-a dny ' oiih! A! ah! hah! Ao.'" He would have done o have made each one explain i:slf; and especially, not to have set down " ough!" and "A!" at English words which correspond t< tin Kr-nch ah .' Ml.-rv- N sufficiently accounted for by Murray's ; of whose work, mont of the authors who have any such rule, are either piddling modifiers r any ohjfctive case. Of course he supposed that all nouns that were uttered after interjections, whether they were of the second person or of the third, were in the nominative case : frr he pave to nouns two cases only, tho nominative and the possessive. And when he afterwards admitted the objective case of nouns, he did not liter hi* remurk, but left all his pupil* ignorant of the case of any noun that is used iu exclamation or invoca- tion. In his doctrine of two case*, he followed Dr. Ash; from whom also he copied the rule which I am criti- cising : " The Interjection*, O, Oh, and Ah, require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first Person : as, ni'. Oh me, Ah me: But tho Xnminntive in the - > :>m,,, O y-r .I>V Gram. p. 60. Or perhaps he had Bicknell's book, which was later: "The interjections O, oh, and ah, require the accusative case of a :i9. O,me' Oh, me.' Ah, me.' But the nominative case in the *"-ond : as, O, thou that ntlest .' O, ye rulers of th>'$ linf>r>r>lo V,*,} warning voice ! " Milton^ " O that _they were wise ! " Deut. xxxii, 29. " O that my people had Id in principle hearkened unto me ! " Ps. Ixxxi, 13. "Alas/or Sicily ! " Cowper. " for a work as chaste As this is gross and selfish ! " Id. " Hurrah for Jackson ! " Newspaper. "A bawd, sir, fy vjnn him ! " SH.VK. : Joh. Diet. "And fy on fortune, mine avowed foe! " SPENCER: ib. This connexion, however, even if we parse all the words just as they stand, does not give to the in- terjection itself any dependent construction. It appears indeed to refute Jamieson's assertion, that, " The interjection is totally WMMMefad with every other word in a sentence; " but I did not quote this passage, with any averment of its accuracy ; and, certainly, many nouns which are put absolute themselves, have in like manner a connexion with words that are not put absolute : as, " O Lord God of hosts, hear my prayer ; give ear, O God of Jacob. Selah." Ps. Ixxxiv, 8. But if any will suppose, that in the foregoing examples something else than the interjection must be the antecedent term to the preposition or the conjunction, they may consider the expressions elliptical ; though it must be confessed, that much of their vivacity will be lost, when the sup- posed ellipses are supplied : as, " O ! / desire to forget her." " O ! hoir I long for that warning voice!" "O! how I wish that they were wise!" "Alas! / n-nil for Sicily." "Hurrah! / ihoiif for Jackson." " Fy ! cry out upon him." Lindley Murray has one example of this kind, and if his punctuation of it is not bad in all his editions, there must be an ellipsis in the expres- sion : "0! for better times." O-(,tro Gnun.u, 6; Dund,,-!,, , p. 10. He also writes it thus : " O, ./for better times." ( > f'irn (,'r/im. i, 120; Inyersoll's Gram. p. 47. According to com- mon usage, it should be, " for better times ! " OBS. 16. The interject ion may be placed at the beginning or the<>;ir/of a simple sentence, and some- times between its less intimate parts; but this part of speech is seldom, if vcr, allowed to interrupt the connexion of any words which are closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an interjection, as I have elsewhere shown, is faulty, and directly contradicted by his example : " O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " Octavo Gram, i, 2-S and 128 ; ii, 2. This was a favourite sentence with Mur- ray, and he appears to have written it uniformly in this fashion ; which, undoubtedly, is alto- gether right, except that the word "virtue" should have had a capital Vee, because the quality is here personified. Uits. 17. Misled by the false notion, that the term interjection is appropriate only to what is 664 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " thrown in between the parts of a sentence," and perceiving that this is in fact but rarely the situation of this part of speech, a recent critic, (to whom I should owe some acknowledgements, if he were not name as words called interjection should never be so used- amiable thou art.' 'Oh ? Absalom, my son. die of a sentence, where it never belonged; thus, ' This enterprise, alas! will never compensate us for the trouble and expense with which it has been attended.' If G. B. meant the enterprize of studying grammar, in the old theories, his sentiment is very appropriate ; but his alas ! he should have known enough to have put into the right place : before the sentence representing the fac t that excites the emotion expressed by alas ! See on the Chart part 3, of RULE XVII. An exclama- tion must always precede the phrase or sentence describing the fact that excites the emotion to be expressed by the exclamation ; as, Alas ! I have alienated my friend ! Oh ! Glorious hope of bliss secure ! " OliverB. Peirce's Gram. p. 375. "O.Glorious hope of bliss secure ! " Ib. p. 184. " O glorious hope ! " Ib. p. 304. OBS. 18. I see no reason to believe, that the class of words which have always, and almost universally, been called interjections, can ever be more conveniently explained under any other name ; and, as for the term exclamation, which is preferred also by Cutler, Felton, and S. W. Clark, it appears to me much less suitable than the old one, because it is less specific. Any words uttered loudly in the same breath, are an exclamation. This name therefore is too general ; it includes other parts of speech than interjections ; and it was but a foolish whim in Dr. Webster, to prefer it in his dictionaries. When David " cried witha loud voice, Omy son Absalom ! O Ab- salom, my son, my son ! "* he uttered two exclamations ; but they included all his words. He did not, like my critic above, set off his first word with an interrogation point, or any other point. But, says Peirce, " These words are used in exclaiming, and are what all know them to be, excla- mations ; as I call them. May I not call them what they are? " Ibid. Yes, truly. But to ex- claim is to cry out, and consequently every outcry is an exclamation ; though there are two chances to one, that no interjection at all be used by the bawler. As good an argument, or better, may be framed against every one of this gentleman's professed improvements in grammar ; and as for his punctuation and orthography, any reader may be presumed capable of seeing that they are not fit to be proposed as models. OBS. 19. I like my position of the word " alas " better than that which Peirce supposes to be its only right place; and, certainly, his rule for the location of words of this sort, as well as his notion that they must always stand alone, is as false, as it is new. The obvious misstatement of Lowth Adam, Gould, Murray, Churchill, Alger, Smith, Guy, Ingersoll, and others, that, "Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence," I had not only excluded from my grammars, but expressly censured in them. It was not, therefore, to prop any error of the old theorists, that I happened to set one interjection " where," according to this new oracle, "it never belonr/ed.' And if any body but he has been practically misled by their mistake, it is not I, but more proba- bly some of the following authors, here cited for his refutation : " I fear, alas ! for my life." Fish's Gram. p. 89. "I have been occupied, alas ! with trifles." Murray's Gr., Ex. for Parting, p. 5 ; Guy's, p. 56 " WP pnrrprlv niirsilp nlenstira Tint nlnx I w nftpn mistakf the road." Smith's New Gram. "Time flies Gram. p. 21. " But John, "alas! he is very idle." Merchant's Gram. p. 22. " For pale and wan he was, alas the while ! " SPENSER : Joh. Diet. " But yet, alas ! O but yet, alas ! our haps be but hard haps." SYDNEY: ib. " Nay, (what's incredible,) alack! I hardly hear a woman's clack." SWIFT : ib. " Thus life is spent (phjie upon't !) In being touch'd. and crying Don't ! " Cowper, i, 231. " For whom, alas ! dost thou prepare The sweets that I was wont to share ? "Id. i, 203. " But here, alas ! the difference lies." Id. i, 100. " Their names, alas ! in vain reproach an age," &c.Id. i, 88. " What nature, alas! has denied," &c.Id. i, 235. "A. Hail Sternhold, then ; and Hopkins, hail! B. Amen." Id. i, 25. " These Fate reserv'd to grace thy reign divine, Foreseen by me, but ah ! withheld from mine ! " Pope, Dun. iii, 275. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS. O* [The following examples of bad grammar, being similar in their character to others already exhibited, are to be corrected, by the pupil, according to formules previously given.] LESSON I. ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. " Such, an one I believe yours will be proved to be." PEET : Farnums Gram. p. 1. " Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tenses, it may be observed," &c. Ainsworth's Gram. p. 122. "The subject is certainly worthy consideration." Ib. p. 117. "By this means all ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point." Bullions, Prin- ciples of Eng. Gram., 5th Ed., Pref. p. vi. " The perfect participle in English has both^an active and passive signification." Ib. p. 58. "The old house is at length fallen down."- Ib. p. 78. " The king, with the lords and commons, constitute the English form of govern- ment." Ib. p. 93. " The verb in the singular agrees with the person next it." Ib. p. 95. "Jane found Sethi's gloves in James' hat." Felton s Gram. p. 15. "Charles' task is too great." Ibid. 15. "The conjugation of a verb is the naming, in regular order, its several modes tenses, numbers and persons." Ib. p. 24. "The long remembered beggar was his * See 2 Sam. xix, 4 ; also xviii, 33. Peirce haa many times misquoted this text, or some part of it ; and what is remarkable, he nowhere agrees either with himself or with the Bible ! " ! Absalom ! my so p. 288. " Absalom ! my son, my son ! would to God I had died for thee." Ib. p. 304. i. " i nave oeen occupied, alas .' witn trifles. Murray s (jr., ux.jor rarsiny, p. o ; 5. "We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, alas ! we often mistake the road." Smith's . p. 40. " To-morrow, alas! thou mayest be comfortless ! " Wright's Gram. p. 35. ;, O ! how swiftly." Murray's Gram, i, 226. "My friend, alas! is dead." J. Flint's CHAP. XI.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIV. INTERJECTIONS. ERRORS. 665 guest." 75., 1st Ed., p. 65. "Participles refer to nouns and pronouns." Ib. p. 81. "F has an uniform sound in every position except in of." Hallock's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 15. " There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine and neuter." Ib. p. 43. " When to that occur together, sometimes the particle so is taken as an adverb." Ib. p. 124. " The definition of the articles show that they modify the words to which they belong." Ib. p. 138. "The auxiliaries shall, will or should is implied." Ib. p. 192. "Single rhyme trochaic omits the final short syllable." Ib. p. 244. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." BUHDER : ib. p. 156 ; Webster s Philos. Gram. 155 ; Im- proved Gram. 107. "The first person is the person speaking." Goldsbury's Common School Gram. p. 10. "Accent is the laying a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word." Ib., Ed. of 1842, p. 75. "Thomas' horse was caught." Felton's Gram. p. 64. "You was loved." Ib. p. 45. "The nominative and objective end the same." Rev. T. Smith's Gram. p. 18. " The number of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, the singular and the plural." Ib. p. 22. "/ is called the pronoun of the first per- son, which is the person speaking." Frost's Practical Gram. p. 32. " The essential elements of the phrase is an intransitive gerundive and an adjective." Hazen's Practical Gram. p. 141. "Being rich is no justification for such impudence." Ib. p. 141. "His having been a soldier in the revolution is not doubted." Ib. p. 143. " Catching fish is the chief employ- ment of the inhabitants. The chief employment of the inhabitants is catching fish." Ib. p. 144. " The cold weather did not prevent the work's being finished at the time specified." Ib. p. 145. "The former viciousness of that man caused his being suspected of this crime." Ib. p. 145. "But person and number applied to verbs means, certain termina- tions." Barrett's Gram. p. 69. " Robert fell a tree." Ib. p. 64. " Charles raised up." Ib. p. 64. " It might not be an useless waste of time." Ib. p. 42. Neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others which characterise the vulgar." Ib. p. 5. "/, is the first person, because it denotes the speaker." Ib. p. 46. "I would refer the student to Hedges' or Watts' Logic." Ib. p. 15. "Hedge's, Watt's, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic." Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 116. "Letters are called vowels which make a full and perfect sound of themselves." Cutler's Gram. p. 10. " It has both a singular and plural construction." Ib. p. 23. " For he beholdest thy beams no more." Ib. p. 136. "To this sentiment the Committee has the candour to incline, as it will appear by their summing up." Macpherson's O.ssian, Prelim. Disc. p. xviii. "This is reducing the point at issue to a narrow compass." Ib. p. xxv. " Since the English sat foot upon the soil." Exiks of \ova Scotia, p. 12. "The arrangement of its different parts are easily retained by the memory." Hiley's Gram., 3d Ed., p. 262. "The words employed are the most appropriate which could have been selected." Ib. p. 182. " To prevent it launch- ing ! " Ib. p. 135. " Webster has been followed in preference to others, where it differs from them." Frazee's Gram. p. 8. " Exclamation and Interrogation are often mistaken for one another." Buchanans E. Syntax, p. 160. "When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt keep their vigils." Felton's Gram. p. 96. " When all nature's hushed asleep, Nor love, nor guilt, their vigils keep." Ib. p. 95. LESSON II. ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A VERSIFTER and POET are two different Things." Brightlantfs Gram. p. 163. " Those Qualities will arise from the well expressing of the Subject." Ib. p. 165. " Therefore the explanation of network, is taken no notice of here." Masons Supplement, p. vii. " When emphasis or pathos are necessary to be expressed." Humphrey's Punctuation, p. 38. " Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, and whether it be proper to close the sen- tence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question." Ib. p. 39. " But not every writer in those days were thus correct." Ib. p. 59. " The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no less than four." 76. p. 69. " Our present code of rules are thought to be generally correct." Ib. p. 70. " To prevent its running into another." Humphrey's Pros- ody, p. 7. "Shakespeare, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius which England has produced." Ib. p. 93. "This I will illustrate l>y example; but prior to which a few pre- liminary remarks may be necessary." Ib. p. 107. "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of which to two accents nearly equal." Ib. p. 109. "But some cases of the kind are so plain that no one need to exercise his judgment therein." Ib. p. 122. " I have forbore to use the word." Ib. p. 127. " The propositions, He may study,' He might study,' 'He could study,' affirms an ability or power to study." HaUork's Gram, of 1842, p. 76. "The divisions of the tenses has occasioned grammarians much trouble and per- plexity." Ib. p. 77. " By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, it may be rendered highly attractive|to young learners." II V.V.v'.v s/>. (irnm. t 1st Ed., p. 1 ; 31, 9 ; 113th, 11. " The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully com- pared with each other." Ib. Preface, p. iii. " So as not wholly to prevent some sound* if- suing." Sheridan' a Elements of English, p. 64. "Letters of the Alphabet not yet taken notice of." Ib. p. 11. " IT is sad, IT is strange, &c. see-ms to expret-s only that the thing is 8 id, strange, &c." The Well-wishers' Gram. p. 68. "Tur. WINXIM; is easier than THE PRE- s ERVINO a conquest." Ib. p. 65. " The United States finds itself the owner of a vast region 666 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. of country at the West." Horace Mann in Congress, 1848. " One or more letters placed before a word, is a Prefix." S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram. p. 42. " One or more letters added to a word, is a Suffix." Ib. p. 42. "Two-thirds of my hair has fallen off." Ib. p. 126. "'Suspecting' describes 'we,' by expressing, incidentally, an act of 'we.'" Ib. p. 130. " Daniel's predictions are now being fulfilled." Ib. p. 136. " His being a scholar, entitles him to respect." Ib. p. 141. " I doubted his having been a soldier." Ib. p. 142. " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, cannot be regarded as robbing him." Ib. p. 129. " I thought it to be him ; but it was not him." Ib. p. 149. " It was not me that you saw." Ib. p. 149. " Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy." Ib. p. 149. "How long was you going ? Three days." Ib. p. 158. " The qual- ifying Adjective is placed next the Noun." Ib. p. 165. "All went but me." Ib. p. 93. "This is parsing their own language, and not the author's." Wells' s School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 73. "Nouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender." Ib. p. 49. "Noxina which denote females, are of the feminine gender." Ib. p. 49. " When a comparison is expressed between more than two objects of the same class, the superlative degree is em- ployed." Ib. p. 133. " Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t." Dr. Johnson s Gram. p. 9. " Write words which will show what kind of a house you live in what kind of a book you hold in your hand what kind of a day it is." Weld's Gram. p. 7. " One word or more is often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning." Ib., 2d Ed., p. 30. "Good is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person or thing to which it is applied." Ib. p. 33 ; Abridg. 32. "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted." WAYLA.ND : Wells's Gram. p. 121 ; Weld's, 180. " There was a chance of his recovering his senses. Not thus : ' There was a chance of him recovering his senses.' MACAULAY." See Wells's Gram. 1st Ed. p. 121 ; 113th, 135. "This may be known by its not having any connecting word immediately preceding it." Weld's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 181. " There are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage or cus- tom rather than analogy, sanction." Ib. p. 143. "He added an anecdote of Quin's relieving Thomson from prison." Ib. p. 150. "The daily labor of her hands procure for her all that is necessary." Ib. p. 182. " Its being me, need make no change in your deter- mination." Hart's Gram. p. 128. "The classification of words into what is called the Parts of Speech." Weld's Gram. p. 5. "Such licenses may be explained under what is usually termed Figures." Ib. p. 212. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hands." Ib. p. 196. "They fall successive and successive live." Ib. p. 213. LESSON III. ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A figure of Etymology is the intentional deviation in the usual form of a word." Welt's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 213. "A figure of Syntax is the intentional deviation in the usual con- struction of a word." Ib. 213. " Synecdoche is putting the name of the whole of any- thing for a part, or a part for the whole." Ib. p. 152. "Apostrophe is turning off from the regular course of the subject to address some person or thing." Ib. 215. " Even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will uncon- sciously gain, in a little time, more knowledge of the structure of Language than he can ac- quire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing." Ib. Preface, p. iv. "A few Rules of construction are employed in this Part, to guide in the exercise of parsing." Ibidem. " The name of every person, object, or thing, which can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun." Ib. p. 18 ; Abridged Ed. 19. "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every word, as well as at the close of the verses." W. Day's Punctuation, p. 16 : .London, 1847. " Casting types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452." Ib. p. 23. " On perusing it, he said, that, so far from it showing the prisoner's guilt, it positively established his innocence." Ib. p. 37. " By printing the nominative and verb in Italic letters, the reader will be able to distinguish them at a glance." Ib. p. 77. " It is well, no doubt, to avoid using unnecessary words." Ib. p. 99. " Meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, ' Where are you going ? ' " Ib. p. 124. " John was first denied apples, then he was promised them, then he was offered them." Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., p. 62. "He was denied ad- mission." Wells's School Gram., 1st. Ed., p. 146. " They were offered a pardon." Pond's Murray, p. 118 ; Wells, 146. " I was this day shown a new potatoe." DAUWIN : Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 179 ; Imp. Gram. 128 ; Frazee's Gram. 153; Weld's, 153. "Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the masculine gender." S. S. Greene's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 211. "There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, comparative, and superlative." Ib. p. 216 ; First Les. p. 49. " The first two refer to direction ; the third, to locality." Ib. Gr. p. 103. " The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and indirect object." Ib. p. 62. "I was not aware of his being the judge of the Supreme Court." Ib. p. 86. "An indirect question may refer to either of the five elements of a declarative sentence." Ib. p. 123. " I am not sure that he will be present=of his being pre- sent." Ib. p. 169. " We left on Tuesday." Ib. p. 103. " He left, as he told me, before CHAP. XI.] SYNTAX. RULE XXIV. PARSING. PRAXIS XIII. 667 the arrival of the steamer." Ib. p. 143. " We told him that he must leave=Vfe told him to leave." Ih. p. 168. "Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left in dis- gust." Ib. p. 172. " He left, and took his brother with him." Ib. p. 254. " This stating, or declaring, or denying any thing, is called the indicative mode, or manner of speaking." Gram. p. 72 ; Abridged Ed. 59. " This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynold's." !'s Gram., 2d. Ed., p. 150. " The manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in reading will be the subject of another paper." Ib. 150. ' Very little time is necessary for Johnson's concluding a treaty with the bookseller." Ib. 150. " My father is not now sick, but if he teas your services would be welcome." Chandler's Grammar, 1821, p. 54. " When we begin to write or speak, we ought previously to fix in our minds a clear concep- tion of the end to be aimed at." Blair's Rhetoric, p. 193. " Length of days are in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and honor." Bullions' s Analytical and Practical Grammar, 1849, p. 59. "The active and passive present express different ideas." Ib p. 235. "An. Improper Diphthong, or Digraph, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels are sound- ed." Foicler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, 115. "The real origin of the words are to be sought in the Latin." Ib. 120. "What sort of an alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine." Ib. 127. "The Runic Alphabet whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than, either the oldest Teutonic or the Mceso- Gothic Alphabets." Ib. 129. " Common to the Masculine and the Neuter Genders." Ib. 222. " In the Anglo-Saxon his was common to both the Masculine and Neuter Genders." Ib. 222. " When time, number, or dimen- sion are specified, the adjective follows the substantive." Ib. 459. " Nor pain, nor grief, nor anxious fear Invade thy bounds." Ib. 563. " To Brighton the Pavilion lends a lath and plaster grace." Ib. 590. "From this consideration nouns have been given but one person, the THIRD." D. C. Allen's Grammatic Guide, p. 10. " For it seems to guard and cherish Even the wayward dreamer I." Home Journal. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIII. SYNTACTICAL. Li the following Lessons, arc exemplified most of the Exceptions, some of the Notes, and many of the Observations, under the preceding Rules of Syntax ; to which Exceptions, Notes, or Observations, the learner may recur, for an explanation of whatsoever is difficult in the parsing, or peculiar in the con- struction, of these examples or others. LESSON I. PROSE. "The higher a bird flies, the more out of danger he is; and the higher a Christian hove the world, the safer are his comforts." Sparke. "7/t this point of view, and with this explanation, it is supposed, by some gram- marians, that our language contains a few Impersonal Verbs ; that is, verbs which declare the existence of some action or state, but which do not refer to any animate being, or any determinate particular subject." L. Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 109. Thus in England and France, a great landholder possesses a hundred times the property that is necessary for the subsistence of a family ; and each landlord has per- haps a hundred families dependent on him for subsistence." Webster's Essays, p. 87. ''It is as possible to become pedantick by fear of pedantry, as to be troublesome by ill-timed civility." Johnson's Itamblrr, WO. 173. " 7'" commence author, is to claim praise ; and no man can justly aspire to honour, but at the hazard of disgrace." Ib. No. 1K5. "For ministers to be silent in the cause of Christ, is to renounce it; and to fly is to desert it." SOUTH: Crabb's Xymmymes, p. 7. ich instances shew how much the sublime depends upon a just selection of circumstances; and with how great care every circumstance must be avoided, which by bordering in the least upon the mean, or even upon the gay or the trijling, alters the tone of the emotion." lilair's Rhct. p. 43. " This great poet and philosopher, the more he contemplated the nature of the IX-ity, fuuii'l that, /f wadrd but the more out of his depth, and that he lost himself in the thought inatmd of finding an end to it." A "Odin, which in Anglo-Saxon was Woden, was the supremo god of the Goths, answering to the Jupiter of the Greeks." Webster's Essays, p. -G'J. 668 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. " Because confidence, that charm and cement of intimacy, is wholly wanting in the intercourse." Opie, on Lying, p. 146. " Objects of hearing may be compared together, as also of taste, of smell, and of touch : but the chief fund of comparison are objects of sight." Kames, EL of Grit. Voi. ii, p. 136. " The various relations of the various Objects exhibited by this (I mean relations of near and distant, present and absent, same and different, definite and indefinite, &c.) made it necessary that here there should not be one, but many Pronouns, such as He, This, That, Other, Any, Some, &c." Harris's Hermes, p. 72. "Mr. Pope's Ethical Epistles deserve to be mentioned with signal honour, as a model, next to perfect, of this kind of poetry." Blair's Rhet. p. 402. " The knowledge of why they so exist, must be the last act of favour which time and toil will bestow." Rush, on the Voice, p. 253. u lt is unbelief, and not faith, that sinks the sinner into despondency. Chris- tianity disowns such characters." Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 141. " That God created the universe, [and] that men are accountable for their actions, are frequently mentioned by logicians, as instances of the mind judging." LESSON II. PROSE. "To censure works, not men, is the just prerogative of criticism; and accord- ingly all personal censure is here avoided, unless where necessary to illustrate some general proposition." Kames, EL of Qrit., Introduction, p. 27. " There remains to show by examples the manner of treating subjects, so as to give them a ridiculous appearance." Ib. Vol. i, p. 303. " The making of poetry, like any other handicraft, may be learned by industry." Macph erson's Preface to Ossian, p. xlv. " Whatever is found more strange or beautiful than was expected, is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. 243. '* Thus the body of an animal, and of a plant, are composed of certain groat vessels ; these [,] of smaller ; and these again [J of still smaller, without end, as mr as we can discover." Id. ib. p. 270. "This cause of beauty, is too extensive to be handled as a branch of any other subject : for to ascertain with accuracy even the proper meaning of words, not to talk of their figurative power, would require a large volume ; an useful work indeed, but not to be attempted without a large stock of time, study, and reflection." Id. Vol. ii, p. 16. " the hourly dangers that we here walk in! Every sense, and member, is a snare ; every creature, and every duty, is a snare to us." Baxter, Saints' Rest. "For a man to give his opinion of what he sees but in part, is an unjustifiable piece of rashness and folly." Addison. "That the sentiments thus prevalent among the early Jews respecting the divine authority of the Old Testament were correct, appears from the testimony of Jesus Christ and his apostles." Gurneys Essays, p. 69. "So in Society we are not our own, but Christ's, and the church's, to good works and services, yet all in love." Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 84. "He [Dr. Johnson} sat up in his bed, clapped his hands, and cried, '0 brave we! ' a peculiar exclamation of his when he rejoices." BoswelVs Life of John- son, Vol. iii, p. 56. " Single, double, and treble emphasis, are nothing but examples of antithesis." Knowles's Elocutionist, p. xxviii. " The curious thing, and what, I would almost say, settles the point, is, that we do Horace no service, even according to our view of the matter, by rejecting the scholiast's explanation. No two eggs can be more like each other than Horace's Malthinus and Seneca's Mecenas." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 477. "Acting, conduct, behaviour, abstracted from all regard to what is, in fact and event, the consequence of it^ is itself the natural object of this moral discernment, CHAP. XI.] SYNTAX. PARSING. PRAXIS XIII. PROSE. 669 as speculative truth and [say or] falsehood is of speculative reason." Butler's Analogy, p. 277. "To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times easier than to undo what is wrong." Porter's Analysis, p. 37. " Some natures the more pains a man takes to reclaim them, the worse they are." L'EsTRANGE : Johnson's Diet. w. Pains. " Says John JMilton, in that impassioned speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, where every word leaps with intellectual life, * Who kills a man, kills a reasonable creature, God's image ; but who destroys a good book, kills reason itself, kills the image of God, as it were, in the eye. Many a man lives a burden upon the earth ; but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose for a life beyond life ! ' " Louisville Examiner, June, 1850. LESSON III. PROSE. " The philosopher, the saint, or the hero the wise, the good, or the great man Tery often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to light." Addison. " The year before, he had so used the matter, that what by force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty small castles." Knolles. "It is an important truth, that religion, vital religion, the religion of the heart, is the most powerful auxiliary of reason, in waging war with the passions, and promoting that sweet composure which constitutes the peace of God." Murray's Key, p. 181. "Pray, sir, be pleased to take the part of us beauties and fortunes into your con- sideration, and do not let us be flattered out of our senses. Tell people that we fair ones expect honest plain answers, as well as other folks." Spectator, No. 534. "Unhappy it would be for us, did not uniformity prevail in morals: that uor actions should uniformly be directed to what is good and against what is *'//, is the greatest blessing in society ; and in order to uniformity of action, uniformity of senti- ment is indispensable." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. ii, p. 306. " Thus the pleasure of all the senses is the same in all, high and low, learned and unlearned." Burke, on Taste, p. 39. "Upwards of eight millions of acres have, I believe, been thus disposed of." Society in America, Vol. i, p. 333. "The Latin Grammar comes something nearer, but yet does not hit the mark neither" Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 281. "Of the like nature is the following inaccuracy of Dean Swiff s" Blair's Rhet. p. 105. " Thus, Sir, I have given you my own opinion, relating to this weighty affair, as well as that of a great majority of both houses here." Ib. "A foot is just twelve times as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times the length of a minute." Murray's Gram. p. 48. " What can we expect, who come a gleaning, not after the first reapers, but after the very beggars ? " Cowley's Pref. to Poems, p. x. " In our Lord's being betrayed into the hands of the chief-priests and scribes, by Judas Iscariot ; in his being by them delivered to the Gentiles ; in his being mocked, scourged, spitted on, [say spit upon,] and crucified ; and in his rising from the dead after three days; there was much that was singular, complicated, and not to be easily calculated on beforehand.' Gurneys Essays, p. 40. "To be morose, implacabl ible, and revengeful, is one of the greatest degeneracies of human nature." Dr. J. OK ** Now, says he, if tragedy, which is in its nature grand and lofty, will not admit of this, who can forbear laughing to hear the historian Gorgias Leontinus styling Xerxes, that cowardly Persian king, Jupiter ; and vultures, living sepulchres ? " Holmes'* Rhetoric, Part II, p. 14. " O let thy all-seeing eye, and not the eye of the world, be the star to steer my course by ; and let thy blessed favour, more than the liking of any sinful men, be ever my study and delight." Jenks"s Prayers, p. 150. 670 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. LESSON IV. PROSE. " the Hope of Israel, the Saviour thereof 'in time of trouble, why shouldest thou be as a stranger in the land, and as a way-faring man, that turneth aside to tarry for anight?" Jeremiah, xiv, 8. " When once the long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was apreparing, wherein few, that is, eight souls, were saved." 1 Peter, iii, 20. " Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other." Psalms, Ixxxv, 10. "But in vain they do worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men." Matt, xv, 9. " Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment." Job, xx, 4, 5. " For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to face : now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also I am known." 1 Cor. xiii, 12. "For then the king of Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem: and Jeremiah the Prophet was shut up in the court of the prison which was in the king of Judah's house." Jer. xxxii, 2. " For Herod had laid hold on John, and bound him, and put him in prison, for Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife" Matt, xiv, 3. "And now I have sent a cunning man, endued with understanding, of Huram my father's, the son of a woman of the daughters of Dan." 2 Chron. ii, 13. " Bring no more vain oblations : incense is an abomination unto me ; the new moons and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, I cannot away with : it is iniquity even the solemn meeting ." Isaiah, i, 13. "For I have heard the voice of the daughter of Zion, that bewaileth herself, that spreadeth her hands, saying. Woe is me now ! for my soul is wearied because of mur- derers." Jer. iv, 31. " She saw men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans portiayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their nativity." Ezekiel, xxiii, 15. "And on them was written according to all the words which the Lord spake with you in the mount, out of the midst of the fire, in the day of the assembly." Deut. ix, 10. "And he charged them that they should tell no man : but the more he charged them, so much the more a great deal they published it." Mark, vii, 36. " The results which God has connected with actions, will inevitably occur, all the created power in the universe to the contrary notwithstanding" Wayland's Moral Science, p. 5. "Am /not an apostle ? am I not free ? have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? are not ye my work in the Lord ? If I be not an apostle unto others, yet doubtless I am to you : for the seal of mine apostleship are ye in the Lord." 1 Cor. ix, 1, 2. " Not to insist upon this, it is evident, that formality is a term of general import. It implies, that in religious exercises of all kinds the outward and [the] inward man are at diametrical variance." Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterians, p. 354. LESSON V. VERSE. "See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow, Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks, can know ; Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, The bad must miss, the good, untaught, will find." Pope. " There are, who, deaf to mad Ambition's call, Would shrink to hear th' obstrep'rous trump of fame ; Supremely blest, if to their portion fall Health, competence, and peace." Beattie. CHAP. XI.] SYNTAX. PARSING. PRAXIS XIII. VERSE. 671 " High stations tumult, but not bliss, create ; None think the great unhappy, but the great. Fools gaze and envy : envy darts a sting, Which makes a swain as wretched as a king." Young. " Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! Sink down, ye mountains ; and, ye valleys, rise ; With heads declin'd, ye cedars, homage pay ; Be smooth, ye rocks ; ye rapid floods, give way." Pope. "Amid the forms which this full world presents Like rivals to his choice, what human breast E'er doubts, before the transient and minute, To prize the vast, the stable, and sublime?" Akenside. " Now fears in dire vicissitude invade ; The rustling brake alarms, and quiv'ring shade : Nor light nor darkness brings his pain relief; One shows the plunder, and one hides the thief." Johnson. "If Merab's choice could have complied with mine, Merab, my elder comfort, had been thine : And hers, at last, should have with mine complied, Had I not thine and Michael's heart descried." Cowley. " The people have as much a negative voice To hinder making war without their choice, As kings of making laws in parliament : l No money ' is as good as 'No assent. 1 " Bailer. " Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air." Gray, "Oh fool! to think God hates the worthy mind, The lover and the love of human kind, W/tose life is healthful, and whose conscience clear, Because he wants a thousand pounds a year." Pope. "0 Freedom! sovereign boon of Heav'n, Great charter, with our being given ; For which the patriot and the sage Have plann'd, have bled thro' ev'ry age ! " Mattet. LESSON VI. VERSE. "Am I to set my life upon a throw, Because a bear is rude and surly? No" Cowper. "Poor, guiltless I! and can I choose but smile, When every coxcomb knows me by my style ? " Pope. "Remote from man, with God he pass'd his days, Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise." Parnell. " These are thy blessings, Industry ! rough power; Whnm labour still attends, and sweat, and pain" Thomson. " What ho! thou genius of the clime, what ho ! hirst thou aslrrp beneath these hills of snow?" Drydcn. " What! canst thou not forbear me half an hour? Thence/ thee gone, and dig my grave thyself." Shak. " Then palaces and lofty domes arose ; These for devotion, and for pleasure those" Blackmore. " 'Tis very dangerous, tampering with a muse; The profit's smnll, and you have much to lc.se." Roscommon. "Lucrrtius Kitn> ^iven, the learner who takes them as an oral e.vr<-i.sc, will ascertain for himself the proper, form of correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or Note under which it belongs. \Vhtn two or more errors occur in the same example, they ought to be corrected successively, in their order. The erroneous sentence being read alourl as it stands, the pupil should say. "First, Not proper, because," &c. And when the first error has thus been duly corrected by a brief and regular syllogism, either the same pupil or an other should immediately proceed, and say, ''Secondly, Not proper again, because, 1 ' &c. And so of the third error, and the fourth, if there be so many. In this manner, a cla.-s may be taught to speak in succession without of time, and, after some practice, with a near approach to that PERFKI-T Arcru\CY which is the great end of grammatical instruction. \Vhen time cannot be allowed for this regular exercise, these examples maj still be profitably rehearsed by a more rapid process, one pupil reading aloud the quoted false grammar, and an other responding to each example, by reading the intended correction from the Key.J LESSON I. ARTICLES. "And they took stones, and made an heap." Com. Bibles; Gen. xxxi, 46. "And I do know a many fools, that stand in better place." Beauties of Shak. p. 44. " It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and violence of pursuit." Kames, El of Crit. i, p. xxiii. " The word news may admit of either a singular or plural application." Wright's Gram. p. 39. "He has gained a fair and a honorable reputation." Ib. p. 140. " There are two general forms, called the solemn and familiar style." Sanborn's Gram. p. 109. "Neither the article nor preposition can be omitted." Wright's Gram, p. 190. "A close union is also observable between the Subjunctive and Potential Moods." Ib, p. 72. " We should render service, equally, to a friend, neighbour, and an enemy." Ib. p. 140. "Till an habit is ob- tained of aspirating strongly." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 49. " There is an uniform, steady use of the same signs." Ib. p. 163. "A traveller remarks the most objects he sees." Jamieson's Ith.'t. p. 72. " What is the name of the river on which London stands? The Thames." ' "\Ve sometimes find the last line of a couplet or triplet stretched out to twelve syllables." A flu ins Lat, and Eny. Gmm. p. 2X2. " Nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case." Blair's Gntm. p. 14. "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of wrongs, which good n:cn perpetrate." Channing's Emancip, p. 71. " Gathering of riches is a pleas- ant torment." Treasury of Knowledge, Diet. p. 446. "It [the lamentation of Helen for Hector] is worth the being quoted." Coleridge's Introd. p. 100. "Council is a noun which admits of a singular and plural form." Wright's Gram. p. 137. "To exhibit the connex- ion between the Old and the New Testaments." Keith's Evidences, p. 25. "An apos- trophe discovers the omission of a letter or letters." Guy's Gram. p. 95. " He is immedi- ately ordained, or rather acknowledged an hero." Pope, Preface to the Dunciad.. "Which is the same in both the leading and following State." Brightland's Gram. p. 86. " Pronouns, as will be seen hereafter, have a distinct nominative, possessive, and objective case." Blair'* Grnm. p. 15. "A word of many syllables is called polysyllable." Beck's Outline of E. Gram. p. 2. "Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural." Ib. p. 6. "They have three rs, masculine, feminine, and neuter." Ib. p. 6. "They have three cases, nominative, md objective." Ib. p. 6. " Personal Pronouns have, like Nouns, two numbers, singular and plural. Three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Two cases, nomina- tive and objective." Ib. p. 10. "He must be wise enough to know the singular from plural." Ib. p. 20. " Though they may be able to meet the every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer." Chaf/ners, .Svv?io//.v, p. 104. "Yet for love's sake I rather h thee, being such an one as Paul the aged." Ep. to Philemon, 9. "Being such one il the aged." Dr. Webster's Bible. "A people that jeoparded their lives unto the death." Judges, v, 18. " By preventing the too great accumulation of seed within a too narrow com]. ass." The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 1)7. " Who tills up the middle space between the animal and intellectual nature, the visible and invisible world." Addison, Sj'ct. No. 519. "The Psalms abound with instances of an harmonious arrangement of the words." Mur- Chram, i. p. : >-'!''- ' On another table were an ewer and vase, likewise of gold." A". )'. Mtn-'ir, xi, .'W7. "7V is said to have two sounds sharp, and flat." Wilson's Essay on Gram. j>. :{:;. " Section (6) is used in subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts." Brightfanifi . ]>. l.rJ. " Try it in a Do<; or an Horse or any other Creature." Lockr, / Gram, p. 10. " Is Wil- liam' t a proper or common noun?" Ib. p. 12. ""What kind of an article, then, shall we call thc'"Ib. p. 13. h burns alike, who Can, or cannot write, Or with a rival's or an eunuch's spite." Pope, on Crit. 1. 30. LBSSON II. -I'X \ml then- i< -r.ainprd upon thfir Imaginations Idea's that, follow them with Terror and AMYi^htment." LocAv, nn l.d. p. ""d . " 'I h. rr 's not a wrrti-b that livrs nn common rharity, 674 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. but 's happier than me." VENICE PRESERVED : Kames, El. of Crit. i, 63. " But they over- whelm whomsoever is ignorant of them." Common School Journal, i, 115. " I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here last week." Inst. p. 129. " Gentlemens Houses are seldom without Variety of Company." Locke, on Ed. p. 107. " Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their Masters feet." Ib. p. 221. " We blamed neither John nor Mary's delay." Nixon's Parser, p. 1 17. " The book was written by Luther the reformer's order." Ib. p. 59. " I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's Sermons, and somebody else (I forget who's) sermons, and a set of noisy children." Lord Byron's Letters. " Or saith he it altogether for our sakes ? " 1 Cor. ix, 10. " He was not aware of the duke's being his competitor." Sanborn's Gram. p. 190. " It is no condition of a word's being an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun." FOWLE : ib. p. 190. " Though their Reason correct- ed the wrong Idea's they had taken in." Locke, on Ed. p. 251. "It was him, who taught me to hate slavery." Morris, in Congress, 1839. " It is him and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others." Id. ib. "Payment of Tribute is an Acknowledgment of his being King to whom we think it Due." Right of Tythes, p. 161. " When we comprehend what we are taught." Ingersoll's Gram. p. 14. " The following words, and parts of words, must be taken notice of." Priestley's Gram. p. 96. " Hence tears and commiseration are so often made use of." Blair's Rhet. p. 269. " JOHN-A-NOKES. n. s. A fictitious name, made use of in law proceedings." Chalmers, Eng. Diet. " The construction of Matter, and Part taken hold of." B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram. p. x. "And such other names, as carry with them the Idea's of some thing terrible and hurtful." Locke, on Ed. p. 250. "Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared the trouble and fatigue." Pike's Hebrew Lexicon, p. iv. " Tis not the owning ones Dissent from another, that I speak against." Locke, on Ed. p. 265. "A Man that cannot Fence will be more careful to keep out of Bullies and Game- sters Company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon Punctilio's." Ib. p. 357. " From such Persons it is, one may learn more in one Day, than in a Years rambling from one Inn to another." Ib. p. 377. "Along syllable is generally considered to be twice the length of a short one." Blair's Gram. p. 117. "I is of the first person, and singular number ; Thou is second per. sing.; He, She, or It, is third per. sing. ; We is first per. plural ; Ye or You is second per. plural; They is third per. plural." Kirkhams Gram. p. 46. "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nominative." Ib. p. 43. " No Body can think a Boy of Three or Seven Years old, should be argued with, as a grown Man." Locke, on Ed. p. 129. " This was in one of the Pharisees' houses, not, in Simon the leper's." Hammond. " Impossible ! it can't be me." Swift. "Whose grey top shall tremble, Him descending." Dr. Bentley. " What, gender is woman, and why? " Smith's New Gram. p. 8. " Whit gender, then, is man, and why ? " Ibid. " Who is I; who do you mean when you say i! " R. W. Green's Gram. p. 19. "It [Parnassus] is a pleasant air, but a barren soil." Lode, on Ed. p. 31 1. " You may, in three days time, go from Galilee to Jerusalem." Josephus, Vc 1, 5, p. 174. "And that which is left of the meat-offering shall be Aaron's and his sons." SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S : Lev. ii, 10. See also ii, 3. " For none in all the world, without a lie, Can say that this is mine, excepting I." Bunyan. LESSON III. ADJECTIVES. " When he can be their Remembrancer and Advocate every Assises and Sessions." Right of Tythes, p. 244. " Doing, denotes all manner of action ; as, to dance, to play, io write, to read, to teach, to fight, &c." Buchanan's Gram. p. 33. " Seven foot long,"- " eight foot long," " fifty foot long." Walker's Particles, p. 205. "Nearly the whole of this twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation." Fowler, on Tabacco, p. 16. " Two negatives destroy one another." R. W. Green's Gram. p. 92. " We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in each other." The Friend, iv, 108. "The Russian empire is more extensive than any government in the world." School Geog. "You will always have the Satisfaction to think it the Money of all other the best laid out." Locke, on Ed. p. 145. "There is no one passion which all mankind so naturally give into as pride." Steek, Sped. No. 462. " O, throw away the worser part of it." Beauties of Shak. p. 237. " He showed us a more agreeable and easier way." Inst. p. 134. "And the four last [are] to point out those further improvements." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 52 ; Campbell's, 187. " Where he has not distinct and different clear Idea's." Locke, on Ed. p. 353. " Oh, when shall we have such another Rector of Laracor ! " Hazlitt's Lect. " Speech must have been absolutely necessary previous to the formation of society." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 2. " Go and tell them boys to be still." Inst. p. 135. "Wrongs are engraved on marble ; benefits, on sand : these are apt to be requited ; those, forgot." B. " Neither of these several inter- pretations is the true one." B. " My friend indulged himself in some freaks unbefitting the gravity of a clergyman." B. "And their Pardon is All that either of their Impropriators will have to plead." Right of Tythes, p. 196. " But the time usually chosen to send young Men abroad, is, I think, of all other, that which renders them least capable of reaping those Advantages." Locke, on Ed. p. 372. "It is a mere figment of the human imagination, a rhapsody of the transcendent unintelligible." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 120. "It contains a CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. - A GENERAL REVIEW. - ERRORS. 675 greater assemblage of sublime ideas, of bold and daring figures, than is perhaps anywhere to be met with." Blair s Rhet. p. 162. " The order in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed." Ib. p, 204. " The orders in which the two lust words are placed, should have been reversed." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 310. "In Demosthenes, eloquence shown forth with higher splendour, than perhaps in any that ever bore the name of an orator." Blair's Rhet. p. 242. " The circumstance of his being poor is decidedly favorable." Student's Manual, p. 286. " The temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his being poor." Ib. p. 287. "For with her death that tidings came."- Shak.p. 257. "The next objection is, that these sort of authors are poor." r " Presenting Emma as Miss Castlemain to these acquaintance." Opie's Temper. " I doubt not but it will please more than the opera." Sped. No. 28. " The world knows only two, that's Rome and I." Ben Johnson. " I distinguish these two things from one another." Blair's Rhet. p. 29. "And in this case, mankind reciprocally claim, and allow indulgence to each other." Sheridan's Lect. p. 29. " The six last books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author." Blair's Rhet. p. 438. " The best executed part of the work, is the first six books." Ib. p. 447. " To reason how can we be said to rise ? So many cares attend the being wise." Sheffield. LESSON IV. PRONOUNS. " Once upon a time a goose fed its young by a pond side." Goldsmith's Essays, p. 175. " If either [work] have a sufficient degree of merit to recommend them to the attention of the public." Walker's Rhyminy Diet. p. iii. " Now W. Mitchell his deceit is very remark- able." Barclay's Works, i, 264. " My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of your belief." Banyans P. P. p. 158. " I had two elder brothers, one of which was a lieutenant-colonel." Robinson Crusoe, p. 2. " Though James is here the object of the action, yet, he is in the nominative case." Wright's Gram. p. 64. "Here, John is the actor ; and is known to be the nominative, by its answering to the question, o struck Richard '"Ib. p. 43. "One of the most distinguished privileges which Providence has conferred upon mankind, is the power of communicating their thoughts to one another." Blair's Rhet. p. 9. " With some of the most refined feelings which belong to our frame." Ib. p. 13. "And the same instructions which assist others in composing, will assist them in judging of, and relishing, the beauties of composition." Ib. p. 12. " To overthrow all which had been yielded in favour of the army." Mrs. Macaulay's Hist, i, 335. " Let your faith stand in the Lord God who changes not, and that created all, and gives the increase of all." Friend*' Adi-ires, 1676. " For it is, in truth, the sentiment or passion, which lies under the figured expression, that gives it any merit." Blair's Rhet. p. 133. " Verbs are words which affirm the being, doing, or suffering of a thing, together with the time it happens." AL Murray's Gram. p. 29. " The Byass will always hang on that side, that nature first placed it." Locke, on Ed. p. 177. " They should be brought to do the things are fit for them." Ib. p. 178. " Various sources whence the English language is derived." Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. 286. "This attention to the several cases, when it is proper to omit and when to redouble the copulative, is of considerable importance." Blair's Rhet. p. 113. " Cicero, for instance, speaking of the cases where killing another is lawful in self defence, uses the following words." Ib. p. 156. " But there is no nation, hardly any person so phlegmatic, as not to accompany their words with some actions and gesticu- lations, on all occasions, when they are much in earnest." Ib. p. 335. " William's is said to be governed by coat, because it follows William's." Smith's New Gram. p. 12. "There my occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity are true wisdom." Murray's 197. " In choosing umpires, the avarice of whom is excited." Xixon's J'arser, p. The borou-hs sent representatives, which had been enacted." Ib. p. 154. "No man believes but what there is some order in the universe." Anon. " The moon is orderly in her changes, which she could not be by accident." Id. " Of Sphynx her riddles, they an generally two kinds." /n, p. 73. "They must generally h'nd cither their Friends or Enemies in Power." Broirns Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 166. " For of old, every one took upon them to write what happened in their own time." Joscphiis's Jcrrish War, Pref. p. 4. " The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the high priest, for its transgressions." See Key. " The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of the whole." Inst. p. 146. "The severity with which this denomination was treated, appeared rather to invite than to deter them from flocking to the colony." //. Adams'* }'ieir, p. 71. " Many Christians abuse the Scriptures and the traditions of the apostles, to uphold things quite contrary to it." Barclay's Works, i, 461. " Thus, a circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye, by their regularity, as beautiful figures." Blair's Rhet. p. 46. " Elba is remarkable for "its being the place to" which Uonuparte was banished in 1814." See Sanborn's Gram. p. 190. " The editor has the reputation of his being a good linguist and critic." See in. "Tis a Piide should be cherished in them." Locke, on Ed. p. 129. "And to restore us the Hopes of Fruits, to reward our Pains in its season." Ib. p. 136. " Thecomick representation of 676 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Death's victim relating its own tale." Wright's Gram. p. 103. "As for Scioppius his Grammar, that doth wholly concern the Latin Tongue." DR. WILKINS : Tooke's D. P. i, 7. "And chiefly thee, O Spirit, who dost prefer Before all temples the upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for Thou knowest." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 45. LESSON V. VERBS. "And there was in the same country shepherds abiding in the field." SCOTT'S BIBLE : Luke, ii, 8. " Whereof every one bear twins." COM. BIBLE : Sol. Song, iv, 2. " Whereof every one bare twins." ALGEK'S BIBLE : ib. " Whereof every one beareth twins." SCOTT'S BIBLE : ib. " He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles, that is planted in it." Addison, Sped. No. 181. "Genii, denote serial spirits." Wright's Gram. p. 40. " In proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions have been obtained by force." BP. HALIFAX : Butler's Analogy, p. xvi. " Neither of these are fix'd to a Word of a general Signification, or proper Name." Brightland's Gram, p. 95. " Of which a few of the opening lines is all I shall give." Moore's Life of Byron. " The riches we had in England was the slow result of long industry and wisdom." DAVENANT : Web- ster's Imp. Gram. p. 21 ; Phil. Gram. 29. "The following expression appears to be correct : ' Much publick thanks is due.'" Wright's Gram. p. 201. "He hath been enabled to correct many mistakes." Loivth's Gram. p. x. " Which road takest thou here?" Inger- soll's Gram. p. 106. " Learnest thou thy lesson ? "Ib. p. 105. " Learned they their pieces perfectly ? " Ibid. " Thou learnedst thy task well." Ibid. " There are some can't relish p. certainly have been masculine." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 176. " If only one follow, there seems to be a defect in the sentence." Priestley's Gram. p. 104. . Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him." John, xx, 15. " Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound." Psalms, Ixxxix, 15. "Every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe, which are paid to them by one who addresses them." Blair's Rhet. p. 308. "Private causes were still pleaded [in the forum] ; but the public was no longer interested ; nor any general attention drawn to what passed there." Ib. p. 241). " Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the Inflection of the Classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words '"Murray's Gram, i, p. II'.!. " If the student reflects, that the principal and the auxiliary forms but one verb, he wi 1 have little or no difficulty, in the proper application of the present rule." Ib. p. 18!'. " For the sword of the enemy and fear is on every side." Jeremiah, vi, 25. "Even the Stoics agree that nature and certainty is very hard to come at." Collier's Antoninus, p. 71 . ' His politeness and obliging behaviour was changed." Priestley's Gram. p. 186. "His politeness and obliging behaviour were changed." Hume's Hist. Vol. vi, p. 14. " War and its honours was their employment and ambition." Goldsmith. " Does a and an mean the same thing ? " R. W. Green's Gram. p. 15. " When a number of words come in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error." Cobbett's Gram. U 185. "The sen- tence should be, ' When a number of words comes in,' &c." Wright's Gram. p. 170. "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our regular Verbs." Lowth's Gram. p. 45. "-The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our Regular Verbs." Hiley's Gram. p. 45. " Prompt aid, and not promises, are what we ought to give." Author. " The position of the several organs therefore, as well as their functions are ascertained." Medical Magazine, 1833, p. 5. "Every private company, and almost every public assembly, afford opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution." Enfteld's Speaker, p. 9. " Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, make up the temper and character in us which answers to his sovereignty." Butler's Analogy, p. 126. " In happiness, as in other things, there is a false and a true, an imaginary and a real." Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 134. "To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, is equally unphilor- aophical." Author. < I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blow, Where ox-lips and the nodding violet grows." Beaut, of Shak. p. 51. LESSON VI. VERBS. "Whose business or profession prevent their attendance in the morning." Ogilby. "And no church or officer have power over one another."- LECHFORD : in Ihttchinsons Hist, i, 373. " While neither reason nor experience are sufficiently matured to protect them." Wood- bridge, "Among the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, or the far greatest number at least, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity." Blairs Rhet. p. 383. "Among, the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, qr at least by far the greatest number of syllables, CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. - A GENERAL REVIEW. - ERRORS. 677 was known to have a fixed and determined quantity." Jamiesons Rhet. p. 303. " Their vanity is awakened and their passions exalted by the irritation, which their self-love receives from contradiction." Influence of Literature, Vol. ii, p. 218. " I and he was neither of us any great swimmer." Anon. " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recom- mend the measure." Murray's Gram, i, p. 150. "A correct plainness, and elegant simpli- city, is the proper character of an introduction." Blair's llhet. p. 308. " In syntax there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and government." Infant School Gram. p. 128. " People find themselves able without much study to write and speak the English intelligibly, and thus have been led to think rules of no utility." Webster's Essays, p. 6. " But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and addresses himself to our judgment, rather than to our imagina- tion." Blair's Rhet. p. 353. "But practice hath determined it otherwise ; and has, in all the languages with which we are much acquainted, supplied the place of an interrogative mode, either by particles of interrogation, or by a peculiar order of the words in the sen- tence." Lowth's Gram. p. 84. " If the Lord have stirred thee up against me, let him accept an offering." 1 Sam. xxvi, 19. " But if the priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and is returned unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat." Levit. xxii, 13. " Since we never have, nor ever shall study your sublime productions." Xeefs Sketch, p. 62. " Enabling us to form more distinct images of objects, than can be done with the utmost attention where these particulars are not found." J\ El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. 174. " I hope you will consider what is spoke comes from my love." Shak., Otht-Uo. " We will then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred." Rush, on the Voice, p. 406. " I knew it was Crab, and goes me to the fellow that whips the dogs." SHAK. : Joh. Diet. w. ALE. " The youth was being consumed by a slow malady." ll'ri'/ht'fi (irani. p. 192. " If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points may be accomplished." Ib. p. 240. "If you will re- place what has been long since expunged from the language." Campbell's Rhet. p. 167 ; Murray's Gram. i, '',*' \. "As in all those faulty instances, I have now been giving." Blair s Rln-i. p. 149. " This mood has also been improperly used in the following places." Murray's Gram, i, 1H4. " lie [Milton] seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was that nature had bestowed upon him." Johnson's Life of Milton. " Of which I already gave one instance, the worst, indeed, that occurs in all the poem." Blair's Rhet. p. 395. " It is strange he never commanded you to have done it." Anon. " History painters would have found it difficult, to have invented such a species of beings." ADDISOX : see Loicth's Gram. p. 87. " Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly, it must be done with reference to some language already known." Lowth's Preface, p. viii. "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived, as simply to express these, no more was needful." Blair's Rhet. p. 82. " To a writer of such a genius as Dean Swift, the plain style was most admirably fitted." Ib. p. 181. " Please excuse my son's absence." Inst. p. 188. " Bid the boys to come in immediately." Ib. "Gives us the secrets of his Pagan hell, Where ghost with ghost in sad communion dwell." Crabbe'a Bor. p. 306. "Alas ! nor faith nor valour now remain ; are but wind, and I must bear my chain." Walpole's Catal. p. 11. LESSON VII. PARTICIPLES. " Of which the Author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying of the foundation-stone." Blair's Cram. p. ix. "On the raiding such lively and distinct images as are here described." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 89. " They are necessary to the avoiding Ambiguities." MjpAtfMNf* Gram. p. 95. "There is no neglecting it without falling into a dangerous error." Burlama'/ui, on Lair, p. 41. "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fighting windmills." Webster's Essays, p. 67. "That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses. i< no proof of their having no particular time of their own." Mur- ray's Gram, i, 190. " To justify my not following the tract of the ancient rhetoricians." Blair's Rhet. p. 122. "The putting letters together, so as to make words, is called spell- ing." Infant S'-linl Gram. p. 11. "What is the putting vowels and consonants together called." Ib. p. 12. Nobody knows of their being charitable but themselves." / on the Gospel, p. 29. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its having been so long postponed." Murray's Gram.i, 1st; ; Kirkham'x, l'J4 ; I/n/ersoU's,254. " Which will bear being brought into comparison with any composition of the kind." Blair s R/ut. p. 396. "To render vice ridiculous, Ls doing real service to the world." Ib. p. 476. "It is copying directly from nature; giving a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was sup] to pass, in conversation." Ib. p. 433. " Propriety of pronunciation is giving to every word that sound, which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 200. " To occupy the mind, and prevent onr regretting the insipidity of an uniform plain." AW There are a hundred ways of any thing happening." Steele. "Tell me, signor, what was the cause of Antonio's sending Claudio to Venice, yesterday." Buck's Gram. p. 90. "Looking about for an outlet, some rich 678 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. prospect unexpectedly opens to view." Kames, EL of Crit. ii, 334. "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read, without acquiring a new idea." Webster's Essays, p. 29. Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to coining, or, at least, new compounding words." Blair's Rhet. p. 93. " When laws were wrote on brazen tablets inforced by the sword." Notes to the Dunciad. "A pronoun, which saves the naming a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing." Kames, EL of Crit. ii, 49. "The using a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice." Ib. ii, 37. "To save multiplying words, I would be under- stood to comprehend both circumstances." Ib. i, 219. "Immoderate grief is mute : com- plaining is struggling for consolation." Ib. i, 398. " On the other hand, the accelerating or retarding the natural course, excites a pain." Ib. i, 259. " Human affairs require the distributing our attention." Ib. i, 264. "By neglecting this circumstance, the following example is defective in neatness." Ib. ii, 29. "And therefore the suppressing copulatives must animate a description." Ib. ii, 32. "If the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid." Ib. ii, 33. "It skills not asking my leave, said Richard." Scott's Crusaders. " To redeem his credit, he pro- posed being sent once more to Sparta." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 129. "Dumas relates his having given drink to a dog." Dr. Stone, on the Stomach, p. 24. "Both are, in a like way, instruments of our receiving such ideas from external objects." Butler's Analogy, p. 66. " In order to your proper handling such a subject." Spectator, No. 533. " For I do not recollect its being preceded by an open vowel." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 56. " Such is setting up the form above the power of godliness." Barclay's Works, i, 72. " I remem- ber walking once with my young acquaintance." Hunt's Byron, p. 27. " He [Lord Byron] did not like paying a debt." Ib. p. 74. " I do not remember seeing Coleridge when I was a child." Ib. p. 318. "In consequence of the dry rot's having been discovered, the man- sion has undergone a thorough repair." Maunder' s Gram. p. 17. "I would not advise the following entirely the German system." DR. LIBBER: Lit. Conv. p. 66. "Would it not be making the students judges of the professors ? " Id. ib. p. 64. " Little time should intervene between their being proposed and decided upon." PROP. VETHAKE : ib. p. 39. "It would be nothing less than finding fault with the Creator." Ib. p. 116. "Having once been friends is a powerful reason, both of prudence and conscience, to restrain us from ever becoming enemies." Seeker. " By using the word as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented." Murray's Gram, i, 216. " He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem, But preaching Jesus is not one of them." J. Taylor. LESSON VIII. ADVERBS. "Auxiliaries cannot only be inserted, but are really understood." Wright's Gram. p. " He was since a hired Scribbler in the Daily Courant." Notes to the Dunciad, ii, 299. " In gardening, luckily, relative beauty need never stand in opposition to intrinsic beauty." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 330. " I doubt much of the propriety df the following examples." Lowth's Gram. p. 44. "And [we see] how far they have spread one of the worst Languages possibly in this part of the world." Locke, on Ed. p. 341. "And in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest." Smith's New Gram. p. 5. " Where, ah ! where, has my darling fled?" Anon. "As for this fellow, we know not from whence he is." John, ix, 29. " Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only." James, ii, 24. " The Mixt kind is where the poet sometimes speaks in his own per- son, and sometimes makes other characters to speak." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 276 ; Gould's, 267. " Interrogation is, when the writer or orator raises questions and returns answers." Fisher's Gram. p. 154. "Prevention is, when an author starts an objection which he fore- sees may be made, and gives an answer to it." Ib. p. 154. "Will you let me alone, or no ? " Walker's Particles, p. 184. " Neither man nor woman cannot resist an engaging exterior." Chesterfield, Let. lix. "Though the Cup be never so clean." Locke, on Ed. p. 65. " Seldom, or ever, did any one rise to eminence, by being a witty lawyer." Blair's Rhet. p. 272. "The second rule, which I give, respects the choice of objects, from whence metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn." Blair's Rhet. p. 144. " In the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, where we may behold objects, a second time, in their likeness." Ib. p. 139. " Whose Business is to seek the true measures of Right and Wrong, and not the Arts how to avoid doing the one, and secure himself in doing the other." Locke, on Ed. p. 331. "The occasions when you ought to personify things, and when you ought not, cannot be stated in any precise rule." Cobbett's Eng. Gram. H 182. " They reflect that they have been much diverted, but scarce can say about what." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 151. "The eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or ever be remarked by any perceptible motion." Adams's Rhet. ii, 389. "And the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself." Ib. ii, 391. " Every speaker does not propose to please the imagination." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 104. "And, like Gallio, they care little for none of these things." The Friend, Vol. x, p. 351. " They may inadvertently be imitated, in cases where the meaning would be obscure." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 172. " Nor a man Cannot make hjm laugh." Shak. "The Athenians, in their present distress, scarce knew ,. CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. A GENERAL REVIEW. ERRORS. 679 where to turn." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 156. " I do not remember where ever God delivered his oracles by the multitude." Locke. "The object of this government is twofold, out- wards and inwards." Barclay's Works, i, 553. " In order to rightly understand what we read." Johnsons Gram. Com. p. 313. " That a design had been formed, to forcibly abduct or kidnap Morgan." Stone, on Masonry, p. 410. "But such imposture can never maintain its ground long." Blairs Rhet. p. 10. "But sure it is equally possible to apply the prin- ciples of reason and good sense to this art, as to any other that is cultivated among men." Ibid. "It would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate, and to have been even hewers of wood." Murray's Gram, i, 374. "Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable." Ib. i, 238. "And they all turned their backs without almost drawing a sword." Kantcs, El. of Crit. i, 224. "The principle of duty takes naturally place of every other." Ib. i, 342. "All that glitters is not gold." Maunder s Gram. p. 13. "Whether now or never so many myriads of ages hence." Pres. Edwards. " England never did, nor never shall, Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror." Beaut, of Shak. p. 109. LESSON IX. CONJUNCTIONS. " He readily comprehends the rules of Syntax, and their use and applicability in the examples before him." Greenleaf's Gram. p. 6. "The works of yEschylus have suffered more by time, than any of the ancient tragedians." Blair's Rhet. p. 470. "There is much more story, more bustle, and action, than on the French theatre." Ib. p. 478. " Such an intend any other, but such as is suited to the Child's Capacity." Locke, on Ed. p. 129. " Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 83. " The speculative relied no farther on their own judgment but to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed." Kames, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. xxv. " Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art." Beaut, of Shak. p. 266. "A Paren- thesis is a clause introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction." Murray's Gram, i, 280 ; Inyersoll's, 292; Smith's, 192; Alden's, 162; A. Flint's, 114; Fisk's, 158; Cooper's, 187; Comly's, 163. "A Caret, marked thus A is placed where some word happens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line." Murray's Gram, i, 282; Ingersoll's, 293; and others. "At the time that I visit them they shall be cast down." Jer. vi, 15. " Neither our virtues or vices are all our own." DR. JOHXSOX : Sanborn's Gram. p. 167. " I could not give him an answer as early as he had desired." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 200. "He is not as tall as his brother." yixon's Parser, p. 124. " It is difficult to judge when Lord Byron is serious or not." Lady Blessington. " Some nouns are both of the second and third declension." Gould's Lat. Gram. p. 48. " He was discouraged neither by danger or misfortune." Wells' s Wst. p. 161. " This is consistent neither with logic nor history." The Dial, i, 62. " Parts of Sentences are simple and compound." Blairs Gram. p. 114. "English verse is regu- lated rather by the number of syllables than of feet." Ib. p. 120. "I know not what more he can do, but pray foi him." Locke, on Ed. p. 140. " Whilst they are learning, and apply themselves with Attention, they are to be kept in good Humour." Ib. p. 295. "A Man cannot have too much of it, nor too perfectly." Ib. p. 322. " That you may so run, as you m;iy obtain; and so fight, as you may overcome." I I'm. Pcnn. ""it is the case of some, to contrive false periods of business, because they may seem men of despatch." Lord Bacon. " 'A tall man and a woman.' In this sentence there is no ellipsis ; the adjective or quality respect only the man." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 95. "An abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected or desired." Pres. Jackson's M>ssaye t 1830. "Which can be ac- quired by no other means but frequent exercise in speaking." It/air's UJu-t. p. 344. "The chief and fundamental rules of syntax are common to the English as well as the Latin tongue." Ib. p. 90. "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist either is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree." Ib. p. 21. "I cannot pity any one who is under no distress of body nor of mind." Kames, El. of Crit. i. 11. V There WU much genius in the world, before there were learning or arts to refine it." /Hair's Rhet. p. 391. " Such a Writer can have little else to do, but to new model the Paradoxes of ancient Scepticism." /; i, 102. "Our ideas of them being nothing else but a col- lection of the ordinary qualities observed in them." Dtni'-nn's /.<>. "A non-ens or a negative can neither give pleasure nor pain." AVr/m>, 7.7. nf Crit. i, M. " So as they shall not jostle ami embarrass one another/' Blair's /.r,y///v., p. 318. "He firmly r, to make use of any other voice but his own." Goldsmith'* , i, 1!)0. Your marching regiments. Sir, will not make the guards their example, either us soldiers or subjc-f ./'niti*, I. ?. :<>. " C'oiiM quently, they had neither meaning, or Ix-.-iufy, to :mv hut the njitives of each country." Sheridan's Elocution, p. Ifil. "The man of worth, and has not left his peer, I> in his narrow house for ever darkly laid." / 680 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III, LESSON X. PREPOSITIONS. "These maybe carried on progressively above any assignable limits." Kames, EL of Crit. i, 296. "To crowd in a single member of a period different subjects, is still worse than to crowd them into one period." Ib. ii, 27. "Nor do we rigidly insist for melodious prose." Ib. ii, 76. " The aversion we have at those who differ from us." Ib. ii, 365. " For we cannot bear his shifting the scene every line." LD. HALIFAX : ib. ii, 213. " We shall find that we come by it the same way." Locke. " To this he has no better defense than that." Barnes's Red Book, p. 347. " Searching the person whom he suspects for having stolen his casket." Blair s Rhet. p. 479. " Who are elected as vacancies occur by the whole Board." Lit. Convention, p. 81. "Almost the only field of ambition of a German, is science." DR. LIBBER : ib. p. 66. " The plan of education is very different to the one pursued in the sister r." DR. COLEY : ib. p. tives relate to, and modify the action of verbs." Wilcox's Gram. p. 61. "They are there- country." DR. COLEY : ib. p. 197. " Some writers on grammar have contended that adjec- fore of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives." Ingersolts Gram. p. 57. "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting the as- pirate or doubling the vowel." Knight, on Greek Alph. p. 52. "The distinction and arrange- ment between active, passive, and neuter verbs." Wright's Gram. p. 176. "And see thoii a hostile world to spread its delusive snares." Kirkham's Gram. p. 167. " He may be precau- tion'd, and be made see, how those joyn in the Contempt." Locke, on Ed. p. 155. "The contenting themselves now in the want of what they wish'd for, is a vertue." Ib. p. 185. "If the Complaint be of something really worthy your notice." Ib. p. 190. " True Fortitude I take to be the quiet Possession of a Man's self, and an undisturb'd doing his Duty." Ib. p. 204. " For the custom of tormenting and killing of Beasts will, by degrees, harden their Minds even towards Men." Ib. p. 216. " Children are whip'd to it and made spend many Hours of their precious time uneasily in Latin." Ib. p. 289. " The ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail of this subject ; more particular, indeed, than into any other that regards language." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 123. "But the one should not be omitted without the other." Bullions 's Eng. Gram. p. 108. "In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted." Murray' s Gram. \, 218; Weld's, 191. "There are a great variety of causes, which dis- qualify a witness from being received to testify in particular cases." J. Q. Adams's Rhet. ii, 75. "Aside of all regard to interest, we should expect that," &c. Webster's Essays, p. 92. " My opinion was given on a rather cursory perusal of the book." Murray's Key, ii, 202. "And the next day, he was put on board his ship." Ib. ii, 201. "Having tie command of no emotions but of what are raised by sight." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 318. "Did these moral attributes exist in some other being beside himself." Waylan^'s Moral Science, p. 161. " He did not behave in that manner out of pride or contempt of the tribunal." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 190. "These prosecutions of William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court." Murray's Key, i, 199 ; Priestley's Gram. 126. "To restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics." Drydoi. "Objects denominated beautiful, please not in virtue of any one quality common to them all." Blair s Rhet. p. 46. " This would have been less worthy notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it." Churchill's Gram. p. 197. "A Grecian youth, with talents rare, Whom Plato's philosophic care," &c, Felton's Gram. p. 145. LESSON XL PROMISCUOUS. " To excel, is become a much less considerable object." Blair's Rhet. p. 351. " My robe, and my integrity to heaven, is all I now dare call mine own." Beauties of Shak. p. 173. " So thou the garland wear' st successively." Ib. p. 134. "For thou the garland wears successively." Enfield's Speaker, p. 341. " If that thou need'st a Roman's, take it forth." Ib. p. 357. " If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth." Beauties of Shak. p. 256. " If thou provest this to be real, thou must be a smart lad, indeed." Neefs Method of Teaching, p. 210. "And another Bridge of four hundred Foot in Length." Briyhtland 's Gram. p. 242. "Metonymy is putting one name for another on account of the near relation there is be- tween them." Fisher's Gram. p. 151. "An Antonomasia is putting an appellative or com- mon name for a proper name." Ib. p. 153. " Its being me needs make no difference in your determination." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 82. "The first and second page are torn."- Jb. p. 145. "John's being from home occasioned the delay." Ib. p. 81. "His having neglected opportunities of improvement, was the cause of his disgrace." Ib. p. 81. "He will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement when it may be too late." Ib. p. 81. " His being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard." Ib. p. 82.* * Of this example, Professor Bullions says, " This will be allowed to be a correct English sentence, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be supplied. The phrase, ''being an expert dancer,' is the subject of the verb ' does entitle , ' but the word ' danctr ' in that phrase is neither the subject of any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence." En?. Gram. p. 82. It is because this word cannot have any regular construction after tlic participle when the possessive case precedes, that I deny his first proposition, and declare the sentence not '- to be. correct English." But the Professor at length reasons himself into the notion, that this indeterminate "predicate," as he erroneously calls it, 'is properly in the objective case, and in parsing, may correctly be CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. - A GENERAL REVIEW. - ERRORS. 681 ' Caesar went back to Rome to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected taking with him." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 116. "And Caesar took out of the treasury, to the amount of three thousand pound weight of gold, besides an immense quantity of silver." Ibid. " Rules and definitions, which should always be clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure." Circenleafs Gram. p. 5. " So much both of ability and merit is seldom found." Murray's Key, ii, 179. "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue : " Ib. ii, 196. " If such maxims and practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 78. " Especially if the subject require not so much pomp." Blair's Rhet. p. 117. " However, the proper mixture of light and shade, in such compositions ; the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense ; have ever been considered as points of great nicety." Murray's Gram, i, 343. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is taken so much notice of by foreigners." ADDISOX : Da. COOTE : ib. i, 90. " Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays unkindness or ill- humour, is certainly criminal." Murray's Key, ii, 183 ; Merchant's, 190. " There is here a fulness and grandeur of expression well suited to the subject." Blair's Rhet. p. 218. " I single Strada out among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus." Murray's Key, ii, 262. "I single him out among the moderns, because," &c. Bolinybroke, on Hist. p. 116. " This is a rule not always observed, even by good writers, as strictly as it ought to be." Blairs Rhet. p. 103. " But this gravity and assurance, which is beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood." Notes to the Dunciad. " The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road has some influ- ence upon the low people in the neighbourhood." Katnes, El. of Crit. ii, 358. "They be- come fond of regularity and neatness ; which is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors." Ibid. "The phrase, it is impossible to exist, gives us the idea of it's being impossible for men, or any body to exist." Priestley's Gram. p. 85. 44 I'll give a thousand pound to look upon him." Beauties of Shak. p. 151. "The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it." Murray's Gram, i, 1 7 '1 ; Crombie's, 253. " When two words are set in contrast, or in opposition to one another, they are both emphatic." Murray's Gram, i, 243. "The number of persons, men, women, and children, who were lost in the sea, was very great." Ib. ii, 20. " Nor is the resem- blance between the primary and resembling object pointed out." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 179. " I think it the best book of the kind which I have met with." DH. MATHEWS : Greenleafs Gram. p. 2. " Why should not we their ancient rites restore, And be what Home or Athens were before : " Roscommon, p. 22. LESSON XII. TWO ERRORS. " It is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure." Murray's Key, ii, 234. " Groves are never so agreeable as in the opening of the spring." Ib. p. 216. "His 'Philoso- phical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful ' soon made him known to the literati." Bioy. Diet. n. Burke. "An awful precipice or tower whence we look down on the objects which lie below." Blair's Rhet. p. 30. "This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure ; owing to no other cause but this, that three dis- tinct metaphors are crowded together." Ib. p. 149. "I propose making some observa- tions." Ib. p. 280. " I shall follow the same method here which I have all along pursued." 76. p. 34fi. " Mankind never resemble each other so much as they do in the beginnings of society." Ib. p. 380. " But no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot, in reading an hexameter line." Ib. p. 383. " The first thing, says he, which either a writer of fables, or of heroic poems, does, is, to choose some maxim or p'oint of morality." Ib. p. 421. " The fourth book has been always most justly admired, and abounds with beauties of the highest kind." Ib. p. 439. " Tin-re i^ no attempt towards painting characters in the poem." Ib. p. 4 M>. " Hut the artificial contrasting of characters, and the introducing them always in pnirs, and by opposites, gives too theatrical and affected an air to the piece." Ib. p. 479. " Neither of them are arbitrary nor local." K/nncs, F.I. of Crit. p. xxi. " If crowding figures bo bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon another." Ib. ii, 236. "The crowding withal so many objects together, lessens the pleasure." Ib. ii, 324. *This therefore lies not in the putting off the Hat, nor making of Compliments." Locke, on Ed. p. 149. " But the Samaritan Vau may have been used, as the Jews did the Chaldaic, both fora vowel and consonant." Wilson's Essay, p. 19. " But if a solemn and familiar pronunciation really exists in our language, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?" Walker s Pref. p. 4. " By making sounds follow each other agreeable to certain laws." Music alled the objective indefinite ; " of which case, he nays, "The following are also examples: { He had tht hcnour of being a director for life.' 'By being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his profes- i<.n ' ' Ib. p. 83. But " director " and " student " are here manifestly in the nominative case ; each agreeing with the pronoun he. which denotes the same person. In the latter sentence, there is a Tery obvioud transport* tic n of the first fiy words. 44 682 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. of Nature, p. 406. "If there was no drinking intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 178. " Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was in the being thought to have none." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 188. " Lysander having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for building of gallies." Ib. i, 161. " The use of these signs are worthy remark." Brightland's Gram. p. 94. " He received me in the same manner that I would you." Smith's New Gram. p. 113. "Con- sisting both of the direct and collateral evidence." Butler's Analogy, p. 224. "If any man or woman that believeth have widows, let them relieve them, and let not the church be charged." 1 Tim. v, 16. "For mens sakes are beasts bred." Walker's Particles, p. 131. " From three a clock there was drinking and gaming." Ib. p. 141. " Is this he that I am seeking of, or no ? " Ib. p. 248. "And for the upholding every one his own opinion, there is so much ado." Sewel's Hist. p. 809. " Some of them however will be necessarily taken notice of." Sale's Koran, p. 71. " The boys conducted themselves exceedingly indiscreet." Merchant's Key, p. 195. "Their example, their influence, their fortune, every talent they possess, dispense blessings on all around them." Ib. p. 197 ; Murray's Key, ii, 219. "The two Reynolds reciprocally converted one another." Johnson's Lives, p. 185. " The destroying the two last Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 194. " Monies is your suit." Beauties o/Shak. p. 38. "Ch, is commonly sounded like tch ; as in church : but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k." Murray's Gram, i, 11. " When one is obliged to make some utensil supply purposes to which they were not originally des- tined." Campbell's Rhet. p. 222. "But that a being baptized with water, is a washing away of sin, thou canst not from hence prove." Barclay's Works, i, 190. " Being but spoke to one, it infers no universal command." Ibid. " For if the laying aside Copulatives gives Force and Liveliness, a Redundancy of them must render the Period languid." Buchanans Syntax, p. 134. " James used to compare him to a cat, who always fell upon her legs." ADAM'S HIST. OF ENGLAND : Crombie, p. 384. " From the low earth aspiring genius springs, And sails triumphant born on eagles wings." Lloyd, p. 162. LESSON XIII. TWO ERRORS. "An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, are always faults.'' Blair's Rhet. p. 190. " Yet in this we find the English pronounce perfectly agreeable to rule." Walker's Diet. p. 2. "But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, are habits, though absolutely necessary to the forming of them." Butler's Analogy, p. 111. "They were cast: and an heavy fine imposed upon them." Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 30. " Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit, nor relish the composition of the author." Blair s Rhet. p. 450. " The scholar should be instructed relative to finding his words." Osborn's Key, p. 4. "And therefore they could neither have forged, or reversified them." Knight, on the Greek Alph. p. 30. "A dispensary is the pla3e where medicines are dispensed." Murray's Key, ii, 172. " Both the connexion and nuri- ber of words is determined by general laws." Neef's Sketch, p. 73. "An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented : as, ' Contravene, acquiesce.' " Mur- ray's Gram, i, 254. "An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner." Ib, i, 141 ; Lowth's, 84. " BUT is a conjunction, in all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition." Smith's New Gram. p. 109. " He wrote in the king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the king's ring." Esther, viii, 10. " Camm and Audland were departed the town before this time." Sewel's Hist. p. 100. " Previous to their relinquishing the practice, they must be con- viced." Dr. Webster, on Slavery, p. 5. "Which he had thrown up previous to his setting out." 'Grimshaw's Hist. U. S. p. 84. " He left him to the value of an hundred drachmas in Persian money." Sped. No. 535. "All which the mind can ever contemplate concern- ing them, must be divided between the three." Cardell's Philad. Gram. p. 80. "Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that has fallen under my observation." Sped. No 476. "When you have once got him to think himself made amends for his suffering, by the praise is given him for his courage." Locke, on Ed. 115. " In all matters where simple reason, and mere speculation is concerned." Sheridan's Elo- cution; p. 136. "And therefore he should be spared the trouble of attending to any thing else, but his meaning." Ib. p. 105. " It is this kind of phraseology which is distinguished by the epithet idiomatical, and hath been originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation." Campbell's Rhet. p. 185. Murray has it " and which has been origi- nally," &c. Octavo Gram, i, 370. " That neither the letters nor inflection are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium." Knight, Gr. Alph. p. 13. " In cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms." Murray's Gram. i, 150. "But this people which know not the law, are accursed." John, vii, 49. "And the magnitude of the chorusses have weight and sublimity." Music of Nature, p. 428. "Dare he deny but there are some of his fraternity guilty?" Barclay's Works, i, 327. " Giving an account of most, if not all the papers had passed betwixt them." Ib. i, 235. CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. A GENERAL REVIEW. ERRORS. 683 "In this manner, both as to parsing and correcting, all the rules of syntax should be treated, proceeding regularly according to their order." Murray's Exercises, 12rao, p. x. " Ovando was allowed a brilliant retinue and a body guard." Sketch of Columbus. " Is it I or he whom you requested to go ? " Kirkham's Gram., Key, p. 226. " Let thou and I go on." Banyan's P. P. p. 158. "This I no-where affirmed; and do wholly deny." Barc- lay's Works, iii, 454. "But that I deny; and remains for him to prove." Ibid. "Our country sinks beneath the yoke ; It weeps, it bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds." SHAKSPEARE : Joh. Diet. w. Beneath. " Thou art the Lord who didst choose Abraham, and broughtest him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees." Murray's Key, ii, 189. "He is the exhaustless fountain, from which emanates all these attributes, that exists throughout this wide creation." Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed. p. 155. "I am he who have communed with the son of Neocles ; I am he who have entered the gardens of pleas- ure." Wright's Athens, p. 66. " Such was in ancient times the tales received, Such by our good forefathers was believed." Howe's Lucan, B. ix, 1. 605. LESSOX XIV. TWO ERRORS. "The noun or pronoun that stand before the active verb, may be called the agent." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 121. " Such seems to be the musings of our hero of the grammar- quill, when he penned the first part of his grammar." Merchant's Criticisms. "Two dots, the one placed above the other [:], is called Sheva, and represents a very short e." Wil- son's Hebrew Gram. p. 43. " Great has been, and is, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them." Butler's Analogy, p. 184. "As two is to four, so is four to eight." Everest's Gram. p. 231. "The invention and use of it [arithmetic] reaches back to a period so remote as is beyond the knowledge of history." Robertson's America, i, 288. " What it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment, fills and satisfies his mind." Ib. i, 377. " If he dare not say they are, as I know he dare not, how must I then dis- tinguish ? "Barclay 's Works, iii, 311. "He was now grown so fond of solitude that all company was become uneasy to him." Life of Cicero, p. 32. " Violence and spoil is heard in her ; before me continually is grief and wounds." Jeremiah, vi, 7. " Bayle's Intelli- gence from the Republic of Letters, which make eleven volumes in duodecimo, are truly a model in this kind.'" Formey's Belles- Lettres, p. 168. " To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice." Murray's Gram, i, 249. "The opposing the opinions, and rectifying the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us." Locke, on Ed. p. 211. " It is very probable that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, about the lawfulness of the Hollanders' throwing off the monarchy of Spain, and withdrawing, entirely, their allegiance to that crown." Murray's Key, ii, 195. "Naming the cases and numbers of a noun in their order is called declining it." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 10. " The embodying them is, therefore, only collecting such component parts of words." Town's Analysis, p. 4. " The one is the voice heard at Christ's being baptized ; the other, at his being transfigured." Barclay's Works, i, 267. "Understanding the literal sense would not have prevented their condemning the guiltless." Butler's Analogy, p. 168. "As if this were taking the execution of justice out of the hands of God, and giving it to nature." Ib. p. 194. "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is allowing the thing, though not the showing it." Sheffield's Works, ii, 244. " So as to signify not only the doing an action, but the causing it to be done." Pike's Hebrew Lexicon, p. 180. "This, certainly, was both dividing the unity of God, and limiting his immensity." Calvin's Institutes, B. i, Ch. 13. " Tones being infinite in number, and vary- ing in almost every individual, the arranging them under distinct heads, and reducing them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in lan- guage." Knight, on dr. Alph. p. 1<>. " The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until h<; h;ive done it, and until he have performed the intents of his heart." Jeremiah, xxx, 24. " \V<> seek for more heroic and illustrious deeds, for more diversified and surprising events." Bl'iir's Rhet. p. 373. " We distinguish the Genders, or Male and Female Sex, four differ- ent Ways." Buchanans Gram. p. 20. "Thus, ch and g, are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in Hebrew names, which have not been modernized, or changed by public use." Wilson's Ksxayun drum. p. 24. " The Substantive or noun is the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion." Lindley Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 26. "The Si CM \VHVE, or NOUN; being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion." Dr. Loirfh's Gram. p. 6. ""The Xonn is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea." Maunder' s Gram. p. 1. "A noun is the name of any thing in exi.-irm't.:, or of which we can form an idea." Ib. p. 1. (See False Syntax under Note 7th to Rule 10th.) " The next thing to be taken Cire of, is to keep him exactly to speaking of Truth." Locke, on I'.d. p. 254. " The mate- ri il, vegetable, and animal world, receivr this intluence according to their several capaci- ties." The Dial, i, 59. "And yet, it is fairly defensible on the principles of the school- 684 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. men ; if that can be called principles which consists merely in words." Campbell's Rhet. p. 274. "Art thou so bare and full of wretchedness, And fears to die ? famine is in thy cheeks, Need and oppression starveth in thy eyes." Beaut, of Shak. p. 317. LESSON XV. THREE ERRORS. "The silver age is reckoned to have commenced on the death of Augustus, and continued to the end of Trajan's reign." Gould's Lot. Gram. p. 277. " Language is become, in modern times, more correct, indeed, and accurate." Blair s Rhet. p. 65. "It is evident, that words are most agreeable to the ear which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, where there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants." Ib. p. 121. See Murray's Gram, i, 325. "It would have had no other effect, but to add a word unnecessarily to the sentence." Blair s Rhet. p. 194. " But as rumours arose of the judges having been cor- rupted by money in this cause, these gave occasions to much popular clamour, and had thrown a heavy odium on Cluentius." Ib. p. 273. "A Participle is derived of a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and the adjective." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 39; E. Devis's, 9. "I will have learned my grammar before you learn your's." Wilbur and Liv. Gram. p. 14. " There is no earthly object capable of making such various and such forcible impressions upon the human mind as a complete speaker." Perry's Diet., Pref. " It was not the carrying the bag which made Judas a thief and an hireling." South. "As the rea- sonable soul and flesh is one man, so God and man is one Christ." Athanasian Creed. "And I will say to them which were not my people, Thou art my people ; and they shall say, Thou art my God." Hosea, ii, 23. " Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper." Murray's Gram, i, 250. " Each party produces words where the letter a is sounded in the manner they contend for." Walker s Diet. p. 1. "To counte- nance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from actually com- mitting them." Murray's Gram, i, 233. " ' To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions,' is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb is.' " Ibid. " What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided." Blair's Rhet. p. 112; Jamieson's, 93. See Murray's Gram, i, 319. "There is, properly, no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided." Blair's Rhet. p. 125 ; Jamieson's, 126 ; Murray's Gram, i, 329. " Going barefoot does not at all help on the way to heaven." Steelc, $pe:t. No. 497. "There is no Body but condemns this in others, though they overlook it In themselves." Locke, on Ed. 145. "In the same sentence, be careful not to use the sari word too frequently, nor in different senses." Murray's Gram, i, 296. "Nothing could have made her so unhappy, as marrying a man who possessed such principles." Murray's Key, ii, 200. " A warlike, various, and a tragical age is best to write of, but worst to write in." Coivley's Pref. p. vi. " When thou instances Peter his baptizing Cornelius." Barc- lay's Works, i, 188. "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or agents, which have no natural relation to, or dependence on one another." Murray's Gram, i, 313. "Animals, again, are fitted to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices." Ibid. "This melody, or varying the sound of each word so often, is a proof of nothing, however, but of the fine ear of that people." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 5. " They can each in their turns be made use of upon occasion." Duncan's Logic, p. 191. " In this reign lived the poet Chaucer, who, with Gower, are the first authors, who can properly be said to have written English." Bucke's Gram. p. 144. " In the translating these kind of expressions, consider the IT is, as if it were they, or they are." Walker's Particles, p. 179. " The chin has an important office to perform ; for upon its activity we either disclose a polite or vulgar pronunciation." Music of Nature, p. 27. " For no other reason, but his being found in bad company." Webster's Amer. Spelling- Book, p. 96. " It is usual to com- pare them in the same manner as Polisyllables." Priestley's Gram. p. 77. "The infini- tive mood is recognised easier than any others, because the preposition to precedes it." Bucke's Gram. p. 95. " Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions : how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? " Smith's New Gram. p. 38. " No kind of work requires so nice a touch, And if well finish'd, nothing shines so much." Sheffield, Duke of Buck. LESSON XVI. THREE ERRORS. " It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse : which will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines." Murray's Gram, i, 260. " I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have." GUARDIAN : see Campbell's Rhet. p. 207. " I shall do all I can, to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have taken." Murray's Key, ii, 215. "It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set an house on fire, and [or an] it were but to roast their eggs." Ld. Bacon. " Did ever CHAP. XII.] SYNTAX. A GENERAL REVIEW. ERRORS. 685 man struggle more earnestly in a cause where both his honour and life are concerned ? " Duncan's Cicero, p. 15. ' So the rests and pauses, between sentences and their parts, are marked by points." Lowth's Gram. p. 114. " Yet the case and mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence." Ib. p. 113. "By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed : a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner." Murray's Gram, i, 214. "Though thou clothest thyself with crimson, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair." Jeremiah, iv, 30. " But that the doing good to others will make us happy, is not so evident ; feeding the hungry, for example, or clothing the naked." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 161. "There is no other God but him, no other light but his." William Pcnn. " How little reason to wonder, that a perfect and accomplished orator, should be one of the characters that is most rarely found : " Blair's Rhct. p. 337. " Because they neither express doing nor receiving an action." Infant School Gram. p. 53. "To find the answers, will require an effort of mind, and when given, will be the result of reflection, showing that the subject is understood." Ib. p. vii. " To say, that * the sun rises,' is trite and common ; but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed as Mr. Thomson has done." Blair's Rhet. p. 137. " The declining a word is the giving it differing endings." Ware's Gram. p. 7. "And so much are they for every ones following their own mind." Barclay's Works, i, 462. " More than one overture for a peace was made, but Cleon prevented their taking effect." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 121. " Neither in English or in any other language is this word, and that which corresponds to it in other languages, any more an article, than too, three, four." DR. WEBSTER: Knicker- bocker of 1836. " But the most irksome conversation of all others I have met within the neighbourhood, has been among two or three of your travellers." Spect. No. 474. " Set down the two first terms of supposition under each other in the first place." Smiley's Arithmetic, p. 79. " It is an useful rule too, to fix our eye on some of the most distant per- sons in the assembly." Blair's Rhct. p. 328. " He will generally please most, when pleasing is not his sole nor chief aim." 76. p. 336. "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform them they could receive no other terms but that of surrendering their arms, and passing under the yoke." Ib. p. 360. " Xor is mankind so much to blame, in his choice thus determining him." SWIFT : Crombie's Treatise, p. 360. " These forms are what is called Number." Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 62. " In languages which admit but two Genders, all Nouns are either Masculine or Feminine, even though they designate beings which are neither male or female." Ib. p. 66. " It is called a Verb or Word by way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, without which the other parts of speech can form no complete sense." Gould's Adam's Gram. p. 76. " The sentence will consist of two members, which are commonly separated from one another by a comma." J.iuiitson's Rhet. p. 7. " Loud and soft in speaking, is like the forte and piano in music, it only refers to the different degrees of force used in the same key ; whereas high and low imply a change of key." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 116. "They are chiefly three : the acqui- sition of knowledge ; the assisting the memory to treasure up this knowledge ; or the communicating it to others." Ib. p. 11. " These kind of knaves I know, which in this plainness Harbour more craft, and more corrupter ends, Than twenty silly ducking observants." Beauties of Shak. p. 261. LESSON XVII. MANY ERRORS. "A man will be forgiven, even great errors, in a foreign language ; but in his own, even the least slips are justly laid hold of, and ridiculed." American Chesterfield, p. 83. "Let does not only express permission ; but praying, exhorting, commanding." Lowth's Gram. p. 41. "Let, not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhorting, commanding." Murray's Gram. p. 8S ; Jnyt'r.snli's, 13.5. "That death which is our leaving this world, is nothing else but putting off these bodies." S/ierlock. " They differ from the saints recorded both in the Old and New Testaments." \etrt, >n. "The nature therefore of relation con- in the referring or comparing two things one to another; from which comparison, one or both comes to be denominated." Locke's tesay, i, 220. " It is not credible, that there hath been any one who through the whole course of their lives will say, that they have kept themselves undefilcd with the least spot or stain of sin." Witsivs. " If acting conform- ably to the will of our Creator ; if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; if securing our own happiness ; are objects of the highest moment : then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." Murray's Cram, i, 278 ; Comly's, 163 ; IngersolFs, 2'Jl. " By the verb being in the plural number, it \A supposed that it has a plural nominative, which is not the case. The only nominative to the verb, is, the ojfin-r : the expression his guard, are in the objective case, governed by the preposition with ; and they cannot consequently form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent subject, and the true nominative of the verb, and to which the verb pecu- liarly refers, is the officer." Murray's Parsimj, Gr. 8vo, ii, 22. " This is another use, that, i:i my opinion, contributes rather to make a man learned than wise; and is neither capable 686 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. of pleasing the understanding, or imagination." ADDISON : Churchill's Gram. p. 353. " The work is a dull performance ; and is capable of pleasing neither the understanding, nor the imagination." Murray's Key, ii, 210. " I would recommend the Elements of English Grammar, by Mr. Frost. Its plan is after Murray, but his definitions and language is sim- plified as far as the nature of the subject will admit, to meet the understanding of children. It also embraces more copious examples and exercises in Parsing, than is usual in element- ary treatises." Hairs Lectures on School- Keeping, 1st Ed., p. 37. More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two winter ones : but it makes a much greater show upon the earth, in these than in those; because there is a much slower evaporation." Murray's Key, ii, 189. See Priestley's Gram. p. 90. " They often contribute also to the rendering some persons prosperous though wicked ; and, which is still worse, to the re- warding some actions though vicious, and punishing other actions though virtuous." Butler's Analogy, p. 92. From hence, to such a man, arises naturally a secret satisfaction and sense of security, and implicit hope of somewhat further." Ib. p. 93. " So much for the third and last cause of illusion that was taken notice of, arising from the abuse of very general and abstract terms, which is the principal source of all the nonsense that hath been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians." Campbell's Rhet. p. 297. "As to those animals whose use is less common, or who on account of the places which they inhabit, fall less under our observation, as fishes and birds, or whom their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single Noun to designate both Genders, Masculine and Feminine." Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 67. "Adjectives may always be distinguished, by their being the word, or words, made use of to describe the quality, or condition, of whatever is mentioned." Emmons's Gram. p. 20. "Adverb signifies a word added to a verb, participle, adjective, or other adverb, to describe or qualify their qualities." Ib. p. 64. "The joining together two such grand objects, and the representing them both as subject, at one moment, to the command of God, produces a noble effect." Blair's Rhet. p. 37. " Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental ; but as they have an appearance of weakness, they always dis- please when they are made use of to support any part of a building that is massy, and that seems to require a more substantial prop." Ib. p. 49. " Upon a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and also unlike that of any modern nation." Fowler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, p. 176. LESSON XVIII. MANY ERRORS. " ' The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of Lilliput, from whence it is parted only by a channel of 800 yards wide.' Gulliver's Travels. The ambi- guity may be removed thus : ' from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards wic e only.' "Kames, El. of Grit, ii, 44. " The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb." Smith's New Gram. p. 47. " There is an originality, richness, and variety in his [Spenser's] allegorical personages, which almost vies with the splendor of the ancient mythology." Hazlitt's Lect. p. 68. "As neither the Jewish nor Christian revelation have been universal, and as they have been afforded to a greater or less part of the world at different times ; so likewise, at different times, both revelations have had different degrees of evidence." Butler's Analogy,^. 210. "Thus we see, thut killing a man with a sword or a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action : but if the point of the sword first enter the body, it passes for a distinct species, called stab- bing." Locke's Essay, p. 314. "If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour in that which was delivered him to keep, or hath deceived his neigh- bour, or have found that which was lost, and lieth concerning it, and sweareth falsely ; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c. Lev. vi, 2. "As the doing and teaching the commandments of God is the great proof of virtue, so the break- ing them, and the teaching others to break them, is the great proof of vice." Wayland's Moral Science, p. 281. " In Pope's terrific maltreatment of the latter simile, it is neither true to mind or eye." Coleridge's Introd. p. 14. "And the two brothers were seen, trans- ported with rage and fury, endeavouring like Eteocles and Polynices to plunge their swords into each others' hearts, and to assure themselves of the throne by the death of their rival." Goldsmith's Greece, i, 176. " Is it not plain, therefore, that neither the castle, the planet, nor the cloud, which you see here, are those real ones, which you suppose exist at a distance?" Berkley's Alciphron, p. 166. "I have often wondered how it comes to pass, that every Body should love themselves best, and yet value their neighbours Opinion about themselves more than their own." Collier's Antoninus, p. 226. " VIRTUE ('Apery, Virtus} as well as most of its Species, are all Feminine, perhaps from their Beauty and amia- ble Appearance." Harris's Hermes, p. 55. " Virtue, with most of its Species, are all Femi- nine, from their Beauty and amiable Appearance ; and so Vice becomes Feminine of Course, as being Virtue's natural opposite." British Gram. p. 97. "Virtue, with most of its Spe- cies, is Feminine, and so is Vice, for being Virtue's opposite." Buchanan's Gram. p. 22. " From this deduction, may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personification makes CHAP. Xin.] SYNTAX. ERRORS. GENERAL BUU. BO great a figure in all compositions, where imagination or passion have any concern." Bkiir's Rhet. p. 155. "An Article is a word prefixed to a substantive to point them out, and to show how far their signification extends." Folker's Gram. p. 4. ' All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights among which are, the enjoying and defend- ing life and liberty ; acquiring, possessing, and protecting property ; and, in a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness." Constitution of New Hampshire. " From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, on the principles and construction of languages, which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect gram- matical schemes that are not very perspicuous, nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner." Murray's Gram. p. 68 ; Hall's, 15. There are, indeed, but very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that are not criminal ; every diversion they take, is at the expense of some one virtue or another, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly." ADDI- SON : Blair's Rhet. p. 201.* " Hail, holy love ! thou word that sums all bliss ! Gives and receives all bliss ; fullest when most Thou givest ; spring-head of all felicity ! " Pollok, C. of T., B. v, 1. 193. CHAPTER XIII- GENERAL RULE. The following comprehensive canon for the correction of all sorts of non- descript errors in syntax, and the several critical or general notes under it, eeem necessary for the completion of my design ; which is, to furnish a thorough exposition of the various faults against which the student of English grammar has occasion to be put upon his guard. GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX. In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout. CRITICAL NOTES TO THE GENERAL RULE. CRITICAL NOTE I. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong. CRITICAL NOTE II. OP DOUBTFUL REFERENCE. The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood. CRITICAL NOTE III. OF DEFINITIONS. A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing or class of things which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name. CRITICAL NOTE IV. OF COMPARISONS. A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common prop- erty in the things compared ; without which, it becomes a solecism. CRITICAL NOTE V. OF FALSITIES. Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted ; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use ; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth. Faulty as this example is, Dr. Blair says of it : " Nothing can be more elegant, or more finely turned, than thia sentence. It i- i, ,t, elf.ar, and musical. We could hardly alter one word, or disarrange one member, with- out tpoiling it. Few sentences are to be found, more finished, or more happy." Lecture XX, p. 2sitions ; and the 24th, of Interjections ) are used only in parsing. The remaining sixteen, because they embrace principles that are sometimes violated in practice, answer the double purpose of parsing and correcting. The Exceptions, of which there are thirty-two, (all occasionally applicable in parsing,) belong to nine different rules, and refer to all the parts of speech, except nouns and interjections. The Notes, of which there are one hundred and fifty-two, are subordinate rules of syntax, not designed to be used in parsing, but formed for the exposition and correction of so many different forms of false grammar. The Observations, of which there are, in this part of the work, without the present series, four hundred andninety-seven, are designed not only to defend and confirm the doctrines adopted by the author, but to explain the arrangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction. OBS. 2. The rules in a system of syntax may be more or less comprehensive, as well as mt>re or less simple or complex ; consequently they may, without deficiency or redundance, be more or less numerous. But either complexity or vagueness, as well as redundance or deficiency, is a fault ; and, when all these faults are properly avoided, and the two great ends of methodical syntax, parsiny and correcting, are duly answered, perhaps the requisite number of syntactical rules, or grammatic canons, will no longer appear very indeterminate. In the preceding chapters, the essential principles of English syntax are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there are yet to be exhibited some forms of error, which must be corrected under other heads or maxims, and for the treatment of which the several dogmas of this chapter are added. Completeness in the system, however, does not imply that it must have shown the pupil how to correct every form of language that is amiss ; for there may be in composition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show, either what should be substituted for the faulty expression, or what fashion of amendment may be the most eligible. The inaccuracy may be gross and obvious, but the correction difficult or impossible. Because the sentence may require a change throughout; and a total change is not properly a correction; it is a substitution of something new, for what was, perhaps, in itself incorrigible. OBS. 3. The notes which are above denominated Critical or General, are not all of them obvi- ously different in kind from the other notes; but they all are such as could not well have been placed in any of the earlier chapters of the book. The General Rule of Syntax, since it is not a canon to be used in parsing, but one that is to be applied only in the correcting of false syntax, might seern perhaps to belong rather to this order of notes; but I have chosen to treat it with some peculiar distinction, because it is not only more comprehensive than any other rule or note, but is in one respect more important; it is the rule which will be cited for the correction of the greatest number and variety of errors. Being designed to meet every possible form of inac- curacy in the mere construction of sentences, or, at least, every corrigible solecism by which any principle of syntax can be violated, it necessarily includes almost all the other rules and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruction, and therefore ought not in general to be applied where a more particular rule or note is clearly applicable. A few examples, not prop- erly coming under any other head, will serve to show its use and application : such examples are given, in great abundance, in the false syntax below. If, in some of the instances selected, this rule is applied to faults that might as well have been corrected by some other, the choice, in such cases, is deemed of little or no importance. Ons. 4. The imperfection of ancient writing, especially in regard to division and punctuation, has left the syntactical relation of words, and also the sense of passages, in no few instances, uncertain ; and has consequently made, where the text has been thought worthy of it, an abun- dance of difficult work for translators, critics, and commentators. Rules of grammar, now made and observed, as they ought to be, may free the compositions of this, or a future age, from simi- lar embarrassments ; and it is both just and useful, to test our authors by them, criticising or correcting their known blunders according to the present rules of accurate writing. But the readers and expounders of what has come to us from remote time, can be rightly guided only by such principles and facts as have the stamp of creditable antiquity. Hence there are, undoubt- edly, in books, some errors and defects which have outlived the time in tr/u'ch, and the authority hi/ irhifh, they might have been corrected. As we have no right to make a man say that which he himself never Raid or intended to say, so we have in fact none to fix a positive meaning upon hi* language, without knowing for a certainty what he meant by it. Reason, or good sense, which, as I have suggested, is the foundation of grnnimnr and of all good writing, is indeed a per- petual as well as a "universal principle ; but, since the exercises of our reason must, from the very whom T have asked to interpret it. think, as U>h*u>r had around our Congress of corrupting the English language, the respondent meant to accuse ;h<- British Parliament "f doing the -arne ttiini: hi _ree.- <>f descending yet lower into tli<> vileness of slang. But this is hardly a pr' r. \\.-hster might be right in acknowledging a very depraving abuse of the tongue itt the two Houses of Congress ; but could it be " cour- r |ir(ipT. fr the answerer to jump the Atlantic, and pounce upon the Ei.glish Lords and Commons, as a ffl of worse rorrui I The gentleman betfns with sayin*, "There is such a thing " as if he meant to describe some one thing; and proceeds with paying, " as an English ami a parliamentary vocabulary," in which phra.se, by repeating th ar.irlf, he .-peaks of " two vocabularies ; then goes on, " and I have never heard a worsr \ wcree what 7 Does he mean " a worse vocabulary? '' If so, what sense has " rocabuliry ? " And, again, " a wrrse" than what? Where and what is this "thing" 1 which is so bad that the leading Senator has ' never heard a worse?" Is it some " vocabulary," 1 both "English and parliamentary'" It" <>, who.-e? If not, what else is it ? Lest the wisdom of this oraculous " declaration " be lost to the public through the defects of its syntax, more than one rhetorical critic seem hereby "in some danger" of ''PM.IL; snrti not, in.-ci-N-d among these, because I had elsewhere criticised that. So too of his faulty definition of a c.onjmirtion. See the Intro- duction, Chap. X, paragraphs 26 and 28. See also Corrections in the Key, under Note 10th to Kule 1st. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 691 nification." Buchanan's Gram. p. 61. (18.) "An Adverb is a part of speech added to a Verb (whence the name), and sometimes even to another word." Buckf's Gram, p. 70. (19.) "A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences." Gilbert's Gram. p. 20 ; Weld's, 51. (20.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together." Ash's Gram. p. 48. (21.) "A Conjunction is that part of speech which connect sentences, or parts of sentences, or single words." Blair's Gram. p. 41. "A Conjunction is a part of speech, that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more, sentences, to make one." Bucke's Gram. p. 28. (23.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence : it sometimes connects only words." Kirk- ham's Gram. p. 118. (24.) "A Conjunction is a Part of Speech which joins Sentences together, and shews the Manner of their Dependance upon one another." British Gram. p. 163 ; Buchanan's, p. 64; E. Devis's, 103. (25.) "A preposition is a part of Speech used to show the relation between other words." Gilbert's Gram. p. 20. (26.) "A Preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between them." Kl. of Grain, p. 42. (27.) "A. preposition is a part of speech used to connect words and show their relation." Weld's Gram. p. 51 ; Abridg. 47. (28.) "A preposition is that part of speech which shows the position of persons or things, or the relation that one noun or pronoun bears toward another." Blair s Gram. p. 40. (29.) "A Preposition is a Part of Speech, which being added to any other Parts of Speech serves to shew their State, Relation or Reference to each other." British Gram. p. 165 ; Buchanan's, p. 65. (30.) "An interjection is apart of speech used to express sudden passion or emotion." Gilbert's Gram. p. 20. (31.) "An interjection is a part of speech used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or emo- tion." I i't-ld'is Gram. pp. 4'J and 51 ; Abridg. 44 and 47. (32.) "An Interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or emotion of the mind." Blair's Gram. p. 42. (33.) "An Interjection is a Part of Speech thrown into Discourse, and denotes some sud- den Passion or Emotion of the Soul." British Gram. p. 172; Buchanan's, p. 67. (34.) "A scene might tempt some peaceful sage To rear him a lone hermitage." Union Poems, p. 89. (35.) " Not all the storms that shake the pole Can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul, And smooth th' unaltered brow." Day's Gram. p. 78 ; E. Reader, 230. LESSON II. NOUNS. " The thrones of every monarchy felt the shock." Frelinghuysen. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the plural noun thrones has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to .ior's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the ticy and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and corre- spondent construction should be preseryed throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus : " The throne of cvf.-y monarchy felt the shock."] "These principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the minds of every American." r's Essays, p. 44. " The word church and shire are radically the same." Ib. p. 256. " They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance be- lon^ini; to the possessive cases of nouns." L. Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 53. "Will, in the i. and third person, only foretels." Ib. p. 88. " Which seem to form the true distinc- tion between the subjunctive and the indicative moods." Jb. p. 208. " The very general approbation, which this performance of Walker has received from the public." Ib. p. 241. " Lest she carry her improvements this way too far." CAMPHKLL : ib. p. 371. " Charles was extravagant, and by this means became poor and despicable." Murray's Key, Svo, p. 189. " We should entertain no prejudices against simple and rustic persons." Ib. p. 205. " These are indeed the foundations of all solid merit." Blair's lUiet. p. 175. "And his embellishment, by means of musical cadence, Inures or other parts of speech." //;. p. 17o. " If he U at no pains ; us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other art of writing." Ib. p. 181. "The most eminent of the sacred poets are, the Author of the book of Job, David and Isaiah.'! Ib. p. 418. "Nothing, in any poet, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam." Ib. p. 439. When two A meet together, and are sounded at one breath, they are called diphthongs." Infant School Gr.un. p. 10. "How many ss would goodness then end with? Three." Ib. p. 33. "Birds is u noun, the name of a thing or creature." Kirkhum's Gram. p. 53. "Adam gave names to every living creature." Bit-knell's Gram., Part ii, p. 5. "The steps of a stair ought to be accommodated to the human figure." A..//m.v, 7.7. at'Crif. Vol. ii,p. 337. " Nor ought an emblem more than a .simile to be founded on low or familiar objects." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 357. " Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the Goth." Tookc's Dircminns, Vol. ii, p. 450. " The mint and secretary of state's offices are neat buildings." The l-'rii-ml. Vol. iv, p. 2)(>. " The scenes of dead and still life are apt to pall upon us." Blair s Ithet. p. 407. "And Th amas Aquinas and Duns Seotus, the angelical and the subtle doctors, are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation." Literary Hint. p. 244. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex." Murray's dram. p. ;$S ; Inyersoll's, 27 ; Aider's, 16 ; Banns, 13; Fish's, 58; Gr,-<-n!>-afs, 21. "The English language has three methods of dis- tinguishing sex." Smith's Xew 'Gram. p. 44. " In English there are the three following 692 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. methods of distinguishing sex." Jaudon's Gram. p. 26. "There are three ways of distinguishing the sex." Lennie's Gram. p. 10; Picket's, 26; Bullions' s, 10. "There are three ways of distinguishing sex." Merchant's School Gram. p. 26. "Gender is distin- guished in three ways." Maunder 's Gram. p. 2. " Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether imitative arts." Blair's Rhet. p. 51. " Do we for this the gods and conscience brave, That one may rule and make the rest a slave ? " Rotce's Lucan, B. ii, 1. 96. LESSON III. ADJECTIVES. "There is a deal of more heads, than either heart or horns." Barclay's Works, i, 234. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the adjective more has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, " In the formation of sentences, the con- sistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout/' The sentence maybe corrected thus: " There is a deal more of heads, than of either heart or horns."] " For, of all villains, I think he has the wrong name." Bunyan's P. P. p. 86. " Of all the men that I met in my pilgrimage, he, I think bears the wrong name." Ib. p. 84. " I am surprized to see so much of the distribution, and technical terms of the Latin grammar, retained in the grammar of our tongue." Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. vi. "Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him the smallest assistance." HUME: Priestley's Gram. p. 178. " Else he will find it difficult to make one obstinate believe him." Brightland's Gram. p. 243. "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison peculiar to them- selves ?" Infant School Gram. p. 46. "Yet the verbs are all of the indicative mood." Loioth's Gram. p. 33. "The word candidate is in the absolute case." L.Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 155. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented." Russell's Gram. p. 108 ; Smith's New Gram. 188. "A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented." L. Murray, p. 253 ; Bullions' s E. Gram. 170 ; Smith's, 188 ; Kirkham's, 219; Guy's, 120; Blair's, 118; Merchant's, 167; Russell's, 109. "It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing." L. Murray, p. 284; R. C. Smith's New Gram. 192; Ingersoll's, 295; Comly's, 166 ; Merchant's, 14 ; Greenleafs, 42 ; D. C. Allen's, 85 ; Fish's, 159 ; Bullions's, 158 ; Kirk- ham's, 219 ; Hiley's, 119 ; Weld's Abridged, 16 ; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract., 16 ; Fowler s E. Gr. t 674. " Five and seven make twelve, and one makes thirteen." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 227. "I wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you." Ib. p. 272. "Let us ecu- aider the proper means to effect our purpose." Ib. p. 276. "Yet they are of such a simi- lar nature, as readily to mix and blend." Blair's Rhet. p. 48. " The Latin is formed on the same model, but more imperfect." Ib. p. 83. "I know very well how much pains have been taken." Sir W. Temple. "The mananagement of the breath requires a good deal of care." Blair's Rhet. p. 331. " Because the mind, during such a momentary stupe- faction, is in a good measure, if not totally, insensible." Kames, El. of Grit. Vol. i, p. 21:2. " Motives alone of reason and interest are not sufficient." Ib. Vol. i, p. 232. " To renc.er the composition distinct in its parts, and striking on the whole." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 333. "A and an are named indefinite because they denote some one thing of a kind." Maunder' s Gram. p. 1. "The is named definite, because it points out some particular thing." Ibid. " So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in every sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it." Blair's Rhet. p. 103. "All sort of declamation and public speaking, was carried on by them." Ib. p. 123. "The first has on many occa- sions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains." Ib. p. 440. " When the words there- fore, consequently, accordingly, and the like are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs." Kirkham's Gram. p. 88. "Kude nations make little or no allusions to the productions of the arts." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 10. "While two of her maids knelt on either side of her." Mirror, xi, 307. " The third personal pronouns differ from each other in meaning and use, as follows." Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. 65. " It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minucius : the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity." L. Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 57. " If it should be objected that the words must and ought, in the preceding sentences, are all in the present tense." Ib. p. 108. " But it will be well if you turn to them, every now and then." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 6. " That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support each other." Rollins Hist, ii, 115. " The phrase, ( Good, my Lord,' is not common, and low." Priestley's Gram. p. 110. "That brother should not war with brother, And worry and devour each other." Cowper. LESSON IV. PRONOUNS. "If I can contribute to your and my country's glory." Goldsmith. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, " In the formation of sentences, the con- sistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence, having a doubtful or double meaning, may be corrected in two ways, thus : " If I can contribute to our country's glory ; "or, "If I can contribute ' to your glory and that of my country."] CIIAP. XIII.] SXNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 693 "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each their verb." Lowth't Gram.p. 120. "He is likewise required to make examples himself." J. Flint's Gram. p. 3. " If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 242. "If the empahsis be placed wrong, we perveit and confound the meaning wholly." Blair's Rhet. p. 330. " It was this that char- acterized the great men of antiquity ; it is this, which must distinguish the moderns who would tread in their steps." Ib. p. 341. "I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish, as Presbyterian, who in that are much what alike." Barclay's Works, iii, 280. " Will he thence dare to say the apostle held another Christ than he that died :" 76. iii, 414. "What need you be anxious about this event? " Collier s Antoninus, p. 188. " If a substantive can be placed after the verb, it is active." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 31. "When we see bad nen honoured and prosperous in the world, it is some discouragement to virtue." L. Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 224. " It is a happiness to young persons, when they are preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed." Ib. p. 171. "The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but an- other name for prudence and economy." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 24. " It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, \cho was but another name for prudence and economy. Here which ought to be used, and not who." Priestley's Gram. p. 99 ; Fowler's, 488. " Better thus ; Whose name was but another word for prudence, &c." Murray's Gram. p. 157; Fisk's, 115; Ingersoll's, 221 ; Smith's, 133 ; and others. "A De- fective verb is one that wants some of its parts. They are chiefly the Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs." Bullions, E. Gram.p. 31; Old Editions, 32. " Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 67. "The Personal Pronouns give information which no other words are capable of conveying." M'Ctilloch's Gfum. p. 37. "When the article a, an, or the precedes the participle, it also becomes a noun." Merchant's School Gram. p. 93. "There is a preference to be given to some of these, which custom and judgment must determine." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 107. " Many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or the idea of which it implies." Ib. p. 200 ; Priestley's Gram. 157. " Say, dost thouknow Vectidius? Who, the wretch Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch ? " Dryden's IV Sat. of Pert. LESSOX V. VERBS. " We would naturally expect, that the word depend, would require from after it." Mur- ray's Gram. 8vo, p. 201. "A dish which they pretend to be made of emerald." Murray's Ki-y, 8vo, p. 198. "For the very nature of a sentence implies one proposition to be ex- pressed." Blair s Rhet. p. 106. " Without a careful attention to the sense, we would be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun." Ib. p. 105. " For any rules that can be given, on this subject, are very general." Ib. p. 125. " He is in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be." Ib. p. 234. "There I would prefer a more free and diffuse manner." Ib. p. 178. " Yet that they also agreed and resembled one another, in certain qualities." Ib. p. 73. "But since he must restore her, he insists to have another in her place." Ib. p. 431. "But these are far from being so frequent or so common as lias been supposed." Ib. p. 445. " We are not misled to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or painful feelings." Kamcs, El. of C'rit., Introd., p. xviii. " Which are of greater importance than is commonly thought." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 92. " Since these qualities are both coarse and common, lets find out the mark of a man of probity." (.'ollii-r's Antoninus, p. 40. " Cicero did what no man had ever done before him, draw up a treatise of consolation for himself." Life of Cicero. "Then there can be no other Doubt remain of the Truth." Briy/ttland's Gram. p. 245. "I have observed some satirists use the term." Bullion*'* 1'rtn. of E. dram. p. 79. "Such men are ready to despond, or commence enemies." If 'coster's Essays, p. 83. " Common nouns express names common to many things." Infant N-/iW drum. p. 18. "To make ourselves be heard by one to whom we address ourselves." Blair's Rhet. p. 328. "That, in reading poetry, he maybe the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties." Murray's Gram. 1. "On the stretch to comprehend, and keep pace with the author." Blair's Rhet. p. 150. " For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and have been given to the poor." Murk, xiv, 5. " He is a beam that is departed, and left no streak of light behind." OSSIAN : Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 2G2. " Xo part of this incident ought to have been represented, but reserved for a narrative." Kamcs, El. of Crit. ii, 294. "The rulers and people debauching themselves, brings ruin on a country." ]l'ur<-'s (irn/n. p. 9. " When Doctor, Miss, Master, &c. is prefixed to a name, the last of the two words is com- monly made plural; as, the Doctor Xettletons the two Miss Hudsons." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 106. " Wherefore that field was called, The field of blood, unto this day." Mitt, xxvii, 8. "To comprehend the situations of other countries, which perhaps may be necessary for him to explore." Brown's Estimate, ii, 111. "We content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did." Priestley's Gram. p. 139. "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have been mistaken, before them," 694 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Ib. p. 156. "The voice of nature and revelation unites." Wayland's Moral Science, 3d Ed., p. 307. " This adjective you see we can't admit, But chang'd to worse, will make it just and fit." Tobitt's Gram. p. 63. LESSON VI. PARTICIPLES. " Its application is not arbitrary, depending on the caprice of readers." Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. i, p. 246. " This is the more expedient, from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 161. "A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have erected for him a statue." Blair's Rhet. p. 106. " From some likeness too remote, and laying too far out of the road of ordinary thought." Ib. p. 146. " Money is a fluid in the commercial world, rolling from hand to hand." Webster's Essays, p. 123. "He pays much attention to learning and singing songs." Ib. p. 246. "I would not be understood to consider singing songs as criminal." Ibid. "It is a decided case by the Great Master of writing." Preface to Waller, p. 5. " Did they ever bear a testimony against writing books ? " Bates' s Misc. Repository. " Exclamations are sometimes mistaking for interroga- tions." Hist, of Printing, 1770. " Which cannot fail proving of service." Smith's Printer s Gram. " Hewn into such figures as would make them easily and firmly incorporated." BEATTIE : Murray's Gram, i, 126. " Following the rule and example are practical inductive questions." /. Flint's Gram. p. 3. " I think there will be an advantage in my having collected examples from modern writings." Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. xi. " He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens." HUME: ib. p. 160. "The good lady was careful of serving me of every thing." Ibid. " No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient in such a sense, as to render one not wanting and use- less." Butlers Analogy, p. loo. "Description, again is the raising in the mind the conception of an object by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols." Blair's Rhet. p. 52. " Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for our being done." Ib. p. 326. " There is a distinction which, in the use of them, is deserving of atten- tion." Maunder s Gram. p. 15. "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and easily managed." Education Reporter. " The conspiracy was the more easily discov- ered, from its being known to many." Murray's Key, ii, 191. " That celebrated work had been nearly ten years published, before its importance was at all understood." Ib. p. 220. " The sceptre's being ostensibly grasped by a female hand, does not reverse the general order of government." West's Letters to a Lady, p. 43. "I have hesitated signing the Declaration of Sentiments." Liberator, x, 16. " The prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled, and now shortening them when that necessity hath ceased to exist." Brown's Divinity, p. 7. " Before the performance commences, we have display 3d the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 23. "It forbale the lending of money, or sending goods, or in any way embarking capital in transactions connected with that foreign traffic." LORD BKOUGHAM : B. and F. Anti-Slavery Reporter, Vol. ii, p. 218. " Even abstract ideas have sometimes conferred upon them the same important prerogative." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 171. "Like other terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant." Walker's Rhyming Diet. p. xiii ; Murray's Gram. p. 24 ; IngersolFs, 11. "The term proper is from being proper, that is, peculiar to the individual bearing the name. The term common is from being common to every individual comprised in the class." Foicler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, 139. " Thus oft by mariners are shown (Unless the men of Kent are liars) Earl Godwin's castles overflown, And palace-roofs, and steeple-spires." Swift, p. 313. LESSON VII. ADVERBS. "He spoke to every man and woman there." Murray's Gram. p. 220; Fisk's, 147. "Thought and language act and react upon each other mutually." Blairs Rhet. p. 120; Murray's Exercises, 133. "Thought and expression act upon each other mutually." See Murray's Key, p. '261. " They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining scarcely any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions."- Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 359. "Before they are capable of understanding but little, or indeed any thing of many other branches of education." Olney's Introd. to Geog. p. 5. "There is not more beauty in one of them than in another." Murray's Key, ii, 275. " Which appear not constructed according to any certain rule." Blair's Rhet. p. 47. " The vehement manner of speaking became not so universal." Ib. p. 61. "All languages, how- ever, do not agree in this mode of expression." Ib. p. 77. "The great occasion of setting aside this particular day." ATTEKBUKY : ib. p. 294. " He is much more promising now than formerly." Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. 4. " They are placed before a participle, inde- pendently on the rest of the sentence." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 21. "This opinion appears to be not well considered." Ib. Vol. i, p. 153 ; Ingersoll's, 249. " Precision in language merits a full explication ; and the more, because distinct ideas are, perhaps, not commonly formed about it." Blair's Rhet. p. 94. " In the more sublime parts of poetry, he [Pope] is not so distinguished." Ib. p. 403. "How far the author was altogether happy in the choice of CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 695 his subject, may be questioned." Ib. p. 450. " But here also there s a great error in the common practice." Webster's Essays, p. 7. "This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not so." Furmr-i/'s Belles- Lcttrcs, Foreman's Version, p. 113. "Now, Who is not Discouraged, and Fears Want, when he has no Money?" Divine Right of Tythcs, p. 23. " Which the Au- thors of this work, consider of but little or no use." Wilbur and Livingston' a Gram. p. 6. "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins not to be clear." Blair's Rhet. p. 152. "But this is a manner which deserves not to be imitated." Ib. p. 180. "And in this department a person never effects so little, as when he attempts too much." Cttniphcll's Rhct. p. 173; Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 367. "The verb that signifies merely being, is neuter." Dr. As/is Gram. p. 27. " I hope not much to tire those whom I shall not happen to please." Rambler, No. 1. "Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others very indistinctly." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 32. " The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons why." r. Adams s Gram. p. 27. "These words are most always conjunctions." S. Bar- )(<(' s l{<.'ri*cd Gram. p. 73. " How fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue ! How sweet the periods, neither said, nor sung ! " Dunciad. LESSON Vin. CONJUNCTIONS. " Who at least either knew not, nor loved to make, a distinction." Dr. Murray's Hist, of . Lantj. i, 322. "It is childish in the last degree, if this become the ground of estranged affection. " />. Murray's Key, ii, 228. " When the regular or the irregular verb is to be preferred, p. 107." Murray's Index, Gram, ii, 296. "The books were to have been sold, as this day." Priestley's E. Gram. p. 138. " Do, an if you will." Beauties of Shak. p. 105. "If a man had a positive idea of infinite, either duration or space, he could add two infinites together." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 17 1. "None shall more willingly agree and advance the same nor I." EAKL OF MOKTOX : Robertson s Scotland, ii, 428. "'That it cannot be but hurtful to continue it." Barclay's Works, i, 192. "A conjunction joins words and sentences." Beck's Gram. pp. 4 and 25. "The copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together and continues the sense." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 42. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connector continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c." Murray's Gram. 8vo, i, 123. "All Construction is either true or apparent ; or in other Words just and figurative." Buchanan s Syntax, p. 130 ; British Gram. 2.'M. " But the divine character is such that none but a divine hand could draw." Tin- Friend, Vol. v, p. 72. " ' Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, is insensi- ble of a God r ' CICERO : " Dr. Gibbons. " It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little desire on the part of the Author, than its general utility." Town's Analysis, 9th Ed., p. 5. " This will sufficiently explain the reason that so many provincials have grown old in the capital, without making any change in their original dialect." Sheridan's Elocu- tion, \i. 51. " Of these they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated accents, and the term used in the plural number." Ib. p. 50. "And this is one of the chief reason*, that dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diver- sions of mankind." Ib. p. 95. " Which is the chief reason that public reading is in general so disgusting." Ib. p. 96. "At the same time that they learn to read." Ib. p. 96. " He pronounce his words exactly with the same accent that he speaks them." 76. " Iu order to know what another knows, and in the same manner that he knows it." lh. p. 136. " For the same reason that it is in a more limited state assigned to the several tribes of animals." Ib. p. 115. "Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner as other arts arc taught." If>. p. 169. " Whose own example strengthens all his laws ; And is himself that great Sublime he draws." Pope, on Crit. 1. 680. LESSON IX. PREPOSITIONS. " The word so has, sometimes, the same meaning with also, fikririsr, the same." 1'n'estley's . p. 137. "The verb use relates not to pleasures of the imagination, but to the terms of fancy and imagination, which he was to employ as synonymous." Blair's Ithct. p. 197. "It, never can view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."//), p. <1. "This ii'jure | Kuphemism] is often the same with the Periphrasis." Adam's Gram. p. 217 ; Gould's, All the 1), 'tween time of youth and old age"." Walker's 1'articl, p. 83. "When one thing is said to act upon, or do something to another." Istirth's Gram. p. 70. " a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has lite." Journal of Lit. Con- rcitfion, p. 91. " That young men of from fourteen to eighteen were not the best ju Ib. p. 130. "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and blasphemy." 2 A/Y/y.v, xi v. :!. "Blank verse has the same pauses and accents with rhyme." I\am> *, FJ. oj ii, 119. " In prosody, long syllables arc distinguished by ("), and short ones by what is called Oram. p. 22. "Sometimes both articles arc left out, especially in poetry." Ib. p. 2<>. " In the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted : imt] ' Conscious of his own weight ;U id importance, the aid of others was not solicit- 696 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. PART III. ed.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 221. "He was an excellent person; a mirror of ancient faith in early youth." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 172. " The carrying on its several parts into execution." Butler's Analogy, p. 192. " Concord, is the agreement which one word has over another, in gender, number, case and person." Folker's Gram. p. 3. " It might per- haps have given me a greater taste of its antiquities." ADBISON : Priestley's Gram. p. 160. " To call of a person, and to wait of him." Priestley, ib. p. 161. " The great difficulty they found of fixing just sentiments." HUMK : ib. p. 161. " Developing the difference between the three." James Brown s first American Gram. p. 12. " When the substantive singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural." Murray's Gram. p. 40. " We shall present him with a list or specimen of them." Ib. p. 132. "It is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, of how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the prin- ciples." Dymond's Essays, p. 168. " In this example, the verb ' arises ' is understood before ' curiosity ' and ' knowledge.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 274 ; Ingersoll's, 286 ; Comic's, 155; and others. " The connective is frequently omitted between several words." Wil- cox's Gram. p. 81. " He shall expel them from before you, and drive them from out of your sight." Joshua, xxiii, 5. "Who makes his sun shine and his rain to descend upon the just and the unjust." M'llvaine's Lectures, p. 411. LESSON X. MIXED EXAMPLES. " This sentence violates the rules of grammar." Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. ii, pp. 19 and 21. "The words thou and shalt, are again reduced to short quantities." Ib. Vol. i, p. 246. "Have the greater men always been the most popular? By no means." DR. LIEUER: Lit. Conv. p. 64. " St. Paul positively stated that, ' he who loves one another has fulfilled the law.' " Spurzheim, on Education, p. 248. " More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant." MCulloch's Gram. p. 18. " If the reader will par- don my descending so low." Campbell's Rhet. p. 20. "To adjust them so, as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period." Blair's Rhet. p. 118 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 324. " This class exhibits a lamentable want of simplicity and inefficiency." Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 481. "Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, where we see to the very bottom." Blair's Rhet. p. 93. " Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom." Murray's Gram. 8vo. p. 293. " We make use of the ellipsis."* Ib. p. 217. " The ellipsis of the article is thus used." Ib. p. 217. " Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different num- bers : as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.'" Ib. p. 218. " In some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used." Ib. 218. "The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner." Ib. 218. " The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun." Ib. 218. "The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances." Ib. p. 219. "The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner." Ib. 219. "The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis." Ib. 220. " If no emphasis be plac ed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often less ambiguous." Ib. p. 242. See Hart's Gram. p. 172. " If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only is discourse, rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning left often ambigu- ous." Blair's Rhet. p. 330 ; Murray's Eng. Reader, p. xi. " He regards his word, but thou dost not regard it." Bullions's E. Gram. p. 129 ; his Analytical and Practical Gram. p. 196. " He regards his word, but thou dost not: i. e. dost not regard it." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 219 ; Parker and Fox's, p. 96 ; Weld's, 192. " I have learned my task, but you have not ; i. e. have not learned." Ib. Mur. 219; &c. "When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they must be expressed." Ib. p. 217 ; Weld's Gram. 190. "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered." Murray's Gram. 8vo, ii, 24 and 190. "I understood him the best of all who spoke on the subject." Mur- ray's Key, 8vo, p. 192. " I understood him better than any other who spoke on the subject." Ibid. "The roughness found on our entrance into the paths of virtue and learning, grow smoother as we advance." Ib. p. 171. " The roughnesses," &c. Murray's Key, 12mo, p. 8. " Nothing promotes knowledge more than steady application, and a habit of observation." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 265. " Virtue confers supreme dignity on man : and should be his chief desire." Ib. p. 192 ; and Merchant's, 192. " The Supreme author of our being has so formed the soul of man, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper hap- piness." Addison, Sped. No. 413 ; Blair's Rhet. p. 213. The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans ; because, they say, any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures." Ad. Spect. No. 414 ; Blair's Rhet. p. 222. " The divine laws are #In his explanation of Ellipsis, Lindley Murray continually calls it " the ellipsis," and speaks of it as eome- thing that is " used," "made use of," "applied," "contained in" the examples; which expressions, referring, as they there do, to the mere 'absence of something, appear to me solecistical. The notion too, which this author and others have entertained of the figure itself, is in many respects erroneous ; and nearly all their examples for its illustration are either questionable as to such an application, or obviously inappropriate. The absence of what is needless or unsuggtsted, is no ellipsis, though some grave men have not discerned this obvious fact The nine solecisms here quoted concerning "the ellipsis," are all found in many other grammar*. See FisVi E. Gram. p. 144 ; Guy'*, 91 ; IngersoWs, 153; J. M. Putnam 1 .", 137 ; R. C. Smith's, 180 ; Weld's, 190. CHAP. XIH.] SYNTAX. GENERAL BULE. ERRORS. G97 not reversible by those of men." Murray's Key, ii, 167. " In both of these examples, the relative and the verb which teas, are understood." Murray's Gram. p. 273 ; Comly's, 152 ; IngersolFs, 285. " The Greek and Latin languages, though, for many reasons, they cannot be called dialects of one another, are nevertheless closely connected." Dr. Murray's Hist. of European Lang. Vol. ii, p. 5 1. "To ascertain and settle which, of a white rose or a red rose, breathes the sweetest fragrance." J. Q. Adams, Orat. 1831. "To which he can afford to devote much less of his time and labour." Blair's Rhet. p. 254. "Avoid extremes ; and shun the fault of such, Who still are plcas'd too little or too much." Pope, on Crit. 1. 384. LESSON XL BAD PHRASES. " He had as good leave his vessel to the direction of the winds." SOUTH : in Joh. Diet. *' Without good nature and gratitude, men had as good live in a wilderness as in society." L'EsTRAXGE : ib. "And for this reason such lines almost never occur together." Blair's Rhet. p. 385. "His being a great man did not make him a happy man." Crombie's Treatise, p. 288. " Let that which tends to the making cold your love be judged in all." N. Crisp. "It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death." Bacon's Essays, p. 4. "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest." Sheridan's Lect. p. 80 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 244. " Before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other." Blair's Rhet. p. 313. "The change in general of manners through- out all Europe." Ib. p. 375. " The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, throughout his whole works." Ib. p. 440. " The French writers of sermons study neatness and ele- gance in laying down their heads." Ib. p. 313. " This almost never fails to prove a refrige- rant to passion." Ib. p. 321. "At least their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to demand vengeance." Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 191. "Alleging, that their crying down the church of Home, was a joining hand with the Turks." Barclay's Works, i, 239. "To which is added the Assembly of Divines Catechism." New-England Primer, p. 1. " This treachery was always present in both their thoughts." Dr. Robertson. "Thus far both their words agree." ("Conrcniunt adhuc vtriusque verba. Plaut.") Walker's Particles, p. 125. "Aparith- mesis, or Enumeration, is the branching out into several parts of what might be expressed in fewer words." Gould's Gram. p. 241. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is when what miijht be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts." Adam's Gram, p. '_'")!. "Which may sit from time to time where you dwell or in the neighbouring vicinity." Taylor's District School, 1st Ed., p. 281. "Place together a large and a small si/ed animal of the same species." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 235. "The weight of the swim- ming body is equal to that of the weight, of the quantity of fluid displaced by it." Perci- vaTs Tales, ii. 213. "The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to that of the Opta- tive." Gwilt's Saxon Gram. p. 27. "No other feeling of obligation remains, except that of fidelity." Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 82. "Who asked him, 'What could be the reason, that whole audiences should be moved to tears, at the representation of some fit>ry on the stage.' " Sheridan's Elocution, p. 175. "Art not thou and you ashamed to afKrm, that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints are as filthy rags?" Barclay's Works, i, 174. "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own." Sanbom's Gram. p. 127. " But he has judged better, in omitting to repeat the article the." Blair's Rhet. p. 194. " Many objects please us as highly beautiful, which have almost no variety at all." Ib. p. 46. " Yet notwithstand- ing, they sometimes follow them." Emmnns's Gram. p. 21. " For I know of nothing more material in all the whole Subject, than this doctrine of Mood and Tense." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 292. " It is by no means impossible for an errour to be got rid of or supprest." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 642. " These are things of the highest importance to the growing age." Murray's AV.y, 8vo, p. 2 ~>0. " He had better have omitted the word many." Blair's Rhrt. p. 'Jo."). " Which had better have been separated." Ib. p. 225. "Figures and metaphors, therefore, should, on no occasion be stuck on too profusely." Ib. p. 144 ; Ji'inii inn's Uhft. 1.50. " Metaphors, as well as other figures, should on no occasion, be stuck on too profusely." Murray's Gram. p. 338; Russell's, 136. "Something like this hus been reproached to Tacitus." BOUNGHUOKE ; Priestley's Gram. p. 164. O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand, Each of whose blood must one day stain thy hand! "Sheffield's Temple of Death. LESSON XII. TWO ERRORS. * "Pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things which they represent." Murray's Gram. p. 160. " Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place." Lotcth's Gram, * Some of these examples do, in fact, contain more than two errors ; for mistakes in punctuation, or in the use of capital*, are not here reckoned. This romark may also be applicable to some of the other lessons. The re uler may likewise perceire, that where two, three, or more improprieties occur in one sentence, some one w 46 698 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. p. 65. "Which is applied to inferior animals and things without life." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 24 ; Pract. Lessons, 30. " What noun do they describe or tell the kind ? "Infant School Gram. p. 41. "Iron cannon, as well as brass, is now universally cast solid." Jamieson's Diet. "We have philosophers, eminent and conspicuous, perhaps, beyond any nation." Blair's Bhet. p. 251. "This is a question about words alone, and which common sense easily determines." Ib. p. 320. "The low [pitch of the voice] is, when he approaches to a whisper." Ib. p. 328. " Which, as to the effect, is just the same with using no suchdis- tinctions at all." Ib. p. 33. "These two systems, therefore, differ in reality very little from one another." Ib. p. 23. "It were needless to give many instances, as they occur so often." Ib. p. 109. " There are many occasions when this is neither requisite nor would be proper." Ib. p. 311. " Dramatic poetry divides itself into the two forms, of comedy or tragedy." Ib. p. 452. "No man ever rhymed truer and evener than he." Pref. to Waller, p. 5. " The Doctor did not reap a profit from his poetical labours equal to those of his prose." Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. "We will follow that which we found our father's practice." Sale's Koran, i, 28. "And! would deeply regret having published them." Infant School Gram. p. vii. " Figures exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language." Kirkham's Gram. p. 222. "The allegory is finely drawn, only the heads various." Sped. No. 540. " I should not have thought it worthy a place here." Crombie's Treatise, p. 219. " In this style, Tacitus excels all writers, ancient and modern." Kames, El. of Grit, ii, 261. " No author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue equal to Shakspeare." Ib. ii, 294. " The names of every thing we hear, see, smell, taste, and feel, are nouns." Infant School Gram. p. 16. "What number are these boys? these pictures? &c." Ib. p. 23. "This sentence is faulty, somewhat in the same manner with the last." Blair's Rhet. p. 230. " Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language ; which forms one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty." Ib. p. 181. "Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague ; none more so, than that of the sublime." Ib. p. 35. " Hence, no word in the language is used in a more vague signification than beauty." Ib. p. 45. " But, still, he made use only of general terms in speech." Ib. p. 73. " These give life, body, and colour- ing to the recital of facts, and enable us to behold them as present, and passing before our eyes." Ib. p. 360. "Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height than it had risen in fact." Ib. p. 374. " We write much more supinely, and at o-ur ease, than the ancients.": Ib. p. 351. "This appears indeed to form the characteristical differ- ence between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, compared with the modern." /&. p. 350. " To violate this rule, as is too often done by the English, shews great incorrect- ness." Ib. p. 463. " It is impossible, by means of any study to avoid their appearing stiff and forced." Ib. p. 335. " Besides its giving the speaker the disagreeable appearance of one who endeavours to compel assent." Ib. p. 328. "And, on occasions where a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a no ;e, than to hazard becoming too familiar." Ib. p. 359. " The great business of this life is to pi e- pare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p.373. " In some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted ; and in others stigmatized as a barbarisrr.." Crombie's Treatise, p. 322. " You cannot see, or think of, a thing, unless it be a noun." Mack's Gram. p. 65. " The fleet are all arrived and moored in safety." Murray's Key, ii, 185. LESSON XIII. TWO ERRORS. " They have each their distinct and exactly-limited relation to gravity." Hasler's Astronomy, p. 219. " But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 175. "After o it [the w] is sometimes not sounded at all ; sometimes like a single w." Lowth's Gram. p. 3. "It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortunes and characters of men." HUME : Priestley's Gram. p. 159. " It is situation chiefly which decides the fortune (or, concerning the for- tune) and characters of men." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 201. " The vice of covetousness is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." Ib. p. 167 ; IngersoWs, 193 ; Fish's, 103 ; Campbell's Rhet. 205. " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." Murray, 167 ; and others. " Covetousness is what of all vices enters the deepest into the soul." Campbells Rhet. p. 205. " The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." Guardian, No. 19. "Would primarily denotes inclination of will; and should, obligation : but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event." Lowth's Gram. p. 43 ; Murray's, 89 ; Fisk's, 78 ; Greanleafs, 27. " But they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple events." Comly's Gram. p. 39 ; IngersoWs, 137. " But they vary their import, and are often used to express simple event." Abel Flint's Gram. p. 42. "A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of more of them may happen to be such, as he can, if he choose, correct by some rule or note belonging to a previous chapter. Great labour has been bestowed on the selection and arrangement of these syntactical exercises ; but to give to so great a variety of literary faults, a distribution perfectly distinct, and perfectly adapted to all the heads assumed in this digest, is a work not only of great labour, but of great difficulty. I have come as near to these two points of perfection in the arrangement, as I well could. G. BROWM. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. G99 a sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, 'Had he done this, he had escaped.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 213 ; Ingersotfs, 269. "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, or of sense." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 191. " Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing the moun- tains, which is in itself so grand, burlesque, and ridiculous." Blairs Rhet. p. 42. "To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but even in divers respects not com- parable." Barclay's Works, i, 53. "To distinguish them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner as we do with regard to other ideas." S/wid'tn's Elocution, p. 137. "For it has nothing to do with parsing or analyzing lan- guage." Kirkham's Gram. p. 19. Or: "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or analyz- ing, language." Id. Second Edition, p. 16. "Neither was that language [the Latin] ever so vulgar in Britain." SWIFT : see Blair's Rhet. p. 228. "All that I propose is to give some openings into the pleasures of taste." Ib. p. 28. " But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 210. "But I think it had better be omitted in the following sentence." Priestley's Gram. p. 162. " They appear, in this case, like excrescences jutting out from the body, which had better have been wanted." Blair's And therefore, the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the yEncid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, had been better omitted in these celebrated poems." Ib. p. 430. " Ellipsis is an elegant Suppression (or the leav- ing out) of a Word, or Words in a Sentence." British Gram. p. 234; Buchanan's, p. 131. "The article a or an had better be omitted in this construction." Blair's Gram. p. 67. " Now suppose the articles had not been left out in these passages." Bucke's Gram. p. 27. "To give separate names to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking." Blair's Rhet. p. 72. "AY, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a." Murray's Gram. p. 12. " When a conjunction is used apparently redundant it is called Polysyndeton." Adam's Gram. p. 236 ; Gould's, 229. "Each, every, either, neither, denote the persons or things which make up a number, as taken separately or distribu- tively." M'Culloch's Gram. p. 31. " The Principal Sentence must be expressed by verbs in the Indicative, Imperative, or Potential Modes." f 'lark's Pract. Gram. p. 133. ""Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to have been pressing." Blair s Rhet. p. 246. "All manner of subjects admit of explaining comparisons." Ib. p. 164; Jam icson's Rhet. 161. "The pres- ent or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected." Kirk- ham's Gram. p. 78. " What are verbs ? Those words which express what the nouns do." Fawlc's True- Enr/. Gram. p. 29. " Of all those arts in which the wise excel, Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." J. Sheffield, Duke of Buck. " Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." Pope, on Criticism. LESSON XIV. THREE ERRORS. " In some words the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether, so that in respect of it they are become obsolete." Campbell's Rhet. p. 323. " Sure never any in >rtal was so overwhelmed with grief as I am at this present." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 138. "All languages differ from each other in their mode of inflexion. Bullions, E. Gram., Pref., ]). v. " Nouns and verbs are the only indispensable parts of speech the one to express th subject spoken of, and the other the predicate or what is affirmed of it." M*Cuttoch's Gram. p. 30. " The words in italics of the three latter examples, perform the office of sub- stantives." L. Mtirrni/'s Gram. Hvo, p. 66. "Such a structure of a sentence is always the mark of careless writing." Blair's Rhet. p. 231. " Nothing is frequently more hurtful to the grace or vivacity of a period, than superliuous dragging words at the conclusion." Ib. " When its substantive is not joined to it, but referred to, or understood." Loirth's . " Yet they have always some substantive belonging to them, either referred to, or understood." Ib. 24. " Because they define and limit the extent of the common name, or general term, to which they either refer, or are joined." Ib. 24. "Every new object surprises, terrifies, and makes a strong impression on their mind." Blair's Rhet. p. II:- argument required to have been more fully unfolded, in order to make it be dis- tinctly apprehended, and to give it its due force." Ib. p. 230. " Participles which are derived from active verbs, will govern the objective case, the same as the verbs from which they are derived." Em mo us' a Gram. p. 61. " Where, contrary to the rule, the nomina- tive / precedes, and the obi' -rhnm follows the verb." Murray** Gram. 8vo, p. 181. " The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same > to be a great impropriety." Ib. p. 207; Smith's Xar Gram. 173 : see Is>irth's Gram. p. 10o ; Fink's, 1'JS ; and 'linji-rsoll's, 2W5. "A nice di-cernment, and accurate attention to th> . to direct us, on the>c -Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 170. "The < J reeks ami lu.iu.i -.s, the 1'ormer especially, in truth, much more musieal nations than we; their genius \ as more turned to de- light in the melody of speech." Blair's IHut. j>. 1.1:'. When the sens.- admits it, the is introduced, the better, that the more important and significant 700 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered." Murray's Gram. 8vo, i, p. 309 ; Parker and Fox's, Part. Ill, p. 88. " When the sense admits it, the sooner they are de- spatched, generally speaking, the better ; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered." Blair's Rhet. p. 118. See also Jamieson's Ehet. p. 101. " Thus we find it, both in the Greek and Latin tongues." Blair's Rhet. p. 74. "A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one another." Ib. p. 102 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. i, p. 306 ; Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 86. " I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors ; and which are much the same for tropes of every kind." Blair's Rhet. p. 143. " By a proper choice of words, we may produce a resemblance of other sounds which we mean to describe." Ib. p. 129 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. i, p. 331. " The disguise can almost never be so perfect, but it is discovered." Blair's Rhet. p. 259. " The sense admits of no other pause than after the second syllable ' sit,' which there- fore must be the only pause made in the reading." Ib. p. 333. " Not that I believe North America to be peopled so late as the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration." Webster's Essays, p. 212. "Money and commodities wil always now to that country, where they are most wanted and wil command the moat profit." Ib. p. 308. "That it contains no visible marks, of articles, which are the most important of all others, to a just delivery." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 13. "And of virtue, from its beauty, we call it a fair and favourite maid." Mack's Gram. p. 66. " The definite article may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number." Infant School Gram. p. 130. LESSON XV. MANY ERRORS. (1.) "A compound word is included under the head of derivative words." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 23. (2.) "An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns." Ib. p. 281.* (3.) "A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words. It is also used when a word is di- vided." Ib. p. 282. (4.) "The Acute Accent, marked thus ': as, 'Fancy.' The Grave thus \ as, 'Favour.' " Ib. 282. (5.) " The stress is laid on long and short syllables indis- criminately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter." Ib. 282. (6.) "A Diseresis, thus marked", consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into syllables." Ib. 282. (7.) "A Section, marked thus , is the division of a discourse, or chapter, into less parts or portions." Ib. 282. (8.) "A Paragraph H denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character is chiefly used in the Old and in the Now Testaments." Ib. 282. (9.) "A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from 1 he speaker or author in his own words ; and two commas in their direct position, are placed at the conclusion." Ib. 282. (10.) "A Brace is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines, which have the same rhyme. Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in writing or printing." Ib. p. 283. (11.) "Two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or ot some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in uhe manuscript." Ib. 283. (12.) "An Ellipsis is also used, when some letters in a word, or some words in a verse, are omitted." Ib. 283. (13.) "An Obelisk, which is marked thus f, and Parallels thus ||, together with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the page." Ib. 283. (14.) "A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. ' The Cyprians asked me why I wept.' " Ib. p. 279 ; Comly, 163; Inaersoll, 291; Fisk t 157; Flint, 113. (15.) "A point of interrogation is im- proper after sentences which are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion." Same authors and places. (16.) "The parenthesis incloses in the * In Murray's sixth chapter of Punctuation, from which this example, and eleven others that follow it, are taken, there is scarcely a single sentence that does not contain many errors ; and yet the whole is literally copied in IngersoWs Grammar, p. 293 ; in Fisk's, p. 159 ; in Abel Flint's, 116 ; and probably in some others. I have not always been careful to subjoin the great number of references which might be given for blunders selected from this hackneyed literature of the schools. For corrections, or improvements, see the Key. t This example, or L.Murray's miserable modification of it, traced through the grammars of Alden, Alger, Bullions, Comly, Cooper, Flint, Ililey, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Merchant, Russell, Smith, and others, will be found to have a dozen different forms all of them no less faulty than the original all of them obscure, untrue, incon- sistent, and almost incorrigible. It is plain, that " a comma," or one comma, cannot divide more than two " simple members ; " and these, surely, cannot be connected by more than one relative, or by more than one "comparative; " if it be allowable to call than, as, or so, by this questionable name. Of the multitude of errors into which these pretended critics have BO blindly fallen, I shall have space and time to point out only a very small part : this text, too justly, may be taken as a pretty fair sample of their scholarship ! CI1AP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL BULE. ERRORS. 701 part, distinguished by a comma." L. Murray's Gram. p. 272; Alden's, 148; Ingersolfs, 284. See the same words without the last two commas, in Comly'a Gram. p. 149 ; Aider's, 79 ; Merchant's Murray, 143 : and this again, with a different sense, made by a comma before "connected" in Smith's AVic Gram. 190; Abel Flint's, 102. (19.) " Simple members of sen- tences connected by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by the comma." Russell's Gram. p. 115. (20.) "Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, should generally be distinguished by a comma." Merchant's School Gram. p. 150. (21.) " Simple members of sentences connected by than or so, or that express contrast or com- parison, should, generally, be divided by a comma." Jaudon's Gram. p. 185. (22.) " Sim- ple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, if they be long, are separated by a comma." Cooper's New Gram. p. 195. See the same without the first comma, in Cooper's Murray, p. 1813. (23.) " Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other, are separated by commas." Bullions, p. 153 ; Hiley, 113. (24.) " On which ever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a different sense." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 243. (25.) "To inform those who do not understand sea phrases, that, VVe tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would be expressing ourselves very obscurely." Ib. p. 296; and Hiley' s Gram. p. 151. (26.) "Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun, on the former syllable." Murray, ib. p. 237. (27.) "And this gives our language a superior advantage to most others, in the poetical and rhetorical style." Id. ib. p. 38 ; Ingersoll, 27 ; Fisk t 57. (28.) "And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the poetical and rhetorical style." Loicth's Gram. p. 19. (29.) " The second and third scholar may read the same sentence ; and as many, as it is necessary to learn it perfectly to the whole." Osborn's Key, p. 4. (30.) " Bliss is the name in subject as a king, In who obtain defence, or who defend." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 178. LESSON XVI. MANY ERRORS. " The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Coraoans, speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, but use, with these last people, the same writ- ten characters ; a proof that the Chinese characters are like hieroglyphics, independent of language." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 18. " The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corceans, who speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, use, however, the same written characters with them ; and by this means correspond intelligibly with each other in writing, though ignorant of the language spoken in their several coun- tries ; a plain proof," &c. Blair s Rhet. p. 67. " The curved line is made square instead of round, for the reason beforementioned." Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 6. "Every one should content himself with the use of those tones only that he is habituated to in speech, and to give none other to emphasis, but what he would do to the same words in discourse. Thus whatever he utters will be done with ease, and appear natural." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 103. " Stops, or pauses, are a total cessation of sound during a perceptible, and in numerous compositions, a measurable space of time." Ib. p. 104. "Pauses or rests, in speaking and iinimitict! Xouns ; as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling, from lamb, hill, sack, goose." Bul- lions, 1-1. Gram., 1837, p. 9. " What is the cause that nonsense so often escapes being detected, both by the writer and by the reader " Campbell's Rhtt. p. xi, and 280. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without reference to the structure of the other parts of it." M'Culloch's drum, p. 36. "Ought (in duty bound) oughtcst, oughtcdst, are it's only inflections." Mackintosh's Gram. p. 165. "But the arrangment, government, agree- ment, and dependence of one word upon another, are referred to our reason." Osborn's Key, J '/>'/. p. ;>. ".l/f is a personal pronoun, first person singular, and the accusative case." (iui/'.'i drum. p. 20. " The substantive self is added to a pronoun ; as, herself, himself, &c. ; and when thus united, is called a reciprocal pronoun." Ib. p. 18. "One cannot avoid thinking that our author had done better to have begun the first of these three sentences, with saying, it is nocelty ic/iich bestows charms on a monster, &e." Blair s Rhet. p. 207. "The idea which they present to us of nature's resembling art, of art's being considered as an original, and nature as a copy,* seems not very distinct nor well brought out, nor indeed very material to our author's purpose." Ib. p. 220. "The present construction of the The " idea " which is here spoken of, Dr. Blair discovers in a passage of Addison's Spectator. It in, in fact, aji here " brought out " by the critic, a bald and downright absurdity. Dr. Campbell baa criticised, under the n line of marvellous notisentf, a different display of the same " id'a," cited from De J'iles's Principles of I'&inting. The passage ends thus: " In thw sense it may be asserted, that iu Hubeus' pieces, Art is above Nature, ;ind Nature ouly a copy of that great master's work.s.' ; Of this the critic says : " When the expression i itrt/it of the absurd meaning, there remains nothing but balderdash.'' Philosoj'hy of Rhet. p. 278. 702 TUB GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. sentence, has plainly been owing to hasty and careless writing." Ib. p. 220. "Adverbs serve to modify, or to denote some circumstance of an action, or of a quality, relative to its time, place, order, degree, and the other properties of it, which we have occasion to specify." Ib. p. 84. " The more that any nation is improved by science, and the more perfect their language becomes, we may naturally expect that it will abound more with connective parti- cles." Ib. p. 85. " Mr. Greenleaf s book is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject." DR. FELTUS andBp. ONDERDONK : Greenleaf s Gram. p. 2. " Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation." Lowth's Gram. p. 114. "A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by commas." Green- leaf's Gram. p. 41; Allen Fish's, 155.* " Simple sentences should be separated from each other by commas, unless such sentences are connected by a conjunction : as, ' Youth is passing away, age is approaching and death is near.' " Hall's Gram. p. 36. "Fhas the sound of flat/, and bears the same relation to it, as b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, and z to s. It has also one uniform sound." Murray's Gram. p. 17 ; Fish's, 42. "Fis flat /, and bears the same relation to it as b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, and z to s. It is never irreg- ular." Walker's Diet. p. 52. "F has the sound of flat/; and bears the same relation to it as z does to s. It has one uniform sound." Greenleaf s Gram. p. 20. "The author is explaining the distinction, between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind." Murray's Gram. Svo, Vol. i, p. 343. [The author is endeavouring] "to explain a very abstract point, the distinction between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind." Blair's Rhet. p. 164. " HE (Anglo-Saxon he} is a Personal pronoun, of the Third Person, Masculine Gender (Decline he), of the singular number, in the nominative case." Fowlers E. Gram. Svo, 1850, 589. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE CRITICAL NOTES. UNDER. CRITICAL NOTE I. OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. "The passive voice denotes a being acted upon." Maunder' s Gram. p. 6. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the term " being acted upon," as here used, suggests a doubt concerning its classification in parsing. But, according to Critical Note 1st, '' Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong." Therefore, the phraseology should be altered; thus, "The passive voice denotes an action received." Or: "The passive voice denotes t/u receiving of an action"] "Milton, in some of his prose works, has very finely turned periods." Blair's Rhet. p. 127 ; Jamieson's, 129. " These will be found to be all, or chiefly, of that class." Blai.-'s Rhet. p. 32. "All appearances of an author's affecting harmony, are disagreeable." Jb. p. 127 ; Jamieson, 128. " Some nouns have a double increase, that is, increase by more syllables than one ; as, iter, itineris." Adam 's Gram. p. 255; Gould's, 247. "The powers of man are enlarged by advancing cultivation." Gurney's Essays, p. 62. " It is always important to begin well ; to make a favourable impression at first setting out." Blairs Rhet. p. 307. " For if one take a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead him astray in all that follows." Ib. p. 313. "His mind is full of his subject, and his words are all expressive." Ib. p. 179. " How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek ! " Harris's Hermes, p. 422. " How little is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul ! "- Murray's Key, Svo, p. 253. " So as to exhibit the object in its full and most striking point of view." Blair's Rhet. p. 41. "And that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain, as well as how to rise to the bold and figured style." Ib. p. 401. " The heart can only answer to the heart." Ib. p. 259. " Upon its first being perceived." Harris's Hermes, p. 229. " Call for Samson, that he may make xis sport." Judges, xvi, 25. "And he made them sport." Ibid. " The term suffer in this definition is used in a technical sense, and means simply the receiving of an action, or the being acted upon." Bullions, p. 29. "The Text is what is only meant to be taught in Schools." Brightland, Pref. p. ix. " The perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished." Kirkham's Gram. p. 78. " From the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their being blended [the pronoun _ cerning us, as being every where evil spoken of." Barclay's Works, Vol. ii, p. vi. Every thing beside was buried in a profound silence." Steele. " They raise more full conviction than any reasonings produce." Blair's Rhet. p. 367. "It appears to me no more than a fanciful refinement." Ib. p. 436. " The regular resolution throughout of a complete passage." Churchill's Gram. p. vii. "The infinitive is known by its being immediately preceded by the word to." Maunder s Gram. p. 6. " It will not be gaining much ground to urge that the basket, or vase, is understood to be the capital." Kames, EL of Grit. Vol. ii, p. 356. " The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to the purpose where the * All his rules for the comma, Fisk appears to have taken unjustly from Greenleaf. It is a double slminr, for a grammarian to stial what is BO badly ivritten .' G. BROWN. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 703 subject is drinking ink figuratively." Ib. ii, 231. "That we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close." Blairs Rhet. p. 111. "Being obliged to rest for a little on the preposition by itself." Ib. p. 112 ; Jamiesons Rhet. 93. " Being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by itself." Murray'* Gram. p. 319. " Our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is none abiding." 1 Chron. xxix, 15. " There may be a more particular expression attempted, of certain objects, by means of resembling sounds." Blair's Rhet. p. 129 ; Jamiesons, 130; Murray's Gram. 331. "The right disposition of the shade, makes the light and colouring strike the more." Blair's Rhet. 144. " I observed that a diifuse style inclines most to long periods." Ib. p. 178. " Their poor Arguments, which they only Pickt up and down the Highway." Divine Right of Tythes, p. iii. " "Which must be little, but a transcribing out of their writings." Barclay's Works, iii, 353. " That single impulse is a forcing out of almost all the breath." Rush, on the Voice, p. 254. " Picini compares modulation to the turning off from a road." Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 406. " So much has been written, on and off, of almost every subject." The Friend, ii, 117. " By reading books written by the best authors, his mind became highly improved. "Murray s Key, 8vo, p. 201. " For I never made the being richly provided a token of a spiritual ministry." Barclay's Works, iii, 470. UXDER CRITICAL NOTE II. OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE. " However disagreeable, we must resolutely perform our duty." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. [FORMCLE. Not proper, because the adjective disagreeable appears to relate to the pronoun we, though such a relation was probably not intended by the author. But, according to Critical Note 2d, " The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood/' The sentence may be amended thus : " However disagreeable the task-, we must resolutely perform our duty."] "The formation of verbs in English, both regular and irregular, is derived from the Saxon." Loicth's Gram. p. 47. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkably than on language." Campbell's Rhet. p. 180. " Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkable than on language." Jamiesons Rhet. p. 47. "Archytases being a virtuous man, who happened to perish once upon a time, is with him a sufficient ground," &c. Philological Museum, i, 466. " He will be the better qualified to understand, with accuracy, the meaning of a numerous class of words, in which they form a material part." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 120. "We should continually have the goal in view, which would direct us in the race." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 172. " But [Addison's figures] seem to rise of their own accord from the sub- ject, and constantly embellish it." Blair's Rhet. p. 150 ; Jamiesons, 157. "As far as persons and other animals and things that we can see go, it is very easy to distinguish Nouns." Cobbett's Gram, f 14. " Dissyllables ending in y, e mute, or accented on the last syllable, may be sometimes compared like monosyllables." Frost's El. of Gram. p. 12. "Admitting the" above objection, it will not overrule the design." Rush, on the Voice, p. 140. "These philosophical innovators forget, that objects are like men, known only by their actions." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, i, 326. "The connexion between words and ideas is arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 1. "The connexion between words and ideas may, in general, be considered as arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves." Blair's Rhet. p. 53. "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions." Swift. " They have no more control over him than any other men." Wayland's Mural Science, 1st Ed., p. 372. "His old words are all true English, and numbers exquisite." Sjj.-rtutur, No. 540. "It has been said, that not only Jesuits can equivocate." Murray's Exercises, 8vo, p. 121. "It has been said, that Jeusits can not only equivocate." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 253. "The nominative of the first and second person in Latin is seldom expressed." Adam's Gram. p. 154 ; Gould's, 157. " Some words are the same in both numbers." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 40 ; Inyersoll's, 18 ; Fisk's, 69 ; Kirkh'.- , 42 J 7 al. " Some nouns are the same in both numbers." Mi-rchant's Gram. p. 29 ; Smith's, 45 ; et al. " Others are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, i Frost's El. of Gram. p. 8. "The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being in number twenty-two." Murray's Gram. p. ; Fisk's, 36. "And is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for others to remain ignorant ; or to render the subject a less becoming inquiry " Harris Hi-run-.*, p. 'J'J3 ; Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 288. "He is one of the most correct, and perhaps the best, of our prose writers." Loicth's Gran.. p. iv. " The motions of a vortex and a whirlwind are perfectly similar." Jamieson's lUn-t, p. 131. "What I have been saying throws light upon one important verse in thp Bible, which I should like to have read." Abbott's Teacher, p. 182. " When there are any cir- cumstances of time, place, or other limitations, which the principal object of our sentence ro pares to have connected with it." Blair's Rhet. p. 115; Jamieson's Rhet. 9>S ; Murray's Gram, i, 32'J. " Interjections are words used to express emotion, affection, or passion, and in ply suddenness." Buckc's Gram. p. 77. " Hut the genitive is only used to express the m Misure of things in the plural number." Adam's Gram. p. 200: Gould's, 198. " The buildings of the institution have been enlarged ; the expense of which, added to the in- 704 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. creased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. " These sentences are far less difficult than complex." S. S. Greene's Analysis, or Grammar, 1st Ed., p. 179. " Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learn' d to stray." Gray's Elegy. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III. OF DEFINITIONS. (1.) "Definition is such a description of things as exactly describes the thing and that thing only." Blair's Gram. p. 135. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because this definition of a definition is not accurately adapted to the thing. Hut, according to Critical Note 3d, "A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing or class of things which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name."* The example may be amended thus : "A definition is a short and lucid description of a thing, or species, according to its nature and properties.'''] (2.) " Language, in general, signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas." Blairs Rhet. p. 53. (3.) "A WORD is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea." Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gr. p. 17. (4.) "A word is a sound, or combination of sounds, which is used in the expression of thought." Hazen's Gram. p. 12. (5.) "Words are articulate sounds, used as signs to convey our ideas." Hiley's Gram. p. 5. (6.) "A.ioord is a number of letters used together to represent some idea." Hart's E. Gram. p. 28. (7.) "A Word is a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea." S. W. Clark's Practical Gram. p. 9. (8.) "A word is a letter or a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea." Wells' s School Gram. p. 41. (9.) " Words are articulate sounds, by which ideas are communicated." Wright's Gram. p. 28. (10.) " Words are certain articulate sounds used by common consent assigns of our ideas." Bullions, Principles of E. Gram. p. 6 ; Lot. Gram. 6 : see Lowth, Murray, Smith, et al. (11.) " Words are sounds used assigns of our ideas." W. Allen's Gram. p. 30. (12.) "Orthography means word-making, or spelling." Kirkham's Gram. p. 19; Smith's New Gram. p. 41. (13.) "A vowel is a letter, the name of which constitutes a full, open sound." Hazen's Gram. p. 10; Lennie's, 5 ; Brace's, 7. (14.) " Spelling is the art of read- ing by naming the letters singly, and rightly dividing words into their syllables. Or, in writing, it is the expressing of a word by its proper letters." Lowth's Gram. p. 5 ; Church- ill's, 20. (15.) " Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters." Murray's Gram. p. 21 ; Ingersoll's, 6 ; Merchant's, 10; Alger's,l2; Greenleafs, 20 ; and others. (16.) " Spelling is the art of expressing woi ds by their proper letters; or of rightly dividing words into syllables." Comly's Gram. p. 8. (17.) "Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters, and rightly dividiag it into syllables." Bullions' s Prin. of E. Gram. p. 2. (18.) " Spelling'is the art of express- ing a word by its proper letters." Kirkham's Gram. p. 23; Sanborn's,p. 259. (19.) 'A Syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a word." Lowth, p. 5 ; Murray, 21 ; Ingersoll, 5 ; Fisk, 11 ; Greenleaf, 20; Merchant, 9; Alger, 12; Bucke, 15; Smith, 118; et al. (20.) "A Syllable is a complete Sound uttered in one Breath." British Gram. p. 32 ; Buchanan's, 5. (21.) "A syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of the voice." Kirkham's Gram. p. 20. (22.) "A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once." Bullions, E. Gr. p. 2. (23.) "A syllable is a word, or part of a word, or as much as can be sounded at once." Picket's Gram. p. 10. (24. ) "A diph- thong is the union of two Vowels, both of which are pronounced as one : as in Bear and beat." Bucke' s Gram. p. 15. (25.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels, forming one syllable ; as, ea, in beat." Guy's Gram. p. 2. (26.) "A triphthong consists of three vowels forming one syllable ; as, eau in beauty." Ib. (27.) " But the Triphthong is the union of three Vowels, pronounced as one." Bucke' s Gram. p. 15. (28.) " What is a Noun Substantive ? A Noun Substantive is the thing itself; as. a Man, a Boy." British Gram. p. 85 ; Buchanan's, 26. (29.) "An adjective is a word added to nouns to describe them." Maunder' s Gram. p. 1. (30.) "An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe or define it." Smith's New Gram. p. 51. (31.) "An adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun." Wilcox's Gram. p. 2. (32.) "The adjective is added to the noun, to express the quality of it."- Murray's Gram. 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 27 ; Lowth, p. 6. (33.) "An Adjective expresses the quality * Bad definitions may have other faults than to include or exclude what they should not, but this is their great and peculiar vice. For example : "Person is that property of nouns and pronouns which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing addressed, and the person or thing spoken of." Wells's School Gram. 1st Ed. p. 61 ; 113th Ed. p. 57. See nearly the same words, in Weld's English Gram. p. 67 ; and in his Abridgement, p. 49. The three persons of verbs are all improperly excluded from this definition ; which absurdly takes " person " to be one property that has all the effect of all the persons ; so that each person, in its turn, since each cannot have all this effect, is seen to be excluded also : that is, it is not such a property as is described ! Again : "An intransitive verb is a verb which does not have a noun or pronoun for its object." Wells, 1st Ed. p. 76. According to Dr. Johnson, "does not have," is not a scholarly phrase ; but the adoption of a puerile expression is a trifling fault, compared with that of including here all passive verbs, and some transitives, which the author meant to exclude ; to say nothing of the inconsistency of excluding here the two classes of verbs which he absurdly callg " intransitive," though he finds them " followed by objectives depending upon them ! " Id. p. 145. Weld imitates these erors too, on pp. 70 and 153. CHAT. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 705 of the noun to which it is applied ; and may generally be known by its making sense in connection with it ; as, A good man,' A genteel woman. T Wright's Gram. p. 34. (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of other words." Wilcox's Gram. p. 2. (3o.) "An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some circumstance respecting it." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 66 ; I^it. dram. 185. (36.) 'A Substantive or Noun is a name given to every object which the senses can per- ceive; the understanding comprehend ; or the imagination entertain." Wright's Gram. p. 34. (37.) " GKNDEU means the distinction of nouns with regard to sex." Bullions, Prin. '. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 9. (38.) " Gender is a distinction of nouns with regard to sex."- Frost's Gram. p. 7. (39.) " Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex." Perky 3 Gram. p. 10. (40.) " Gender is the distinction of nouns, in regard to sex." Cooper's Mur- ray, 24 ; Practical Gram. 21. (41.) " Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex." Murray's Gram. p. 37 ; Alger's, 16 ; Bacons, 12 ; E.G. Greenes, 16 ; Bullions, Prin., 5th Ed., 9 ; * Gr. 22 ; Fish's, 19 ; Huffs, 9 ; IngcrsolCs, 15. (42.) " Gender is the distinction of sex." Alden's Gram. 9 ; Comly's, 20 ; Daltoji's, 11 ; Davenport's, 15 ; J. Flints, 28 ; A. Flint's, 11 ; Greenleafs, 21 ; Guy's, 4 ; Hart's, 36 ; Hiley's, 12; Kirkham's, 34 ; Lennie's, 11 ; Picket's, 25; Smith's, 43; Sanborn's, 25; Wilcox's, 8. (43.) "Gender is the Distinction of Sex, or the Difference betwixt Male and Female." British Gram. p. 94 ; Buchanan's, 18. (44.) " Why are nouns divided into genders? To distinguish their sexes." Fowle's True Eng. drain, p. 10. (45.) " What is meant by Gender ? The different sexes." Burn's Gram. p. 34. (40.) Gender, in grammar, is a difference of termination, to express distinction of sex." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 30 ; Improved Gram. 22. (47.) " Gender signifies a distinction of nouns, according to the different sexes of things they denote." Coar's Gram. p. 32. (48.) " Gender is the distinction occasioned by sex. Though there are but two sexes, still nouns necessarily admit of four distinctions* of gender." Hall's Gram. p. 6. (49.) " Gen- der is a term which is employed for the distinction of nouns with regard to sex and species." Wriyh?*Gram.p.4l .(50.) " Gender is a Distinction of Sex." Fisher's Gram. p. 53. (51.) " (TKNUEH marks the distinction of Sex." W. Allen's Gram. p. 37. (52.) "Gender means the kind, or sex. There are four genders." ParA-er and Fox's Part I, p. 7. (53.) " Gender is a property of the noun which distinguishes sex." Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 57. (54.) " Gender is a property of the noun or pronoun by which it distinguishes sex." Weld's a rum mar Abridyed, p. 49. (55.) " Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence." Bullions' 's E. Gram. p. 16 ; his Analyt. and Pract. Gram. p. 31. (56.) "Case means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words." Kirkham's Gram. p. 55. (57.) "The cases of substantives signify their different termina- tions, which serve to express the relations of one thing to another." L. Murray's Gram. 12 ran, 2d Ed., p. 35. (58.) " Government is the power which one part of speech has over an- other, when it causes it or requires it to be of some particular person, number, gender, case, style, or mode." Sanborn's Gram. p. 126: see Murray's Gram. 142; Smith's, 119; Ponds, 88 ; et al. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one nominative case and one verb to agree with it." Sanborn, ib. : see Murray's Gram, et al. (60.) " Declension means putting a noun through the different cases." Kirkham's Gram. p. 58. (61.) " Zeug- ma is when two or more substantives have a verb in common which is applicable only to one of them." B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram. p. 185. (62.) "An Irregular Verb is that which has its parsed tense and perfect participle terminating differently ; as, smite, smote, smitten." Wright's Grum.p. 92. (63.) "Personal pronouns are employed as substitutes for nouns that denote persons." Hiley's Gram. p. 23. r.\i)i:a CRITICAL NOTE IV. OF COMPARISONS. " We abound more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most languages." Blair's Rhet. p. 89. [FoRMrtB. Not proper, because the term* toe and languages, which are here used to form a comparison, oxpn-Mi things which are totally unlike. Hut, according to Critical Note 4th, " A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared ; without which, it becomes a " Therefore, the expression ought to be changed : thus, '-Our language abounds more in rowel and diphthong sounds, than most other tongue*." Or: " We abound more in vowel aud diphthongal sounds, than most nations.''] "\ line thus accented, has a more spirited air, than when the accent is placed on any other syllable ." Kames, El. of C'rit. Vol. ii, p. 86. " Homer introduceth his deities with no * S. R. Hall think* it necessary to recognize "/our distinctions" of " the distinction occasioned by sex.' 1 In general, tin- other authors here quoted, suppose that we have only " three ilistinclions " of ki the distinction of sex." And, aa no philosopher has vet discovered more than two sexes, some hare thence stoutly argued, thnt it i.eak of more than two genders. Lily makes it out, that in Latin there are seven: yet, with no great consistency, be will have a gmder to be a or the distinction of sex. " OEMJM est sexus discretio. Kt sunt get era numero septem.' 1 Lilii dram, p. 10. That is, " CKNDKII is the distinction of sex. And the gen i number." Ruddiman says, '' GKNCS est, Jiscriinen nominit secundum sexum, vel eius in structure grammaticii imitatio. (Jenera nominum sunt trlilhr,anni Gram. p. 4. That la, ''GENDER is the diversity of the noun according to <.-\, or [it is] the imitation of it in grammatical structure. The genders of nouns are th" Millions are no better than the newer ones cited above. All of them are < f.iiiur.--!. full of f.mks an. I al.Mirditics. Hoth the nature and the cause of their defects are in some de-ree explained near the close of the tenth chapter of my Introduction. Their most prominent errors are 47 706 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. greater ceremony than as mortals ; and Yirgil has still less moderation." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 237. " Which the more refined taste of later writers, who had far inferior genius to them, would have taught them to avoid." Blair's Ehet. p. 28. "The poetry, however, of the Book of Job, is not only equal to that of any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone." Ib. p. 419. "On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem that abounds with beauties of every kind, and that justly entitles, its author to a degree of fame not inferior to any poet." Ib. p. 452. "Most of the French writers com- pose in short sentences ; though their style in general, is not eonsise ; commonly less so than the bulk of English writers, whose sentences are much longer." Ib. p. 178. " The' principles of the lleformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradi- cated." HUME : Cobbett's E. Gram. If 217. " Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity more hurtful than the benefit derived from them." DR. J. LEO WOLF : Lit. Conv. p. 250. " The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire than any other country." Music of Nature, p. 461. " When the time or quantity of one sylla- ble exceeds the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent." Rush, on the Voice* p. 277. " What then can be more obviously true than that it should be made as just as we can ? " Dymond's Essays, p. 198. " It was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than they could avoid." Clarkson's Hist. Abridged, p. 76. "Their understandings were the most acute of any people who have ever lived." Knapp's Lectures, p. 32. "The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was done formerly." Lily's Gram., Pref., p. xiii. "In reality, its relative use is not exactly like any other word." Felch's Comprehensive Gram. p. 62. " Thus, instead of two books, which are required, (the grammar and the exercises,) the learner finds both in one, fora price at least not greater than the others." Bullions' s E. Gram., Hecom., p. iii; New Ed., Recom., p. 6. " They are not improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the others." Ib. p. 199. " We have had the opportunity, as will readily be believed, of becoming conversant with the case much more particularly, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had." The British Friend, llmo. 29th, 1845. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V. OF FALSITIES. " The long sound of i is compounded of the sound of a, as heard in ball, and that of e, as heard in be." Churchill's Gram. p. 3. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the sentence falsely teaches, that the long sound of i is that of the diphthong heard in oil or boy. But, according to Critical Note 5th, " Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly fs lse y should be changed, rejected, or contradicted ; because they distort language from its chief end. or c nly worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth." The error may be corrected thus: "The bng sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound cf a, as heard in bar, and that of e, as heard in fce."] " The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is called ELLIPSIS.' ' Priestley's Gram. p. 45. "Every substantive is of the third person." Alexander Murrey's Gram. p. 91. "A noun, when the subject is spoken to, is in the second person ; and when spoken of, it is in the third person ; but never in the first." Nutting's Gram. p. 17. " With us, no substantive nouns have gender, or are masculine and feminine, except the proper names of male and female creatures." Blair's Ehet. p. 156. "Apostrophe is a little mark signifying that something is shortened ; as, for William his hat, we say, William's hat."- Infant School Gram. p. 30. " When a word beginning with a vowel is coupled with one- beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must be repeated ; thus, 'Sir Matthew Hale was a noble and an impartial judge ; ' Pope was an elegant and a nervous writer.' " Maunder' s Gram. p. 11. " IF and y are consonants, when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels." Murray's Gram. p. 7 : Bacon, Comly y Cooper, Fisk, Ingersoll, Kirkham, Smith, et al. "The is used before all adjectives and sub- stantives, let them begin as they will." Bucke's Gram. p. 26. " Prepositions are also pre- fixed to words in such manner, as to coalesce with them, and to become a part of them." Loivth's Gram. p. 66. " But h is entirely silent at the beginning of syllables not accented, as historian." Blair's Gram. p. 5. "Any word that will make sense with to before it, is a verb." Kirkham' s Gram. p. 44. " Verbs do not, in reality, express, actions ; but they are intrinsically the mere names of actions." Ib. p. 37. "The nominative is the actor or sub- ject, and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative." J6.p. 45. "If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as, the girl writes." Ib. 45. " The verb writes denotes but one action, which the girl per- forms ; therefore the verb writes is of the singular number." Ib. 45. "And when I say, these : 1. They all assume, that gender, taken as one thing, is in fact two, three, or more, genders. 2. Nearly all of them seem to say or imply, that ivotds differ from one an other in sex, like animals. 3. Many of them expressly confine gender, or the genders, to nouns only. 4. Many of them confessedly exclude the neuter gender t though their authors afterwards admit this gender. 5. That of Dr. Webster supposes, that words differing in gender never have the same " termination." The absurdity of this may be shown by a multitude of examples ; as, man and woman, male and female, father and mother, brother and sister. In his Dictionary, the Doctor calls GENDER, "In grammar, a difference j n u-ords to express distinction of sex." This is better, but still not free from some other faults which I have mentioned. For the correction of all this great batch of errors, I shall simply substitute in the Key one short definition, whjch appears to me to be exempt from each of these ^accuracies. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 707 Two men ica?k, is it not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses tiro actions?" Ib. p. 47. "The subjunctive mood is formed by adding a conjunction to the indicative mood." Beck's dram. p. 16. "The possessive case should always be distin- guished by the apostrophe." Frost's EL of dram., Kule 44th, p. 4'.. " 'At these proceed- ings of the commons,' Here of is the sign of the genitive or possessive case, and commons is of that case, governed of proceedings." Ali-.r. Murray's (1m HI. p. '.>. '-Here let it be observed again that, strictly speaking, no verbs have numbers nor persons, neither have nouns nor pronouns persons, when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate tiling." N. Barrett's dram. p. 130. "The noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent." Frost's El. <->/' (Irani., Rule 8th, p. 41. "Every noun, when addressed, becomes of the second person, and is in the nominative case absolute ; as 'Paul, thou art beside thyself.'" ,J is t>r< /<-, ; " Ib. p. 120. " ' John, and his wife have six children.' This is an instance of gross catachrcsis. It is here affirmed that John has six children, and that his wife has six children." Ib. p. 122. "Nothing which is not right can be great." Murray's Escrcises, 8vo, p. 146: see Rambler, No. 185. "Nothing can be great which is not right." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 277. " The highest degree of reverence should be paid to youth." Ib. p. 278. " There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor understanding." Murray's dram. 8vo, p. 151; liusselTs, 84; Algers, 54; Bacon's, 47 ; etal. "Formerly, what we call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are." Kirkham's Gram. p. 164. "As it respects a choice of words and expressions, no rules of grammar can materially aid the learner." S. S. ',n., 1st Ed., p. 202. "Whatever exists, or is conceived to exist, is a Noun." /'.v /.'. dram. 8vo, 1850, 137. "As all men arc not brave, brave is itself compara- tive."^. $ 190. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VI. OF ABSURDITIES. (1.) "And sometimes two unaccented syllables follow each other." Blair's Rhtt. p. 384. (FoRMVLE. Not proper, because the phrase. " i- li-Tf an nK-unlity ; it bvin trraiiiinar ; ln-rauM- they an- contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foutnlatinn of grammar." 1 Therefore, a . (0.) " Kvery adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun e r understood." /,/.;, /-W/'.s dram. p. 'l\'l. 1 If he [Addison] fails in anything, it is in want of strength and precision, which ra his manner 7iot altogether a proper model." Blair's Rht-t. p. 187. (8.) "Indeed, if Horace be deficient in any thing, it is in this, of not being sufficiently attentive to junc- ture and connexion of parts." Ib. p. 401. (9.) " The pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the nine sorts of speech, and their most usual modifications." Taylor'* !> p. '201. (10.) " I could see, hear, taste, and smell the rose." Saiibt-n's dram. p. 156. (11.) "The triphthong inn is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables; as in bilious, v; rious ah-teiuious." L. Mm-r/'s dram. p. l.'J; I! '., 1'rin. 292, p. ."7. (12.") " The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper names ; as in Balaam, Canaan, 708 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal." Murray's Gram. p. 10. (13.) "Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive." Ib. p. 192. (14.) " Words ending with y, preceded by a conso- nant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i." WaUcer's Rhyming Diet. p. viii; Murray's Gram. 23; Merchant's Murray, 13; Fish's, 44; Kirkhams, 23; Greenleaf's, 20; Wright's Gram. 28 ; et al. (15.) " But y preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed ; as, boy, boys." Murray's Gram. p. 24 ; Merchant's, Fish's, Kirkhavtt's, Greenleaf's, et al. (16.) "But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely* changed in the additional syllable : as, coy, coyly." Murray's Gram, again, p. 24; Merchant's, 14; Fish's, 45 ; Greenleaf's, 20 ; Wright's, 29 ; et al. (17.) " But wheny is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very rarely changed to i ; as, coy, COYLESS." Kirkham's Gram. p. 24. (18.) " Sentences are of a twofold nature : Simple and Compound." Wright's Gram. p. 123. (19.) "The neuter pronoun it is applied to all nouns and pronouns : as, It is he ; it is she; it is they ; it is the land." Bucke's Gram. p. 92. (20.) "It is and it tvas, are often used in a plural construction ; as, 'It was the heretics who first began to rail.' " Merchant's Gram. p. 87. (21.) "It is, and it was, are often, after the manner of the French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers : as, 'It ^cas the heretics that first began to rail.' Smollett." Priestley's Gram. p. 190; Murray's, 158; Smith's, 134; IngersolVs, 210; Fish's, 115 ; etal. (22.) " wand y, as consonants, have one sound." Toicn's Spelling -Book, p. 9. (23.) "The conjunction as is frequently used as a relative." Bucke's Gram. p. 93. (24.) " When several clauses succeed each other, the conjunction may be omitted with propriety." Merchant's Gram. p. 97. (25.) " If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary : as, ' Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.' " Murray's Gram. p. 273 ; Merchant's, 151 ; Russell's, 115 ; Com- ly's, 152 ; Alger's, 80 ; Smith's, 190 ; ct al. (26.) " The mind has difficulty in passing readily through so many different views given it, in quick succession, of the same object." Blair's lihct.p. 149. (27.) "The mind has difficulty in passing readily through many different views of the same object, presented in quick succession." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 341. (^28.) "Adjective Pronouns are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification." Kirkham's Gram., the Compend, or Table. (29.) "A noun of multitude con- veying plurality of idea,f must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural.' ! - Ib. pp. 59 and 181 : see also Loicth's Gram. p. 74 ; L. Murray's, 152 ; Comly's, 80 ; Lennies, 87; Alger's, 54; Jaudon's, 96; Alden's, 81; Parker and Fox's, I, 76; II, 26; and others. (30.) "A noun or pronoun, signifying possession, is governed by the noun it possesses." Greenleaf's Gram. p. 35. (31.) "A noun signifying possession is governed by the noun which it possesses." Wilbur and Livingston's Gram. p. 24. (32.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses." Golclsbury's Gram. p. 68. (3 J.) "The possessive case is governed by the person or thing possessed ; as, ' this is his book.' " P. E. Day's Gram. p. 81. (34.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun which it possesses." Kirkham's Gram., Rule 12th, pp. 52 and 181 ; Frazce's Gram., 1844, p. 25 ; F. H. Miller's, 21. (35.) " Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case." Kirkham's Gram. p. 41. (36.) " Some of the aux- iliaries are themselves principal verbs, as: have, do,ioill, and am, or be." Cooper's Grams, both, p. 50. (37.) " Nouns of the male kind are masculine. Those of the female kind are feminine." Beck's Gram. p. 6. (38.) " 'To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's:' here to-day and yesterday are substantives." Murray's Gram. p. 114; Ingersoll's, 50 ; etal. (39.) "In this example, to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case." Kirkhams Gram. p. 88. (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to stumble upon an elephant feeding at large in the open fields." Kames, El. of Grit. Vol. i, p. 219. (41.) " If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea : there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men, or rational beings by the name of oxen." * Walker states this differently, and even repeats his remark, thus : " But y preceded by a vowel is never changed ; as coy, coyly, gay, gayly." Walker's Rhyming Diet. p. x. " Y preceded by a vowel is never changed, as boy, boys, I cloy, he cloys, &c." Ib. p. viii. Walker's twelve " Orthographical Aphorisms," which Murray and others republish as their " Rules for Spelling," and which in stead of amending they merely corrupt, hap- pened through some carelessness to contain two which should have been condensed into one. For " words ending with y preceded by a consonant," he has not only the absurd rule or assertion above recited, but an other which is better, with an exception or remark under each, respecting " y preceded by a vowel." The gram- marians follow him in his errors, and add to their number : hence the repetition, or similarity, in the absurdities here quoted. By the term ''verbal nouns," Walker meant nouns denoting agents, as carrier from carry; bub Kirkham understood him to mean tl participial nouns," as the carrying. Or rather, he so mistook "that able philologist" Murray; for he probably knew nothing of Walker iu the matter; and accordingly changed the word "verbal " to "participial; " thus teaching, through all his hundred editions, except a few of the first, that participial nouns from verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant, are formed by merely " changing the y into i." But he seems to have known, that this is not the way to form the participle ; though he did not know, that " coyless " is not a proper English word. t The idea of plurality is not " plurality of idea,' 1 ' 1 any more than the idea of wickedness, or the idea of absurdity, is absurdity or wickedness of idea ; yet, behold, how our grammarians copy the blunder, which Lowth (perhaps) first fell into, of putting the one phrase for the other ! Even Professor Fowler, (as well as Murray, Kirkham, and others,) talks of having regard " to unity or plurality of idea ! "Fowler's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, 513. G. BROWN. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 709 tm. p. Io9. "Be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect par- ticiple of another verb, but in every other situation, it is & principal verb." Ib. p. 155. ( l.'i. i "A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person." Kirkham's Gram. p. 136. "The verbs, according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, arc used in the imjiiratire, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person." Ib. p. 164. (16.) " Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, by their denoting the of the nouns for which they stand." Kirkham's Gram. p. 97. " Pronouns of the rirst person, do not agree in person with the nouns they represent." Ib. p. 98. (17.) " Nouns have three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective." Beck's Gram. p. 6. "Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two cases, nominative and objective." Ib. p. 10. (18.) "In some in- stances the preposition sutlers 11 > ehange, but becomes an adverb merely by its application : as, He was m-nr falling.' "Murray's Grutn. p. 116. (19.) " Some nouns are used only in the plural : as Offc s lif,,-'i's, that can and can not, may ami may not, represents its noun." O. Ji. J'firce'n Gram. p. 336. (21.) "The article a is in a few instances employed in the sense oi! pr>-p<'xition; as, Simon Peter said I go a [to] fishing." H'dd's Grant.', 2d Kcl., p. 177 ; Abridg. 128. " 'To go a fishing ; ' i. e. to go on a fishing voyage or business." H Gnim. p. !!-'. t -!_'.) " So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object." liiilUunx, Anufyt. and Pract. Gram. p. 60. \ 2:J.) " When first young Maro, in his boundless mind, A work t'outlast immortal Rome design'd." Pope, on Crit. 1. 130. 710 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII. OF SENSELESS JUMBLING. "Number distinguishes them, [viz., nouns], as one, or many, of the same kind, called the singular and plural." Dr. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, p. 74. [FORM0LE. Not proper, because the words of this text appear to be so carelessly put together, as to make nothing but jargon, or a sort of scholastic balderdash. But, according to Critical Note 8th, " To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding." I think the learned author should rather have said : ''There are two numbers, called the singular and the plural, which distinguish nouns as signifying either one thing, or many of the same kind."] " Here the noun James Munroe is addressed, he is spoken to, it is here a noun of the second person." Mack's Gram. p. 66. "The number and case of a verb can never be as- certained until its nominative is known." Emmons's Gram. p. 36. "A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have the verb and pronoun agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number ; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea." Loicth's Gram. p. 75 ; Murray's, 152 ; Aider's, 54 ; Russell's, 55 ; Ingersoll's, 248 ; et al. "To express the present and past imperfect of the active and neuter verb, the auxiliary do is sometimes used : I do (now) love ; I did (then) love." Lowth's Gram. p. 40. " If these are perfectly committed, they will be able to take twenty lines for a lesson on the second day ; and may be increased each day." Osborn's Key, p. 4. " When c is joined with h (ch), they are generally sounded in the same manner : as in Charles, church, cheerfulness, and cheese. But foreign words (except in those derived from the French, as chagrin, chicanery, and chaise, in which cli are sounded like sli) are pronounced like k : as in Chaos, character, chorus, and chimera." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 10. " Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender." Murray's Gram. p. 37 ; Comly's, 20 ; Bacon's, 13 ; A Teacher's, 8 ; Alger's, 16 ; Lennie's, 11 ; Fisk's, 56 ; Merchant's, 27 ; Kirkham's, 35 ; et al. " Words in the English language may be classified under ten general heads, the names of which classes are usually termed the ten parts of speech." Nutting's Gram. p. 14. " ' Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' Nobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fern, gender, third person, sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by of :' RULE 31." Kirkham's Gram. p. 161. " gh, are either silent, or have the sound off, as in laugh." Town's Spelling- Book, p. 10. "As many people as were destroyed, were as many languages or dialects lost and blotted out from the general catalogue." Chazotte's Essay, p. 25. "The grammars of some languages contain a greater number of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different forms." Murray's Gram. 8 vo, i, p. 95. "A COMPARISON or SIMILE, is, when the resemblance between two objects is express- ed in form, and generally pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits." Ib. p. 343. " In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing." Ib. p. 156 ; Priestley's Gram. 93 ; Smith's, 132 ; Merchant's, 7 ; Fisk's, 114; Ingersoll's, 220 ; et al. "Brown makes great ado concerning the adna:ne principles of preceding works, in relation to the gender of pronouns." O. B. Feme's Gram. p. 323. " The nominative precedes and performs the action of the verb.' - Beck's Gram. p. 8. " The Primitive are those which cannot receive more simple forms than those which they already possess." Wright's Gram. p. 28. "The long sound [of i] is always marked by the e final in monosyllables ; as, thin, thine ; except give, live." Mur- ray's Gram. p. 13 ; Fisk's, 39 ; et al. " But the third person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender." Lowth's Gram. p. 21 ; L. Murray's, 51 ; et al. " Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combinations still retain the name of diphthongs ; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by the term improper." L. Mur- ray's Gram. p. 9 ; Fisk's, 37 ; et al. "A Mode is the form of, or manner of using a verb, by which the being, action, or passion is expressed." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 32. " The word that is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by a substantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies." Lindley Murray's Gram.]}. 54. " The guiltless woe of being past, Is future glory's deathless heir." Sumner L. Fairfield. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX. OF WORDS NEEDLESS. "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing composition." Sanborn's Gram. p. 7. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the word composition is here needless. But, according to Critical Note 9th. " Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted." The sentence would be better without this word, thus : ''A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation, and in writing."] "And hence we infer, that there is no other dictator here but use." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 42. "Whence little else is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation." Town's Spelling -Book, p. 5. " The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on, with humble confidence." Merchant's School Gram. p. 76. " Shalt thou build me an house for me to dwell in ? " 2 Sam. vii, 5. " The house was deemed polluted which was entered into by so abandoned a woman." Blair's Rhet. p. 279. " The farther that he searches, the CIIAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. ERRORS. 7 11 firmer will be his belief." Keith's Evidences, p. 4. "I deny not, but that religion consists in these things." Barclay's IFor.^, i, 321. "Except the king delighted in her, and that she were called by name." Esther, ii, 14. " The proper method of reading these lines, is to read them according as the sense dictates." Blair's Rhet. p. 386. " "When any words become obsolete, or at least are never used, except as constituting part of particular phrases, it is better to dispense with their service entirely, and give up the phrases." Campbell's Rh<-t.\\. LS5 ; Ma milt's drum, p. 370. "Those savage people seemed to have no element but that of war." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "Man is a common noun, of the third per- son, singular number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case." J. Flint's Gram. p. 33. "The orator, according as circumstances require, will employ them all." Blair's Ji/n'f. p. 247. "By deferring our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows." Murray's Key, ii, p. 166. " There is no doubt but that public speaking became early an engine of govern- ment." Blair's Rhet. p. 245. " The different meaning of these two first words may not at first occur." Ib. p. 225. " The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him." Murray's Gram. p. 214 ; Ingersolfs, 251 ; Smith's, 179 ; et al. "They have had a greater privilege than we have had." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. " Every thing should be so arranged, as that what goes before may give light and force to what follows." Blair's Rhet. p. 311. "So as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers." UNIV. HIST. : Priestley's Gram. p. 139. "They have taken another and a shorter cut." SOT TII : Joh. Diet. " The Imperfect Tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding d or ed to the present ; as, ' I lorcd.' " Frost's El. of Gram. p. 32. " The pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun ' man,' for which it stands." Kirk hunt's dram, p. 182. "This mark denotes any thing of wonder, surprise, joy, grief, or sudden emotion." Bucke's Gram. p. 19. "We are all accountable creatures, each for himself." Murray's Key, p. 204 ; Merchant's, 195. " If he has commanded it, then I must obey." Smith's y>'ic dram. pp. 110 and 112. "I now present him with a form of the diatonic scale." Dr. John Barber's Elocution, p. xi. "One after another of their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned." Hodgson's Tour. "Particular and peculiar are words of different import from each other." Blair s Rhet. p. 196. " Some adverbs admit rules of comparison: as, Soon, sooner, soonest." Bucke's Gram. p. 76. "From having exposed himself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his health." Murray's Key, p. 200. " The Verb must agree with its Nominative before it in Number and Person." Buchanan's Syntax, p. 93. "Write twenty short sentences containing only adjectives." Abbott's Trar/tcr, p. 102. " This general inclination and tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to the introducing of a very great corruption." Loicth's Gram. p. 60. " The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity." Murray's Gram. p. 311. " It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting to insert their names." Ib. p. vii. "The letters of the English language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number." Ib. p. 2; T. Smith's, 5; Fi'sk's, 10; Aider's, 9; et al. "A writer who employs antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design : he cannot err from inadvertence as he may do it with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 56. " The Vocative case, in some Grammars, is wholly omitted ; why, if we must have cases, I could never under- stand the propriety of." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 45. "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb / have ; passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb I am." Ib. p. 57. " What word, then, may and be called ? A Conjunction." Smith's New Gram. p. 37. " Have they ascertained the person who gave the information ? " Bullions' s E. drum. p. 81. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X. OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS. "All qualities of things are called adnouns, or adjectives." Blair's Gram. p. 10. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because this expression lacks two or three words which are necessary to the srn> invn.li-. 78. "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and follows." VhiUtloijiml Museum, Vol. i, p. 2.55. "The work is not completed, but soon will be."- Sniit/i's ]'r<>(lnrtir<- dram. p. 113. "Of whom hast thou been afraid or feared?" / Ivii, 11. "There is a (iod who made and governs the world." Butlers Anuh'jy, 1 " It was this made them so haughty." Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 102. "How far the whole charge ulfeeted him is not easy to determine." Ib. i, p. 189. "They saw, and wor- shipped the (rod, that made them." Bucket dram. p. 157. "The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occa- si ms." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 256. "The preposition in is set before countries, , ;uul large towns : as, He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' But before vill ; al cities which arc in distant countries, at is used : as, ' He it ILiekuey.' ''Ib. p. 204 ; Dr. Ash's dram. GO ; Inyersoll's, 232 ; Smith's, 170 ; Fisk's, 1-3 ; vt al. "Aud, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor any 712 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. image formed." Kames, EL of Crit. Vol. i, p. 86. " Intrinsic and relative beauty must be handled separately." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 336.. " He should be on his guard not to do them injustice, by disguising, or placing them in a false light." Blair's Rhet.-p. 272. "In that work, we are frequently interrupted by unnatural thoughts." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 275. "To this point have tended all the rules I have given." Blair's Ehet. p. 120. " To these points have tended all the rules which have been given." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 356. " Language, as written, or oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear." Lit. Conv. p. 184. " He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and prove are very different." Walpole. " They crowded around the door so as to prevent others going out." Abbott's Teacher, p. 17. " One person or thing is singular number ; more than one person or thing is plural number." John Flint's Gram. p. 27. "According to the sense or relation in which nouns are used, they are in the NOMINATIVE or POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, nom. man ; poss. man's." Blair's Gram. p. 11. " Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, to which they belong." Sanborn's Gram. p. 130. "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and verb." Abbott's Teacher, p. 72. "And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to the north and south pole." HARRIS : Joh. Diet. w. Gnomon. " Walks or walketh, rides or rideth, stands or standeth, are of the third person singu- lar." Kirkham's Gram. p. 47. " I grew immediately roguish and pleasant to a degree, in the same strain." SWIFT : Tattler, 31. "An Anapaest has the first syllables unaccented, and the last accented." Blair's Gram. p. 119. "An Anapaest has the first two syllables unac- cented, and the last accented." Kirkham's Gram. p. 219 ; Bullions' s Principles, 170. "An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented." L. Murray's Gram. p. 254 ; Jamieson's Rhet. 305 ; Smith's New Gram. 188 ; Guy's Gram. 120 ; Merchant's, 167 ; Russell's, 109 ; Picket's, 226. " But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and written." Wilson's Essay on Gram. p. 21. "They are considered by some preposi- tions." Cooper's PL and Pr. Gram. p. 102. "When those powers have been deluded and gone astray." Philological Museum, i, 642. " They will soon understand this, and like it." Abbott's Teacher, p. 92. " They had been expelled their native country Romagna."- Leigh Hunt, on Byron, p. 18. " Future time is expressed two different ways." Adam's Gram. p. 80 ; Gould's, 78. " Such as the borrowing from history some noted event." Kames, EL of Crit. Vol. ii, p. 280. " Every Verb must agree with its Nominative in Number and Person." Bucke's Gram. p. 94. " We are struck, we know not how, with the sym- metry of any thing we see." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 268. "Under this head, I shall con- sider every thing necessary to a good delivery." Sheridan's Lect. p. 26. "A good ear is "he gift of nature ; it may be much improved, but not acquired by art." Murray's Grim. p. 298. "'Truth,' A noun, neuter, singular, the nominative." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 73. "Possess,' A verb transitive, present, indicative active, third person, plural." Ibid. 73. "Fear is a noun, neuter, singular, and is the nominative to (or subject of) is." Id. ib. p. 133. "Is is a verb, intrans., irregular am, was, been; it is in the present, indicative, third person singular, and agrees with its nominative fear. Rule i. A verb agrees,' &c."Ibid. 133. "Ae in Gaelic, has the sound of long a." Wells' s School Gram. t 1st. Ed., p. 29. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI. OF LITERARY BLUNDERS. " Repeat some [adverbs] that are composed of the article a and nouns." Kirkham's Gram. p. 89. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the grammatist here mistakes for the article a, the prefix or preposition a; as in " aside, ashore, afoot, astray,'" &c. But, according to Critical Note llth, " Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved.' ; The error should be corrected thus : " Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix o, or preposition a, and nouns."] " Participles are so called, because derived from the Latin word participium, which sig- nifies to partake." Merchant's School Gram. p. 18. " The possessive follows another noun, and is known by the sign 's or of." Beck's Gram. p. 8. " Reciprocal pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to the possessive ; as, myself, yoursefoes." Ib. p. 10. " The word self, and its plural selves, must be considered nouns, as they occupy the places of nouns, and stand for the names of them." Wright's Gram. p. 61. "The Dactyl, rolls round, expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 231 ; Webster's Imp. Gram. p. 165 ; Frazee's Imp. Gram. p. 192. " Prepositions govern the objec- tive case ; as, John learned his lesson." Frazee's Gram. p. 153. " Prosody primarily sig- nified punctuation ; and as the name implies, related to stopping by the way." Hendrick's Gram. p. 103. " On such a principle of forming modes, there would be as many modes as verbs ; and instead of four modes, we should have forty- three thousand, which is the num- ber of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth." Hallock's Gram. p. 76. " The following phrases are elliptical : To let out blood.' ' To go a hunting ; ' that is, To go on a hunting excursion.' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 129. " In Rhyme, the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound." Id. Practical Lessons, p. 129. " The possessive case plural, ending in es, has the apostrophe, but omits the s ; as, Eagles' wings." Weld's Gram. p. 62 ; Abridg. p. 54. " Horses (plural) -mane, [should be written] horses' mane." Weld, ib. pp. 62 CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. CRITICAL NOTES. ERRORS. 713 and 54. "W takes its written form from the union of two t-'s, this being the form of the Roman capital letter which we call I'." /-Wfr/.v /.'. dr.nn., 1850, p. 157. " In the sentence, ' I saw the lady who sings,' what irtnl do I say sings?" J.Flint's Gram. p. 12. "In the sentence, ' this is the pen which John made,' what word do I say John made : " Ibid. " ' That we fall into no sin : ' no, an adverb used idiomatically, instead of we do not fall into any sin." Blairs Gram. p. 54. " That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance : ' all, a pronoun used for the whole." Ibid. " Let him be made to study.' What causes the sign to to be expressed before study f Its being used in the passive voice after be made." Su,-. drum. p. 145. "The following Verbs have neither Preter-Tense nor Passive-Participle, ast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c." Buchanan's Gram. p. (50. "The agreement, which every word has with the others in person, gender, and case, Is called :;D ; and that power, which one person of speech has over another, in respect to ruling its case, mood, or tense, is called GOVERNMENT." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 83. " The word ticks tells what the noun watch does." Sanborn's Gram. p. 15. "Breve (") marks a short vowel or syllable, and the dash ( ) a long." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 157; Lennie, 137. ' * Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your precep- tor.' The first you is used in the nom. poss. andobj. case." Kirk/nan's dram. p. 103. "O//y in bony is a proper tripthong. Eau in flambeau is an improper tripthong." Sanbnm's drum. p. 2">.5. " ' While I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing.' POLLOK. That is, 4 While I sing of things which are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehears- ing.' " Kh-kham's dram. p. 169. "A simple sentence has in it but one nominative, and one neuter verb." Folkers Gram. p. 14. "An Irregular Verb is that which has its ] tense and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, smote, smitten." Wright's (rram. p. 92. "Hut when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before the relative ; as, 'There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue.' " Kirk/tarn's dram. p. 213. "Two capitals in this way denote the plural number; as, L. D. Leg is Doctor ; LL. I). Leyutn Doctor." Gould's Lat. Gram. p. 274. " Was any person besides the mercer present ? Yes, both he and his clerk." Murray's "Aditou/i, or Ai/jt'ctife, comes from the Latin, ad and jicio, to add to." Kirkham's drum. p. 69. "Another figure of speech, proper only to animated and warm composition, is what some critical writers call vision ; when, in place of relating some thlmj ', we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline : 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one confla- gration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while with a joy he is triumphing in your miseries.' " Blair's Rhet. p. 171. " Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in animated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead of relating something that is past, we use the present tense," &c. Murray's . ^vo, ]>. :;.?_>. " When sort-mi verbs follow one another^ having the same nominative, the auxiliary is frequently omitted after the Jirst through an ellipsis, and understood to the rest : as, He has gone and left me ; ' that is, ' He has gone, and has left me.' " ComJy's p. 91. " When I use the word, pillar as supporting an edifice, I employ it literally." llilt-y's drum., 3d Ed., p. 133. "The conjunction nor is often used for neither; as, ' Simois nor Xanthus shall be wanting there.' " Ib. p. 129. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XII. OF PERVERSIONS. " In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth." Murray's Gram, Svo, Vol. i, ji. :;:;(); / -am. p. 170; Mt'!moth,on Scripture, p. 16. [FoRMULE. Not proper, l'v'c:iu>e this r -inling i< false in relation to the word " heat-ens ; " nor is It usual to niin.-i after t ! I'ut, according to Critical Note 12th, "Proof-texts in graniin.-ir. if not in all argument. shouM Vie (pioti-d literally: ami even that which needs to be corrected, must never ln,> i he authorized text is this : " In the beginning (Jod created the heaven and the earth." Gen. i. l.J 44 Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord " Murray's dram. p. 335. " Great is the Loid. just and true are thy ways, thou king of saints." /'//*>*// dram. p. 171 ; L. Mur- . '.)(>"; /,'. ('. Smith's, 14") ; //// roll's, 194; Enst-ll's, 330; Fitsk's, 104 ; d a!. Kvery one that saith unto me, Ixird, Lord, shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven." . Murray's (.'ram. p. 137. " Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." m. ]). 211: 'N, 111 and 113; Ea Text's, 230; Smith's, 177; ct al. " Whose foundation was overflown with a flood." FRIENDS' BIHLK : Job, xxii, 16. " Take my yoke upon yo, for my yoke is easy." Thr I-'ric/nl, Vol. iv, p. 150. " I will to prepare a ])lacn for you." IIV/'/'.s 1 '..dram., 2d Kd.,p. (57. " Yo who are dead hath he quickened." Ib. \ dee thee away into the land of Judea." Hart's dram. p. 115. "Hitherto shalt thou come, and no father." Murray's Kry, Svo, p. 222. "Thine is the day and night." ' Faith worketh patience ; and patience, experience ; and ex- pcr.ence, hope." (). />'. /' //<-', dram. p. 2S2. " Soon shall the dust return to dust, and the soul, to (iod who gave it. Him.K." Ib. p. 166. "For, in the end, it biteth like pent, and stingeth like an adder. It will lead thee into destruction, and cause thee to utter per/ersu things. Thou wilt be like him who lieth down in the midst of the sea. 1! 48 714 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Ib. p. 167. "The memory of the just shall be honored: but the name of the wicked shall rot. BIBLE." 16. p. 168. " He that is slow in anger, is better than the mighty. He that ruleth his spirit, is better than he that taketh a city. BIBLE." Ib. p. 72. " The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth ; as the father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. BIBLE." Ib. p. 72. " The first future tense represents what is to take place hereafter. G. B." Ib. p. 366. "Teach me to feel another's wo ; [and] To hide what faults I see." Ib. p. 197. " Thy speech bewrayeth thee ; for thou art a Gallilean." Murray's Ex. ii, p. 118. "Thy speech betrays thee ; for thou art a Gallilean." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 250.. " Strait is the gate, and narrow the way, that lead to life eternal." Ib. Key, p. 172. " Straight is the gate," &c. Ib. Ex. p. 36. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king.' Neh. vi. 6." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 210. " There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared.' Psalms cxxx. 4." Ib. p. 210. " But yesterday the word, Cesar, might Have stood against the world." Kirkham' s Elocution, p. 316. "The north-east spends its rage. THOMSON." Joh. Diet. w. Effusive. ' Tells how the drudging goblet swet. MILTON." Churchill's Gram. p. 263. "And to his faithful servant hath in place Bore witness gloriously. SAM. AGON." Ib. p. 266. " Then, if thou fallest, O, Cromwell, Thou fallest a blessed mar- tyr." Kirkham s Elocution, p. 190. "I seethe dagger-crest of Mar, I seethe Moray's silver star, Waves o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake came winding far ! SCOTT."- Merchant's School Gram. p. 143. " Each bird, and each insect, is happy in its kind." Ib. p. 85. "They icho are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order. BLAIR." Ib. p. 176 ; L. Murray's Gram., Title-page, 8vo and 12mo. " We, then, as workers together with you, beseech you also, that ye receive not the grace of God in vain." James Brown's Eng. Syn- tax, p. 129. "And on the bounty of thy goodness calls." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 246. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds retentive to their own. COWPER." Merchant's School Gram. p. 172. "Oh! let me listen to the icord of life. THOMSON." Ib. p. 155. " Save that from yonder ivy-mantled boicer, &c. GRAY'S ELEGY." Tooke's Div. of Purley, Vol. i, p. 116. " Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. POPE." Dr. Johnson's Gram. p. 6. " Weigh the men's wits against the women's hairs. POPE." Churchill's Gram. p. 214. "Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, the grammatical study of our own language, formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction. HILEY'S PREFACE." Dr. Bullions's E. Gram., 1843, p. 189. "Let there be no strife betwixt me and thee." Weld's Gram. p. 143. " What ! canst thou not bear with me half an hour ? SHARP." Ib. p. 185. " Till then who knew the force of those dire dreams. MILTON." Ib. p. 186. " In words, as fashions, the rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too new or old : " Murray's Gram. p. 136. " Be not the first, by whom the new is tried, Nor yet the last, to lay the old aside." Bucke's Gram. p. 104. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII. OF AWKWARDNESS. "They slew Varus, who was he that I mentioned before." Murray s Key, 8vo, p. 19-:t. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the phrase, " who was he that," is here prolix and awkward. But, according to Critical Note 13th, "Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not." This example may be improved thus : " They slew VtTus, whom I mentioned before."] " Maria rejected Valerius, who was he that she had rejected before." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 174. " The English in its substantives has but two different terminations for cases." Lowth's Gram. p. 18. " Socrates and Plato were wise ; they were the most eminent philos- ophers of Greece." Ib. p. 175 ; Murray's Gram. 149 ; et al. " Whether one person or more than one, were concerned in the business, does not yet appear." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 184. "And that, consequently, the verb and pronoun agreeing with it, cannot with propriety, be ever used in the plural number." Murray's Gram. p. 153 ; Ingersoll's, 249 ; et al. "A second help may be the conversing frequently and freely with those of your own sex who are like minded." John Wesley. "Four of the semi- vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds." Murray's Gram. p. 8 ; Churchill's, 5 ; Alger's, 11 ; et al. " Some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunctions belonging to them ; so that, mthe subsequent member of the sentence the latter ansioers to the former." Lowth's Gram. p. 109 ; Adam's, 209 ; Gould's, 205 ; L. Murray's, 211 ; Ingersoll's, 268 ; Fisk's, 137 ; Churchill's, 153 ; Fowler's, 562 ; et al. " The mutes are those consonants, whose sounds cannot be protracted. The semi-voivels, such ichose sounds can be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from ichich they derive their name." Murray's Gram. p. 9 ; et al. The pronoun of the third person, of the masculine and feminine gender, is sometimes used as a noun, and regularly declined : as, ' The hes in birds.' BACON. The shea of Italy.' SHAK." Churchill's Gram. p. 73. " The following examples also of separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, is improper in common icritings." C. Adams's Gram. p. 103. "The word whose begins likewise to be restricted to persons, but it is not done so generally but that good writers, and even in prose, use it when speaking of things." Priestley's Gram. p. 99 ; CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. CRITICAL NOTES. ERRORS. 715 L. Murray's, 157 ; Fish's, 115; et al. "There are new and surpassing wonders present themselves to our views." Sherhck. " Inaccuracies are often found in the way wherein the decrees of comparison arc applied and construed." Campbells Ifhcf. p. >02. " Inaccu- racies are often found in the way in which the degrees of comparison are applied and con- strued." Murray'* dram. p. 167; Smith'*, 1 -14 ; Infftrtofft, 193; ct al. "The connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable." Murray's Cram. p. 177. " Those tenses arc called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal without an auxiliary verb." Ib. p. 91. "The nearer that men approach to each other, the more numerous are their points of contact and the greater Avill be their pleasures or their pains." Mttrruif's AVy, Svo, p. 275. " This is the machine that he is the inventor of." Xi.rnn's 1 Vr.wr, p. 124. " To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 279. " Never employ those words which may be susceptible of a 'afferent from the sense you intend to be conveyed." Hiley's Gram. p. 152. " Sixty pa-^es are occupied in explaining what would not require more than ten or twelve to be explained according to the ordinary method." 75., Pnf. t p. ix. " The present participle in -in;/ always expresses an action, or the suffering of an action, or the being, state, or condi- tion of a thing as cvntiiminy and proyrns.fice." ttnllions, E. Gram. p. 57. "The 7' /e of all active verbs* has an active signification ; as, James is buihlimj the house. . however, it has also a passive siijn(f cation ; as, the house iras buildhirj vJ/en ' ! fell." LI. ib., 2d or 4th Ed., p. 57. "Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the young pupil by such questions as the following, viz." Id. ib. p. 73. " Sub- sequent to that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject." Ib., New Ed., p. 189 ; IHL-y's Pri-face, p. vi. "A definition of a word is an explanation in what sense the word is used, or what idea or object we mean by it, and which may be expressed by any one or more of the properties, effects, or circumstances of that object, so as suffi- ciently to distinguish it from other objects." Hilcy's Gram. p. 245. UNDKI: CKITICAL NOTE XIV. OF IGNORANCE. " What is an Asserter ? It is the part of speech which asserts." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 20. [FORMUI.K. Not proper, localise the t<>rm "Awrtfr.-- which is here put for Verb, is both ignorantly misspelled, and whimsically misapplied. But, according to Critical Note 14th, "Any use of words that implies ignorance of their inwu.iW. or of their proper orthography, is particularly unsYholarlike ; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions t<> learning disgraceful.'' The errors here committed might have been avoided thus : " What is a verb? It is n wnnl which signifies to br, to act, or to be acted upon.' 1 ' 1 Or thus: "What is an '' Ans. One who tiffin;; m affirmer, supporter, or vindicator.' Webster's Dict. r ] " Virgil wrote the JEnead." Kirkham's Gram. p. 56. " Which, to a supercilious or in- considerate Japaner, would seem very idle and impertinent." Locke, on Ed. p. 225. " Will not a look of disdain cast upon you, throw you into a foment ? " Life of Th. Say, p. 146. " It may be of use to the scholar, to remark in this place, that though only the conjunction f'A'is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed." L. Murray's Gram. p. 93. "When proper have an article annexed to them, they are used as common names." Ib. p. 36 ; In- //n-W/X 25 ; ft al. " When a proper noun has an article annexed to it, it is used as a com- mon noun." Merrh'ntf's Gram. p. 25. "Seeming to disenthral the death -field of its ter- rors." Ib. p. 109. "For the same reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular." Kirkham's Gram. p. 50. " It diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood." Abbott's Teacher, p. 175. "Ap- proximation to excellence is all that we can expect." Ib. p. 42. "I have often joined in sinking with musu-ianists at Norwich." Muxir of Xa litre, p. 274. " When not standing in regular prosic order." o. //. P -/. p/281. " Disregardlcss of the dogmas and of the philosophical umpire." Kirkham's (tram. p. 75. " Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, affixing the mouth-closing M to most of their words as M-yes for \'u/nri', p. 28. " That noted close of his, esse videatur, exposed him to cen- sure ainonLC his cotemporari r*t Rfc '. p. 127. " OWN. Formerly, a man's oicn was what he ir-trb-l f,,r. mm bring a past participle of a verb signifying to work." Kirkham's Grnm. p. 71. "As [requires] so: expressing a comparison of quality : as, Ms the one dieth, so dicth the other.' " .If >/./;/.> '//,///<. p. 212 ; /.'. ('. Smith's, 177; d/i>l muni/ others. "To >ur parents i a solemn duty." /'.r's Gram., Tart I, p. 67. "Most all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things." II. ('. WKIOIIT : Liiti-i-utnr, Vol. xiv, p. _'J. " I ^hall take leave to make a few observations on the subject." ,'.s G/- L have endeavoured to supply, a* far as additional vigi- lance and industry would allow." Ib. p. xi. "That they should make vegetation so ex- huberant as to anticipate every want." Frazec's Gram. p. 43. "The quotors "" which In the Doctor's Xi-w Edition. Revised and Torn cf-d." tl.o text stands thus: "The Prettnt participle ot -:_'iiifi.-:irion: as. .laim-s \*btiil 7n in-iny of t/tetc,' 1 for Iwk of an is utt-T iKins.-nse. \\hat i in " .light of ccur.-e t.. 1-e nrm- f in si.'iiili- in this author's present scliemo of the verb, vre find " the active voice." in direct violation of his own d-iini'ion ,,f it. as.-rihed not only to verbs and participles either neuter or intransitive, but also, as it \vtmld Bcem by this passage, to " many " that are passive .' G. Bi 716 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAES. [PART III. denote that one or more words are extracted from another author." Day's District School Gram. p. 112. " Ninevah and Assyria were two of the most noted cities of ancient history." Ib. p. 32 and p. 88. " Ninevah, the capital of Assyria, is a celebrated ancient city."- Ib. p. 88. "It may, however, be rendered definite by introducing some definition of time ; as, yesterday, last week, &c." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 40. " The last is called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thompson, Pollock, &c."- Id., Practical Lessons, p. 129. " Perrenial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above." Hallock's Gram. p. 194. " Intransitive verbs are those which are inseperable from the effect produced." Cutler s Gram. p. 31. " Femenine gender, belongs to women, and animals of the female kind." Ib. p. 15. "Woe ! unto you scribes and pharasees." Day's Gram. p. 74. "A pyrrick, which has both its syllables short." Ib. p. 114. " What kind of Jesamine ? a Jesamine in flower, or a flowery Jesamine." Barrett's Gram., 10th Ed., p. 53. "Language, derived from ' lingua,'' the tongue, is the faculty of communicating our thoughts to each other, by proper words, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas." Ib. p. 9. " Say none not nara." Stamford's Gram. p. 81. "Any ONE, for either." Pond's Larger Gram. p. 194. (See Obs. 24th, oil the Syntax of Adverbs, and the Note at the bot- tom of the page.) " Earth loses thy patron for ever and aye ; O sailor boy ! sailor boy ! peace to thy soul." S. Barrett's Gram., 1837, p. 116. " His brow was sad, his eye beneath, Flashed like a halcyon from its sheath." Liberator, Vol. xii, p. 24. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XV. OF SILLINESS AND TRUISMS. " Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest." L. Murray's Gram. p. 57. [FORMULE. This is a remark of no wisdom or force, because it would be nearer the truth, to say, " Such is the state of man, that he must often rest." But, according to Critical Note 15th, u billy remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted." It is useless to attempt a correction of this example, for it is not susceptible of any form worth preserving.] "Participles belong to the nouns or pronouns to which they relate." Wells' s Gram., 1st Ed., p. 153. "Though the measure is mysterious, it is worthy of attention." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 221. " Though the measure is mysterious, it is not unworthy your attention." - Kirkham's Gram. pp. 197 and 227. " The inquietude of his mind made his station and wealth far from being enviable." Murray's Key, Svo, p. 250. " By rules so general snd comprehensive as these are [,] the clearest ideas are conveyed." Ib. p. 273. " The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity of its thoughts." Ib. p. 1S5. " Not having known, or not having considered, the measures proposed, he tailed of success" Ib. p. 202. "Not having known or considered the subject, he made a crude decision.' - Ib. p. 275. " Not to exasperate him, I spoke only a very few words." Ib. p. 257. "Those are points too trivial, to be noticed. They are objects with which I am totally unacquaint- ed." Ib. p. 275. "Before we close this section, it may afford instruction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than they have been." Murray's Gram. p. 110. "Ihe articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature." Ib. p. 170 ; Alger's, 60. "Any thing, which is done now, is sup- posed to be done at the present time." Sanborn's Gram. p. 34. "Any thing which was done yesterday is supposed to be done in past time." Ib. 34. "Any thing which may be done hereafter, is supposed to be done in future time." Ib. 34. " When the mind coin- pares two things in reference to each other, it performs the operation of comparing." Ib. p. 244. " The persons, with whom you dispute, are not of your opinion." Cooper's PL and Pr. Gram. p. 124. " But the preposition at is always used when itfolloios the neuter Verb in the same Case : as, I have been at London.' " Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 60. " But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to be : as, I have been at London.' " L. Murray's Gram. p. 203 ; Ingcrsoll's, 231 ; Fisk's, 143 ; et al. " The article the has sometimes a differ- ent effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet." Murray's Gram. p. 172. " The article the has, sometimes, ajine effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet." Priestley's Gram. p. 151. " Some nouns have plurals belonging only to themselves." Infant School Gram. p. 26. " Sentences are either simple or compounded." Lowth's Gram. p. 68. "All sen- tences are either simple or compound." Gould's Adam's Gram. p. 155. "The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number." Kirkham's Gram., llule 2d, p. 176. " Where a riddle is not intended, it is always a fault in allegory to be too dark."- Blair's Rhet. p. 151 ; Murray's Gram. 343. " There may be an excess in too many short sen- tences also ; by which the sense is split and broken." Blair's Rhet. p. 101. "Are there any nouns you cannot see, hear, or feel, but only think of? Name such 'a noun." Infant School Gram. p. 17. "Flock is of the singular number, it denotes but one flock and in the nomi- native case, it is the active agent of the verb." Kirkham's Gram. p. 58. " The article THE agrees with nouns of the singular or plural number." Parker and Fox's Gram. p. 8. "The admiral bombarded Algiers, which has been continued." Nixon's Parser, p. 128. "The world demanded freedom, which might have been expected." Ibid. " The past tense rep- resents an action as past and finished, either with or without respect to the time when."- Feltons Gram. p. 22. " That boy rode the wicked horse." Butler's Practical Gram. p. 42. CHAP. XIII.] SYNTAX. - GENERAL RULE. - CRITICAL NOTES. ERRORS. 717 " The snake swallowed itself." Ib. p. 57. "Do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted; as, 'Ifthourfo repent.'" Ib. p. 85. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This mood has the tenses of the indicatir,>:'fl>. p. 87. "As nouns never speak, they are never in the first person.' ' Ys Practical dram. p. 148. " Nearly all parts of speech are used more or less in an elliptical sense." Day's District School Gram. p. 80. " RULE. No word in a period can have any greater extension than the other words or sections in the same sentence will give it." ' ,'rnm. p. 38 and p. 43. " Words used exclusively as Adverbs, should not be used as Adjectives." Clark's Practical Gram. p. 166. "Adjectives used in Predication, should not take the Adverbial form." Ib. pp. 167 and 173. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XVI. OF THE INCORRIGIBLE. "And this state of things belonging to the painter governs it iu the possessive case." Murray's dram. p. 195 ; Ingersotfs, 201 ; et al. [FoRMULE. This composition is incorrigibly bad. The participle " belonging," which seems to relate to i improperly meant to qualify "state." And the " state of things," (which state really belongs only to th> thins;!!,) is absurdly supposed to belong to a person i. e., " to the painter." Then this man, to whom tte <>f tiling" is said to belong, is forthwith called "if," and nonsensically declared to be "in the possess! re case. 7 ' But, according to Critical Note 16th, " Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criti-i>.-.l, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them." Therefore, no correction is attempted here.] " Nouns or pronouns, following the verb to be ; or the words than, but, as ; or that answer the question who? have the same case after as preceded them." Beck's Gram. p. 29. " The common gender is when the noun may be either masculine or feminine." Frost's Gram. p. 8. "The possessive is generally pronounced the same as if the s were added." Alden's Gram. p. 11. " For, assuredly, as soon as men had got beyond simple interjections, and began to communicate t/temselves by discourse, they would be under a necessity of assigning names to the objects they saw around them, which in grammatical language, is called the invention of substantive nouns." Blair's Rhet. p. 72. " Young children will learn to form letters as soon, if not readier, than they will when older." Taylor's District School, p. 159. "This comparing words with one another, constitutes what is called the degrees of comparison." Sanborn's drum. p. 29. " Whenever a noun is immediately annexed to a, preceding neuter verb, it f.rpn-fsxi:s either the same notion with the verb, or denotes only the circumstance of the ." Istwth's dram. p. 73. "Two or more nouns or pronouns joined singular together by the conjunction and, must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural number." Infant Sc/iool Gram. p. 129. "Possessive and demonstrative pronouns agree with their nouns in number and case ; as, ' my brother,' ' this slate,' these slates.' " Ib. p. 130. " Participles which have no relation to time are used either as adjectives or as substantives." Maunder' s f ;/'s dram. p. 59. "When words of the possessive case that are in apposition, follow oiu- another in quick succession, the possessive sign should be annexed to the last only, and tod to the rest; as, ' For David, my servant's sake.' " Comly's Gram. p. 92. "% this order, the first nine rules accord with those which respect the rules of concord ; and the ndude, though they extend beyond the rules of government." Murray's drum. p. 1 1:>. l * (>-,/ and self in the plural selves, are joined to the possessives, my, our, thy, your, /-, their ; as, my own hand, myself, yourselves ; both of them expressing emphasis or ition, as, ' I did it my own self,' that is, and no one else ; the latter also forming the reciprocal pronoun, as, he hurt himself.' " Lowfh's drum. p. iM. "A/iW/V/ copious style, therefore, is required in all public speakers ; guarding, at the same ff/ne, against such a de- gree of dijfu.vion, as renders them languid and tiresome; which will always prove the case, when they inculcate too much, and present the same thought under too mam/ difi'erent view.s." i Rhet. p. 177. "As sentences should be cleared of redundant words, so also of re- dundant members. As every word ought to present a new idea, so every member ought to -ontain a new thought. Opposed to this, stands the fault we sometimes meet with, of uber of a period ////<'/ no other than the echo of the former, or the repetition of it in somewhat a different form."* Ib. p. 1 1 1. " \Vhieh always r'eier> grammatically to the substantive imm>-lnit,!/< -enling : [as,] ' It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourscl' . "-hirh nothing can protect us again>t, but the good providence of our heavenly Father.'" Murray's Gram. p. 311; Maunders, p. 18; '. p. 105. "The English < . ...iving but a very limited syntax, is classed with its kindred artic'.; th. /;, under the eighth rule."/,. 'Murray's dram. 8vo, p. 143. " When a substantive is put tibwlntely, and does nnt agree with the 'following verb, it remains i ">i the participle, and is called the case absolute, or the absolute." Ib. p. l'J5. " It will, dou , happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would render the lai: stiff and formal : but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the cxpre- * One objection to these passages Is, that they are examplts of the very construction which thoy describe as a fault. The first and second sentences ought to have been separated only by a semicolon. This would have made them ' members " of one and the same sentence. Can it be supposed that one " thought " is sufficient for two periods, or for what one chooses to point as such, but not fur two members of the same period ? Q. Duu\v N. 718 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. different turn, than to violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance" Ib. p. 208. " Number, which, distinguishes objects as singly or collectively, must have been coeval with the very infancy of language." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 25. " The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively." L. Murray's Gram. p. 170 ; and others. " No language is perfect because it is a human invention." Parker and Fox's Grammar, Part III, p. 112. "The participles, or as they may properly be termed, forms of the verb in the second infinitive, usually precedes another verb, and states some fact, or event, from which an inference is drawn by that verb ; as, " the sun having arisen, they departed." Day's Grammar, 2nd Ed., p. 36. "They must describe ichat has happened as having done so in the past or the present time, or as likely to occur in the future." The Well-to i&hcrs' Grammar, Introd., p. 5. "Nouns are either male, female, or neither." Foicle's Common School Grammar, Part Second, p. 12. " Possessive Adjectives express possession, and distin- guish nouns from each other by showing to what they belong ; as, my hat, John's hat." Ib. p. 31. PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. LESSON I. VARIOUS RULES. " What is the reason that our language is less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France ? " Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 185. " What is the reason that our language is less re- fined than that of France ? " Ingersoll's Gram. p. 152. " ' I believe your Lordship will agree with me, in the reason why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France.' DEAN SWIFT. Even in this short sentence, we may discern an inaccuracy why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France ;' putting the pronoun those in the plural, when the antecedent substantive to which it refers is in the singular, our lan- guage." Blair's Rhet. p. 228. " The sentence might have been made to run much better in this way ; why our language is less refined than the Italian, Spanish, or French.' " Ibid. " But when arranged in an entire sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show it still more evidently." L. Murray's Gram. p. 65. " This is a more artificial and refined construction than that, in which the common connective is simply made use of." Ib. p. 127. " We shall present the reader with a list of Prepositions, which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages." Ib. p. 120. " Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction copulative." Ib. p. 126. " Personal pronouns being used to sup- ply the place of the noun, are not employed in the same part of the sentence as the noun which they represent." Ib. p. 155 ; R. C. Smith's Gram. 131. "There is very seldom any occasion for a substitute in the same part where the principal word is present." Murray's Gram. p. 155. " We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives as the idea of reason and reflection." Priestley's Gram. p. 98 ; Murray's, 157 ; Smith's, 13 5 ; and others. "The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different." Blair's Rh;t. p. 95 ; Murray's Gram. 302 ; Jamieson's Rhet. 66. " I'll tell you who time ambles with il, who time trots withal, who time gallops withal, and who he stands still withal. I pray thee, who doth he trot withal ? " Shakspeare. " By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." Addison. " The question may then be put, What does he more than mean?" Blair's Rhet. p. 103. "The question might be put, what more does he than only mean ? " Ib. p. 204. " He is surprised to find himself got to so great a distance, from the object with which he at first set out." Ib. p. 108. " He is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he sets out." Murray's Gram. p. 313. " Few precise rules can be given, which will hold without excep- tion in all cases." Ib. p. 267 ; Lowth's Gram. p. 115. " Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws." Dr. Johnson's Gram. p. 13. " Ver- sification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to cer- tain laws." L. Murray's Gram. p. 252 ; R. C. Smith's, 187 ; and others. " Charlotte, the friend of Amelia, to whom no one imputed blame, was too prompt in her own vindica- ton." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 273. "Mr. Pitt, joining the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one which at once presents itself." Brougham s Sketches, Vol. i, p. 57. " To the framing such a sound constitution of mind." The American Lady, p. 132. "'Iboseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, ' that ye walk worthy the vocation wherewith ye are called.' " Ib. p. 208. " So as to prevent its being equal to that." Booth's Introd. p. 88. " When speaking of an ac- tion's being performed." Ib. p. 89. "And, in all questions of an action's being so per- formed, cst is added to the second person." Ib. p. 72. " No account can be given of this, than that custom has blinded their eyes." Dymond's Essays, p. 269. " Design, or chance, make others wive ; But nature did this match contrive." Waller, p. 24. LESSON II. VARIOUS RULES. " I suppose each of you think it is your own nail." Abbott" s Teacher, p. 58. "They are useless, from their being apparently based upon this supposition." Ib. p. 71. " The form CHAP. XITI.] SYNTAX. VARIOUS RULES. PROMISCUOUS ERRORS. 719 and manner, in which this plan may be adopted, is various." Ib. p. 83. " Making intellectual effort, and acquiring knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind." Ib. p. 85. " This will do more than the best lecture which ever was delivered." Ib. p. 90. " Doing easy things is generally dull work." Ib. p. 92. " Such is the tone and manner of some teachers." Ib. p. 118." "Well, the fault is, being disorderly at prayer time." Ib. p. 153. " Do you remember speaking on this subject in school ? " //;. p. 154*. " The course above recommended, is not trying lax and inefficient measures." Ib. p. 1.56. " Our community is agreed that there is a God." Ib. p. 163. "It prevents their being interested in what is said." Ib. p. 175. " We will also suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian." Ib. p. 180. " Five minutes notice is given by the bell." Ib. p. 211. " The Annals of Education gives notice of it." Ib. p. 240. " Teacher's meetings will be interesting and useful." Ib. p. 243. She thought an half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties." Ib. p. 257. * The difference between an honest and an hypocritical confession." Ib. p. 263. " There is no point of attainment where we must stop." Ib. p. 267. "Now six hours is as much as is expected of teachers." Ib. p. 268. " How much is seven times nine ? " Ib. p. 292. " Then the reckoning proceeds till it come to ten hundred." Frost's Practical Gram. p. 170. "Your success will depend on vour own exertions ; see, then, that you are diligent." Ib. p. 142. " Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense : If I am known, If thou art known, If he is known ; " &c. Ib. p. 91. " If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved; " &c. Ib. p. 85. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without any reference to the structure of the other parts of it." Ib. p. 35. " The Cardinals are those which simplify or denote number ; as one, two, three." U>. p. 31. " More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every conso- nant." Ib. p. 21. "To extract from them all the Terms we make use in our Divisions and Subdivisions of the Art." Holmes's Rhetoric, Pref. "And there was written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe." Ezekiel, ii, 10. " If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of John's." Josepfiiis, Vol. 5, p. 172. " When the preposi- tion to signifies in order to, it used to be preceded by for, which is now almost obsolete ; What went ye out for to see." Priestley's Gram. p. 132. "This makes the proper perfect ton si-, which, in English, is always expressed by the help of the auxiliary verb, I have written.' " Ii/. Muff. Harrison's English Lang. p. 235. " Here the man is John, and John is the man ; so the words are the imagination and the fancy, and tJir imagination and the fancy are the words." Harrison's E. Lang. p. 227. "The article, which is here so em- phatic in the Greek, is lost sight of in our translation." Ib. p. 223. " We have no less than thirty pronouns." Ib. p. 166. " It will admit of a pronoun being joined to it." Ib. p. 137. " From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate with earh other." //;. p. 104. " It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducing terms derived from the classical languages." Ib. p. 100. "The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that he pleases." Ib. p. 90. "The proportion of names ending in ami preponderate greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North." Ih. p. 43. "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English and the Danish languages. "!'. p. .'',7. "A century from the time that Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle ofThanet." Ib. p. 27. " I saw the colours waving in the wind, And they within, to mischief how combin'd." Bunyun. LESSON III. VARIOUS RULES. "A ship exceptcd : of whom we say, she, sails well." Ben Jonson's Gram. Chnp 10. "Honesty is reckoned little worth." Paul's A<, . . :,S. "Learn to esteem li; ought." Economy of Human /.iff, p. 118. "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy toucheth us less dee]) than the smallest sorrow." Ib. ]>. ")_'. " Being young is no apology for being frivolous." Whiting's EU-nn-ntary 7iYW. 20. "First, let us consider emphasis; by (his, is meant a stronger and fu/kr sound of voice, by which we distinguish the accented syllable of some word, on which we desian to lay particular stress, and to shew how it effects the rest of the sentence." Blair s Rhct. p. 330. I5v e:u;>ha*i.- is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, mnd to shoic how thnj affect the rest of the sentence." Murray's Gra/n. p. 242. " Such a simple question as this : ' Do you ride to town to-day,' is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on the tcords." Blair's Rhct. p. 330 ; Murray's Grant, p. 242. " Thus, bravely, or ' in a brave manner,' is derived from brave-like." Hiky's Gram. p. 51. " In the same manner, the different parts of speech are formed from each other generally by means of some affix." Ib. p. 60. " Words derived from each other, are always, more or less, allied in signification." Ib. p. 60. " When a noun of multitude conveys unity of idea the verb and pronoun should be singular. But when it conveys plurality of idea, the verb and pronoun must be plural." Hiky's Gram. p. 71. "They have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with that of the profane." Ib. p. 87. " 'I have studied my lesson, but you have not ; ' that is, ' but you have not studied it.' " Ib. p. 109. ' When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma between each pair." Ib. p. 112 ; Bullions, 102 ; L> /mi/-, 132. " When words follow each other in pairs, the pairs should be marked by the comma." Farn urn's Gram. p. 111. "His 'Studies of Nature,' is i-dly a popular work." Univ. Biog. Diet. n. St. J'krre. " ' Here lies his head, a youth to fortune and to fame unknown.' ' Youth,' here is in the possessive (the sign being omitted), and is in aj>j>*iti;jn with 'his.' The meaning is 'the head of him, a youth,' &c." Hart's at. p. 124. "The pronoun I, and the interjection C), should be written with a capi- tal." M 'eld's /;. G'rtim., '2d Ed., p. 16. "The pronoun / always should be written with a capital letter." Ib. p. 68. "He went from England to York." Ib. p. 41. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, to modify their meaning." Ib. p. 51 ; "Abridged Ed." 46. "Singular, signifies ' one person or thing.' Plural, (Latin plus,) Dignifies ' more than one.' " Weld's Gr. p. 55. " When the present ends in e, d only is added to form the Imperfect and Perfect participle." Ib. p. 82. SYN.KUKSIS is the contraction of two syllables into one ; as, Seest for see-est, drowned for drotcn-ed." Ib. p. 213. " Words ending in n- drop the final c on receiving an additional syllable beginning with e ; as, see, i." Ib. p. 227. " Monosyllables in /, I. or s. preceded by a single vowel are doubled ; as, staff, grass, mill." Ib. p. 226. " Words ending ie drop the e and take y ; a.s die, dying." Ib. p. 226. " One number may be used for another; as, we for /, you for t/ion." N. >'. Grri'.'n'.s drum., 1st Ed., p. 198. " STKOH'ILE, n. A pericarp made up of scales that lie over each other. SMART." Worcester's I'nir. and (.'rit. Diet. Yet ever from the clearest source have ran Some gross allay, some tincture of the man." Dr. Lowth. LESSON Y. VARIOUS RULES. " The possessive case is always followed by the noun which is the name of the thing pos- l or understood." / ///. p. C>1 ; Ii> -i-i.^'d Edition, pp. 64 and 86. " Hadiner tei:i was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as were Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson; or as are Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk." H. C. WRIGHT: Lihi'i-nd-r, Vol. xv, p. 21. "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by its .self." Wright's Gram. p. 1 .'><). " Mary is not handsome, but she is good- natured, which is better than beauty." St. (iimifin'.i Gram. p. 9. "After the practice of joining words together had oetfl of distinction wen. placed at the end of every word." Murra //'* Gntm. p. 2U7 ; Il>. ]>. HI. " In :uracter lUitler was admitted, is unknown." :>. (VI. " How is the agent of a passive, and the object of an active verb often left?" In. p. SS. J5y snf>j,rt is meant the word of which something is declared of its object." C/iandkr's Gram., 1S21, p. lO-'i. " Care should also be taken that an intransitive verb is it' a transitive : as I lay, (the bricks) for, I lie down ; I raise the house, I u, I MM; 1 sit down, lor. I >et the chair down, Xc." Ib. p. 114. " On them depend the duration of our Constitution and our country." ./. < '. dilhonn tit M<-mj>/n'fi. ' In the present sentence neither the sense nor the measure require what." C/iundkr's Gram., 1821, p. 1(54. 'The Irish thought themselves oppress'd by the Law that forbid them to draw with their 49 -. 722 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. Horses Tails." Brightland's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "So willingly are adverbs, qualifying de- ceives." Cutler's Gram. p. 90. "Epicurus for experiment sake confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons." Ib. p. 116. " Derivative words are such as are compounded of other words, as common- wealth, good-ness, false-hood." Ib. p. 12. "The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost sight of." Hart's Gram. p. 61. " The Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Potential Moods." Ib. p. 80. "A triphthong is a union of three vowels uttered in like manner : as, WOT/ in buoy." P. Da- vis's Practical Gram. p. xvi. " Common nouns are the names of a species or kind." Ib. p. 8. " The superlative degree is a comparison between three or more." Ib. p. 14. "An adverb is a word or phrase serving to give an additional idea of a verb, and adjective, arti- cle, or another adverb." Ib. p. 36. " When several nouns in the possessive case succeed each other, each showing possession of the same noun, it is only necessary to add the sign of the possessive to the last : as, He sells men, women, and children's shoes. Dog, cat, and tiger s feet are digitated." Ib. p. 72. "A rail-road is making should be A rail-road is being made. A. school-house is building, should be A school-house is being built." Ib. p. 113. "Auxiliaries are not of themselves verbs ; they resemble in their character and use those terminational or other inflections in other languages, which we are obliged to use in ours to express the action in the mode, tense, &c., desired." Ib. p. 158. " Please hold my horse while I speak to my friend." Ib. p. 159. " If I say, ' Give me the book,' I ask for some par- ticular book." Butler's Practical Gram. p. 39. "There are five men here." Ib. p. 134. "In the active the object may be omitted ; in the passive the name of the agent may be omit- ted." 76. p. 63. " The Progressive and the Emphatic forms give in each case a different shade of meaning to the verb." Hart's Gram. p. 80. "That is a Kind of a Kedditive Con- junction, when it answers to so and such." W. Ward's Gram. p. 152. " He attributes to negligence your failing to succeed in that business." Smart's Accidence, p. 36. " Does will and go express but our action ? " S. Barrett's Revised Gram. p. 58. " Language is the principle vehicle of thought. G. BROWN." James Brown's English Syntax, p. 3. "Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; many, to those that are numbered. Elder and eldest, to persons only; older and oldest, either to persons or things." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 20 ; Pract. Les. 25. " If there are any old maids still extant, while mysogonists are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 286. " The second method used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any part of Europe." Sheri- dan's Elocution, p. 64. " Neither consonant, nor vowel, are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence." Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram. p. 64. " IRONY is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer intends to convey." Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 196 ; 113th Ed., p. 212. " IRONY is the intentional use of words in a sense contrary to that which the writer or speaker intends tc convey." Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 215. " The persons speaking, or spoken to, are sup- posed to be present." Wells, p. 68. " The persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present." Murray's Gram. p. 51. "A Noun is a word used to express the name of ar object." Wells's School Gram. pp. 46 and 47. "A syllable is a word, or such a part of a word as is uttered by one articulation." Weld's English Gram. p. 15 ; "Abridged Ed." p. 16. "Thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then ! Unspeakable, who sits above these heavens." Cutler's Gram. p. 131. "And feel thy sovereign vital lamp ; but thou Revisitest not these eyes, that roll in vain." Felton's Gram. p. 133. " Before all temples the upright and pure." Butler's Gram. p. 195. "In forest wild, in thicket, break or den." Cutler's Gram. p. 130. " The rogue and fool by fits is fair and wise ; And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise." Pope's Ess. iii, 233. CHAPTER XIV.- QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART THIRD, SYNTAX. [?" [The following questions, which embrace nearly all the important particulars of the foregoing code of Syntax, are designed not only to direct and facilitate class rehearsals, but also to develop the acquirements of those who may answer them at examinations more public.] LESSON I. DEFINITIONS. 1. Of what does Syntax treat? 2. What is the relation of words ? 3. What is the agree- ment of words ? 4. What is the government of words ? 5. What is the arrangement of words ? 6. What is a sentence ? 7. How many and what are the principal parts of a sen- tence ? 8. What are the other parts called ? 9. How many kinds of sentences are there ? 10. What is a simple sentence ? 11. What is a compound sentence ? 12. What is a clause, or member? 13. What is a phrase ? 14. What words must be supplied in parsing ? 15. How CHAP. XIV.] SYNTAX. QUESTIONS. 723 are the leading principles of syntax presented ? 16. In what order are the rules of syntax arranged in this work ? LESSON II. THE Rn.r.s. 1. To what do articles relate ? 2. What case is employed as the subject of a finite verb ? 3. What agreement is required between words in apposition : 4. By what is the possessive case governed : o. What case does an active-transitive verb or participle govern ? 6. What case is put after a verb or participle not transitive ? 7. What case do prepositions govern ? 8. When, and in what case, is a noun or pronoun put absolute in English ? 9. To what do adjectives relate ? 10. How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent ? 11. How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 12. How does a pronoun agree with joint antece- dents ? 13. How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents ? LESSON III. THE RULES. 14. How does a finite verb agree with its subject, or nominative ? 15. How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? 16. How does a verb agree with joint nominatives ? 17. How does a verb agree with disjunct nominatives? 18. What governs the infinitive mood? 19. What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to ? 20. What is the regular construction of participles, as such? 21. To what do adverbs relate ? 2i. What do conjunctions connect ? 23. What is the use of prepositions? 24. What is the syntax of interjections ? LESSON IV. THE RULES. 1. What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-four rules of syntax ? 2. What says Rule 1st of Articles? 3. What says Rule 2d of Nominatives ? 4. What says Rule 3d of Apposition? 5. What says Rule 4th of Possessives ? 6. What says Rule 5th of Objectives ? 1. What says Rule 6th of Same Cases? 8. What says Rule 7th of Objectives? 9. What says Rule 8th of the \ominative Absolute? 10. What says Rule 9th of Adjectives? 11. "What says Rule 10th of Pronouns? 12. What says Rule* llth of Pronouns? 13. What s:iy> Rule 12th of Pronouns? 14. What says Rule"l3th of Pronouns ? 15. What says Rule 14th of Finitr Verbs ! 1G. What says Rule' loth of Finite Verbs ? 17. What says Rule 16th of Finite Verbs? 18. What says Rule 17th of Finite Verbs? 19. What says Rule 18th of Infinitives? 20. What says Rule 19th of Infinitives? 21. What says Rule* 20th of Partici- What says Rule 21st of Adverbs?* 23. What says Rule 22d of Conjunctions f 24. What says Rule 23d of Prepositions? 25. What says Rule 24th of Interjections ? LESSOX V. THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES. 1 . What is it, " to analyze a sentence :" 2. What are the component parts of a sentence ? 3. Can all sentences be divided into clauses ? 4. Are there different methods of analysis, which may be useful? 5. What is the first method of analysis, according to this code of syntax ? ". What parts of speech have no other syntactical property than that of simple relation r 0. What rules of relation are commonly found in grammars ? 7. Of what parts is syntax commonly said to consist ? 8. Is it common to find in grammars, the rules of syn- tax well adapted to their purpose ? 9. Can you specify some that appear to be faulty ? 10. Wherein co7i<>ists the truth of grammatical doctrine, and how can one judge of what others teach? 11. Do those who speak of syntax as being divided into two parts, Concord and Government, commonly adhere to such division? 12. What false concords and false gov- ernments are cited in Obs. 7th of the first chapter ? 18. Is it often expedient to join in the same rule such principles as must always be applied separately? 14. When one can con- dense several different principles into one rule, is it not expedient to do so ? 15. Is it ever convenient to have one and the same rule applicable to different parts of speech ? 16. Is it ever convenient to have rules divided into parts, so as to be double or triple in their form? 17. What instance of extravagant innovation is given in Obs. 12th of the first chapter ? LKSSOX XII. THE OBSERVATIONS. IS. Can a uniform series of good grammars, Latin, Greek, English, &c., be produced by a mere revising of one defective book for each language ? 19. Whose are " The Principles of English Grammar" which Dr. Bullions has republished with alterations, "on the plan of Murray's Grammar ? " 20. Can praise and success entitle to critical notice works in themselves unworthy of it? 21. Do the Latin grammarians agree in their enumeration of the concords in Latin? 22. What is said in Obs. 16th, of the plan of mixing syntax with etymology ? 23. Do not the principles of etymology affect those of syntax ? 24. Can any won Is agree, or disagree, except in something that belongs to each of them ? 25. How many and what parts of speech are concerned in government ? 26. Are rules of government to-be applied to the governing words, or to the governed ? 27. What are gerundives ? 28. How many and what are the principles of syntax which belong to the head of simple rela- tion ? 29. How many agreements, or concords, are there in English syntax? 30. How many rules of government are there in the best Latin grammars ? 31. W r hat fault is there in the usual distribution of these rules ? 32. How many and what are the governments in English s\ Can the parsing of words be varied by any transposition which does not change their import? 34. Can the parsing of words be affected by the parser's notion of what constitutes a simple sentence? 35. What explanation of simple and compound sentences is cited from Dr. Wilson, in Obs. 2.1 ? 30. What notion had Dr. Adam of simple >mpound sentences ? 37. Is this doctrine consistent either with itself or with Wilson's ? 8$. How can one's notion of ellipsis affect his mode of parsing, and his distinction of sen- > as simple or compound ? -sox XIII. ARTICLES. 1 . Can one noun have more than one article ? 2. Can one article relate to more than one noun? 3. Why cannot the omission of an article constitute a proper ellipsis r 4. What is the position of the article with respect to its noun ? 5. What is the usual position of the article with respect to an adjective and a noun ? 6. Can the relative position of the article and adjective be a matter of indifference r 7. What adjectives exclude, or supersede, the article? s. What adjectives precede the article ? 9. What four adverbs affect the position of thar, and ni>jh f 105. What is observed of the word worth? \ '-cording to Johnson and Tooke, what is worth, in such phrases as, " Wo worth the day r " 107. After verbs ot '//'"'.'/, pnyin-'j, and the like, what ellipsis is apt to occur? 108. What is observed of the nouns used in dates ? 109. What defect is observable in the common rules for "the case absolute," or "the nominative independent r " 110. In how many ways is the nominative case put absolute ? 111. W r hat participle is often under- stood after nouns put absolute? 112. In how many ways can nouns of the second person be employed : 113. What is said of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbre- viated sayings ? 111. What is observed of such phrases as, "hand to hand," " face to il5. What authors deny the existence of " the case absolute : " LESSON XIX. ADJECTIVES. 1. Docs the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it? 2. What is ob- served of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun ? 3. To what does the adjective usually relate, when it stands alone after a finite verb r 4. Where is the noun or pronoun, when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle? 5. What is ob- served of adjectives preceded by the and used elliptically ? (>. What is said of the position of tho adjective? 7. In what instances is the adjective placed after its noun ? 8. In what 728 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun ? 9. What are the construc- tion and import of the phrases, in particular, in general, and the like ? 10. What is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number? 11. What is observed of this and that as referring to two nouns connected ? 12. What is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs? 13. How can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required ? 14. What is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun ? 15. How can one avoid the ambiguity which Dr. Priestley notices in the use of the adjective no f LESSON XX. PRONOUNS. 1 . Can such pronouns as stand for things not named, be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted ? 2. Is the pronoun we singular when it is used in lieu of // 3. Is the pronoun you singular when used in lieu ofthou or thee ? 4. What is there remark- able in the construction of our self and yourself? 5. Of what person, number, and gender, is the relative, when put after such terms of address as, your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour ? 6. How does the English fashion of putting you for thou, compare with the usage of the French, and of other nations ? 7. Do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable ? 8. What figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents ? 9. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification ? 10. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor ? 11. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy ? 12. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche? 13. What is the usual position of pronouns, and what exceptions are there ? 14. When a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence, of what person, number, and gender is it? 15. Under what circum- stances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents? 16. With what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun it? 17. In the sentence, "It is useless to complain," what does it represent ? 18. How are relative and interrogative pronouns placed? 19. What are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pro- nouns ? 20. Why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives ? LESSON XXI. PRONOUNS. 21. To what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing? 22. Of the twenty-four rules in this work, how many are applicable to pronouns ? 23. Of the seven rules for cases, how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives ? 24. What is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative ? 25. What is said of the suppression of the antecedent ? 26. What is noted of the word which, as applied to persons ? 27. What relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name ? 28. When do wt em- ploy the same relative in successive clauses ? 29. What odd use is sometimes made o : the pronoun your? 30. Under what^ywre of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude ? 31. Does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun ? 32. Do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural ? 33. When joint antecedents are of different persons, with which person does the pronoun agree ? 34. When joint antecedents differ in gender, of what gender is the pronoun ? 35. Why is it wrong to say, " The first has a lenis, and the other an asper over them ? " 36. Can nouns without and be taken jointly, as if they had it ? 37. Can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun, when only one of them is uttered ? 38. Why do singular antecedents connected by or or nor appear to require a singular pronoun ? 39. Can differing antecedents connected by or be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way ? 40. Why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders ? 41. Do the Latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the English, concerning nominatives or antecedents connected dis- junctively ? LESSON XXII. VERBS. 1. What is necessary to every finite verb? 2. What is remarked of such examples as this: "The Pleasures of Memory was published in 1792?" 3. What is to be done with " Thinks I to myself," and the like ? 4. Is it right to say with Smith, "Every hundred years constitutes a century ? " 5. What needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians ? 6. What actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood ? 7. What is observed concerning the place of the verb ? 8. What besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb ? 9. What is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun it before the verb? 10. When an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb, do the words remain adjuncts, or are they abstract? 11. How- can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive, and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb ? 12. Can an objective before the infinitive become "the sub- ject of the affirmation ? " 13. In making a phrase the subject of a verb, do we produce an exception to Rule 14th ? 14. Why is it wrong to say, with Dr. Ash, " The king and queen appearing in public was the cause of my going ? " 15. What inconsistency is found in CHAP. XIV.] SYNTAX. QUESTIONS. 729 Murray, with reference to his " nominative sentences f" 16. What is Dr. Webster's ninth rule of syntax ? 17. Why did Murray think all Webster's examples under this rule bad English: 18. Why are both parties wrong in this instance? 19. What strange error is taught by Cobbett/and by Wright, in regard to the relative and its verb ? 20. Is it demon- strable that verbs often agree with relatives ? 21. What is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences ? 22. Do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun ? 23. What is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, and of the limits of the latter ? LESSOX XXIII. YERBS. 24. In respect to collective nouns, how is it generally determined, whether they convey the idea of plurality or not ? 25. Wkat is stated of the rules of Adam, Lowth, Murray, and Kirkham, concerning collective nouns ? 26. What is Nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun ? 27. Does this author appear to have gained " a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun r " 28. What great difficulty does Murray acknowledge concerning " nouns of multitude ? " 29. Does Murray's notion, that collective nouns are of different sorts, appear to be consistent or warrantable ? 30. Can words that agree with the same collective noun, be of different numbers ? 31. What is observed of collective nouns used partitively ? .32. Which are the most apt to be taken plurally, collections of persons, or collections of things ? 33. Can a collective noun, as such, take a plural ad- jective before it? 34. What is observed of the expressions, these people, these gentry, these folk / 35. What is observed of sentences like the following, in which there seems to be no nominative : " There are from eight to twelve professors ? " 36. What rule does Dr. Web- ster give for such examples as the following : "There was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds : " 37. What grammarians teach, that two or more nouns connected by always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be in the plural number r " 38. Does Murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine ? 39. On what principle can one justify such an example as this : "All work and no play, makes Jack a dull 40. What is remarked of instances like the following : " Prior's Henry and Emma contains an other beautiful example r " 41. What is said of the suppression of the con- junction and ' 42. When the speaker changes his nominative, to take a stronger one, what concord has the verb ? 43. When two or more nominatives connected by and explain a preceding one, what agreement has the verb r 44. What grammarian approves of such exprettionau, "Two and two is four ? " 45. What is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative, and are understood to the rest ? 46. When the nominatives con- nected are of different persons, of what person is the verb ? LESSON XXIV. VERBS. 47. What is the syntax of the verb, when one of its nominatives is expressed, and an other or others implied ? 48. What is the syntax of the verb, when there are nominatives connected by asf 49. What is the construction when two nominatives are connected by .*, but, or sure f 50. Can words connected by with be properly used as joint nomina- r > 1 . Does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point ? 52. What does Cobbett say about with put for and? 53. What is the construction of such ^sions as this : "A torch, snujf and all, goes out in a moment ? " 54. Does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the Latin and Greek syntax? 55. Why do collective nouns singular, when connected by or or nor, admit of a plural verb ? ~>'i. Jn the expression, "/, thou, or hi', may ajfinn," of what person and number is the verb ? .07. Win-* s;iys, "the verb agrees withtfti last nominatii-f?" 58. What authors prefer " the '," and " thr plural number f " 59. What authors prefer " the nearest nominative, whether singular or plural : " 60. What author declares it improper ever to connect by or any nominatives that require different forms of the verb? 61. What is Cobbett's on this h (^an a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right, in spite of these authorities : ;n. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or num- onnected by or or nor, with which of them docs it commonly agree? 64. When does it a_rrce with the remoter nominative- 65. When a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number, which word is regarded in the formation of the verb ? 66. What is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular ? 67. When verbs are connected by ami, or, or nor, do they necessarily agree with the same nominative ? 68. Why is the thirteenth rule of the author's Institutes and First Lines not retained as a rule in this work ? 69. Are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood, tense, and form ? KM XXV. VKKHS. 70. What particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words': 71. Is the connecting of verbs elliptic-ally, or by parts, any thing pecu- our language: 72. What faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians con- cerning fin used as a " substitute for other verbs ? " 73. What notions have been entertained concerning the word to as used before the infinitive verb ? 74. How does Dr. Ash parse to before the infinitive ? 75. What grammarians have taught that the preposition to governs 50 730 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. the infinitive mood? 76. Does Lowth agree with Murray in the anomaly of supposing to a preposition that governs nothing ? 77. Why do those teach just as inconsistently, -who forbear to call the to a preposition ? 78. What objections are there to the rule, with its ex- ceptions, " One verb governs an other in the infinitive mood ? " 79. What large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by Dr. Bullions ? 80. Are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical? 81. Is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in French, Spanish, or Italian ? 82. What whimsical account of the English infinitive is given by Nixon ? 83. How was the infinitive expressed in the Anglo-Saxon of the eleventh century ? 84. What does Richard Johnson infer from the fact that the Latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition ? 85. What reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun ? 86. How can it be proved that to before the infinitive is a preposition ? 87. What does Dr. Wilson say of the character and import of the infinitive ? 88. To what other terms can the infinitive be connected ? 89. What is the infinitive, and for what things may it stand ? 90. Do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infini- tive ? 91. What is observed of Murray's " infinitive made absolute ?" 92. What is said of the position of the infinitive ? 93. Is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced ? LESSON XXVI. 94. What is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb to be, supposed by Allen and others ? 95. What is said of the suppression of to and the insertion of be; as, "To make himself be heard ? " 96. Why is it necessary to use the sign to before an abstract infinitive, where it shows no relation ? 97. What is observed concerning the distinction of voice in the simple infinitive and the first participle ? 98. What do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of to before the infinitive, after bid, dare, feel, &c. ? 99. How do Ingersoll, Kirk- ham, and Smith, agree with their master Murray, concerning such examples as, "Let me go?" 100. What is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of Murray ? 101. How do Nutting, Kirkham, Nixon, Cooper, and Sanborn, agree with Murray, or with one an other, in pointing out what governs the infinitive ? 102. What do Murray and others mean by " neuter verbs" when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without to " extends only to active and neuter verbs ?" 103. How is the infinitive used after bid? 104. How, after dare? 105. How, after feel? 106. How, after hear? 107. How, after let? 108. How, after make ? 109. How, after need? 110. Is need ever an auxiliary? 111. What errors are taught by Grealeaf concerning dare and need or needs ? 112. What is said of see, as governing the infinitive? 113. Do any other verbs, besides these eight, take the infinitive after them without to ? 114. How is the infinitive used after hare, help, and///jrf / 115. When two or more infinitives occur in the same construction, must to be used with each? 116. What is said of the sign to after than or as? LESSON XXVII. PARTICIPLES. 1. What questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians? 2. Why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities ? 3. What is observed of the Mul- tiplicity of uses to which the participle in ing may be turned ? 4. What is said of the par- ticiples which some suppose to be put absolute ? 5. How are participles placed ? 6. What is said of the transitive use of such words as unbecoming? 7. What distinction, in respect to government, is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun ? 8. What shall we do when of after the participial noun is objectionable ? 9. What is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle ? 10. What is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns ? 11. Can words having the form of the first participle be nouns, and clearly known to be such, when they have no adjuncts ? 12. What strictures are made on Murray, Lennie, and Bullions, with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun ? 13. In what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive ? 14. What is said of certain infinitives sup- posed to be erroneously put for participles ? 15. What verbs take the participle after them, and not the infinitive ? 16. What is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs? 17. What is said of the teaching of Murray and others, that, " The participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a substantive phrase / " 18. How does the English participle compare with the Latin gerund ? 19. How do Dr. Adam and others suppose "the gerund in English" to become a " substantive," or noun ? 20. How does the French construction of participles and infinitives compare with the English ? LESSON XXVIII. PARTICIPLES. 21. What difference does it make, whether we use the possessive case before words in ing, or not ? 22. What is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech, such as verbs, participles, and nouns ? 23. With how many other parts of speech does W. Allen confound the participle ? 24. How is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by Allen, and their difference of meaning by Murray ? 25. Is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of par- ticiples, are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible ? 26. Is it proper to teach, in general terms, that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle CHAP. XIV.] SYNTAX. QUESTIONS. 731 should be put in the possessive case r 27. What is remarked of different cases used indis- criminately before the participle or verbal noun r 28. "What say Crombie and others about this disputable phraseology ? 29. What says Brown of this their teaching r 30. How do Priestley and others pretend to distingxiish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in //r/iy icith him?" 9. What is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs, and of the misuse of 10. What is fcaid in regard to the placing of adverbs? 11. What suggestions are made concerning the word no/ 12. What is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence? 13. Is that a correct rule which says, " Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equiv- alent to an affirmative ?" Yi. What is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of or or nor after not or no / 15. "What fault is found with the opinion of Priestley, Murray, Ingersoll, and Smith, that " either of them may be used with nearly equal pro- :" li}. How does John Burn propose to settle this dispute? 17. How does Churchill treat the matter ? 18. What does he say of the manner in which " the use of nor after not has been introduced r " 19. What other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head ? 20. How does Brown review these criticisms, and attempt to settle the question ? 21. What critical remark is made on the misuse of ever and never ? 22. How does Churchill differ from Lowth respecting the phrase, " ever so wisely" or " never . What is observed of ncrrr aiidercr as seeming to be adjectives, and being liable to contraction ? 24. What strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word nnlij ' 2-~>. What is observed of the term not but, and of the adverbial use of but ? 26. "What is noted of the ambiguous use of but or only? 27. What notions arc inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word ti V XXX. C'OXJ TNCTIONS. 1. When two declinable words are connected by a conjunction, why arc they of the same J. What is the power, and what the position, of a conjunction that connects sentences or i l-iuses ? '.\. What further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect ? 1. What is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together? 5. What is said of ! to call attention? r.. What relation of case occurs between norms connected by of f 7. Between what other related tetmi can. as be employed? 8. made the subject nr grammarians made from the phrase than irhomf 19. Is than supposed by Murray to be capa Miing any other objective than - " What gram- marian supposes irlinni after (linn to be "in the objective < - 1 - Hbw^doeS the author of this work dispose of the example '-. 22. What notice is taken of O. B. Pcircc's ( Grammar, with reference to his manner of parsing words after ' xV ' < hurehill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood What is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents ? 732 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. LESSON XXXI. PREPOSITIONS. 1. What is said of the parsing of a preposition ? 2. How can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained? 3. What is said of the transposition of the two terms ? 4. Between -what parts of speech, as terms of the relation, can a preposition be used ? 5. What is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms ? 6. Is to before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition ? 7. What is said of Dr. Adam's "To taken abso- lutely ? " 8. What is observed in relation to the exceptions to Rule 23d ? 9. What is said of the placing of prepositions ? 10. What is told of two prepositions coming together ? 11. In how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity ? 12. What is the difference between in and into? 13. What notice is taken of the applica- tion of between, betwixt, among, amongst, amid) amidst? 14. What erroneous remark have Priestley, Murray, and others, about two prepositions "in the same construction ?" 15. What false doctrine have Lowth, Murray, and others, about the separating of the preposi- tion from its noun ? 16. What is said of the prepositions which follow averse and aversion, except and exception* 17. What is remarked concerning the use of of, to, on, and upon? 18. Can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively un grammatical ? LESSON XXXII. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute? 2. What is said of O and the vocative case ? 3. What do Nixon and Ivirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections ? 4. What say Murray, Ingersoll, and Lennie, about interjections and cases ? 5. What is shown of the later teaching to which Murray's erroneous and unori- ginal remark about "O,oh, and ah," has given rise? 6. What notice is taken of the application of the rule for "O, oh, and ah," to nouns of the second person? 7. What is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person ? 8. What authors teach that interjections are put absolute, and have no govern- ment ? 9. What is the construction of the pronoun in "Ah me!" "Ah him!" or any similar exclamation ? 10. Is the common rule for interjections, as requiring certain cases after them, sustained by any analogy from the Latin syntax? 11. Can it be shown, on good authority, that O in Latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second? 12. What errors in the construction and punctuation of inter- jectional phrases are quoted from Fisk, Smith, and Kirkham? 13. What is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction that? 14. What is said of the place of the interjection ? 15. What says O. B. Peirce about the name and place of the interjection ? 16. What is oifered in refutation of Peirce's doctrine ? [Now parse the six lessons of the Thirteenth Praxis; taking, if the teacher please, the Italic or difficult woris only ; and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules, as often as there is occasion. Then proce ?d to the correction of the eighteen lessons of False Syntax contained in Chapter Twelfth, or the General Review '.] LESSON XXXIII. GENERAL RULE. 1. Why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoirg code of syntax ? 2. What is the general rule ? 3. How many are there of the general or critical notes ? 4. What says Critical Note 1st of the parts of speech ? 5. What says Note 2d of the doubtful reference of words ? 6. What says Note 3d of definitions ? 7. What says Note 4th of comparisons? 8. What says Note 5th of falsities/ 9. What says Note 6th 'of absurdities? 10. What says Note 7th of. self-contradiction? 11. What says Note 8th of senseless jumbling ? 12. What says Note 9th of icords needless ? 13. What says Note 10th. of improper omissions? 14. What says Note llth of literary blunders ? 15. What says Note 12th of literary perversions? 16. What says Note 13th of literary awkwardness ? 17. What says Note 14th of literary ignorance? 18. What says Note 15th of literary silliness? 19. What says Note 16th of errors incorrigible ? 20. In what place are the rules, exceptions, notes, and observations, in the foregoing system of syntax, enumerated and described ? 21. What suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes, and the com- pleteness of the system ? 22. What is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule ? 23. What is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfec- tions sometimes found in ancient writings ? [Now eorrecfc (or at least read, and compare with the Key ) the sixteen lessons of False Syntax, arranged under appropriate heads, for the application of the General Rule ; the sixteen others adapted to the Critical Notes ; and the five concluding ones, for which the rules are various.] CHAPTER XV. -FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. By [When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical parsing, and has corrected orally, according to the formules given, all the examples of false syntax designed for oral exercises, or so many of them as may be deemed sufficient ; he should write out the following exercises, correcting them according to tho principles of syntax given in the rules, notes, and observations, contained in the preceding chapters ; but omitting or varying the references, because hia corrections cannot be ascribed to the books which contain these errors.] EXERCISE I. ARTICLES. " They are institutions not merely of an useless, but of an hurtful nature." Blair's Rhet. CHAP. XV.] SYNTAX. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 733 p. ,344. " Quintilian prefers the full, the copious, and the amplifying style." Ib. p. 247. " The proper application of rules respecting style, will always be best learned by the means of the illustration which examples afford." Ib. p. 224. "He was even tempted to wish that he had such an one." Infant School Gram. p. 41. " Every limb of the human body has an agreeable and disagreeable motion." Kames, El. of ('n't. i, 217. "To produce an uniformity of opinion in all men." Ib. ii, 365. "A writer that is really an humourist in character, does this without design." Ib. i, 303. "Addison was not an humourist in char- acter." Ib. i, 303. " It merits not indeed the title of an universal language." Ib. i, 353. " It is unpleasant to find even a negative and affirmative proposition connected." Ib. ii, 25. "The sense is left doubtful by wrong arrangement of members." Ib. ii, 44. "As, for ex- ample, between the adjective and following substantive." Ib. ii, 104. " Witness the following hyperbole, too bold even for an Hotspur." Ib. ii, 193. "It is disposed to carry along the good and bad properties of one to another." Ib. ii, 197. " What a kind of a man such an one is likely to prove, is easy to foresee." Locke, on Education, p. 47. " In pro- priety there cannot be such a thing as an universal grammar, unless there were such a thing as an universal language." Campbell's Rhct. p. 47. " The very same process by which he gets at the meaning of any ancient author, carries him to a fair and a faithful rendering of the scriptures of the Old and New Testament." Chalmers, Sermons, p. 16. "But still a predominancy of one or other quality in the minister is often visible." Blair's Rhet. p. 19. "Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy ; Aristotle, most correctness." Ib. p. 20. " He then proceeded to describe an hexameter and pentameter verse." Ward's Pnface to Lily, p. vi. "And Alfred, who was no less able a negotiator than courageous a warrior, was unanimously chosen King." Pinnock's Gcog. p. 271. "An useless incident weakens the interest which we take in the action." Blair's Rhet. p. 460. "This will lead into some detail ; but I hope an useful one." Ib. p. 234. " When they understand how to write English with due Connexion, Propriety, and Order, and are pretty well Masters of a tolerable Narrative Stile, they may be advanced to writing of Letters." Locke, on Ed. p. "The Senate is divided Into the Select and Great Senate." Howitt's Student- Life in ny, p. 28. " We see a remains of this ceremonial yet in the public solemnities of the universities." Ib. p. 46. " Where an huge pollard on the winter fire, At an huge distance made them all retire." Crabbe, Borough, p. 209. EXERCISE II. NOUNS, OR CASES. " Childrens Minds are narrow, and weak, and usually susceptible but of one Thought at once." Locke, on Ed. p. 297. " Rather for Example sake, than thatther is any Great Mat- ter in it." Right of TytJies, p. xvii. " The more that any mans worth is, the greater envy shall he be liable to." Walker's Particles, p. 461. " He who works only for the common welfare is the most noble, and no one, but him, deserves the name." Spitrzhcim, on Ed., p. 182. "He then got into the carriage, to sit with the man, whom he had been told was :i." Stonr, on Masonry, p. 480. " But, for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy." Bunyan's P. P., p. 153. " One of them finds out that she is Tibulluses Nemesis." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 446. " He may be employed in reading such easy books as Corderius, and some of Erasmus' Colloques, with an English translation." Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 150. " For my preface was to show the method of the priests of Aberdeen's procedure against the Quakers." Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 235. "They signify no more against us, than Cochlacus' lies against Luther." Ib. i, 236. "To justify - his doing obeisance to his father in law." Ib. i, 241. " Which sort of clauses are gen- erally included between two comma's." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 306. " Between you and I, she is but a cutler's wife." Goldsmith's Essays, p. 187. "In Edward the third, King of England's time." Jaudons Gram. p. 104. "The nominative case is the agent or doer." Snt.'f/,' ,1. p. 11. "Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer." Ib. " The actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun." Ib. "The of the principal verb is made use of." Priestley's Gram. p. 24. "Tl i ^ ^ i A i * /* i - i 1 1 have the same right to be taken notice of by grammarians." Ib. p. 30. " I shall not quar- rel withthe friend of twelve years standing." Liberator, ix, 39. "If there were none living but him, John would be against Lilburne, and Lilburne against John." Bing. />/>/. nrni: " When n personal pronoun is made use of to relate to them." Cobbett' "The town was taken in a few hours time." Goldsmith's Rome, p. 120. " You must not employ such considerations merely as those upon which the author here rests, taken from gratitude's being the law of my" nature." Blair's Rhct. p. 296. "Our aut lor's second illustration, is taken from praise being the most disinterested act of homage." / '>. p. 301. " The first subdivision concerning praise being the most pleasant part of devo- tioi;, is very just and well expressed." Ib. "It was a cold thought to dwell upon its disburdening the mind of debt." Ib. " The thought which runs through all this passage, of man's being the priest of nature, and of his existence being calculated chiefly for thi.s end, that he might oflcr up the praises of the mute part of the creation, in an ingenious 734 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. e s thought and well expressed." Ib. p. 297. "The mayor of Newyork's portrait." Ware's English Grammar, p. 9. " Calm Temperance, whose blessings those partake Who hunger, and who thirst, for scribbling sake." Pope, Dunciad, i, 50. EXERCISE III. ADJECTIVES. "Plumb down he drops ten thousand fathom deep." Milton, P. L., B. ii, 1. 933. "In his Night Thoughts, there is much energy of expression : in the three first, there are sev- eral pathetic passages." Blair's Rhet. p. 403. " Learn to pray, to pray greatly and strong." The Dial, Vol. ii, p. 215. " The good and the bad genius are struggling with one an- other." Philological Museum, i, 490. " The definitions of the parts of speech, and application of syntax, should be given almost simultaneous." Wilbur and Livingston's Gram. p. 6. " I had studied grammar previous to his instructing me." Ib. p. 13. " So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another." Blair's Rhet. p. 92. "New words should never be ventured upon, except by such whose established reputation gives them some degree of dictatorial power over language." Ib. p. 94. " The verses necessarily succeed each other." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 142. "They saw that it would be practicable to express, in writing, the whole combinations of sounds which our words require." Blair's Rhet. p. 68. " There are some Events, the Truth of which cannot appear to any, but such whose Minds are first qualify'd by some certain Knowledge." Brightland's Gram. p. 242. " These Sort of Feet are in Latin called Iambics." Fisher's Gram. p. 134. "And the Words are mostly so disposed, that the Accents may fall on every 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th Syllables." Ib. p. 135. " If the verse does not sound well and harmonious to the ear." Ib. p. 136. " I gat me men-singers and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts." Ecclesiastes, ii, 8. " No people have so studiously avoided the collision of consonants as the Italians." Campbells Rhet. p. 183. "And these two subjects must destroy one another." Ib. p. 42. " Duration and space are two things in some respects the most like, and in some respects the most unlike to one another." Ib. p. 103. " Nothing ever affected him so much, as this misconduct of his friend." Sanborns Gram. p. 155. " To see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other." Greenleaf's Gram. p. 2. " Two or more adjectives following each other, either with or without a conjunction, qualify the same word." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 75. "The two chapters which now remain, are by far the most important of any." Student's Manual, p. 293. " That has been the subject of no less than six negotiations." Pres. Jackson's Message, 1830. "His gravity makes him work cautious." Steele, Sped. No. 534. " Gran- deur, being an extreme vivid emotion, is not readily produced in perfection but by reiterated impressions." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 203. "Every object appears less than when viewed separately and independent of the series." Ib. ii, 14. "An Organ is the best of all ot'ier musical instruments." Dilworth's English Tongue, p. 94. " Let such teach others who themselves excel, And censure freely who have written well." Pope, on Crit. 1. 15. EXERCISE IV. PRONOUNS. " You had musty victuals, and he hath holp to eat it." SHAK. : Joh. Diet. w. Victu " Sometime am I all wound with adders, who, with cloven tongues, do hiss me into mad- ness." Beauties of Shak. p. 68. " When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is called METATHESIS." Adam's Lai. Gram. p. 275. " When a letter or syllable is added to the be- ginning of a word, it is called PROSTHESIS." Ib. " If a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a word, it is called APH^ERESIS." Ib. " We can examine few, or rather no Substances, so far, as to assure ourselves that we have a certain Knowledge of most of its Properties." Brightland's Gram. p. 244. "Who do you dine with?" Fisher's Gram. p. 99. " Who do you speak to ? " Shakspeare. "All the objects of prayer are calculated to excite the most active and vivid sentiments, which can arise in the heart of man." Adams s Rhet. i, 328. " It has been my endeavour to furnish you with the most useful materials, which contribute to the purposes of eloquence." Ib. ii, 28. "All paraphrases are vicious : it is not translating, it is commenting." Formey's Belles -Lettres, p. 163. " Did you never bear false witness against thy neighbour ? " SIR W. DRAPER : Junius, p. 40. "And they shall eat up thine harvest and thy bread : they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds. "- Jer. v, 17. " He was the spiritual rock who miraculously supplied the wants of the Israel- ites." Gurney's Evidences, p. 53. " To cull from the mass of mankind those individuals upon which the attention ought to be most employed." Rambler, No. 4. "His speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calumnies which ever was uttered." Mer- chant's Gram., Key, p. 198. " STROMBUS, i. m. A shell-fish of the sea, that has a leader whom they follow as their king. Plin." Ainsworth's Diet. 4to. " Whomsoever will, let him come." MORNING STAR : Lib. xi, 13. " Thy own words have convinced me (stand a little more out of the sun if you please) that thou hast not the least notion of true honour." Fielding. " Whither art going, pretty Annette ? Your little feet you'll surely wet."/,. J/. etellus, who conquered Macedon, was carried to the funeral pile 'ier Metellus, who conquered Macedon, was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons, one of which was the praetor." Kcnnett's Roman Ant. p. 332. " That not a soldier CHAP. XV.] SYNTAX. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 735 which they did not know, should mingle himself among them." Josephus, Vol. v, p. 170. " The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor females." Mnrrni/'x drum. 8vo, p. 37. "And hence it is, that the most important precept, which a rhetorical teacher can inculcate respecting this part of discourse, is negative." Adams' I lUirt. ii, 97. " The meanest and most contemptible person whom we behold, is the offspring of heaven, one of the children of the Most High." .Vo^/, ]> 102. "He shall sit next to Darius, because of his wisdom, and shall be called Darius his cousin." 1 KWyv/.v, iii, 7. " In 1757, he published his Fleece; ' but he did not long survive it." L. Murray, Sey. p. 252. " The sun upon the calmest sea Appears not half so bright as thee." Prior. EXERCISE V. VERBS. " The want of connexion here, as well as in the description of the prodigies that accom- panied the death of Caesar, are scarce pardonable." Kamcs, El. of Crit. Vol. i, p. 38. " The causes of the original beauty of language, considered as significant, which is a branch of the present subject, will be explained in their order." Ib. Vol. ii, p. 6. " Neither of these two Definitions do rightly adjust the Genuine signification of this Tense." Johnson's drum. Com. p. 280. " In the earnest hope that they may prove as beneficial to other teachers as they have to the author." John Flint's Gram. p. 3. "And then an example is given show- ing the manner in which the pupil should be required to classify." Ib. p. 3. "(lu in English words are equivalent to kw." Sanborn's Gram. p. 258. U Q* has the power of kir, therefore quit doubles the final consonant in forming its preterite." Ib. p. 103. "The word pronoun or substantive can be substituted, should any teacher prefer to do it." Ib. p. 132. " The three angles of a right-angled triangle were equal to two right angles in the days of Moses, as well as now." GOODELL : Liberator, Vol. xi, p. 4. " But now two paces of the vilc.st earth is room enough." Beaut, of Shak. p. 12G. "Latin and French, as the "World now goes, is by every one acknowledged to be necessary." I^ockc, on Ed. p. 351. "These things, that he will thus learn by sight, and have by roat in his Memory, is not all, I confess, that he is to learn upon the Globes." Ib. p. 321. " Henry : if John shall meet me, I will hand him your note." O. B. JY//V/.V Cram. p. 261. "They pronounce the syl- lables in a different manner from what they do at other times." Blair s Rhct. p. 329. *' Cato reminded him of many warnings he had gave him." Goldsmith's Rome, i, 114. "The AVa^cs i- small. The Compasses is broken." Fishers Cram. p. 95. "Prepare thy heart for prayer, lest thou temptest God." Life of Luther, p. 83. "That a soldier should tiy is a shameful thing." Adams Lat. Gram. p. 155. " When there is two verbs which are together." Woodn-orth's Gram. p. 27. " Interjections are words used to express some u of the mind; and is followed by a note of admiration! " Infant School Gram. p. "And the king said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth." 2 Samuel, xviii, 2."). " The opinions of the few must be overruled, and submit to the opinions of the many." \\'. i, i_':'.!i. " Gratifying the affection will also contribute to my own happiness." Ib. i, 53. "The pronouncing syllables in a high or a low tone."//;.' ii, 77. "The crowding into one period or thought - faulty than crowding metaphors in that manner." " To approve is ackno\\l. .light to do a tiling; and to condemn isown- 6 ought not to do it." Bur'am YJ. "To be provoked that God suffers men to act thus, is claiming to govern the word in his stead." .sVr/.vr. " Let every subject bo well u:. ng on to another." Infant //.,;/ Cram. p. 18. " Doubling the t in biyottcd is apt to lead to an erroneous accentuation of the word or the second sylla- b e." ( '/ntrc/nit' * Criint. p. L' - J. " Their compelling the man to serve was an act of tyranny." t II - ;/s, p. 64. "One of the greatest misfortunes of the French tragedy is, its being always written in rhyme." Ii/' . " Horace entitles his satire ' Sermones,' not to have intended rising much higher than prose put into numbers." Ib. p. 402. " Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, comforting the afilicted, yield more pleas- ure than we receive from those actions which respect only ourselves." Murrni/'.s AVy, 8vo, ^. "But when we attempt to go a step beyond this" and inquire what is the cause of regularity and variety producing in our niinds the sensation of beauty, any reason we can 736 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. assign is extremely imperfect." Blair's Rhet. p. 29. "In an author's writing with pro- priety, his being free of the two former faults seems implied." Ib. p. 94. " To prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste." Ib. p. 12. " When we are unable to assign the reasons of our being pleased." Ib. p. 15. "An adjective will not make good sense without joining it to a noun." Sanborns Gram. p. 12. "What is said respecting sentences being inverted?" Ib. p. 71. "Though he admits of all the other cases, made use of by the Latins." BicknelVs Gram. p. viii. "This indeed, is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance." Wright's Gram. p. 148. " The Knowledge of what passes in the Mind is necessary for the understanding the Principles of Grammar." Bright- land's Gram. p. 73. " By than's being used instead of as, it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 207. " Thus much for the Settling your Authority over your Children." Locke, on Ed. p. 58. EXERCISE VII. ADVERBS. " There can scarce be a greater Defect in a Gentleman, than not to express himself well either in Writing or Speaking." Locke, on Ed. p. 335. " She seldom or ever wore a thing twice in the same way." Castle Rackrent, p. 84. " So can I give no reason, nor I will not." Beauties of Shak. p. 45. "Nor I know not where I did lodge last night." Ib. p. 270. " It is to be presumed they would become soonest proficient in Latin." Burn's Gram. p. xi. " The difficulty of which has not been a little increased by that variety." Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram. p. xi. "That full endeavours be used in every monthly meeting to seasonably end all business or cases that come before them." N. E. Discipline, p. 44. " In minds where they had scarce any footing before." Spectator, No. 566. " The negative form is when the adverb not is used." Sanborns Gram. p. 61. "The interrogative form is when a question is asked." Ibid. " The finding out the Truth ought to be his whole Aim." Brightland's Gram. p. 239. "Mention the first instance when that is used in preference to who, whom, or ichich." Sanborn's Gram. p. 96. " The plot was always exceeding simple. It admitted of few incidents." Blair's Rhet. p. 470. "Their best tragedies make not a deep enough impression on the heart." Ib. p. 472. "The greatest genius on earth, not even a Bacon, can be a perfect master of every branch." Webster's Essays, p. 13. " The verb OUGHT is only used in the indicative [and subjunctive moods]." Dr. Ash's Gram. p. 70. " It is still a greater deviation from congruity, to affect not only variety in the words, but also in the construction." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 28. "It has besides been found that, generally, students attend those lectures more carefully for which they pay." Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv. p. 65. "This book I obtained through a friend, it being not exposed for sale;." Woolsey, ib. p. 76. "Here there is no manner of resemblance but in the word drown." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 163. " We have had often occasion to inculcate, that the mind pass- eth easily and sweetly along a train of connected objects." Ib. ii, 197. "Observe the periods when the most illustrious persons flourished." Worcester's Hist. p. iv. " For every horse is not called Bucephalus, nor every dog Turk." Buchanan's Gram. p. 15. " One can scarce avoid smiling at the blindness of a certain critic." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 2o7. " Provided always, that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close, so as to give a hardness and dryness to style." Jamiesons Rhet. p. 92; Blair's, 111. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case gender or person." Frost's Gram. p. 4-3. " Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person or case." Ibid. " It seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and to imply not either comparison or degree." Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 47. EXERCISE VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. "The Indians had neither cows, horses, oxen, or sheep." Olney's Introd. to Geog. p. 46. " Who have no other object in view, but, to make a shew of their supposed talents." Blair's Rhet. p. 344. "No other but these, could draw the attention of men in their rude uncivilized state." Ib. p. 379. " That he shall stick at nothing, nor nothing stick with him." Pope. " To enliven it into a passion, no more is required but the real or ideal presence of the object." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 110. " I see no more to be made of it but to rest upon the final cause first mentioned." Ib. i, 175. " No quality nor circumstance con- tributes more to grandeur than force." Ib. i, 215. " It being a quotation, not from a poet nor orator, but from a grave author, writing an institute of law." Ib. i, 233. "And our former serves for no other purpose but to make harmony." Ib. ii. 231. "But the plan was not perhaps as new as some might think it." Literary Conv. p. 85. " The impression received would probably be neither confirmed or corrected." Ib. p. 183. " Right is nothing* else but what reason acknowledges." Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 32. " Though it should be of no other use but this." BP. WILKINS : Tooke's D. P., ii, 27. " One hope no sooner dies in us but another rises up." Sped. No. 535. "This rule implies nothing else but the agreement of an adjective with a substantive." Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 156 ; Gould's, 159. " There can be no doubt but the plan of exercise pointed out at page 132, is the best that CHAP. XV.] SYNTAX. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 737 can be adopted." Blair's Gram. p. viii. " The exertions of this gentleman have done more than any other writer on the subject." DR. ABERCHOMBIE : liec. in Murray's Gram. Vol. ii, p. 306. " No accidental nor unaccountable event ought to be admitted." Kames, El. of Crit. ii, 273. " Wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 5. "I am at nothing else but your safety." Walker s Particles, p. 90. " There are pains inflicted upon man for other purposes except warning." Waylanrl'n Mora! Sci. p. 122. " Of whom we have no more but a single letter remaining." Campbell^ to Matthew. " The publisher meant no more but that W. Ames was the author." S< >/< /'.s History, Preface, p. xii. " Be neether bashful, nor discuver uncommon solicitude." Wih- stcr's Euays, p. 403. " They put Minos to death, by detaining him so long in a bath, till he fainted." Lempricres Diet. " For who could be so hard-hearted to be severe." ( " He must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist." Blair's Rhet. p. 353. " Xo man unbias- sed by philosophical opinions, thinks that life, air, or motion, are precisely the same things." Dr. Murray's Hist, of Lang, i, 426. " Which I had no sooner drank, but I found a pimple rising in my forehead." ADDISOX : Sanborns Gram. p. 182. " This I view very important, and ought to be well understood." Osborn's Key, p. 5. " So that neither emphases, tones, or cadences should be the same." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 5. " You said no more but that yourselves must be The judges of the scripture sense, not we." Dryden, p. 96. EXERCISE IX. PREPOSITIONS. " To be entirely devoid of relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the fine arts, is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom of youth." Blair's Rhet. p. 14. "Well met, George, for I was looking of you." Walker s Particles, p. 441. "There is another fact worthy attention." (Manning's Emancip. p. 49. "They did not gather of a Lord's-day, in costly temples." The Dial, Xo. ii, p. 209. "But certain ideas have, by convention be- tween those who speak the same language, been agreed to be represented by certain artic- ulate sounds." Adams s Rhct. ii, 271. "A careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly." Blair's Rhct. p. 91. "He received his reward in a small place, which he enjoyed to his death." Notes to theDunciad, B. ii, 1. 283. " Gaddi, the pupil of Cimabue, was not unworthy his master." Literary History, p. 268. " It is a new, and picturesque, and glowing image, altogether worthy the talents of the great poet who conceived it." Kirkham's Elocution, p. 100. "If the right does exist, it is paramount his title." Angell, on Tide Waters, p. 237. " The most appropriate adjective should be placed nearest the noun." Sanborns Gram. p. 194. " Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a 'Philosophical Grammar?'" Kirk- hem's Gram. p. 39. "If it shall be found unworthy the approbation and patronage of the literary public." Perley's Gram. p. 3. " When the relative is preceded by two words referring to the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it." Bullions's E. Gram. p. 101. "The magistrates commanded them to depart the city." SeweFs Hist. p. 97. " Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason." Murray's Gram, i, 272. " It can never view, dearly and distinctly, above one object at a time." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 65. "The theory of speech, or systematic grammar, was never regularly treated as a science till under the Macedonian kings." Knight, on Greek Alph. p. 106. " I have been at London a year, and I saw the king last summer." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 198. " This is a crucifying of Christ, and a rebelling of Christ." WaldenfieJd. " There is another advantage worthy our observation." Bolingbrokc, on Hist. p. 26. " Certain conjunctions also require the sub- junctive mood after them, independently on the sense." Grant's Lot. Gram. p. 77. "If the critical reader will think proper to admit of it at all." Priestley's Gram. p. 191. " It is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature." Blair's Rhet. p. 427. " Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers have deserted." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. " In respect of the - it will receive from matter." Spectator, No. 413. "Instead of following on to whither morality would conduct it." Dymond's Essayv, p. 85. "A variety of questions upon subjects on which their feelings, and wishes, and interests, are involved." Ib. p. 147. " In the Greek, Latin, Saxon, and (Jerman tongxies, some of these situations are termed ( \-i>, and are expressed by additions to the Xoun instead of by separate words and phrases." Booth's Introd. p. 33. " Every teacher is bound during three times each week, to deliver a public lecture, gratis." Hmritt's Student-Life of Germany, p. 35. "But the professors of every political as well as religious creed move amongst each other in manifold circles." Ib. p. 113. EXERCISE X. PROMISCUOUS. " The inseparable Prepositions making no Sense alone, they arc used only in Composi- tion." Buchanan's dram. p. (>(>. "The English Scholar learns little from the two last It-iles." lh. ]>nf. p. xi. "To prevent the body being stolen by the disciples." Watsons Ajmlof/y, p. 123. " To prevent the Jews rejoicing at his death." H'wid's Diet. p. oS 1 . "Alter he had wrote the chronicles of the priesthood of John Hyrcanus." Whiston's Joscplius, v, 195. " Such words are sometimes parsed as a direct address, than which, nothing could be farther from the truth." Goodenow's Gram. p. 89. "The signs of the tenses in these 61 738 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. modes are as follows." C. Adams's Gram. p. 33. " The signs of the tenses in the Potential mode are as follows." Ibid. "And, if more promiscuous examples be found necessary, both the Old and the New Testaments." Nesbit's Parsing, p. 207. "A Compound Subject is a union of several Subjects to all which belong the same Attribute." Fosdick's De Sat commonly both the relative and verb are elegantly left out in the second member." Buchanan's Gram. p. ix. "A fair receipt of water, of some thirty or forty foot square." v fasays, p. 127. " The old know more indirect ways of outwiting others, than the young." Buryh's Diynity, i, 60. " The pronoun singular of the third person hath three genders." Lowth's Gram. p. 21. "The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion." Murray's Gram. p. 203. "It is called, understanding human nature, knowing the weak sides of men, &c." Wayland's Moral Sci- ence, p. 234. " Neither of which are taken notice of by this Grammar." Johnsons Gram. Com. p. 279. " But certainly no invention is entitled to such degree of admiration as that of language." Blair's Rhct. p. 54. " The Indians, the Persians, and Arabians, were all famous for their tales." Ib. p. 374. " Such a leading word is the preposition and the con- junction." Fetch's Comp. Gram. p. 21. "This, of all others, is the njost encouraging circumstance in these times." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 37. " The putting any constraint on. the organs of speech, or urging them to a more rapid action than they can easily perform, in their tender state, must be productive of indistinctness in utterance." Ib. p. 35. " Good articulation is the foundation of a good delivery, in the same manner as the sounding the simple notes in music, is the foundation of good singing." Ib. p. 33. " The offering praise and thanks to God, implies our having a lively and devout sense of his excellencies and of his benefits." ATTERIH-HY : Blair's Rhet. p. 295. " The pause should not be made till the fourth or sixth syllable." Blair, ib. p. 333. " Shenstone's pastoral ballad, in four parts, may justly be reckoned one of the most elegant poems of this kind, which we have in English." Ib. p. 394. " What need Christ to have died, if heaven could have contained imperfect souls : " Baxter. " Every person is not a man of genius, nor is it necessary that ho should." Beattie's Moral ^-icnce, i, 69. "They were alarmed from a quarter where they least expected." Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 6. "If thou more murmur'st, I will rend an oak, And peg thee in his knotty intrails." SHAK. : White's Verb, p. 94. EXERCISE XIII. TWO ERRORS. " In consequence of this, much time and labor are unprofitably expended, and a confu- sion of ideas introduced into the mind, which, by never so wise a method of subsequent instruction, it is very difficult completely to remove." Grenrille's. Gram. p. 3. "So that the restoring a natural manner of delivery, would be bringing about an entire revolution, in its n tud. parts." >'// , p. 170. "' Thou who loves us, wilt pro- tect us still : ' here v with thou, and is nominative to the verb loves." Alex. Murray's Gram. p. 67. " The Active voice signifies action; the Passive, suffering, or being the object of an action." : < Gram. p. 80; Guide's, 77. "They sudden set upon him, tearing no such thing." \\~;/,-.<.-, iii, 'M'.). "To back this, He brings in the Authority of Accursius, and Consensius Romanus, to the latter of which, he confesses himself beholding for thi .-.I in. Com. p. 343. "The compound tenses of the second order, or those in which the participle present is made use of." I'riesth'y's Gram. p. 24. "To lay the accent always on the same syllable, and the same letter of the syllable, which tliey do in common ditoouno." 8faruJMl'4 I'Jocution, p. 78. " Though the converting the to into a r is not so common as the changing the r into a w." Ib. p. 46. " Nor is this all ; for by means of accent, the times of ]> ire rendered quicker, and their proportions more easily to be adjusted and observed." Ib. p. 72. " By mouthing, is meant, dwelling upon syllables that have no accent; or prolonging the sounds of the accented syllables, 740 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART III. beyond their due proportion of time." Ib. p. 76. " Taunt him with the licence of ink ; if thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss." SHAK. : Joh. Diet. w. Thou. " The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it." Prov. xxx, 17. " Copying, or merely imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences." Spurzheim, on Ed. p. 170. " He is arrived at that degree of perfection, as to surprise all his acquaintance." Ensell's Gram. p. 296. " Neither the King nor Queen are gone." Buchanans E. Syntax, p. 155. " Many is pronounced as if it were wrote manny." Dr. Johnson's Gram, with Diet. p. 2. "And as the music on the waters float, Some bolder shore returns the soften'd note." Crabbe, Borough, p. 118. EXERCISE XIV. THREE ERRORS. " It appears that the Temple was then a building, because these Tiles must be supposed to be for the covering it." Johnson's Gram. Com. p. 281. " It was common for sheriffs to omit or excuse the not making returns for several of the boroughs within their counties." Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 132. " The conjunction as when it is connected with the pro- noun, such, many, or same, is sometimes called a relative pronoun." Kirkham's Gram., the Compend. " Mr. Addison has also much harmony in his style ; more easy and smooth, but less varied than Lord Shaftesbury." Blair's Rhet. p. 127 ; Jamiesons, 129. "A number of are used in both numbers." Kirkham's Gram. p. 107. "A compound word is made up of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen, as summer-house, spirit-less, school- master." Blair's Gram. p. 7. " There is an inconvenience in introducing new words by composition which nearly resembles others in use before ; as, disserve, which is too much like deserve." Priestley's Gram. p. 145. " For even in that case, the transgressing the limits in the least, will scarce be pardoned." Sheridan's Lect. p. 119. "What other are the foregoing instances but describing the passion another feels." Kames, El. of Crit. i, 388. " ' Two and three are five.' If each substantive is to be taken separately as a subject, then * two is five,' and ' three is five.' " Goodenow's Gram. p. 87. "The article a joined to the simple pronoun other makes it the compound another." Priestley's Gram. p. 96. " The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to the ^cord other." Murray's Gram. p. 57 ; et al. "In relating things that were formerly expressed by another person, we oftan meet with modes of expression similar to the following." Ib. p. 191. "Dropping one 1 prevents the recurrence of three very near each other." ChurchilFs Gram. p. 202. " Some- times two or more genitive cases succeed each other ; as, John's wife's father.' " Daltov's Gram. p. 14. " Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case immediately succeed each other, in the following form : My friend's wife's sister.' "Murray's Gran. p. 45. EXERCISE XV. MANY ERRORS. " Number is of a two fold nature, Singular and Plural : and comprehends, accordingly to its application, the distinction between them." Wright's Gram. p. 37. "The formor, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes, and consists in a word's being employed to signify something, which is different from its original and primitive meaning." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 337. " The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning." Blair's Rhet. p. 132. "A particular number of connected syllables are called feet, or measured paces." Blair's Gram. p. 118. "Many poems, and especially songs, are written in the dactyl or anapaestic measure, some consisting of eleven or twelve syllables, and some of less." Ib. p. 121. "A Diphthong makes always a long Syllable, unless one of the Vowels be droped." British Gram. p. 34. "An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with respect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circumstance to which it is connected." Wright's Definitions, Philos. Gram. pp. 35 and 114. "A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or enduring, or the existence or condition of a noun." Ib. pp. 35 and 64. "These three adjectives shoxild be written our's, your's, their's." Fowle's True Eng. Gram. p. 22. " Never was man so teized, or suffered half the uneasiness as I have done this evening." Tattler, No. 160: Priestley's Gram. p. 200 ; Murray's, i, 223. " There may be reckoned in English four dif- ferent cases, or relations of a substantive, called the subjective, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute cases." Goodenow's Gram. p. 31. " To avoid the too often repeating the Names of other Persons or Things of which we discourse, the words he, she, it, who, what, were invented." Brightland's Gram. p. 85. " Names which denote a number of the same things, are called nouns of multitude." Infant School Gram, p. 21. "But lest he should think, this were too slightly a passing over his matter, I will propose to him to be considered these things following." Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 472. " In the pronunciation of the letters of the Hebrew proper names, we find nearly the same rules prevail as in those of Greek and Latin." Walker's Key, p. 223. "The distributive pronominal adjectives each, every, CHAP. XV.] SYNTAX. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 741 either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only." Loioth's Gram. p. 89. "Having treated of the diiferent sorts of toords, and their various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another." L. Murray's Gram. p. 130. EXERCISE XVI. MANY ERRORS. "A Noun with its Adjectives (or any governing Word with its Attendants) is as one com- pound Word, whence the Noun and Adjectives so joined, do often admit another Adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on ; as, a Man, an old Man, a very good old Man, a very learned, judicious, sober Man." Britix/t dram. p. 195 ; Buchanan 's, 79. "A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word ; whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on : as, 'An old man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man.' " L. Murray's Gram. p. 169; Ingersoll's, 195; and others. "But though this elliptical style be intelligible, and is allowable in conversation and epistolary irrifiiii/, yet in all writings of a serious or dignified kind, is ungraceful." Blair'* lifict. p. 112. " There is no talent so useful towards rising in the world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, called discretion." SWIFT : Blair's Rhet. p. 113. " Which to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that 'tis the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost mu ti- tter maimed or distorted ; but that to lose the use only of one limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill worthy the least notice." SHAFTESBURY: ib. p. 115 ; Mur- ray's Gram. p. 322. "If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of both." Murray's Gram. p. 151 ; et al. '"The painter * * * cannot exhibit various stages of the same ac- tion.' In this sentence we see that the painter governs, or agrees with, the verb can, as its nominative case." Ib. p. 195. " It expresses also facts which exist generally, at all tinn-n, general truths, attributes which are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the like, without the reference to a specific time." Ib. p. 73 ; Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 71. "The different species of animals may therefore be considered, as so many different nations speak- ing different languages, that have no commerce with each other ; each of which consequently understands none but their own." Sheridan's Elocution, p. 142. " It is also important to unib-rstand and apply the principles of grammar in our common conversation ; not only be- cause it enables us to make our language understood by educated persons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our having received a good education ourselves." Frost's Practical Gram. p. 16. EXERCISE XVIL MANY ERRORS. 41 This faulty Tumour in Stile is like an huge unpleasant Rock in a Champion Country, that's difficult to be transcended." Holmes's Rhet., Book ii, p. 16. " For there are no Pelops's, nor Cadmus's, nor Danaus's dwell among us." Ib. p. 51. " None of these, except - ever used as a principal verb, but as an auxiliary to some principal, either expressed or understood." Ingersotfs Gram. p. 134. " Nouns which signify either the male or female are common gender." Perley's Gram. p. 11. "An Adjective expresses the kind, number, or quality of a noun." Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 9. "There are six tenses ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect I," Ib. p. 18. "My refers to the first person singular, either gender. Our refers to the first person plural, cither gender. Thy refers to the second person singular, either gender. Yt. p. 44. "Nouns which denote but one object .-idcri"! in the singular number." Fdu-ard's First Lessons in Gram. p. 35. " If, there- fore, the example of Jesus should be plead to authorize accepting an invitation to dine on 'thath, it should be plead just as it was." /; ; on Luke, xiv, 1. "The teacher will readily dictate what part may be omitted, the first time going through it." rth' a Gram. p. 4. " The contents of the following pages have been drawn chiefly, with various modification, from the same source which has supplied most modern writers on this subject, vi/. LT\HI,KY MrKu.\Y'-> (H:\MM.\I:." /', /'o/*'.v Gram. p. 3. " The term , in grammar distinguishes between the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of." Ib. p. 9. "In my father's garden grow the Maiden's Blush and the Prince' Feather." Fc't >, ib. p. }.'>. "A preposition is a word used to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them. They generally stand before nouns and pronouns." Ib. p. 00. " Nouns or pronouns addressed arc always either in the second person, singular or plural." ////' /.'* Gram, p. 154. "The plural MI.N not ending in s, is the reason tor adding the apostrophie's." T. Smith's Gram. p. 19. "Pennies denote real coin ; pence, their value in computation." Hazen's Gram. p. -Jt. "We commence, first, with /-ffrrs, which is termed Orthography ; secondly, with words, denominated Etymology ; thirdly, with sentences, styled Syntax ; fourthly, with orations and p< m.i, called J'rosody." 742 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. Barrett's Gram. p. 22. " Care must be taken, that sentences of proper construction and obvious import be not rendered obscure by the too free use of the ellipsis." Felton's Gram- mar, Stereotype Edition, p. 80. EXERCISE XVIII. PROMISCUOUS. " Tropes and metaphors so closely resemble each other that it is not always easy, nor is it important to be able to distinguish the one from the other." Parker and Fox, Part III, p. 66. " With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns WHO, and THEY, and THEM, and THEIRS. When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other form." Ib. p. 90 ; Murray's Gram. p. 311; Blairs Rhet. p. 106. "Do scholars acquire any valuable knowl- edge, by learning to repeat long strings of words, without any definite ideas, or several jumbled together like rubbish in a corner, and apparently with no application, either for the improvement of mind or of language ? " Cutler s Gram., Pref., p. 5. " The being officiously good natured and civil are things so uncommon in the world, that one cannot hear a man make professions of them without being surprised, or at least, suspecting the disinterested- ness of his intentions." FABLES : Cutler s Gram. p. 125. " Irony is the intentional use of words to express a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer means to convey." Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 68. " The term Substantive is derived from substare, to stand, to distinguish itivom. an adjective, which cannot, like the noun, stand alone." Hiky's Gram. p. 11. " They have two numbers, like nouns, the singular and plural; and three per- sons in each number, namely, /, the first person, represents the speaker. Thou, the second person, represents the person spoken to. He, she, it, the third person, represents the person or thing spoken of." Ib. p. 23. "He, She, It, is the Third Person singular; but he with others, she icith others, or it with others, make each of them they, which is the Third Person plural." White, on the English Verb, p. 97. " The words had I been, that is, the Third Past Tense of the Verb, marks the Supposition, as referring itself, not to the Present, but to some former period of time." Ib. p. 88. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a too frequent repetition of the same word." Frazee 's Improved Gram. p. 122. " That which he cannot use, and dare not show, And will not give why longer should he owe ? " Crabbe. PART IV. PROSODY. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The word prosody, (from the Greek Trpdf, to, and w^A song,) is, with regard to its derivation, exactly equivalent to accent, or the Latin accentus, which is formed from ad, to, and cantus, song : both, terms, perhaps, originally signifying a singinqwith, or sounding to, some instru- ment or voice. PKOSODIA, as a Latin word, is denned by Littleton, " Pars Grammaticse qure docet accentus, h. c. rationem attollendi et depremendi syllabas, turn quantitatem earundein." And in English, "The art of ACCENTING, or the rule of pronouncing syllables truly, LONG or SHORT." Litt. Diet. 4to. This is a little varied by Ainsworth thus : "The rule of ACCENTING, or pronouncing syllables truly, whether LONG or SHORT." Ains. Diet. 4to. Accent, in English, belongs as much to prose as to poetry; but some deny that in Latin it belongs to either. There is also much difficulty about the import of the word; since some prosodists identify accent with tone ; some take it for the inflections of voice ; and some, like the authors just cited, seem to confound it with quantity, " LONG or SHORT."* *(1.) "Accent is the tone of the voice with which a syllable is pronounced." Dr. Adam's Latin and English, Gram. p. 266. (2.) "Accent is a peculiar stress of the voice on some syllable in a word to distinguish it from the others." Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram. p. 243. (3.) ' ; The tone by which one syllable is distinguished from another is the accent ; which is a greater stress and elevation of voice on that particular syllable." RickneWs Eng. Gram., Part II, p. 111. (4.) "Quantity is the Length or Shortness of Syllables; and the Proportion, generally speaking, betwixt a long and [a] short Syllable, is two to one ; as in Music, two Quavers to one Crotchet. Accent is the rising and falling of the Voice, above or under its usual Tone, but an Art of which we have little Use, and know less, in the English Tongue ; nor are we like to improve our Knowledge in this Particular, unless the Art of Delivery or Utterance were a little more study'd." Brightland-s Gram. p. 156. (5.) "ACCENT, s. m. (inflexion de la voix.) Accent, tone, pronunciation." Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel, 4to, Tome Premier, sous le mot Accent. "ACCENT, subst. (tone or inflection of the voice.) Accent, ton ou inflexion de voix." Same Work, Garner's New Universal Dictionary, 4to, under the word Accent. (6.) "The word accent is derived from the Latin language and signifies the tone of the voice." Parker and Fox's English Gram., Part III, p. 32. (7.) " The unity of the word consists in the tone or accent, which binds together the two parts of the com- position." Fowlers E. Gram. 360. (8.) "The accent of the ancients is the opprobrium of modern criticism. Nothing can show more evidently CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. REMARKS. 743 OBS. 2. "Prosody," says a late writer, " strictly denotes only that musical tone or melody -which acc^pnpanies speech. But the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general appli- cation of the term." Frost's Practical Grammar, p. 160. This remark is a note upon the follow- ing definition : "PROSODY is that part of grammar which treats of the structure of Poetical Compo- sition." Ibid. Agreeably to this definition, Frost's Prosody, with all the generality the author claims for it, embraces only a brief account of Versification, with a few remarks on " Poetical License." Of Pronunciation and the Figures of Speech, he takes no notice ; and Punctuation, which some place with Orthography, and others distinguish as one of the chief parts of grammar, he exhibits as a portion of Syntax. Not more comprehensive is this part of grammar, as exhibit- ed in the works of several other authors; but, by Lindley Murray, R. C. Smith, and some others, both Punctuation and Pronunciation are placed here ; though no mention is made of the former in their subdivision of Prosody, which, they not very aptly say, " consists of tiro parts, Pronunci- ation and Versification." Dr. Bullions, no'less deficient in method, begins with saying, " PROSODY consists of two parts ; Elocution and Versification ; " (Principles of E. Gram. p. 163 ;) and then absurdly proceeds to treat of it under the following six principal heads : viz.. Elocution, Versifica- tion, Figures of Speech, Poetic License, Hints for Correct and Elegant Writing, and Composition. OBS. 3. If, in regard to the subjects which may be treated under the name of Prosody, " the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term," such an application is certainly not less warranted by the usage of old authors. But, by the practice of neither, can it be easily determined how many and what things ought to be embraced under this head. Of the different kinds of verse, or " the structure of Poetical Composition," some of the old prosodists took little or no notice ; because they thought it their chief business, to treat of syllables, and determine the othoCpy of words. The Prosody of Smetius, dated 1599, (my edi- tion of which was published in Germany in 1691,) is in fact a. pronouncing dictionary of the Latin language. After a brief abstract of the old rules of George Fabricius concerning quantity and accent, it exhibits, in alphabetic order, and with all their syllables marked, about twenty-eight thou- sand words, with a poetic line quoted'against each, to prove the pronunciation just. The Prosody of John Genuensis, an other immense work, concluded by its author in 1286, improved by Badius in 1-306, and printed at Lyons in 1514, is also mainly a Latin dictionary, with derivations and defi- nitions as in other dictionaries. It is a folio volume of seven hundred and thirty closely-printed ; six hundred of which are devoted to the vocabulary, the rest to orthography, accent, ety- mology, syntax, figures, points almost everything but versification. Yetthis vast sum of gram- mar has been entitled Prosody "Prosodia scu Catholicon" " Catholicon seu Universale Vocabit- luriuni (ic Sitmtna Grammatices." See pp. 1 and 5. CHAPTER I. -PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading. The following are the principal points, or marks ; namely, the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Dash [ ], the Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation [?] , theEcphoneme, or Note of Exclamation [!] , and the Curves, or Parenthesis, [()]. The Comma denotes the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing. OBSERVATIONS. ORS. 1. The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they might count one; at a semicolon, nne,tic<> ; at a colon, one, tiro, three ; at a period, one, tiro, three, four. This may be of some use, ab teaching them to observe the necessary stops, that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense g'ives to the points. As a liiuil stop, the period is immeasurable ; and so may be the pause after a question or tarnation. '-. The first four points take their names from the parts of discourse, or of a sentence, which arc distinguished by them. The Perind, or rimiit, is a complete round of wor /, or half limb, is the greatest division of a colon, and is properly a smaller constructive part of a compound sentence. The Comma, or seg- the fallibility of the human faculties, than tho total iznoranrf we arc in at present of the nature of the Latin and Creek accent." H,;//Ur'A 1'rinn/ It is not surprising, that the accent and quantity of the ancients should be so obscure and mysterious, whri, two such learned men of our own nation as Mr. Vorsti-r and I>r. Gaily, differ about the Terv existence of qua uity in our own language/' Walker 't Ob.irn-ntifn* tin Accmt, &c. ; Key, p. 311. (1).) " What these accents are has puz/.led the learned so much that they seeia neither to understand each other nor themselv*. v W 'alkt r'5 Octavo Diet. w. Barytone. 744 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. ment, is a small part or clause cut off", and is properly the least constructive part of a compound sentence. A simple sentence is sometimes a whole period, sometimes a chief member, sometimes a half member, sometimes a segment, and sometimes perhaps even less. Hence it may require the period, the colon, the semicolon, the comma, or even no point, according to the manner in which it is used. A sentence whose relatives and adjuncts are all taken in a restrictive sense, may be considerably complex, and yet require no division by points ; as, " Thank him who puts me loath to this revenge On you who wrong me not for him who wrong'd." Milton. OBS. 3. The system of punctuation now used in English, is, in its main features, common to very many languages. It is used in Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, Ger- man, and perhaps most of the tongues in which books are now written or printed. The Germans, however, make less frequent use of the comma than we ; and the Spaniards usually mark a ques- tion or an exclamation doubly, inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence. In Greek, the difference is greater : the colon, expressed by the upper dot alone, is the only point between the comma and the period ; the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is hardly recognized, though some printers of the classics have occasionally introduced it ; and the eroteme, or note of inter- rogation, retains in that language its pristine form, which is that of our semicolon. In Hebrew, a full stop is denoted by a heavy colon, or something like it ; and this is the only pointing adopted, when the vowel points and the accents are not used. OBS. 4. Though the points in use, and the principles on which they ought to be applied, are in general well fixed, and common to almost all sorts of books ; yet, through the negligence of editors, the imperfections of copy, the carelessness of printers, or some other means, it happens, that different editions and different versions of the same book are often found pointed very vari- ously. This circumstance, provided the sense is still preserved, is commonly thought to bo of little moment. But all writers will do well to remember, that they owe it to their readers, to show them at once how they mean to be read ; and, since the punctuation of the early printers was un- questionably very defective, the republishers of ancient books should not be over scrupulous about an exact imitation of it : they may, with proper caution, correct obvious faults. OBS. 5. The precise origin of the points, it is not easy to trace in the depth of antiquity. It appears probable, from ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, that the period is the oldest of them ; and it is said by some, that the first system of punctuation consisted in the different positions of this dot alone. But after the adoption of the small letters, which improvement is referred to the ninth century, both the comma and the colon came into use, and also the Greek note of interro- gation. In old books, however, the comma is often found, not in its present form, but in that of a straight stroke, drawn up and down, obliquely between the words. Though the colon is of Greek origin, the practice of writing it with two dots we owe to the Latin authors, or perhaps to the early printers of Latin books. The semicolon was first used in Italy, and was not adoptee, in England till about the year 1600. Our marks for questions and exclamations were also derived from the same source, probably at a date somewhat earlier. The curves of the parenthesis have likewise been in use for several centuries. But the dash is a more recent invention : Lowth, Ash, and Ward, Buchanan, Bicknell, and Burn, though they name all the rest, make no mentio:iof this mark ; but it appears by their books, that they all occasionally used it. OBS. 6. Of the colon it may be observed, that it is now much less frequently used than it vas formerly ; its place being usurped, sometimes by the semicolon, and sometimes by the per od. For this ill reason, some late grammarians have discarded it altogether. Thus Felton : " The Co :,ON is now so seldom used by good writers, that rules for its use are unnecessary." Concise Manual of English Gram. p. 140. So Nutting : " It will be noticed, that the colon is omitted in this system ; because it is omitted by the majority of the writers of the present age ; three points, with the dash, being considered sufficient to mark the different lengths of the pauses." Practical Grammar, p. 120. These critics, whenever they have occasion to copy such authors as Milton and Pope, do not scruple to mutilate their punctuation by putting semicolons or periods for all the colons they find. But who cannot perceive, that without the colon, the semicolon becomes an absurdity ? It can no longer be a semicolon, unless the half can remain when the whole is taken away ! The colon, being the older point of the two, and once very fashionable, is doubtless on record in more instances than the semicolon ; and, if now, after both have been in common use for some hundreds of years, it be found out that only one is needed, perhaps it would be more rea- sonable to prefer the former. Should public opinion ever be found to coincide with the suggestions of the two authors last quoted, there will be reason to regret that Caxton, the old English typog- rapher of the fifteenth century, who for a while successfully withstood, in his own country, the introduction of the semicolon, had not the power to prevent it forever. In short, to leave no literary extravagance unbroached, the latter point also has not lacked a modern impugner. " One of the greatest improvements in punctuation," says Justin Brenan, " is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors. In latter times, the semicolon has been gradually disappearing, not only from the newspapers, but from books." Brenan' s " Composition and Punctuation familiarly Explained," p. 100; London, 1830. The colon and the semicolon are both useful, and, not unfre- quently, necessary ; and all correct writers will, I doubt not, continue to use both. OBS. 7. Since Dr. Blair published his emphatic caution against too frequent a use of paren- theses, there has been, if not an abatement of the kind of error which he intended to censure, at least a diminution in the use of the curves, the sign of a parenthesis. These, too, some incon- siderate grammarians now pronounce to be out of vogue. " The parenthesis is now generally ex- ploded as a deformity." Churchill's Gram. p. 362. "The Parenthesis, () has become nearly obsolete, except in mere references, and the like ; its place, by modern writers, being usually sup- plied by the use of the comma, and the dash." Nutting's Practical Grammar, p. 126; Frazee's Improved Grammar, p. 187. More use may have been made of the curves than was necessary, and more of the parenthesis itself than was agreeable to good taste ; but, the sign being well adapted to the construction, and the construction being sometimes sprightly and elegant, there are no good reasons for wishing to discard either of them ; nor is it true, that the former "has become nearly obsolete." CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. REMARKS. 745 OBS. 8. The name parenthesis, which literally means a putting -in-between, is usually applied both to the curves, and to the incidental clause which they enclose. This twofold application of the term involves some inconvenience, if not impropriety. According to Dr. Johnson, the enclosed "sentence" alone is the parenthesis ; but Worcester, agreeably to common usage, defines the word as meaning also " the mark thus ( )." But, as this sign consists of two distinct parts, two corresponding curves, it seems more natural to use a plural name : hence L. Murray, when he would designate the sign only, adopted a plural expression; as, " the parenthetical characters," " the parenthetical marks." So, in another case,'which is similar : "the hooks in which words are included," are commonly called crotchets or brackets; though Bucke, in his Classical Grammar, I know not why, calls the two "[ ] a Crotchet; " (p. 23;) and Webster, in his octavo Dictionary, defines a "Bracket, in printing, as Johnson does a "Crotchet, "by a plural noun : "hooks; thus, y Again, in his grammars, Dr. Webster rather confusedly says : " The parenthesis ( ) and oks [ ] include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction." Philosophical Gram. p. 219 ; Improved Gram. p. 1.54. But, in his Dictionary, he forgets both the hooks and the parenthesis that are here spoken of; and, with still worse confusion or inaccuracy, " The parenthesis is usually included in hooks or curved lines, thus, ( )." Here he either improp- erly calls these regular little curves "hooks," or erroneously suggests that both the hooks and the curves are usual and appropriate signs of " the parenthesis'." In Garner's quarto Dictionary, the French word Crochet, as used by printers, is translated, "A brace, a crotchet, a parenthesis ;" and the English word Crotchet is defined, "The mark of a parenthesis, in printing, thus []." But Webster defines Crotchet, " In printing, a hook including words, a sentence or a passage distin- guished from the rest, thus []." This again is both ambiguous and otherwise inaccurate. It conveys no clear idea of what a crotchet is. One hook includes nothing. Therefore Johnson said : "Hooks in which words are included [thus]." But if each of the hooks is a crotchet, as Webster suggests, and almost every body supposes, then both lexicographers are wrong in not making the whole expression plural : thus, "Crotchets, in printing, are angular hooks usually includ- ing some explanatory words." But is this all that Webster meant ? I cannot tell. He may be understood as saying also, that a Crotchet is " a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest, thus [] ; " and doubtless it would be much better to call a hint thus marked, a crotchet, than to call it & parenthesis, as some have done. In Parker and Fox's Grammar, and also in Parker's Aids to English Composition, the term Brackets only is applied to these angular hooks ; and, contrary to all usage of other authors, so far as I know, the name of Crotchets is there given to the Curves. And then, as if this application of the word were general, and its propriety indispu- table, the pupil is simply told: "The curved lines between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called Crotrhi-f*." Cram., Part III. p. 30 ; Aids, p. 40. " Called Crotchets " by whom ? That not even Mr. Parker himself knows them by that name, the following most inaccurate passage is a proof: " The note of admiration and interrogation, as also the parenthesis, the bracket, and" the reference marks, [are noted in the margin] in the same manner as the apostrophe." Aids, p. 314. m >re so, to call each of them by that name, or both "the parentheses." And since Murray's ijoth entirely too long for common use, what better name can be given them than <'ry simple one, the Curves? !' The words eroti-me and ecphoneme, which, like aposteme and philosopheme, are orderly derivatives from Greek roots,* I have ventured to suggest as fitter names for the two marks to which they are applied above, than are any of the long catalogue which other grammarians, each r himself, have presented. These marks have not unfrequently been called " the in- V/wiand th.- .11 ; " which names are not very suitable, because they have other uses in uramnnr. According to Dr. Blair, as well as L. Murray and others, interrogation and excla- mation are " passionate Jiynres " of rhetoric, and oftentimes also plain " unfigured " expressions. The former however are frequently and more fitly called by their Greek names erotesis and ecpho- rerms to which those above have a happy correspondence. By Dr. Webster and some others, all int< ri--i-ti,,ns are called " exclamations '; " and, as each of these is usually followed by the mark of emotion, it cannot but be inconvenient to call both by the same name. !" l''r things so common as the marks of asking and exclaiming, it is desirable to have simple and appro; .t least some settled mode of denomination ; but, it is remark- able, that Limlley Murray, in mentioning those characters six times, u The Exclamatory sign." . II>i;>-n. (9.) " The Mark of Interrogation," 41 The Mark of Exclamutioi.' !>,/, l>\-!ton, " The Interrogation point (?)," " The A'l- .'ii point (!)." l',rfri/. (17.) "An interrogation (?)," "An exclamation (!)." C The interrogator ? ""The ex'-laimor ! " //. p. 112. [The putting of " ex- Eroiema, Accentum qunqne transfert ; ut, Ter. Siccine ait Parmen^ Butenbr." Prat's Latin Grammar, 8vo, Part II, p. 190. 52 746 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. claimor" for exclaimer, like this author's changing of quoters to "quotors," as a name for the guillemets, is probably a mere sample of ignorance.] (19.) " Question point," "Exclamation point." Sanborn, p. 272. SECTION L THE COMMA. The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connexion which admits no point. RULE I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma ; as, " The weakest reason- ers are the most positive." W. Allen's Gram. p. 202. " Theology has not hesi- tated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma." Tract on Tone, p. 4. " Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize On promis'd hopes of instantaneous ease." Orabbe. EXCEPTION. LONG SIMPLE SENTENCES. When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb ; as, " Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no par- don." Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6. " To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." Murray's Gram. p. 268. " O that the tenor of my just complaint,* Were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant ! " Sandys. RULE II. SIMPLE MEMBERS. The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, ellip- tical or complete, are generally divided by the comma ; as, 1. " Here stand we both, and aim we at the best." Shak. 2. " I, that did never weep, now melt in woe." Id. 3. " Tide life, tide death, I come without delay." Id. 4. " I am their mother, who shall bar me from them ? " Id. 5. " How wretched, were I mortal, were my state ! " Pope. 6. " Go ; while thou mayst, avoid the dreadful fate." Id. 7. " Grief aids disease, remember'd folly stings, And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings." Johnson. EXCEPTION I. RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it ; as, " For the things which are seen, are tem- poral ; but the things which are not seen, are eternal." 2 Cor. iv, 18. "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning." St. Quentin's General Gram. p. 3. EXCEPTION II. SHOUT TERMS CLOSELY CONNECTED. When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a con- junctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud." Dillwyn's Ref. p. 11. "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd." TAYLOR : Joh. Diet. w. Even. " It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things." CAMPBELL : Murray's Gram. p. 359. EXCEPTION III. ELLIPTICAL MEMBERS UNITED. When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Make an experiment on the first man you meet." Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125. " Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue." Ib. p. 126. "It is certain we imagine before we reflect." Ib. p. "359. " The same good sense that makes a man excel, Still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well." Young. *In regard to the admission of a comma before the verb, by the foregoing exception, neither the practice of authors nor the doctrine of punctuators is entirely uniform ; but, where a considerable pause is, and must be, made in the reading, I judge it not only allowable, but necessary, to mark it in writing. In W. Day's " Punctu- ation Reduced to a System," a work of no inconsiderable merit, this principle is disallowed ; and even when the adjunct of the nominative is a relative clause, which, by Rule 2d below and its first exception, requires a comma after it but none before it, this author excludes both, putting no comma before the principal verb. The follow- ing is an example : " But it frequently happens, that punctuation is not made a prominent exercise in schools ; and the brief manner in which the subject is there dismissed has proved insufficient to impress upon the minds of youth a due sense of its importance." Day's Punctuation, p. 32. A pupil of mine would here have put a comma after the word dismissed. So, in the following examples, after sake, and after dispenses: " The vanity that would accept power for its own sake is the pettiest of human passions." Ib. p. 75. " The generous delight of beholding the happiness he dispenses is the highest enjoyment of man." Ib. p. 100. CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. COMMA. RULES. 747 RULE III. MORE THAN Two WORDS. When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last ; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also :* as, 1. " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." Seattle. 2. " Ah ! what avails ********* All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring? " Id. 3. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." Shak. 4. "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." Young. 5. " oo eagerly the Fiend O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies." Milton. RULE IV. ONLY Two WORDS. When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma ; as, " It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms ; for true power is to be got by arts and industry" Spectator, No. 2. "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." Goldsmith. EXCEPTION I. Two WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted ; as, " I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful." Spectator, No. 10. " Who is applied to persons, or things personified." Bullions. " With listless eyes the dotard views the store, He views, and wonders that they please no more." Johnson. EXCEPTION II. Two TERMS CONTRASTED. When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted; as, "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged." Kames. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." Beattie. " 'T is certain he could write, and cipher too." "Goldsmith. EXCEPTION III. ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS. When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted ; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet." W. Allen. "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles ? " 1 Cor. ix, 5. Exci:i'Ti<>N IV. CONJUNCTION UNDERSTOOD. When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted ; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma : as, " Reason, vir- tue, answer one great aim." L. Murray, ('/. p. 2G9. " To him the church, the realm, their pow'rs consign." Johnson. " She thought the isle that gave her birth, The sweetest, wildest land on earth." Hogg. RULE V. WORDS IN PAIRS. When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, arc the prime movers in public transactions." W. Allen. " But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, * When several nominatives are connected, some authors and printers put the comma only where the con- jun-tinii is oniitrc 1. \\'. I>ay sep-iratos them all, one from an other; but after the last, when this ia singular beft re a plural verb, he inserts no point. Kxamj>l<: : " Imagination is one of the- principal ingredients which enfcT into the complex idea of genius; but ju't^mmt. inrnwry, unrterstamlim;* 'iit/insiasm^&nd sensibility are also included." Day's Punrtutttnut. \>. .VJ. If th- } ay, as in the following inst.n depend greatly on the choice of corn- pan 0114." Wilson's Treatise on Punctuation, p. 30. 748 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life." Seattle's Moral Science, p. 313. " Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, O'erspread with snares the crowded maze of fate." Dr. Johnson. RULE VI. WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE. Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, " The prince, his father being dead, succeeded." "This done, we parted." "Zaccheus, make haste and come down." "His prcetorship in Sicily, what did it produce ? " Cicero. " Wing'd with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, His steeds too distant, and the foe toonigJi" Pope, Iliad, xi, 440. RULE VII. WORDS IN APPOSITION. Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, "He that now calls upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Tene- rife." Johnson. " LOWTH, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787." .5%. Diet. " HOME, Henry, lord Kames."lb. "What next I bring shall please thee, be assur'd,* Thy likeness, thy fit help, thy other self, Thy wish exactly to thy heart's desire." Milton, P. L., viii, 450. "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers." Byron. EXCEPTION I. COMPLEX NAMES. When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Dr. Samuel Johnson," " Publius Gavius Cosanus." EXCEPTION II. CLOSE APPOSITION. When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted ; as, "The brook Kidron," The river Don," "The empress Catharine," " Paul the Apostle." EXCEPTION III. PRONOUN "WITHOUT PAUSE. When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, :he comma is not inserted; as, "Ye men of Athens," "I myself," "Thou naming min- ister," " You princes." EXCEPTION IV. NAMES ACQUIRED. When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted: as, "I made the ground my bed;" "To make him king ; " " Whom they revered as God; " " With modesty thy guide." Pope. RULE VIII. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 1. "Among the roots Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, They frame the first foundation of their domes." Thomson. 2. " Up springs the lark, Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn." Id. EXCEPTION. ADJECTIVES .RESTRICTIVE. When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it ; as, "And on the coast averse From entrance or cherubic watch." Milton, P. L., B. ix, 1. 68. RULE IX. FINITE VERBS. Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required : as, " From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." Murray. Else all my prose and verse were much the same ; This, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame." Pope. EXCEPTION. VERY SLIGHT PAUSE. As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. COMMA. RULES. 749 be usod for the clauses ; as, " When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them." Comstock's Elocution, p. 132. RULE X. INFINITIVES. The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma; as, " One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple." Jamieson's Rhet. p. 151. "To confess the truth, I was much in fault." Murray 1 s Gram. p. 271. " The Governor of all has interposed, Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite The injurious trampler upon nature's law." Cowper. RULE XI. PARTICIPLES. Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, 1. " Law is a rule of civil conduct, pre- scribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong." BLACKSTONE: Seattle's Moral Science, p. 346. 2. "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, Lingering and listning, wander'd down the vale." Beattie. 3. " United, we stand ; divided, we fall." Motto. 4. " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." EXCEPTION. PARTICIPLES RESTRICTIVE. When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it ; as, "A man renown d for repartee, Will seldom scruple to make free With friendship's finest feeling." Cotrper. RULE XII. ADVERBS. Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma ; as, " We must not, however, confound this gen- tleness with the artificial courtesy of the world." "Besides, the mind must be employed." Giljrin. "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this." Lyttelton. " But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already." " When buttress and buttress, alternately, Seem framed of ebon and ivory." Scott's Lay, p. 33. RULE XIII. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally pet off by the comma ; as, 'JJut, by a timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." Johnson. " They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, Or, ah ! how chang'd that fearless laugh would be." Crabbe. RULE XIV. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sen- tence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are gen- erally set off by the comma ; as, " Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the osten- tation of riches." " J>y raiding, we add the experience of others to our own." "In vain the sage, with retrospective eye, Would from th' apparent What conclude the Why." Pope. RULE XV. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes .set off by the comma; as, " For, lo, I will call all he families of the kingdoms of the north." Jeremiah, i, 1 5. "O, 'twas about some- 750 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. thing you would not understand." Columbian Orator, p. 221. "Ha, haf you were finely taken in, then!" Aikin. l( Ha,ha, ha! A facetious gentleman truly!" Id. " Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame ? " Pope. RULE XVI. WORDS REPEATED. A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma ; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair ! " Dryden. "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that." Shak. "Ah ! no, no, no." Id. " The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well ! " Woodworth. RULE XVII. DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, shy, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " ' The book of nature,' said he, * is before thee.' " Hawkesworth. " I say unto all, Watch." Mark. " ' The boy has become a man,' means, ' he has grown to be a man.' ' Such conduct becomes a man,' means, ' such conduct bejits him.' " Hart's Gram. p. 116. " While man exclaims, ' See all things for my use ! ' * See man for mine ! ' replies a pamper'd goose." Pope. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE COMMA. UNDER RULE I. OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. " Short, simple sentences should not be separated by a comma." Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 135; 3d Ed., Stereotyped, p. 137. [FORMULE. Not proper, because a needless comma is put after short, the sentence being simple. But, accord- ing to Rule 1st for the Comma, " A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma." Therefore, tl is comma should be omitted; thus, "Short simple sentences should not be separated by a comma." Or, much better : "A short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma." For such sentences, combined to form a period, should generally be separated; and even a single one may have some phrase that must be set off.] "A regular and virtuous education, is an inestimable blessing." Murray's Key, 8vo, ;:>. 174. " Such equivocal expressions, mark an intention to deceive." Ib. p. 256. " Tht y are, This and that, with their plurals these and those." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 26 ; Practical Lessons, p. 33. "A nominative case and a verb, sometimes make a complete sentence ; as, He sleeps." Felton's Gram. p. 78. "Tense, expresses the action connected with certain relations of time ; mood, represents it as farther modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionality, &c." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 37. "The word Noun, means name." Inger- soll's Gram. p. 14. " The present, or active participle, I explained then." Ib. p. 97. "Are some verbs used, both transitively and intransitively ? " Cooper's PI. and Pract. Gram. p. 54. " Blank verse, is verse without rhyme." Hallock's Gram. p. 242. "A distributive adjective, denotes each one of a number considered separately." Ib. p. 51. "And may at last my weary age, Find out the peaceful hermitage." Murray's Gr., 12mo, p. 205 ; 8vo, 255. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in its widest sense." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 8; Practical Lessons, p. 10. [FORMULE. Not proper, because no comma is here set before the verb is taken. But, according to the Excep- tion to Rule 1st for the Comma, " When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immedi- ately before the verb." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted ; thus, " A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense." Lennie's Gram. p. 6.] "To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind." Day's District School Gram. p. 84. " To love our Maker supremely and our neighbor as our- selves comprehends the whole moral law." Ibid. " To be afraid to do wrong is true courage." Ib. p. 85. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 89. " That he should make such a remark is indeed strange." Farnum, Practical Gram. p. 30. " To walk in the fields and groves is delightful." Id. ib. "That he committed the fault is most certain." Id. ib. "Names common to all things of the same sort or class are called Common nouns : as, man, woman, day." Bullions, Pract. Les. p. 12. " That it is our duty to be pious admits not of any doubt." Id. E. Gram. p. 118. " To endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind." CHAP. I.] PKOSODY. PUNCTUATION. COMMA. ERKOBS. 751 Id. ib. p. 81. "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty." Id. ib. 81. "That a life of virtue is the safest is certain." Ilallock's Gram. p. 169. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by a pronoun of the sin- gular number." Ib. p. 167. UNDER RULE II. OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. " When the sun had arisen the enemy retreated." Day's District School Gram. p. 85. [FORMULE. Not proper, because no comma here separates the two simple members which compose the sentence. But, according to Rule 2d, " The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after arisen; thus, "AVhen the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."] "If he become rich he may be less industrious." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 118. "The more I study grammar the better I like it." Id. ib. p. 127. "There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than master." Id. ib. p. 128. " The verb do, when used as an auxiliary gives force or emphasis to the expression." Day's Gram. p. 39. "What- soever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do well." J. Q. Adams's RJietoric, Vol. i, p. 46. " The soul which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence." Channiny, on Sclf-Ctilture,p. 15. "Put the following words in the plural and give the rule for forming it." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 19. " We will do it if you wish." Id. ib. p. 29. "He who docs well will be rewarded." Id. ib. 29. "That which is always true is expressed in the present tense." Id. ib. p. 119. "An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense." Id. Prin. of E. Gram. p. 123. " That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words is called SPELLING." Day's Gram. p. 8. "A noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person." Ib. p. 14. " When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and pronoun." Ib. p. 89. " James has gone but he will return in a few days." Ib. 89. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender as the noun for which it stands." Ib. 89 and 80. "Though he is out of danger he is still afraid." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 80. " She is his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence." Ib. p. 81. " The man who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted." Ib. 81. " He who does the most good has the most pleasure." Ib. 81. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them." Ib. 81. "If the day continue pleasant I shall return." Felton's Gram. i., p. 22 ; Ster. Ed., 24. The days that are past are gone forever." Ib. pp. 89 and ()_'. "As many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it." Ib. 89 and 92. " Such as desire aid will receive it." Ib. 89 and 92. " Who gave you that book which you prize so much?" Hul/ion-s, Pract. Lessons, p. 32. " He who made it now preserves and governs it." Bullions, E. drum. p. 83. " Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all ? " Feltons Gram. p. 126. T'NDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS. ewcastle is the town, in which Akenside was born." Bucke's Classical Gram. p. 54. Not proj>er, because a needless comma here separates the restrictive relative which from its arrt'f.-.l. nt tmrn. Itir. ;L< -i-nplin^ u> Exception 1st to Rule 2d, " When a relative immediately follows its antece- dent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it." Therefore, this comma should be omitted ; thus, " Newcastle is tiie town in which Akenside was born."] " The remorse, which issues in reformation, is true repentance." Campbell's Philos. of Rin-t. p. 2o.-3. " Men, who are intemperate, are destructive members of community." Alexait . p. (>''>. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action, which extends to an object." Feltons Gram. pp. 16 and 22. "They, to whom much is given, will have much to answer for." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 188. " The prospect, which we have, is charming." ('<><>;>< r's /'/. and /'/-. (/'/t, p. 141. "The pen, with which 1 write, makes too large a mark." InyersoU's Grain, p. 71. " Modesty makes large amends for the pain, it gives the persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice, it affords every worthy person in their favour." //;. p. SO. " Irony is a figure, whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express." w. p. 103. "Catach: :ure, whereby an improper word is use 1 i-. of a proper one." Ib. p. 109. " The man, whom you met at the party, is u Frenchman."- Frost's Practical Gram. p. IH, MOKK THAN TWO WoHDS. ;< John, James and Thomas are here : that is, John and James, &c." Cooper's Plain and Piacticnl (iru/tt/niir, p. 153. [PORMULE. Not proper, because no comma is bore u.=e 1 after James, or after Tiutinns, or aprain after John, in . -. : the three nouns liein- - in the lame construction, and all of them nt>imi. the verb are. But, according to Uule 3d for the Comma, " When more than two words or terms are connected in 752 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. the game construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last ; and, if they are nominatives before a verb the comma should follow the last also." Therefore, the comma should be inserted after each; thus, "John, James, and Thomas, ar here : that is, John, and James, and Thomas, are here."] * "Adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 97. " To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number and Case." Id. Practical Lessons, p. 12. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats are extensively cultivated." Id. ib. p. 13. " In many, the definitions, rules and leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and confused." Finch's Report on Gram. p. 3. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult and useless." Ib. p. 3. "His father and mother, and uncle reside at Rome." Farnum's Gram. p. 11. " The relative pronouns are who, which and that." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 29. "That is sometimes a demostra- tive, sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction." Id. ib. p. 33. " Our reputation, virtue, and happiness greatly depend on the choice of our companions." Day's Gram. p. 92. "The spirit of true religion is social, kind and cheerful." Felton's Gram. p. 81. "Do, be, have and will are sometimes principal verbs." Ib. p. 26. " John and Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford." Webster, Philos. Gram. p. 142 ; Improved Gram. p. 96. "The most in- nocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful and the most durable." Id. pp. 215 and 151. " Love, joy, peace and blessedness are reserved for the good." Id. ib. 215 and 151. "The husband, wife and children, suffered extremely." Murray's Gram., 4th Am. Ed., 8vo, p. 269. " The husband, wife, and children suffer extremely." Sanborn's Analytical Gram. p. 268. "He, you, and I have our parts assigned us." Ibid. " He moaned, lamented, tugged and tried, Repented, promised, wept and sighed." Felton's Gr. p. 108. UNDER RULE IV. OF ONLY Two WORDS. "Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds." Murray's Exercises, p. 15. [FoRMULE. Not proper, because the two verbs here connected by and, are needlessly separated from each other, and from their object following. But, according to Rule 4th, " When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma." Therefore, these two commas should be omitted ; thus, " Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."] " The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. " When a direct address is made, the noun, or pronoun, is in the nominative case independent." IngersolVs Gram. p. 88. "The verbs love and teach, make loved, and taught, in the imperfect and participle." Ib. p. 97. " Neither poverty, nor riches were injurious to him." Cooper's PI. and Pr. Gram. p. 133. "Thou, or I am in fault." Wright's Gram. p. 136. "A verb is a word that expresses action, or be- ing." Day's District School Gram. pp. 11 and 61. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb, or a preposition." Ib. pp. 17 and 19. "Verbs of the second conjugation n ay be either transitive, or intransitive." Ib. p. 41. " Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive." Ib. 41. " If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d, or ed to the indicative present, it is said to be irregular." Ib. 41. " The yoi ng lady is studying rhetoric, and logic." Cooper's PI. and Pr. Gram. p. 143. " He writes, and speaks the language very correctly." Ib. p. 148. " Man's happiness, or misery, is, in a great measure, put into his own hands." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. " This accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender." Bullions, E. Gram., 1843, p. 195. " Grant that the powerful still the weak controul ; Be Man the Wit, and Tyrant of the whole." POPE : Brit. Poets, vi, 375. UNDER EXCEPTION I. Two WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. " Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride of modern philosophy." Day's District School Gram. p. 88. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the words ornament and pride, each of which has adjuncts, are here con- nected by and without a comma before it. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 4th, u When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted.'^ Therefore, a comma should be set before and; thus, " Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."] " Levity and attachment to wordly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to him." Murray's Kay, 8vo, p. 183. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives and the substantives which they qualify." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 100. " When a noun or * Some printers, and likewise some authors, suppose a series of words to require the comma, only where the coojunction is suppressed. This is certainly a great error. It gives us such punctuation as comports neither with the smse of three or more words in the same construction, nor with the pauses which they require in reading. "John, James arid Thomas are here," is a sentence which plainly tells John that James and Thomas are here ; and which, if read according to this pointing, cannot possibly have any other meaning. Yet this is the way in which the rules of Cooper, Felton, Frost, Webster, and perhaps others, teach us to point it, when we mean to tell somebody else that all three are here ! In his pretended "Abridgment of Murray's English Gram- mar," (a work abounding in small thefts from Brown's Institutes,) Cooper has the following example: "John, James or Joseph intends to accompany me." Page 120. Here, John being addressed, the punctuation is right ; but, to make this noun a nominative to the verb, a comma must be put after each, of the others. In Cooper's " Plain and Practical Grammar," the passage is found in this form: "John, James, or Joseph intends to accom- pany us." Page 132. This pointing is doubly wrong ; because it is adapted to neither sense. If the three nouns have the same construction, the principal pause will be immediately before the verb ; and surely a comma is as much required by that pause, as by the second. See the Note on Rule 3d, above. CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. COMMA. ERRORS. 753 pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding noun or pronoun." Day's Gram. p. 87. " Superior talents and briliancy of intellect do not always constitute a great man." Ib. p. 92. "A word that makes sense after an article or the phrase speak of, is a noun." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 12. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to ci^ht kinds ; four of two syllables and four of three." lliley's Gram. p. 123. " lie would not do it himself nor let me do it." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 113.* "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive." O. B. Peirces Gram. p. 352. UNDER EXCEPTION II. Two TERMS CONTRASTED. " We often commend as well as censure imprudently." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 214. " It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little as to take much ; to purloin a book, or a penknife, as to steal money ; to steal fruit as to steal a horse ; to defraud the revenue as to rob my neighbour ; to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother ; to cheat the postoffice as to cheat my friend." Wai/land's Moral Science, 1st Edition, p. 2~> 1. "The classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed question." Bullions, E. Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 200. " Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all, are called Proper nouns." Id. Practical Lessons, p. 12. "A hero would desire to be loved as well as to be reverenced." Day'* Gram. p. 108. "Death or some worse misfortune now divides them." Cooper's PI. and Pr. Gram. p. 133. "Alexander replied, ' The world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns.'" Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 113. " From nature's chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike." Felton's Gram. p. 131. UNDER EXCEPTION III. ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS. "Mi'frr or Measure is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains." lliley's Gram. p. 123. "The Cttsura or division, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts." Ib. 123. "It is six feet or one fathom deep." Bullions, /,'. Gram. p. 113. "A BRACE is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines which rhyme together." Felton's Gram. p. 142. " There are four principal kinds of English verse or poetical feet." Ib. p. 143. "The period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sen- tence." Sanbont's Analytical Gram. p. 271. "The scholar is to receive as many jetons or counters as there are word.s in the sentence." St. (lucntin's drum. p. 16. "That [thing] or the thinrj which purities, fortifies also the heart." Peirces Gram. p. 74. "That thing or the thing which would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco." Ib. 74. "What is ellipti- cally what thing or that thing which." Sanborn's Gram. p. 99. "Demonstrate means shoic or point out pn-cisely." Ib. p. 139. "The man or that man, who endures to the end, shall be saved." lliley's Gram. p. 73. UNDER EXCEPTION IV. A SECOND COMMA. " Reason, passion answer one great end." Bullions' s E, Gram. p. 152; Hiley's, p. 112. " Reason, virtue answer one great aim." Cooper's PI. and Pract. Gram. p. 194 ; Butler's, 204. " Every good gift, and every perfect gift is from above." Felton's Gram. p. 90. v plant, and every tree produces others after its kind." Day's Gram. p. 91. " James, and not John was paid for his services." Ib. 91. " The single dagger, or obelisk f is the second." Ib. p. 113. "It was I, not he that did it." St. Quentin's Gram. p. 152. "Each aunt, (and) each cousin hath her speculation." Sanborn's Gram. p. 139. "'I shall see you when you come,' is equivalent to ' I shall see you then, or at that time when you come.' " Butler's Pract. Gram. p. 121. " Let wealth, let honour wait the wedded dame, August her deed, and sacred be her fame." Pope, p. 334. r.\j)i-:u RULE V. OF WORDS IN PAIRS. "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows centre in you." B. GREENLEAP: Sanborn's Gram. p. 268. Not proper, because no comma here separates the second pair of nominatives from the verb. Put, ng to Rule 5th, " When successive words an- j-.int-d in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in lira by the comma." Then-f<>n-, an other comma should be inserted after sorrows, thus, " My hopes and fears, ys and sorrows, centre in you.''] " This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or obligation." Inacrso/r.s Gram. p. 11:;. ' Substance is divided into Body, and Spirit into Extended and Thinking." Brighton nl'.^ Gram. p. 2-53. "These consonants, [d and t,] like p, and b,f, and v, k, and hard^, and ,v, and z, arc letters of the same organ." Walker's Diet. p. 41 ; 'Principles, No. 358. " Neither fig nor twist pigtail nor cavendish have passed my lips since, nor ever shall they again." <-ator, Vol. vii, p. 36. "The words WHOEVER, or wn>-oi:vi-:K, WHICHI:VI-:R, or * In punctuation, the grammar hero cited is unaccountably defective. This is the more strange, because many of its errors are mere perversions of what was accurately pointed by an other hand. On the page above n-fi'ired Ur. llullions. in copying from Ix-nnie's syntactical exercises a dozen consecutive lines, has omitted n which Lennie had been careful to insert ! 53 Uram. p. [FORXULE wcording t* piiirs by thi joys and soi TV,;,, 3 parlia- 754 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. WHICHSOEVER, and WHATEVER, or WHATSOEVER are called COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS." Day's Gram. p. 23. "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative." Bullions, Lat. Gram., 12th Ed., 215. UNDER RULE VI. OF WORDS ABSOLUTE. " Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 135. [FORMULE. Not proper, because no comma is here set after staff, which, with the noun rod, is put absolute by pleonasm. But, according to Rule 6th, " Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted ; thus, " Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me." Psalm xxiii, 4.] "Depart ye wicked." Wright's Gram. p. 70. " He saith to his mother, Woman behold thy son." Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 44. " Thou God seest me." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 9 ; Practical Lessons, p. 13. "Thou, God seest me." Id. E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 195. " John write me a letter. Henry go home." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 356. " John ; write a letter. Henry ; go home." Ib. p. 317. " Now, G. Brown; let us reason together." Ib. p. 326. " Smith : You say on page 11, the objective case denotes the object." Ib. p. 344. " Gentlemen : will you always speak as you mean ? " Ib. p. 352. " John : I sold my books to William for his brothers." Ib. p. 47. " Walter and Seth : I will take my things, and leave yours." Ib. p. 69. " Henry : Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours." Ib. p. 73. " John ; harness the horses and go to the mine for some coal. William ; run to the store for a few pounds of tea." Ib. p. 160. " The king being dead the parlia- ment was dissolved." Chandler's Gram. p. 119. " Cease fond nature, cease thy strife, And let me languish into life." Bullions's E. Gram. p. 173. " Forbear great man, in arms renown'd, forbear." 16. p. 174. "Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind, Each prayer accepted and each wish resign' d." Hilcy's Gr. p. 123. UNDEB RULE VII. WORDS IN APPOSITION. " We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c. Hallock's Gram. p. 200. [FORMULE. Not proper, because no comma is here set after the pronoun We, with which the word people, which has adjuncts, is in apposition. But, according to Rule 7th, " Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be here inserted ; thu^, " We, the people of the United States," &c.] "The Lord, the covenant God of his people requires it." Anti-Slavery Magazine, Vol. i, p. 73. " He as a patriot deserves praise." Hallock's Gram. p. 124. " Thomson the watch- maker and jeweller from London, was of the party." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 128. " Every- body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of the conqueror, is Williai a duke of Normandy." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 33. " The words myself, thyself, himself, herself, and their plurals ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are called Compound Personjd Pronouns." Days Gram. p. 22. " For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey, This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind ? " U. Poems, p. 68. UNDER EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION. " Smith and Williams' store ; Nicholas, the emperor's army." Day's Gram. p. 17. " He was named William, the conquerer." Ib. p. 80. " John, the Baptist, was beheaded."- Ib. p. 87. "Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm." Hart's Gram. p. 126. "A nominative in immediate apposition ; as ' The boy, Henry, speaks.' " Smart's Accidence, p. 29. "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other ; as, 'I teach the boy, Henry: "Ib. p. 30. UNDER RULE VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. " But he found me, not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with cheerfulness ; but pale and dejected, sitting on the ground, and chewing opium." [FORMULE. Not proper, because the phrases, " ruddy with health," and " vivid with cheerfulness," which begin with adjectives, are not hrt commaed. But, according to Rule 8th, "Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two other commas should be here inserted ; thus, " But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness ; but pale," &c. Dr. Johnson.] " I looked up, and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent." See Key. "A is an article, indefinite and belongs to 'book.'" Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. " The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat." Id. Lat. Gram. p. 296. " He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil ; a prince true to his subjects and indig- ant of their wrongs ; a soldier daring in battle firm in adversity patient of fatigue, of hunger, CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. COMMA. ERRORS. 755 of every variety of bodily suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused." See Key. " For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead Dost in these lines their artless tale relate." Union Poems, p. 68. *' Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest : Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood." Day's Gram. p. 117. " Idle after dinner in his chair Sat a farmer ruddy, fat, and fair." Hiley's Gram. p. 125. UNDER THE EXCEPTION' CONCERNING ADJECTIVES. " When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it ; as Charles, the Great; Henry, the First ; Lewis, the Gross." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 153 ; Improved Gram. p. 107. " Feed me with food, convenient forme." Cooper's Practical Gram. p. 118. " The words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle pro- gressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred." Ingersolfs Gram., Pref., p. x. "The Injinitire Mode is that form of the verb which expresses action or being, unlimited by person, or number." Day's Gram. p. 35. "A man, diligent in his business, prospers." Frost's Practical Gram. p. 113. " O wretched state ! oh bosom, black as death ! " HaUock's Gram. p. 118. " O, wretched state ! O, bosom, black as death ! " Singer's Shak. Vol. ii, p. 494. UNDER RULE IX. OF FINITE VERBS. "The Singular denotes one ; the Plural more than one." Bullions, E. Gram, p. 12 ; Pract. Lessons, p. 16 ; Lcnnie's Gram. p. 7. [FoRMCLE. Not proper, because no comma is here set after Plural, where the Terb denotes is understood. But, n'T..r.ling to Rule 9th, " Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required." Therefore, a comma should bo inserted at the place mentioned ; thus, " The Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than one."] " The comma represents the shortest pause ; the semicolon a pause longer than the comma ; the colon longer than the semicolon ; and the period longer than the colon." Hiley's Gram. p. 111. " The comma represents the shortest pause ; the semicolon a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the period, double that of the colon." Hull ions, /;. Gram. p. 151 ; Pract. Lessons, p. 127. "Who is applied only to per- sons ; which to animals and things ; what to things only ; and that to persons, animals, and things." Day's Gram. p. 23. "A or an is used before the singular number only ; the before either singular or plural." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. "Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better artist." Day's Gram. p. 96. " Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist." POPE'S PREFACE : British Poets, Vol. vi, p. viii. " Words are formed of syllables ; syllables of letters." St. Quentin's General Gram. p. 2. " The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE ; and that of a passive verb the v. VOICK." Frost's El. of E. Gram. p. 19. "The CONJUGATION of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICK, and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE." Smith's $Tew Gram. p." 71. " The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the objective the accu- sative." L. Murray's Grain. 12mo, p. 44. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness to fewer virtues." Kamcs, Art of Thinking, p. 40. " Orthography treats of Letters, Ety- mology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification." Hart's English drain, p. 21. " Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood ; Heaven those that love their foes, and do them good." See Key. UNDER RULE X. OF INFINIT; " His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words." Bullions, E. Gram- mar, Revised Edition, p. 189. [FORMULS. Not proper, IxM-ause no comma here divides to obsfrve from the preceding verb. But, according to Rule 10th, " The iufinitivu mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on Fouiething remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma thould be- inserted after is : thus, " His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."] " It is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society." Farnum's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 25 ; 2d Ed., p. 23. "To distinguish the conjugations let the pupil observe the fol- lowing rules." Day's />. N. dram. p. 40. "He was now sent for to preach before the Parliament." Life of Dr. J. Oiren, p. 18. "It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their parents." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 83. " It is the business of every man to pre- pare for death." Id. ib. 83. "It argued the sincerest candor to make such an acknowl- edgement." Id. ib. p. 115. "The proper way is to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second understood." Ib. ib. p. 125. " ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he is rep- resented." O. 11. Pi-inv's Gram. p. 23. "The object of this is to preserve the soft sound of c and a." Hart's Gram. p. 2 1 .). " The design of grammar is to facilitate the reading, writing, and speaking of a language." Bam if s Gm/n., 10th Ed., Prcf., p. iii. "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary." Hart's Gram. p. 3. 756 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. UNDER RULE XI. OF PARTICIPLES. " The chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown." Wright's Gram. p. 114. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the phrase, " being attached to the king," is not command. But, according to Rule llth, >' Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." There- fore, two commas should be here inserted ; thus, " The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown." Murray's Gram. p. 66.] " The officer having received his orders, proceeded to execute them." Day's Gram. p. 108. " Thus used it is in the present tense." Bullions, E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 33. "The Imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the present tense." Id. ib. p. 40. " Every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing possessed." Id. ib. p. 87. "The word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a comma." Id. ib. p. 154. " His narrative being composed upon such good authority, deserves credit." Cooper's PL and Pr. Gram. p. 97. "The hen being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 252. " Pronouns being used instead of nouns are subject to the same modifications." Sanborns Gram. p. 92. " When placed at th*e begin- ning of words they are consonants." Hallock's Gram. p. 14. " Man starting from his coucl shall sleep no more." Ib. p. 222. "His and her followed by a noun are possessive pronouns not followed by a noun they are personal pronouns." Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 33. " He with viny crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand addressed." Id. E. Gram. p. 83. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES. " But when they convey the idea of many, acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number." Day's Gram. p. 15. "Two or more singular antecedents, connected by and require verbs and pronouns of the plural number." Ib. pp. 80 and 91. " Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into i when a termination is added."- Butler's Gram. p. 11. "A noun, used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense." Ingersoll's Gram. p. 30. " Two nouns, meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together." Bucke's Gram. p. 89. " Each one must give an account to God for the use, or the abuse of the talents, committed to him.'' Cooper's PI. and Pract. Gram. p. 133. "Two vowels, united in one sound, form a diphthong." Frost's El. of E Gram. p. 6. "Three vowels, united in one sound, form a triphthong." Ib. "Any word, joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb." Barrett's Revised Gram. p. 68. " The person spoken to, is put in the Second person. The person, spoken of, in the Third person."- Cutler's Gram. p. 14. "A man, devoted to his business, prospers." Frost's Pr. Gram. p. 131 UNDER RULE XII. OF ADVERBS. " So in indirect questions ; as, < Tell me when he will come.' " Butler's Gram. p. 121. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the adverb So is not set off by the comma. But, according to Rule 12th, "Ad verbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after So ; thus, " So, in indirect questions ; aa," &c.] " Now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, the verb is transi- tive." Bullions, Pract. Les. p. 37. "Agreeably to your request I send this letter." Id. E. Gram. p. 141. " There seems therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification." Id. E. Gram. p. 199. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a mer- chantman, seeking goodly pearls." ALGER'S BIBLE : Matt, xiii, 45. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was cast into the sea." Ib. ib. verse 47. "Cease how- ever, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 171. " Time admits of three natural divisions, namely : Present, Past, and Future." Pay'.? Gram. p. 37. " There are three kinds of comparison, namely : regular, irregular, and adverbial." Ib. p. 31. "There are five Personal Pronouns namely: /, thou, he, she, and it." Ib. p. 22. " Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 16 ; P. Lessons, p. 19. "Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study words." Frazee's Gram. p. 18. "Participles like Verbs relate to Nouns and Pro- nouns." Miller's Ready Grammarian, p. 23. "The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the leading verb." Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. 97. " The dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego, And leap exulting like the bounding roe."Hiley's Gram. p. 123. UNDER RULE XIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. " But he said, Nay ; lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them." FRIENDS' BIBLE, and SMITH'S : Matt, xiii, 29. [FORMULZ. Not proper, because no comma is inserted after lest. But, according to Rule 13th, " Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after the word lest ; thus, " But he said, Nay ; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them." SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, BRUCE'S ] " Their intentions were good ; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed." Murray's Key, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 221. " The verb be often separates the name from its attribute ; as war is expensive." Webster's Philos. Gram. p. 153. "Either and or denote an alternative ; as* I will take either road at your pleasure.'" Ib. p. 63; Imp. CHAP. I.] PROSODY. - PUNCTUATION. COMMA. ERRORS. 757 Gram. 4o. "Either is also a substitute for a name ; as 'Either of the roads is good.' " /-, Imtfi <>'ram._'. " The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular, as book, books." Bullions, E.Gram. p. 12. "A* ' I were to blame, if I did it.' " Sm-irt'a . l-r/./.v/r,-, p. 16. " Or if it be thy will and pleasure Direct my plough to find a treasure." Hiley's Gram. p. 124. " Or if it be thy will and pleasure, Direct my plough to find a treasure." Hart's Gram. p. 185. TJxDF.u RULE XIV. OF PREPOSITIONS. " Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and person." I'm, fi'^i! Cram, pp. 141 and 148 ; Bullions's Anulyt. and J'ract, Gram. p. 150. ;. Not proper, because the preposition in has not the comma before it, as the text requires. But, n<-i-nnliiig to Rule 14th, " Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple pent<-in-c, <>r when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted ; thus, " Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." Or the words may be transposed, and the comma set before with; thus, "Pro- nouns agree in gender, number, and person, witk the nouns for which they stand.''] " In the first two examples the antecedent is person, or something equivalent ; in the last it is thing." Butler, ib. p. 53. " In what character he was admitted is unknown." Ib. p. 55. " To what place he was going is not known." Ib. p. 55. "In the preceding examples John, Cimar, and James are the subjects." Ib. p. 59. "Yes is generally used to denote in the answer to a question." Ib. p. 120. "That in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to take." Ib. p. 127. " But in all these sentences as ando are adrcrbn." Ib. p. 127. "After an interjection or exclamatory sentence is placed the mark of exclamation." Blair's Gram. p. 116. " Intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of voice." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 30. "To the inflection of verbs belong , Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons." Id. ib. p. 33 ; Pract. Lessons, p. 41. "As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly adverbs." Id. E. Gram. p. li:>. " In the following Exercise point out the words in apposition." Id. P. Lessons, p. 1 M.'J. " In the following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor." hi. ib. p. lOo. "Its is not found in the Bible except by misprint." IlaUock's Gram. p. 68. " No one's interest is concerned except mine." Ib. p. 70. "In most of the modern lan- - there are four concords." St. Quentin's Gen. Gram. p. 143. " In illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case." Hart's Gram. p. 101. "On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation." Ib. p. 172 ; Murray's, 8vo, p. 242. UNDER RULE XV. OF LVTERJECTIONS. " Behold he is in the desert." SCOTT'S BIBLE : Matt, xxiv, 26. [FOBMULE. Not proper, because the interjection Behold, which has usually a comma after it in Scripture, has here no point. But, according to Rule 15th, " Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma should be used ; thus, " Behold, he is in the desert.'' Common Bible.] "And Lot said unto them, Oh not so my Lord." SCOTT'S BIBLE : Gen. xix, 18. " Oh let me escape thither, (is it not a little one r ) and my soul shall live." SCOTT : Gen. xix, 20. "Behold! I come quickly. Bnu.r,." Day's Gram. p. 74. " Lo ! lam with you always." Day's drum. pp. 10 and 73. "And lo ! I am with you always." Ib. pp. 78 and 110. "Audio,! am with you alway." bmii's Bir.u--., and Burn-.'s : Maft. xxviii, 20. Ha 1 , ha! ha! how laughable that in." Bullions, Pract. Lea. p. 83. "Interjections of Laii>//iter,Il-JL\ he! hi! ho ! " l\'ri;//it's Gram. p. 121. IB Kn.r. XVI. OF "Woups Kr.rK.vrED. " Lend lend your wings ! I mount ! I fly ! " Example varied. [KoRMii-E. Not proper, because the repeated word lend has here no comma. But, according to Rule 16th, I emphatically related. is gi-nerally set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma is required after the former Inul, but n<>t after the latter ; thus, 'Lend, lend your \\incrs ! 1 mount! I fly ! " Pope's Poems, p. 317.] "To bed to bed to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come come come. "What is done cannot be undone. To bed to bed to bed." Sec Bnr : ili\ Sj>, aker, p. 130. " I will roar, that the duke .shall cry, Encore encore let him roar let him roar once more once more." . p. i:>ij. " Vital spark of heav'nly flame, < Juit oil quit this mortal frame ! "Hifry's Gram. p. 126. " Vital spark of heav'nly flame, Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame ! " Bullions, E. Gr. p. 172. "() the pleasing pleaM;^ Anguish, When we love, and when we languish." M ', made ; have, had ; pay, paid ; say, said; leave, left ; Dream, dreamt ; mean, meant ; reave and bereave have reft." Ward's Gr. p. GO. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE SEMICOLON. UNDER RULE I. OF COMPLEX MKMBERS. "The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit, but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth." Days Gr. p. 72. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the two chief members which compose this period, are separated only by the comma after ''fruit." 1 But, according to Rule 1st for the Semicolon, " When two or more complex members, or BUCQ clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the pause after "fruit " should be marked by a semicolon.] " But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several ora- tions, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 84. " For the sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant, and because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form ." Ib. p. 192. " But if I say 4 Will a man be able to carry this burden ? ' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed, the reference is not to number, but to the species, and the answer might be ' No ; but a horse will.' " Ib. p. 193. " Indirect discourse, a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself, is said to be of ihcfrsf person used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person, and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person." Ib. p. 195. " Vice stings us, even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us, even in our pains." Day's Gram. p. 84. " Vice is infamous though in a prince, and virtue honorable though in a peasant." Ib. p. 72. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun, because 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing." Bullions, Pract. Les. p. 83. " This is the sword, with which he did the deed, And that the shield by which he was defended." Buckcs Gram. p. 66. UNDER RULE II. OP SIMPLE MEMBERS. "A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenance, a chilling terror convulsed his frame ; his voice burst out at x intervals into broken accents." Principles of Eloquence, p. 73. [ FORMULE. Not proper, because the first pause in this sentence is not marked by a suitable point. But, ro Hule 2<1 for the Semicolon, " When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma. they are usually separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the comma after " countenance " should be changed to a semicolon.] "The Lacedemonians never traded they knew no luxury they lived in houses built of rough materials they lived at public tables fed on black broth, and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious." W/telplt -i/'s lectures, p. 167. " Government is the agent, Society is the principal." WaylaiuFs Mnrtil Mvnce, 1st Ed., p. 377. " The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb, to which was Subsequently added, the Conjunction." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 191. "The first faint gleam- in^s of thought in its mind are but the reflections from the parents' own intellect, the first manifestations of temperament are from the contagious parental fountain, the first as- pirations of soul arc but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit." Jocelyn's /'//./ /.'way, p. 4. "Older and oldest refer to maturity of n nd eldest to priority of rii;ht by birth. Father and furthest denote place or distance : Further nndfurt/iesf, quantity I or addition." Bullion*, E. (inun. p. 1 IS. Let the divisions be furfural, such as obviously *t themselves to the mind, and as may aid your main design, and be easily re- membered." Goltljttniry's Man mil of ( ,>//. p. 91. " Gently make haste, of labour not afraid : A hundred times consider what you've said." Drydcns Art of Poetry. UNDI-.R KI-LI; III. OF APPOSITION', &c. (1.) "Adjectives arc divided into two classes: Adject ices denoting quality, and Ad.: d>nntin'j number." Frost's Practical Grain, p. .'11. [FoRMCLK. Not proper, bocause the colon after the word " claws," is not the most suitable fSgn of the pause r. quired. Rut. according to Rule 3d for the Semicolon. Wor.N in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and 1 - Mian that of the colon, may be i t.y t'm iH.Mni<-(.|,.n.'- In thi- m*>. the ^mirolon should have been preferred to the colon.] 760 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART (2.) "There are two classes of adjectives qualifying adjectives, and limiting adjectives." Butler's Practical Gram. p. 33. (3.) " There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Femi- nine, and the Neuter." Frost's Pract. Gram. p. 51 ; Hiley's Gram. p. 12 ; Aider's, 16 ; & Put- nam's, 14 ; Murray's, 8vo, 37 ; and others. (4.) " There are three genders : the MASCULINE, the FEMININE, and the NEUTER." Murray's Gram. 12mo, p. 39 ; Jaudon's,25. (5.) "There are three Genders : The Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter" Hendrick's Gram. p. 15. (6.) " The Singular denotes ONE, and the Plural MORE THAN ONE." Hart's Gram. p. 40. (7.) " There are three Cases viz. the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective" Hendrick's Gram. p. 7. (8.) " Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." Kirkham's Gram. p. 41. (9.) " In English, nouns have three cases the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." R. C. Smith's New Gram. p. 47. (10.) " Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, PROSODY." Ib. p. 41. (11.) " It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY." L. Mur- ray's Grammars all ; T. Smith's Gram. p. 5. (12.) " It is divided into four parts : viz. Orthog- raphy Etymology Syntax Prosody." Bucke's Gram. p. 3. (13.) " It is divided into four parts, namely: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody." Day's Gram.p.5. (14.) " It is divided into four parts : viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody." Hendrick's Gram. p. 11. (15.) " Grammar is divided into four parts : viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody." Chandler's Gram. p. 13. (16.) " It is divided into four parts : Orthog- raphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody." Cooper's PI. and Pract. Gram. p. 1 ; Frost's Pract. Gram. 19. (17.) " English grammar has been usually divided into four parts, viz : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody." Nutting's Gram. p. 13. (18.) "Tem- perance leads to happiness, intemperance to misery." Hiley's Gram. -p. 137; Hart's, 180. (19.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy his crimes." Hiley's Gram. p. 137. (20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy his crimes." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 325. (21.) "Many writers use a. plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives, thus, < The first and second pages are torn.' " Bullions, E. Gram., 5th Ed., p. 145. (22.) " Of these, the Latin has six, the Greek, five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the French, three, &c." Id. ib. p. 196. " In (ing} it ends, when doing is express'd, In d, t, n, when suffering's confess'd." Brightland's Gram. p. 93. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. " In old books i is often used forj, v for u, vv for to, and ii or ij for y." Hart's E. Gram. p. 22. " The forming of letters into words and syllables is also called Spelling." Ib. p. 21. "Labials are formed chiefiy by the lips, dentals by the teeth, palatals by the palate, gut- turals by the throat, nasals by the nose, and linguals by the tongue." Ib. p. 25. " The labials are p, b,f, v ; the dentals t, d,s, z; the palatals g soft andj; the gutturals k, q, and c and g hard ; the nasals m and n ; and the linguals I and r." Ib. p. 25. " Thus, the man having finished his letter, will carry it to the post office.' " Ib. p. 75. "Thus, in the sen- tence ' he had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' concealed is passive, signifying being con- cealed ; but in the former combination, it goes to make up a form, the force of which is active." Ib. p. 75. "Thus, in Latin, 'he had concealed the dagger' would be ' pugionem abdiderat;' but he had the dagger concealed' would be l pugionem abditum habebat.'" Ib. p. 75. "Here, for instance, means ' in this place,' now, ' at this time,' &c." Ib. p. 90. " Here when both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb, and also connects the two verbs, and so is a conjunction." Ib. p. 91. " These words were all no doubt origi- nally other parts of speech, viz.: verbs, nouns, and adjectives." Ib. p. 92. "The principal parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object, in other words the nomi- native, the verb, and the objective." Ib. p. 104. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, &c." Ib. p. 104. "Between refers to two, among to more than two." Ib. p. 120. "At is used after a verb of rest, to after a verb of motion." Ib. p. 120. "Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Pas- sive, and Neuter." Lennie's Gram. p. 19 ; Bullions, Prin., 2d Ed., p. 29. " Verbs are divid- ed into two classes: Transitive and Intransitive." Hendrick's Gram. p. 28. "The Parts of Speech in the English language are nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pro- noun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection and Conjunction." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram. p. 7. " Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are declined, the rest are indeclin- able." Id. ib. p. 7 ; Practical Lessons, p. 9. "The first expression is called the 'Active form.' The second the 'Passive form.' " Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 83 ; Abridged, p. 66. " O 'tis a godlike privilege to save, And he that scorns it is himself a slave." Cowpcr, Vol. i, p. 123. SECTION III. THE COLON. The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semi- colon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period. CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. COLON. RULES. ERRORS. 761 RULE I. ADDITIONAL REMARKS. When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted : as, "Avoid evil doers : in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself." " See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle : man of pleasure, behold thy image ! " Art of Thinking, p. 94. " Some things we can, and others we cannot do : we can walk, but we cannot fly." Beattie's Moral Science, p ll'J. " Remember Heav'n has an avenging rod : To smite the poor is treason against God." Cowper. RULE II. GREATER PAUSES. When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as, " Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptu- ous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." " Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a Christian must be the greatest monster in nature : he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish ; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief : his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety." Principles of Eloquence, p. 80. "A decent competence we fully taste; It strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast : More we perceive by dint of thought alone ; The rich must labour to possess their own." Young. RULE III. INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon ; as, " In his last moments, he uttered these words : 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury' " "At this the king hastily retorted : No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'" GhurchilVs Gram. p. 367. "The father addressed himself to them to this effect : * my sons, behold the power of unity J ' " Rippingham'' s Art of Speaking, p. 85. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE COLON. UNDER RULE I. ADDITIONAL REMARKS. "'>/' is a preposition, it expresses the relation between fear and Lord." Bullions, E. (lr mi. p. 133. [FoKMt'LE. Not proper, because the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from the main clause, by the comma after the word proposition. But, according to Rule 1st for the Colon, ; ' When the -i_' clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted." Therefore, the colon should here be substi- tuted for the comma.] " Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; that tends to excite pride, this dis- contentment." Id. if), p. OS : sec als< . p. Si ; Murray's, of> ; Inycrsoll's, 61; Al-n-rs. -") ; Mi rrhinit'.t, -H ; Hurt's, 137; ft at. "Religion raises men above themselves, irr li<_ p ion sinks them beneath the brutes ; this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, that opens for them a prospect to the skies." Bullions, E. (iram. p. 98 ; \ (!nti. p. 81. "Love not idleness, it destroys many." Ingcrsott's Gram. p. 71. "Children, obey your parents ; honor thy father and "mother, is the first commandment whh promise." /JH///O//.V, j >*, p. 8S. " Thou art my hiding place, and ray shield. I hope in thy promises." o. /;. nn. p. of>. "The sun shall not smite me by . p. '>!. " Here (rreece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects WmongwMebuu is numbered the nations of antiquity she is one of them." Lcnnius Gram. p. 79. "From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose I wake; ho\v happy they who wake no more ! " llallork's Gram. p. 21G. r.vnr.u RI-I.K II. GHI:\TI:U IV "A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, implies only capacity 762 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. for enjoyment ; as, When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice.' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 147. [FoBMCLE. Not proper, because the pause after enjoyment is marked only by a semicolon. But. according to Rule 2d for the Colon, " When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed." Therefore, the second semicolon, here should be changed to a colon.] " The Indicative mood simply declares a thing ; as, He loves ; He is loved ; Or, it asks a question ; as, Lovest thou me ? " Id. ib. p. 35 ; Pract. Lessons, p. 43 ; Lennie's Gr. p. 20. " The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing : as, ' He loves, he is loved : ' or it asks a question : as, 'Does he love ? ' ' Is he loved ? ' " L. Murray's Gram. 8v<>, p. 63 ; 12mo, p. 63. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past ; as, Csesar came, and saw, and conquered ; or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time, now entirely past ; as, My father was cominy home when I met him." Bullions, P. L. p. 45 ; E. Gr. 39. " Some nouns have no plural ; as, gold, silver, wisdom, health ; others have no singular ; as, ashes, shears, tongs ; others are alike in both numbers : as, sheep, deer, means, news." Day's School Gram. p. 15. " The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in another ; thus, in the sentence, ' He believes my story,' believes is transitive ; but in this phrase, ' He believes in God,' it is intransitive." Butler's Gram. p. 61. " Let the divisions be distinct ; one part should not include another, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place, and all the parts well fitted together and united, should present a whole." Golds- bury' s C. S. Gram. p. 91. "In the use of the transitive verb there are always three things implied, the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of the intransitive there are only two the subject or thing spoken of, and the state, or action attributed to it." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 30. " Why labours reason? instinct were as well ; Instinct far better ; what can choose, can err." Brit. Poets, Vol. viii, p. 326. UNDER RULE III. INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. " The sentence may run thus ; He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.' " Hart's Gram. p. 118. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the semicolon is here inserted, in an unusual manner, before a quotation not closely dependent. But, according to Rule 3d for the Colon, " A quotation introduced without a close depend- ence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon." Therefore, the colon should be here preferred.] "Always remember this ancient proverb, Know thyself. ' " Hallock's Gram, p 26. " Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly." Frazees Gram., Stereotype Ed., p. 107 ; 1st Ed., 110. " The comparative is used thus ; Greece was more polished than any rther nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out. Thus. Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity.' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 114 : see Lennie's Gram. p. 78. "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth ; ' Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever. They think they are talking to inno- cents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.' "Hiley's Gram. p. 137 : see also Hart's, 180. " For sects he car'd not, ' they are not of us, Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.' " Crabbe. " Habit with him was all the test of truth, ' It must be right : I've done it from my youth.' Questions he answer 'd in as brief a way, ' It must be wrong it was of yesterday.' " Id. Borough, p. 33. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. " This would seem to say, ' I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his promise ; ' whereas, that is the very thing not doubted." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 147. " The common use of language requires that a distinction be made between morals and manners, the former depend upon internal dispositions, the latter on outward and visible accomplishments." Seattle's Moral Science, p. 233. " Though I detest war in each partic- ular fibre of my heart yet I honor the Heroes among our fathers who fought with bloody hand : Peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to their light ; the most inspired can be no more, and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less." Parker's Idea of a Church, p. 21. "The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined with it, whereas that, like one, may have it understood ; thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, ' give me that ; ' but not, ' give me the ; ' ' give me one ; ' but not ' give me a.' " Bullions' s E. Gram. p. 194. " The Present tense has three distinct forms the simple ; as, I read ; the emphatic; as, I do read ; and the progressiv e ; as, I am reading." Ib. p. 39. "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect." Ib. p. 38. " There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect ; as, ' loving, loved, having CI1AP. I.] PROSODY. - PUNCTUATION. - PERIOD. - RULES. 763 loved.' " /,. Murray's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 52 ; Alger's, 28 ; Fisk's, 82 ; Bacon's, 24. " The Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect ; as, loving, loved, hai-inij loccd." Hart's dram. p. 74. " I Vill is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal " ' verb, as, present, I will, past, I willed, &c." Frazec's Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 42 ; Old Ed., p. 40. "And both sounds of x are compound, one is that of yz, and the other, that of ks." Ib. Ster. Ed., p. 16. " The man is happy : he is benevolent : he is useful." Cooper's Murray, p. 18 ; PI. and Pract. Gr. 33. "The Pronoun stands instead of the noun; as, The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." L. Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 27. "A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, Thc man is happy,' 'he is benevolent,' ' he is useful.' " Ib. p. 37. "A pronoun is a word, used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words, as : the man is happy ; he is benevolent; he is useful." Cooper's PL and Pr. Gram. p. 14 ; his Abridy. of Mur. 34. "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of beings, or things, as : animal ; tree ; insect; fish; fowl." Cooper's PL and Pr. Gram. p. 17. "Nouns have three persons: the lirst ; the second; and the third." Ib. 17. " (Eve) so saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit ; she pluck' d, she ate ! Earth felt the wound : and nature from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo, That all was lost." Cooper's PI. and Pr. Gram. p. 175. SECTION IV. THE PERIOD. The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sen- tence, whether simple or compound. RULE I. DISTINCT SENTENCES. When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period : as, " Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm." "The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book ; the commas and dashes are alive with it." R. W. Emerson. " By frequent trying, TROY was won. All things, by trying, may be done." Lloyd, p. 183. RULE II. ALLIED SENTENCES. The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general con- nexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as, " The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are confined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity." Blair. "And whether we shall meet again, I know not. Therefore our everlasting farewell take." Shah., J. C. RULE III. ABBREVIATIONS. The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points ; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pnuse, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them : as, A. D. for Domini; Pro tem. for pro tempore ; Ult. for ultimo ; i. e. foridest, that is; Add., Spect, No. *J.s5 ; i. e., Addison, in the Spectator, Number 2S5th. " Consult the statute ; ' quart.' I think, it is, 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim, et quint. KHz.' "Pope, p. 399. OBSERVATIONS. Ona. 1. It seems to be commonly supposed, whether correctly or not, that short sentences which are in themselves distinct, and which in their stated use must be separated by the period, may sometimes be rehearsed as examples, in so close succession aa not to require this point: as, But if thou wilt, enter into life, keep the commandments. lie saith unto him, Which ? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou sha't not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neigh- bour as thyself." SCOTT, ALOER, AX > OTKBBI \, 17. 18, 19. " The following sentences exemplify" the possessive pronouns: '.Vy lesson is finished; Thy books are defaced ; Heloves his studies ; She performs her Jutv ; We own our faults ; Your situation is distressing ; I Admire 764 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [pART IV. their virtues.' " L. Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 55. "What mode of pointing is best adapted to examples like these, is made a very difficult question by the great diversity of practice in such cases. The semicolon, with guillemets, or the semicolon and a dash, with the quotation marks, may sometimes be sufficient; but I see no good reason why the j?en'oe should not in general be preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, where full and distinct sentences are thus recited. The foregoing passage ot Scripture I have examined in five different languages, ten different translations, and seventeen different editions, which happened to be at hand. In these, it is found pointed in twelve different ways. In Leusden's, Griesbach's, and Aitton's Greek, it has nine colons ; in Leusden's Latin from Montanus, eight; in the common French version, six ; in the old Dutch, five ; in our Bibles, usually one, but not always. In some books, these com- mandments are mostly or wholly divided by periods ; in others, by colons ; in others, by semico- lons ; in others, as above, by commas. The first four are negative, or prohibitory ; the other two, positive, or mandatory. Hence some make a greater pause after the fourth, than elsewhere between any two. This greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon, the colon, or the period; and the others, at the same time, as variously, by the comma, the semicolon, or the colon. Dr. Campbell, in his Four Gospels, renders and points the latter part of this passage thus : ''Jesus answered, ' Thou shalt not commit murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not give false testimony. Honour thy father and mother ; and love thy neighbour as thyself.' " But the corresponding passage in Luke, xviii, 20, he exhibits thus : " Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery ; do not commit murder ; do not steal ; do not give false testimony ; honour thy father and thy mother." This is here given as present advice, referring to the commandments, but not actually quoting them ; and, in this view of the matter, semicolons, not followed by capitals, may be right. See the common reading under Rule XIV for Capitals, on page 155. OBS. 2. Letters written for numbers, after the manner of the Romans, though read as words, are never words in themselves ; nor are they, except perhaps in one or two instances, abbreviations of words. C, a hundred, comes probably from Centum; and M, a thousand, is the first letter of Mille ; but the others, I, V, X, L, D, and the various combinations of them all, are direct numerical signs, as are the Arabic figures. Hence it is not really necessary that the period should be set after them, except at the end of a sentence, or where it is suitable as a sign of pause. It is, however, and always has been, a prevalent custom, to mark mimbers of this kind with a period, as if they were abbreviations; as, "While pope Sixtus V. who succeeded Gregory XIII. fulmi- nated the thunder of the church against the king of Navarre." Smollett's Eng. iii, 82. The period is here inserted where the reading requires only the comma ; and, in my opinion, the latter point should have been preferred. Sometimes, of late, we find other points set after this period ; as, " Otho II., surnamed the Bloody, was son and successor of Otho I. ; he died in 983." Univ. Bioff. Diet. This may be an improvement on the former practice, but double points are not yet generally used, even where they are proper ; and, if the period is not indispensable, a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the sanction of general usage. OBS. 3. Some writers, judging the period to be wrong or needless in such cases, omit it, and insert only such points as the reading requires ; as, " For want of doing this, Judge Blacks ;one has, in Book IV, Chap. 17, committed some most ludicrous errors." Cobbett's Gram., Let. X IX, II 251. To insert points needlessly, is as bad a fault as to omit them when they are requisite. In Wm. Day's " Punctuation Reduced to a System," (London, 1847,) we have the following ob- scure and questionable RULE : "Besides denoting a grammatical pause, the full point is use I to mark contractions, and is requisite after every abbreviated toord, as well as after numeral letttrs." Page 102. This seems to suggest that both a pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point. But what are properly called "contractions," are marked, not by the period, but by the apostrophe, which is no sign of pause ; and the confounding of these with words " abbreviated," makes this rule utterly absurd. As for the period " after numeral letters," if they really needed it at all, they would need it severally, as do the abbreviations ; but there are none of them, which do not uniformly dispense with it, when not final to the number; and they may as well dispense with it, in like manner, whenever they are not final to the sentence. OBS. 4. Of these letters, Day gives this account: "M. denotes mille, 1,000; D., dimidium mille, half a thousand, or 500; C. centum, 100; L, represents the luwer half of C., and expresses 50; X. resembles V. V., the one upright, the other inverted, and signifies 10; V. stands for 5, because its sister letter U is the fifth vowel ; and /. signifies 1, probably because it is theplainest and simplest character in the alphabet." Day's Punctuation, p. 103. There is some fancy in this. Dr. Adam says, " The Letters employed for this purpose [i. e. to express numbers,] were C. I. L. V. X." Latin and Eng. Gram. p. 288. And again : "A thousand is marked thus CIO. which in later times was contracted into M. Five hundred is marked thus, IQ, or by contraction, D." lb. Day inserts periods thus : "IV. means 4; IX., 9 ; XL., 40; XC.,90; CD., 400 ; CM. ,900." Page 103. And again: " 4to. quarto, the fourth of a sheet of paper; 8vo., octavo, the eighth of a sheet of paper ; 12mo., duodecimo, the twelfth of a sheet of paper ; N. L., 8., 9'., 10"., North latitude, eight degrees, nine minutes, ten seconds." Page 104. But IV may mean 4, without the period ; 4to or 8vo has no more need of it than 4th or 8th ; and N. L. 8 9' 10" is an expres- sion little to be mended by commas, and not at all by additional periods. OBS. 5. To allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points wherever it occurs, as authors generally have done, is sometimes plainly objectionable ; but, on the other hand, to suppose double points to be always necessary wherever abbreviations or Roman numbers have pauses less than final, would sometimes seem more nice than wise, as in the case of Biblical and other references. A concordance or a reference Bible pointed on this principle, would differ perish, Prov. xxix. 18. Acts iv. 12. Rom. x. 14." Brown's Catechism, p. 104. " What I urge Pref. 1 - , . from 1. Pet. 3. 21. in my Apology." Barclay's Works, iii, 498. " I. Kings II. Kings." Acer's Bible, p. iv. " Compare iii. 45. with 1. Cor. iv. 13." Scott's Bible, Pref. to Lam. Jer. " CRAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. PERIOD. ERRORS. 765 A. 4. Sc. 5." Butter's Gram. p. 41. " See Rule iii. Rem. 10." Ib. p. 162. Some set a colon between the number of the chapter and that of the verse ; which mark serves well for distinction, where both numbers are in Arabic figures : as, " ' He that formed the eye, shall he not see ? ' Ps. 94 : 9." Welly's Gram. p. 126. " He had only a lease-hold title to his service. Lev. 25 : 39, Exod. 21: 2." True Amer. i, 29. Others adopt the following method, which seems preferable to any of the foregoing: "Isa. lv, 3; Ezek. xviii, 20; Mic. vi, 7." Gumey's Essays, p. 133. Churchill, who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation, writes as follows : "Luke, vi, 41, 42. See also Chap, xv, 8; and Phil., iii, 12." New Gram. p. 353. Ons. 6. Arabic figures tised as ordinals, or used for the .numeral adverbs, first, or firstly, sec- ondly, thirdly, Arc., are very commonly pointed with the period, even where the pause required after them is less than a full stop ; as, " We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing resolution and 2. as expressing futurity." Butler's Gram. p. 106. But the period thus followed by a small letter, has not an agreeable appearance, and some would here prefer the comma, which is, un- doubtedly, better suited to the pause. A fitter practice, however, would be, to change the i-xpressioii thus: " We shall consider these words, 1st, as expressing resolution; and, 2dly, as expres>ing futurity." Ons. 7. Names vulgarly shortened, then written as they are spoken, are not commonly marked with a period; as, Ben for Benjamin: " O RARE BEX JOHNSON ! " Biog. Diet. " From whence the inference is plain , Your friend MAT PHIOE wrote with pain." LLOYD: B. P., Vol. viii, p. 188. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE PERIOD. UNDER RULE I. DISTINCT SENTENCES. "The third person is the position of the name spoken of ; as, Paul and Silas were im- prisoned, the earth thirsts, the sun shines." Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 21; Ster. Ed., p. 23. [FuRMULE. Not proper, because three totally distinct sentences are here thrown together as examples, with no other distinction th:m what is made by two commas. But, according to Rule 1st for the Period, " When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period." Therefore, these commas should be periods; and, of course, the first letter of each example must be a capital.] "Two and three and four make nine ; if he were here, he would assist his father and mother, for lie is a dutiful son ; they live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society ; they went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day." Goldtburt^t 7'a/-.v///r/ Lrxwns in his Manual of E. Gram, p. 64. " We often resolve, but seldom perform ; she is wiser than her sister ; though he is often advised, yet he does not reform ; reproof either softens or hardens its object ; he is as old as his classmates, but not so learned ; neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him ; let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall ; he can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices." Ibid. "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd, Thy image, lovely Anna ! hung portray 'd, Th ' unconscious figure, smiling all serene, Suspended in a golden chain was seen." S. Barrett's E. Gr. p. 92. UNDER KULE II. ALLIED SENTENCES. " This life is a mere prelude to another, which has no limits, it is a little portion of du- ration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgment will find us." Merchant's School G rn m. p. 76. [FORMULE. Not proper, because the pause after limits, which is sufficient for the period, is marked only by the comma. But. according to Kule 2d, " The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb.'' It would improve the passage, to omit the lirst comma, change the second to a period, and write the pronoun it with a capital. Judg- ment also might be bettered with an e, and another is properly two words.] " He went from Boston to New York ; he went from Boston ; he went to New York ; in walkii* .e floor, he stumbled over a chair." Gnldslntry' s Manual of E. dram. p. 62. "I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house; during the heai; of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree." Id. i!>. >rge came homo, I saw him yesterday, here ; the word him, can extend only to the individual George." >'. llari-ctt\\ E. Cram., 10th Ed., p. -lo. " Commas are often used now, where parentheses were formerly ; I cannot, however, in this an improvement." See the A "Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimproved, And know, for that thou slumb'rest on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar For every fugitive." Hallock's Gram. p. 222 ; Knfii-lifs fy. p. 380. III. OF AitMUKvi.vi, 11 The term pronoun (Lat pronomen} strictly means a word used for, or instead of a noun." liullinnx, E. G,-um. p. 198. [K"i;MU.E. Not proper, because tho syllable here put for the word T.ntin. is not marked with a period. l!uf, accoiding to Kule 3d, " The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other 766 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. points ; but, as in this case ifc is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them." In this instance, a period should mark the abbreviation, and a comma be set after of. , By analogy, in stead is also more properly two words than one.] " The period is also used after abbreviations ; as, A. D. P. S. G. W. Johnson." Butler's Pract. Gram. p. 211. "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz : the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 191. " 'Metre is not confined to verse : there is a tune in all good prose ; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.' Epea Pter, II, 61. Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's ; but not accurately expressed." Churchill's New Gram. p. 385. " Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M ; being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young, and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years." Div. of Purley, 1st Amer. Edition, Vol. i, p. 60. " I, nor your plan, nor book condemn, But why your name, and why A. M ! " Lloyd. MIXED EXAMPLES OF EHROR. " 'If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath, &c. Isaiah. Iviii. 7." Butler's Gram. p. 67. " ' He that hath eeris of herynge, here he. Wiclif. Matt xi." Butlers Gram. p. 76. " See General'Rules for Spelling, iii., v., and vii." Butler's Gram. p. 81. " ' False witnessses did rise up.' Ps. xxxv. ii." Butler's Gram. p. 105. "An explicative sentence is used for explaining. An interrogative sentence for enquiring. An imperative sentence for commanding." S. Barrett's Prin. of Language, p. 87. " In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears ; Susan labors with her needle for a livelihood ; notwithstand- ing his poverty, he is a man of integrity." Goldsbury's Parsing, Manual of E. Gram. p. 62. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables ; a dissyllable. A word of three syllables ; a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables ; a polysyllable." Frazee's Improved Gram., 1st Ed., p. 15. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosylla- ble. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable. A word of three syllables, a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable." Frazee's Improved Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 17. " If I say, if it did not rain, I would take a walk ; ' I convey the idea that it does rain, at the time of speaking, If it rained, or did it rain, in the present time, implic s, it does not rain ; if it did not rain, or did it not rain, in present time, implies that it does rain; thus in this peculiarity, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation, and a nega- tive sentence an affirmation." Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 61 ; Ster. Ed., 62. "If I were l^ved, and, were I loved, imply, I am not loved ; if I were not loved, and, were I not loved, imply, I', am loved ; a negative sentence implies an affirmation ; and an affirmative sentence impli es a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive." Ib., Old Ed., p. 73 ; Ster. Ed., 72. "What is Rule III. ? "Hart's Gram. p. 114. " How is Rule III. violated ? "Ib. p. 115. " How do you parse letter ' in the sentence, ' James writes a letter ' ? Ans. ' Letter is a noun com., of the MASC. gend., in the 3d p., sing, num., and objective case, and is governed by the verb 'writes,' according to Rule III., which says. 'A transitive verb,' &c."Ib. p. 114.* ' Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause ; An awful pause ! prophetic of her end, And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled ; Fate drop the curtain ; I can lose no more." Hallock's Gram. p. 216. SECTION V. THE DASH. The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length ; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking : as, " Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said : i He was very sorry for it, was extremely con- cerned it should happen so but a it was necessary a ' Here lord E stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other." See OhurcUIVs G-ram. p. 170. RULE I. ABRUPT PAUSES. A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash ; as, 1. " ' I must inquire into the affair ; and if 'And iff ' interrupted the farmer." 2. " Whom I But first 't is fit the billows to restrain." Dryd. Virg. 3. " HERE LIES THE GREAT False marble ! where ? Nothing but sordid dust lies here." Young. * Needless abbreviations, like most that occur in this example, are in bad taste, and ought to be avoided. The great faultiness of this text as a model for learners, compels me to vary the words considerably in suggesting the correction. See the Key. Q. B. CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE DASH. ERRORS. 767 RULE II. EMPHATIC PAUSES. To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed ; as, 1. "I pause for a reply. None ? Then none have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar, than you should do to Brutus." SHAKSPEARE : Enfield's Speaker, p. 182. 2. " Tarry a little. There is something else. This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood." ID. Burgh's Sp. p. 1G7. 3. " It thunders; but it thunders to preserve." Young. 4. " Behold the picture ! Is it like ? Like whom? " Oowper. RULE III. FAULTY DASHES. Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in gen- eral to be treated as errors in punctuation ; as, " Here Greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity She was none of the other nations She was more polished than they." Lennie's Gram. p. 78. "Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She was none of the other nations: She was more polished than they." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 114. If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless : a period would, perhaps, be better. OBSERVATIONS. OBS 1. The dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop, or always intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it. As one instance of a different design, we may notice, that it is now very often employed between a text and a reference ; i. e., between a quotation and the name of the author or of the book quoted ; in which case, as Wm. Day suggests, " it serves as a connecting mark for the two." Day's Punctuation, p. 131. But this usage, being compara- tively recent, *is, perhaps, not so general or so necessary, that a neglect of it may properly be censured as false punctuation. OBS. 2. An other peculiar use of the dash, is its application to side-titles, to set them off from other words in the same line, as is seen often in this Grammar as well as in other works. Day says of this, " When the substance of a paragraph is given as a side-head, a dash is necessary to t it with its relative matter." Ibid. Wilson also approves of this usage, as well as of the others here named ; saying, " The dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter, and the authority from which it is taken, when they occur in the same paragraph." Wilson's Punctuation, Ed. of 1850, p. 139. OHS. 3. The dash is often used to signify the omission of something; and, when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers, it may represent all the intermediate ones ; as, " Page 1015 ; " i. e. " Page 10, 11, 12, &c. to 15."" Matt, vi, 914." IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE DASH. UNDEB RULE I. ABRUPT PAUSES. "And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles . . . Does Mr. Bevil know your history particularly : " See Key. [FoRMCLE. Not proper, because the abrupt pause after resembles is here marked by three periods. But, according to Rule 1st for the Dash, " A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash." Therefore, the dash should be preferred to these points.] " Sir, Mr. Myrtle, Gentlemen ! You are friends ; lam but a servant. But." See Key. "Another man now would have given plump into this foolish story ; but I ? No, no, your humble servant for that." Sec " Do not plunge thyself too far in anger, lest thou hasten thy trial ; which if Lord have mercy on thee for a hen ! " Sec " But ere they came, O, let me say no more ! Gather the sequel by that went before." See Key. UNDER RULE II. EMPHATIC PAUSES. ".V, Malvolio ; .V, why, that begins my name." [FORMCLE. Not proper, because the pauses after M and Malt-olio seem not to be sufficiently indicated here. Bat, according to Rule 1M for the Dash, " To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the enU-nce or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed. " Therefore, a dash may be Mt after the commas and the semicolon, in this sentence.] " Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, -were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days, so admirably finished, an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty, that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Se< 41 If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my 768 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. country, I NEVER would lay down my arms; NEVER, NEVER NEVER." Co bian Orator, p. 265. "Madam, yourself are not exempt in this, Nor your son Dorset, Buckingham, nor you." See Key. UNDER RULE III. FAULTY DASHES. " You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle Toby, to my house, and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter, and we'll have an apothecary, and the cor- poral shall be your nurse ; and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre." STERNE : Enfold' s Speaker, p. 306. [FORMULE. Not proper, because all the dashes here quoted, except perhaps the last, are useless, or obviously substituted for more definite marks. But, according to Rule 3d, " Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation " Therefore, the first of these should be simply expunged ; the second, third, and fourth, with their commas, should be changed to semi- colons ; and the last, with its semicolon, may well be made a colon.] " He continued Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials." HARRIS: Enfield's Speaker, p. 191. "Thus, then, continued he The end in other arts is ever distant and removed." Id. ib. " The nouns must be coupled with and, and when a pronoun is used it must be plural, as in the example When the nouns are disjoined the pronoun must be singular." Lennie's Grammar, 5th Ed., p. 57. "Opinion is a noun or substantive common, of the singular number, neuter gender, nominative case, and third person." Wright's Philos. Gram. p. 228. " The mountain thy pall and thy prison may keep thee ; I shall see thee no more ; but till death I will weep thee." Felton's Gram. p. 146. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. " If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth ; if this be beyond me, 'tis not pos- sible. What consequence then follows ? or can there be any other than this If I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others; I seek an interest which is chimeri- cal, and can never have existence." HARRIS : Enfield's Speaker, p. 139. "Again I must have food and clothing Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself? To the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?" Id. ib. p. 140. " Nature instantly ebb'd again the film returned to its place the pulse flutter'd stopp'd went on throbb'd stopp'd again mov'd stopp'd shall I go on? No." STERXE: ib. p. 307. " Write ten nouns of the masculine gender. Ten of the feminine. Ten of the neuter. Ten indefinite in gender." Pardon Davis's Gram. p. 9. "The Infinitive Mode has two tenses the Indicative, six the Potential, two the Sub- junctive, six, and the Imperative, one." Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 39 ; 1st Ed., 37. " Now notice the following sentences. John runs, boys run thou runnest." Ib., Ster. Ed., p. 50; 1st Ed., p. 48. "The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name sometimes for an adjective a sentence a part of a sentence and, sometimes for a whole series of propositions." O. B. Pierce' s Gram., 1st Ed., 12mo, p. 321. " The self- applauding bird, the peacock, see " Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he ! " Cowper, i, 49. SECTION VI. THE EROTEME. The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to designate a question. RULE I. QUESTIONS DIRECT. Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation ; as, " \Vas it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice ? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender ? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy? " Jerningham 's Essay, p. 81. " In life, can love be bought with gold ? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ? " Johnson. RULE II. QUESTIONS UNITED. When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only; as, 1. "When under what administration under what exigencies CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE EROTEME. OBSERVATIONS. 769 of war or peace did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a man- ner? Never, sir, never." D. Webster, in Congress, 1846. -. " Canst thou, and honour'd with a Christian name, Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame ; Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead Expedience as a warrant for the deed V " Cowper. 3. " Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, and few understand." Pope. RULE III. QUESTIONS INDIRECT. When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation; as, " The Cyprians asked me why I wept" Murray. OBSERVATIONS. Ous. 1. The value of the croteme as a sign of pause, is stated very differently by different grammarians ; while many of the vast multitude, by a strange oversight, say nothing about it. It is unquestionably raridblr, like that of the dash, or of the ecphoneme. W. H. Wells says, " Thjt* comma requires a momentary pause; the semicolon, a pause somewhat longer than the comma ; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon ; and the period, a full stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation, may take the place of EITHER of these, and accordingly requires a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted." Wells's School Grant, p. 175. This appears to be accurate in idea, though perhaps hardly so in language. Lindley Murray has stated it thus : " The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require." Octavo Gram. p. 280. ButSanborn, in regard to his "Ques- t/mi Point," awkwardly savs : "This patise is generally some longer than that of a period." Analytical Gram. p. 271. Buchanan, as long ago as 1767, taught as follows: "The Pause after the two Points of Interrogation and Admiration ought to be equal to that of the Period, or a Colon '/ Si/nt/r.r, p. 160. And J. S. Hart avers, that, "A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period." Hart's English Gram. p. 166. He says also, that, " the first word after a note of interrogation should begin with a capital." Ib. p. 162. In some instances, however, he, like others, has not adhered to these exceptionable principles, as may be sesn by the false grammar cited below. Ous. 2. Sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in sense, so that each may require the interrogative sign, though some or all of them may be so united in construction, as not to admit either a long intermediate pause or an initial capital ; as, " Is there no honor in generosity ? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of passion ? nor in main- taining the supremacy of moral principle, and in paying reverence to Christian truth ? " Gannett. " True honour is manifested in a steady, uniform train of actions, attended by justice, and directed by prudence. Is this the conduct of the duellist ? will justice support him in robbing the com- munity of an able and useful member ? and in depriving the poor of a benefactor ? will it support him in preparing affliction for the widow's heart? in filling the orphan's eyes with tears ?" Jcrnifiiihiim's Katun/, p. 113. But. in this latter example, perhaps, commas might be substituted for the second and fourth erotemes ; and the word will might, in both instances, begin with a capital. ()if>. 3. When a question is mentioned in its due form, it commonly retains the sign of inter- rogation, though not actually asked by the writer ; and, except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or phrase, requires the initial capital : as, " To know when this point ought to be used, do not say : [,] ' Is a question asked ? ' but, ' Does the sentence ask a question ? ' " ('Inn-charts Gram. p. 3(>8. " They put their huge inarticulate question, ' What do you mean to do with us ? ' in a manner audible to every reflective soul in this kingdom." Carlyfe's Past and if, p. 16. "An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question, How? hew much ? when? or where ? as', in the phrase, ' He reads correctly,' the answer to the question, II >\v does he read ? is oorrn '-'y." /-. Murray's Gram. p. 28. This passage, which, without ever arriving at ^rcat accuracy, h;is Won altered by Murray and others in ways innumerable, is every- where exhibited with five interrogation points. But, as to capitals and" commas, as well as the construction of words, it would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest right. In Flint's Murray, it stands thus: "An adverb may generally be known by its answering the question, How? How much ? When? or Where ? As in the phrase, 'He reads con The answer to the question, ' How does he read ?' is, ' correctly.' " Such questions, when the pause is slight, do not however, in all rases, require capitals : as, " H'lxti/. Which of the visors was it, that you wore ? Ilirun. Where? when? what visor ? why demand you this ?" SAofejpMMV, Love's Labour Lost, Act V, Sc. 2. OBS. 4. A question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration ; its interrogate character depending solely on the erotcme, and the tone, or inflection of voice, adopted in the ut:erance : as, " I suppose, Sir, you are his apothecary ? " SWIFT : Burgh's Speaker, p. 8-5. " I hope, you have, upon no account, promoted sternutation by hellebore ? " Id. ib. " This priest has no" pride in him ? " SINGEH'S SH.VK., Henry VIII, ii, L'. 54 770 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. ERRORS CONCERNING THE EROTEME. UNDER RULE I. QUESTIONS DIRECT. " When -will his ear delight in the sound of arms." O. B. Peirces Gram. 12mo, p. 59. [FoRMUt.E. Not proper, because here is a finished question with a period set after it. But, according to Rule 1st for the Eroteme, " Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation." Therefore, the eroteme, or note of interrogation, should here be substituted for the period.] " When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel." Ib. p. 59. " Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South." Peirce, ib. p. 133. "An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question ; as, ' u-ho is he, and ichat does he want ? ' " Day's School Gram. p. 21. "Who is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or persons ; as, who is that man." Ib. p. 24. " Our fathers, where are they, and the prophets, do they live forever? " Ib. p. 109. " It is true, that some of our lest writers have used than ivhom ; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical : then why not reject this too. The sentences in the Exercises [with than who] are correct as they stand." Lennies Gram., 5th Ed., 1819, p. 79. "When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be ? What does the combination form ? " Hallock's Gram. p. 88. " Those adverbs which answer to the question where, whither or whence, are called adverbs of place. 1 ' Ib. p. 116. " Canst thou, by searching, find out God ; Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfec- tion ; It is high as heaven, what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know r " Blairs met. p. 132. " Where, where, for shelter shall the guilty fly, When consternation turns the good man pale." Ib. p. 222. UNDER RULE II. QUESTIONS UNITED. " Who knows what resources are in store ? and what the power of God may do for thee r " [FORMULE. Not proper, because an eroteme is set after store, where a comma would be sufficient. But, accord- ing to Rule 2d for the Eroteme, " When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only." Therefore, the comma should here be preferred, as the author probably wrote the text. See Key.] " The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should reper.t. Hath he said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ? " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 353; 12mo, 277; Hiley's, 139; Hart's, 181. "Hath t'w Lord said it? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it f and shall he not make it good?"- Lennie's Gram. p. 113 ; Bullions's, 176. "Who calls the council, states the certain day? Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." Brit. Poets, vi, 376. UNDER RULE III. QUESTIONS INDIRECT. " To be, or not to be ? that is the question." Enfield's Sp. p. 367 ; Kirkham's Eloc. 123.* [FoRMDLE. Not proper, because the note of interrogation is here set after an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct question. But. according to Rule 3d for the Eroteme, "When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation." There- fore, the semicolon, which seems adapted to the pause, should here be preferred.] " If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an ac- cent ? or why an emphasis alone, will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words ? the answer is obvious ; that we are pre- acquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pro- nounced, however rapidly ; but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker." Sheridan's Rhet. Gram. p. Ivi. " Cry, By your Priesthood tell me what you are ? " POPE : British Poets, London, 1800, Yol. vi, p. 411. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. " Who else can he be. Where else can he go." S. Barrett's Gram., 1845, p. 71. "In familiar language here, there and where are used for hither, thither and whither." N. Butler's Gram. p. 183. "Take, for instance, this sentence, 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.' " Hart's Gram. p. 106. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted. 'In- dolence undermines the foundation of virtue.' " Ib. p. 110. " Under the same head are con- sidered such sentences as these, ' he that heareth, let him hear,' Gad, a troop shall overcome him.'&c." Ib.p. 108. " TENSES are certain modifications of the verb which point out the distinctions of time." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 38 ; Pract. Les. p. 44. " Calm was the day and the scene delight- * !: To be, or not tol)e ? HiafV ihc question."- 7iWV?r'A Crcm. p. 20. "To be, or not to lc. that is tim question:" iV/'ngw'j , v /i//A-. ii 4'^. " 'MI !<. ii i:n. !<> u> ; tli.tt H the <.:. -:i"ii " - Kurd's (i/a/t,. p. 1UU. 4 -'io be, CT i.ot to I.e. iliar is th<- Qvu.vi'.'ii ;''.& iglihritia's G, <ame >inn may be there also.] (2.) ' O th:it his heart was tender." i:.r,-r, vV.v, ib. p. 111. (3.) "()/i, what a sight is here!"/. IS. (1.) "Oh! what a si^ht is here." /**////>/<*, I'. Gram, p, 71; (Obs. 2;)P .83. (5.) " O virtue ! How amiable thou art." Id. ib. p. 71; p. 82. (6.) ()////A-:I;EU, and [||] the PARALLELS, refer to marginal notes. The SECTION also [J, and the PARAGRAPH [1i], are often used for marks of reference, the former being usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note on a page ; for, by the usage * The breve is properly a mark of short quantity, only when it is set over an unaccented syllable or an nnemph me \- i< it often i* in the seannine of vcrs-s. In tin- examples above. ir marks the close or short power of fh"roir/.: but, \mntr the arrmt. ev.-n thi< power may be< ..... le part of a lotig .\yllabfe; as it does in the word r '>-''n. where the s\ liable nn-. having twice 'lie I'-ii-th of that which follows, must be reckoned long. In poetry, r. r-m and r \-vei\ ;ire both trt>rfi' -uir.-d to their nature, or Midi ;is rouM obtain the sanction of u.-e. T:.e i i the French '/.-/I-', (which latter \v.. r 1 came. ti.ouhti.s-. originally from the neuter of th< Latin adj ihorL)il nou !!> applied to the one; and the Greek term macron, long, (tL-K) Originally :i neu>r adjcc-jvc.) is perhaps as common ;is any name for the other. 15 ut these are not quite O well adapted to each othi-r, find to the things naine.l. a.s ar^ tin- - led above. '-'. 'I i .me I in our L'rammars under various name-*, and often very unfit ones, to pay the lea^t; and. in nianv inst,in L in >ome way, awkwardh ; '.'el. without any attempt to name them, or more than one. if either. The Kev. T. Smi iM'j Mi'mn/, p. 72. ('hurcliill calls them l he !"^ ' and the *lirt \~(\. (Jould calls them '-a horizontal lii]"".uil a curved line." (ioul'i's A>/"t>i\i (irnn.p.'.i. Cnar >;\ =. ' Qiianiitv i-. distinguished by the char- j, lie calls them, ^A long ' " ' syl'abl' ' ." in. I "A short tyUable ."- ills them " the ton* fmnul. 1 ' and " tbe brn-f or s/iort touri'/." (irnrn. p. I'"i7. W. Allen sax s, Thr l 'l!ii- iian.in^ > ems to coi, found accent with :{ - ....... , the Mirrnn MM, p. 137; by ullions, p. l.'T ; bv lli'.,,.]> rj:;: by Kail' r. p. 'Jl .*. S. n:e call it "a small dash:" ns d- . - Hilry, is ab-urdly named If: > : ,> n ; " as bv n>irl t nnnn. p. \>'-'l; by A Idrn, p. 1'^: by C/imirtlfr, 18P ; by Pn'ker un/l F<>r.'\\\,'3>\; by ./ - ; n enlls it "the Intjik-n. or inncron " Analyl. Gr. Manv, \\lio n.ime i: Dot, introduce ir to their r. or "Mm-;" as do Alger, Elair, Dr Adam , Comly, Cooper, Ingersoll, L. Murray, Sanders, Wright', and others ! THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IT. of printers, these signs are now commonly introduced in the following order : 1 *, 2 f , 3 I, 4 , 5 ||, 6 IT, 7 **, 8 |t & c - Where many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures , in their order, may be conve- niently used for the same purpose. XVIII. [%*] The ASTERISM, or THE THKEE STARS, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long note, without a particular reference. XIX. [ t ~\ The CEDILLA is a mark borrowed from the French, by whom it is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s before a or o ; as in the words, " facade, " "Alencon." In Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, to de- note their soft sounds : viz., " (^ as J; as Z ; x as gz." KIT 5 " [Oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the correction of errors. An application of its principles to points rightly inserted, is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing, and perhaps as useful. For this purpose, the teacher may select a portion of this grammar, or of any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil, as reasons for the points that occur.] IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PUNCTUATION. MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR. " The principal stops are the following : The Comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or full stop (.) the note of in- terrogation (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthesis () and the dash ( ) [.] " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 151 ; Pract. Les. p. 127. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks employed, are the Comma (,) ; Semicolon (;) ; Colon (:); Period (.) ; Interrogation (?) ; Exclamation (!)." Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. 3. " Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game ; you chide me, says the youth, for a trifling fault. Custom, replied the philosopher, is no trifle. And, adds Montagnie, he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy." Home's Art of Thinking, (N. Y. 1818,) p. 54. "A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died ? ' My father,' says the skipper, my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned. ' Well,' replies tlie merchant, and are not you afraid of being drowned too ? ' " Ib. p. 135. " The use of inverted comma's derives from France, where one Guillemot was the author of them; [and] as an acknowledgement for the improvement his countrymen call them after his name GUILLEMETS." History of Printing, (London, 1770,) p. 266. " This, however, is seldom if ever done unless the word following the possessive begins with s thus we do not say, ' the prince' feather,' but, ' the prince's feather.' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 17. "And this phrase must mean the feather of the prince but princesfeati',er written as one word is the name of a plant : a species of amaranth." See Key. " Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow." Ingersoll's Gram. 12mo, p. 279. "Boethius soon had," &c. Murray's Gram. 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 83. " When an example, a quotation, or a speech is inti-oduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon ; as, ' The scriptures give us an amiable repre- sentation of the Deity, in these words; God is love.' " Hiley's Gram. p. 116. "Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim; Know thyself.' 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : God is love. ' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 155. "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon [, must begin with a capital] ; as, always remember this ancient maxim : 'Know thyself.' " Bullions, E. Gram. p. 159 ; Lennies Gram. p. 106. [Lennie has "Always" with a capital.] "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form : as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim : Know thyself.' ' Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.' " Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 284. " 8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form. EXAMPLES. 'Always remember this ancient maxim, ' Know thyself.' ' ' Our great Lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me. ' " Weld's Gram. Abridged, p. 17. " Tell me in whose house do you live." N. Butter's Gram. p. 55. " He, that acts wisely, deserves praise." Ib. p. 50. "He, who steals my purse, steals trash." Ib p. 51. " The antecedent is sometimes omitted, as, ' Who steals my purse, steals trash ; ' that is, he who, or the person who." Ib. p. 51. " Thus, ' Whoever steals my purse steals trash ; ' ' Who- ever does no good docs harm.'" Ib. p. 53. "Thus, 'Whoever sins will suffer.' This means that any one without exception who sins will suffer." Ib. 53. " Letters form syllables, syllables words, words sentences, and sentences, combined and connected form discourse." Cooper s Plain and Practical Gram. p. 1. "A letter, which forms a perfect sound, when uttered by itself, is called a vowel, as : a, e, i." Ib. p. 1. "A proper noun is the name of an individual, as : John ; Boston : Hudson ; America." Ib. p. 17. " Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing, more a cunning thing, but very few CHAP. I.] PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. ERROR8. BAD ENGLISH. 777 a generous thing." P. Darin' a Gram. p. 96. " In the place of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted." Ib. p. 121. "A common noun unlimited by an article is some- times understood in its broadest acceptation : thus, 'Fishes swim' is undersood to mean all fishes. '3/an is mortal,' all men." Ib. p. 13. " Thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called gutturals. Those formed principally by the palate are called palatals. Those formed by the teeth, denials those by the lips, labials those by the nose, nasals, &c." P. Dai- in' s Gram. p. 13. " Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, Good, better, best. Bad, worse, worst. Little, less, least." Pel- ton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 63 ; Ster. Ed., p. 66. " Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered, viz. PUNC- TUATION, ORTHOEPY, FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION-." Hart's Gram. p. 161. ' Direct her onward to that peaceful shore, Where peril, pain and death are felt no more ! " Falconer's Poems, p. 136 : Barrett's New Gram. 94. BAD ENGLISH BADLY POINTED. LESSON I. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. " Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also, and such, too, is often their origin and their end." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 191. "Trarerse, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it." Id. ib. p. 216. " The Ordinal [numerals] denote the order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned, as first, second, third, fourth, c." Hilcy's Gram. p. 22. " Nouns have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD. The First person is the speaker, the Second is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken of" Hart's Gram. p. 1 f. " Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, PISK>SIVK, and OBJECTIVE. The relation indi- cated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz : those of subject, object, and ownership." //;. p. 45. " In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, they are often considered as without sex : thus, we say of a cat 'it is treacherous/ of :m infant ' // is beautiful,' of a dw ' it was killed.' " Ib. p. 3*9. " When this or these, that or those, refers to a preceding sentence ; this, or these, refers to the latter member or term ; that, or those, to the former." Churchill's Gram. p. 136; see Loicth's Gram. p. 102. " The roaring of them [i. e. of plants] became his first care, their fruit his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge." N. Butler's Gram. p. 44. "After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points, if the con- struction demands it ; thus, after Esq. in the last example, there should be, besides a period, a comma." Ib. p. LMJ. " In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons ; and hence the principle in Rem. 5, under Kule iii. [that the first or second person takes precedence,] is not applicable to verbs." Ib. p. 158. " Hex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: that is called freedom, jn-rx Plain A 1'nni. Gram. p. 17. "Etymology treats of the classification of words ; their various modifications andderiva- Day's School Gram. p. 9. " To punctuate correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as of all their corresponding connexions." IT. Day's Puix-tnufi >n, p. 31. hieh belong to neither the male nor female kind are called neuter." Weld's .. _d I-M., ]>. .07. "All objects, which belong to neither the male nor female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender." If'7//'.v Gram. p. 51. "The Analysis of the. Sounds in the English language presented in the preceding state- ments are suHiciently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'" Fow- ,i. ls.">o, \ <;.). Nobody confounds the name of w or y with their sound or phonetic import." H>. ' Order is Heaven's first law ; and this confest. Some are and must be greater than the rest." Ib. p. 96. LESSON- II. I'M. i u V.vuiors Ki LES. " In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is formed by adding cr to the positive; and the Superlative by adding cst ; as, sweet, sicectcr, sirectcst." Bullions, Prin of E. :>. 19. " In monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive, and the superlative by adding est or st ; as, tall, taller, tallest ; wise, wiser, icisest." Id. Pract. Les. p. 1M. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [FART IV. " By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars, in these languages, constructed on different principles is avoided, the study of one is ren- dered a profitable introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and see- ing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Pref. to oth Ed., p. vii. " No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily mas- ter, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out." Id. ib. p. viii. " The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated revisais." Id. ib. p. viii. "The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus ; I, the first personal pronoun, mas- culine (or feminine), singular, the nominative. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the possessive, &c." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 23 ; Pract. Les. p. 28. " When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms ; as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profession, &c., and not the sex of the indi- vidual, is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said ' the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste,' the term 'Poet' clearly includes both male and fe- male-writers of poetry." Id. E. Gram. p. 12; his Analijt. and Pract. Gram. 24. " Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same cases." Inyer- soll's Gram. p. 78. "Verbs, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same moods and tenses, and, when in the subjunctive present, they must be in the same form." Ib. p. 112. "This will habituate him to reflection exercise his judgment on the meaning of the au- thor, and without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory, the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note page 96, they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made, or they may be presented in writing at the next recitation." Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Ed. Revised and Cor., p. viii. " Man, but for that, no action could attend And but for this, be thouyhtful to no end." O. B. Peirces Gram., Pref., p. 5. LESSON III. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. " ' Johnson the bookseller and stationer,' indicates that the bookseller and the static ler are epithets belonging to the same person ; ' the bookseller and the stationer ' would indi- cate that they belong to different persons." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 127. "Past is an adjective ; passed, the past tonse or perfect participle of the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently done, to be confounded with each other." Id. ib. p. 148. " Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrange- ment of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it widely from com- mon prose." Id. ib. p. 178. " Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored for ages to im- prove and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that should it be umvisely aban- doned, it will be long before another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced in its stead." Id. ib. p. 191. " The Article The, on the other hand is used to restrict, and is therefore termed Definite. Its proper office is to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number." Id. ib. p. 193. " Hence also the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming together the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in construction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called ' substantive phrases ; ' as ' To play is pleasant,' 'His being an expert dancer is no rec- ommendation,' Let your motto be Honesty is the best policy.' " Id. ib. p. 194. " In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes, Active, Passive, and Neuter, and includes in the first class transitive verbs only, and in the last all verbs used intransitively." Id. ib. p. 200. " Moreover, as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the pronouns / and thou being used in its stead,) a noun is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified." Bullions, Pract. Lcs. p. 13. " In using the above exercises it will save much time, which is all important, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns in the fewest words possible, and to say them always in' the same order as above." Id. ib. p. 21. " In any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase ' What kind of,' to the noun in the form of a question ; as, What kind of a horse ? What kind of a stone ? What kind of a way ? The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective." Id. ib. p. 22. CHAP. II.] PROSODY. UTTERANCE. SECTION I. ARTICULATION. 779 " In the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so." Id. ib. p. 23. "In the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis. Show why it is improper, and correct it." ///. ib. p. 12k "SlXtifl.AH PuoNOt'N<. Pl.rilAL PllON 1. I am l)L-in<; smitten. 1. We are being smitten. 2. Thou art beiny; smitten. 2. Ye or you are being smitten. 3. lie is being smitten. 3. They are being smitten." \VriyhCs Phihs. Gram. p. 98. CHAPTER II. - UTTERANCE. Utterance is the art or act of vocal expression. It includes the principles of articulation, of pronunciation, and of elocution. SECTION I. OF ARTICULATIOX. lieulation is the forming of words, by the voice, with reference to their component letters and sounds. ARTICLE I. OF THE DEFINITION. Articulation differs from pronunciation, in having more particular regard to the elements of words, and in nut embracing accent.* A recent author defines it thus : "ARTICULATION is the act of forming, with the organs of speech, the elements of vocal lang:i:i:r'J." Comstoch's /^/ucitfiun, p. 16. And a train : "A good articulation is the rant; of the elements of vocal language.' An Mthi-r doscnhi-s it more elaborately thus: AHTICULATIOX, in language, is the forming of the human voice, accompanied by the breath, in some few consonants, into the .-iin pit; and compound sounds, called vowels, consonants and diphthongs, by the a-si>tance of the organs of speech; and the uniting of those vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, together, so as to form syllables and words, and constitute spoken lan- guage." Ballet's Diet., I/if rod., p. 7. ARTICLE II. OF GOOD ARTICULATIOX. Correctness in articulation is of such importance, that without it speech or reading becomes not only inelegant, but often absolutely unintelligible. The opposite faults are mumbling, muttering, mincing, lisping, slurring, mouthing, drawling, hesitating, stammering, misreading, and the like. "A good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due proportion of sound, according to the most approved custom of pronouncing it; and in making a distinction between the syllables of which words are composed, that the ear fthaU without difficulty acknowledge their ntttnber ; and perceive, at once, to which syllable each letter belongs. Whore these points are not observed, the articulation is JH'OportionaWy defective." Sheridan 1 s Rhetorical ('ranunar, p. 50. iuctncss of articulation depends, primarily, upon the ability to form the sim- ple e'. : sounds of letters, by the organs of speech, in the manner which the M of the language demands; and, in the next place, upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance, which is greater than the full and accurate play of the or- will allow. If time bo not given for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak, some of the syllables will of course be either lost by elision or Sounded confilsrdly. Jost articulation gives eren t> a feeble voice greater power and reach than the loudest vociferation can attain without it. It delivers words from the lips, not muti- l.-itftl, distorted, or corrupted, but as the acknowledged sterling currency of thought; " a< beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impr perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succes- iii 1 <-f duo weight." Austins Cnironomfa. p. 38. * ' As soon n-; l:ui_-n i_'<- jirocoods. from more nrtiriiLitinn, to coherency, ami connection, arcrnt becomes the guide : unlr-l ni">n rrrpttnn of syniiMntrv. ami proportion, between the differ- ent sounds that are uttered.'' NotMen's Grammar of tkt German Language, p. 06. 780 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART I OBS. The principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all those who are learning either to speak or to read. So far as they are specifically taught in this work, they will be found in those sections which treat of the powers of the letters. SECTION II. OF PRONUNCIATION. Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, or delivery, is the utterance of words taken separately. The correct pronunciation of words, or that part of grammar which teaches it, is frequently called Orthoepy. Pronunciation, or orthoepy, requires a knowledge of the just powers of the letters in all their combinations ; of the distinction of quantity in vowels and syllables ; and of the force and seat of the accent. ARTICLE I. OF THE POWERS OF LETTERS. The JUST POWERS of the letters, are those sounds which are given to them by the best readers. These are to be learned, as reading is learned, partly from example, and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation of words. It is to be observed, however, that considerable variety, even in the powers of the letters, is produced by the character and occasion of what is uttered. It is noticed by Walker, that, " Some of the vowels, when neither under the accent, nor closed by a consonant, have a longer or a shorter, an opener or a closer sound, according to the solemnity or familiarity, the deliberation or rapidity of our delivery." Pronouncing Diet., Preface, p. 4. In cursory speech, or in such reading as imitates it, even the best scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought ever to be given them in solemn discourse. "In public speaking," says Rippinghmn, " every word should be uttered, as though it were spoken singly. The solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous distinctness. That careful pronun- ciation which would be ridiculously pedantic in colloquial intercourse, is an essential requisite of good elocution." Art of Public Speaking, p. xxxvii. ARTICLE II. OF QUANTITY. QUANTITY, or TIME, in pronunciation, is the measure of sounds or syllables in re- gard to their duration ; and, by way of distinction, is supposed ever to determine them to be either long or short* The absolute time in which syllables are uttered, is very variable, and must be different to suit different subjects, passions, and occasions ; but their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved, and generally must be, especially in re- citing poetry. Our long syllables are chiefly those which, having sounds naturally capable of being lengthened at pleasure, are made long by falling under some stress either of accent or of emphasis. Our short syllables are the weaker sounds, which, being the less significant words, or parts of words, are uttered without peculiar stress. Ons. As quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical compositions, this subject will be further considered under the head of Versification. * According to Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester, and perhaps all other lexicographers, Quantity, in grammar, is " The measure of time in pronouncing a syllable." And, to this main idea, are conformed, so far as I know, all the different definitions ever given of it by grammarians and critics, except that which appeared in Asa Humphrey's English Prosody, published in 1847. In this work the most elaborate and the most com- prehensive, though not the most accurate or consistent treatise we have on the subject Time and Quantity are explained separately, as being " two distinct tilings ; " and the latter is supposed not to have regard to duration, but solely to the amount of sound given to each syllable. This is not only a fanciful distinction, but a radical innovation and one which, in any view, has little to rec- ommend it. The author's explanations of both time and quantity of their characteristics, differences, and subdivisions of their relations to each other, to poetic numbers, to emphasis and cadence, or to accent and non- accent as well as his derivation and history of " these technical terms, time and quantity " are hardly just or clear enough to be satisfactory. According to his theory, " Poetic numbers are composed of long and short sylla- bles alternately ;" (page 5;) but the difference or proportion bet-ween the times of these classes of syllables he holds to be indeterminable, "because their lengths are various ." He began with destroying the proper distinction of quantity, or time, as being eith.fr long or short,, by the useless recognition of an indefinite number of" interme- diate lengths; " saying of our syllables at largo, " some are LONG, some SHORT, and some are of INTERMEDIATE LENGTHS ; as, mat, not. con, &c. are short sounds ; mate, nnte, cone, and grave are long. Some of our diphthongal sounds are LONGER STILL ; as, voice, noise, sound, bound, &c. OTHERS are seen to be of INTERMEDIATE lengths." Humphrey's Prosody, p. 4. On a scheme like this, it must evidently be impossible to determine, with any certainty, either what syllables are ions: and what short, or what is the difference or ratio between any two of the innumerable " lengths " of that time, or quantity, which is long, short, variously intermediate, or longtr still, and again variously intermediate! No marvel then that the ingenious author scans some lines in a manner peculiar to himself. CIIAl'. II.] PROSODY. UTTERANCE. SECTION II. PRONUNCIATION. 781 ARTICLE III. OF ACCENT. ACCENT, as commonly understood, is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished from and above the re^t ; as, f/rtii/ri- words the penult guides, Its quantity the point decides ; If Inti;/, 'tis there the accent's due, It' slnn-t, accent the A/\/ lint tiro; it, in a Latin word, Should ne'er go higher than the third. This rule, or the substance of it, has berome very important by long and extensive use ; but it should be observed, that stress on monosyllables is more properly emphasis than a an 1 that, in English, the accent governs quantity, rather than quantity the accent. . IK the ilex-trine of Sheri ! in, and perhaps of our old lexicographers in e.nera1, that no English word can have iinMV than inn- full ->tt ; but, in smiie modern dictimiarie-'. ,-id U investor's, man v w.>rds ;ire ; as bavin; rhr.-e. Sheridan erroneously atlirmed, that /r/'/ h-i an :i "all moiinsy llablt-s, the panicles alone exempted. " ', pp. 71. And ax'ain. \.-t uinn- >v\fnrr of Kn^lish word-; con-i -tin;; in accent, as that of -; in articulation : we know that there are as ninny syllaMei tit w hear articulat? s.iitnil*, and ax many iid sai 1 ln-fi.iv, in tin- same leeMire : ''The ]<>II<:.T polysyllables, lUi-ntly tiro accent*. }>\\' other, us to shew that it is but one wiuxl ; and the inferior accent, is always less ton il>lc. than any ace.- nt th.it is flic >in::le. one in a word." Ib. p. 61. Wells .'s of a word ; but, in his example, he p! in-s it on no more than on. : "'Accent is the stri'si which is laid <>n mif nr mare syllables of a word, in pronunriatimi : as. r.'/-'/-lieratc, un- derfai-*?." \\'etls's School dram. nlinp; to this loose definition, he nii.^lH : :is w.dl hav least one other syllable in <-acli of these exainp. . certainly, to be some little stress on ate and un. For sundry other definitions of accent, see Chap. IV, Section 2d, of Versification ; and the marginal note to Oba. 1st on Prosody. PART IV. 782 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [l SECTION III. OF ELOCUTION. Elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into sen- tences, and form discourse. Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. ARTICLE I. OF EMPHASIS. EMPHASIS is the peculiar stress of voice winch we lay upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distinguished from the rest as being more especially significant.* As accent enforces a syllable, and gives character to a word ; so emphasis distin- guishes a word, and often determines the import of a sentence. The right placing of accent, in the utterance of words, is therefore not more important, than the right placing of emphasis, in the utterance of sentences. If no emphasis be used, discourse becomes vapid and inane ; if no accent, words can hardly be recognized as English. " Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is muta- ble, when [the] words are [ar]ranged in[to] sentences ; the long being changed into short, the short into long, according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning : and, as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, empha- sis must be the regulator of the quantity." L. Murray's Gram. p. 246. t " Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the accent. This is demonstrable from the following exam- ples : 'He shall mcrease, but I shall decrease/ 'There is a difference between giving and /brgiving.' 'In this species of composition, jo/awsibility is much more essential than probability.' In these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables to which it does not commonly belong." Ib. p. 247. In order to know what words are to be made emphatic, the speaker or reader must give constant heed to the sense of what he utters ; his only sure guide, in this mattor, being a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiments which he is about to pronounce. He must also guard against the error of multiplying emphatic words too much; for, to overdo in this way, defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used. To manage this stress with exact propriety, is therefore one of the surest evidences both of a quick understanding, and of a delicate and just taste. ARTICLE II. OF PAUSES. PAUSES are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to relieve the speaker, an to render language intelligible and pleasing. Pauses are of three kinds : first, distinctive or sentential pauses, such as form the divisions required by the sense ; secondly, emphatic or rhetorical pauses, such as * According to Dr. Rush, Emphasis Is " a stress of voice on one or more words of a sentence, distinguishing them by intensity or peculiarity of meaning." Philosophy of the Voice, p. 282. Again, he defines thus: "Accent is the fixed but inexpressive distinction of syllables by quantity and stress : alike both in place and nature, whether the words are pronounced singly from the columns of a vocabulary, or connectedly in the series of discourse. Emphasis may be defined to be the expressive but occasional distinction of a syllable, and consequently of the whole word, by one or more of the specific modes of time, quality, force, or pitch." Ibid. t 1. This doctrine, though true in its main intent, and especially applicable to the poetic quantity of monosyl- lables, (the class of words most frequently used in English poetry,) is, perhaps, rather too strongly stated by Murray ; because it agrees not with other statements of his, concerning the power of accent over quantity ; and because the effect of accent, as a " regulator of quantity," may, on the whole, be as great as that of emphasis. Sheridan contradicts himself yet more pointedly on this subject; and his discrepancies may have been the effi- cients of Murray's. ' The quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense, and is for the most part regulated by EMPHASIS." Sheridan^s Rhetorical Gram. p. 65. Again : " It is by the ACCENT chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated." Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 57. See Chap. IV, Sec! 2d, Obs 1 ; and marginal note on Obs. 8. 2. Some writers erroneously confound emphasis with accent ; especially those who make accent, and not quan- tity, the foundation of verse. Contrary to common usage, and to his own definition of accent, Wells takes it upon him to say, " The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words ; as, ' Content is wraith, the riches of the mind.' 1 Dryden." Wells' s School Grammar, p. 185. It does not appear that stress laid on monosyllables is any more fitly termed accent, when it occurs in the reading rf y>op'ry. tlim Tv'-^n :n tV r."rrnnrp rf nroc-o. r'-airc'iiil. \vho nij.la-'-; no sucli i!^'in.- l ;on. " r,i>r>- ml alike to (Mr'ilmsis ;rnl 'u rhc miaijiry v ( >;. :,nd \ <-f. ;\s ivi.';n-.is IH->-M,>\ ll-diic*. ilcj.ci'iicn 1 - < n "lnTi both ' His \vonls ;iiv rlii-.-v: " Mti". 1 1;U>|.'~ ;irv .-o,..," i'nps **'Venfcr bciiig tnorr or Irs* mntntir ; an -I on the vo.vci smm I '<"[< > lan<* > i>i*t. U'" i mo' I'ivi- - T/'t'-'iiii* lo ;i:iy word, or i;'.< [//*] propt-r uiii'rtriou :o ii /..>//;,' '<> /. ,<,. 1^2. CHAP. II.] PROSODY. UTTERANCE. SECTION III. ELOCUTION. 783 particularly call the hearer's attention to something which has been, or is about to be, uttered ; and lastly, poetical or harmonic pauses, such as are peculiar to the utter- ance of metrical compositions. The duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the degree of con- nexion between the parts of the discourse. The shortest are long enough for the taking of some breath ; and it is proper, thus to relieve the voice at every stop, if needful. This we may do, slightly at a comma, more leisurely at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, and completely at a period. Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, ought always to be formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary, sensible conversation ; and not after the stiff, artificial manner which many acquire at school, by a mere mechani- cal attention to the common punctuation. Forced, unintentional pauses, which accidentally divide words that ought to be Fpoken in close connexion, are always disagreeable; and, whether they arise from exhaustion of breath, from a habit of faltering, or from unacquaintance with the text, they are errors of a kind utterly incompatible with graceful elocution. Emphatic or rhetorical pauses, the kind least frequently used, may be made imme- diately before, or immediately after, something which the speaker thinks particularly important, and on which he would fix the attention of his audience. Their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis; and, like this, they must not be employed too often. The harmonic pauses, or those which are peculiar to poetry, are of three kinds : the final pause, which marks the end of each line ; the caesura! or divisional pause, which commonly divides the line near the middle ; and the minor rests, or demi- cccsuras, which often divide it still further. In the reading of poetry, these pauses ought to be observed, as well as those which have reference to the sense ; for, to read verse exactly as if it were prose, will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from prose. Yet, at the same time, all appear- ance of singsong, or affected tone, ought to be carefully guarded against. ARTICLE III. OF INFLECTIONS. INFLECTIONS are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by which a continu- ous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called ^falling or doii-nii-nrd inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in the following examples : 1. The rising, "Do you mean to go ?" 2. The falling, VWhcn will you .'/'V' 1 In general, questions that may be answered by yes cr 720, require the rising inflec- tion ; while those which demand any other answer, must be uttered with the falling inflection. These slides of the voice are not commonly marked in writing, or in our printed books; but, when there is occasion to note them, we apply the acute accent to the former, and the grave accent to the latter.* A union of these two inflections upon the same syllable, is called a circumflex, a wave, or a " circumflex inflection" When the slide is first downward and then only arc these inflections denoted occasionally by the accentual marks, but they are sometimes expressly tA accent*, bd Mat man.-. Into prMtke, however, i* plainly objectionable. It confounds > bo ditlVrfi ; ;V lead to the suppoMMn. that tu i: 1 . i< t<> inl'' ; my ci'i.ccniii:'.: the nature s, hut of the I tin- common i tea i.-. that if i< only a greater li'ivc distin- i .f a word fin \Valker, however, in tin- in ID'S ,-an )>y ! : i- nr,,,,t an>t ne. and without relation to < unfit Le sai j n we compare the beginning with the end of the word or syllable. Thus a monosyllable, considered sindv, ri>;e< frorn a loer fo n l' ; , ,,,.>sM,,n \- ' n-l'irh n^v r>> :i -I 784 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. upward, it is called the rising circumflex, or " the gravo-acute circumflex; " when first upward and then downward, it is denominated the falling circumflex, or " the acuto-grave circumflex" Of these complex inflections of the voice, the emphatic words in the following sentences may be uttered as examples : "And it shall go hard but T will use the information." " O! but he paused upon the brink." When a passage is read without any inflection, the words are uttered in what is called a monotone ; the voice being commonly pitched at a grura note, and made to move for the time, slowly and gravely, on a perfect level. . p. 170. 2. Of the Xorx : " The common [law] and the statute law." " The twelve [apostles]" "The same [man] is he." "One [book] of my books." "A do/en [bottU-s] of wine." "Conscience, I say; not thine own [conscience], but [ >] of the other." 1 Cor. x, 29. " Every moment subtracts from [our lie ex] what it adds to our lives." Dillwyns Ref. p. 8. " Bad actions mostly lead to worse " [actions]. lh. p. ;>. 3. Of the ADJECTIVE : " There are subjects proper for the one, and not [proper] for the eight and [a just] balance are the Lord's." Prov. xvi, 11. True other." Kani'-i. "A just wei ellipses of the adjective alone, are but seldom met with. 4. Of the PRONOUN : "Leave [thou] there thy gift before the altar, and go [thou] thy way ; first be [thou] reconciled to thy brother, and then come [thou] and offer [thou] thy gift."" .\L.t(t. v, 24. " Love [ye] your enemies, bless [yc] them that curse you, do [ye] good to them that hate you." Ib. v, 44. " Chastisement does not always immediately follow error, but [it] sometimes comes when [it is] least expected." Dilhcyn, Ref. p. 31. "Men generally put a greater value upon the favours [which] they bestow, than upon those [which] they re- ceive." Art of Thinking, p. 48. "Wisdom and worth jfere all [that] he had." A'lU-it's Gram. p. 294. 5. Of the VERB : " The world is crucified unto me, and I [am crucified] unto the world." Gal. vi, 14. " Hearts should not [differ], though heads may, differ." Dillwyn, p. 11. "Are ye not much better than they" [are] ? M.-itf. vi, 26. "Tribulation worketh patience ; and patience [worketh] experience ; and experience [icorketh] hope." Rom. v, 4. " Wrongs are engraved on marble ; benefits [are engraved] on sand." Art of Thinking, p. 41. " To whom thus Eve, yet sinless " [spoke]. Milton. 6. Of the PARTICIPLE : " That [beinn] o'er, they part." "Animals of various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [adapted] to the wave." Mi-lmoth, on Scripture, p. 13. " His knowledge [being] measured to his state and place, His time [being] a moment, and a point [being] his space." Pope. 7. Of the ADVERB : " He can do this independently of me, if not [indejjendentty] of you." " She shows a body rather than a life ; A statue, [rather] than a breather." Shak.,Ant. and Cleop., iii, 3. 8. Of the CONJUNCTION: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temperance." Gal. v, 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called Polysyndeton ; and the omission of it, Asyndeton. 9. Of the Pi'Epo.sinoN : "It shall be done [on] this very day." "We shall set off [at] some time [in] next month." " He departed [from] this life." " He gave [to] me a book." " We walked [through] a mile." "He was banished [from] the kingdom." W. Alien. "He lived like [to] a prince." Well-s. 10. Of the INTEIUKCTIOX: "Oh! the frailty, [oh!] the wickedness of men." "Alas for Mexico ! and [alas] for many of her invaders ! " 11. Of PHUASI:S or Ci.u>!>: " The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less " [than they are bound to do]. "Young men, angry, mean le.ss than they say ; old men, [ani/ry, mean] more" [than they say]. " It is the duty of justice, not to injure men ; [it is the duty] of modesty, not to offend them." W. Allen. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Grammarians in general treat of ellipsis without defining it; and exhibit such rides and examples as suppose our language to be a hundred-fold more elliptical than it really is.* This is a great error, and only paralleled by that of a certain writer elsewhere noticed, who denies the existence of all ellipsis whatever. (See Syntax, Obs. 24th on Rule 22d.) Some have defined this figure in a way that betrays a very inaccurate notion of what it is : aa, " ELLIPSIS is when one or more words are wanting to complete the sense." Adam's Lat. " Eu.irsis, is the omission of one or more words complete the sense." Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. 265. These definitions are decid- edly worse than none ; because, if they have any effect, they can only mislead. They absurdly suggest that every elliptical sentence lacks a part of its own meaning ! Ellipsis is, in fact, the mere omission or absence of certai words ; or of words that may be spared from utterance, id? . There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the sense ; for to say what we mean and nothing more, never can constitute a deviation from the ordinary gram- matical construction of words. As a figure of syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can only be of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answer- able for them as if he had written them. . 2. To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really Limlley Murray an>l some others aay, "An the ellipsis occurs in almont ewry stntfnce in the English language, Disk's. 117. They could, without ofitjmigbtbegiTro." ACu di ubt, have exhibits! iiinuy tru.- si-cnni-iis of Kr.ip.-is ; but most of those which they li:iv- given, are only fanci- ful aud false ones ; and tlu-ir nti"ii nt'th" fn.'/al reject the figure altogether. There are, how ever, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of construction. V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, "He wanders earth around." Oowper. "Rings the world with the vain stir." Id. " Whom therefore ye igno- mpp y [his or] its place. 2. In grammar, syllepsis, or the use of one word for another." Amrriean Diet. STO. Thi? explanation seems to me inaccurate; because It confounds both substitution and syllepsis with tnallage. It hzis rignfl of carelessness throughout ; the former sentence being both tautological and UD grammatical G B 790 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. rantly worship, him declare /unto you." Acts, xvii, 23. " 'Happy,' says Mon- tesquieu, ' is that nation whose annals are tiresome.' " Corwin, in Congress, 1847. This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity, absurdity or solecism. OBS. A confused and intricate arrangement of words, received from some of the ancients the name of Syn'chysis, and was reckoned by them among the figures of grammar. By some authors, this has been improperly identified with Hyper' baton, or elegant inversion ; as may be seen under the word Synchysis in Littleton's Dictionary, or in Holmes' s Rhetoric, at page 58th. Synchysis literally means confusion, or commixtion ; and, in grammar, is significant only of some poetical jumble of words, some verbal kink or snarl, which cannot be gram- matically resolved or disentangled : as, "Is piety thus and pure devotion paid ? " Milton, P. L., B. xi, 1. 452. "An ass will with his long ears fray The flies that tickle him, away ; But man delights to have his ears Blown maggots in by flatterers." Butler's Poems, p. 161. SECTION IV. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary appli tion of words. Several of this kind of figures are commonly called Tropes, i. e., turns ; because certain words are turned from their original significa- tion to an other.* Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration. The principal figures of Rhetoric are sixteen ; namely, Sim'-i-le, Met'-a- phor, Al'-le-yor-y, Me-tori-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vis'-ion, A-ws'- tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o-te'sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-titti-e-sis, Cli'-nax, 1-ro-ny, A-poph'-a-sis, and On-o-ma-to-poe'-ia. EXPLANATIONS. 1. A Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is generally introduced by like, as, or so : as, " Such a passion is like fatting in love with a sparrow flying over your head ; you have but one glimpse of her, and she is out of sight." Collier* 's Antoninus, p. 89. " Therefore they shall be as the morning cloud, and as the ear- ly dew that passeth away ; as the chaff that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor, and as the smoke out of the chimney." Hosea, xiii, 3. "At first, like thunder's distant tone, The rattling din came rolling on." Hogg. " Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." Pope. Ons. Comparisons are sometimes made in a manner sufficiently intelligible, without any express term to point them out. In the following passage, we have a triple example of what seems the Simile, without the usual sign without like, as, or so : "Away with all tampering with such a question ! Away with all trifling with the man in fetters ! Give a hungry man a stone, and tell what beautiful houses are made of it ; give ice to a freezing man, * Between Tropes and Figures, some writers attempt a full distinction ; but this, if practicable, Is of little use. According to Holmes, " TROPES affect only single Words ; but FIGURES, whole Sentences.'''' Rhetoric. B. i, p. 28. " The CHIEF TROPES in Language," says this author, " are seven ; a Metaphor, an Allegory, a Metonymy, a Synecdoche, an Irony, an Hyperbole, and a Cntachresis." 76. p. 30. The term Figure or Figuresis more compre- hensive than Trope or Tropes ; I have therefore not thought it expedient to make much use of the latter, in either the singular or the plural form. Ilolmes's seven tropes are all of them denned in the main text of this section, except Cat.arhresis, which Is commonly explained to be u an abuse of a trope." According to this sense, it seems in general to differ but little from impropriety. At best, a Catachresis is a forced expression, though some- times perhaps, to be indulged where there is great excitement. It is a sort of figure by which a word is used in a sense different from, yet connected with, or analogous to, its own ; as, "And pity, like a naked new-born babe, Striding the blast, as heaven's cherubim Horsed upon the sightless couriers of the air, Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye, That tears shall drown tho wind." Shak., Macbeth, Act i, Sc. 7. CHAP. III.] PROSODY. FIGURES. SECTION IV. EXPLANATIONS. 791 and tell him of its good propi / ircather ; throw a droiniitx/ man a dollar, as a mark of your good icill ; but do not mock the bondman in his misery, by giving him a Bible when he cannot read it." FUKDKUICK Dori.i.\ : Liberty Bell, 1848. II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses or the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct, or action, of the one, directly to the other ; M, 1. " The LORD is my rock, and my fortress." PsuL xviii, J. '2. "His eye was morning 1 s brightest ray" Hogg. 3. " An angler in the tides of fame." Id., Q. W. t p. 30. 4. " Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." Laiujhome. 5. " Wild fancies in his moody brain Gambol* d nnfirit/h'f/ and unbound." Hogg, Q. W., p. 90. G. " Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." Thomson. - commonly understood to be only the tropical use of some single word or short phrase ; but there seem to be occasional instances of one sentence, or action, being used metaphorically to represent an other. The following extract from the London Ex- aminer has several "figurative expressions, which perhaps belong to this head : In the present age, nearly all people are critics, even to the pen, and treat the gravest writers with a sort of taproom familiarity. If they are dissatisfied, they throw a short and spent r/wr in the face of the ojfcndLf : if they are pleased, they lift the candidate njf hit Irys, and send him away hearty slap on the shoulder. Some of the shorter, when they are bent to mischief, dip in tin' gufti-r, (ind dray it across our polished boots : on the contrary, when they are in- clined to be gentle and generous, the;/ msly upon our knees, and kiss us with bread- and-butter in their mouths." WALTEK SAVAGI: LAXDOK. III. An Alh'f/ory is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to repre- sent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish na- tion under the symbol of a vine: " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the bought thereof were like the goodly cedars." Psalms, Ixxx, 810. . The Attegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes most of those simil- itudes which in the Scriptures are called parables ; it includes also the better sort of fables. The term a!' mietimes applied to a true history in which something else is intended, than is contained in the words literally taken. See an instance in Galatians, iv, 24. In the Scripture.^ the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story: as in 1 Timothy, iv, 7 ; and i i> now commonly used in a better sense. " A fable may be defined to be an analogical narrative, intended to convey some moral lesson, in which irrational animals or objects are introduced as speaking." Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 280. IV. A .Urfmiyniy is a change of names between things related. It is founded, not on resemblance, but. on some such relation as that of cawseand effect, of progeni- tor and posterity, of subject and (nf/nnrt, of place and inhabitant, of container and //////// contained, <>r <>f y/yw and /// ; 1.) "God is our salvation;' 1 11 Hear, Israel ;" i. e., ye descendants of Israel. (3.) " 1 1 was tli.- siyh of her secret soul ; " i. e., the youth she loved. (4.) " They smote the city ; " i. e., the - (5. ) " My son, give me thy heart ; " i. e., affection. (C.) " The srrpfrc shall not depart from Judah ; " i. e., kimjly power. (7.) " They have J/'w.v mill f/ic firnphets ;" i. c., their u-ritiiiys. See Luke, xvi, 29. V '. SyHcrtlni'I.r, (that is, Cbifiprfeiilf0il,) is the naming of a part for the whole, as of the whole for a part ; as, (1.) " This roof [i. e., house] protects you." ( _. ) " \i>w tin 1 ynir [i. .. summer] is beautiful." (3.) "A sail [i. e., a ship or vessel] , at a distance." (4.) " (live us this day our daily bread;" i. e., food. (5.) " Because they have taken away />/// Lord, [i. e., the body of Jesus,] and I know not where they have laid him." John. ((>.) " The same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls /"i.e., persons. Acts. (7.) " There went out a decree fr< m ( '.T-ar Augustus, that all the world [i. e., the Roman empire] should be taxed." L"L-< . ii. 1. VI. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; as, " My little finger shall be thicker than my father's 792 THE GRAMMAH OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. loins." 2 Chron. x, 10. "When I washed my steps with butter, and the rock poured me out rivers of oil." Job, xxix, 6. ' ' The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed." Dryden. VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses; as, u I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! I see the Moray's silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake comes winding far ! " Scott t L. L., vi, 15. VIII. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject, into an ani- mated address; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory. Death ! where is thy sting? Grave ! where is thy victory? " 1 Cor. xv, 55. IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities ; as, 1. " The Worm, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent." Cowper. 2. " Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears ! " Rogers. 3. " Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease ! " Idem. X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked ; as, " Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him ? " Job. xl, 9. "He that planted the ear, shall he not hear ? he that formed the eye, shall he not see? " Psalms, xciv, 9. XI. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind ; as, "0 liberty ! sound once delightful to every Roman ear ! sacred privilege of Roman citizenship ! once sacred now trampled upon." Cicero. "And I said, O that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away, and be atrest."- Psalms, Iv, 6. XII. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast; as, "I will talk of things heavenly, or things earthly ; things moral, or things evangelical ; things sacred, or things profane ; things past, or things to come ; things foreign, or things at home ; things more essential, or things circumstantial; provided that all be done to our profit." Bunyan, P. P., p. 90. " Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; Though grave, yet trijling ; zealous, yet untrue ; And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." Goldsmith. XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by success! steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular ; as, "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity." 2 Peter, \, 5. XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood ; as, " We have, to be sure, great reason to be- lieve the modest man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life."- Cicero. " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." Job, xii, 2. " They must esteem learning very much, when they see its professors used with such little ceremony ! " Goldsmith's Essays, p. 150. XV. Apophasis, or Paralipsis* is a figure in which the speaker or writer pretends to omit what at the same time he really mentions ; as, "I Paul have written it with * Holmes, in his Art of Rhetoric, writes this word " Paraleipsis," retaining the Greek orthography. So does Fowler in his recent " English Grammar," 646. Webster, Adam, and some others, write it "Paraltpsis." I write it as above on the authority of Littleton, Ainsworth, and some others ; and this is according to the analogy of the kindred word ellipsis, which we never write either ellipsis, or, as the Greek, ellripsis. ive CHAP. III.] PROSODY. FIGURES. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIV. 793 mine own hand, I will repay it ; albeit / do not say to thee, bow thou owest unto me even thine own self besides." Philemon, 19. XVI. Onomatopoeia is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence, the pound of which :iblcs, or intentionally imitates, the sound of the thing .signified or spoken of: as, " Of a knocking at the duor, Rat. tut fat." Fowler's Gram. p. 331. "Ding-dung / ding-dinnj! Merry, merry, go the bells, Ding-dong! ding-dong! 11 ILK. White. " Bowwow, /*. The loud bark of a dog. Booth." Worcester's Diet. This is often written separately; as, "Bow wow." Fowler's Gram. p. 334. The imitation is better with three sounds: "Bow wow wow' 1 The following verses have been said to exhibit this figure : " But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar." Pope, on Grit. 1. 3C9. Or.s. The whole number of figures, which I have thought it needful to define and illus- trate in this work, is only about thirty. These are the chief si what have sometimes been made a very long and minute catalogue. In the hands of some authors, Rhetoric is scarcely anything else than a detail of figures ; the number of which, being made to include almost hie form of expression, is, according to these authors, not less than two hundred and forty. Of their nam*, John Holmes gives, in his index, two hundred and fifty-three-; and he has not all that might be quoted, though he has more than there are of the forms named, or the figures themselves. To find a learned name for every particular mode of expression, is not i:rcvs-arily conducive to the right use of language. It is easy to see the inutility of such pedantry ; and Butler has made it sufficiently ridiculous by this caricature : " For all a rhetorician's rules Teach nothing but to name his tools." Hudibras, P. i, C. i,l. 90. SECTION V. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIV. PROSODICAL. In the Fourteenth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of Orthography, of tt'i/innlogij, of Syr ' f]f Rhetoric, which the parser may name and define ; and l>i/ it ////> ]> >'/i// in -I i/ also be exercised in relation to the principles of Pune- t nation, Utterance, Analysis, or whatever else of Grammar the examples contain. LESSON I. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. MIMT.SIS AM) ARCHAISM. " I ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessel for Wenice, loading her with wurio* ..f prowisions, and wittualUng her for a long woyage ; and I want several undred weight of weal, wenison, &c., with plenty of inyons and wit* e;/"r, for the preserwation of caltlt." Oofambfan Orator, p. 1^92 " (.! you, and lie still quiet (says T) a bit longer, for my shister's afraid of ghosts, and would die on the spot with the fright, was she to see you come to life all on a sudden this way without the least preparation." Edgeicorth's Castle Rack- rent, p. 14-;. " None [else are] so desperately evill, as they that may Ice good and will not: or have beene good and are not." AVr. John / .:" V Carpenter finds his work as her left it, but a minister shall find his sett back. You need preach con- tinually." Id. 1 1 -re icltilnm H'j'jd \\\ K-opus of his age, But call'd by l'\um, in soul yp ricked deep." Thomson. "If v, i a fountain of NYpenthu rare, Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge pleasaunce grew." Id. 'V II. FIGURES OF KTYMOLOGY. APH^ERESIS, PROSTHESIS, 8YXCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DLEIIESIS, SYN.llUESIS, AND 11 Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy brr Burst down like torrent from its crest." Scott. *' ' Tis mine to teach tIC inactive hand to reap Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused" Dyer. 794 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART H "Alas ! alas ! how im potently true Tti aerial pencil forms the scene anew." Cawihorne. " Here a deformed monster joy'd to won, Which on fell rancour ever was ybent." Lloyd. " Withouten trump was proclamation made." Thomson. " The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. ' Certes,' quoth he, * it is not e'en in grace, T' undo tho past and eke your broken years." Id. " Vain tampering has loutfoster'd his disease ; ' Tis desperate, and he sleeps the sleep of death." Cowper. " ' I have a pain upon my forehead here ' ' Why that's with watching ; 'twill away again.' " Shakspeare. " I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes; Come, let's away; hark ! the shrill horn resounds." Smith. " What prayer and supplication soever be made." Bible. " By the grace of God, we have had our conversation in the world, and more abundantly to you ward." Ib. LESSON III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE I. ELLIPSIS. "And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, And [ ] villager [ ] abroad at early toil." Beattie. " The cottage curs at [ ] early pilgrim bark." Id. " 'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, Our most important [ ] are our earliest years." Cowper. " To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye, He looks on nature's [ ] and on fortune's course." Akenside. " For longer in that paradise to dwell, The law [ ] I gave to nature him forbids." Milton. " So little mercy shows [ ] who needs so much." Cowper. " Bliss is the same [ ] in subject, as [ ] in king ; In [ ] who obtain defence, and [ ] who defend." Pope. 11 Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim That tell you so say rather, they [ ] for him." Cowper. " Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, But God will never [ ]." Id. " Vigour [ ] from toil, from trouble patience grows." Beattie. " Where now the rill melodious, [ ] pure, and cool, And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd?" Id. " How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! " Thomson. " Self-love and Keason to one end aspire, Pain [ ] their aversion, pleasure [ ] their desire ; But greedy that its object would devour, This [ ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower." Pope. LESSON IV. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE II. PLEONASM. "According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to his adversaries, rec- ompense to his enemies; to the islands he will repay recompense." Isaiah, lix, 18. " Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled : for my head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night." Song of Sol. v, 2. " Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned,- for thou art the Lord my God." Jer. xxx, 18. " Con- sider the lilies of the field how they grow." Matt, vi, 28. "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord." 2 Cor. x, 17. "He too is witness, noblest of the train That wait on man, the flight-performing horse." Cowper. CHAP. III.] PROSODY. FIGURES. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIV. 795 FIGURE III. SYLLEPSIS. " ' Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shall be called Cephas ; ' which is, by interpretation, a stone." John, i, 42. " Thus saith the Lord of hosts, ' Behold, I will break the bow vt Elam, the chief of their might.' " Jer. xlix, 35. " Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence : and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed/' Rom. ix, 33. " Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd." Cowper. "Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much ; Wisdom is humble that he knows no more." Id. " For those the race of Israel oft forsook Their living strength, and unfrequented left His righteous altar, bowing lowly down To bestial gods." Milton, Paradise Lost, B. i, 1. 432. LESSON V. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. FIGURE IV. ENALLAGE. " Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself Are much condemned to have an itching palm, To sell and mart your offices for gold." Shakspeare. " Come, Philomelus; let us instant go, O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low." Thomson. " Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son Shall finish what the short-liv'd sire begun" Pope. " Such was that temple built by Solomon, Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel." Author. " He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, And quit the shores, undestin'd to return." Day. " Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes." Thomson. " Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay." Id. " ' I've lost a day ' the prince who nobly cried, Had been an emperor without his crown." Young. FIGURE V. HYPERBATON. " Such resting found the sole of unblest feet." Milton. " Yet, though successless, will the toil delight." Thomson. " Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new, Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries." Beattie. " Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, That who advance his glory, not their own, Them he himself to glory will advance." Milton. " No quick reply to dubious questions make ; Suspense and caution still prevent mistake. " Denham. >x \\. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE I. SIMILE. 11 Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odour of incense in the fire." Dr. Johnson. " Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance : the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours" //. " Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains ; and thy smile, at }e dawn of the vernal day." Id. " Plants rais'dwitlt tenderness are seldom strong ; Man's coltish disposition asks the thong ; And, without discipline, the fav'rite child, Likra neglected forester , runs wild." Cowper. "As turns a flock of geese, and, on the green, Poke out their foolish necks in awkward spleen, (Ridiculous in rage !) to hiss, not bite, So war their auills. when eons of dulness write." Younq. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. " Who can un pitying see the flowery race, Shed by the morn, their new-flush 'd bloom resign, Before th ' unbating beam ? So fade the fair, When fevers revel through their azure veins." Thomson. [PART I FIGURE II. METAPHOR. " Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale" Ossian. "Rolled into himself be flew, wide on the bosom of winds. The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head.'" Id. " Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as lie acquired the power ; as the hand of time scattered snow upon his head, the freezing influence extended to his bosom." Hawkesworth. " The sun grew weary of gild- ing the palaces of Morad ; the clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tempest of hatred roared about his dwelling." Dr. Johnson. LESSON VII. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE III. ALLEGORY. " But what think ye ? A certain man had two sons ; and he came to the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vineyard.' He answered and said, ' I will not; ' but afterward he repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, ' I go, sir ; ' and went not. Whether of them twain did the will of his father? They say unto him, ' The first. ' "Matt, xxi, 2831. FIGURE IV. METONYMY. " Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death.'" Hervey. " ' Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath. ' Did not I fail in the field ? ' " Ossian. 11 Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke." Gray. " Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, His arm is conquest, and his frown is /ate." Day. "At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, Was strong for toil ; the dappled morn arose." ParnelL " What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood, To that which warbles through the vernal wood ! " Pope. FIGURE V. SYNECDOCHE. " 'Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest." ParnelL " For yet by swains alone the world he knew, Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew." Id. " Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round." Thomson. LESSON VIII. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. FIGURE VI. HYPERBOLE. "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." Ossian. "At which the universal host up sent A shout, that tore Hell's concave, and beyond Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night." Milton. " Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red ! " Shakspeare. FIGURE VII. VISION. 11 How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm of God ! How pow- erfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons ! Hark ! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth the living energies of the soul ; pleading, with generous indignation and holy emotion, the cause of injured humanity against lawless might, CHAP. III.] PROSODY. FIGURES. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XIV. 797 and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppressor ! I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed ! I see the eye fallen, that kindled the elements of war ! I see the brow relaxed, that scowled defiance at hostile thousand* ! I see the knees trem- ble, that trod with firmness the embattled field ! Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence ! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the weakness of humanity ! Behold ! and tell me, is that power contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts? " Author \ ricrui: vin. APOSTROPHE. " Yet still thev breathe destruction, still go on, Inhumanly ingenious to find out New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; Artificers of death ! Still monarchs dream Of universal empire growing up From universal ruin. Blast the design, Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall L'npitif'd rirfu/is at Ambition's shrine" Porteus. LESSON IX. FIGUKKS OF RHETORIC. FIGURE IX. PERSONIFICATION. " Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd ! Without you, what were man? A grov'ling herd, Tn darkness, wretchedness, and want, enchain'd." Beattie. " Let cheerful J/r///Yy, from her purest cells, 1 forth a goo'lly train of Virtues fair, Cherish M in early youth, now paying buck With tenfold usury the pious care." Porteus. FIGURE X. EROTESIS. " He that chastiscth the heathen, shall not he correct? He that tcacheth man knowledge, shall not he know?" Psal. xciv, 10. '* Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil." Jeremiah, xiii, tio. FIGURE XI. ECPHOXESIS. " that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and ni^lit for the slain of the daughter of my people ! that I had in the wilderness :i lodging place of way-faring men, that I might leave my people, and go from them ! " Jeremiah, ix, 1. FIGURE XII. ANTIT1U>I-:. " On this side, modesty is engaged; on that, impudence: on this, chastity; on that, lewdnoss : on this, integrity ; on that, fraud : on this, piety ; on that, profane- : on this. r<>M.-ra.nry ; on that, fickleness : on this, honour; on that, baseness : on this, moderation; on that, unbridled p-is>iin." Cicero. " She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, de-ceiid, and finid> infernal rise; Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes; r made her devils, and weak hope her gods." Pope. OF RHETORIC. \III.-CUMAX. " Virtuous actions are neccssui! . ! by the awakened conscience ; and when they are approved, they are commended to practice; and when they are practised, they hecnnie easy ; and when they lin-miie c-asy, they afY>rd pleasure; and when they aiFord plea-ure, they are done frequently; and when they are done frequently, they are confirmed by habit : and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature." Inst. p. 246. '\Veep all of every name : be^in the wo, Ye woods, and tell it to the doleful winds; 798 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. And doleful winds, wail to the howling hills ; And howling hills, mourn to the dismal vales ; And dismal vales, sigh to the sorrowing brooks ; And sorrowing brooks, weep to the weeping stream ; And weeping stream, awake the groaning deep ; And let the instrument take up the song, Responsive to the voice harmonious wo ! " Pollok, B. vi, 1. 115. FIGURE XFV. IRONY. "And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, ' Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in \_on~\ a journey, or perad venture he sleepeth, and must be awaked ! ' " 1 Kings, xviii, 27. "After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years ; and ye shall know my breach of promise." Numbers, xiv, 34. " Some lead a life unblamable and just, Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust; They never sin or if (as all offend) Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, A slight gratuity atones for all." Cowper. FIGURE XV. APOPHASIS, OR PARALIPSIS. I say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character ; nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he has wasted an ample fortune ; nothing of the disgusting intemperance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets ; but I aver that he has not been faithful to our interests, has not exhibited either probity or ability in the important office which he holds. FIGURE XVI. ONOMATOP(EIA. HCr~ [The following lines, from Swift's Poems, satirically mimick the imitative music of a violin.] Now slowly move your fiddle-stick ; Now, tantan, tantantivi, quick ; Now trembling, shivering, quivering, quaking, Set hoping hearts of Lovers aching." " Now sweep, sweep the deep. See Celia, Celia dies, While true Lovers' eyes Weeping sleep, Sleeping weep, Weeping sleep, Bo-peep, bo-peep." CHAPTER IV. -VERSIFICATION. Versification is the forming of that species of literary composition which is called verse ; that is, poetry* or poetic numbers. SECTION L OF VERSE. Verse, in opposition to prose, is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm language so ordered as to produce harmony, by a due succession of poetic feet, or of syllables differing in quan- tity or stress. DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. The rhythm of verse is its relation of quantities ; the modulation of its numbers ; or, the kind of metre, measure, or movement, of which it consists, or by which it is particularly distinguished. The quantity of a syllable, as commonly explained, is the relative portion of time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable is usually reckoned to be equal to two short ones. In the construction of English verse, long quantity coincides always with the pri- mary accent, generally also with the secondary, as well as with emphasis ; and short CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. PRINCIPLES. 799 quantity, as reckoned by the poets, is found only in unaccented syllables, and unem- phatical monosyllabic words.* The quantity of a syllable, whether long or short, does not depend on what is called the long or the short sound of a vowel or diphthong, or on l supposed distinction of accent as affecting vowels in sonic; cases and consonants in others, but principally on the degree of energy or loudries.s with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is employed. The open vowel sounds, which are commonly but not very accurately termed long, are those which are the most easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables ; while, on the other hand, no vowel sound, that occurs under the usual stress of accent or of emphasis, is either so short in its own nature, or is so *' quickly joined to the succeeding letter," that the syllable is not one of long quantity. .Most monosyllables, in English, are variable in quantity, and may be made either long or short, as strong or weak sounds suit the sense and rhythm ; but words of greater length are, for the most part, fixed, their accented syllables being always long, and a syllable immediately before or after the accent almost always short. One of the most obvious distinctions in poetry, is that of rhyme and blank verse. lilt y me. is a similarity of sound, combined with a difference ; occurring usually between the last syllables of different lines, but sometimes at other intervals ; and so ordered that the rhyming syllables begin differently and end alike. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double rhyme adds one short syllable : triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redundant in iambic and ana- verses ; in lines of any other sort, they are generally, if not always, included in the measure. A Stanza is a combination of several verses, or lines, which, taken together, make a regular division of a poem. It is the common practice of good versifiers, to form all is of the same poem after one model. The possible variety of stanzas is infinite j and the actual variety met with in print is far too great for detail. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Terse, in the broadest acceptation of the term, is poetry, or metrical language, in general. This, to the eye, is usually distinguished from prose by the manner in which i itten and printed. For, in very many instances, if this were not the case, the reader would be puzzled to discern the difference. The division of poetry into its peculiar lines, is therefore not a mere accident. The word verse, from the Latin versus, literally signifies a T. ich full line of metre is accordingly called a verse; because, when its measure is complete, the writer turns to place an other under it. A verse, then, in the primary sense of the word with us. is. "A ////> consisting of a certain succession of sounds, and number of syllables." Johnson, ll'atkcr, Tollcs, and others. Or, according to Webster, it is, "A poetic line, con>isting of a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed according to the rules of the species of poetry which the author intends to compose." See American Svo. _. If to settle the theory of English verse on true and consistent principles, is as difficult a matter, as the manifold contrarieties of doctrine among our prosodists would in- it hope of any scheme entirely satisfactory to the intelligent examiner. The very elements of the - much perplexed by the incompatible dog- : authors deemed skilful to elucidate it. It will scarcely be thought a hard ma' distinguish true ver-e from is it n, :!iifli:un then 1 .' 1 f-fig/i Hunt. "An.i Tli'Mii-nii, th'.u.'h t.,-st in his in<|. ,,!: Either st'fil hi MP U:i-r.-l hi- wi *."M. If we reckon the fWt in cji;. >s with both parts short. But some, n (curing ' n^n " on the U"er syllable. ..n t]\ t . former, will < :t!l " Offl nnw "abacchy, and "Either $ tpt " an amphimac : because thty make thtm such by their manner of rending. G. B. 800 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [FART IT. pertains to all syllables as such, and not merely to vowel sounds ; the recognition of the same general principles ot syllabication in poetry as in prose ; the supposition that accent per- tains, not to certain letters in particular, but to certain syllables as such ; the limitation of accent to stress, or percussion, only ; the conversion of short syllables into long, and long ihto short, by a change of accent ; our frequent formation of long syllables with what are called shoit vowels ; our more frequent formation of short syllables with what are called long <>r open vowels; the necessity of some order in the succession of feet or syllables, to form rhythm ; the need of framing each line to correspond with some other line or lines ia length ; the propriety of always making each line susceptible of scansion by itself: all these points, so essential to a true explanation of the nature of English verse, though, for the most part, well maintained by some prosodists, are nevertheless denied by some, so that opposite opinions may be cited concerning them all. I would not suggest that all or any of the-e points are thereby made doubtful ; for there may be opposite judgements in a dozen cases and yet com-urrencc enough (if concurrence erm do it) to establish them every one. OHS. 3. An ingeniou-* poet and prosodist now living,* Edgar Allan Poe, (to whom I owe a worn or two of reply.) in his ".Notes upon English Verse," with great self-compla- cency, represents, that, " While much has been written upon the structure of the Greek and Latin rnythms, comparatively nothing has been done as regards the English;" that, " It may be said, indeed, we arc ivithout a treatise upon our own versification ; " that, " The very best" definition of versificationf to be found in any of "our ordinary treatises on the topic," has " not a single point which does not involve an error; " that, "A leading defect in eoch of these treatises is the confining of the subject to mere versification, while metre, or rhythm, in general, is th? real que>tion at issue; " that, "Versification is not the art, but the act," of making verses ; that, "A correspondence in the length of lines is by no means essential;" thar, Harmony," produced " by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity," does not include "melody ; " that, "A regular alternation, as described, forms no part of the principle of metre; " that, "There is no necessity of any regularity in the succession of feet; '' that, " By consequence," he ventur. s to "dispute the essentiality of any alternation, regular or irregular, of syllables long and short;" that, "For anything more intelligible or more satisfactory than this definition, [i. e., Brown's former definition of Versification,] we shall look in vain in any published treatise upon the subject;" that, "So general and so total a failure can be referred only to some radical misconception ; " that, " The word verse is derived (through versus} from the Latin verto, I turn, and * * * * it c; n be nothing but this derivation, which has led to the error of our writers upon prosody ; " that, "It is this whii-.h has seduced them into regarding the line itself the versus, or turning as ; n essential, or principle of metre ; " that, " Hence the term versification has been employed as Sufficiently general, or inclusive, for treatises upon rhythm in general;" that, "Henc?, also, [comes] the precise catalogue of a few varieties of English lines, when these vari.'ti ln*titnitf, of E Groin, p. 35. J This appears to h- an error ; fur, according to Dil worth, and other itvichn.etioians. % 'a vmt is a nvmbfr;" and so is it expounded by Johnson, Walker, Wt-bs'er. and Worcester. See. in the Intro .vctimi, a note at the foot Of p. 101. Some prosodists have taught the absurdity, that two feet are necessary to constitute n />tr>-, and have accordingly applied the terms, mninnntli-r. rlutn-ti-r. trimtlrr, tetrani'ter, pmt/im>trr, ;tnd h>xtnnfier, or so many Of them as they cr.itld o >nis'i/>/>/y, in a sense vnry different from the usuil acc.ept;itiun. The proper principle M. that, ' One f>ot constitutes a metre." Dr. P HV/.s-,t\v (irfk Pro-oily, p 53. And verst-s are to be denominated MunoiHttrr, Dhiiftrr, Tiiittftfr. &c., according to '-THE NUMIJEK, OF FC.KT." See ib. p. 6. Hut. Worcester's Univer- sal and Oiiical Dictionary has the following not very coi. si-tent explana ions : ' MONOMETER, it One metre. Eei-lc. DiMr.TKR, n A poetic measure of fmir feet ; a serie* of two metres. Beck TRIMETER, n. Consisting of dree poetical measures, forming an iambic of six feet. Tyrwkitt. TETKAMETEK, n. A Latin or Greek verse con- CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 801 not a syllable in itself, are subdivisions of the pulsations. Xo equality is demandcl in these subdivisions. It is only reqnired that, so far as ivir I'-'ds two consecutive feet at least, the sum of the times of the syllables in one, shall be equal to the sum of the times of the sylla- bles in the other. I'eyond two pulsations there is no necessity for equality of time. All beyond is arbitrary or conventional. A third and fourth pulsation may emb >dy half, or d'Hiblf, or any proportion of the time occupied in the two first. Rhythm being thus under- stjod. the pro-o.-U-t ^hould proceed to deli;. ion as Me / as the arbitrary or of rhythm* int) masses of ." Ib. p. 10-). . o. Xo marvel that all usual conceptions and definitions of rhythm, of versifica- tion, and of verse, should be found dissati -fr, is ful- filled by the pompous ;?nwe of Fenelon's Te'lemaque. or real examination of this matter can ever make the most immediately rco-jnizabh. form of poetry to be any thin.: eUe than the form of verse the form of writing in sp-'djic ////'>>, ordered by number and chime of syllables, and not squared by ^a-je of th" composing-stick. And as to the de.iva'ion and primitive signification of rhythm, it i.s plain that in the extract above, both are misrepi ed. The etymology there given is a gross error; for. " the Greek uptti/ior, \\-ould make, in English, not rhythm, but arithm, as in nritlimtfir. Between trie two combin r there is the palpable difference of three or four letters in either six ; for neither of these firms can be varied to the other, but by dropping one letter, and adding an other, and chan third, and moving a fourth. Rhythm \* d rived, not thence, but from the Greek 'pi ; which, according to the lexicons, is a primitive word, and means, rhythmits, rhythm, con .-, d ('me, or ', a:id // >t " number." ()i:s. 6. Rhythm, of course, like every other word nut misapplied, " conveys its oicn idea ; " and that, not qu-iliriedly, or " /," but exac'ly. That this idea, however, was originally that of arithmet! . . ly so now, is about as fanciful a notion, as the h added above, that rhythm in lieu ofarithm or n . - Words, ieoouM " rhvthm in pro- in music !" With iut dispute.it is important to the . and also to the poet or versifier, to have a-< accurate an idea as possible of the import of this common term, though it is observabl- that many of our grammarians make little or no use of it. That ic h-is -i.nie relation t< numbers, i.s undeniable. Hut what is it ? numbers, and numbers in arithmetic, and numbers in grammar, aie three totally dif- ferent sorts of things, lihythm is related only to the iir>t. ' irication of this word, ft recent expositor gives the following brief explanation; "RHYTHM, //. Metre; verse; nmn- rtion applied to anv motion whatever." Bolh-s's Dictionary, Svo. To this definition, Woreesfr prefixes the following: "The consonance of inea>ur and time in poi-t.ry. . . also in dancing." rnici-rsal and CriH.-ti! l)i,-f. In verse, the proportion which forms rliythm that is, the chime of quantities is applied to : -ylla'ile*. S unds. however, may be considered as a species of motion, especially those which are rhythmical or musical.* It seems more strictly correct, to regard rhythm / of poetic numbers, than to identify it with them. Jt is their proportion or modulation, rather than the numbers them^elvi s. According to Dr. Webster, " RHYTHM, or RniTHMUS, n :itty in tl:e movement as to quickness or slowm length and shortness of the not' / the proportion which the parts of the motion hare to each other.** The"// " of rhythm can be nothing else than the reduction of it ti . if, in this reduction, it is "identical with ic is here the s*me thing as '/nin'lhi, whether prosodical or musical; lor, "The ; a note, <; ***&# I ''( time t.f a /v.\/ is aUo called quantity ; be- itituent of rhythm." ('linstock's Moruf/mi, p. 6t, Hut rhythm is. in fai-t, neither time nor rpnnti'y ; for the analysis which would make it such, s the relation in which the thing consists. Hoy II. OF ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ccent ami Quantity have already IHMMI lricil,- explainel::\ r metres. THUVMETF.R, a. Il.-ivincr /oiirniftrirnl frrt. Tyrn-lilit. PKNTAMF.TER, li aiiiL' fn-f nintrieal /"/. \\'nrinn. e hcrnir. iilnl n:ot. iinpor- U .n,i |;,,;,,:i'i-: .1 rli vt niii.-al s.-ii,-< ,,f MX II,.TI,> II KAMREB, O. II. n . f'tt. Itr \\',iri<>,,. niv I.TC .i- 1'L-trainvier ; and Tri- * It i> i-riiiiiii.iii. ;r :sn> r.rr. t to riiis i >Wf v-r. i- a lini t-.| I.* tiic ori'ic. :in<| < i -.1 to >lii>\v h '-I i"> ll.ibl.-s in snrri.i ( ,n. a. ciu i-n - KM wt\ <-\i\r\y r i-- 1 I'. HI ii : which Ill;iV b- t-vi Init cv-ii ti tiin.M- \v,n. :in- ili-t. . . , frum the loiiowint; fact, that the u-rui tin, <.,, ,i> \ n all languages b equally applii-d to both '' ti. H 802 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. tions ; in the progress of which, many quotations from other writers on these subjects, will be presented, showing what has been most popularly taught. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Accent and quantity are distinct things;* the former being the stress, force, loudness, or percussion of voice, that distinguishes certain syllables from others ; and the latter, the time, distinguished as long or short, in which a syllable is uttered. Eut, as the great sounds which we utter, naturally take more time than the small ones, there is a neces- sary connexion between quantity and accent in English, a connexion which is sometimes expounded as being the mere relation of cause and effect ; nor is it in fact much different from that. "As no utterance can be agreeable to the ear, which is void of proportion ; and as all quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, depends upon a due observation of the accent ; it is a matter of absolute necessity to all, who would arrive at a good and grace- ful delivery, to be master of that point. Nor is the use of accent in our language confined to guantity alone ; but it is also the chief mark by which words are distinguished from mere syllables. Or rather 1 may say, it is the very essence of words, which without that, would be only so many collections of syllables." Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 61. "As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agreeable to the ear ; and as quantity, or propor- tion of time in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention to the accent ; it is absolutely necessary for every person, who would attain a just KoA. pleasing delivery, to be master of that point." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 241; 12mo, 194. OBS. 2. In the first observation on Prosody, at page 742, and in its marginal notes, was reference made to the fact, that the nature and principles of accent and quantity are in- volved in difficulty, by reason of the different views of authors concerning them. To this source of embarrassment, it seems necessary here again to advert ; because it is upon the distinction of syllables in respect to quantity, or accent, or both, that every system of versi- fication, except his who merely counts, is based. And further, it is not only requisite that the principle of distinction which we adopt should be>clearly made known, but also proper to consider which of these three modes is the best or most popular foundation for a theory of ver- sification. Whether or wherein the accent and quantity of the ancient languages, Latin and Greek, differed from those of our present English, we need not now inquire. From the defini- tions which the learned lexicographers Littleton and Ainsworth give to prosodia, prosody, it would seem that, with them, " the art of accenting " was noth/.ng else than the art of giving to syllables their right quantity, " whether long or short." And some have charged it as a glaring error, long prevalent among English grammarians, and still a fruitful source of c.is- putes, to confound accent with quantity in our language. f This charge, however, thero is reason to believe, is sometimes, if not in most cases, made on grounds rather fanciful than real ; for some have evidently mistaken the notion of concurrence or coincidence for that of identity. But, to affirm that the stress which we call accent, coincides always and only \\ ith long quantity, does not necessarily make accent and quantity to be one and the same thing. The greater force or loudness which causes the accented syllable to occupy more time than any other, is in itself something different from time. Besides, quantity is divisible, being either long or short : these two species of it are acknowleged on all sides, and some few * ' From what has been said of accent and quantity in our own language, we may conclude them to be essen- tially distinct and perfectly separable : nor is ic to be doubted that they were equally separable in the learned lan- guages." Walker's Observations on Gr. and Lat. Accent und Quantity, 20 ; Key, p. 326. In the speculutive essay here cited. Walker meant by accent the rising or the falling inflection, an upward or a downward slide of the voice ; and by quantity, nothing but the open or close sound of some vowel ; as of" the a in scatter " and in " skater." the initial syllables of which words he supposed to differ in quantity as much as any two syllables can ! Ib. 24; Key, p. 331. With these views of th things, it is perhaps the less to be wondered at, that Walker, who appears to have b en a candid and cou-teous writer, charges " that excellent scholar Mr. Forster with a tola'. ignorance of the accent and quantity of his own language; " (Ib. Note, on 8 ; Key, p. 317 ;) and, in regard to accent, ancient or modern, elsewhere confesses his own ignorance, and that of every body else, to be as " total.' 1 ' 1 See marginal note on Obs 4th below. t (1.) " We shall now take a view of sounds when united into syllables. Here a beautiful variation of quantity presents itself as the next object of our attention. The knosvledge of longsmd short syllables, is the most excellent and most neglected quality in the whole art of pronunciation. The disputes of our modern writers on this subject, have arisen chiefly from an absurd notion that has long prevailed ; viz. that there is no difference between the accent and the quantity, in the English language ; that the accented syllables are always long , and the unaccented always short. An absurdity so glaring, does not need refutation Pronounce any one line from Milton, and the ear will deter- mine whether or not the accent and quantity always coincide. Very seldom they do." UERRIES : BickneiVs Gram., Partii, p. 308. (2 ) " Some of our Moderns (especially Mr. Bisht, in his Art of Poetry) and lately Mr. Mattaire, in what he calls, The English Grammar, erroneously use Accent for Quantity, one signif\ ing the Length or Shortness of a ^3 liable, the other the raising or falling of the Voice in Discourse. r Bri%htland''s Gram., London, 1746, p. 156. (3.) " Tempus cum accentu a nonnullis malt- confuLditur ; quasi idem sit acui et produci. Cum brevis .intern eyllaba acuitur, elevatur quidem vox in ea proferenda, sod tern pus non augetur. Sic in voce homiiiibu.* acuitur 77i/ ; at ni qua; sequitur, aequam in efferendo moram postulat.-' Lily's Gram. p. 125. Version : " 15y some per- sons, titnf is improperly confounded with accent ; as if to acute and to lengthen were the same. Hut when a short syllable is acuted, the voice indeed is raised in pronouncing it, but the time is not increased. Thus, in the word korninibu*, mi has the acute accent ; but ni, which follows, demands equal slowness in the pronunciation." To English ears, this can hardly seem a correct representation ; for, in pronouncing hominibus, it is not mi, but min. that we accent ; and this syllable is manifestly as much longer than the rest, as it is louder. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 803 prosndists will have a third, which they call "common."* But, of our English accent, the word beino; taken in its usual acceptation, no such division is ever, with any propriety, made; for even the stress which we call secondary awnf, pertains to hug syllables rather than to short ones ; and the mere absence of stress, which produces short quantity, we do not Call (trcfiit. ()i;>. ?,. The impropriety of affirming quantity to be the same as accent, when its most frequent species occurs only in the absence of accent, must be obvious to every body ; and those writers who anywhere suggest this identity, must either have written absurdly, or have taken in-<;-,if in some sense which includes the sounds of our unaccented syllables. The word sometimes means, "The modulation of the voice in speaking." Wora-sti-r's Diet. to. In this sense, the lighter as well as the more impressive sounds are included; but still, whether both together, considered as accents, can be reckoned the same as lon^ and short quantities, is questionable. Some say, they cannot; and insist that they a as diil'i-rent. as the variable tones of a trumpet, which swell and fall, are different from the merely loud and soft notes of the monotonous drum. This illustration of the " easy Distinc- tion betwixt (jiKintify and Accent" is cited, with commendation, in Brightland's Grammar, on pa^e l-'nth ;f the author of which grammar, scons to have understood Accent, or J< to be the -ami' as Intl.-rtittim though these are still unlike to quantities, if he did so. (See an explanation of Inflections in Chap II, Sec. iii, Art. 3, above.) His exposition is this: "I /is the rixin;/ and. falling of the Voice, above or under its usual Tone. There are three i Accents, an Acute, a Grave, and an Inftex, which is also call'd a Circumflex. The Acute, or S/mrjj, naturally raises the Voice; and the Grave, or Base, as naturally falls it. The is a kind of I'ndulation, or Waving of the Voice." Brightland's Gram., Seventh Ed. Lond. 174(5, p. 156. ()i:s. 4. Dr. Johnson, whose great authority could not fail to carry some others with him, too evidently identifies accent with quantity, at the commencement of his Prosody. " PUONV.NCI.VTION is just," says he, " when every letter has its proper sound, and when every has its proper accent, or which in English versification is the same, its proper quan- tity." Johnsons Gram, before Diet. 4to, p. 13; John Burns Gram. p. 240 ; Jones's Prosodial . before Diet. p. 10. Now our most common notion of accent the sole notion with many and that which the accentuation of Johnson himself everywhere inculcates is, that it belongs not to "every syllable," but only to some particular syllables, being either " a stress on a certain syllable," or a small mark to denote such stress. See Scott's Diet, or II' . But Dr. Johnson, in the passage above, must have understood the word ui-crnt ;'>ly to his own imperfect definition of it; to wit, as " the sound given to the syllable ." .Joh. Dirt. An unaccented syllable must have been to him a syllable unpro- In short he does not appear to have recognized any syllables as being unaccented. The wui-d in,,r>;;-tifcd had no place in his lexicography, nor could have any without incon- .. It was unaptly added to his text, after sixty years, by one of his amenders, Todd or ( 'halmers ; who still blindly neglected to mend his definition of accent. In these particu- lar-, \\'n!ki-r's dictionaries exhibit the same deficiencies as Johnson's; and yet no author re frequently used the words accent and unaccented, than did Walker. J Mason's Sup- * (1.) " Syllables, with respect to their '/tinntiti/, are either long, short, or common." Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram, p. 243. " Some syllables are common; that is, sometimes long, and sometimes short." Adam 1 * Lat. and En^. i hen- put for vnrinbh. or not iruinn> ntly si ttlni in rtspect to quantity: in this mi which no third species ought to be inferred, our language is, perhaps, more extensively " common " than an. "tlier. ('2.) Mo-- i.f our Monosyllables , i'li.-r take this Strew or not, according as they are more or less emphatical; i Words i-t '"in- S\ liable may he considered as common ; i. e either as long or short in certain Dfl art- i-hii -11, determined by the Pause, or Cesure, of the Verse, and this Pause by the abounds in MonosyllubleH, t'.erc is probably no Language in which the Quantity of Syll.ihles is more- regulal. v tin- SCUM- than in Knjilish." II". Wmrf* (irnm , Kd. of 1765, p. 166. ry of ijiL-m-iry, fur \\hieli In- r-ler- f Herrie-, is tliis : ' The Kn^lis i '/nantity is divided into Ion?. > MI/I. Theli'i ! >s llaliles are thi'se that end in a vowel, and are under the accent ; '. \\licnaiiiniio-\lhihle.wliich is unemphatic, ends in a vowel, it la u\\\ i . - -I : I. at \vhen r. !'t. It another coii-onan' ; -ween the vowel and mute, as rvnd, toft, fla the \ ll-ihle is rendered tomnrhnt l->nz>r. The <>tlier iiwics of syllables called ronnon* are such as termi- nate in a Salt" V..W-1 (ir a.-|iirate. KIT n\-.i' ce, in the words ru/i. s\vii. rru/i. pur/, the concluding sound can be continue I ..r ; ~ a I. hi. i> fumnled on factaud e\i" ; l!ir i- i' not a furl, that -urh words as fHltf.it, .itn))t// N " [our f.in^i:, -'lers. to have ii" reference to inflections of '* on Klnriit-i>i,. p .',-; ; H'-j/Avr's K'y. p. 313. J (1. us. fooliM-rve that Walker, in his lexicography, filing bur pronunciation. On this latter snlj.-ct his own authority is perhaps r. And here 1 am I-'<1 to in'ro lucr a n-inark or two touching tk* - call nr.rt-nt is as well understood as is nece-s-irv for the pronunciation of single words, which is the object of this treatise." Wnlkfr's D< try ; the quantity here considered will be fhar which relates to words taken singly : and this is not/tiny; mar? i/ian the le.nyi.li or short n-s* of th~ rowfls. either as the.y stand alone, or as they are differently combined with the vov els or consonants." Ib. p. 62. Pfinrip. 5-9. Here is suggested a distinction which has not been so well observe, i by grammar! ms and prosodists, or even by U'alker himself, as it ought to have been. So long as the practice con- tinues of denominating certain mere roivt.l sminii* the lony. and the shmt, it will be verv necessary to notice that tiles- are not the same as the sytl'tbie quanlitin, long and short. whi>-h coiisfinre English verse. * (1.) In the Latin and Gieek languages this is not commonly supposed to be the case; but, on the contrr.ry, thequan'ity of s\llal>les is professedly adjusted by i'sown rules independently of what we call accent; ai d, in our Knglish pronumiaMon of these languages the accentuation of all long words is regulated by the quantify of the last s\ liable but one Walker, in the introduction to his Key, speaks of ' The Knglish pronni ( iat,;<>n of Greek and Latin [as] i Jurious to quantify." And no one can deny, that we often accent what are called short sy 11 ibles. and perhaps ot'tener leave uniH'.cet ted such as are called long ; but, after all. were the quantity of Latin and Greek s> 1 abie.s always judsred of by their actual time, and not. with reference to the vowel sounds calle I long and short, the-e our violations of the ol I quantifies would be found much fewer than some suppose they are. (2 ) Dr. Adam's view of the accents, acute and grave, appears to be peculiar; arid of a nature which may per- haps come nearer to an actual identity \\ih word is wri'ten. not thus, bur, with two KTs proffer. (Jr. B.] " 2 The grn-e. or ba-f accent depresses the voice, or keeps it in is natural tone ; and is thus marked [' ] ; as, doct'. y^r" This nrcfnt pioptrly hr-loiins to nil *y'lr.rp,n. and has given an entirely different, definition of the thing . v ee inan/i M) notes on pagw 742. above. Dr. Johnson also cites from llol'ler a very different explanation of it. as follows: ".-In-nit, as in the Greek names and usage, seems to have reg-ir.led the tune of the voice ; the acute accent, r ,-ii iejr the voice in some certain syllables, to a higher. (/. e. more acute) pitch or tone ; and the grave, depressing it lower ; D^y 2 " and both, having some tmjfkntis^ i. e. more vigorous pronunciation. HOLDER." Johnson's Quarto Diet. w. Accent. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 805 jr-r "v 7V .'S.-'il Gram. p. 155. As to the vowel sounds, with the quantity of which many prosodies have greatly puzzled both themselves and their readers, this writer says, "they may be made as long, or as short, as the Speaker pleases." 76. p. 4. On-:, o. From the absurd and contradictory nature of many of the principles usually laid dotcn by our grammarians, for the discrimination of long quantity and short, it is quite apparent, that but very few of them have well understood either the distinction itself or their own rules concerning it. Take Fisher for an example. In Fisher's Practical Gram- mar, first published in London in 17o3, a work not unsuccessful, since Wei's quotes the >;i " as appearing in 1795, and this was not the last, we find, in the first place, the vowel sounds distinguished as long or short thus : "Q. How many Sounds has a Vowel ? A. Two in general, viz. 1. A LONG Sorxn, When the Syllable ends with a Vowel, either in Monosyllables, or in Words of more Syllables; as, take, ict, I, go, nu ; or, Nero, ' -. A SHORT SOUND, When the Syllable ends with a Conso- nant, either in Monosyllables, or others ; as Hat, her, bit, rob, Tun; or, as Barber, bitten, ."See p. 5. To this rule, the author makes needless exceptions of all such words as balance and banish, wherein a single consonant between two vowels goes to the former ; because, like Johnson, Murray, and most of our old grammarians, he divides on the vowel; calls the accented syllable short ; and imagines the consonant to be heard twice, or to have " a -it." On page 35th, he tells us that, "Long and short Towels, and long and short ^ . v synonimous [ synonymous, from cvvuwuof ] Terms ; " and so indeed have they been most erroneously considered by sundry subsequent writers ; and the consequence is, that all who judge by their criteria, mistake the poetic quantity, or prosodical value, of perhaps one halt' the syllables in the language. Let each syllable be reckoned long that - with a Vowel," and each short that "ends with a Consonant," and the decision will probably be oftener wrong than right ; for more syllables end with consonants than with vowels, and of the latter class a majority are without stress and therefore short. Thus the : ;ig principle, contrary to the universal practice of the poets, determines many a '.'s to be " short ; " as the first in " barber, bitten, button, balance, banish " and many Mnes to be " long ; " as the last in sofa, specie, noble, metre, sorroic, daisy, rrt when with a Consonant; as, Fa- in Facuur, and Man- in Manntr." lasher's '/a. p. 3-1. Now one u r r md mistake of this is, that it supposes syllabication to fix the quantity, and quantity to determine the accent ; whereas it is plain, that accent controls quantity, so far t that, in the construction of verse, a syllable fully accented cannot be reckoned short. An 1 this mistake is practical ; lor we see, that, in three of his examples, out of the four above, the author hi; 'he quantity, because he disregards the accent: the verb re-curd', being accented on the second syllable, is an iambus ; and the nouns ; ut'-ner, being accented on the lirst, tmtroekttt ; and just as plainly so, as is the word still greater blunder hereob- . that, as a " due pronunciation " neces- includes the utterance of every syllable, the explanation above stolidly suppn- om syllables to 1 . each "according to its Quantity, (whether it be long or short,)" "-ith a stro, > Stress of Voice, than the other Syllables ! " Absurdity akin to this, and still more worthy to be criticised, has since been propagated by Sheridan, by r, and by Lindley Murray, with a host of followers, as Alger, D. Blair, Oomly, Cooper, Cutler, Davenport, Felton, Fowler, Frost, Guy, Jaudon, Parker and Fox, Picket, Pond, Putnam, Kusscll, Smith, and others. 806 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. OBS. 8. Sheridan was an able and practical teacher of English pronunciation, and one who appears to have gained reputation by all he undertook, whether as an actor, as an elocutionist, or as a lexicographer. His publications that refer to that subject, though now mostly superseded by others of later date, are still worthy to be consulted. The chief of them are, his Lectures on Elocution, his Lectures on the Art of Reading, his Rhetorical Grammar, his Elements of English, and his English Dictionary. His third lecture on Elo- cution, and many pages of the Rhetorical Grammar, are devoted to accent and quantity subjects which he conceived to have been greatly misrepresented by other writers up to his time.* To this author, as it would seem, we owe the invention of that absurd doctrine, since copied into a great multitude of our English grammars, that the accent on a syllable of two or more letters, belongs, not to the whole of it, but only to some ONE LETTER ; and that according to the character of this letter, as vowel or consonant, the same stress serves to lengthen or shorten the syllable's quantity ! Of this matter, he speaks thus : "The great distinction of our accent depends upon its seat ; which may be either upon a vowel or a con- sonant. Upon a vowel, as in the words, glory, father, holy. Upon a consonant, as in the words, hab'it, bor'row, bat' tie. When the accent is on the vowel, the syllable is long ; because the accent is made by dwelling upon the vowel. When it is on the consonant, the syllable is short ;f because the accent is made by passing rapidly over the vowel, and giving a smart stroke of the voice to the following consonant. Obvious as this point is, it has wholly escaped the observation of all our grammarians and compilers of dictionaries ; who, instead of examining the peculiar genius of our tongue, implicitly and pedantically have followed the Greek method, of always placing the accentual mark over a vowel." Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram. p. 51. The author's reprehension of the old mode of accentuation, is not without reason ; but his " great distinction " of short and long syllables is only fit to puzzle or mis- lead the reader. For it is plain, that the first syllables of hab'it, bor'row, and bat'tle, are twice as long as the last ; and, in poetry, these words are trochees, as well as the other three, glo'ry, fa'ther, and ho'ly. OBS. 9. The only important distinction in our accent, is that of the primary and the secondary, the latter species occurring when it is necessary to enforce more syllables of a word than one ; but Sheridan, as we see above, after rejecting all the old distinctions of rising and falling, raising and depressing, acute and grave, sharp and base, long and short, contrived a new one still more vain, which he founded on that of vowels and consonants, but " referred to time, or quantity." He recognized, in fact, a vowel accent and a consonant accent ; or, in reference to quantity, a lengthening accent and a shortening accent. The discrimination of these was with him "THE GREAT DISTINCTION of our accent." He has accordingly mentioned it in several different places of his works, and not always with that regard to consistency which becomes a precise theorist. It led him to new and variant ways of defining accent ; some of which se3m to imply a division of consonants from their vowels in utterance, or to suggest that syllables are not the least parts of spoken words. And no sooner has he told us that our accent is but one single mode of distinguishing a syllable, than he proceeds to declare it two. Compare the following citations : "As the pronunciation of English words is chiefly regulated by ac- cent, it will be necessary in the first place to have a precise idea of that term. Accent with us means no more than a certain stress of the voice upon one letter of a syllable, which dis- tinguishes it from all the other letters in a word." Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram. p. 39. Again : "Accent, in the English language, means a certain stress of the voice upon a particular letter of a syllable which distinguishes it from the rest, and, at the same time, distinguishes the syllable itself to which it belongs from the others which compose the word." Same work, p. 50. Again : " But as our accent consists in stress only, it can just as well be placed on a con- sonant as [on] a vowel." Same, p. 51. Again : " By the word accent, is meant the stress of the voice on one letter in a syllable." Sheridan's Elements of English, p. 55. Again : " The * (1.) "Amongst them [the ancients,] we know that accents were marked by certain inflexions [inflections] of the voice like musical notes ; and the grammarians to this day, with great formality inform their pupils, that the acute accent, is the raising [of] the Toice on a certain syllable; the grave, a depression of it; and the circumflex, a raising and depression both, in one and the same syllable. This jargon they constantly preserve, though they have no sort of ideas annexed to these words ; for if they are asked to shew how this is to be done, they cannot tell, and their practice always belies their precept." Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc. p. 54. (2.) " It is by the accent chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated ; but not according to the mis- taken rule laid down by all who have written on the subject, that the accent always makes the syllable long; than which there cannot bt any thing more false.''' 1 Ib. p. 57. (3.) "And here I cannot help taking notice of a circumstance, which shews in the strongest light, the amazing deficiency of those, who have hitherto employed their labours on that subject, [accent, or pronunciation,] in point of knowledge of the true genius and constitution of our tongue. Several of the compilers of dictionaries, vocabu- laries, and spelling books, have undertaken to mark the accents of our words ; but so little acquainted were they with the nature of our accent, that they thought it necessary only to mark the syllable on which the stress is to be laid, without marking the particular Utter of the syllable to which the accent belongs." Ib. p. 59. (4.) " The mind thus taking a bias under the prejudice of false rules, never arrives at a knowledge of the true nature of quantity : and accordingly we find that all attempts hitherto to settle the prosody of our language, have been vain and fruitless." Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram. p. 52. 1 In the following extract, this matter is stated somewhat differently : " The quantity depends upon the seat of the accent, whether it be on the vowel or [on the] consonant ; if on the vowel, the syllable is necessarily long ; as it makes the vowel long ; if on the consonant, it may be either long or short, according to the nature of the conso- nant, or the time taken up in dwelling upon it." Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc. p. 57. This last clause shows the " distinction " to be a very weak one. G. BBOWN. CIIU>. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 807 tenn [accent] with us has no reference to inflexion* of the voice, or musical notes, but only means n ^cufiar ni-utni r nf iH^timntishiny one syllable of a irord front the rest, denominated by "lit; and the term* for that reason [is] used by us in the singular number. This dis- tinction is made by us in i> ither by dto r up ,n <>n<: x>/U,ib!e than the re-t ; or by i/iri/i'/ if a 'i of the voice in utterance. Of the first of these, we have i the words, i/'ory, fatht-r, holy ; of the last, in hat' tie, hub' it, bor'roir. So that ac- cent, with us. is not referred to tune, but to time ; to quantify, not quality ; to the mor- ble or pf'-t -ipitate motion ot'the voice, not to the variation of notes or inflexions." Sheridan's it. p. 85. . 10. How " precise " was Sheridan's idea of accent, the reader may well judge from the foregoing quotations ; in four of which, he describes it as " a certain .sV/v\\," and " ! ." which enforces some while, in the other, it is whimsically made -i>t in two different modes of pronouncing "syllables" namely, with equability, and with j with "dicellintf lomjcr" and with " smarter percussion " which terms the author very improperly supposes to be opposites : saying, " For the two ways of distinguish- . cent, as mentioned before, are directly opposite, and produce quid- contrary the one. - on the syllable, necessarily makes it long; the other, by the of the voice, as necessarily makes it short" Ib. p. 57. Now it is all a mis- take, however common, to suppose that our accent, consisting as it does, in stress, enforce- ment, or "percussion of voice," can ever shorten the syllable on which it is laid ; because what: 10 quantum of a vocal sound, cannot diminish its length ; and a syllable accented will always be found Imyt-r as well as louder, than any unaccented one immediately before or after it. Though weak sounds may possibly be protracted, and shorter ones be exploded loudly, it is not the custom of our speech," so to deal with the sounds of syl- lable-.' ( );:-. 11. Sheridan admitted that some syllables are naturally and necessarily short, but that any arc naturally and necessarily long. In this, since syllabic length and shortness are relative to each other, and to the cause of each, he was, perhaps, hardly con- . lie might have done better, to have denied both, or neither. Bating his new division of a-cent to subject it sometimes to short quantity, he recognized very fully the dependence of quantity, long or short, whether in syllables or only in vowels, upon the ace of accent or emphasis. In this he differed considerably from most of the grammarians of his day ; and many since have continued to uphold other views. He /(iff in our tongue that no vowel ever has along sound in an unac- cented syllable."- ',p. 60. Again :" In treating of the simple elements or letters, I have shown that some, both vowels and consonants, are naturally short ; that is, whose sounds cannot possibly be prolonged ; and these are the [short or shut] sounds of 6, T, a ul ft, of vocal sounds ; and three pure mutes, k, p. t, of the consonant; as in the words '. I have shown also, that the sounds of all the other vowels, and of the con- sonant ty be prolonged to what degree we please ; but at the same time it is to be observed, that all thu BO be reduced to a short quantity, and are capable of being uttered in as short a space of time as those which are naturally short. So that they who -; - as absolutely in their own nature lonz, the common cant of prosodians, speak of a nonentity: for though, as I have shown above, there are syllables absolutely short, which cannot possibly be prolonged by any effort of the speaker, yet it is in his power to shorten or prolong the others to what degree he pleases." Sheridan's Rhetorical dram. p. "; J. And again : " I have already mentioned that when the accent is on the vowel, it of course makes the syllable l-my ; and when the accent is on the consonant, the syllable may be either long or short, according to the nature of the consonant, or trill of the s\ And as all ntKicrmfeil syllables fire short, the quantity of our syllables is ad- justed by the easiest and simplest rule in the world, and in the exactest proportion." /. .-i, p. G6. . li'. This praise of our rule for the adjustment of quantity, would have been much more appropriate, had not the rule itself been greatly mistaken, perplexed, and misrcprc- by the author. Ifi; n, that "beck, lip, eat," and the like sylla- re twice as long when under the accent, as they are when not accented, so that, with syllable annexed or a long one prefixed, tbey may form tr:>ch<-cs ; then is it n> that such syllables are either aV and inh'-rently short, or always, "by the smart percussion of the vo. >rt;" both of which inconsistent ideas .tlirmcd of them. They may not be so long as some other long syllables ; but, if they are twice as lo: . t ones, they are not short. And, if not sho -t, then that remarkable distinction in accent, which assumes that they arc so, is as ,rd and perplexing. Now let the words, beck' on, lip'pinn, cut'ter, be pro -irrly pronounced, and their syllables be compared with each other, or with those of ;,jil'lip, Dra'cnf ; and it cannot but be perceived, that for/i, lip, and cut, like other syl- lables in general, are by the accent, and shortened only in its absence ; so that all these words are manifestly trochees, as all similar words are found to be, in our versifi- cation. To suppose " as many words as we hear accents," or that " it is the laying of an 808 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. accent on one syllable, which constitutes a word" and then say, that "no unaccented sylla- ble or vowel is ever to be accounted long," as this enthusiastic author does in fact, is to make strange scansion of a very large portion of the trissyllables and polysyllables which occur in verse. An other great error in Sheridan's doctrine of quantity, is his notion that all monosyllables, except a few small particles, are accented ; and that their quantity is de- termined to be long or short by the seat or the mode of the accent, as before stated. Now, as our poetry abounds with monosyllables, ihe relative time of which is adjusted by emphasis and cadence, according to the nature and importance of the terms, and according to the requirements of rhythm, with no reference to this factitious principle, no conformity thereto but what is accidental, it cann<>t but be a puzzling exercise, when these difficulties come to be summed up, to attempt the application of a doctrine so vainly conceived to be " the Busiest and simplest rule in the world ! " OKS. 13. Lindley Murray's principles of accent and quantity, which later grammarians have so extensively copied, were mostly extracted from Sheridan's ; and, as the compiler appears to have been aware of but few, if any, of his predecessor's errors, he has adopted and greatly spread well-nigh all that have just been pointed out ; while, in regard to some points, he has considerably increased the number. His scheme, as he at last fixed it, appears to consist essentially of propositions already refuted, or objected to, above ; as any reader may see, who will turn to his definition of accent, and his rules for the determina- tion of quantity. In opposition to Sheridan, who not very consistently says, that, "All unaccented syllables are short," this author appears to have adopted the greater error of Fisher, who supposed that the vowel sounds called long and short, are just the same as the long and short syllabic quantities. By this rule, thousands of syllables will be called long, which are in fact short, being always so uttered in both prose and poetry ; and, by the other, some will occasionally be called short, which are in fact long, being made so by the poet, under a slight secondary accent, or perhaps none. Again, in supposing our numer- ous monosyllables to be accented, and their quantity to be thereby fixed, without excepting " the particles, such as a, the, to, in, &c.," which were excepted by Sheridan, Murray has much augmented the multitude of errors which necessarily flow from the original rule. This principle, indeed, he adopted timidly ; saying, as though he hardly believed the assertion true : "And some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more lettsrs, has one of its letters thus distinguished." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 236 ; 12mo, 189. But still he adopted it, and adopted it fully, in his section on Quantity ; for, of his twelve woi'ds, exemplifying syllabic time so regulated, no fewer than nine are monosyllables. I , is observable, however, that, in some instances, it is not one letter, but two, that he marks ; as in the words, " mood, house." Ib. p. 239 ; 12mo, 192. And again, it should be observed, that generally, wherever he marks accent, he follows the old mode, which Sheridan md Webster so justly condemn ; so that, even when he is speaking of " the accent on the consonant" the sign of stress, as that of time, is set over a vowel', as, " Sadly, robber." Ib. 8vo, 240 ; 12mo, 193. So in his Spelling-Book, where words are often falsely divided : as, " Ve nice," for Ven'-ice ; "Ha no ver," for Han'o-ver ; &c. See p. 101. Ous. 14. In consideration of the great authority of this grammarian, now backed by a a score or two of copyists and modifiers, it may be expedient to be yet more explicit. Of accent Murray published about as many different definitions, as did Sheridan ; which, as they show what notions he had at different times, it may not be amiss for some, who hold him always in the right, to compare. In one, he describes it thus : "Accent signifies that stress of the voice, which is laid on one si/liable, to distinguish it from the rest." Murray's Spelling- Book, p. 138. He should here have said, (as by his examples it would appear that he meant,) " on one syllable of a word;" for, as the phrase now stands, it may include stress on a monosyllable in a sentence ; and it is a matter of dispute, whether this can properly be called accent. Walker and Webster say, it is emphasis, and not accent. Again, in an other definition, which was written before he adopted the notion of accent on consonants, of accent on monosyllables, or of accent for quantity in the formation of verse, he used these words: "Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain vowel or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the second syllable, sume, which takes the accent." Murray's Gram., Second Edition, 12mo, p. 161. In this edition, which was published at York, in 1796, his chief rules of quantity say nothing about accent, but are thus expressed : [1.] "A vo^oel or syllable is long, when the vowel or vowels contained in it are slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters ; as, Fall, bale, mood, house, feature.' [2.] A syllable is short, when the vowel is quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ' art, bonnet, hunger.'" Ib. p. 166. Besides the absurdity of representing "a vowel" as having " vowels contained in it," these rules are made up of great faults. They confound syllabic quantities with vowel sounds. They suppose quantity to be, not the time of a whole syllable, but the quick or slow junction of some of its parts. They apply to no sylla- ble that ends with a vowel sound. The former applies to none that e*nds with one conso- nant only ; as, "mood" or the first of "feat-ure." In fact, it does not apply to any of the examples given ; the final letter in each of the other words being silent. The latter rule is CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 809 worse yet: it misrepresents the examples; for "bonnet" and " hunger" are trochees, and "art," with any stress on it, is long. Ons. 15. In all late editions of L. Murray's Grammar, and many modifications of it, accent is defined thus : " Accent is the laying of o. peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain letter OK syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, AND [the] second syllable, which take the accent." Murray's Gram. Svo, p. 235 ; 12mo, 188 ; 18mo, 57 ; Alger's, '.'icon's, 52; Comly's, 168; Coopers, 176; Davenport's, 121; Felton's, 134; Frost's El. 60; Fisk's, 32 ; Merchant's, 145 ; Parker and Fox' a, iii, 44 ; Pond's, 197 ; Putnam's, 96 ; Rus- selfs, 106 ; R. C. Smith's, 186. Here we see a curious jumble of the common idea of accent, as "stress laid on some particular syllable of a word," with Sheridan's doctrine of accenting always "a particular luftfr of a syllabic," an idle doctrine, contrived solely for the accom- modation of short quantity with long, under the accent. When this definition was adopted, Murray's scheme of quantity was also revised, and materially altered. The principles of his main text, to which his copiers all confine themselves, then took the following form : " The quantity of a syllable, is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is con- sidered as LONG or SHORT. "A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters : as, ' Fall, bale, mood, house, feature.' "A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter : as, ' ant, bonnSt, hunger.' "A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it : thus, ' Mate ' and ' Note ' should be pronounced as slowly again as ' Mat' and Not.' " Murray's dram. 8vo, p. 239 ; 12mo, 192 ; 18mo, 57 ; Alger's, 72 ; D. C. Allen's, 86 ; Bacons, .52; ('omft/'s, 168; Cooper's, 176; Cutler's, 165; Davenport's, 121; Felton's, 134 ; Frost's El. 50; Fisk's, 32; Maltby's, 115; Parker and Fox's, iii, 47; Pond's, 198; Putnam's, 96; R. C. Smifh's, 187 ; Rev. T. Smith's, 68. Here we see a revival and an abundant propagation of Sheridan's erroneous doctrine, that our accent produces both short quantity and long, according to its seat ; and since none of all these grammars, but the first two of Murray's, give any other rules for the discrimination of quantities, we must infer, that these were judged sufficient. Now, of all the principles on which any have ever pretended to determine the quantity of syllables, none, so far as I know, arc more defective or fallacious than these. They are liable to more objections than it is worth while to specify. Suffice it to observe, that they divide certain accented syllables into long and short, and say nothing of the unaccented ; whereas it is plain, and acknowl- edged even by Murray and Sheridan themselves, that in " ant, bonnet, hunger," and the like, the unaccented syllables are the only short ones : the rest can be, and here are, lengthened.* OMS. 16. The foregoing principles, differently expressed, and perchance in some instances more fitly, are found in many other grammars, and in some of the very latest ; but they are everywhere a mere dead letter, a record which, if it is not always untrue, is seldom understood, and never applied in any way to practice. The following are some examples : (1.) " In a long syllable, the vowel is accented ; in a short syllable [,] the consonant ; as [,] roll, pnU tn/>, t'iit"Ri-r. W. Allen's Gram. p. 222. (2. ) "A syllable or word is long, when the accent is on the vowel : as no, line, Iii, me ; and short, when on the consonant : as not, lln, Latin, mCt." S. Barrett's Grammar, ("Principles of Language,") p. 112. (3.) "A syllabic is long when the accent is on the vowel, as, Pall, sale, mouse, creature. A syllable is short when the accent i.s placed on the consonant ; as great', let'ter, mas'ter." /,'/. It. Wair's Practical Grnm. p. 117. (4.) " When the stress is on the rowel, the measure of quantity is long : as, Mate, fate, com plain, playful, un der mine. When the stress is on a consonant, the quantity is short : as. Mat', fat', com pel', prog'ress, dis man'tle." 7V '.? Practical Gram. p. 125. (.5. ) " The quantity of a syllable is considered as long or short. It is long when the accent is on the vowel ; as, Fall, bale, moorl, house, frature. It is short when the accent is placed on the consonant; as, Mas'ter, let'ter." Guy's School Gram. p. 118; Picket's Analytical School Gram., 2d Ed., p. 22 1. (6.) " A syllable is hi examples of quantity shortened by the accent? The syllable man has two semivowels ; and the letter/, as in "fulfil 1 ," is the most sonorous of consonants ; yet, as we see above, among their false examples of short syllables accented, dif- ferent authors have given the words " mcin " and " man'ner," "dis-man'-tle " and " coin-pel 1 ," "mas'tcr" iind " lct'ti-r," with sundry other sounds which may easily be lengthened. San- - ivs, " The breve distinguishes a short syllable ; as, manner." Analytical Gram. p. 273. Parker and Fox say, "The Breve ( thus ") is placed over a vowel to indicate its short sound; as, St. Helena." EnglUh Gram. Part iii, p. 31. Both explanations of this sign are defec- tive ; and neither has a suitable example. The name "Si. Helt'na," as pronounced by Wor- cester, and as commonly heard, is two trochees; but "Hel'ena," for Helen, having the penult short, takes the accent on the first syllable, which is thereby made long, though the vowel sound is called short. Even Dr. Webster, who expressly notes the difference betwen "long and short voiced" and "long and short syllables" allows himself, on the very same page, to confound them : so that, of his three examples of a sJiort syllable, " that, not', melon," all are erroneous ; two being monosyllables, which any emphasis must lengthen; and the third, the won: with the first syllable marked short, and not the last ! See 's Improved Gram. p. Io7. . 20. Among the latest of our English grammars, is Chandler's new one of 1847. The Prosody of this work is fresh from the mint ; the author's old grammar of 1821, which is the nucleus of this, being " confined to Etymology and Syntax." If from any body the public has a right to expect correctness in the details of grammar, it is from one who has had the subject so long and so habitually before him. "Accent," says this author, " is the on a syllable, or letter" Chandler s Common School Gram. p. 188. Now, if our less prominent words and syllables require any force at all, a definition so loose as this, may give accent to some words, or to all ; to some syllables, or to all ; to some letters, or to all except those which are silent! And, indeed, whether the stress which distinguishes some -yllables from others, is supposed by the writer to be accent, or emphasis, or both, it is scarcely possible to ascertain from his elucidations. " The term, emphasis,'' says he, " is used to denote a fuller sound of voice after certain words that come in antithesis ; that is, contrast. He can write, but he cannot read.' Here, read and write are antithetical (that is, in contrast), and are awntud, or emphasized." P. 189. The word "after" here may possibly be a misprint for upon ; but no preposition really suits the connexion : the participle \vouldbe better. Of (/nautili/, this work gives the following account : "The r/uanfifii'i or ah >rt. Iluti- is long, as the vowel a is elongated by the final e ; hat is short, and requires about half the time for pronunciation which is used in pronouncing hate. So of . Though unaccented syllables are usually short, yet many of which arc accented are short also. The following are short : ur/vent, sin'ner, sup'per. In the following, the unaccented syllables are long : aUo, exile, gangrene, umpire. It may be remarked, that the quantity of a syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant ; as, art', bon'net, hun'gi-r. The hyphen (- ), placed over a syllabic, denotes that it is long: nii'ture. The breve ( " ) over a syllable, denotes that it is short ; as, detract." Chandler'* ( 'omn p. I.V.). This ^-heme of quantity is truly remarkable for its absurdity and confusion. What becomes of the elongating power of e, without accent or emphasis, s&injun'ci; '? Who docs not know that such syllables as " at, bat, and cur," are often long in po. try? What more absurd, than to suppose both syllables short in :ul then give " sermon, filter, spirit, gathCr," and tho like, for regular trochees, with " the lir*t syllable long, and the second short," as does th s author ? What more contradictory and confused, than to pretend that the primal sound of a vowel lengthen- syll.ible, and accent on the consonant shortens an accented one, as if in " dt'xu " the first syllable must be short and the second long, and then be compelled, by the evidence of one's senses to mark "echo" as a trochee, and "detract" as an iambus ? What less pardonable misnomer, than for a great critic to call thi; sign of long quantity a " hyphen " f 812 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. OBS. 21. The following suggestions found in two of Dr. Webster's grammars, are not far from the truth : " Most prosodians who have treated particularly of this subject, have been guilty of a fundamental error, in considering the movement of English verse as de- pending on long and short syllables, formed by long and short vowels. This hypothesis has led them into capital mistakes. The truth is, many of those syllables which are considered as long in verse, are formed by the shortest vowels in the language ; as, strength, health, grand. The doctrine, that long vowels are necessary to form long syllables in poetry is at length exploded, and the principles which regulate the movement of our verse, are explained ; viz. accent and emphasis. Every emphatical word, and every accented sylla- ble, will form what is called in verse, a long syllable. The unaccented syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words, are considered as short syllables." Webster's Philosophical Gram. p. 222 ; Improved Gram. 158. Is it not remarkable, that, on the same page with this passage, the author should have given the first syllable of "melon" as an example of short quantity ? OBS. 22. If the principle is true, which every body now takes for granted, that the foun- dation of versifying is some distinction pertaining to syllables ; it is plain, that nothing can be done towards teaching the Art of Measuring Verses, till it be known upon ichat distinction in syllables our scheme of versification is based, and by what rule or rules the discrimina- tion is, or ought to be, made. Errors here are central, radical, fundamental. Hence the necessity of these present disquisitions. Without some effectual criticism on their many false positions, prosodists may continue to theorize, dogmatize, plagiarize, and blunder on, as they have done, indefinitely, and knowledge of the rhythmic art be in no degree advanced by their productions, new or old. For the supposition is, that in general the consulters of these various oracles are persons more fallible still, and therefore likely to be misled by any errors that are not expressly pointed out to them. In this work, it is as- sumed, that quantity, not laboriously ascertained by " a great variety of rules applied from the Greek and Latin prosody," but discriminated on principles of our own quantity, de- pendent in some degree on the nature and number of the letters in a syllable, but still more on the presence or absence of stress is the true foundation of our metre. It has already been stated, and perhaps proved, that this theory is as well supported by authority as any ; but, since Lindley Murray, persuaded wrong by the positiveness of Sheridan, ex- changed his scheme of feet formed by quantities, for a new one of " feet formed by accents " or, rather, for an impracticable mixture of both, a scheme of supposed " duplicates of each foot" it has been becoming more and more common for grammarians to represent the basis of English versification to be, not the distinction of long and short quantities, but the recurrence of accent at certain intervals. Such is the doctrine of Butler, Fclton, Fowler, S. S. Greene, Hart, Hiley, R. C. Smith, Weld, Wells, and perhaps others. B it, in this, all these writers contradict themselves; disregard their own definitions of accent; count monosyllables to be accented or unaccented ; displace emphasis from the rank which Murray and others give it, as " the great regulator of quantity ; " and suppose the length or shortness of syllables not to depend on the presence or absence of either accent or empha- sis ; and not to be of much account in the construction of English verse. As these strictures are running to a great length, it may be well now to introduce the poetic feet, and to reserve, for notes under that head, any further examination of opinions as to what constitutes the foundation of verse. SECTION III. OF POETIC FEET. A verse, or line of poetry, consists of successive combinations of syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists either of two or of three syllables, as in the following examples : 1. " Can ty | -rants but | by ty | -rants con I -quered be ? "Byron. 2. " Holy, | holy, | holy ! | all the | saints a | -dore thee." Heber. 3. " And the breath | of the De | -ity cir | -cled the room." Hunt. 4. "Hail t<5 the | chief wh3 in | triumph ad | -Vance's ! " Scott. EXPLANATIONS AND DEFINITIONS. Poetic feet being arbitrary combinations, contrived merely for the measuring of verses, and the ready ascertainment of the syllables that suit each rhythm, there is among prosodists a perplexing diversity of opinion, as to the number which we ought to recognize in our language. Some will have only two or three ; others, four ; others, eight ; and others, twelve. The dozen are all that can be made of two syllables and of three. Latinists sometimes make feet of four syllables, and admit sixteen more of these, acknowledging and naming twenty-eight in all. The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. POETIC FEET. " 13 I . The Iambus, or lam b, is a poetic foot consisting of a short syllable and a long one ; as, betray, confess, demand, intent, degree. *J. The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable and a short one; as, hateful, pettfsh, legal, measure, holy. 3. The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce, importune. 4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable and two short ones ; as, labourer, possible, wonderful. These are our principal feet, not only because they are oftenest used, but because each kind, with little or no mixture, forms a distinct order of numbers, having a peculiar rhythm. Of verse, or poetic measure, we have, accordingly, four principal kinds, or orders; namely, lam bic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and Dactylic ; as in the four lines cited above. The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more exact and complete is the chime of the verse. But, exactness being difficult, and its sameness sometimes irksome, the poets generally indulge some variety ; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of the rhythmical pulsations : or, if ever these be not made obvious to the reader, there is a grave fault in the versification. The secondary feet, if admitted at all, are to be admitted only, or chiefly, as occasional diversifications. Of this class of feet, many grammarians adopt four ; but they lack agreement about the selection. Brightland took the Spondee, the Pyrrhic, the Moloss, and the Tribrach. To these, some now add the other four; namely, the Amphibrach, the Amphimac, the Bacchy, and the Antibacchy. Few, if any, of these feet are really necessary to a sufficient explanation of English verse ; and the adopting of so many is liable to the great objection, that we thereby produce different modes of measuring the same lines. But, by naming them all, we avoid the difficulty of selecting the most important ; and it is proper that the student should know the import of all these prosodical terms. 5. A Spondee is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables ; as, cold night, poor souls, amen, sltrovetide. ii. A Pyrrhic is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables ; as, presumpt- | uous, pcrpet- | ual, unhap- | pfly, inglo- | rious. 7. A Moloss is a poetic foot consisting of three long syllables ; as, Death's pale k$rt>e, great iv 1 ilte throne, deep damp vault. 8. A Tribrach is a poetic foot consisting of three short syllables ; as, prohib- | itory, unnat- | uriilly, author- | itative, innum- | eruble. 9. An Amphibrach is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides short, the middle long ; as, imprudent, consider, transported. 10. An Amphimac, Amphimacer, or Cretic, is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides long, the middle short ; as, ulnduigsheet, life-estate, soul-diseased. II. A Bacehy is a poetic foot consisting of one short syllable and two long ones; 'he whole world, a gredt vase, of pure gold. 12. An Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy. is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables and a short one ; as, tnight-tervXce, globe-daisy, grape-flower, gold-beater. Among the variegations of verse, one emphatic syllable is sometimes counted for a foot. " When a single syllable is [thus] taken by itself, it is called a Casura, which is commonly a long syllable."* FOR EXAMPLE : " Keeping | time, \ time, \ time, In a | sort of | Runic | rhyme, To the | tintin | -nabu | -lation | that so I musi | -cally | wells From the | bells, \ bells, \ bells, \ bells, Bells, | bells. \ bells" EDGAR A. POE : Union Magazine, for Nov. 1849 ; Literary World, No. 11:). Dr. Afffim^s Gram. p. 2 p >7 ; E. A. GnuM'x,25~. The Latin won! ffrturri signifies " i cutting, or division." This iKiiiK- is sometimes Anglicized, and written " Cure.'' See Brighlland's Gram. p. 1G1 ; or "Worcester's Diet. >ure. 814 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IY OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. In defining our poetic feet, many late grammarians substitute the terms accent- ed and unaccented for long and short, as did Murray, after some of the earlier editions of his grammar ; the only feet recognized in his second edition being the Iambus, the Trochee, the Dactyl, and the Anapest, and all these being formed by quantities only. This change has been made on the supposition, that accent and long quantity, as well as their opposites, nonaccent and short quantity, may oppose each other ; and that the basis of English verse is not, like that of Latin or Greek poetry, a distinction in the time of syllables, not a differ- ence in quantity, but such a successive accenting and mmaccenting as overrides all relations of this sort, and makes both length and shortness compatible alike with stress or no stress. Such a theory, I am persuaded, is untenable. Great authority, however, may be quoted for it, or for its principal features. Besides the several later grammarians who give it countenance, even " the judicious Walker," who, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, as before cited, very properly suggests a difference between " that quantity which constitutes poetry," and the mere * length or shortness ofvoicels," when he comes to explain our English accent and quantity, in his "Observations on the Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity," finds " accent perfectly compatible with either long or short quantity ; " {Key, p. 312 ;) repudiates that vulgar accent of Sheridan and others, which " is only a greater force upon one syllable than another ; " (Key, p. 313 ;) prefers the doctrine which " makes the elevation or depression of the voice inseparable from accent ;" (Key, p. 314 ;) holds that, " unaccented vowels are frequently pronounced long when the accented vowels are short ; " (Key, p. 312 ;) takes long or short vowels and long or short syllables to be things everywhere tantamount ; saying, " We have no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels, as they are pronounced long or short ; " (ibid. ;) and again : " Such long quantity " as consonants may produce with a close or short vowel, " an English ear has not the least idsa of. Unless the sound of the vowel be altered, we have not any conception of a long or short syllable." Walkers Key, p. 322; and Worcester's Octavo Diet. p. 935. OBS. 2. In the opinion of Murray, Walker's authority should be thought sufficient to settle any question of prosodial quantities. "But," it is added, "there are some critical writers, who dispute the propriety of his arrangement.'' Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 24 1. And well there may be ; not only by reason of the obvious incorrectness of the foregoing positions, but because the great orthoepist is not entirely consistent with himself. In his "Preparatory Observations," which introduce the very essay above cited, he avers that, " the different states of the voice," which are indicated by the comparative terms high and 'ow, loud and soft, quick and sloio, forcible and feeble, "may not improperly be called quant 'ties of sound." Walkers Key, p. 305. Whoever thinks this, certainly conceives of quantity as arising from several other things than "the nature of the vowels." Even Humphrey, vith whom, " Quantity differs materially from time," and who defines it, " the weight, or aggre- gate quantum of sounds," may find his questionable and unusual "conception" of it included among these. OBS. 3. Walker must have seen, as have the generality of prosodists since, that such a distinction as he makes between long syllables and short, could not possibly be the bas^s of English versification, or determine the elements of English feet ; yet, without the analogy of any known usage, and contrary to our customary mode of reading the languages, he proposes it as applicable and as the only doctrine conceived to be applicable to Greek or Latin verse. Ignoring all long or short quantity not formed by what are called long or short vowels,* he suggests, " as a last refuge," ( 25,) the very doubtful scheme of reading Latin and Greek poetry with the vowels conformed, agreeably to this English sense of long and short vowel sounds, to the ancient rules of quantity. Of such words as fallo and ambo, pronounced as we usually utter them, he says, " nothing can be more evident than the long quantity of the final vowel though without the accent, and the short quantity of the initial and accented syllable." Obs. on Greek and Lat. Accent, 23 ; Key, p. 331. Now the very reverse of this appears to me to be "evident." The a, indeed, may be close or short, while the o, having its primal or name sound, is called long; but the first syllable, if fully accented, will have twice the time of the second ; nor can this proportion be reversed but by changing the accent, and misplacing it on the latter syllable. "Were the principle true, which the learned author pronounces so "evident," these, and all similar words, would constitute iambic feet ; whereas it is plain, that in English they are trochees; and in Latin, where "o final is common" either trochees or spondees. The word ambo, as every accurate scholar knows, is always a trochee, whether it be the Latin adjective for "both," or the English noun for '-a reading desk, or pulpit ." * t; As to the long quantity arising from the succession of two consonants, which the ancients are uniform in asserting, if it did not mean that the preceding vowel was to lengthen its sound, asu-e should do hy pronouncing the a in scatter as we do in flcattr, (one who skates.) 1 hrn-e n > conrtption of what it meant ; for if it meant that only the time of the sylliMe was prolonged, the vowel retaining the same sou id, I must confess as utter an inabil- ity of comprehending this sourn- of quantity in the Greek and Latin as in English." Wtilkfr on Gr. and L. Ac- ctnt, 24 ; Key, p. 881. This distinguished author st-ems unwilling to admit, that the consonants occupy time in their utterance, or tliat othrr vowel sounds than those which mime the vowels, can he protracted and become long; but these are truths, nevertheless ; and. since every letter adds xometning to the syllable in which it is BtUsred, it is by conteciuence a u source of quantity," whether the syllable be long or short. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATIONS. 815 Ons. 4. The names of our poetic feet are all of them derived, by change of endings, from similar names used in Greek, and thence also in Latin; and, of course, English words and Greek or Latin, so re'ated, are presumed to stand for tilings somewhat similar. This reasonable presumption is an argument, too often disregarded by late grammarian;*, for con- sidering our poetic feet to be quantitative, as were the ancient, not accentual only, as some will have them, nor separately both, as some others absurdly teach. But, whatever may be the difference or the coincidence between English verse and Greek or Latin, it is certain, that, in our poetic division of syllables, strength and length must always concur, and any scheme which so contrasts accent with long quantitv, as to confound the different species of feet, or give contradictory names to the same foot, must be radically and Crossly defective. In the preceding section it has been shown, that the principles of quantity adopted by Sheridan, Murray, and others, being so erroneous as to be wholly nugatory, wire as unfit to be the basis of English verse, as are Walker's, which have just be. n spoken of. But the puzzled authors, in stead of reforming these their elementary principles, so as to a- 1 apt them to the quantities and rhythms actually found in our English verse, have all chosen to assume, that our poetical feet in general differ radically from those which the ancients called by the same names ; and yet the < I'.umd the "exact sameness of nature " acknowl- edged is sagely said by some of them to duplicate each foot into tic > distinct ,v/>Y.v for our special adrantduc ; while the difference, which they presume to exist, or wl ich their false prii ciplcs of a -cent and quantity would create, between feet quantitative and feet accentual, (both of which are allowed to us,) would implicate different names, and convert foot into foot iambs, trochees, spondees, pyrrhics, each species into some other till all were confusion ! OK.S. ;3. In Lindley Murray's revise 1 scheme of feet, we have first a paragraph from Sheri- dan's Rhetorical Grammar, suggesting that the ancient poetic measures were formed of sylla- bles divided " into IKJ and .short," and affirming, what is rot very true, that, for the forming of ours, " In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented." Ehet. Gram. p. 6-4 ; Murray's drain. 8vo, 2-3 i ; Hart's Gram. 182; and others. Now some syllables are accented, and others are unaccented ; but syllables singly significant, i. e. monosyllables, which are very numerous, belong to neither of these classes. The contrast is also comparatively new : our language had much good poetry, long before accented and unaccented were ever thus misap- plied in it. Murray proi eeds thus : When the feet are formed by accent on -coiri-lis, they are exactly ofthesame nature as the ancient fee', and have the same just quantity in their syllables* So that, in this resp . ;.',its had, and something which they had not. We have in fact duplicates of each foot, yet with such a. difference, as to tit them for dif- ferent purposes, to be applied at our pleasure." Ib. p. 2-33. Again: " \\'e have observed, that Eii'jlisk verse is composed of feet formed by accent; and that when the accent falls on . the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity." //;. p. 2,38. And again : " From the preceding view of English versification, we may sec what a copious stock of mate- rials it pos.-r~.-e-:. Tor ice arc not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our heroic .<', but we have, as before observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure,* and which make different impressions on the ear; an opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be the source of a boundless variety." Ib. p. 2-39. OHS. G. II it were not dullness to overlook the many errors and" inconsistencies of this scheme, there should be thought a rare ingenuity in thus turning them all to the great advantage and peculiar riches of the English tongue ! Besides several grammatical faults, elsewhere noticed, these extracts exhibit, first, the inconsistent notion of " dupli^itcx with . " or, as Churchill e . . of" ///; distiir-t species ofeachfoot;" (\/-ir Gram. p. IS'J;) and here we arc gravely assured withal, that these different sorts, which have no t I," of poetic feet, and " diip'icates of each," " which tJicy had n->t" we arc with an enormous surplus; for, of the twenty-eight Latin fect.f mentioned by " ML Movement and measure an> thu< dUringm'shed. Mn-nnrnt A-.ik. from Itin^to shrt, or vice versa. M">xtn.\> '!.','.). This di-'inetion i" neither It Humphrey adopt* it, wi-li -i;.:!it van i-.i, us Without .- Iambic, Trochaic, Ai y Ik, or some < lenn benonfutarmovnnefU.no pr. Me.iMi:-.. 1- tv L! to movement r<> 1... in COO) And tli- un.v.-mi-nt " from to t'4&. from Jong U> xforf ,'' ! but one and tat MUM, a tir.chaic movement ; it." reverse, the movement, if cdur-e. it meiMire. Hut Murray's d02trine is, that strong and Inny. n-fuk .1 IM .,v he x/mr'. and U O tha' ..: tVoui u--uk to *t>n^ mas lie t'p>m i,,,,^ to s/tnrt, and / r tr .vli.iir ii.i.vement "in innbic me;i-ure. ami an i imt>i<- movement from t Thi- :ih-u:di \ comefl < f'atreiii])t- '[ tb&t quantity, ami not tiinns the nif'iturf. whi<*h " .-i^nifies th* /irn/:o,!ion or inn?.'' 'i'lie idea tlia" / ' intiisure, la un H:|,,T radical error ot the I /!n-n- are mere p mses in poetrv tiian in im>.., 1m: ip.neoi them are propvrlv / - Humphrey mys trujj, "fVtl are the eon<<(Kf*'n<*-> V er.-e."- Ortnro Grnm \\. 2.7J. Here (bias. Inr.. - pe.-nli.irlv l...d.>i^ini: to It," the "CrT.iuml" r'."tht-- rhetorician liad improperly said, Xhe conatitueDt./xutj Diverse are, feet, and pauses." Skrriitun'i Riittonnil (Snitn. ji.'ij t " Hut as many \Vaj>a< liiiaiiti'ie-! may bn varied by Composition and Trrxnsposi'.ion, so many dim-rent Feet the Grttk 1'oets coatriv'd, and that under distinct Names, from two to ^x Syllables, to the Number of 124. 816 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. Dr. Adam and others, Murray never gave the names of more than eight, and his early editions acknowledged but four, and these single, not " duplicates" unigenous, not severally of " tico species" Fourthly, to suppose a multiplicity of feet to be " a copious stock of mate- rials " for versification, is as absurd as to imagine, in any other case, a variety of measures to be materials for producing the thing measured. Fifthly, " our heroic measure " is iambic pentameter, as Murray himself shows ; and, to give to this, " all the ancient poetic feet," is to bestow most of them where they are least needed. Sixthly, " feet differing in measure," so as to "make different impressions on the ear," cannot well be said to "agree in movement" or to be " exactly of the same nature ! " OBS. 7. Of the foundation of metre, Wells has the following account : " The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in its pronunciation. A syllable may be long in quantity, as fate; or short, as let. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the quantity of syllables ; but modern versification depends chiefly upon accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded." School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 185. Again : "Versification is a measured arrangement of words [,] in which the accent is made to recur at certain regular intervals. This definition applies only to modern verse. In Greek and Latin poetry, it is the regular recurrence of long syllables, according to settled laws, which constitutes verse." Ib. p. 186. The contrasting of ancient and modern versifi- cation, since Sheridan and Murray each contrived an example of it, has become very com- mon in our grammars, though not in principle very uniform ; and, however needless where a correct theory prevails, it is, to such views of accent and quantity as were adopted by these authors, and by Walker, or their followers, but a necessary counterpart. The notion, however, that English verse has less regard to quantity than had that of the old Greeks or Romans, is a mere assumption, originating in a false idea of what quantity is ; and, that Greek or Latin verse was less accentual than is ours, is another assumption, left proofless too, of what many authors disbelieve and contradict. Wells's definition of quantity is similar to mine, and perhaps unexceptionable ; and yet his idea of the thing, as he gives us reason to think, was very different, and very erroneous. His examples imply, that, like Walker, he had "no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels," no conception of a long or a short syllable without what is called a long or a short vowel sound. That "the Greeks and Romans based their poetry on quantity" of that restricted sort, on such " quantity" as "fate " and " let" may serve to discriminate, is by no means probable ; nor would it be more so, were a hundred great modern masters to declare themselves ignorant of any other. The words do not distinguish at all the long and short quantities even of our own language ; much less can we rely on them for an ic ea of what is long or short in other tongues. Being monosyllables, both are long with emphaf is, both short without it ; and, could they be accented, accent too would lengthen, as its absence would shorten, both. In the words phosphate and streamlet, we have the same sounds, both, short ; in lettuce and fateful, the same, both long. This cannot be disproved. And, in the scansion of the following stanza from Byron, the word " Let," twice used, is to be reckoned a long syllable, and not (as Wells would have it) a short one : " Cavalier ! and man of worth ! Let these words of mine go forth ; Let the Moorish Monarch know, That to him I nothing owe : Wo is me, Alhama !" OBS. 8. In the English grammars of Allen H. Weld, works remarkable for their egre- gious inaccuracy and worthlessness, yet honoured by the Boston school committee of 1848 and '9, the author is careful to say, "Accent should not be confounded with emphasis. Emphasis is a stress of voice on a word in a sentence, to mark its importance. Accent is a stress of voice on a syllable in a word." Yet, within seven lines of this, we are told, that, "A verse consists of a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to certain rules." Weld's English Grammar, 2d Edition, p. 207 ; "Abridged Edition," p. 137. A doctrine cannot be contrived, which will more evidently or more extensively con- found accent with emphasis, than does this ! In English verse, on an average, about three quarters of the words are monosyllables, which, according to Walker, " have no accent," certainly none distinguishable from emphasis ; hence, in fact, our syllables are no more " divided into accented and unaccented," as Sheridan and Murray would have them, than into emphasized and unemphasized, as some others have thought to class them. Nor is this confounding of accent with emphasis at all lessened or palliated by teaching with Wells, in its justification, that, "The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words." Wells's School Gram. p. 185 ; 113th Ed., 273. What better is this, than to apply the term emphasis to the accenting of syllables in poetry, or to all the stress in question, as is virtually done in the following citation ? " In English, verse is regulated by the emphasis, as there should be one emphatick syllable in ever)' foot ; for it is by the interchange of emphatick and non-emphatick syllables, that verse grateful to the ear is formed." Thomas Coar's E. Gram. p. 196. In Latin poetry, the longer words predominate, so that, But it is the Opinion of some Learned Men in this Way, that Poetic Numbers may be sufficiently explain'd by those of two or three Syllables, into which the rest are to be resolv'd." Erightland'S Grammar, 7th Ed., p. 101. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATIONS. 817 in Virgil's verse, not one word in five is a monosyllable ; hence accent, if our use of it were adjusted to the Latin quantities, might have much more to do with Latin verse than with English. With the following lines of Shakspeare, for example, accent has, properly speak- ing, no connexion : " Good friend, thou hast no cause to say so yet : But thou shalt have ; and creep time ne'er so slow, Yet it shall come, for me to do thee good. I had a thing to say, But let it go." Khig John, Act iii, Sc. 3. OBS. 9. T. O. Churchill, after stating that the Greek and Latin rhythms are composed of syllables long and short, sets ours in contrast with them thus : "These terms are com- monly employed also in speaking of English verse, though it is marked, not by long and short, but by accented and unaccented syllables ; the accented syllables being accounted long ; the unaccented, short." Churchill's Sew Gram. p. 183. This, though far from being right, is very different from the doctrine of Murray or Sheridan ; because, in practice, or the scansion of verses, it comes to the same results as to suppose all our feet to be "formed by quantity." To account syllables long or short and not believe them to be so, is a ridicu- lous inconsistency : it is a shuffle in the name of science. OB.S. 10. Churchill, though not apt to be misled by others' errors, and though his own scanning has no regard to the principle, could not rid himself of the notion, that the quan- tity of a syllable must depend on the " vowel sound." Accordingly he says, " Mr. Murray justly observes, that our accented syllables, or those reckoned long, may have either a long or [a] short roicel sound, so that we have tico distinct species of each foot." Neic Gram. p. 189. The obvious impossibility of " two distinct species" in one, or, as Murray has it, of " du- plicates fitted for different purposes," should have prevented the teaching and repeat- ing of this nonsense, propound it who might. The commender himself had not such faith in it as is here implied. In a note, too plainly incompatible with this praise, he comments thus : " Mr. Murray adds, that this is 'an opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be the source of a boundless variety : ' a point, on which, I confess, / hare long entertained doubts. I am inclined to suspect, that the English mode of reading verse is analogous to that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dion. Hal., de Comp. Verb., $ xi, speaks of the rhythm of versa ilijfcrimj from the proper measure of the syllables, and often reversing it : does not this imply, that the ancients, contrary to the opinion of the learned author of Metronariston, rend verse as we do? " Churchill' a Xeic drain, p. 393, note 329. OHS. 11. The nature, chief sources, and true distinction of quantity, at least as it pertains to our language, I have set forth with clearness, first in the short chapter on Utterance, anil again, more fully, in this, which treats of Versification ; but that the syllables, long and short, of the old Greek and Latin poets, or the feet they made of them, are to be expounded on precisely the same principles that apply to ours, I have not deemed it necessary to affirm or to deny. So far as the same laws are applicable, let them be applied. This important property of syllables, their quantity, or relative time, which is the basis of all rhythm, is, as my readers have seen, very variously treated, and in general but ill appreciated, by our English prosodists, who ought, at least in this their own province, to understand it alike, and as it is ; and so common among the erudite is the confession of Walker, that " the accent and quantity of the ancients " are, to modern readers, " obscure and mysterious," that it will be taken as a sign of arrogance and superficiality, to pretend to a very certain knowledge of them. Nor i> the difHculty confined to Latin and Greek : the poetry of our own ancestors, from any remote period, is not easy of scansion. Dr. Johnson, in his History of the English Language, gave examples, with this remark: "Of the Xason poetry some specimen is ; t hough our ignorance of the laws of their metre and the quantities of their syllables, irhich it icoit/d be renj dijficult, per/taps impossible, xeludes us from that pleasure which the old bards undoubtedly gave to their contcmpor:.. ( )n>. 1'J. The imperfect measures of " the father of English poetry," are said by Dryden to have been adapted t the cam of the rude age which produced them. "The verse of Chau '.io, ' I confess, is not harmonious to us ; but it is like the eloquence of one whom Tacitus commends, it was unnhns i.<,tinx ? .',ita : ' they who lived with him, and sometime after him, thought it musical ; and it continues so even in our judgment, if compared with the numbers of Lidgate and Gower, his contemporaries : there is the rude la Scotch tune in it, which is natural and pleasing, though not perfect. It is I cannot go so far as lie who published the last edition of him ; for he would make us believe the fault is in our cars, and that there were really ten syllables in a ver>e where we fii.d but nine : but this opinion is not worth confuting ; it is so'gross and obvious an error, that common sense (which is a rule in every thing but matters of faith and revelation) uivince the reader that equality of numbers in every verse, which we call Heroic, w;is either not known, or not always practised in Chaucer's a'gc. It were an easy matter to praduce some thousands of his vn^es, which are lame for want of half a foot, and some- tines a whole one, and which no pronunciation can make otherwise. We can only say, thit he lived in the infancy of our poetry, and that nothing is brought to perfection at the firnt." British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 171. 818 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. OBS. 13. Dryden appears to have had more faith in the cars of his own age than in those of an earlier one ; but Poe, of our time, himself an ingenious versifier, in his Notes upon English Verse, conveys the idea that all ears are alike competent to appreciate tho elements of metre. " Quantity," according to his dogmatism, " is a point in the investiga- tion of which the lumber of mere learning may be dispensed with, if ever in any. Its appreciation" says he, " is universal. It appertains to no region, nor race, nor era in especial. To melody and to harmony the Greeks hearkened with ears precisely similar to those which we employ, for similar purposes, at present ; and a pendulum at Athens would have vibrated much after the same fashion as does a pendulum in the city of Penn." The Pioneer, Vol. i, p. 103. Supposing here not even the oscillations of the samo pendulum to be more uniform than are the nature and just estimation of quantity the world over, this author soon after expounds his idea of the thing as follows : " I have already said that all syllables, in metre, are either long or short. Our usual prosodies maintain that a long syllable is equal, in its time, to two short ones ; this, however, is but an approach to the truth. It should be here observed that the quantity of an English syllable has no dependence upon the sound of its vowel or dipthortg [diphthong], but [depends] chiefly upon accentuation. Monosyllables are exceedingly variable, and, for the most part, may be either long or short, to suit the demand of the rhythm. In polysyllables, the accented ones [say, syllables'] are always long, while those which immediately precede or succeed them, are always short. Emphasis will render any short syllable long." Ibid. p. 105. In penning the last four sentences, the writer must have had Brown's Institutes of English Grammar before him, and open at page 235. OBS. 14. Sheridan, in his Rhetorical Grammar, written about 1780, after asserting that a distinction of accent, and not of quantity, marks the movement of English verse, proceeds as follows : " From not having examined the peculiar genius of our tongue, our Prosodians have fallen into a variety of errors : some having adopted the rules of our neighbours, the French ; and others having had recourse to those of the ancients ; though neither of them, in reality, would square with our tongue, on account of an essential difference between them. [He means, " betioeen each language and ours," and should have said so.] With regard to the French, they measured verses by the number of syllables whereof they were composed, on account of a constitutional defect in their tongue, which rendered it incapable of num- bers formed by poetic feet. For it has neither accent nor quantity suited to the purpose ; the syllables of their words being for the most part equally accented ; and the number of long syllables being out of all proportion greater than that of the short. Hence for along time it w r as supposed, as it is by most people at present, that our verses were composed, not of feet, but syllables ; and accordingly they are denominated verses of ten, eight, six, or four syllables, even to this day. Thus have we lost sight of the great advantage which our lan- guage has given us over the French, in point of poetic numbers, by its being capable of a geometrical proportion, on which the harmony of versification depends; and blindly re- duced ourselves to that of the arithmetical kind which contains no natural power of pleasing the ear. And hence, like the French, our chief pleasure in verse arises from the poor orna- ment of rhyme." Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram. p. 64. OBS. 15. In a recent work on this subject, Sheridan is particularly excepted, and he alone, where Hallam, Johnson, Lord Kames, and other "Prosodians" in general, are charged with " astonishing ignorance of the first principles of our verse ; " and, at the same time, he is as particularly commended for having " especially insisted on the subject of Quantity." Everett's English Versification, Preface, p. 6. That the rhetorician was but slen- derly entitled to these compliments, may plainly appear from the next paragraph of his Grammar, just cited ; for therein he mistakingly represents it as a central error, to regard our poetic feet as being " formed by quantity " at all. " Some few of our Prosodians," says he, " finding this to be an error, and that our verses were really compo-ed of feet, not syllables, without farther examination, boldly applied all the rules of the Latin prosody to our versification ; though scarce any of them answered exactly, and some of them were utterly incompatible with the genius of our tongue. Thus because the Roman feet were formed by quantity, they asserted the same of oars, denominating all the accented syllables long ; whereas I have for merit/ shewn, that the accent, in some cases, as certainly makes the syllable on which it is laid, short, as in others it makes it long. And their whole theory of quantity, borrowed from the Roman, in which they endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short, as immu- tably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way, at once falls to the ground ; when it is shewn, that the quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense, and isybr the most part regulated by EMPHASIS : which has been fully proved in the course of Lec- tures on the Art of reading Verse; where it has been also shewn, that this very circumstance has given us an amazing advantage over the ancients in the point of poetic numbers." Sheri- dan's Rhct. Gram. p. 61. OBS. 16. The lexicographer here claims to have " shewn" or "proved," what he had only affirmed, or asserted. Erroneously taking the quality of the vowel for the quantity of the syllable, he had suggested, in his confident way, that short quantity springs from the accent- ing of consonants, and long quantity, from the accenting of voicels a doctrine which has been amply noticed and refuted in a preceding section of the present chapter. Nor is he, CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATION'S. 819 in what is here cited, consistent with himself. For, in the first place, nothing comes nearer than this doctrince of his, to an ''endeavour to establish the proportion of Ion-; and short, as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed iu a certain way" ! Next, al- though lie elsewhere contrasts accent and emphasis and supposes them different, he either confounds them in reference to verse, or contradicts himself by ascribing to each the chief control over quantity. And, lastly, if our poetic feet are not quantitative, not formed of syllables long and short, as were the Koman, what " advantage over the ancients," can we derive from the fact, that quantity is regulated by stress whether accent or emp'.. -. 17. We have, I think, "no prosodial treatise of higher pretensions than Erastus Everett's " System of English Versification," first published in 1848. This gentleman pro- - to have borrowed no idea but what he has regularly quoted. " lie men: inns this, that it may not be supposed that this work is a compilation. It will be seen," says he, " )xo w great a share*of it is original; and the author, having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, has the best reason for being confident of their correctness." /'/>;/'- ace, p. .;. Of the place to be rilled by this System, he has the following conception : " It is thought to supply an important desideratum. It is a matter of surprise to the i student, who attempts the study of English poetry and the structure of its verse, to find that to >!'!; on which he can rely as authority on this subject. In the other modern languages, the most learned philologers have treated of the subject of versification, in all its parts. In English alone, in a language which possesses a body of poetical literature more extensive, as well as more valuable than any other modern language, not excepting the Italian, <'// s'n l,>,it h-ta no rules to (juide him, but a few meagre and incorrect outlines append- ed to elementary text-books." Then follows this singularly inconsistent exception : " \Ve mu>t except from this remark two works, published in the latter part of the sixteenth cen- t'lry. But as they were written before the poetical language of the English tongue was fix"d, and as the rules of verse were not then settled, these works can be of little practical utility." J 1. The works thus exceptcd as of reliable authority without practical .are " a short tract b\- ," doubtle- .tie's* Notes of Instruction ruing the making of Verse or Rhyme in English,' published in L'37-3, and "Webbe's urse of E; . y,' dated 1-583, neither of which does the kind exceptor appear . ! Mention is next made, successively, of Dr. Carey, of Drydcn, of Dr. Johnson, of Blair, and of Lord Kames. " To these guides" or at least to the last two, " the author is indebted for many valuable hints ; " yet he scruples not to say, " Blair betrays a paucity of knowledge on this subject;" "Lord Kames has slurred over the subject of Quantity," and "shown an unpardonable ignorance of the first principles of Quantity in our verso ; " and, " Even Dr. Johnson speaks of syllables in such a manner as would lead us to suppose that he was in the same error as Kames. These inaccuracies," it is added, he accounted for only from the fact that Prosodians have not thought Quantity of sufficient importance to merit their attention." See Preface, p. 4 6. Oi;>. IS. Everett's Versification consists of seventeen chapters, numbered consecutively, but divided into two parts, under the two titles Quantity and Construction. Its specimens of verse are numerous, various, and beautiful. Its modes of scansion the things chiefly to be though perhaps generally correct, arc sometimes questionable, and not always con- sonant with the writer's own rules of quantity. From the citations above, one might expect from this author such an exposition of quantity, as nobody could either mistake or gain-ay ; but, as the following platform will show, his treatment of this point is singularly curt and incomplete. lie is so sparing of words as not even to have given a definition of quantity. . ject thus : " Vr.usiric YTIOX is the proper arrangement m. words in a line ac- c.irding to thi-ir ijuantittj, and the disposition of r/.v.sr lines in couplets, stanzas, or in blank , in such order, and according to such rules, as are sanctioned by usage. A FOOT i- a combination of two or more syllables, whether long or short. A LINK is one foot, or more than one. The QUANTITY of e;i ..ends on its u,-r ,it. In words of more tli-m one syllable, all accented syllables are long, and all unaccented syllables are short. Monosylla- -hort. according to the following K il^ : 1st. All Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs and Participles are long. '2nd. The article-; nre always short. 3rd. The Pronouns are long or short, according t" . Hh. In;- :hs are generally tony, but soincti M. ">th. Prepositions and Conjunctions are almost always !>ut someti : ." AV///y/j ]\>rsification, p. 13. None of these ,:)les of quantity are r. follows them implicitly, will often differ not only from what is right, but from their author himself, in the analysis of v Nor are they free from important nnta^oni-m>. " Emphasis," as here spoken of, not only clashes with "accent," but contra ,its it-elf, by making some syllables long and some siort; and, what is more r urd, the author says, "Infrequently /iaj>;>r.tihfit syllables long &;/ QUANTITY become short by KMIMIASIS." / 1st Ed., p. 99. Of this, he takes the first syllable of the following line, namely, "the word bids," to be an example : "Bids me 1 live bat to hope for posterity's prfuse." >BS. 19. In the American Review, for May, 1818, Everett's System of Versification is , 820 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. named as " an apology and occasion" not for a critical examination of this or any other scheme of prosody but for the promulgation of a new one, a rival theory of English metres, " the principles and laws " of which the writer promises, " at an other time " more fully " to develop." The article referred to is entitled, "The Art of Measuring Verses." The writer, being designated by his initials, " J. D. W.," is understood to be James D. Whelpley, editor of the Review. Believing Everett's principal doctrines to be radically erroneous, this critic nevertheless excuses them, because he thinks we have nothing better ! " The views supported in the work itself," says his closing paragraph, " are not, indeed, such as we ivould subscribe to, nor can we admit the numerous analyses of English metres ichich it contains to be correct ; yet, as it is as complete in design and execution as anything that has yet appeared on the subject, and well calculated to excite the attention, and direct the inquiries, of English scholars, to the study of our own metres, we shall even pass it by without a word of criticism." American Revieio, New Series, Vol. I, p. 492. OBS. 20. Everett, although, as we have seen, he thought proper to deny that the student of English versification had any well authorized " rules to guide him," still argues that, "The laws of our verse are just as fixed, and may be as clearly laid down, if we but at- tend to the usage of the great Poets, as are the laws of our syntax." Preface, p. 7. But this critic, of the American Review, ingenious though he is in many of his remarks, flippantly denies that our English prosody has either authorities or principles which one ought to re- spect ; and accordingly cares so little whom he contradicts, that he is often inconsistent with himself. Here is a sample : " As there are no established authorities in this art, and, indeed, no acknowledged principles every rhymester being permitted to invent his own method, and write by instinct or imitation the critic feels quite at liberty to say just what he pleases, and offer his private observations as though these were really of some moment." Am. Rev. Vol. i, p. 484. In respect to writing, " to invent," and to " imitate" are repugnant ideas ; and so are, after a " method," and, " by instinct." Again, what sense is there in making the " liberty " of pub- lishing one's "private observations" to depend on the presumed absence of rivals? That the author did not lack confidence in the general applicability of his speculations, sub- versive though they are of the best and most popular teaching on this subject, is evi- dent from the following sentence : " We intend, also, that if these principles, with the others previously expressed, are true in the given instances, they are equally true for all lan- guages and all varieties of metre, even to the denial that any poetic metres, founded on other principles, can properly exist." Ib. p. 491. OBS. 21. J. D. W. is not one of those who discard quantity and supply accent in ex- pounding the nature of metre ; and yet he does not coincide very nearly w r ith any of those who have heretofore made quantity the basis of poetic numbers. His views of the ryth- mical elements being in several respects peculiar, I purpose briefly to notice them here, though some of the peculiarities of this new "Art of Measuring Verses," should rather bo quoted under the head of Scanning, to which they more properly belong. " Of every species of beauty," says this author, "and more especially of the beauty of sounds, contin- uousness is the first element ; a succession of pulses of sound becomes agreeable, only when the breaks, or intervals, cease to be heard." Again : " Quantity, or the division into measured of time, is a second element of verse ; each line must be stuffed out with sounds, to a certain fullness and plumpness, that will sustain the voice, and force it to dwell upon the sounds." Rev. p. 485. The first of these positions is subsequently contradicted, or very largely qualified, by the following : " So, the line of significant sounds, in a verse, is also marked by accents, or pulses, and divided into portions called feet. These are necessary and natu- ral for the very simple reason that continuity by itself is tedious ; and the greatest pleasure arises from the union of continuity with variety. [That is, with " interruption," as he else- where calls it !] In the line, ' Full many a tale their music tells,' there are at least four accents or stresses of the voice, with faint pauses after them, just enough to separate the continuous stream of sound into these four parts, to be read thus : Pullman y ataleth eirmus ictells, * by which, new combinations of sound are produced, of a singularly musical character. It is evident from the inspection of the above line, that the division of the feet by the accents is quite independent of the division of words by the sense. The sounds are melted into continuity, and re-divided again in a manner agreeable to the musical ear." Ib. p. 486. Undoubtedly, the due formation of our poetic feet occasions both a blending of some words and a dividing of others, in a manner unknown to prose ; but still we have the authority of this writer, as well as of earlier ones, for saying, Good verse requires to be read with the natural quantities of the syllables," (p. 487,) a doctrine with which that of the * "THE BELLS OF ST. PETERSBURGH." " Those ev'ning bells, those ev'ning bells, How many a tale their music tells ! '' Moore's Melodies, p. 263. This couplet, like all the resc of the piece from which it is taken, is iambic verse, and to be divided into feet thus : " Those ev' | -ning bells, | those ev' | -ningj bells, How man | -y a tale | their mu | -tic tells ! " CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. OBSERVATIONS. 821 redivision appears to clash. If the example given be read with any regard to the ccesural pause, as undoubtedly it should be, the th of their cannot be joined, as above, to the word nor do I see any propriety in joining the * of music to the third foot rather than to the fourth. Can a theory which turns topsyturvy the whole plan of syllabication, fail to affect " the natural r/uuntities of syllables ?" ( )n>. -J-J. Different modes of reading verse, may, without doubt, change the quantities of very many syllables. Hence a correct mode of reading, as well as a just theory of meas- ure, is essential to correct scansion, or a just discrimination of the poetic feet. It is a very common opinion, that English verse has but few spondees ; and the doctrine of Brightland has been rarely disputed, that, "Heroic Verses consist of five short, and five long Syllables intermixt, but not so very strictly as never to alter that order." (fram., 7th Ed., p. 160.* J. D. W., being a heavy reader, will have each line so "stuffed out with sounds," and the consonants so syllabled after the vowels, as to give to our heroics three spondees for every two iambuses ; and lines like the following, which, with the elisions, I should resolve into four iambuses, and without them, into three iambuses and one anapest, he supposes to consist severally of four spondees : " ' When coldness wraps this suffering clay, Ah ! whither strays the immortal mind ? ' [These are] to be read," according to this prosodian, " Whencoldn esswrapsth issuff'r ingclay, Ah ! whith erstraysth' immort almind : " "The verse," he contends, "is perceived to consist of six [probably he meant to say eight] heavy syllables, each composed of a vowel followed by a group of consonantal sounds, the whole measured into four equal feet. The movement is what is called spondaic, a spondee being a foot of two heavy sounds. The absence of short syllables gives the line a peculiar weight and solemnity suited to the sentiment, and doubtless prompted by it." Am. Vol. i, p. 487. Of his theory, he subsequently says : "It maintains that good English verse is as thoroughly quantitative as the Greek, though it be much more heavy and spon- daic." Ib. p. 491.T _':;. For the determining of quantities and feet, this author borrows from some old Latin grammar three or four rules, commonly thought inapplicable to our tongue, and, mixing them up with other speculations, satisfies himself with stating that the " Art of Measuring Verses" requires yet the production of many more such! But, these things being the essence of his principles, it is proper to state them in his own words : " A short vowel sound followed by a double consonantal sound, usually makes a long quantity ;J so also does a long vowel like y in beauty, before a consonant. The metrical accents, which often differ from the prosaic, mostly fall upon the heavy sounds ; which must also be prolonged ling, and never slurred or lightened, unless to help out a bad verse. In our language the groupings of the consonants furnish a great number of spondaic feet, and give the language, especially its more ancient forms, as in the verse of Milton and the prose of Lord Bacon, a grand and solemn character. One vowel followed by another, unless the first be naturally made long in the reading, makes a short quantity, as in the old. So, also, a short vowel followed by a single short consonant, gives a short time or quantity, as in to give. GF" A great variety of rules for the detection of long and short quantities have yet to be invented, or applied from the Greek and Latin prosody. In all languages they are of course the same, making due allowance for difference of organization ; but it is as absurd to suppose that the Greeks should have a system of prosody differing in principle from our own, as that their rules of musical harmony should be different from the modern. Both result from the nature of the ear and of the organ of speech, and are consequently the same in all ages and nations." Am. Her. Vol. i, p. 488. OHS. 24. (Jt-ANTiTY is here represented as " time " only. In this author's first mention of it, it is called, rather less accurately, " the division into measures of time." With too little regard for either of these conceptions, he next speaks of it as including both " time and ." But I have already shown that ^accents or stresses" cannot pertain to short syllables, and therefore cannot be ingredients of qiiantity. The whole article lacks that which is a prime requisite of a sound theory. Take all of the writer's next paragraph as an example of this defect : "The two elements of musical metre, time and , both together constituting quantify, are equally elements of the metre of verse. Each iam')ie foot or metre, is marked by a swell of the voice, concluding abruptly in an ; it ion, on the lust sound of the foot ; or, [omit this 'or: ' it is improper,] in metres of the trochaic order, in such words as dandy, handy, bottle, favor, labor, it [the foot] * Lord Kames. t..o. speaking of u Ku-li.-li Il.-n.ie v livery line consist* often syllables, five short I Jive lun^ ; from which [rule] there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."' Elements of Criticism, T Ih- Ijitin is a f.ir more stately tongue than our own. It is essentially spondaic ; the English is as essentially \r.tylie. The /OH- syllable is the spirit of the Roman (and Greek) verse"; the short syllable is the essence of ire." Poe's Notes upon A';I-'M/I VTS* ; Pioneer. Vol. i, p. 110. '' We must inarch for spondaic words, which, Kn-lish, are rare indeed." 7'.. p. 111. a rule, in l,atin prosody, that a vowel before two consonants is long. We moderns have not only no such rule, but profess inability to comprehend its rationale." Poe's Notes ; Pioneer, p. 112. 2 822 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. begins with a heavy accented sound, and declines to a faint or light one at the close. The line is thus composed of a series of swells or waves of sound, concluding and beginning alike. The accents, or points at which the voice is most forcibly exerted in the feet, being the divisions of time, by which a part of its musical character is given to the verse, are iisually made to coincide, in our language, with the accents of the words as they are spoken ; which [coincidence] diminishes the musical character of our verse. In Greek hexameters and Latin hexameters, on the contrary, this coincidence is avoided, as tending to monotony and a prosaic character." Ibid. OBS. 25. The passage just cited represents "accent" or " accents " not only as partly constituting quantity, but as being, in its or their turn, " the divisions of time ; " as being also stops, pauses, or " interruptions" of sound else continuous; as being of two sorts, " metri- cal " and "prosaic," which ' usually coincide," though it is said, they " often differ," and their " interference " is " very frequent ; " as being " the points " of stress " in the feet," but not always such in " the words" of verse; as striking different feet differently, " each iambic foot" on the latter syllable and every trochee on the formet, yet causing, in each line, only such waves of sound as conclude and begin "alike;" as coinciding with the long quantities and " the prosaic accents," in iambics and trochaics, yet not coinciding with these always ; as giving to verse " a part of its musical character," yet diminishing that charac- ter, by their usual coincidence with " the prose accents ; " as being kept distinct in Latin and Greek, "the metrical" from "the prosaic" and their "coincidence avoided," to make poetry more poetical, though the old prosodists, in all they say of accents, acute, grave, and circumflex, give no hint of this primary distinction ! In all this elementary teaching, there seems to be a want of a clear, steady, and consistent notion of the things spoken of. The author's theory led him to several strange combinations of words, some of which it is not easy, even with his whole explanation before us, to regard as other than absurd. With a few examples of his new phraseology, Italicized by myself, I dismiss the subject: "It frequently happens that word and verse accent fall differently." P. 489. " The verse syllables, like the verse feet, differ in the prosaic and [the] metrical reading of the line." Ib. "If we read it by the prosaic syllabication, there will be no possibility of measuring the quantities." Ib. "The metrical are perfectly distinct from, the prosaic properties of verse." Ib. "It may be called an iambic dactyl, formed by the substitution of two short for one long time in the last portion of the foot. Iambic spondees and dactyls are to be distinguished by the metrical accent falling on the last syllable." p. 491. SECTION IV. THE KINDS OF VERSE. The principal kinds of verse, or orders of poetic numbers, as has already been stated, are four ; namely, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and Dactylic. Besides these, which are sometimes called " the simple orders" being u > mixed, or nearly so, some recognize several "Composite orders" or (with a better view of the matter) several kinds of mixed verse, which are said to constitute " the Composite order" In these, one of the four principal kinds of feet must still be used as the basis, some other species being inserted therewith, in each line or stanza, with more or less regularity. PRINCIPLES AND NAMES. The diversification of any species of metre, by tho occasional change of a foot, or, in certain cases, by the addition or omission of a short syllable, is not usually regarded as sufficient to change the denomination, or stated order, of the verse ; and many critics suppose some variety of feet, as well as a studied diversity in the position of the cassural pause, essential to the highest excellence of poetic composition. The dividing of verses into the feet which compose them, is called Scanning, or Scansion. In this, according to the technical language of the old prosodists, when a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be catalectic ; when the measure is exact, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant syllable, it forms hypermeter. Since the equal recognition of so many feet as twelve, or even as eight, will often produce different modes of measuring the same lines ; and since it is desirable to measure verses with uniformity, ami always by the simplest process that will well answer the purpose ; we usually scan by the principal feet, in preference to the secondary, where the syllables give us a choice of measures, or may be divided in different ways. A single foot, especially a foot of only two syllables, can hardly be said to constitute a line, or to have rhythm in itself; yet we sometimes see a foot so placed, and CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER I. IAMBICS. 823 rhyming as a line. Lines of two, three, four, five, six, or seven feet, are common ; and these have received the technical denominations of dim'eler, trim'eter, tetram'eter, pentnm'eter, hexam'cter, and heptam'eter. On a wide page, iambics and trochaics may possibly he written in oc.tom'eter ; but lines of this measure, being very long, are mostly abandoned for alternate tetrameters. ORDER I. IAMBIC VERSE. In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and the odd ones are short. Any short syllable added to a line of this order, is supernumerary ; iambic lines, which are naturally single, being made double by one, and triple by two. But the adding of one short syllable, which is much practised in dramatic poetry, may be reckoned to convert the last foot into an amphibrach, though the adding of two cannot. Iam- bics consist of the following measures : MEASURE I. IAMBIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER. Psalm XL VII, 1 and 2. " O all | \& peo | -pl, clap | your hands, | and with | trlum | -phant voic | -e> -Ini: ; "" No force | the might | -y po'wer | withstands | of God, | then | -nivers | -alKing." See the "Psalms of David, in Metre," p. 54. Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines, rhyming alternately, and each commencing with a capital ; but, sometimes, the second line and the fourth are still commenced with a small letter : as, " Your ut | -most skill | in praise | be shown, for Him | who all | the world | commands, Who sits | upon | his right | -eous throne, and spreads | his sway | o'er heath | -en lands." Ib., verses 7 and 8 ; Edition bound with Com. Prayer, N. Y. 1819. An other Example. "The hour | is come | the cher | -ish'd hour, When from | the bus | -y world | set free, I seek | at length | my lone | -ly bower, And muse | in si | -lent thought | on thec." THEODORE HOOK'S jEtXMAnrfl : The Examiner, No. 82. MEASURE II. IAMBIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER. Example I. Hal-Brims. " It's odd | how hats | expand | their brims | as youth | begins | to fade, As if | when life | had reached | its noon, | it want | -eel them | for shade." OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES : From a Newspaper. Example II. Psalm XLII, 1 . "As pants | the hart | for cool | -ing streams, | when heat | -ed in | the chase ; So longs | my soul, | O God, | for thee, | and thy | refresh | -ing grace." Ei-iMMi-AL I'SAI.M-BOOI;: The Rev. W. Allen's Eny. Gram. p. 227. Example III. The Shepherd's Hymn. "Oh, when | I rove | the des | -crt waste, | and 'neath | the hot | sun pant, The Lord | shall be | my Shep | -herd then, | he will | not let | me want ; He'll lead | me where | the past | -urcs are | of soft | and shad | -y green, And where | the gen | -tic wa | -ters rove, | the qui | -et hills | between. And when | the sav | -age shall | pursue, | and in | his grasp | I sink, He will | prepare | the feast | for me, | and bring | the cool | -ing drink. And save | me harm | -less from | his hands, | and strength | -en me | in toil, And bless | my home | and cot | -tage lands, | and crown | my head | with oil. With such | a Shep | -herd to | protect, | to guide | and guard | me still, And bless | my heart | with ev I, | and keep | from cv | -'ryill, Xurcti/ | I shall | not turn | aside, | and scorn | his kind | -ly care, But keep | the path | he points | ire out, | and dwell | for cv | -er there." W. (JiLMoui: SIMMS : \,,rth American Reader, p. 376. Example IV. "77/e Far, Far East" First six Lines. 1 It was | a dream | of earl | -y years, | the long | -est and | the last, And still | it ling | -ers bright | and lone | amid | the drear | -y past; When I | was sick | and sad | at heart | and faint | with grief] and care, It threw | its ra | -diant smile | athwart | the shad | -ows of | despair : 824 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. And still | when falls | the hour | of gloom | upon | this way | -ward breast, Unto | THE FAR, | FAR EAST | I turn | for sol | -ace and | for rest." Edinburgh Journal ; and The Examiner. Example V. "Lament of the Slave" Eight Lines from thirty-four. " Behold | the sun | which gilds | yon heaven, \ how love | -ly it | appears ! And must | it shine | to light | a world | of war | -fare and | of tears ? Shall hu | -man pas | -sion ev | -er sway | this glo | -rious world \ of God, And beau | -ty, wis | -dom, hap | -piness, | sleep with | the tram | -pled sod ? Shall peace | ne'er lift | her ban | -ner up, | shall truth | and rea | -son cry, And men | oppress | them down | with worse | than an | -cient tyr | -anny ? Shall all | the les | -sons time | has taught, | be so | long taught | in vain ; And earth | be steeped | in hu | -man tears, | and groan | with hu | -man pain? " ALONZO LEWIS: Freedom's Amulet, Dec. 6, 1848. Example VI. " Greek Funeral Chant" First four of sixty-four Lines. "A wail | was heard | around | the bed, | the death | -bed of | the young ; Amidst | her tears, | the Fu | -neral Chant \ a mourn | -ful moth | -er sung. I-an | -this ! dost | thou sleep ? | Thou sleepst ! | but this | is not | the rest, The breath | -ing, warm, | and ros | -y calm, | I'vepil | -low'don | my breast ! " FELICIA HEMANS : Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 37. Everett observes, "The Iliad was translated into this measure by CHAPMAN, and the JEneid by PHAER." Eng. Versif. p. 68. Prior, who has a ballad of one hundred and eighty such lines, intimates in a note the great antiquity of the verse. Measures of this length, though not very uncommon, are much less frequently used than shorter ones A practice has long prevailed of dividing this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet, thus : " To such | as fear | thy ho | -ly name, myself | I close | -ly join ; To all | who their | obe | -dient wills to thy | commands | resign." Psalms with Com. Prayer : Psalm cxix, 63. This, according to the critics, is the most soft and pleasing of our lyric measures. With the slight change of setting a capital at the head of each line, it becomes the regular ballac.- metre of our language. Being also adapted to hymns, as well as to lighter songs, and, more particularly, to quaint details of no great length, this stanza, or a similar one more ornamented with rhymes, is found in many choice pieces of English poetry. The following are a few popular examples : " When all | thy mer | -cies, O | my God ! My ris | -ing soul j surveys, Transport | -ed with | the view | I'm lost In won | -der, love, | and praise." Addisons Hymn of Gratitude. n John Gil | -pin was | a cit j -izen Of cred I -it and I renown, A train | -band cap | -tain eke | was he Of fam | -ous Lon | -don town." Cowper's Poems, Vol. i, p. 275. ' God pros | -per long | our no | -ble king, Our lives | and safe | -ties all ; A wo | -ful hunt | -ing once | there did In Chev | -y Chase | befall." Later Reading of Chevy Chase. ' Turn, An | -geli | -na, ev | -er dear, My charm j -er, turn | to see Thy own, | thy long | -lost Ed | -win here, Restored | to love | andthee." Goldsmith's Poems , p. 67. "'Come back ! | come back !' | he cried | in grief, Across | this storm | -y wafer: ' And I'll | forgive | your High | -land chief, My daugh | -ter ! oh | my daughter / ' 'Twas vain : | the loud | waves lashed | the shore, Return | or aid | preventing .- The wa | -ters wild | went o'er | his child, And he | was left | lamentm*?." Campbell 's Poems, p. 110. The rhyming of this last stanza is irregular and remarkable, yet not unpleasant. It is contrary to rule, to omit any rhyme which the current of the verse leads the reader to ex- pect. Yet here the word "shore," ending the first line, has no correspondent sound, where twelve examples of ^ such correspondence had just preceded; while the third line, without previous example, is so rhymed within itself that one scarcely perceives the omission. Double rhymes are said by some to unfit this metre for serious subjects, and to adapt it only to what is meant to be burlesque, humorous, or satiric. The example above does not con- firm this opinion, yet the rule, as a general one, may still be just. Ballad verse may in some degree imitate the language of a simpleton, and become popular by clownishness, more than by elegance : as, CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER I. IAMBICS. 825 Father | and I | went down | to the camp Along | with cap | -tain Goodwin, And there | we saw | the men | and boys As thick | as hast | -y pudding ; And there | we saw | athun | -de ring gun, It took | a horn | of powder, It made | a noise | like fa | -ther's gun, Only | a na | -tion louder." Original Sony of Yankee Doodle. Even the line of seven feet may still be lengthened a little by a double rhyme : as, How gay | -ly, o | -ver fell | and fen, | yon sports | -man light | is dnnhinfj ! And gay | -ly, in | the sun | -beams bright, | the mow | -er's blade | i* flashing ! Of this length, T. O. Churchill reckons the following couplet ; but, by the general usage of the day, the final ed is not made a separate syllable : " With hie | and ha-c, \ as Pris | -cian tells, | sacer \ -dos was | dec// | -ntd; Hut now | its gen | -dcr by | the pope | far bet | -ter is | de/i | -ned." Churchill's New Grammar) p. 188. MEASURE III. IAMBIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. Example I. A Couplet. "So va | -rjfinrj still \ thCir moods, | observ | -ing yet | in iill Their quan | -titles, | their rests, | their cen | -sures met | -rical." MICHAEL DR.VYTOX : Johnsons Quarto Diet. w. Quantity. Example If. From a Description of a Stay-Hunt. "And through | the cumb | -rous thicks, | as fear | -fully | he makes, He with | his branch | -ed head | the ten | -der sap | -lings shakes, That sprink | -ling their | moist pearl | do seem | for him | to weep; When aft | -er goes | the cry, | with yell | -ings loud | and deep, That all | the for | -est rings, | and ev | -ery neigh | -bouring place : And there | is not | a hound | but fall | -eth to | the chase." DU.VYTOX : Three Couplets from twenty -three in Everett's Vcrsif. p. 66. Example HI. An Extract from Shakzpearc. , " If love | make me | forsworn, | how shall | I swear | to love ? O, nev | -er faith | could hold, | if not | to beau j -ty vow'd : Though to | myself | forsworn, | to thee | I'll con | -stant prove ; Those thoughts, | to me | like oaks, [ to thee | like o | -siers bow'd. / | his bi | as leaves, | and makes | his book | thine eyes, Where all | those pleas | -ures live, | that art | can com | -prehend. If knowl | -edge be | the mark, | to know | thee shall | suffice ; Well learn | -ed is | that tongue | that well | can thee j commend ; All ig | -norant | that soul | that sees | thee with' | -out wonder ; Which is | to me | some praise, | that I | thy parts | admire : Thine eye | Jove's light | -ning seems, | thy voice | his dread | -ful thunder t Which (not | to an | -ger bent) | is mu | -sic and | sweet fire. Celes | -tial as | thou art, | O, do | not love | that wrong, To sing | the heav | -ens' praise | with such | an earth | -ly tongue." The Passionate Piltjrim, Stanza IX ; SINGER'S SHAK., Vol. ii, p. 594. Example IV. The Ten Commandments Versified. " Adore | no God | besides | me, to | provoke | mine eyes ; Nor wor | -ship me | in shapes | and forms | that men | devise ; With rev | 'rence use | my name, | nor turn | my words | to jest ; Observe | my sab | -bath well, | nor dare | profane | my rest ; Honor | and due | obe | -dience to | thy pa | -rents give ; Nor spill | the guilt | -less blood, | nor let | the guilt | -y live ; * ; ve | thy bod | -y chaste, | and flee | th' unlaw | -ful bed; Nor steal | thy neigh | -bor's gold, | his gar | -mcnt, or | his bread; Forbear | to blast | his name | with false | -hood or | deceit ; Nor let | thy wish | -es loose | upon | his large | estate." Du. ISAAC WATTS : Lyric Poems, p. 46. verse, consisting, when entirely regular, of twelve syllables in six iambs, is the Alexandrine ; said to have been so named because it was " first used in a poem called Alex- jmacr." Worcester's Diet. Such metre has sometimes been written, with little diversity, though an entire English poem, as in Drayton's Polyolbion ; but, couplets of this length being generally esteemed too clumsy for our language, the Alexandrine has been litt e used by EnglMi versifiers, except to complete certain stanzas beginning with shorter iair.bics, or, occasionally, to close a period in heroic rhyme. French heroics are similar to this ; and if, as some assert, we have obtained it thence, the original poem was doubtless a '.'he opponents of capital punishment will hardly take this for a fair version of the sixth commandment. G. B. 58 826 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. French one, detailing the exploits of the hero "Alexandre." The phrase, " an Alexandrine verse," is, in French, "unvers Alexandrin." Dr. Gregory, in his Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, copies Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, which says, "ALEXANDRINE, a kind of verse borrowed from the French, first used in a poem called Alexander. They [Alexandrines] consist, among the French, of twelve and thirteen syllables, in alternate couplets ; and, among us, of twelve." Dr. Webster, in his American Dictionary, improperly (as I think) gives to the name two forms, and seems also to acknowledge two sorts of the English verse ; "ALEX- AN'DBINE, or ALEX AN 'DEI AN, 71. A kind of verse, consisting of twelve syllables, or of twelve and thirteen alternately." "The Pet-Lamb," a modern pastoral, by Wordsworth, has sixty-eight lines, all probably meant for Alexandrines ; most of which have twelve sylla- bles, though some have thirteen, and others, fourteen. But it were a great pity, that versifi- cation so faulty and unsuitable should ever be imitated. About half of the said lines, as they appear in the poet's royal octavo, or "the First Complete American, from the Last London Edition," are as sheer prose as can be written, it being quite impossible to read them into any proper rhythm. The poem being designed for children, the measure should have been reduced to iambic trimeter, and made exact at that. The story commences thus : " The dew | was fall | -ing fast, | the stars | began j to blink ; I heard | a voice ; | it said, | Drink, pret | -ty crea | -ture, drink ! ' And, look | -ing o'er | the hedge, | before | me I | espied A snow | -white moun | -tain Lamb | with a Maid \ -en at | its side." All this is regular, with the exception of one foot ; but who can make anything but prose of the following ? " Thy limbs will shortly be twice as stout as they are now, Then I'll yoke thee to my cart like a pony in the plough." " Here thou needest not dread the raven in the sky ; Night and day thou art safe, our cottage is hard by." WORDSWORTH'S Poems, New-Haven Ed., 1836, p. 4. In some very ancient English poetry, we find lines of twelve syllables combined in coup- lets with others of fourteen ; that is, six iambic feet are alternated with seven, in lines that rhyme. The following is an example, taken from a piece of fifty lines, which Dr. Johnson ascribes to the Earl of Surry, one of the wits that nourished in the reign of Henry VIII : " Such way | -ward wayes | hath Love, | that most | part in | discord, Our willes | do stand, | whereby | our hartes | but sel | -dom do | accord : Decyte | is hys | delighte, | and to | begyle | and mocke, Thesim | -pie hartes | which he | doth strike | with fro | -ward di | -versstrok3. He caus | -eth th' one | to rage j with gold | -en burn | -ing darte, And doth | alay | with lead | -en cold, | again | the oth | -er'sharte : Whose gleames | of burn | -ing fyre | and eas | -y sparkes | of flame, In bal | -ance of | fine | -qual weyght | he pon | -dereth | by ame." See Johnson's Quarto Diet., History oftheEng. Lang. p. 43. MEASURE IV. IAMBIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER. Example I. Hector to Andromache. "Androm | -ache ! | my soul's | far bet | -te'r part, Why icith | untime | -ly sor | -rows heaves | thy heart r No hos | -tile hand | can an | -tedate | my doom, Till fate | condemns | me to j the si | -lent tomb. Fix'd is | the term | to all | the race | of earth ; And such | the hard | conditi | -on of | our birth, No force | can then | resist, | no flight | can save ; All sink | alike, \ the fear j -ful and | the brave." POPE'S HOMER : Iliad, B. vi, 1. 624632. Example II. Angels* Worship. " No soon | -er had | th' Almight | -y ceas'd | but all The mul | -titude | of an | -gels with | a shout Loud as | from num | -bers with' | -out num | -ber, sweet As from | blest voi | -ces ut | -teringjdy, \ heav'n rung With ju | -bilee, | and loud | hosan | -nas fill'd Th' eter | -nal | re | -gions : low | -ly rev | -erent Tow'rds ei | -ther throne | they boAV, | and to | the ground With sol | -emn ad | -ora | -tion down | they cast Their crowns | inwove | with am | -arant | and gold." MILTON : Paradise Lost, B. iii, 1. 344. Example TIL Deceptive Glosses. "The world | is still | deceiv'd | with or | -nament. In law, | what plea | so taint | -ed and | corrupt, But, be | -ing sea | -son'd with | a gra | -cious voice, CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. - VERSIFICATION. - ORDER I. - IAMBICS. Obscures | the show | of e | -vil r In What dam | -ne"d er | -ror, but | some so | -berbrow Will bless | it, and | approve | it with | a text, Hiding | the gross | -ness with | fair or | -namentr" SuA.KsrE.vui: : Mcn-h. of Venice, Act iii, Sc, 2. Example IV. Praise God, " Ye head | -long tor | -rents, rap | -id, and | profound; Ye soft | -er floods, | that lead | the hu | -mid maze Along | the vale ; | and thou, | males | -tic main, A se | -cret world | of won | -ders in | thyself, Sound His | -stupen | -rdous | praise; | whose great | -er voice Or bids | you roar, | or bids | your roar | -ings fall." THOMSON : Hymn to the Seasons. Example V. The Christian Spirit. " Like him | the soul, | thus kin | -died from | above, Spreads wide | her arms | of u | -niver | -sal love ; And, still | enlarg'd | as she | receives | the grace, Includes j crCa | -tion in | her close | embrace. Behold | a Chris | -tian ! and | without | the fires The found | -er of \ that name | alone | inspires, Though all | accbm | -plishment, | all knowl | -edge meet, To make | the shin | -ing prod | -igy | complete, Whoev | -er boasts | that name | behold | a cheat ! " COWPER : Charity; Poems, Vol. i, p. 135. Example VI. To London. " Ten right | -eous would | have sav'd | a cit | -y once, And thou | hast man | -y right | -eous. Well | for thee That salt | preserves | thee ; more | corrupt | -ed else, And there | -fore more | obnox | -ious, at | this hour, Than Sod | -om in | her day | had pow'r | to be, For whom | God heard | his Abr' | -ham plead | in vain." IDEM : The Task, Book iii, at the end. This verse, the iambic pentameter, is the regular English heroic a stately species, and th.it in which most of our great poems are composed, whether epic, dramatic, or descriptive. It is well adapted to rhyme, to the composition of sonnets, to the formation of stanzas of several sorts ; and yet is, perhaps, the only measure suitable for blank verse which latter form always demands a subject of some dignity or sublimity. The '/--, or the form of verse most commonly used by elegists, consists of four heroics rhyming alternately " Thou knowst | how trans | -port thrills | the ten | -der breast, Where love | and fan | -cy fix | their ope | -ning reign ; How na | -ture shines | -in live | -lier col | -ours dress'd, To bless | their un | -ion, and | to grace | their train." -TOM:: liriiish Poets, Vol. vii, p. 106. Iambic verse is seldom continued perfectly pure through a long succession of lines. Among its most frequent diversifications, are the following ; and others may perhaps be noticed hereafter : ( 1.) The first foot is often varied by a substitution al trochee ; as, " /f-rv'/i/v, I that first | from out | the pur | -pie grape P'd thf \ sweet poi | -son of | mis-iis | -e"d wine, / | the Tus | -can mar | -iners | transform'd, ing I the Tyr I -.hone shore, | us the | winds listed, On Cir j -ce's isl j -and fell. | Who knows | not Circe, The daugh | -ter of | the sun ? | whose charm | -Cd cup Whoev | -er tast | -ed, lost | his up | -right shape, ^H And down | -ward fell | Intn \ a grov | -elling swine." Mi i/i ON : c., linl s; British Poets, Vol. ii, p. 147. i _'. ) By a >vn;ntMs of the two short syllables, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or a dactyl, for a trochee. This occurs chiefly where one unaccented vowel precedes an other in what we usually regard as separate syllables, and both are clearly ho; rd, though uttered perhaps in so quick succession that both syllables may occupy only half the time of a long one. Some prosodists, however, choose to regard these substitutions as instances of trissyllabic feet mixed with the others ; and, doubtless, it is in general easy to make them such, by an utterance that avoids, rather than favours, the coalescence. Th2 following are examples: Illi: ,>m The fruits | of plen | t.yfrom | her eo | ptOMt hofn" I' " M>i, / ./-/. j d onl . | I hat I m-w | our pa | n-nl, mold, S'-r sa. I | ly HOV | ei'd hy | l,he laws | of chance! ! m turn'.. I prim I ,/,/ /,..'/ I enroll'd, . | lo.liairo- | une | han | .-.///// i/lnnrr ' " Sill.:. . I . i /.'/ fa ./' I'". / ., \ Ol , dr 101 IptiOT , I he I i .1 loot. <,! an iaml.ir |. varnd 01 lollowed hy an additional short. Hyllahle; a ml, : omel im. ol tiiplr r\t\ me, (.here i i an addition ol two shoil. syllahlei, all.i-i the piim-ioal i h \ in inj-. .'.y I liihle. Momr pio ,od i .' ; rail the vai i an I fool., in I In- ! inr, or an amphibrach wit.h .-.t HI a :.m-ni.in itifllii/,/,- , hut. ot hi-i M-an, in I In I he landm i only, calling u hal. remiiiic. itflei t IK last Ion;; .sylhihle //y/- ///,./.,. and tin. is, I I h in L , I h e I /el I . i . I 1 1 r |ol lo u i n;^ e \ a niples nhovv thtlMO ttlld Horn.- ot .hei \ anal i-m : horn p u i e i a m hie me,: I '., u infill- I. <,'rii-/'. I, ,nh | sisncr ol | ;M,,-| I hal.h l.wen | I Which hllUVV | lll.e j'l M-l | it. ie If, I Iml air I not, HO : I I] or I rOW't Oyt, | gltatfd | wil.hhliml | in;; leiiri, l)ivid<-H | one Ihin;^ | cut in- | to man | y oh/, I.il.epn | sprcl.ives, whi'di, n;'hl | ly ;-a/'d | upon, Show not.h | in! 1 ; hut. ronlu | -uon ; ey'd awry, Diftin | |ttl -li loi m : ,o your | wed m ,| i awry | ii|,on | yonr Imd'.-i | dep.n i find , shapes | 01 grief, | mm e than | him ell, | lo v \Vhich, looL'd | on a . | il i ., | i '. nou;-ht. | Iml .had- ii \KI. : Hir/K/i'it //, Act, ii, //;/r //. ,1 Wi.ll In I'! " O, that, | I had | I he art. | of ea , | y in i/n,, . 7<1. \ftlt 1 1 1 I ,1 I,, I/,, I '.II 1 1- 1, .'/,< /'/' III. ]. I I.I 1. 1 \VI,., |WI II I thl tin ' /, ,/ II 1 1 1 w 1 1 V I > > , I n I . I 1 1 1 1 I :. '.MI | 01 ' ii in , , | i Ion i" I * > irji | i 1.1 . - , ,, ,/ 1,, ill, < Ul /- - / '/"/ / / iniil li'i | l\ ill I.I . ill.' \\ , pit) | ii l.ii'li \\ In i, I i .. | \ ' i | I I, \ . II. .HI | ,, ' ' II | nil \\.l-l I I"! Wlt.K-r ('I.. | / ll)tU i<"//. \Y I., i, ; mill ; \ \V i)fl, in.. , i !> i. mil. i' I'll ..I... 1 1 niritt) 0110, witli i . .1, ii.,i || in . || i IIM'I HI . Mll|.l< 'I lii ! ll.llHH IIIJlll ;,.,! | ril| < M IHII ' < I ri | lull . In, tin |.i I |H I | Mill full .1 | on 0v \v,ii, M,I i I,, i. i rial i < h, / i Tin i h vtt fott, tl loill VMll, ll\ | ' I i . ft/ier, \\ I. .11 | .! i / "III ma]| i | I In HI . i \ . | l-.i |.i i | pi ii, /i, ,,/,, , (I 01 i mi; i i 1.1, OH TKIMK'J i i f'n l'ii /,//,,/ .11 | , H'I| / I/,//,*/ : \W, 1 I I.IIMj,:. I A iliuu | | .ll, III .1.1 | ' 1,1 1 1 >l> > ill' 'I | l . in. .I'l 'II,' ,.,! | |, , II, . | . I ' ' ikj I .-I, ..II III. I , .1,1/1,, It,, I'! I'ltn/il, II I < ,'iilnl, ,i I ...I I 1 .111,1. III. - ..| I. nil, ' .,| I till I IN ll.Hl'l I lln I. I : . -I | II,. in l,k. | . I nil | I.. I 830 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. Example IV. Lyric Stanzas. Descend, | celes | -tialfire, And sei/e | me from | above, Melt me | in flames | of pure | desire, A sac | -rifice | to love. Let joy | and wor | -ship spend The rem | -nant of | my days, And to | my God, | my soul | ascend, In sweet | perfumes | of praise." WATTS : Poems sacred to Devotion, p. 50. Example V. Lyric Stanzas. "I would | begin | themu | -sic here, And so | my soul | should rise : Ofov | someheav'n | -ly notes | to bear My spir | -it to | the skies ! Example VI. "The hur | -ricane | hath might Along | the In | -dian shore, .And far, | by Gan | -ges' banks | at night, Is heard | the ti | -ger's roar. There, ye | that love | my sav | -iour, sit, There I | would fain | have place Amongst | your thrones, | or at | your feet, So I | might see | his face." WATTS : Same icork, "Iloree Lyricce," p. 71. England's Dead. But let | the sound | roll on ! It hath | no tone | of dread For those | that from | their toils | are gone; There slum | -ber Eng | -land's dead." HEMANS : Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 61. The following examples have some of the common diversifications already noticed under the longer measures : Example I. "Languedocian Air" 'Love is | a hunt | -er boy, Who makes | young hearts | his prey ; And in \ his nets | of joy Ensnares | them night | and day. In vain | conceaFd | they lie, Love tracks | them ev' | -ry where ; In vain | aloft Love shoots they fly, them fly | -ing there. But 'tis | his joy | most sweet, At earl | -y dawn | to trace The print j of Beau | -ty's feet, And give | the trem | -bier chase. ; Flow on, | thou shin | -ing river, But ere | thou reach | the sea, Seek El | -la's bower, | and give her The wreaths | I fling | o'er thee. And most | he loves | through snow To track | those foot | -steps fair, For then | the boy | doth know, None track' d | before | him there." MOORE'S Melodies and National Airs, p. 274 Example II. From a "Portuguese Air." But, if | in wand' | -ring thither, Thou find | she mocks | my pray'r, Then leave | those wreaths | to icither Upon | the cold | bank there." MOOBE : Same Volume, p. 261. Example III. Resignation. ' O Res | -igna | -tion ! yet | unsung, Untouch'd | by for | -mer strains ; Though claim | -ing ev | -ery mu \ -se's And ev | -erypo \ -et's pains ! [smile, All oth | -er du | -ties cres | -cents are Of vir | -tue faint | -ly bright ; The glo | -rious con \ -summa | -tion, thou, Which fills | her orb | with light ! " YOUNG : British Poets, Vol. viii, p. 377. MEASURE VII. IAMBIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. Example. A Scolding Wife. 1. "There was | a man Whose name | was Dan, Who sel His part -dom spoke ; -ner sweet He thus | did greet, Without | a joke : 2. My love | -ly wife, Thou art | the life Of all | my joys; Without f thee, I Should sure | -ly die For want | of noise. O, prec | -ious one, Let thy | tongue run In a | sweet fret ; And this | will give A chance | to live, Along | time yet. 4. When thou | dost scold So loud | and bold, I'm kept | awake ; But if | thou leave, It will | me grieve, 5. Then said | his wife, I'll have | no strife With you, | sweet Dan ; As 'tis | your mind, I'll let | you find I am | your man. 6. And fret | I will, To keep | you still Enjoy | -ing life ; So you | may be Content | with me, A scold | -ing wife." Till life | forsake. ANONYMOUS : Cincinnati Herald, 1844. Iambic dimeter, like the metre of three iambs, is much less frequently used alone than in stanzas with longer lines ; but the preceding example is a refutation of the idea, that no piece is ever composed wholly of this measure, or that the two feet cannot constitute aline. In Humphrey's English Prosody, on page 16th, is the following paragraph ; which is not only defective in style, but erroneous in all its averments : CHAP. IV. J PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ORDER I. IA3IBICS. 831 " Poems are never composed of lines of two [-] feet metre, in succession : they [combina- tions of two feet] are only used occasionally in poems, hymns, odes, &c. to diversify the metre; and are, in no case, lines of poetry, or verses ; but hemistics, [hcmistichs,] or half lines. The shortest metre of which iambic verse is composed, in lines successively, is that of three feet ; and this is the shortest metre which can be denominated lines, or verses ; and this i- In ballads, ditties, hymns, and versified psalms, scarcely any line is more common than the iambic trimeter, here denied to be " frequently used ; " of which species, there are about seventy lines among the examples above. Dr. Young's poem entitled "Resignation," hag eight hundred and twenty such lines, and as many more of iambic tetrameter. His 41 Ocean " has one hundred and forty-five of the latter, and two hundred and ninety-two of the species now under consideration ; i. e., iambic dimeter. But how can the metre which predominates by two to one, be called, in such a case, an occasional diversification of that which is less frequent r Lines of two iambs are not very uncommon, even in psalmody ; and, since we have some lines I/at shorter, and the lengths of all are determined only by the act of measuring, there is, surely, no propriety in calling dimeters " hemistichs," merely because they are short. The following are some examples of this measure combined with longer ones : Example I. From Psalm CXLVIIL 1, 2. Ye bound | -less realms | of joy, Exalt | your Ma | -ker's fame ; His praise | your songs | employ Above | the star | -ry frame :* Yourvoi | -ces raise, Ye Cher | -ubim, And Ser | -aphim, To sing | his praise. 3, 4. Thou moon, | that rul'st | the night, And sun, | that guid'st | the day, Ye clitt' | -ring stars I of light, To him | your horn | -age pay : His praise | declare, Y r e heavens | above, And clouds j that move In liq | -uid air." The Book of Psalms in Metre, (with Com. Prayer,) 1819. Example HI. Gloria Patri. To God | the Fa | -ther, Son, And Spir | -it ev | -er bless'd, Eter | -nal Three | in One, All wor | -ship be | address' d ; As here | -tofore It was, | is now, And shall | be so For ev | -ermore." Ib. p. 179. [O] Example ILFrom Psalm r.YA'.YlV. " To God | the might | -y Lord, your joy | -ful thanks | repeat ; To him | due praise | afford, as good | as he | is great : r God | does prove Our con | -stant friend, His bound | -less love ^^H Shall nev | -er end." Ib. p. 164. Example IV. Part of Psalm III. Lord, | how man | -y are | my foes ! jButthou, | Lord, art | my shield | my glory ; How man | -y those Thee, through | my story, That [now] | in arms | against | me rise ! Th' exalt | -er of | my head | I count ; Mini;/ | are they Aloud | I cried That of | my lite | distrust | -fully | thus say : Unto | Jeho | -vah, he | full soon | replied, ' No help | for him | in God | there lies.' And heard | me from | his ho | -ly mount." MII.TOX: - -.sifted ; British Poets, Vol. ii, p. 161. I Example V.Six Lines of an "Air." "As when f the dove When he | returns, Laments | her love No more | she mourns, All on | the na | -kcd spray ; But loves | the live | -long day." JOHN GAY : British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 377. Example VI. Four Stanzas of an Ode. XXVIII. Gold pleas | -ure buys ; But pleas | -ure dies, Too soon | the gross | fruiti | -on cloys : Though rapt | -ures court, The sense | is short ; But vir | -tuc kin | -dies liv | -ing joys xxtx. Joys felt | alone ! Joys ask'd | of none! [miss; Which Time's | and For | -tune's ar | -rows Xor civ | -il rage, | nor ty | -rant's frown, Joys that | subsist, Though fates | resist, An un | -preca | -rious, end | -less bliss ! x\x. The soul | refin' d Is most | inclin'd To cv | -try mdr \ -al ex | -celicnce ; All vice | is dull, A knave's | a fool ; And Vir | -tue is | the child | of Sense. XXXI. The vir | -t units mind Nor wave, | nor wind, The sliuk | -en ball, Nor plan | -ets' fall, From its | firm ba | -sis can | dethrone." YOUNG'S " OCEAN : "British Poets, Vol. viii, p. 277. 832 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [FART iv. There is a line of five syllables and double rhyme, which is commonly regarded as iambic dimeter with a supernumerary short syllable ; and which, though it is susceptible of two other divisions into two feet, we prefer to scan in this manner, because it usually alternates with pure iambics. Twelve such lines occur in the following extract : LOVE TRANSITORY. ' Could Love | for ever Run like | a river, And Time's | endeavcwr Be tried | in vain, No oth | -ci' pleasure With this j could measure ; And like | a treaszire We'd hug | the chain. But since | our sighing Ends not j in dym<7 And, formed | for flym<7, Love plumes | his wing ; Then for | this reason Let's love | aseascw; But let | that season Be on | -ly spring." LORD BYRON : See Everett's Versification, p. 19 ; Fowler s E, Gram. p. 650. MEASURE VIII.-IAMBIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. "The shortest form of the English Iambic," says Lindley Murray, "consists of an Iam- bus, with an additional short syllable : as, Disdaining, Complaining, Consenting, Repenting. We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in stanzas. The Iambus, -with this addition, coincides with the Amphibrach." Murray's Gram. 12mo, p. 204 ; 8vo, p. 254. This, or the substance of it, has been repeated by many other authors. Everett varies the language and illustration, but teaches the same doctrine. See E. Versif. p. 15. Now there are sundry examples which may be cited to show, that the iambus, without any additional syllable, and without the liability of being confounded with an other foot, may, and sometimes does, stand as a line, and sustain a regular rhyme. The following pieces contain instances of this sort : Example L"How to Keep Lent." ' Is this | a Fast, | to keep The lard | -er lean And clean From fat | of neats | and sheep ? Is it | to quit | the dish Of flesh, | yet still To fill" The plat | -ter high | with fish ? Is it | to fast | an hour, Or ragg'd | to go, Or show A down | -cast look | and sour ? No : 'Tis | a Fast | to dole Thy sheaf | of wheat, And meat, Unto | the hun | -gry soul. It is | to fast | from strife, From old | debate, And hate ; To cir | -cumcise | thy life ; To show | a heart \ grief-rent ; To starve | thy sin, Not bin : Ay, that's | to keep | thy Lent." ROBERT HERRICK : Clapps Pioneer, p. 48. Example IL "To Mary Ann." [This singular arrangement of seventy-two separate iambic feet, I find without intermediate points, and leave it so. It seems intended to be read in three or more different ways, and the punctuation required by one mode of reading would not wholly suit an other.] " Your face Your tongue Your wit So fair So sweet So sharp First bent Then drew Then hit Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart To like To learn To love Your face Your tongue Your wit Doth lead Doth teach Doth move Your face With beams Doth blind Mine eye Mine eye With life Your face Doth feed Your tongue With sound Doth charm Mine ear Mine ear With hope Your tongue Doth feast Your wit With art Doth rule Mine heart Mine heart With skill Your wit Doth fill CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER II. TROCIIAICS. 833 Ofaee With frowns Wrong not Mine eye This eye Shall joy Your face To serve O tongue With check Vex not Mine ear This ear Shall bend Your tongue To trust O wit With smart Wound not Mine heart This heart Shall swear Your wit To fear." ANONYMOUS! Sundry American Xcicspapers, in 1849. Example III. Umbrellas. "The late George Canning, of whom Byron said that ' it was his happiness to be at once a wit, poet, orator, and statesman, and excellent in all,' is the author of the following clever jeu d' esprit : " [except three lines here added in brackets :] " I saw | a man | with two | umbrellas, (One of | the Ion | -gest kind | of fellows,) When it rained, Meet a | Ifidy On the | shady Side of | thirty | -three, Minus | one of | these rain | -dispcllers. 'I see,' Says she, 'Your qua! | -ity | ofmer | -cyis | not strain- ed.' [Not slow | to comprehend | an inkling, His eye | with wag | -gish hu | -mour twinkling,] Replied | he, 'Ma'am, Be calm ; This one | under | my arm Is rotten, [And can | -not save | you from | a sprink- Besides, | to keep | you dry, 'Tis plain | that you | as well | as I, Can lift I vour cotton. ' " your cotton. See The Essex County Freeman, Vol. i, Xo. 1. Example IV. Shreds of a Song. 2. WINTER. When blood | isnipp'd, | and ways | befoul, Then night | -ly sings | the star | -ing owl, To-who ; To-whit, | to-who, | a mer | -ry note, While greas | -y Joan | doth keel | the pot." SHAKSPEAHE : Loves Labour's Lost, Act v, Sc. 2. Example V. Puck's Charm. When he has uttered the fifth line, he squeezes a juice on Lysanders eyes.] I. SPRING. 1 The cuck | -oo then, | on ev | -ery tree, Mocks mar | -ried men, | for thus "| sings he, Cuckoo'; Cuckoo', | cuckoo', | O word | of fear, Unpleas | -ing to | a mar | -ried ear ! " " On the ground, i) sound : I'll apply To your eye, Gentle | lover, f remedy. When thou wak'st, Thou tak'st True delight In the sight Of thy | former | lady's eye."* IDEM : Midntmmer-NigAf* Dream, Act iii, Sc. 2. ORDER IT. TROCHAIC VERSE. In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it may end with along one ; for the common doctrine of Murray, Chandler, Churchill, Bullions, Butler, Everett, Fowler, Weld, Wells, and others, that thi.s chief rhyming syllable is "additional " to the real number of feet in the line, is manifestly incorrect. One long syllabic is, in some instance, u-i-d as afoot ; but it is one or more short syllables only, that we can pro- perly admit as hypermcter. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem ; but, in cither order, written with exactness, the number of feet is always the number of the long syllables.. Examples from Gray* J. U s ao 'Ruin | seize thcc, | ruthless | king! Confu | -sion on | thy ban | -ners wait, Though, fann'd | by Con | -quest's crim | -son wing, cy mock | the air | with i | -die state. '< !ni, nor | hduhi-rk's | tirittrtl | mail, Nor e'en | thyvir | -tues, ty | -rant, shall | avail." (2.) 'I', the | warp, and \ iceavethe | woof, The wind | -ing-sheet | of Ed | -ward's race. ;im | -pie room, | and verge | enough, The char | -acters | of hell | to trace. ^fark thr | V'">' aiifl | mark the | niyht, When Sev'| -crn shall | re-ech | -o with ( affright." "The Bard, a Pindaric Ode : " British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 231 and 282. *' These versicles, except the two which arc Italicized, are not iambic. The others are partly trochaic : and. ac- cotding to many of our prosodisW, wLolly so; but it is questionable whether they are not as properly ampblma- cri;, or Cretic. 834 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART OBSERVATIONS. Ons. 1. Trochaic verse without the final short syllable, is the same as iambic would be with- out the initial short syllable ; it being quite plain, that iambic, so changed, becomes trochaic, and is iambic no longer. But trochaic, retrenched of its last short syllable, is trochaic still ; and can no otherwise be made iambic, than by the prefixing of a short syllable to the line. Feet, and the orders of verse, are distinguished one from an other by two things, and in general by two only ; the number of syllables taken as a foot, and the order of their quantities. Trochaic verse is always as distinguishable from iambic, as iambic is from any other. Yet have we several grammarians and prosodists who contrive to confound them or who, at least, mistake catalectic trochaic for cata- lectic iambic; and that too, where the syllable wanting affects only the last foot, and makes it perhaps but a common and needful caesura. OBS. 2. To suppose that iambic verse may drop its initial short syllable, and still be iambic, still be measured as before, is not only to take a single long syllable for a foot, not only to recognize a pedal caesura at the beginning of each line, but utterly to destroy the only principles on which iambics and trochaics can be discriminated. Yet Hiley, of Leeds, and Wells, of Andover, while they are careful to treat separately of these two orders of verse, not only teach that any order may take at the end " an additional syllable," but also suggest that the iambic ma;/ drop a syllable " from (in treating of iam- ttllY^db UV OU4 C4HaVAU.lt UHCH 3^ licl. LJ1C, UUt*Vl.?U DUgCO* t IKL I, I, U t llllll U1U //M< y I*' the first foot," without diminishing the number of feet. without changing the succession of quan- tities, without disturbing the mode of scansion ! "Sometimes," say they, bics,) "a syllable is cut off' from the first foot ; as, Praise | to God, | immor | -tal praise, For | the love | that crowns | our days."[ BARBAULD.] Hlley's E. Gram., Third Edition, London, p. 124; Wells' s, Third Edition, p. 198. OBS. 3. Now this couplet is the precise exemplar, riot only of the thirty-six lines of which it is a part, but also of the most common of our trochaic metres ; and if this may be thus scunned into iambic verse, so may all other trochaic lines in existence : distinction between the two orders must then be worse than useless. But I reject the doctrine, and trust that most readers will easily see its absurdity. A prosodist might just as well scan all iambics into trochaics, by pronouncing each initial short syllable to be hypermeter. For, surely, if deficiency may be discovered at the beginning of measurement, so may redundance. But if neither is to be looked for before the meas- urement ends, (which supposition is certainly more reasonable,) then is the distinction already vindicated, and the scansion above-cited is shown to be erroneous. OBS. 4. But there are yet other objections to this doctrine, other errors and inconsistencies in the teaching of it. Exactly the same kind of verse as this, which is said to consist of "four iam- buses," from one of which ''a syllable is cut off," is subsequently scanned by the same authors ts being composed of " three trochees and an additional syllable ; as, ' Haste thee, | Nymph, and | bring with | thee Jest and | youthful | Jolli | -ty.' MILTON." Wells' s School Grammar, p. 200. " Vital | spark 6f | heav'nly | fame, Quit oh | quit this | mortal \frdme."*[ POPE.] Hiley' 's English Grammar, p. 126. There is, in the works here cited, not only the inconsistency of teaching two very different modes of scanning the same species of verse, but in each instance the scansion is wrong ; for all the lines in question are trochaic of four feet, single-rhymed, and, of course, catalectic, and ending with a caesura, or elision. In no metre that lacks but one syllable, can this sort of foot occur at the beginning of a line ; yet, as we see, it is sometimes imagined to be there, by those who have never been able to find it at the end, where it oftenest exists ! OBS. 5. I have hinted, in the main paragraph above, that it is a common error of our prosodists, to underrate, by one foot, the measure of all trochaic lines, when they terminate with single rhyme ; an error into which they are led by an other as gross, that of taking for hypermeter, or mere sur- plus, the whole rhyme itself, the sound or syllable most indispensable to the verse. " (For rhyme the rudder is of verses, With which, like ships, they steer their courses.)" Iludibras. Iambics and trochaics, of corresponding metres, and exact in them, agree of course in both the number of feet and the number of syllables ; but as the former are slightly redundant with double rhyme, so the latter are deficient as much, with single rhyme; yet, the number of feet may, and should, in these cases, be reckoned the same. An estimable author now living says, "Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable, is the same as iambic verse, without the initial short sylla- ble." N. Butler's Practical Gram. p. 193. This instruction is not quite accurate. Nor would it be so, even if there could be " iambic verse without the initial short syllable," and if it were uni- versally true, that, " Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable." Ibid. Forjthe addi- tion and subtraction here suggested, will inevitably make the 'difference of a foot, between the measures or verses said to be the same ! OBS. 6. "I doubt," says T. O. Churchill, "whether the trochaic can be considered as a legiti- mate English measure. All the examples of it given by Johnson have an additional long syllable at the end : but these are iambics, if we look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning, which is much more agreeable to the aiialogy of music." Churchill's New Gram. p. 390. This doubt, ridiculous as must be all reasoning in support of it, the author seriously endeavours to raise into a general conviction that we have no trochaic order of verse ! It can hardly be worth while to notice here all his remarks. "An additional long si/llablc" Johnson never dreamed of " at the end " " at the beginning " or anywhere else. For he discriminated metres, not by the number of feet, as he ought to have done, but by the number of syllables he found in each line. His doctrine is this: "Our iambick measure comprises verses Of four syllables, Of six, Of eight, Often. Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables, Of five, Of seven. These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of seven, eight and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion ; and of fourteen, as Chapman's * See exercises in Punctuation, on page 757, of this work. G. B. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER II. TROCIIAICS. 835 Homer." " We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in songs, which may be called the ana peptic 1 ;. May I govern my passion with absolute sway. Anil grow wiser and better as life wears away.'/)/-. Pope. 44 In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, [;] as [,] ' When present we love, and when ab-ent agree, I think not of I'ris [,] nor I'ris of me.' Dnjden. 44 These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or A'ithout rhyme, as in the heroirk measure. ' 'Tis the divinity that stirs idthin us, 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter.'' Addison. " So in that of eight syllables, 4 They neither added nor confounded, They neither wanted nor abounded.' Prior. 44 In that of seven, 4 For resistance I could fear none, But with twenty ships had done, What thou, brave and happy I'crnon, Hast achieved with six alone.' Glover. 4 * To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse." Dr. John- son's Grammar of the Enylixh Tonyue, p. 14. See his Q'/'irfo l>t<-f. Here, except a few less important remarks, and sundry examples of the metres named, is Johnson's whole scheme of -in'cation. OHS. 7. How, when a prosodist judges certain examples to "have an additional long syllable at the end," he can " look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning," is a matter of marvel; yet, to abolish trochaics, Churchill not onlv does and advises this, but imagines short syllables removed sometimes from the beginning of lines ; while sometimes he couples final short syllables with initial long ones, to make iambs, and yet does not always count these as feet in the when he has done so ! Johnson's instructions are both misund< Tstood and misrepresented by this grammarian. I have therefore cited them the more fully. The first syllable being re- trenched from an anapest, there remains an iambus. But what countenance has Johnson lent to the gross error of reckoning such a foot an anapest still ? or to that of commencing the meas- urement of a line by including a syllable not used by the poet ? The preceding stanxafrom Glover, is trochaic of four fi-et ; the odd lines full, and of'course making double rhyme ; the even lines catalectic, and of course ending with a long syllable counted as a foot. Johnson cited it merely as an example of "double ending*," imagining in it no " additional syllable," except perhaps the two which terminate the two trochees, '' fear none " and 4< Vernon." These, it may be inferred, he improperly conceived to be additional to the regular measure ; because he reckoned measures by the number of syllables, and probably supposed single rhyme to be the normal form of all rhyming Terse. OBS. 8. There is false scansion in many a school grammar, but perhaps none more uncouthly false, than Churchill's pretended amendment* of Johnson's. The second of these wherein " the old seven[-]foot iambic " is professedly found in two lines of Glover's trochaic tetrameter I shall quote : 44 In the anapa?stic measure, Johnson himself allows, that a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot; yet he gives .v an example of trochaics with an additional syllable at the end oj 'the even liiteft a stanza, which, by adopting the 9amejprinciple t would be in the iambic measure: For | ref Kiyhteen Stanzas. 1. nee up | -on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | weak and | weary, Over | tnanij a \ quaint and | curious | volume | of for | -gotten | lore, "While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, | sudden | -ly there | came a | tapping, As of | some one | gently rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber | door. 1 'Tis some | visit | -or,' I | muttered, | 'tapping | at my | chamber | door Only | this, and | nothing | more.' Ah ! dis | -tinctly | I re | -member | it was | in the | bleak De | -ccmber, And each | separate \ dying | ember | wrought its | ghost up | -on the | floor ; : | -ly I | wished the | morrow ; | vainly | had I | tried to | borrow From my | books sur | -cease of | sorrow | sorrow | for the | lost Le | -nore For the | rare and | radiant \ maiden, | whom the | angels | name Le | -nore Nameless | here for | ever | -more." EDOAU A. POE : American Review for February, 1845. 836 TUB GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. Double rhymes being less common than single ones, in the same proportion, is this long verse less frequently terminated with a full trochee, than with a single long syllable counted as a foot. The species of measure is, however, to be reckoned the same, though catalectic. By Lindley Murray, and a number who implicitly re-utter w r hat he teaches, the verse of six trochees, in which are twelve syllables only, is said " to be the longest Trochaic line that our language admits." Murray's Octavo Gram. p. 257 ; Weld's E. Gram. p. 211. The examples produced here will sufficiently show the inaccuracy of their assertion. Example II. "The Shadow of the Obelisk" Last two IStanzas. 8. " Herds are | feeding | in the | Forum, | as in | old E | -vander's | time : Tumbled | from the j steep Tar | -peian \ every \ pile that | sprang sub | -lime. Strange ! that | what seemed | most in | -constant | should the | most a | -biding | prove; Strange ! that | what is | hourly | moving | no mu | -tation | can re | -move : Ruined | lie.s the | cirque ! the | chariots, \ long a | -go, have | ceased to | roll E'en the | Obe | -lisk is | broken | but the | shadow | still is | whole. 9. Out a | -las ! if | mightiest \ empires | leave so | little | mark be | -hind, How much | less must | heroes | hope for, | in the | wreck of | human | kind ! Less than | e'en this | darksome | picture, | which I | tread be | -neath my | feet, Copied | by a | lifeless | moonbeam | on the | pebbles | of the | street ; Since if | Caesar's | best am | -bition, | living, j was, to | be re j -nowned, What shall | Cscsar | leave be | -hind him, | save the | shadow | of a | sound? " T. W. PARSONS : Lowell and Carters "Pioneer," Vol. i, p. 120. Example III. "The Slaves of Martinique ." Nine Couplets out of Thirty-six. "Beams of | noon, like | burning | lances, | through the | tree-tops | flash and | glisten, As she | stands be | -fore her | lover, | with raised | face to | look and | listen. Dark, but | comely, | like the | maiden | in the | ancient | Jewish | song, Scarcely | has the | toil of | task-fields | done her | graceful | beauty | wrong. He, the | strong one, | and the | manly, | with the | vassal's | garb and | hue, Holding | still his | spirit's | birthright, | to his | higher | nature | true ; Hiding | deep the | strengthening \ purpose | of a | freeman | in his | heart, As the | Grecgree | holds his | Fetish | from the | white man's | gaze a | -part. Ever | foremost | of the | toilers, | when the | driver's | morning | horn Calls a | -way to | stifling | millhouse, | or to | fields of | cane and | corn ; Fall the | keen and | burning | lashes | never | on his | back or | limb ; Scarce with | look or | word of | censure, | turns the | driver | unto | him. Yet his | brow is | always | thoughtful, | and his | eye is | hard and | stern ; Slavery's \ last and | humblest | lesson j he has | never | deigned to | learn." "And, at | evening | when his | comrades | dance be | -fore their | master's | door, Folding | arms and | knitting | forehead, | stands he | silent | ever | -more. God be | praised for | every \ instinct | which re | -bels a | -gainst a | lot Where the | brute sur | -vives the | human, | and man's | upright | form is | not ! " J. G. WHITTIER : National Era, and other Neicspapers, Jan. 1848. Example IV. "The Present Crisis" Two Stanzas out of sixteen. " Once to | every \ man and | nation | comes the | moment | to de | -cidc, In the | strife of | Truth with | Falsehood, | for the | good or | evil | side ; Some great | cause, God's | new Mes | -siah, j offering \ each the | bloom or | blight, Parts the | goats up | -on the | left hand, | and the | sheep up | -on the | right, And the | choice goes | by for | -ever | 'twixt that | darkness | and that | light. Have ye | chosen, | O my | people, | on whose | party | ye shall | stand, Ere the | Doom from | its worn | sandals | shakes the | dust a | -gainst our | land ? Though the | cause ot | evil | prosper, | yet the | Truth a | -lone is | strong, And, al | -beit she \ wander | outcast | now, I | see a | -round her | throng Troops of | beauti | -ful tall | angels | toon | -shield her | from all | wrong." JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL : Liberator, September 4th, 1846. Example V. The Season of Love. A short Extract. " In the | Spring, a | fuller | crimson | comes up | -on the | robin's | breast ; In the Spring, the | wanton | lapwing | gets him | -self an | other | crest ; In the Spring, a | livelier \ iris | changes | on the | burnished | dove ; In the Spring, a | young man's | fancy | lightly | turns to | thoughts of | love. CIIAP. IT.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER II. TROCUAICS. 837 Then her | cheek was | pale, and | thinner | than should | be for | one so | young ; And her | eyes on | all my | motions, | with a | mute ob | -servance, | hung. And I | said, 'My | cousin | Amy, | speak, and | speak the | truth to | me; Trust me, | cousin, | all the | current | of my | being | sets to | thce.' " Poems by ALFRKD TKNNY.SO.V, Vol. ii, p. 35. Trochaic of eight feet, as these sundry examples -will suggest, is much oftener met with than iambic of the same number ; and yet it is not a form very frequently adopted. The reader will observe that it requires a considerable pause after the fourth foot ; at which place, one might divide it, and so reduce each couplet to a stanza of four lines, similar to the following examples: PART OF A SONG, IN DIALOGUE. SYLVIA. SYLVIA. " Corin, | cease this | idle | teasing ; " Cupid | ne'er shall | mnke me | languish, Love that's | forc'd is | harsh and | sour :l I was | born a | -verse to | love; If the | lover | be dis | -pleasing, Lovers' | sighs, and | tears, and | anguish, To per | -sist dis | -gusts the | more." COR i.v. ' 'Tis in | vain, in | vain to | fly me, Xi/lcia, | I will | still pur | -sue ; Twenty thousand | times de | -ny me, I will | kneel and | weep a | -new." " Lord of | life, all | praise ex | -celling, thou, in | glory | uncon | -rin'd, Deign'st to | make thy | humble | dwelling with the | poor of | humble | mind. 2. As thy | love, through | all ere I -ation, beams like | thy dif | -fusive | light ; So the | scorn'd and | humble | station shrinks be | -fore thine | equal | sight. Mirth and | pastime | tome | prove." CORI.V. Still I | vow with | patient | duty Thus to | meet your | proudest | scorn ; You for | unre | -lenting | beauty, I for | constant | love was | born." Poems bij ANNA L.KHTIA BAKIJAULD, p. 56. PART OF A CHARITY HYMN. 3. Thus thy | care, for | all pro | -viding, warm'd thy | faithful | prophet's | tongue ; Who, the | lot of | all de | -ciding to thy | chos en | Israel \ sung : 4. 1 When thine | harvest | yields thee | pleas- thou the | golden sheaf "shalt | bind ; [ure, To f he | poor be | -longs the | treasure of the | scatter'd | ears be | -hind.' " Psalms and Hymns of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Hymn LV. A still more common form is that which reduces all these tetrameters to single rhymes, preserving their alternate succession. In such metre and stanza, is Montgomery's "Wan- derer of Switzerland, a Poem, in Six Parts," and with an aggregate of eight hundred and forty-four lines. Example : 1. " i n'anrlrrr, \ whither | wouldst thou | roam- To what | region | far a | -way, Bend thy | steps to | find a | home, In the | twilight j of thy | day : ' 2. ' In the | twilight | of my | day, I am | hastening | to the | w There my | weary | limbs to | lay, Where the | sun re | -tires to | rest. 3. Far be | -yond the At | -lantic | floods, Stretched be | -neath the | evening | sky, Realms of | mountains, | dark with | woods, In Co -lumbia's bosom lie. 4. There, in | glens and | caverns | rude, Silent | since the | world be | -gan, Dwells the | virgin | Soli | -tude, Unbe | -trayed by | faithless | man : 5. Where a | tyrant | never | trod, Where a | slave was | never | known, But where | nature | worships | God In the | wilder | -ness a | -lone. Thither, | thither | would I | roam ; There my | children | may be | free : I for | them will | find a | home ; They shall | find a | grave for | me.' " First six stanzas of Part 17, pp. 71 and 72. MEASURE II. TROCHAIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER. .///''. r.ilm LXX,* Versijied. i, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble; Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re | -ward their | mischief j double. Turn the | taunting | scorners | back, who | cry, 'A | -ha ! ' so | loudly ; Backward | in con | -fusion | hurl the | foe that | mocks me | proudly. Then in | thee let | those re | -joice, who | seek thee, | self-de | -nying; All who | thy s;il | -vation | love, thy | name be | glory | -fyinir. So let | (Jod be | magni | -tied. But | I am | poor and | IK a, | Lord, who | art my | Helper; | let thine | aid be | speedy. * The Seventieth Psalm is the same as the last fire verses of the Fortieth, except a few unimportant differences of words or points. 838 ' THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. This verse, like all other that is written in very long lines, requires a cacsural pause of proportionate length; and it would scarcely differ at all to the ear, if it were cut in two at the place of this pause provided the place were never varied. Such metre does not appear to have been at any time much used, though there seems to be no positive reason why it might not have a share of popularity. To commend our versification for its ' boundless varie- ty," and at the same time exclude from it forms either unobjectionable or well authorized, as some have done, is plainly inconsistent. Full trochaics have some inconvenience, because all their rhymes must be double ; and, as this inconvenience becomes twice as much when any long line of this sort is reduced to two short ones, there may be a reason why a stanza precisely corresponding to the foregoing couplets is seldom seen. If such lines be divided and rhymed at the middle of the fourth foot, where the csesural pause is apt to fall, the first part of each will be a trochaic line of four feet, single-rhymed and catalectic, while the rest of it will become an imabic line of three feet, with double rhyme and hypermeter. Such are the prosodial characteristics of the following lines ; which, if two were written as one, would make exactly our full trochaic of seven feet, the metre exhibited above : " Whisp'ring, | heard by | wakeful | maids, To whom | the night | stars guide \ us, Stolen | walk, through | moonlight | shades, With those | we love | beside \ us." Moore's Melodies, p. 276. But trochaic of seven feet may also terminate with single rhyme, as in the following coup- let, which is given anonymously, and, after a false custom, erroneously, in N. Butler's re- cent Grammar, as " trochaic of six feet, with an additional long syllable : " " Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water | -loo ; Cocks had | sung their | earliest \ greeting ; | faint and | low they | crew."* In Fra/ee's Grammar, a separate line or two, similar in metre to these, are rightly reck- oned to have seven feet, and many lines, (including those above from Tennyson, which W. C. Fowler erroneously gives for Heptameter,~) being a foot longer, are presented as trochaics of eight feet ; but Everett, the surest of our prosodists, remaining, like most others, a total stranger to our octometers, and too little acquainted with trochaic heptameters to believe the species genuine, on rinding a couple of stanzas in which two such lines are set with shorter ones of different sorts, and with some which are defective in metre, sagely concludes that all lines of more than "six trochees " must necessarily be condemned as prosodial anori- alies. It may be worth while to repeat the said stanzas here, adding such corrections and marks as may suggest their proper form and scansion. But since they commence with the shorter metre of six trochees only, and are already placed under that head, I too may take them in the like connexion, by now introducing my third species of trochaics, which is Everett's tenth. MEASURE III. TROCHAIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. Example. Health. " Up the | dewy | mountain, | Health is | bounding | lightly ; On her | brows a | garland, | twin'd with | richest | posies : Gay is | she, e | -late with | hope, and | smiling | sprightly ; Redder | is her | cheek, and | sweeter | than the | rose is." G. BROWN : The Institutes of English Grammar, p. This metre appears to be no less rare than the preceding ; though, as in that case, I know no good reason why it may not be brought into vogue. Professor John S. Hart says of it : 41 This is the longest Trochaic verse that seems to have been cultivated." ILirt's English Gram. p. 187. The seeming of its cultivation he doubtless found only in sundry modern gram- mars. Johnson, Bicknell, Burn, Coar, Ward, Adam, old grammarians, who vainly profess to have illustrated " every species of English verse," make no mention of it ; and, with all the grammarians who notice it, one anonymous couplet, passing from hand to hand, has everywhere served to exemplify it. Of this, "the line of six Trochees," Everett says: "This measure is languishing, and rarely used. The following example is often cited : ' On a | mountain, | stretched be | -neath a | hoary | willow, Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow.' "f Again : " We have the following from BISHOP HKBEH : 'Holy, | holy, | holy ! ] fill the | saints ft | -dore thee, Casting | down their | golden | crowns a | -round thC | glassy | sea; Cheru | -blm and | sera | -phlm [are] \ falling | down be | -fore thee, Which wert, | and art, | and ev | -ermore | shalt be ! * It is obvious, that these two lines may easily be reduced to an agreeable stanza, by simply dividing each after the fourth foot. G . B. t In Sunborn's Analytical Grammar, on pape 279th, this couplet is ascribed to "Pope ; " but I have sought in vain for this quotation, or any example of similar verse, in the works of that poet. The lines, one or both of them, appear, without reference, in L. Murray's (rnnnnnn, Strond Edition, 1796. p. 176, and in subsequent editions J in W. Allen's, p. 225 ; Bullions'*, 178 ; N.BHtlfT's,W2; Chunriln's Nno, 196 ; ' Clark's, 201 ; r/nirrhill't. 187 ; Cooper's Practicable; Davis's, 137 ; Famnm's. 106 : Felton'.t, 142; Frazfe's, 184; Frost'*, 164; S. S. Greene's, 250 ; Hallock's, 244 ; flirt'*, 187; Hiley's, 127 ; Humphrey'* Protoriy, 17; Parker and Fox's Gram., Part iii, p. 60; Wdd's, 211 ; Ditto Abridged, 138 ; Wdls's, 200 ; Fowltr's, 658 ; and doubtless in many other such books. p. 258. CIIAP. IV.] PROSODY. YEKSIFICATION. ORDER II. TROCHAICS. 839 Holy, | holy, | holy ! | though the | darkness | hide thee, Though the | eye of | sinful | man thy | glory | may not | see, Only | thou, [O \ God,] art | holy ; | the're is | none be | -side thee, Perfect | Iu jinw'r, | In love, | and pu | -rlty.' Only the first and tJu- third lines of these stanzas are to our purpose," remarks the prosodist. That is, only these he conceived to be " lines of six Trochees." But it is plain, that the third line of the first stan/a, having seven long syllables, must have seven feet, and cannot be a trochaic hexameter ; and, since the third below should be like it in metre, one can hardly forbear to think the words which I have inserted in brackets, were accidentally omitted. Further: "It is worthy of remark," says he, "that the second line of each of these stanzas is composed of six Trochees and an additional long syllable. As its corresponding line is an Iambic, and as the piece has some licenses in its construction, it is far safer to con- clude that this line is an anomaly than that it forms a distinct species of verse. We must therefore conclude that the tenth [the metre of six trochees] is the longest species of Tro- chaic line known to English verse." Everett's ]'erfi(fication, pp. 95 and 96. This, in view of the examples above, of our longer trochaics, may serve as a comment on the author's boast, that, " having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, he has the best reason for being confident of their correctness." Ibid. Pref. p. 5. Trochaic hexameter, too, may easily be written with single rhyme ; perhaps more easily than a specimen suited to the purpose can be cited from any thing already written. Let me try : Example I. The Sorcerer. Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth, Lived a | necro | -mancer, | wondrous I son of | earth. More of | him in | -quire not, | than I | choose to | say : Nymph or | dryad | bore him | else 'twas | witch or | fay: Ask you | who his | father : | haply | he might | be "Wood-god | satyr, | sylvan : | such his | pedi | -gree. Reared mid | fauns and | faries, | knew he | no com | -peers ; Neither | cared he | for them, | saving | ghostly | seers. Mistress | of the | black-art, | " wizard | gaunt and | grim," Nightly | on the | hill-top, | " read the | stars to | him." These were | welcome | teachers; | drank he | in their | lore; "Witchcraft | so en | -ticed him, | still to | thirst for | more. Spectres | he would | play with, | phantoms | raise or | quell ; Gnomes from | earth's deep | centre | knew his | potent | spell. Augur | or a | -ruspex | had not | half his I art; Master | deep of | magic, | spirits | played his | part : Demons, | imps in | -fernal, | conjured | from be | -low, Shaped his | grand en | -chantments | with im | -posing | show. ]'.. cample II. An Example of Hart's, Corrected. " Where the | wood is | waving, | shady, \ green, and | high, Fauns and | dryads, | ///A .'///, \ watch the | starry | sky." bee Hart's 1'. Cram, p. 187 ; or the citation thence below. iplet of this sort might easily be reduced to a pleasant little stanza, by severing each line after the third foot, thus : Hearken ! | hearken ! | hear ye ; Friends ! " So | -ho ! " they're | shouting. Voices | meet my | ear. "IIo ! so | -ho, a | -hoy ! " Listen, | never | fc'ar ye ; no | Indian, | scouting. Friends or | foes are | near. j Cry, so \ -ho ! with | joy. But a similar succession of eleven syllables, six long and five short, divided after the seventh, leaving two iambs to form the second or shorter line, (since such a division pro- duces different orders and metres both, ) will, I think, retain but little resemblance in rhythm to the foregoing, though the actual sequence of quantities long and short is the same. If this be so, the particular measure or correspondent length of lines is more essential to the character of a poetic strain than some have supposed. The first four lines of the following extract are an example relevant to this point : . \ rial's Song. " Come ttn | -tle III. Sony of Juno and Ceres. Ju. "Honour, (riches, marriage | -blessing, 1 Long con | -tinmnur, \ and in | -creas- Hourly | joys be | still up | -on you ! Juno f sings her | blessings | on you." " Earth's in | -crease, and | foison | plenty ; Barns and" | garners | never | empty ; Cer. Vines with | clust'ring | bunches | groov- ing ; Plants with | goodly | burden | bcTwing ; Spring come | to you, | at the | far- thest, In the | very | end of | harvest ! Scarci | -ty and | want shall | shun you : Ceres' | blessing | so is | on you." SHAKSPEARK : Tempest, Act iv, Sc. 1. Example IV. On the Vowels. 1 We are | little | airy | creatures, All of | (lilt* rent | voice and | features : One of I us in | glass is j set, One of I us you'll | find in | jet ; T' other | you may | see in | tin, And the | fourth a | box with | -in ; If the | fifth you | should pur | -sue, It can | never | fly from | you." SWIFT : Johnsons British Poets, Vol. v, p. 343. V. Use Time for Good. Lif'. 1 is | short, and | time is ses | fade, and | shadows swift ; shift ; ut the | ocean | and the | river isc and | fall and | ilow for | ever : Bard ! not | vainly | heaves the | ocean ; Bard! not | vainly | Hows the | river; Be thy | song, then, | like their | motion, Bles>ing | now, and | blessing | ever." EUEXKZEU ELLIOT : From a Newspaper. Example VL"The Turkish Lady." First Four Stanzas. "'Twas the | hour when | rites un | -holy Called each | Paynim | voice to | pray'r, And the | star that | faded | slowly, Left to | dews the | freshened | air. ^ .er | sultry | fires had | wasted, :i and | swert the | moonlight | rose | captive's | spirit | t 'ob | -livion | of his | woes. 3. Then 'twas | from an | Emir's | palace Came an | eastern | lady | bright ; She, in | spite of | tyrants | jealous, Saw and | loved an | English | knight. 4. 4 Tell me, | captive, | why in | anguish have | dragged thee | hereto | dwell, W la-re poor | Christians, | as they | languish, Hear no | sound of | sabbath | bell? ' ' THOMAS C'AMi'KKi.L : 1'ui-ficul II o;7>v, p. 115. I7/. The Pal, //// Hymn. led | be thy | name for | i i' | life the | guard and | giver ! Tl;ou rav.st i guard thy | creatures | sleeping, the ' " I have | seen thy | wondrous | might Through the | shadows | of this | night ! Thou, who | slumbcr'st | not, nor | ;-,-<* 1/41.^ | vi vii bit L \ Q [ .^, v pui,,, i UAJU) fV UVP I O1U.II1UW1 O b I 111' ty U\S* | JA^W-^ heart long | broke with | wet-pir. . re | they thoti | kindly | kcepcst ! Kide the - will ii ilnnt | tlic hill, \ -I'!/ \U'> | - - I | well I | 'know it ! Tl.ou hast | done, and | Thou wilt | do it ! >f | stillness | and of | motion ! Ol the | rainbow | and the | ocean ! Ot the | mountain, | rock, and | river ! Blessed | be Thy | name for | ever ! 59 Spirits, | from the | ocean | under, Liquid | flame, and | levell'd | thunder, Need not | waken | nor a | -larm them All com | -bincd, they | cannot | harm them. God of | evening's | yellow | ray, God of | yonder | dawning | day, Thine the | flaming | sphere of | light ! Thine the | darkness | of the | night ! Thine are | all the | gems of | even, God of | angels ! | God of | heaven ! " HOGG : Mat/or of the Moor, Poems, p. 206. 842 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. Example VIILA Short Song, of Two Stanzas. 1. 1 Stay, my | charmer, | can you | leave me ? Cruel, | cruel, | to de | -ceive me ! [me : Well you | know how | much you | grieve Cruel Cruel charmer, charmer, 1. can you can you go? Example IX.- Never | wedding, | ever | wooing, Still a | lovelorn | heart pur | -suing, Read you | not the | wrong you're | doing, In my | cheek's pale | hue ? All my. | life with | sorrow | strewing, Wed, or | cease to | woo. 2. By my | love, so | ill re | -quited ; By the | faith you | fondly | plighted ; By the | pangs of | lovers | slighted ; Do not, | do not | leave me | so ! Do not, j do not | leave me | so ! " ROBERT BURNS : Select Works, Vol. ii, p. 129. Lingering Courtship. Now half | quench'd ap | -pears, Damp' d, and | wavering, \ and be | -nighted Midst my | sighs and | tears. 2. Rivals | banish'd, | bosoms | plighted, Still our | days are | disu | -nited ; Now the | lamp of | hope is | lighted, Charms you | call your | dearest | blessing, Lips that | thrill at | your ca | -ressing, Eyes a | mutual \ soul con | -fessing, Soon you'll | make them | grow Dim, and | worthless | your pos | -sessing, Not with | age, but j woe ! " CAMPBELL: Everett's System of Versification, p. 91. Example X. "Boadicea." Four Stanzas from Eleven. Princess ! | if our | aged | eyes Weep up | -on thy | matchless | wrongs, 'Tis be | -cause re | -sentment | ties All the | terrors | of our | tongues. When the | British | warrior | queen, Bleeding | from the | Roman | rods, Sought, with | an in | -dignant | mienj Counsel | of her | country's | gods, 2. Sage be | -neath the | spreading | oak, Sat the | Druid, | hoary | chief; Every \ burning | word he | spoke Full of | rage, and | full of | grief. 4. Example XL- ROME SHALL | PERISH | write that | word In the | blood that | she hath | spilt ; Perish, | hopeless | and ab | -horr'd, Deep in | ruin | as in | guilt." WILLIAM COWPER : Poems, Vol. ii, p. 241. "The Thunder Storm" Two Stanzas from Ten. ' Now in | deep and | dreadful | gloom, Clouds on | clouds por | -tentous | spread, Black as | if the | day of | doom Hung o'er | Nature's | shrinking | head : Lo ! the | lightning | breaks from | high, God is | coming ! | God is | nigh ! Hear ye | not his | chariot \ wheels, As the | mighty | thunder | rolls ? Nature, | startled | Nature | reels, From the | centre | to the | poles : Tremble ! | Ocean, | Earth, and | Sky ! Tremble ! | God is | passing | by ! " J. MONTGOMERY : Wanderer of Switzerland, and other Poems, p. 130. Example XII. 11 The Triumphs of Owen," King of North Wales* Owen's | praise de | -mands my song, Owen | swift and | Owen | strong ; Fairest | flow'r of | Roderics \ stem, Gwyneth's | shield, and | Britain's | gem. He nor | heaps his | brooded | stores, Nor the | whole pro | -fusely | pours ; Lord of | every \ regal | art, Liberal \ hand and | open | heart. Big with | hosts of | mighty | name, Squadrons | three a | -gainst him | came This the | force of | Eirin | hiding, Side by | side as | proudly | riding, On her | shadow | long and | gay, Lochlin | ploughs the | watery \ way : There the | Norman | sails a | -far Catch the | winds, and | join the | war ; Black and | huge, a | -long they | sweep, Burthens | of the | angry | deep. Dauntless | on his | native | sands, The Drag \ -on-son \ of Mo \ -na stands ;f In glit | -tering arms \ and glo \ -ry drest, High he | rears his | ruby | crest. There the | thundering \ strokes be [ -gin, There the | press, and | there the | din ; Taly | -malfra's | rocky | shore Echoing \ to the | battle's | roar ; Where his | glowing | eyeballs | turn, Thousand | banners | round him | burn. Where he | points his | purple | spear, Hasty, | hasty | rout is | there, Marking | with in | -dignant | eye Fear to | stop, and | shame to | fly. There Con | -fusion, | Terror's | child, Conflict | fierce, and | Ruin | wild, Ago | -ny, that | pants for | breath, Despair, \ and HON | -OURA I -BLE DEATH." THOMAS GRAY : Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 285. * " Owen succeeded his father Griffin in the principality of North Wales, A. D. 1120. This battle was fought near forty years afterwards . North Wales is called, in the fourth line, 'Gwyneth;' and l LochlinJ in the four- teenth, is Denmark." Gray. t "The red dragon is the device of Cadwallader, which all his descendants bore on their banners. 5 ' Gray, CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER II. TROCIIAICS. 843 Example XIIL -" Grongar Hill" First Twenty-six Lines. ' Silent | Nymph, with | curious \ eye, Who, the | purple | eve, dost | lie On the | mountain's | lonely | van, Beyond \ the noise \ of bus \ -y man ; Painting | fair the | form of | things, While the | yellow | linnet | sings ; Or the | tuneful | nightin | -gale Charms the | forest | with her | tale ; Come, with j all thy | various \ hues, Come, and | aid thy | sister | Muse. Now, while | Phoebus, | riding | high, Gives las I -tre to \ the land \ and sky, Grongar j Hill in | -vites my | sonj Draw the | landscape | bright and | strong ; Grongar, | in whose | mossy | cells, Sweetly | -musing | Quiet | dwells ; Grongar, | in whose | silent | shade, For the | modest | Muses | made, So oft \ I have, \ the eve -ning still, At the | fountain | of a rill, Sat up j -on a | flowery bed, With my | hand be | -neath my | head, While stray'd \ my eyes \ o'er Tow \ -y's flood, Over | mead and | over | wood, From house \ to house, \fromhill \ to hill, Till Con | -templa \ -tion had \ her fill." JOHN DYER : Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 65. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. This is the most common of our trochaic measures ; and it seems to be equally popu- lar, whether written with single rhyme, or with double ; in stanzas, or in couplets ; alone, or with some intentional intermixture. By a careful choice of words and style, it may be adapted to all sorts of subjects, grave, or gay ; quaint, or pathetic; as may the corresponding iambic metre, with which it is often more or less mingled, as we see in some of the examples above. Milton's JL' Allegro, or Gay Mood, has one hundred and fifty-two lines ; ninety-eight of which are iambics ; fifty-four, trochaic tetrameters ; a very few of each order having double rhymes. These orders the poet has not "very ingeniously alternated" as Everett avers; but has simply interspersed, or commingled, with little or no regard to alternation. His II Penseroso, or Grave Mood, has twenty-seven trochaic tetrameters, mixed irregularly with one hundred and forty-nine iambics. OBS. 2. Everett, who divides our trochaic tetrameters into two species of metre, imagines that the catalectic form, or that which is single-rhymed, "has a solemn effect," "imparts to all pieces more dignity than any of the other short measures," " that no trivial or humorous subject should " remarkably well adapted to lively subjects," and " peculiarly expressive of the eagerness and fickleness of the passion of love." Ib. p. 90. These pretended metrical characteristics seem scarcely more worthy of reliance, than astrological predictions, or the oracular guessings of our modern craniologists. OBS. 3. Dr. Campbell repeats a suggestion of the older critics, that gayety belongs naturally to all trochaics. as such, and gravity or grandeur, as naturally, to iambics ; and he attempts to find a reason for the fact; while, perhaps, even here more plausible though the supposition is the fact may be at least half imaginary. " The iambus," says he, "is expressive of dignity and grandeur; the trochee, on the contrary, according to Aristotle, (Rhet. Lib. Ill,) is frolicsome and my. It were difficult to assign a reason of this difference that would be satisfactory ; but of the thing itself, I imagine, most people will be sensible on comparing the two kinds together. I know not whether it will be admitted as a sufficient reason, that the distinction into metrical feet hath a much greater influence in poetry on the rise and fall of the voice, than the distinction into words ; and if so, when the cadences happen mostly after the long syllables, the verse will natu- rally have an air of greater gravity than when they happen mostly after the short." Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. &3 1. MEASURE VI. TROCHAIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. Example I. Youth and Age Contrasted. " Crabbed | age and | youth Cannot | live to | -gether ; Youth is j full of j pleasance, Age is I full of j care : Youth, like | summer | mom, Age, like | winter | weather ; Youth, like | summer, | brave ; Age, like | winter, | bare. Youth is | full of | sport, Age's | breath is | short, Youth is | nimble, | age is | lame ; Youth is | hot and | bold, Age is I weak and | cold ; Youth is I wild, and | age is | tame." 3. The Passionate Pilgrim ; SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE, Vol. ii, p. 594. Example II. Common Sense and Genius. " While I | touch the | string, Wreathe my | brows with | laurel ; For the | tale I | sing, Has, for [ once, a | moral ! 4. Common | Sense went | on, Many | wise things | saying ; While the | light that | shone, 1 ; Soon set | Genius | straying. 5. One his | eye ne'er I rais'd From the | path be | -fore him ; T* other | idly | gaz'd On each | night-cloud | o'er him. 6. While I | touch the | string, Wreathe my | brows with | laurel ; For the | tale I | sing, Has, for | once, a | moral ! 844 TIIE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. 7. So they | came, at | last, To a | shady | river ; Common | Sense soon | pass'd Safe, as | he doth | ever. 8. While the | boy whose | look Was in | heav'n that | minute, Never | saw the | brook, But turn | -bled head \ -long in it ! " Six Stanzas from Twelve. MOORE'S MELODIES, p. 271. This short measure is much oftener used in stanzas, than in couplets. It is, in many instances, combined with some different order or metre of verse, as in the following : Example III. Part of a Song. " Go where | glory | waits thee, But while j fame e | -lates thee, Oh! still | remain \ -ber me. When the | praise thou | meetest, To thine | ear is | sweetest, Oh ! then \ remem \ -bcr me. Other | arms may | press thee, Dearer | friends ca | -ress thee, All the | joys that | bless thee, Sweeter | far may | be : But when | friends are | nearest, And when j joys are | dearest, Oh! then \ remem \ -ber me. Example IV. ' On thy | shady | Care its | load dis Is lulTd | to gen When, at | eve, thou | rovest, By the | star thou | lovest, Oh ! then \ remem \ -ber me. Think when | home re | -turning, Bright we've | seen it | burning ; Oh ! thus | remem \ -ber me. Oft as | summer | closes, When thine | eye re | -poses On its | ling'ring | roses, Once so | loved by | thee, Think of | her who | wove them, Her who | made thee | love them ; Oh! then \ remem \ -ber me." MOORE'S Melodies, Songs, and Airs, p. 107. From an Ode to the Thames. Britain | thus dis | -arming, Nothing | her a | -larming, Shall sleep \ on Cce \ -sar's breast." , Vol. iv, margin, -charging, -tie rest : See HOWE'S POEMS : Johnson's British Poets p. 58. Example V."The True Poet." First Two of Nine Stanzas. 1. " Poet | of the | heart, Delving | in its | mine, From man | -kind a | -part, Yet where | jewels | shine ; Heaving | upward | to the | light, Precious | wealth that | charms the | sight ; 2. Toil thou | still, deep | down, For earth's | hidden | gems ; They shall | deck a | crown, Blaze in | dia | -dems ; And when \ thy hand \ shall fall \ to rest, Brightly | jewel | beauty's | breast." JANE E. LOCKE : N. Y. Evening Post ; The Examiner, No. Example VI. "Summer Longim 1. "Ah ! my | heart is | ever | waiting, Waiting | for the | May, Waiting | for the | pleasant | rambles, Where the | fragrant | hawthorn | brambles, With the | woodbine | alter | -nating, Scent the | dewy | way. Ah. ! my | heart is | weary | waiting, Waiting | for the | May. i." First Two of Five Stanzas. 2. Ah ! my | heart is | sick with | longing, Longing | for the | May, Longing | to e | -scape from | study, To the | young face | fair and | ruddy, And the | thousand | charms be | -longing To the | Summer's | day. Ah ! my | heart is | sick with | longing, Longing | for the | May." D. F. M. C. :" Dublin University Magazine ; Liberator, No. 952. MEASURE VIL TROCHAIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. 1. "My flocks | feed not, My ewes | breed not, My rams | speed not, All is | amiss ; Love's de | -nying, Faith's de J -fying, Heart's re | -nying, Causer | of this." Example I. Tliree Short Excerpts. 2. " In black | mourn I, All fears | scorn I, Love hath | lorn me, Living | in thrall ; Heart is | bleeding, All help | needing, (Cruel | speeding,) Fraughted | with gall." 3. Clear wells Sweet birds spring not, sing not, Loud bells | ring not Cheerfully ; Herd"- stand | weeping, Flocks all | sleeping, Nymphs back | creeping Fearfully:' SIIAK.SPEARE : The Passionate Pilgrim. See Sec. xv. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. - VERSIFICATION. - ORDER II. - TROCHAIC?. 845 Example If. Xprcimen irith Xi/n/lc I tin/me. "To Quinbtts r/csfrin, the Man- Mountain." " In a | -iv. i "h thy | si/e r M.iv my S\vell with | praise, Worthy | thee, "\Vorthy | Muse, in | -spire All thy | lire ! Bards of | old Of him | told, "When they | said Propp'd the | skies : See ! and | />. cyct ! i/our \ LII.Ul'UTIAN ODE. II. See him | stride Valleys | wide : Over | woods, | Hoods, "When, he | treads, Mountains' | heads Groan and | shake : Armies | quake, Lest his | spurn Over | -turn Man and | steed : Troops, take | heed ! Left and | ri^ht Speed your (flight! Lest an | host Beneath \ his foot | be lost III. 'Turn'd a | -side From his | hide, Safe from | wound, Darts re | -bound. From his | nose, Clouds he | blows ; When he | speaks, Thunder | breaks ! "When he ) Famine | threats ! When he | drinks, Xeptune | shrinks ! Nigh thy | ear, In mid | air, On thy | hand, Let me | stand. So shall | I [sky." (Lofty | poet !) touch the Joux GAY : Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 376. Example II L Two Feet with Four. " Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish, I Charms trans | -porting ! When we f love, and | when we | languish! Fancy | viewing - ] rising : Thoughts sur | -pi ire | court: Joys en | -suing ! Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish ! ADDISON'S Rosamond, Act i, Scene G. - of Three Syllables with Longer Metres. 1. WITH TKOCHAICS. " Or we | sometimes | pass an | hour Under | a green | willow, That de | -fends us | from the | shower, Making | earth our | pillow ; Where we | may :ik and | pray, re | death ' > our | breath : Other | : And to | be la | -mented."* 2. WITH IAMBICS. " What sounds | were heard, What scenes | appear' d, O'er all | the drear | -y coasts ! Dreadful | gleams, Dismal | screams, Fires that | glow, Shrieks of | wo, Sullen | moan-, Hollow | groans, And cries | of tor | -tur'd ghosts ! " POPK : s Vol. vi, p. 315. ]'. V. '"The Shower" In Four U< ijnlar 1. " In a | valley | that I | know py | scone ! There are ! sloping | low, There the | fairest | iiowers | blow, And the | brightest ] waters | ilo\v, All sc | -: . But the | sweetest | thing to | sec, It' you | ask the | dripping Or" the | harvest | -hoping | swain, Is tlie | Rain. Ah, the | dwellers | of the | town, Il-.w the y I sigh, How \m | -grateful | -ly they | frown, When the | cloud-king | shakes 'his | crown, And the | pearls come | pouring | down From the | sky ! They de | -sery no | eh'arm at | all Where the | sparkling (jewels | fall, And each | moment | of the | shower, ;ns an | hour ! 3. Yet there's | something | very | sweet In the | si^ht, When the | crystal | currents | meet In the | dry and | dusty | street, And they f wrestle | with the | heat, In their | might ! * This passage, or imple. in mai F.verelfc also hare b :nell, lUirii. I'luirri.; an 1 r.uiri Irive "Stop," KI the L-htli line, win ^ has, for the ninth line, "Others' jojs,";n ;vc tlicrest. G. B. 846 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. While they | seem to | hold a | talk With the | stones a | -long the | walk, And re | -mind them | of the | rule, To keep | cool ! ' 4. Ay, but | in that | quiet | dell, Ever | fair, Still the | Lord doth | all things | well, Rev. RALPH When his | clouds with | blessings | swell, And they | break a | brimming | shell On the | air ; There the | shower | hath its | charms, Sweet and | welcome | to the | farms As they | listen | to its | voice, And re | -joice ! " [OYT'S Poems : The Examiner, Nov. 6, 1847. Example VL"A Good Name" Two Beautiful Little Stanzas. 1. " Children, | choose it, Don't re | -fuse it, 'Tis a | precious | dia | -dem ; Highly | prize it, Don't de | -spise it, You will | need it | when you're | men 2. Love and | cherish, Keep and | nourish, 'Tis more | precious | far than Watch and | guard it, Don't dis | -card it, You will | need it | when you' re | old." The Family Christian Almanac for 1850, p. 20. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Trochaics of two feet, like those of three, are, more frequently than otherwise, found in connexion with longer lines, as in some of the examples above cited. The trochaic line of three syllables, which our prosodists in general describe as consisting, not of two feet, but "of one Trochee and a long syllable," may, when it stands alone, be supposed to consist of one amphimac; but, since this species of foot is not admitted by all, and is reckoned a secondary one by those who do admit it, the better practice is, to divide even the three syllables into two feet, as above. OBS. 2. Murray, Hart, Weld, and many others, erroneously affirm, that, " The shortest Tro- haio verse in our language, consists of one Trochee and a long syllable." Murray's Gram. p. 256 ; Hart's, First Edition, p. 186 ; Weld's, Second Edition, p. 210. The error of this will be shown by examples below examples of true "Trochaic Manometer," and not of Dimeter mistaken for it. like Weld's, Hart's, or Murray's. pression of love, or of its disappointment, is " any very serious purpose" or not, I leave to vhe decision of the reader. What lack of dignity or seriousness there is, in several of the foregoing examples, especially the last two, I think it not easy to discover MEASURE VIII. TROCHAIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. Examples with 1. WITH IAMBICS. " From walk | to walk, | from shade | to shade, [vey'd, From stream | to purl | -ing stream | con- Through all | the ma | -zes of | the grove, Through all | the ming | -ling tracks | I Turning, [rove, Burning, Changing, Ranging, Full of | grief and | full of | love." ADDISON'S Rosamond, Act I, Sc. 4 : Everett's Versification, p. 81. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The metres acknowledged in our ordinary schemes of prosody, scarcely amount, with all their " boundless variety," to more than one half, or three quarters, of what may be found in ac- tual use somewhere. Among the foregoing examples, are some which are longer, and some which Longer Metres. 2. WITH ANAPESTICS, &c. " To love and to languish, To sigh | and complain, How cruel' s the" anguish ! How torment | -ing thd pain ! Suing, Pursuing, Flying, Denying, O the curse | of disdain ! How torment | -ing's the pain ! " GEO. GRANVILLE : Br. Poets, Vol. v, p. 31. examples of it in their prosodies. OBS. 2." Trochaic of One foot," as well as " Iambic of One foot," was, I believe, first recog- nized, prosodically , in Brown's Institutes of English Grammar, a work first published in 1823. Since that time, both have obtained acknowledgement in sundry schemes of versification, contained in the new grammars; as in Farnum's, and Hallock's, of 1842; in Pardon Davis's, of 1845 ; in S. W. Clark's, and S. S. Greene's, of 1848 ; in Professor Fowler's, of 1850. Wells, in his School Gram- mar, of 1846, and D. C. Allen, in an other, of 1847, give to the length of lines a laxity positively absurd : "Rhymed verses," say they, " may consist of any number of syllables." Wells, 1st Ed., p. 187 ; late Ed., 204 ; Allen, p. 88. Everett has recognized " The line of a single Trochee," though he repudiates some long measures that are much more extensively authorized. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER III. ANAPESTICS. 847 ORDER III. ANAPESTIC VERSE. In full Anapestic verse, the stress is laid on every third syllable, the first two sylla- bles of each foot being short. The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus. This is the most frequent diversification of the order. But, as a diversification, it is, of course, not regular or uniform. The stated or uniform adoption of the iambus for a part of each line, and of the anapest for the residue of it, produces verse of the Com- posite Order. As the anapest ends with a long syllable, its rhymes are naturally single ; and a short syllable after this, producing double rhyme, is, of course, super- numerary : so are the two, when the rhyme is triple. Some prosodists suppose, a sur- plus at the end of a line may compensate for a deficiency at the beginning of the next line ; but this I judge to be an error, or at least the indulgence of a questionable license. The following passage has two examples of what may have been meant for such compensation, the author having used a dash where I have inserted what seems to be a necessary word : " Apol | -lo smil'd shrewd | -ly, and bade | him sit down, With ' Well, | Mr. Scott, | you have man | -aged the town ; Now pray, | copy less | have a lit | -tie temer | -ity [And] Try | if you can't I also man | -age poster | -ity. [For] All | you add now | only les | -sens your cred | -it ; And how | could you think, | too, of tak | -ing to ed | -ite ? ' : LEIGH HUNT'S Feast of the Poets, page 20. The anapestic measures are few ; because their feet are long, and no poet has chosen to set a great many in a line. Possibly lines of five anapests, or of four and an initial iambus, might be written ; for these would scarcely equal in length some of the iambics and trochaics already exhibited. But I do not find any examples of such metre. The longest anapestics that have gained my notice, are of fourteen syllables, being tetram- eters with triple rhyme, or lines of four anapests and two short surplus syllables. This order consists therefore of measures reducible to the following heads : MEASURE I. ANAPESTIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. Example I. A "Postscript" An Example with Hypermeter. " Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse \ awry, Threaten' d loud | -ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor \ -eery. But, I think, | little Dan, | that, in spite I of what our \foe says, He will find | I read Ov | -id and his | Metamor | -phases. For, omit | -ting the first, | (where I make | a compar \ -ison, With a sort | of allu | -sion to Put | -land or Har \ -mow,) Yet, by | my descrip | -tion, you'll find | he in short \ is A pack | and a gar | -ran, a top | and a tor \ -toise. So I hope | from hencefor | -ward you ne'er | will ask, can \ I maul Tins teas | -ing, conceit | -ed, rude, in | -solent an \ -imalf And, if | this rebuke | might be turn'd | to his ben \ -efit, (For I pit | -y the man,) | I should | be glad then \ of it." SWIFT'S POEMS : Johnsons British Poets, Vol. v, p. 324. Example II. " The Feast of the Poets" First Twelve Lines. " T f other day, | as Apol | -lo sat pitch | -ing his darts Through the clouds | of Xovem | -ber, by fits | and by starts, He began | to consid | -er how long | it had been Since the bards | of Old Eng | -land had all | been rung in. ' I think,' | said the god, | recollect | -ing, (and then He fell twid | -dling a sun | -beam as I | may my | pen,) I think | let me see | yes, it is, | I declare, As long | ago now | as that Buck | -ingham there : And yet [ I can't see I why I've been | so remiss, Unless | it may be | and it cer | -tainly is, That since Dry I -den's fine ver | -ses and Mil | -ton's sublime, I have fair | -ly been sick | of their sing | -song and rhyme.' " LEIGH Hr.vr : Poems, New-York Edition, of 1814. Example HI. The Crowning of Four Favourites. " Then, ' Come,' | cried the god | in his el | -egant mirth, \Let us make | us a heav'n | of our own | upon earth, 848 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. And wake, | with, the lips | that we dip | in our bowls, That divin | -est of mu | -sic conge | -nial souls.' So say | -ing, he led | through the din | -ing-room door, And, seat | -ing the po | -ets, cried, ' Lau J -rels for four ! ' No soon | -er demand | -ed, than, lo ! | they were there, And each | of the bards | had a wreath | in his hair. Tom Camp | -bell's with wil | -low and pop | -lar was twin'd, And South | -ey's, with moun | -tain-ash, pluck'd | in the wind ; And Scott's, | with a heath | from his old | garden stores, And, with vine | -leaves and jump | -up-and-kiss | -me, Tom Moore's." LEIGH HUNT : ib. from line 330 to line 342. Example IV. 11 Glenara" First Two of Eight Stanzas. " O heard | ye yon pi | -broch sound sad | in the gale, Where a band | cometh slow | -ly with weep | -ing and wail ! 'Tis the chief | of Glena | -ra laments | for his dear ; And her sire, | and the peo | -pie, are called | to her bier. Glena | -ra came first | with the mourn | -ers and shroud ; Her kins [ -men, they fol | -lowed, but mourned | not aloud : Their plaids | all their bo | -soms were fold | -ed around : They marched | all in si | -lence they looked | on the ground." T. CAMPBELL'S Poetical Works, p. 105. Example V. "Lochiers Warning" Ten Lines from Eighty-six. "'Tis the sun | -set of life | gives me mys | -tical lore, And com | -ing events | cast their shad | -ows before. I tell | thee, Cullo | -den's dread ech | -oes shall ring With the blood | -hounds that bark | for thy fu | -gitive king. Lo ! anoint | -ed by Heav'n | with the vi | -als of wrath, Behold, | where he flies | on his des | -olate path ! Now, in dark | -ness and bil | -lows he sweeps | from my sight : Rise ! rise ! | ye wild tern | -pests, and cov | -er his flight ! 'Tis fin | -ished. Their thun | -ders are hushed | on the moors ; Cullo | -den is lost, | and my coun | -try deplores." Ib. p. 89. Example VL"The Exile of Erin." The First of Five Stanzas. "There came | to the beach | a poor Ex | -ile of E | -rin, The dew | on his thin | robe was heav | -y and chill : For his coun | -try he sighed, | when at twi | -light repair | -ing To wan | -der alone | by the wind | -beaten hill. But the day | -star attract | -ed his eye's | sad devo | -tion, For it rose | o'er his own | native isle | of the o | -cean, Where once, | in the fire | of his youth | -ful emo | -tion, He sang j the bold an | -them of E | -rin go bragh." Ib. p. 116. Example VIL"The Poplar Field." "The pop | -lars are fell'd, \farewell \ to the shade, And the whis | -pering sound | of the cool | colonnade ; The winds \ play no Ion | -ger and sing | in the leaves, Nor Ouse \ on his bo | -som their im | -age receives. Twelve years \ have elaps'd, | since I last | took a view Of my fa | -vourite field, | and the bank | where they grew ; And now \ in the grass | behold \ they are laid, And the tree | is my seat | that once lent | me a shade. The black \ -bird has fled | to anoth | -er retreat, Where the ha | -zels afford | him a screen | from the heat, And the scene, | where his mel | -ody charm'd | me before, Resounds \ with his sweet | -flowing dit | -ty no more. My fu \ -gitive years | are all hast | -ing away, And I | must ere long | lie as low | -ly as they, With a turf | on my breast, | and a stone | at my head, Ere anoth | -er such grove | shall arise | in its stead. 'Tis a sight | to engage | me, if an | -y thing can, To muse \ on the per | -ishing pleas | -ures of man ; Though his life | be a dream, j his enjoy | -ments, I see, Have a be | -ing less dur | -able e | -ven than he." COWPER'S Poems, Vol. i, p. 257. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Everett avers, that, " The purely Anapestic measure is more easily constructed than the Trochee, [Trochaic,] and of much more frequent occurrence." English Versification, p. 97. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER III. AXAI'ESTICS. 849 Both parts of this assertion are at least very questionable ; and so are this author's other sug- gestions, that, " The Anapest is [necessarily] the vehicle /;" thai, ""Whenever this measure is employed in the iff that, "Whoever should attempt to write an elegy in th - . wuuld l>r 'hat, "The words might ief, but the measure toou " that, "The Auapi-st should never be employed throughout a . " because " buoyancy of spirits can never be siippox-d to l,i-t,' ' i T joy remains but for a moment; " and, again, because, " the mea- sure pp. 97 and .-try. so far as I know, is in pieces of no great length ; but ; Hunt's " Feast of the : iiriee cited above, though not a long;;' rtuinly he regarded as " lonu j/icce," since it extends through fifteen pages, and contains four hundred and thirty-one lines, all, or nearly all, of anape>tie tetrameti . >\y, no poet had ever more need of a metre well suited to his purpose, than he. who, intending a "critical as well as a descriptive poem, has found so much fault with the versification of others. Pope, as a versifier, was regarded by this author, "not only as no master f his :.rt, but as a very indifferent practUer." nf numbers, with that of Darwin, Goldsmith* Johnson, Haley, and others of the same "school," is alleged to have ::t a general corruption of taste in respect to versification a fashion that has prevailed, not temporarily, "It/ Pope Kjwird tin- en,-* of tli- '( his cwkuo-soncj verses, Jinlf -up' and half down." Ib. motony is thus charged by one cutic upon all verse of "the purely An- apotic measure;" and, by an other, the same fault is alleged in general terms against all the poi-try " o: the s diool of Pope," well-nigh the whole of which is iambic. '1 he defect is probably, in either ease, at least half imaginary: and, as for the inherent joyousness of anapesties, that is perhaps rot LeM ideal. Father Humph* .ud amphibrachic verse, being sim- ilar in measure and movement, are pleasing to the ear, and well adapted to cheerful and humourous comp. , sitions, and subjects important and solemn." Hump/! !i I'rosurhj, p. 1". 1. The anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach, have, this in common, that each, with one long syllable, takes two short ones. Hence there is a degree of similarity in their rhythms, or in their several effects upon the ear; and consequently lines of ea.-h order," (or of any 'two, if the amphibrachic be accounted a separate order,) are sometimes commingle 1. But the propriety of acknowledging an order o ' ; umphrey, is more than doubtful; because, by ,;/e the amphibrach as one of the principal feet, but make number of li .: scmn^ion. For our Amphibrachic order will be made up of lines that are common'.. .s anapc-.-fii. < such anapesties as are diversified by an iambus at the beginning, and sometimes also by a surplus short syllable at the end; as in the following \ in the sixth example above: "Tin re came to | thr beach a | poor Exile | of Erin, I his thin robe | was heavy | and chill : dew on | coim | try he sighed," | wh<" ; n ut'twi | -light n pair | To wander | alone by | the wind-beat | -en hill." MKAsrilI- II. AXAPESTIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER. Example J. "Akxander Selkirk" First Two $t<, 1. I II. I am mon | -arch of all | I survey, My right | there is none | to dispute ; in the ccn | -tre all round | to the son, I am lord | of the fowl | and the brute. Sol | -itude ! where | are tho charms That -a | -" MI | in thy ter dwell j in the midst | of ah; Than reign | in this hor | -rible place. //. " Calharina." IV. lough, the pious | -urcsof Lon | -don In num | -her tho days | of the year, ithari | -na. did noth | -ing impede, "Would t'cel | herself hap | - >r tho cl>-e -w-)v n arch | -es of limes Ou the banks | of ourriv | -er, I know, ' | -er to her | many times Than anght | that the cit j -y can show. Examj,',' ///."! . ' Xot a pine | in my grove | is there seen, But with ten j -drils of wood | -bine is bound ; I am out | of human | -ity's reach, I must ftn | -ish my jour | -ney alone, Xovor hear | the sweet mu | -sic of speech, irt | at the sound | of my own. Tho boasts | that roam o | -ver the plain, My form | with indif | ference sec; They are so | unae'[uaint | -ed with man, Their tame | -ness is shock | -ing to me." I'wnm t Vol. i, p. 199. n Seren. V. So it is, | when the mind | is endued With a well -jutl^ing tasto | from above; Th-n, whoth | -eretnbel | -lish'd or rude, 'Tis na | -ture alone | that wo i hieve | -ments of art | may amuse, May e | -von our won- | dor oxcito. But groves, | hills, and \ al | -leys, diffuse ist | -ing. a >:i | -end (U-i' i. ii, p. 232. fin. X'ot a luech | 's more beau | -tiful green, Butaswoot | -briar twines | it around. Xot my fields | in the prime | of the year More charms | than my cat | -tie unfold ; THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. PART IV. Not a brook | that is lim | -pid and clear, But it glit I -ters with fish I -es of gold. (9.) One would think | she might like | to retire To the bow'r | I have la | -bour'd to rear ; Not a shrub | that I heard | her admire, But I hast | -ed and plant | -ed it there. O howsud | -denthejes | -samine strove With the li | -lac to ren | -der it gay ! Alread | -y it calls | for my love, To prune | the wild branch | -es away." SHENSTONE : British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 139. Anapestic lines of four feet and of three are sometimes alternated in a stanza, as in the following instance : Example IV. "The Rose." " The rose | had been wash'd, | just wash'd | in a show'r, Which Ma | -ryto An | -na convey'd; The plen | -tiful moist | -ure encum | -ber'd the flow'r, And weigh' d | down its beau | -tiful head. The cup | was all fill'd, | and the leaves | were all wet, And it seem'd | to a fan | -ciful view, To weep | for the buds | it had left, | with regret, On the flour | -ishing bush | where it grew. I hast | -ily seized | it, unfit | as it was For a nose | -gay, so drip | -ping and drown'd, And, swing | -ing it rude | -ly, too rude | -ly, alas ! I snapp'd | it, it fell | to the ground. And such, | I exclaim' d, | is the pit | -iless part Some act | by the del | -icate mind, Regard | -less of wring | -ing and break | -ing a heart Alread | -y to sor | -row resign'd. This el | -egant rose, | had I shak | -en it less, Might have bloom'd | with its own | -er a while; And the tear | that is wip'd | with a lit | -tie address, May be fol | low'd perhaps | by a smile." COWPER : Poems, Vol. i, p. 216 ; English Reader, p. 212. MEASURE III. ANAPESTIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER. Example I. Lines with Hypermeter and Double Rhyme. " CORONACH," OR FUNERAL SONG. 1. " He is gone | on the moun | -tain He is lost | to the for | -Sst Like a sum | -mer-dried foun | -tain When our need | was the sor | -6st. The font, | reappear | -ing, From the rain | -drops shall bor | -row, But to us | comes no cheer | -ing, To Dun | -can no mor | -row ! 2. The hand | of the reap | -6r Takes the ears | that are hoar | -y, But the voice | of the weep | -Cr Wails man | -hood in glo | -ry ; The au | -tumn winds rush | -Ing, Waft the leaves | that are sear | -8st, But our flow'r | was in flush | -ing, When blight | -ing was near | -e"st." WALTER SCOTT: Lady of the Lake, Canto iii, St. 16. Example II. Exact Lines of Two Anapests. 1 Prithee, Cu | -pid, no more Hurl thy darts | at threescore ; To thy girls | and thy boys, Give thy pains | and thy joys ; Let Sir Trust | -y and me From thy frol j -ics be free." ADDISON : Rosamond, Act ii, Scene 2 ; Ev. Versif. p. 100. Example III. An Ode, from This An | -na so fair, So talk'd | of by fame, Why dont | she appear ? Indeed, | she's to blame ! Lewis sighs | for the sake Of her charms, | as they say ; What excuse | can she make For not com | -ing away ? If he does | not possess, He dies | with despair ; Let's give | him redress, And go find | out the fair." WILLIAM KING, LL. D. the French of Malherbe. " Cette Anne si belle, Qu'on vante si fort, Pourquoi ne vient elle ? Vraiment, elle a tort ! Son Louis soupire Apres ses appas ; Que veut elle dire, Qu'elle ne vient pas ? S'il ne la possede, II s'en va mourir ; Donnons y remede, Allons la querir." : Johnson's British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 590. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER III. ANAPESTICS. 851 Example IV. 'Tis the Last Rose of Summer. 1. " 'Tis the last | rose of sum | -mer Left bloom | -ing alone ; All her love | -ly compan | -lo/w Are fad | -ed and gone ; No flow'r | of her kin | -drtd, No rose | -bud is nigh, To reflect | back her blush | -es, Or give | sigh for sigh. 2. I'll not leave | thee, thou lone To pine | on the stem ! Since the love | -ly are sleep | on* ! Go, sleep | thou with them ; ing, Thus kind | -ly I scat | -ter Thy leaves | o'er thy bed, Where thy mates | of the gar | -den Lie scent | -less and dead. 3. So, soon | may I fol | -loir, When friend | -ships decay, And, from love's | shining cir | -de, The gems | drop away ; When true | hearts lie with | -er'd, And fond | ones are flown, Oh ! who | would inhab | -it This bleak | world alone ? " T. MOORE : Melodies, Songs, and Airs, p. 171. Example V. Nemesis Calling up the Dead Astarte. 1 Shadow ! | or spir | -it ! Whatev | -er thou art, Which still | doth inhcr | -it The whole | or a part Of the form | of thy birth, Of the mould | of thy clay, Which return' d | to the earth, Re-appear | to the day ! Bear what | thou bor | -est, The heart | and the form, And the as | -pect thou wor | -est Redeem | from the worm ! Appear ! Appear ! Appear ! " LOUD BYRON : Manfred, Act ii, Sc. 4. Example VI. Anapestic Dimeter with Trimeter. FIRST VOICE. Make room | for the com | -bat, make room; Sound the trum | -pet and drum ; A fair | -er than Ve | -nus prepares To encoun | -ter a great | -er than Mars. Make room | for the com | -bat, make room; Sound the trum | -pet and drum." SECOND VOICE. " Give the word I to begin, Let the com | -batants in, The chal | -lenger en | -ters all glo \ -rwiis ; But Love | has decreed, Though Beau | -ty may bleed, Yet Beau | -ty shall still | bevicfo | -rious." GEORGE GRANVILLE : Johnson's British Poets, Vol. v, p. 58. Example VII. Anapestic Dimeter with Tetrameter. AIR. " Let the pipe's | merry notes | aid the skill | of the voice ; For our wish | -es are crown'd, | and our hearts | shall rejoice. Rejoice, | and be glad ; For, sure, | he is mad, Who, where mirth, | and good hu | -mour, andhar | -mony's found, Never catch | -es the smile, | nor lets pleas | -ure go round. Let the stu | -pid be grave, 'Tis the vice | of the slave ; But can nev j -er agree With a maid | -en like me, Who is born | in a coun | -try that's hap | -py and free." LLOYD: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. viii, p. 178. MEASURE IV. AXAPESTIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER. This measure is rarely if ever used except in connexion with longer lines. The follow- ing example has six anapestics of two feet, and two of one ; but the latter, being verses of double rhyme, have each a suplus short syllable ; and four of the former commence with the iambus : Example I. A Song in a Drama. ' Now, mor | -tal, prepare, For thy fate | is at hand ; Now, mor | -tal, prepare, And sflrren | -d.-r. For Love | shall arise, Whom no pow'r | can withstand, Who rules | from the skies To th6 cen I -treV' (iuvxvii.i.r. VUOOVKI L VN^HOWXI-: : Joh.Brit. Poets, Vol. v, p. 49. The following extract, (which is most properly to be scanned as anapestic, though con- siderably diversified,) has two lines, each of which is pretty evidently composed of a single anapest : unple II. A Chorus in the Same. " Let trum | pets and tym | -bals, And let lutes Let ata | -bals and cym | -bals, Our pas | -sions excite Let drums | andlethaut | -boys give o | -vCr; To gent | -ler delight, But let flutes, And ev | -ery Mars | be a lov | -Cr." 75. p 56. 852 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. That a single anapest, a single foot of any kind, or even a single long syllable, may be, and sometimes is, in certain rather uncommon instances, set as a line, is not to be denied. " Dr. Caustic," or T. G. Fessenden, in his satirical "Directions for Doing Poetry," uses in this manner the monosyllables, "Wliew," "Say," and "Dress," and also the iambs, "The (jay ," and, "All such," rhyming them with something less isolated. OBS. 2. Many of our grammarians give anonymous examples of what they conceive to ">e "Anapestic Manometer," or " the line of one anapest," while others (as Allen, Bullions, Churchill, and Hiley ) will have the length of two anapcsts to be the shortest measure of this order. Prof. Hart say, " The shortest anapaestic verse is a single anapaest ; as, < In a sweet All Jtheir feet All the night Resonance, In the dunce Tmklrd light.' This measure," it is added, " is, however, ambiguous ; for by laying an accent on the first, as well as the third syllable, we may generally make it a trochaic." Hart's English Gram. p. 188. The same six versicles are used as an example by Prof. Fowler, who, without admitting anv ambiguity in the measure, introduces them, rather solecistically, thus : "Each of the following lines consist of a single Anapest." Folder's E. Gram. 8vo, 1850, 694. OBS. 3. Verses of three syllables, with the second short, the last long, and the first common, or variable, are, it would seem, doubly doubtful in scansion ; for, while the first syllable, if made short, gives us an anapest, to make it long, gives either an amphimac or wh;it is virtually two trochees. For reasons of choice in the latter case, see Observation 1st oil Trochaic Dimeter. For the fixing of variable quantities, since the case admits no other rule, regard should be had to the analogy of 'the verse, and also to the common principles of accentuation. It is doubtless possible to read the six short lines above, into the measure of so many anapests ; but, since the two mono- syllables "In" and "All" are as easily made long as short, whoever considers the common pro- nunciation of the longer words, "Resonance" and "Tinkled" may well doubt whether the learned professors have, in this instance, hit upon the right mode of scansion. The example may quite as well be regarded either as Trochaic Dimeter, catalectic, or as Amphimacric Monometer, acatalectic. But the word resonance, being accented usually on the first syllable only, is naturally a dactyl ; and, since the other five little verses end severally with a monosyllable, which can be varied in quantity, it is possible to read them all as being dactylics ; and so the whole may be regarded as trebly doubtful with respect to the measure. OBS. 4. L. Murray says, "The shortest anapcestic verse must be a single anapaest : a?, But in vain, They complain." And then he adds, "This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of two Ana.p&sts'." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 257 ; 12mo, p. 207. This conclusion is utterly absurd, as well as completely contradictory to his first assertion. The genuineness of this small metre depends not at all on what may be made of the same words by other pronunciation ; nor can it be a very natural reading of this passage, tl at gives to "But " and "They" such emphasis as will make them long. OBS. 5. Yet Chandler, in his improved grammar of 1817, has not failed to repeat the substance of all this absurdity and self-contradiction, carefully dressing it up in other language thus : " Verses composed of single Anapa?sts arc frequently found in stanzas of songs ; and the same is true of several of the other kinds of feet; but we may consider the first [i. e., shortest] form of anapaestic verse as consisting of two Anapaests." Chandler's Common School Gram. p. 196. OBS. 6. Everett, speaking of anapestic lines, says, " The first and shortest of these is com- posed of a single Anapest following an Iambus." English Versification, p. 99. This not only denies the existence of Anapestic Monometer, but improperly takes for Anapestic verse what is, by the statement itself, half Iambic, and therefore of the Composite Order. But the false assertion is plainly refuted even by the author himself, and on the same page. For, at the bottom of the page, he has this contradictory note : "It has been remarked ( 15) that though the Iambus with an additional short syllable -is the shortest line that is known to Iambic verse, there are isolated instances of a single Iambus, and even of a single long syllable. There are examples of lines made up of a single Anapest, as the following example will show : Jove in his chair, Of the sky lord mayor, With his nods Men and gods Keeps in awe ; When he winks, Heaven shrinks ; # # * # Cock of the school, He bears despotic rule ; His word, Though absurd, Must be law. Even Fate, Though so great, Must not prate ; His bald pate Jove would cuff, He's so bluff, For a straw. Cowed deities, Like mice in cheese, To stir must cease Or gnaw.' O'HAKA: Midas, Act i, Sc. 1." Everett's Versification, p. 99. ORDER IV. DACTYLIC VERSE. In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first syllable of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable of each line of four feet. Full dactylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, the rhyme is double ; when both, single. These omissions are here essential to the formation of such rhymes. Dactylic with double rhyme, ends virtually with a trochee ; dactylic with single rhyme, commonly ends with a ccesura ; that is, with a long syllable taken for a foot. Dactylic with single rhyme is the same CH\P. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER IV. DACTYLICS. 853 as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dactylic verse is rather un- common ; and, when employed, is seldom perfectly pure and regular. MEASURE I. DACTYLIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER. aplf. Siinrod. Ximrod the | hunter was | mighty in | hunting, and | famed as the | ruler of j cities of | yore ; Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar's fair | region his | name afar | bore. MEASURE II. DACTYLIC OF SEYEX FEET, OR HEPTAMETEU. Example. ChrlsCs Kinr/dum. Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er | Satan vie | -torious, AH that of | -fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honour his | name ever | glorious. MEASURE III. DACTYLIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER. Example I. Time in Motion. Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years, and | ages ; Restless as | waves of the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | rages. Example IL Where is Grand-Pre'? " This is the | forest pri | -meval ; but | where are the | hearts that be | -neath it Loap'd like the | roe, when he j hears in the | woodland the | voice of the | huntsman? Where is the | thatch-roofed | village, the | home of A | -cadian | farmers " H. W. LONGFELLOW : Evangeline, Part i, 1. 7 9. MEASURE IV. DACTYLIC OF FIYE FEET, OR PENTAMETER. Example. Salutation to America. "Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free, Land of the j negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry, Often my | heart had turned, | heart had turned, | longing to | thee ; Often had | mountain-side, | mountain-side, | broad lake, and | stream, lined on my | waking thought, | waking thought, | crowded my | dream. Xow thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the dark | sea, Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free, Land of the | negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry." MEASURE Y. DACTYLIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER. Example LThe Soldier's Wife. "Weary way | -wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart, Travelling | painfully | over the | rugged road, Wild-visagcd | Wanderer ! | God help thee, | wretched one ! :>- thy | little one | drags by thee | barefooted; Cold is the | baby that | hungs at thy | bending back, ^rc, and | livid, and | screaming for [ misery. "NYoe-begone | mother, half | anger, half | agony. Over thy | shoulder thou | lookest to | hush the babe, Bleakly the | blinding snow | beats in thy | haggard face. Xe'er will thy | husband re | -turn from the | war again, Cold is thy | heart, and as | fro/en as | Charity ! Cold are thy | children. Xow | God be thy | comforter ! " . Philad. 1813, p. 250. I^.i-iimji-c II. I}v;i*. A Jhicfylic S(;i with | churlishness, J spurning your pray'r." ///."/.ufimir" 7 Stanzas. * " Pause not to | dream of the | future be | -fore us ; not to | weep the wild | cares that come | o'er us : JIark, how (.'re | -ation's deep, | musical | chorus, Unintcr | -mittiiu', -ors | up into | Heaven ! Xever the j ocean-wave | falters in | flowing; r the j little seed | stops in its | gr.s Falling from | eyes of the | angels, when | singing by | Eden's pur | -pureal [ streams. " Happy as | seraphs were | we, for we | wander'd a | -lone, Trembling with | passionate | thrills, when the | twilight had \fiown : Even the | echo was | silent: our I kisses and I whispers of | love Languish'd un j -heard and un j -known, like the | breath of the | blossoming | buds of the | grove. " Life hath its | pleasures, but J fading are | they as the \flowers: Sin hath its | sorrows, and | sadly we | turn'd from thos'e | bowers : Bright were the | angels be | -hind with their | falchions of | heavenly \flame! Dark was the | desolate | describe | -fore us, and | darker the | depth of our | shame I' 1 HENRY B. HIHST: Hart's English Grammar, p. 190. OBS. 6. Of Dactylic verse, our prosodists and grammarians in general have taken but very little notice ; a majority of them appearing by their silence, to have been utterly ignorant of the whole species. By many, the dactyl is expressly set down as an inferior foot, which they imagine is used only for the occasional diversification of an iambic, trochaic, or anapestic line. Thus Everett: " It is never -used except as a, secondary foot, and then in the first place of the line." English Versification, p. 122. On this order of verse, Lindley Murray bestowed only the following words : " The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall give only one example of one species of it: From th; ; low pleasures of this fallen nature, Rise we to higher, c." Gram. 12mo, p. 207; 8vo, p. 2-37. Read this example with " irt- r/Ni: " for "Itixe we," and all the poetry of it is gone ! Humphrey says, "Dactyle verse is seldom used, as remarked heretofore; but is used occasionally, and has three metres ; viz. of 2, 3, and 4 feet. Specimens follow. 2 feet. Free from anxiety. 3 feet. Singing most sweetly and merrily. 4 feet. Dactylic measures are wanting in energy." English Prosody, p. 18. Here the prosodist has made his own examples; and the last one, which unjustly impeaches all dactylics, he has made very badly very prosaically ; for the word "Dactylic,' though it has three syllables, is properly no dactyl, but rather an amphibrach. Oils. 7- By the Rev. David Blair, this order of poetic numbers is utterly misconceived and misrepresented. He says of it, " DACTYLIC verse consists of a short syllable, with one, two, or three i'eet, and a long si/Uahi. ' Distracted with woe, I'll rfish on tin- foe.' ADDISOX." Blair's Pract. Gram. p. 119. " Ye shepherds so cheerful and gay, ' Whose llocks nrvrr cfirelrsslv roam ; ' Should Corydon's happrn to "stray, ' Oh ! call the poor wanderers home.' SHENSTONE." Ib. p. 120. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER V. COMPOSITES. 857 It is manifest, that these lines are not dactylic at all. There is not a dactyl in them. They are composed of iambs and anapests. The order of the versification is Anapestic ; but it is here varied by the very common diversification of dropping the first short syllable. The longer exam- ple is from a ballad of 216 lines, of which 99 are thus varied, and 117 are full anapestics. OBS. 8. The makers of school-books are quite as apt to copy blunders, as to originate them ; and, when an error is once started in a grammar, as it passes with the user for good learning, no one can guess where it will stop. It seems worthwhile, therefore, in a work of this nature, to be liberal in the citation of such faults as have linked themselves, from time to time, with the several topics of our great subject. It is not probable, that the false scansion just criticised originated with Blair ; for the Comprehensive Grammar, a British work, republished, in its third edition, by Dobson. of Philadelphia, in 1789, teaches the same doctrine, thus : " Dactylic measure may con- sist of one, two, or three Dactyls, introduced by a feeble syllable, and terminated by a strong one ; as, My | df-ar Irish | folks, S6 | fair and s6 | bright, C6me | If-ave off y&ur | jokes, They'll | give y6u de | -light : And | buy up my | halfpence s6 | fine; Ob | -serve'h6w they | glister and | shine. SWIFT A I cubirr there | was and he | liv'd In a | stall, \Vhrch | serv'd him for | kitchen f6r | parl6ur and | hall; \<> | coin In his | pocket, no | care In his | pate; Tn | -bitlon he I had, and n6 | duns at his | gfite." Comp. Gram. p. 150. To this, the author adds, " Dactylic measure becomes Anapestic by setting off an Iambic foot in the beginning of the line." 76. These verses, all but the last one, unquestionably have an iam- bic foot at the beginning ; and, for that reason, they are not, and by no measurement can be, dactylics. The last one is purely anapestic. All the divisional bars, in either example, are placed wrong. ORDER V. COMPOSITE VERSE. Composite verse is that which consists of various metres, or different feet, combined, not accidentally, or promiscuously, but by design, and with some regularity. In Com- posite verse, of any form, the stress must be laid rhythmically, as in the simple orders, else the composition will be nothing better than unnatural prose. The possible variety of combinations in this sort of numbers is unlimited ; but, the pure and simple kinds being generally preferred, any stated mixture of feet is comparatively uncommon. Certain forms which may be scanned by other methods, are susceptible also of division as Composites. Hence there cannot be an exact enumeration of the measures of this order, but instances, as they occur, may be cited to exemplify it. Example I. From Swift's Irish Feast. 1 O'Rourk's | noble fare | will ne'er | be forgot, By those | who were there, | or those | who were not. His rev | -els to keep, | we sup | and we dine On sev | -en score sheep, | fat bul | -locks, and swine. Usquebaugh | to our feast | in pails | was brought up, An hun | -dred at least, | and a mad | -der our cup. O there | is the sport ! | we rise | with the light, In disor | -derly sort, | from snor | -ing all night. O how | was I trick'd ! | my pipe | it was broke, My pock | -etwas pick'd, | I lost | my new cloak. I'm ri | -fled, quoth Nell, | of man | -tie and kerch | -er : Why then | fare them well, | the de'il | take the search | -er." Johnsons Works of the Poets , Vol. v, p. 310. [ere the measure is tetrameter ; and it seems to have been the design of the poet, that jh hemistich should consist of one iamb and one anapest. Such, with a few exceptions, is the arrangement throughout the peice ; but the hemistichs which have double rhyme, .'.h be divided into two amphibrachs. In Everett's Versification, at p. 100, the first six lines of this example are broken into twelve, and set in three stan/as, being given to exemplify "The Line of a .v ! >>/an Iambus," or what he improperly calls 14 The first and shortest species of Anapestic lines." Ills other instance of the same metre is rather than Anapestic, even by his own showing. " In the following example," says he, " we have this measure alternating with Amphibrachic lines : " nple II. From Byron's Manfred. The Captive Usurper, Huti'd down | from the throne, Lay buried in torpor, Forgotten and lone ; I broke through his slumbers, I shiv I -cr'd his chain, I leagued him with numbers- He's Ty | -rant again ! I "With the blood | of a mill | -ion he'll an | -swer niy care, With a na | -tion's destruc | -tion his flight | and despair." Actii, Sc. 3. ere the last two lines, which are not cited by Everett, are pure anapestic tetrameters ; and it may be observed, that, if each two of the short lines were printed as one, the eight, 60 858 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. which are here scanned otherwise, would become four of the same sort, except that these would each begin with an iambus. Hence the specimen sounds essentially as anapestic Terse. Example III. Woman on the Field of Battle. 1 Gentle and | lovely form, What didst | thou here, "When the fierce | battle storm Bore down | the spear ? Banner and | shiver'd crest, Beside | thee strown, Tell, that a | -midst the best Thy work | was done ! Low lies the | stately head, Earth-bound | the free : How gave those | haughty dead A place | to thee ? Slumb'rer ! thine | early bier Friends should | havecrown'd, Many a | flow'r and tear Shedding | around. Soft voices, | dear and young, Mingling | their swell, Should o'er thy | dust have sung Earth's last | farewell. Sisters a | -bove the grave Of thy | repose Should have bid | vi'lets wave With the | white rose. Now must the | trumpet's note, Savage | and shrill, For requi'm | o'er thee float, Thou fair I and still ! And the swift | charger sweep, In full | career, Trampling thy | place of sleep Why cam'st | thou here ? Why ? Ask the | true heart why Woman | hath been Ever, where | brave men die, Unshrink | -ing seen. Unto this | harvest ground, Proud reap | -ers came, Some for that | stirring sound, A warr | -ior's name : Some for the | stormy play, And joy | of strife, And some to | fling away A wea | -ry life. But thou, pale | sleeper, thou, With the | slight frame, And the rich | locks, whose glow Death can | -not tame ; Only one | thought, one pow'r, Thee could | have led, So through the | tempest's hour To lift | thy head! Only the | true, the strong, The love | whose trust Woman's deep | soul too long Pours on | the dust." HEMANS : Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 157. Here are fourteen stanzas of composite dimeter, each having two sorts of lines ; the first sort consisting, with a few exceptions, of a dactyl and an amphimac ; the second, mostly, of two iambs ; but, in some instances, of a trochee and an iamb ; the latter being, in such a connexion, much the more harmonious and agreeable combination of quantities. Example IV. Airs from a " Serenata." Am 1. Love sounds | the alarm, And fear | is a fly | -ing : When beau | -ty's the prize, What mor | -tal fears dy j -ing ? In defence | of my treas | -ure, I'd bleed | at each vein : Without | her no pleas | -tire ; For life | is a pain." AIR 2. Consid | -er, fond shep | -herd, How fleet | -ing's the pleas | -ure, That flat | -tcrs our hopes In pursuit | of the fair : The joys | that attend | it, By mo | -ments we meas | -ure ; But life | is too lit | -tie To meas I -ure our care." GAY'S POEMS : Johnson's Works of the Poets, Vol. vii, p. 378. These verses are essentially either anapestic or amphibrachic. The anapest divides two of them in the middle ; the amphibrach will so divide eight. But either division will give many iambs. By the present scansion, ihejirstfoot is an iamb in all of them but the two anapestics. Example V."The Last Leaf." " I saw | him once | before As he pass | -ed by | the door, And again The pave | -ment stones | resound As he tot | -ters o'er | the ground With his cane. 2. They say | that in | his prime, Ere the prun | -ing -knife | of Time Cut him down, Not a bet | -ter man | was found By the cri | -er on | his round Through the town. 3. But now | he walks | the streets, And he looks | at all | he meets So forlorn ; And he shakes | his fee | -ble head, That it seems | as if | he said, They are gone. CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER V. COMPOSITES. 859 4. The mos | -sy mar | -bles rest On the lips | that he | has press'd In their bloom ; And the names | he lov'd | to hear Have been carv'd J for man | -y a year On the tomb. 5. My grand | -mamma | has said, Poor old La | -dy ! she | is dead Long ago, That he had | a Ho | -man nose, And his cheek | was like | a rose In the snow. 6. But now | his nose | is thin, And it rests | upon | his chin Like a staff; And a crook | is in | his back, And a mel | -anchol | -y crack In his laugh. 7. I know | it is | a sin For me [thus] | to sit | and grin At him here ; But the old | three-cor | -ner'd hat, And the breech | -es, and | all that, Are so queer ! 8. And if I | should live | to be the tree The last leaf | upon | the tree In the spring, Let them smile, | as I | do now, At the old | forsak | -en bough AVhere I cling." OLIVER "NV. HOLMES : The Pioneer, 1813, p. 108. OBSERVATIONS. Om. 1. Composite verse, especially if the lines be short, is peculiarly liable to uncertainty, and diversity of scansion ; and that which does not always abide by one chosen order of quantities, can scarcely be found agreeable : it must be more apt to puzzle than to please the reader. The eight stanzas of this last example, have eight lines of iambic trimeter ; and, since, seven times in eight, this metre holds the first place in the stanza, it is a double fault, that one such line seems strayed from its proper position. It would be better to prefix the word Now to the fourth line, and "to mend the forty-third thus : " And should | I live | to be " The trissyllabic feet of this piece, as I scan it, are numerous ; being the sixteen short lines of monometer, and the twenty-four initial feet of the lines of seven syllables. Every one of the forty (except the thirty-sixth, "The last leaf" ) begins with a monosyllable which may be varied in quantity ; so that, with stress laid on this monosyllable, the foot becomes an amphimac ; with- out such stress, an anapest. Oits. 2. I incline to read this piece as composed of iambs and anapests ; but E. A. Foe, who has commended " the effective harmony of these lines," and called the example " an excellently well conceived and well managed specimen of versification," counts many syllables long, which such a reading makes short, and he also divides all but the iambics in a way quite different from e, thus : " Let us scan the first stanza. The pave- | ment stones I resound As he I totters | o'er the I grOund With his I cane.' I saw | him once | before As he | passed | by the | door, And a- | gain This," savs he, " is the general scansion of the poem. "We have first three iambuses. The sec- ond line shifts the rhythm into the trochaic, giving us three trochees, with a caesura equivalent, in this case, to a trochee. The third line is a trochee and equivalent cresura." FOE'S NOTES UPON K\t;usu VKU- . p. 109. These quantities are the same as those by which the whole piece is made to consist of iambs and amphiinacs. Ons. :;. In its rltijt/, upon the ear, a supernumerary short syllable at the end of a line, may sometimes, perhaps, 'i-o:npensate for the want of such a syllable at the beginning of the next line, as may be seen in the fourth example above ; but still it is unusual, and seems im- proper, to suppose such syllable to belong to the scansion of the subsequent line ; for the division of with their harmonic pauses, is ^renter than the division of feet, and implies that no foot can tually be split by it. Foe has suggested that the division into lines may be disregarded in scanning, and sometimes must be. II.- rites for an example the beginning of Byron's " Bride of Abydos," a passage which has been admired tor its easy How, and which, he says, has greatly puzzled those who have attempted to scan it. Regarding it as essentially anapestic tetrame- ter, yet as having some initial iambs, and tin- first 'and fifth lines dactylic, I shall here divide it accordingly, thus : " Know ye the I If.nd where the | ,,\ \ myrtle Are rin | -tilt ins <>f de.-ds I that" are done | in t'heir clime Where the ra^e | of the vul f -turc, the love | of the tur | -tie, I Now melt | into soft | ness, now mad | -den to crime ? Know ye the | l;md of the | cedar and I vine, Where the rlow'rs | ever bios | -som, trie beams | ever shine, And the light | wings of Zeph | -yr, oppress'd | with perfume, W.i\ faint | o'er the <_;ar | -dens of Gul | in her bloom? -ron and ol | -ivc are fair | -est of fruit, of the nit;ht I -ingale ncv I -er is mute ? . I .1 , Where, the cit And the voice Where the vir -gins are soft | as the ros | -es they twine And all, | save the spir | -it of man, | is divine ? 'Tis the land I of the East | 't is the dime I of the Sun Can he smile | on such deeds I as his chil | -dren have done ? Oh, wild | as the ac | -cents or lov | -ers' farewell, Are the hearts | that they bear, | and the tales | that they tell." RT IV. )eether 860 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART OBS. 4. These lines this ingenious prosodist divides not thus, but, throwing them together like prose unpunctuated, finds in them " a regular succession of dactylic rhythms, varied only at three points by equivalent spondees, and separated into two distinct divisions by equivalent ter- minating caesuras." He imagines that, " By all who have ears not over long this will be ac- knowledged as the true and the sole true scansion." E. A, Poe, Pioneer, p. 107. So it may, for aught I know ; but, having dared to show there is an other way quite as simple and plain, and less objectionable, I submit both to the judgement of the reader : '' Know ye the | land where the | cypress and | myrtle are | emblems of | deeds that are J done in their J clime where the j rage of the | vulture the ] love of the | turtle now | melt into | softness now | madden to | crime. Know ye the | land of the j cedar and | vine where the | flow'rs ever | blossom the | beams ever | shine where the | light wings of | zephyr op- | press'd with per- I fume wax \ faint o'er the | gardens of | Gul in her | bloom where the | citron and | olive are | fairest of | fruit and the | voice 6f the | nightingale | never is | mute where the | virgins are | soft as the | roses they | twine and \ all save the | spirit of man is di- | vine 'tis the | land of the East 'tis the | clime of th5 | Sun can he | smile on such | deeds as his | children have I done oh \ wild as the | accents of | lovers' fare- I well are the | hearts that they | bear and the tales that they | tell."-Ib. OBS. 5. In the sum and proportion of their quantities, the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphi- brach, are equal, each having two syllables short to one long ; and, with two short quantities between two long ones, lines may be tolerably accordant in rhythm, though the order, at the com- mencement, be varied, and their number of syllables be not equal. Of the following sixteen lines, nine are pure anapestic tetrameters ; one may be reckoned dactylic, but it may quite as well be said to have a trochee, an iambus, and two anapests or two amphimacs ; one is a spondee and three anapests ; and the rest may be scanned as amphibrachics ending with an iambus, but are more properly anapestics commencing with an iambus. Like the preceding example from Byron, they lack the uniformity of proper composites, and are rather to be regarded as anapestics irregu- larly diversified. THE ALBATROSS. " ; Tis said the Albatross never rests." Euffon. " Where the fath | -omless waves | in magnif | -icence toss. Homeless | and high | soars the wild | Albatross; Unwea | ried, undaunt | -ed, unshrink | -ing, alone, The o | -cean his em | -pire, the tern | -pest his throne. When the ter | -rible whirl | -wind raves wild | o'er the surge, And the hur | -ricane howls j out the mar | -iner's dirge, In thy glo | -ry thou spurn [ -est the dark | -heaving sea, Proud bird | of the o | -cean-world, home | -less and free. When the winds | are at rest, | and the sun | in his glow, And the glit j -tering tide | sleeps in beau | -ty below, In the pride f of thy pow | -er trium | -phant above, With thy mate | thou art hold | -ing thy rev | -els of love. Untir | -ed, unfet | -tered, unwatched, | unconfmed, Be my spir | -it like thee, | in the world | of the mind ; No lean | -ing for earth, | e'er to wea | -ry its flight, And fresh | as thy pin | -ions in re | -gions of light." SAMUEL DALY LANGTREE: North American Reader, p. 443. Ous. 6. It appears that the most noted measures of the Greek and Latin poets were not of any simple order, but either composites, or mixtures too various to be called composites. It is not to be denied, that we have much difficulty in reading them rhythmically, according to their stated feet and scansion ; and so we should have, in reading our own language rhythmically, in any similar succession of feet. Noticing this in respect to the Latin Hexameter, or Heroic verse, Poe says, " Now the discrepancy in question is not observable in English metres ; where the scansion coincides with the reading, so far as the rhythm is concerned that is to say, if we pay no attention to the sense of the passage. 'But these facts indicate a radical difference in the genius of the two languages, as regards their capacity for modulation. In truth, * * * the Latin is a far more stately tongue than oxir own. It is essentially spondaic ; the English is as essentially dactylic." Pioneer, p. 110. (See the marginal note in Section 3d, atObs. 22d, above.) Notwith- standing this difference, discrepance, or difficulty, whatever it may be, some of our poets have, in a few instances, attempted imitations of certain Latin metres ; which imitations it may be proper briefly to notice under the present head. The Greek or Latin Hexameter line has, of course, six feet, or pulsations. According to the Prosodies, the first four of these may be either dactyls or spondees ; the fifth is always, or nearly always, a dactyl ; and the sixth, or last, is always a spondee : as, " Ludere | qua? vel I -U'm cala | -mo per | -mlsit a | -gresti." Virg. " Infan- | dum. He f -gina, ju | -bes rent) | -vare do | -lorem." Id'. Of this sort of verse, in English, somebody has framed the following very fair example : , "" Man is a ] complex, | compound | compost, | yet is he | God-born." OBS. 7. Of this species of versification, which may be called Mixed or Composite Hexameter, the most considerable specimen that I have seen in English, is Longfellow's Evangeline, a poem of one thousand three hundred and eighty-two of these long lines, or verses. This work has found admirers, and not a few; for, of these, nothing written by so distinguished a scholar could fail : but, surely, not many of the verses in question exhibit truly the feet of the ancient Hexameters ; or, if they do, the ancients contented themselves with very imperfect rhythms, even in their no- blest heroics. In short, I incline to the opinion of Poe, that, " Nothing" less than the deservedly high reputation of Professor Longfellow, could have sufficed to give currency to his lines as to Greek Hexameters. In general, they are neither one thing nor another. Some few of them are dactylic verses. English dactylics. But do away with the division into lines, and the most astute CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ORDER V. COMPOSITES. 861 critic would never have suspected them of any thing more than prose.*' Pioneer, p. 111. The following are the last ten lines of the volume, with such a division into feet as the poet is pre- sumed to have contemplated : 44 Still stands the | forest pri | -meval ; but | under the | shade of its | branches Dwells an | -other I race, with | other | customs and | language. Only a | -long the [ shore of the | mournful and | misty At I -lantic Linger a I few A | -cadian | peasants, whose | fathers from | exile Wanderea | back to their | native | land to | die in its | bosom. In the | fisherman's | cot the | wheel and the I loom are still | busy; Maidens still | wear their | Norman | caps and their | kirtles of | homespun, And by the | evening | fire re | -peat E | -vangelme's | story, While from its | rocky | caverns the | deep-voiced, | neighbouring | ocean Speaks, and in | accents dis | -consolate | answers the | wail of the I forest." IIi.NUY \V. LOM.I-KI.LOW : Lcangelinc, p. 162. OBS. 8. An other form of verse, common to the Greeks and Romans, which has sometimes been imitated or, rather, which some writers have attempted to imitate in English, is the line or stanxa called Sapphic, fiom the inventress, Sappho, a Greek poetess. The Sapphic verse, ac- cording to Fabricius, Smetitis, and all good authorities, has eleven syllables, making " five feet the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the third a dactyl, and the fourth and filth trochees." The Sapphic stanza, or what is sometimes so c tiled, consists of three Sapphic lines and an Ado- nian, or Adonic, this last being a short line composed of " a dactyl and a spondee." Example from Horace : " Into | -g"r vi | -tic, scMf 1 | -risque | purus Non e | -get Mau | -ri jacu | -lis ne f-qu' arcu, Nee ven | -ena | -tis gravi | -da sa | -gittis, Fusee, pha | -retra." OBS. 9. To arrange eleven syllables in a line, and have half or more of them to form trochees, is no difficult matter ; but, to find rhythm in the succession of " a trochee, a spondee, and a dac- tyl," as we read words, seems hardly practicable. Hence few are the English Sapphics, if there be any, which abide by the foregoing formule of quantities and feet. Those which I have seen, are generally, if not in every instance, susceptible of a more natural scansion as being composed of trochees, with a dactyl, or some other foot of three syllables, at the beginning of each line. The ca?sural pause falls sometimes after the fourth syllable, but more generally, and much more agreeably, after the fifth. Let the reader inspect the following example, and see if he do not agree with me in laying the accent on only the first syllable of each foot, as the feet are here divided. The accent, too, must be carefully laid. Without considerable care in the reading, sarer will not suppose the composition to be any thing but prose : "Tin: WIDOW." (Ix "SAPPHICS.") " Cold was the | night-wind, | drifting | fast the I snow fell, Wide were the | downs, and | shelter I -less and | naked, When a poor | Wanderer | struggled ] on her | journey, Weary and | way-sore. Drear were the | downs, more | dreary | her re | -flections ; Cold was the | night-wind, | colder | was her | bosom ; She had no | home, the | world w,is | all be | -fore her; She had no | shelter. Fast o'er the | heath a | chariot | rattled | by her; 1 IMty me ! ' | feebly | cried the j lonely | wanderer; ' Pity me, | strangers ! | lest, with | cold and | hunger, Here I should | perish. ' Once I had I friends, though | now by | all for | -saken ! 4 Once I had | parents, | they are | now in | heaven ! 4 1 had a | home once, | I had | once a | husband Pity me, | strangers ! ' I had a | home once, | I had | once a | husband 4 1 am a | widow, | poor and | broken | -hearted! ' Loud blew the j wind; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining; On drove the | chariot. Then on the | snow she J laid her | down to | rest her; She heard a | horseman ; | ' Pity | me ! ' she | groan'd out; Loud was the | wind ; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining; On went the | horseman. Wnrn out with | anguish, | toil, and j cold, and | hunger, Down sunk the | Wanderer ; I sleep had | seized her | senses; There did the | traveller | fina her | in the | morning ; God had re j -leased her." KUHEKT SOI-THKY : I'oems, Philad. 1843, p. 2-jl. OBS. 10. Among the lyric poems of Dr. Watts, is one, entitled, " Tun DAY OF JUDGEMENT ; m Ode, attempted in Kwjlish Sapjihic." It is perhaps as good an example as we have of the spe- cies. It consists of nine stanzas, of which I shall here cite the first three, dividing them into feet as above : 14 When the fierce | North Wind, | with his | airy | forces, Rears up the | Baltic | to a | foaming | fury ; And the red | lightning | with a | storm of | hail comes Rushing a | -main down ; 862 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV, How the poor | sailors | stand a | -maz'd and | tremble ! While the hoarse | thunder, | like a | bloody | trumpet, Roars a loud | onset J to the | gaping | waters, Quick to de | -your them. Such shall the | noise be, j and the | wild dis | -order, (If things e | -ternal | may be I like these | earthly,) Such the dire | terror, | when the | great Arch | -angel Shakes the ere | -ation." Horce Lyrica, p. 67- OBS. 11. " These lines," says Humphrey, who had cited the first four, " are good English Sapphics, and contain the essential traits of the original as nearly as the two languages, Greek and English, correspond to each other. This stanza, together with the poem, from which this was taken, may stand for a model, in our English compositions." Humphrey's E. Prosody, p. 19. This author erroneously supposed, that the trissyllabic foot, in any line of the Sapphic stanza, must occupy the second place : and, judging of the ancient feet and quantities by what he found, or supposed he found, m the English imitations, and not by what the ancient prosodists say of them, yet knowing that the ancient and the modern Sapphics are in several respects unlike, he presented forms of scansion for both, which are not only peculiar to himself, but not well adapted to either. ''We have," says he, " no established rule for this kind of verse, in our English com- positions, which has been uniformly adhered to. The rule for which, in Greek and Latin verse, as far as I can ascertain, was this: - w | - "| w "|" w |""a trochee, a moloss, zpyrrhic, a tro- chee, and [a] spondee; and sometimes, occasionally, a trochee, instead of a spondee, at the end. But as our language is not favourable to the use of the spondee and moloss, the moloss is seldom or never used in our English Sapphics ; but, instead of which, some other trissyllable foot is used. Also, instead of the spondee, a trochee is commonly used ; and sometimes a trochee instead of the pyrrhic, in the third place. As some prescribed rule, or model for imitation, may be necessary, in this case, I will cite a stanza from one of our best English poets, which may serve for a model. ' When the | fierce north-wind, | with his | airy | forces [,] Rears up | the Baltic | to a | foaming | fury ; And the | red lightning | with a I storm of | hail c6mes Rushing | amain down.' Watts." Ib. p. 19. OBS. 12. In " the Works of George Canning," a'small book published in 1829, there is a poet- ical dialogue of nine stanzas, entitled, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-Grinder," said to be "a burlesque on Mr. Southey's Sapphics." The metre appears to be near enough like to the foregoing. But these verses I divide, as I have divided the others, into trochees with initial dactyls. At the commencement, the luckier party salutes the other thus : ' 'Needy knife | -grinder! | whither j are you | going ? Rough is the | road, your | wheel is I out of | order Bleak blows the | blast ; your | hat has | got a | hole in't, So have your I breeches ! ' Weary knife | -grinder ! | little | think the | proud ones Who in their | coaches | roll a | -long the I turnpike- Road, what hard | work 'tis, | crying | all day, | ' Knives and Scissors to | grind O ! ' "P. 44. OBS. 13. Among the humorous poems of Thomas Green Fessenden, published under the sobriquet of Dr. Caustic, or " Christopher Caustic, M. D.," maybe seen another comical example of Sapphics, which extends to eleven stanzas. It describes a contra-dance, and is entitled, " Horace Surpassed." The -conclusion is as follows : " Willy Wagnimble dancing with Flirtilla, Almost as light as air-balloon inflated, Rigadoons around her, 'till the lady's heart is Forced to surrender. Benny Bamboozle cuts the drollest capers, Just like a camel, or a hippopot'mus ; Jolly Jack Jumble makes as big a rout as Forty Dutch horses. See Angelina lead the mazy dance down ; Never did fairy trip it so fantastic ; How my heart flutters, while my tongue pronounces, ' Sweet little seraph ! ' Such are the joys that flow from contra-dancing, Pure as the primal happiness of Eden, Love, mirth, and music, kindle in accordance Raptures extatic." Poems, p. 208. SECTION V. ORAL EXERCISES. IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE PROSODY, OR ERRORS OF METRE. LESSON I. RESTORE THE RHYTHM. "The lion is laid down in his lair." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 134. [FORMDLE. Not proper, because the word " //on," here put for Cowper's word " beast," destroys the metre, and changes the line to prose. But, according to the definition given on p. 798, " Verse, in opposition to prose, is Ian- CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. ERRORS OF METRE. 863 guage arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm language so ordered as to produce harmony, by a due succession of poetic feet." This line was composed of one iamb and two anapests ; and, to euch form, it should be restored, thus : " The beast is laid down in his lair." Covoptrs Poems, Vol. i, p. 201.] " Where is thy true treasure ? Gold says, not in me." Hallock's Gram., 1842, p. 66. 44 Canst thou grow sad, thou sayest, as earth grows bright r " Frazcc's Gram., 1845, p. 140. "It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well." ll'ctls's Gram., 1846, p. 122. "Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed." Ib. p. 195 ; Hiley, 132 ; Hart, 179. 44 Rapt in future times, the bard begun." ll'cll-s's Gram., 1846, p. 153. " Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens To wash it white as snow ? Whereunto serves mercy, But to confront the visage of offence ! " Hallock's Gram., 1842, p. 118. 44 Look ! in this place ran Cassius's dagger through." Kamcs, El. of Cr., Vol. i, p. 74. 44 When they list their lean and flashy songs, Harsh grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw." Jamicson's Rhet. p. 135. 44 Did not great Julius bleed for justice's sake r " Dodd's Beauties of Shak. p. 253. 44 Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake?" Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. ii, p. 266. " May I, unblam'd, express thee r Since God is light." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 290. 44 Or hearest thou, rather, pure ethereal stream ! " 2d Perversion, ib. 44 Republics ; kingdoms ; empires, may decay ; Princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought." 0. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 287. 44 Thou bringest, gay creature as thou art, A solemn image to my heart." E. J. Hallock's Gram. p. 197. 41 Know thyself, presume not God to scan ; The proper study of mankind is Man." O. B. Peirce's Gram. p. 285. 41 Raised on a hundred pilasters of gold." Charlemagne, C. i, St. 40. 44 Love in Adalgise's breast has fixed his sting." Ib. C. i, St. 30. 44 Thirty days hath September, February twenty-eight alone, April, June, and November, All the rest thirty and one." Colet's Grammar, or Paul's Accidence, Lond. 1793, p. 75. LESSOX II. RESTORE THE RHYTHM. 14 'Twas not the fame of what he once had been, Or tales in old records and annals seen." Rowe's Lucan, B, i, 1. 274. "And Asia now and Afric are explor'd, For high-priced dainties, and citron board." Eng. Poets : ib. B. i, 1. 311. 44 Who knows not, how the trembling judge beheld The peaceful court with arm'd legions fill'd ? " Eng. Poets : ib. B. i, 1. 578. 14 With thee the Scythian wilds we'll wander o'er, With thee burning Libyan sands explore." Eng. Poets; ib. B. i, 1. 661. and headlong different paths they tread, As blind impulse and wild distraction lead." Eng. Poets : ib. B. i, 1. 858. 44 But Fate reserv'd to perform its doom, And be the minister of wrath to Rome." Eng. Poets : ib. B. ii, 1. 136. 44 Thus spoke the youth. When Cato thus exprest The sacred counsels of his most inmost breast." Eng. Poets : ib. B. ii, 1. 435. 44 These were the strict manners of the man, And this the stubborn course in which they ran ; The golden mean unchanging to pursue, Constant to keep the proposed end in view." Eng. Poets ; ib. B. ii, 1. 686. 44 What greater grief can a Roman seize, Than to be forc'd to live on terms like these ! " Eng. Poets : ib. B. ii, 1. 782. 41 He views the naked town with joyful e\ While from his rage an arm'd people flies." Eng. Poets : ib. B. ii, 1. 880. 44 For planks and beams he ravages the wood, And the tough bottom extends across the flood." Eng. Poets ; ib. B. ii, 1. 1040. 44 A narrow pass the horned mole divides, Narrow as that where Euripus' strong tides :t on Eubo?an Chalcis' rocky sides." Eng. Poets : ib. B. ii, 1. 1095. i'orce, no fears their hands unarm'd bear, But looks of peace and gentleness they wear." Eng. Poets, ib. B. iii, 1. 112. 44 The ready warriors all aboard them ride, And wait the return of the retiring tide." Enq. Poets ; ib. B. iv, 1. 716. 44 He saw those troops that long had faithful stood, Friends to his cause, and enemies to good, Grown weary of their chief, and satiated with blood." Eng. Poets : ib. B. y, 1. 337. \jrru 11 v 864 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. CHAPTER V.- QUESTIONS. ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION. PART FOURTH, PROSODY. s - [The following questions call the attention of the student to the main doctrines in the foregoing code of Prosody, and embrace or demand those facts which it is most important for him to fix in his memory ; they may, therefore, serve not only to aid the teacher in the process of examining his classes, but also to direct the learner in his manner of preparation for recital.] LESSON I. OF PUNCTUATION. 1. Of what does Prosody treat ? 2. What is Punctuation? 3. What are the principal points, or marks ? 4. What pauses are denoted by the first four points ? 5. What pauses are required by the other four ? 6. What is the general use of the Comma ? 7. How many rules for the Comma are there, and what are their heads ? 8. What says Rule 1st of Sim- ple Sentences? 9. What says Rule 2d of Simple Members? 10. What says- Rule 3d of More than Two Words? 11. What says Rule 4th of Only Two Words ? 12. What says Rule 5th of Words in Pairs? 13. What says Rule 6th of Words put Absolute? 14. What says Rule 7th of Words in Apposition? 15. What says Rule 8th of Adjectives? 16. What says Rule 9th of Finite Verbs? 17. What says Rule 10th of Infinitives? 18. What says Rule llth of Participles? 19. What says Rule 12th of Adverbs? 20. What says Rule 13th of Conjunc- tions ? 21. What says Rule 14th of Prepositions ? 22. What says Rule 15th of Interjections ? 23. What says Rule 16th of Words Repeated? 24. What says Rule 17th of Dependent Quotations ? LESSON II. OF THE COMMA. 1. How many exceptions, or forms of exception, are there to Rule 1st for the comma? 2. to Rule 2d ? 3. to Rule 3d ? 4. to Rule 4th ? 5. to Rule 5th ? 6. to Rule 6th ? 7 to Rule 7th ? 8 to Rule 8th ? 9. to Rule 9th ? 10. to Rule 10th ? 11. to Rule llth? 12. to Rule 12th? 13. to Rule 13th? 14. to Rule 14th ? 15. to Rule 15th ? 16. to Rule 16th ? 17. to Rule 17th ?' 18. What says the Exception to Rule 1st of a Long Simple Sentence? 19. What says Exception 1st to Rule 2d of Restrictive Relatives? 20. What says Exception 2d to Rule 2d of Short Terms closely Connected? 21. What sajs Exception 3d to Rule 2d of Elliptical Members United ? 22. What says Exception 1st to Ru]e 4th of Two Words with Adjuncts ? 23. What says Exception 2d to Rule 4th of Two Tern s Contrasted? 24. What says Exception 3d to Rule 4th of a mere Alternative of Words? 2i>. What says Exception 4th to Rule 4th of Conjunctions Understood? LESSON III. OF THE COMMA. 1. What rule speaks of the separation of Words in Apposition ? 2. What says Exception 1st to Rule 7th of Complex Names ? 3. What says Exception 2d to Rule 7th of Close Appo- sition? 4. What says Exception 3d to Rule 7th of a Pronoun without a Pause? 5. What says Exception 4th to Rule 7th of Names Acquired ? 6. What says the Exception to Rule 8th of Adjectives Restrictive ? 7. What is the rule which speaks of a finite Verb Understood? 8. What says the Exception to Rule 9th of a Very Slight Pause? 9. What is the Rute for the pointing of Participles ? 10. What says the Exception to Rule 1 1th of Participles Restrictive ? [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Comma in Section First.] LESSON IV. OF THE SEMICOLON. 1. What is the general use of the Semicolon? 2. How many rules are there for the Semicolon? 3. What are their heads ? 4. What says Rule 1st of Complex Members? 5. What says Rule 2d of Simple Members ? 6. What says Rule 3d of Apposition, -c. ? [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Semicolon in Section Second.] LESSON Y. OF THE COLON. 1. What is the general use of the Colon ? 2. How many rules are there for the Colon ? 3. What are their heads ? 4. What says Rule 1st of Additional Remarks? 5. What says Rule 2d of Greater Pauses? 6. What says Rule 3d of Independent Quotations? [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Colon in Section Third.] LESSON VI. OF THE PERIOD. 1. What is the general use of the Period ? 2. How many rules are there for the Period ? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Distinct Sentences? 5. What says Rule 2d of Allied Sentences? 6. What says Rule 3d of Abbreviations ? [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Period in Section Fourth.] LESSON VII. OF THE DASH. 1. What is the general use of the Dash ? 2. How many rules are there for the Dash? CIIAP. V.] PROSODY. QUESTIONS. PUNCTUATION. UTTERANCE. 865 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Ahmpt 7 '-. What says Rule 2d of Invocations.' G. What says Rule 3d of llsclamatory Quest i- [Now, if you please : you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Ecphoneme in Section Seventh.] LESSON X. OF Tin 1 . What is the use of the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis ? 2. How many rules are there for the Curves ? 3. What are their titles, or heads ? 4. AVhat says Rule* 1st of the . What says Rule 2d of Included Points! [Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various exam- ples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Curves in Section Eighth.] X.I. OF THK OT;II:U MARKS. 1. What is the use of the Apostrophe? 2. What is the use of the Hyphen ? 3. AVhat is the use of the Din-resis, or Di -ilysis ? 1. AVhat is the use of the Acute Accent? 5. AVhat use of the Grave Accent ? G. AVhat is the use of the Circumflex : 7. AVhat is the use of the Breve, or Stcnotone ? 8. AVhat is the use of the Macron or Macrotone? 9. AVhat is the use of the Ellijis, or Suppression ? 10. What is the use of the Caret ? 11. AVhat is the use of the Brace 12. AVhat is the use of the Section? 13. AVhat is the use of the Paragraph? 14. AVhat is the use of the Guillemots, or Quotation Points ? 15. How do we mark a quotation within a quotation? 16. AVhat is the use of the Crotchets, or Brack- ets ? 17. What is the use of the Index, or Hand ? 18. AVhat are the six Marks of Refer- ence, in their usual order? 19. How can references be otherwise made? 20. AVhat is the use of the Asterism, or the Three Stars ? 21. AVhat is the use of the Cedilla? |[-m!!,- COR etiy answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to apply the principles of punc- tuation ; and, for this purpose, h<> may he required to read a portion of some accurately pointed book, ormay be directed to turn to th i Praxis, beginning on p. 7U3, and to assign a reason for every mark he finds.] \ XII. OF UTTERANCE. 1. AVhat is T _'. What does it include? 3. AVhat is articulation? 4. How does articulation differ from pronunciation ? ~>. How does Comstock define it ? 6. AVhat, in his view, is a good articulation ? 7. How docs Bolles define articulation ? 8. Is a good articulation important ? 9. AVhat are the faults opposite to it? 10. AVhat says Sheridan, of a good articulation ? 11. Upon what does distinctness depend ? 12. AVhy is just articu- lation better than mere loudness ? 1 3. Do we learn to articulate in learning to speak or read ? N XIII. OF PRONUNCIATION. 1. AVhat is pronunciation? 2. AVhat is it that is called Orthoepy* 3. AVhat knowledge does pronunciation require ? 4. AVhat are the just powers of the letters ? 5. How are these learned ? 6. Are the just powers of the letters in any degree variable 7. What is quan- tity ? 8. Are all long syllables equally long, and all short ones equally short? 9. What : voice to do with quantity ? 10. What is accent ? 11 . Is every word accentf d ? 12. l)n we ever lay two equal accents on one word ? 13. Have we more than one sort of accent : H. Can any word have the secondary accent, and not the primary? 15. Can monosyllables have either ? 1G. AVhat regulates accent ? 17. AVhat four things distinguish the elegant speaker ? IV. OF ELOCUTION-. 1. AVhat is elocution? 2. AVhat does elocution require ? 3. AVhat is emphasis? 4. AVhat comparative view is taken of accent and emphasis ? 5. How does L. Murray connect enrphasis with quantity : . s ever affect accent : 7. AVhat is the guide to a right emphasis ? 8. Can one read with too many emphases ? 9. What are pauses? 10. How many and what kinds of pauses are there : 1 1". Wli.it is said of the duration of pauses, and thu faking of brcatli ? 12. After what manner should pauses be made ? 13. AVhat pauses arc- particularly ungraceful ? 11. AVhat is said of rhetorical pauses ? 15. How are the har- monic pauses divided ? 16. Are such pauses essential to verse ? 866 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. LESSON XV. OF ELOCUTION. 17. What are inflections? 18. What is called the rising or upward inflection? 19. What is called the falling or downward inflection ? 20. How are these inflections exempli- fied? 21. How are they used in asking questions ? 22. What is said of the notation of them? 23. What constitutes a circumflex ? 24. What constitutes the rising, and what the falling, circumflex ? 25. Can you give examples ? 26. What constitutes a monotone, in elocution ? 27. Which kind of inflection is said to be most common ? 28. Which is best adapted to strong emphasis? 29. What says Comstock of rules for inflections ? 30. Is the voice to be varied for variety's sake ? 31. What should regulate the inflections ? 32. What is cadence ? 33. What says Rippingham about it ? 34. What says Murray ? 35. What are tones? 36. Why do they deserve particular attention? 37. What says Blair about tones ? 38. What says Hiley ? LESSON XVI. OF FIGURES. 1. What is a Figure in grammar ? 2. How many kinds of figures are there ? 3. What is a figure of orthography ? 4. What are the principal figures of orthography ? 5. What is Mimesis ? 6> What is an Archaism ? 7. What is a fig are of etymology ? 8. How many and what are the figures of etymology ? 9. What is Aphseresis ? 10. What is Prosthesis ? 11. What is Syncope? 12. What is Apocope? 13. What isParagoge? 14. What is Diuresis? 15. What is Synseresis ? 16. What is Tmesis ? 17. What is a figure of syntax ? 18. How many and what are the figures of syntax? 19. What is Ellipsis, in grammar? 20. Are sentences often elliptical ? 21. What parts of speech can be omitted, by ellipsis ? 22. What is Pleonasm ? 23. When is this figure aUowable ? 24. What is Syllepsis ? 25. What is Enallage ? 26. What is Hyperbaton ? 27. What is said of this figure ? LESSON XVII. OF FIGURES. 28. What is a figure of rhetoric ? 29. What peculiar name have some of these ? 30. Do figures of rhetoric often occur ? 31. On what are they founded ? 32. How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 33. What is a Simile ? 34. What is a Metaphor ? 35. Whart is an Allegory ? 36. What is a Metonymy ? 37. What is Synecdoche ? 38. What is Hyperbole ? 39. What is Vision ? 40. What is Apostrophe ? 41. What is Per- sonification ? 42. What is Erotesis ? 43. What is Ecphonesis ? 44. What is Antithesis ? 45. What is Climax ? 46. What is Irony ? 47. What is Apophasis, or Paralipsis ? 48. What is Onomatopoeia ? [Now, if you please, you may examine the quotations adopted for the Fourteenth Praxis, and may name and define the various figures of grammar which are contained therein.] LESSON XVIII. OF VERSIFICATION. 1. What is Versification? 2. What is verse, as distinguished from prose? 3. Wha"; is the rhythm of verse ? 4. What is the quantity of a syllable ? 5. How are the poetic quan- tities denominated ? 6. How are they proportioned? 7. What quantity coincides with accent or emphasis ? 8. On what but the vowel sound does quantity depend ? 9. Does syllabic quantity always follow the quality of the vowels ? 10. Where is quantity variable, and where fixed, in English ? 11. What is rhyme ? 12. What is blank verse ? 13. What is remarked concerning the rhyming syllables ? 14. What is a stanza ? 15. What uniform- ity have stanzas ? 16. What variety have they ? LESSON XIX. OF VERSIFICATION. 17. Of what does averse consist? 18. Of what does a poetic foot consist? 19. How many feet do prosodists recognize ? 20. What are the principal feet in English ? 21. W T hat is an Iambus ? 22. What is a Trochee ? 23. What is an Anapest ? 24. What is a Dactyl ? 25. Why are these feet principal ? 26. What orders of verse arise from these ? 27. Are these kinds to be kept separate ? 28. What is said of the secondary feet ? 29. How many and what secondary feet are explained in this code ? 30. What is a Spondee? 31. What is a Pyrrhic ? 32. What is a Moloss ? 33. What is a Tribrach ? 34. What is an Amphi- brach? 35. What is an Amphimac ? 36. What isaBacchy ? 37. What is an Antibacchy ? 38. What is a Caesura ? LESSON XX. OF VERSIFICATION. 39. What are the principal kinds, or orders, of verse ? 40. What other orders are there ? 41. Does the composite order demand any uniformity ? 42. Do the simple orders admit any diversity ? 43. What is meant by scanning or scansion f 44. What mean the technical words, catalectic, acatalectic, and hypertneterf 45. In scansion, why are the principal feet to be preferred to the secondary ? 46. Can a single foot be a line ? 47. W T hat are the several combinations that form dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, and octometer? 48. What syllables have stress in a pure iambic line? 49. What are the several measures of iambic verse ? 50. What syllables have stress in a pure trochaic line ? 51. Can it be right, to regard as hypermeter the long rhyming syllable of a line? 52. la the number of feet in a line to be generally counted by that of the long syllables ? 53. What are the several measures of trochaic verse ? CIIAP. VI.] PROSODY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 867 Li>v(,x XXI. Or VERSIFICATION*. 54. What syllables have stress in a pure anapestic line ? 55. What variation may occur in the first foot ? 56. Is this frequent r 57. Is it ever uniform ? 58. What is the result of a uniform mixture ? 59. Is the anapest adapted to single rhyme ? 60. May a surplus ever make up for a deficiency ? 61. Why are the anapestic measures few r 62. How many syl- lables are found in the longest ? 63. What are the several measures of anapestic verse ? 64. What syllables have stress in a pure dactylic line r 65. With what does single-rhymed dactylic end ? 66. Is dactylic verse very common r 67. What are the several measures of dactylic verse r 68. What is composite verse r 69. Must composites have rhythm: 70. Are the kinds of composite verse numerous? 71. Why have we no exact enumeration of the measures of this order : 72. Does this work contain specimens of different kinds of composite verse r [It may now be required of the pupil to determine, by reading and scansion, the metrical elements of any good English poetry which may be selected for the purpose the feet being marked by pauses, and the long syllables - of voice, lie may also correct orally the few Errors of Metre which are given in the Fifth Section of Chapter IV.] CHAPTER VI. -FOR WRITING. EXERCISES IN PROSODY. ' O* [When the pupil can readily answer all the questions on Prosody, and apply the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted, he should writt out the following exercises, supplying what ia required, and correcting what is amiss. Or, if any teacher choose to exercise his classes orally, by means of these examples, he can Tery well do it ; because, to read words, is always easier than to write them, and even points or poetic feet may be quite as readily named as written.] EXERCISE I. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I. OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. " The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument." " The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing." "The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground." " The first principles of almost all sciences are few." " What he gave me to publish was but a small part." "To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy." "Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence." " To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character." Wilson's Punctuation, p. 38. UNDER RULE II. OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame." "They are gone but the remem- brance of them is sweet." " He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune." " The mind though free has a governor within itself." " They I doubt not oppose the bill on pub- lic principles." " Be silent be grateful and adore." " He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth." " The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong." Exc. I. " He that has far to go should not hurry." " Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed." "Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share." "The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul." Wilson's Punc- tuation, p. 38. Exr. II. "A good name is better than precious ointment." "Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak r " " The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns." UNDER RULE III. OF MORE THAN Two WORDS. " The city army court espouse my cause." " Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors." " Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden." Wit spirits facul- ties but make it worse." " Men wives and children stare cry out and run." "Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness." U Y/.VO//.V Punctuation, p. 29. " Honor, affluer.ee, and pleasure seduce the heart." Ib. p. 31. UNDER RULE IV. OF Two TERMS CONNECTED. " Hope and fear are essentials in religion." " Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls." " We know bodies and their properties most perfectly." " Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable." " Slowly and sadly we laid him down." . I. " God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the outward form of the body." " Gentleness is unn^uminu' in opinion and temperate in zeal." . II. " Ho has experienced prosperity and adversity." "All sin essentially is and o mortal." " Reprove vice but pity the offender." .III. " One person h hairman or moderator." " Duration or time is meas- ured by motion." "The governor or viceroy is chosen annually." IV. " Reflection reason still the tics improve." " His neat plain parlour wants our modern style." " We are fearfully wonderfully made." I'NDI:U RULE V. OK WORDS IN PAIRS. " I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated." " Seed-time and harvest cold and he;.t summer and winter day and night shall not cease." 868 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART IV. EXERCISE II. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE VI. OP WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE. "The night being dark they did not proceed." " There being no other coach we had no alternative." "Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day." "All cir- cumstances considered it seems right." " He that overcometh to him will I give power." " Your land strangers devour it in your presence." "Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! " "With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay; Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! '* UNDER RULE VII. OF WORDS IN APPOSITION. " Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night." "'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day." "The evening star love's harbinger appears." " The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene." "There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah." " Our whole company man by man ventured down." "As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals." " In the same temple the resounding wood All vocal beings hymned their equal God." Exc. I. " The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus." " Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria." " No emperor has been more praised than Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus." Exc. II. " For h.3 went and dwelt by the brook Cherith." " Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph." " The poet, Milton, excelled in prose as well as in verse." Exc. III. "I wisdom dwell with prudence." "Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart." " I tell you that which you yourselves do know." Exc. IV. "I crown thee king of intimate delights." " I count the world a stranger for thy sake." "And this makes friends such miracles below." " God has pronounced it death to taste that tree." " Grace makes the slave a freeman." UNDER RULE VIII: OF ADJECTIVES. " Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight." " Him piteous of his youth soft disen- gage." " I played a while obedient to the fair." " Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies." " Physical science separate from morals parts with its chief dignity." " Then active still and unconfined his mind Explores the vast extent of ages past." " But there is yet a liberty unsung By poets and by senators unpraised." Exc. " I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries." " He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions." " These are the persons, anxious for the change." "Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? " "A man, charitable beyond his means, is scarcely honest." UNDER RULE IX. OF FINITE VERBS. " Poverty wants some things avarice all things." " Honesty has one face flattery two." " One king is too soft and easy an other too fiery." " Mankind's esteem they court and he his own : Theirs the wild chase of false felicities ; His the compos'd possession of the true." EXERCISE III. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE X. OF INFINITIVES. " My desire is to live in peace." " The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts." "To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him." " I made no bargain with you to live always drudging." " To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew." " To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable." " We come not with design of wasteful prey To drive the country force the swains away." UNDER RULE XI. OF PARTICIPLES. " Having given this answer he departed." " Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain." "Eased of her load subjection grows more light." "Death still draws nearer never seeming near." " He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood." " Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee." " Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched." " Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown." " He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave." " Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood." Exc. "He kept his eye fixed on the country before him." "They have their part assigned them to act." " Years will not repair the injuries, done by him." :il.\l>. VI.] PROSODY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 869 UNDER RULE XII. OF ADVI:RI;>. "Yes we both were philosophers." " However Providence saw fit to cross our design." ' Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me." " The fact certainly is much Jtherwise." " For nothing surely can be more inconsistent." UNDEII RULE XIII. OP CONJUNCTI "For in such retirement the soul is strengthened." "It engages our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them also." " But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential mrt." " The English verb is variable ; as love lovcst loves." UNDER RULE XIV. OF PREPOSITIONS. " In a word charity is the soul of social life." " By the bowstring I can repress violence md fraud." " Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity." " With regard ;o morality I was not indifferent." " Of all our senses sight is the most perfect and de- ightful." " UNDER RULE XV. OF INTERJECTIONS. " Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley ! " " O it is more like a dream ;han a reality." " Some wine ho !" " Ha ha ha ; some wine eh ? " " When lo the dying breeze begins to fail, And flutters on the mast the flagging sail." UNDER RULE XVI. OF WORDS REPEATED. " I would never consent never never never." " His teeth did chatter chatter chatter (till." " Come come come come to bed to bed to bed." UNDER RULE XVII. OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. " He cried Cause every man to go out from me.' " " 'Almet ' said he remember what ;hou hast seen.' " " 1 answered Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee.' " EXERCISE IV. PUNCTUATION. I. THE SEMICOLON. Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma and the SEMICOLON where they are requisite. u RULE I. OF COMPOUND MEMBERS. " ' Man is weak' answered his companion ' knowledge is more than equivalent to force.'" To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all judgement is compar- itivo and of the future nothing can be known." " ' Content is natural wealth' says Socrates jo which I shall add 'luxury 'is artificial poverty.' " " Converse and love mankind might strongly draw When love was liberty and nature law." U.vDru RULE II. OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. " Be wise to-day 'tis ma Iness to defer." "The present all their care the future his." Wit makrs an enterpriser sense a man." "Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within." " Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe." " Here an enemy en- xmnters there a rival supplants him." " Our answer to their reasons is No' to their scoffs nothing." " Here subterranean works and cities see There towns aerial on the waving tree." UND; ! II. OF APPOSITION. " In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the dative the ac- cusntive the vocative and the ablative." "Most English nouns form the plural by taking 'ifi>/ brri/a." " Bodies are such as are endued with a ; >le soul as plants a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man." II. THK< ;>>/ the following sentences, ami ///\< rt the Conuna, the Semicolon,, and the COLON. ' ' ' ' :>ITIONAL REMARKS. " Indulge not desire at the expense of the slightest article of virtue pass once its limits and you fall headlong into vice." " Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign.'' " Be- ware of usurpat: - the judge of all." " Bliss ! there is none but unprecarious bliss That is the gem sell all and purchase that." I'M'- rsES. " I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure surely happiness is some- whe-e to be foun.l " "A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obta.n it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simj licity of a pious life." " Observe his awful portrait and admire Nor stop at wonder imitate and live." 870 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART UNDER RULE III. OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. " Such is our Lord's injunction ' Watch and pray.' " " He died praying for his perse- cutors 'Father forgive them they know not what they do." " On the old gentleman's cane was inscribed this motto 'Festina lente.' " III. THE PERIOD. Copy the folloicing sentences, and insert the Comma, the Semicolon, the Colon, and the PERIOD, where they are requisite. UNDER RULE I. OP DISTINCT SENTENCES. " Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was made in the image of God " " In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for he that lives well cannot be despised" UNDER RULE II. OF ALLIED SENTENCES. " Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is to be made be- tween fame and true honour the statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from being honoured " UNDER RULE III. OF ABBREVIATIONS. " Glass was invented in England by Benalt a monk A D 664 " " The Roman era U C commenced A C 1753 years " " Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq " " PLATO a most illustrious philosopher of antiquity died at Athens 348 B C aged 81 his writings are very valuable his language beautiful and correct and his philosophy sublime " See Univ Biog Diet EXERCISE V. PUNCTUATION. I. THE DASH. Copy the following sentences, and insert, in their proper places, the DASH, and such other points as are necessary. EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I. OF ABRUPT PAUSES. " You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it means a famous uniform famous doings What does famous mean " " O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means It means It is a \vord that people say It is the fashion to say it It means it means famous " UNDER RULE II. OF EMPHATIC PAUSES. " But this life is not all there is there is full surely an other state abiding us And if tliere is what is thy prospect O remorseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thou now hearest the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return O yet return to the Father of mercies and live " "The future pleases Why The present pains But that's a secret yes which all men know " II. THE EROTEME. Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the EROTEME, or NOTE OF INTERROGATION, and such other points as are necessary. UNDER RULE I. OF QUESTIONS DIRECT. " Does Nature bear a tyrant's breast | Wears she the despot's purple vest Is she the friend of stern control | Or fetters she the freeborn soul " " Why should a man whose blood is warm within Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster " " Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale " UNDER RULE II. OF QUESTIONS UNITED. " Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore Heav'ns not his own and worlds unknown before Who calls the council states the certain day Who forms the phalanx and who points the way " UNDER RULE III. OF QUESTIONS INDIRECT. " They asked me who I was and whither I was going." " St. Paul asked king Agrippa if he believed the prophets ? But he did not wait for an answer." " Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade " III. THE ECPHONEME. Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the ECPHONEME, or NOTE OF EXCLAMATION, and such other points as are necessary. UNDER RULE I. OF INTERJECTIONS. " Oh talk of hypocrisy after this Most consummate of all hypocrites After instructing ClIAP. VI.] FKOSODY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 871 your chosen official advocate to stand forward with such a defence such an exposition of your motives to dare utter the word hypocrisy and complain of those who charged you with it " Brougham "Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn" " Behold the victor vanquish' d by the worm " " Bliss sublunary Bliss proud word and vain " UNDER RULE II. OF INVOCATIONS. " O Popular Applause what heart of man Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms" " More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound " I'.vDKu RULE III. OF EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. " With what transports of joy shall I be received In what honour in what delightful re- pose shall I pass the remain Jer'of my life What immortal glory shall I have acquired" Hooke's Roman History " How often have I loiter' d o'er thy green Where humble happiness endear'd each scene " IV. THE CUUVES. Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the CURVES, or MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, and such other points as are necessary. UNDER RULE I. OF THE PARENTHESIS. "And all the question wrangle e'er so long Is only this If God has plac'd him wrong " "And who what God foretells who speaks in things Still louder than in words shall dare deny " UNDER RULE II. OF INCLUDED POINTS. " Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave " " Where is that thrift that avarice of time O glorious avarice thought of death inspires " "And oh the last last what can words express Thought reach the last last silence of a friend " 1 ;XERCISE VI. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require. As one of them opened his sack he espied his money" "They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him " " The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners " " Great in- jury those vermin mice and rats do in the field" " It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him " " Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable " " By this time the very foundation was removed " " The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen " " Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm " " How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I am stationed here to no purpose " Harris " In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to have no parallel in story " " Dionysius the tyrant of Si.-ily was far from being happy " " I ask now Torres what thou hast to advance " " Excess began and sloth sustains the trade " " Fame can never recon- cile a man to a death bed" They that sail on the sea tell of the danger" "Be doers of the word and not hearers only" ' The storms of wintry time will quickly pass" 41 Here Hope that smiling angel stands" " Disguise I see thou art a wickedness " "There are no tricks in plain and simple faith" "True love strikes root in reason passion's foe" " Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain" "I am satisfied My son has done his duly" " Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen" " I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise" "The knowledge which I have received I will com- municate " " Hut I am not yet happy and therefore I despair" Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy " " Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue " "In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity" "This being the case I am astonished and amazed " " These men approached him and saluted him king " " Excel- lent and obliging sages these undoubtedly " " Yet at the same time the man himself un- dergoes a change" " One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions" " You heroes regard nothing but glory" "Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall " " Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition " " Nay some awe of rcli- gio i may still subsist" "Then said lie Lo I come to do thy will O God" Bible "As for me behold 1 am in your hand " lb. " Can any hide himself in secret places that I shall not see him saith the Lord" Jcr xxiii 24 " Now I Paul myself beseech you" " Now for a recompense in the same I speak as unto my children be ye also enlarged" 2 Cor vi 13 " lie who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he who retires remains calm" " Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you" " This text speaks only of tho*e to whom it speaks " " Y'ea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm " " King Agrippa believest thou the prophets" 872 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. EXERCISE VII. PUNCTUATION. Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require. To whom can riches give repute or trust Content or pleasure but the good and just Pope To him no high no low no great no small He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id Reasons whole pleasure all the joys of sense Lie in three words health peace and competence Id Not so for once indulgd they sweep the main Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon Say will the falcon stooping from above Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope Throw Egypts by and offer in its stead Offer the crown on Berenices head Id Falsely luxurious will not man awake And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Thomson Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be So far from aught romantic what I sing Young Thyself first know then love a self there is Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id How far that little candle throws his beams So shines a good deed in a naughty world Shakspeare You have too much respect upon the world They lose it that do buy it with much care Id How many things by season seasond are To their right praise and true perfection Id Canst thou descend from converse with the skies And seize thy brothers throat For what a clod Young In two short precepts all your business lies Would you be great be virtuous and be wise Denham But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed "What then is the reward of virtue bread Pope A life all turbulence and noise may seem To him that leads it wise and to be praisd But wisdom is a pearl with most success Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies Cowper All but the swellings of the softend heart That waken not disturb the tranquil mind Thomson Inspiring God who boundless spirit all And unremitting energy pervades Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole Id Ye ladies for indifferent in your cause I should deserve to forfeit all applause Whatever shocks or gives the least offence To virtue delicacy truth or sense Try the criterion tis a faithful guide Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side. Coicper EXERCISE VIII. SCANNING. Divide the following VERSES into the feet which compose them, and distinguish by marks the lon^ and the short syllables. Example L"Our Daily Paths. 1 ' By F. Remans. " There's Beauty all around our paths, if but our watchful eyes Can trace it 'midst familiar things, and through their lowly guise ; We may find it where a hedgerow showers its blossoms o'er our way, Or a cottage-window sparkles forth in the last red light of clay." Example II. "Fetching Water" Anonymous. " Early on a sunny morning, while the lark was singing sweet, Came, beyond the ancient farmhouse, sounds of lightly-tripping feet. 'Twas a lowly cottage maiden, going, why, let young hearts tell, With her homely pitcher laden, fetching water from the well." Example III. Deity. Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, And all immensity of space thy presence fills : For thou alone art God ; as God thy saints adore thee; Jehovah is thy name ; they have no gods before thee. G. Brown. CHAP. VI.] PROSODY. EXERCISES FOR WRITING. 873 Example IV. Impenitence. The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore ; As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, Yet barren and fruitless remain as before. G. Brown. Example V. Piety. Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love ; Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, Rising unearthly, and soaring above. G. Brown. Example VLA Simile. The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. G. Brotcn. Example VILA Simile. " Yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd Innumerable. As when the potent rod Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, That o'er the realm of impiout Pharaoh hung Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile." Milton. Example VIII. Elegiac Stanzi. Thy name is dear 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! G. Brown. Example IX. Cupid. Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant With the sweetest odours of the spring, O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. G. Brown. Example X. Divine Power. When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, And the billows tremendously rose, The Saviour but utter' d the word, They were hush'd to the calmest repose. G. Broicn. Example XL Invitation. Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, Come from the den of the lion ; Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, Come to the mountain of Zion. G. Brown. Example XII. Admonition. In the days of thy youth, I O ! forsake not his truth, Remember thy God : Incur not his rod. G. Brown. Example XIII. Commendation. Constant and duteous, I How art thou beauteous, Meek as the dove, Daughter of love ! G. Broom. I AERCISE IX. SCANNING. Mark the feet and tyllablcs which compose the following lines or mark a sample of each metre . Edwin, an Ode. I. 8TUOPHE. Led by the pow'r of song, and nature's love, Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, The mountain grove Would Edwin rove In pensive mood, alone ; And seek the woody dell, Where noontide shadows fell, Cheering, Veering, Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known 61 874 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. [PART iv. When nought was heard around But sooth' d the rest profound Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) The elemental conflict wild ; When, fold on fold, above was pil'd The watery swathe, careering on the wind. Such scenes he saw With solemn awe, As in the presence of the Eternal Mind. Fix'd he gaz'd, Tranc'd and rais'd, Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd, II. ANTISTROPHE. Ileckless of dainty joys, he finds delight Where feebler souls but tremble with affright. Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, A black impending cloud Infolds him in its shroud, And dark and darker glooms the scene. Through the thicket streaming, Lightnings now are gleaming; Thunders rolling dread, Shake the mountain's head ; Nature's war Echoes far, O'er ether borne. That flash The ash Has scath'd and torn ! Now it rages ; Oaks of ages, Writhing in the furious blast, Wide their leafy honours cast ; Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : Deep rooted in the crevic'd rock, The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. III. EPODE. 4 O Thou who sitst above these vapours dense, And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence ! Making the collied cloud thy car, Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, Thy blessings to dispense. The early and the latter rain, Which fertilize the dusty plain, Thy bounteous goodness pours. Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd ! All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord ! And works thy gracious will ; At thy command the tempest roars, At thy command is still. Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides ; 'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides The ardent solar beam ; While, from the volley'd breast of heaven, Transient gleams of dazzling light, Flashing on the balls of sight, Make darkness darker seem. Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven The tempest-driven Cloud is riven ; And the thirsty mountain-side Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' So breath' d young Edwin, when the summer shower, From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, With lightning flash and thunder loud, Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. G. Brown. THE END OF PART FOURTH. KEY TO THE IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, CONTAINED IX THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, AH D DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES UNDER ALL THE RULES AND NOTES OF THE WORK. OT7" [The various examples of error which are exhibited for oral correction, in the Grammar of English Gram- mars, are all here explained, in their order, by full amended readings, sometimes with authorities specified, and generally with references of some sort. They are intended to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the fbrmules given under corresponding heads in the Grammar. Some portion, at least, under each rule or note, should be u:-ed in this way ; and the rest, perhaps, may be read and compared more simply.] THE KEY -PART I -ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. OF LETTERS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING CAPITALS. UNDER RULE I. OF BOOKS. lany a reader of the Bible knows not who wrote the Acts of the Apostles." G. B. " The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the Chronicles." ALGER'S HIHLF. : Neh. xii, 23. " Are they not written in the book of the Acts of Solomon ? " FRIENDS' BIBT.K : 1 Kings, xi, 41. " Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Is- rael " AI.CKU rouui:cTKi> : 1 Kinos, xxii, 39. " Are they not written in the book of the Chron- icles of the Kings of Judah." See ALGER: ib.ver. 45. " Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the Psalms." ALGER, ET AL. : Luke, xxiv, 44. " The narrative of which may he seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish IVar." Dr. Scottcor. [OBS. The word in Jose- phus is " \Var t " not "Wars." (/. Brown.] " This History of the Jewish War was Josephus's iirst work, and published about A. D. 75." Whiston cor. ''! have read,' says Photius. 'the ('/irlo(/y of Justus of Tiberias.' " Id. "A Philosophical (iratnmar, written by James Harris, Esquire." Murray cor. " The reader is referred to Stroud's Sketch of the Slave Laws." A. S. Ma,/, car. " But God has so made the Bible that it interprets itself." Idem. " In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the Psalter." Gardiner cor. " Gardiner says this of Sternhold ; of whom the t'/n'r<-r\ kinsj of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy Land with Charlemagne." U. Di.-f. r<>r. Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the (irain Coast from the Ivory Coast." Diet, of (r/'o.f. ror. " The North Esk, flowing from Loch Let, falls into the sea three miles north of Mon- trose." Id. both coasts Laurel Ridge, United States of America. OBS. This construction I dislike. Without hyphens, it is improper : and with them it is not to be com- mended. See Syntax, Obs. 24th on Rule IV. O. B. t On the pag; j here referred to, the author of the Gazetteer has written "Charles city," &c. Analogy requires that the words be compounded, because they constitute three names which are applied to counties, and not to MM. I OBB. The following word*, ax names of ton-nx. come under Rule 6th, and are commonly found correctly compounded in the book* of Scotch geography and statistics : "Strathaven, Stonehaven, Strathdcn, Qlenluce, Grtenlaw. Coldstream, Lochwinnooh, Lochcarron, Locbmaber, Prestonpans, Prestonkirk, Peterhead, Queenbferrv, NewmilU," and many more like them. $ OBS. Thi.* name, in lx>th the Vulgate and the Septuajrint. is Pharao Nechao. with two captitals and no hy- phen. Walker RITCS the two words separately in his Key, and spells the latter Kecfio, and not Nechok. See the same orthography in Jer. xlvi, 2. In our common Bibles. \\\-\\\\ such names are needlessly, if not improperly, compounded: sometimes with one capital, and sometimes with two. The proper manner of writing Scripture names, is too little regarded even by good men and biblical critics. 878 GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ORTHOGRAPHY. [PART I. Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826." Williams cor. " The loftiest peak of the White Moun- tains, in New Hampshire, is called Mount Washington." G. Brown. " Mount's Bay, in the west of England, UPS between the Land's End and Lizard Point." Id. " Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica." Diet, of Geoa. " Rhodes, an isl- and of the Egean Sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades." Id. cor. " But he over- threw Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea." SCOTT: Ps. cxxxvi, 15. " But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red Sea." ALGER, FRIENDS : Ps. cvi, 7 UNDER RULE IX. OF APPOSITION. "At that time, Herod the tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus." SCOTT, FRIENDS, ETAL. : Matt, xiv, 1. " Who has been more detested than Jxidas the traitor? " G. Brown. " St. Luke the evangelist was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul." Id. " Luther, the reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences." Id. " The poet Lydg'ate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440." Id. ' The grammarian Varro, * the most learned of the Romans,* wrote three books when he was eighty years old." Id. (i John Despauter, the great grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520." Id. " Nero, the emperor and tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death." Id. "Cicero the orator, ' the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64." Id. " Eurip- ides, the Greek tragedian, was born in the island of Salamis, B. C. 476." Id. "I will say unto God my rock, Why hast thou forgotten me ? " ALGER, ET AL. : Ps. xlii, 9. " Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York city." Williams cor. "When the son of Atreus, king of men, and the noble Achilles first separated." Coleridge cor. " Hermes, his patron-god, those gifts bestow'd, Whose shrine with weanling lambs he wont to load." Pope cor. UNDER RULE X. OF PERSONIFICATIONS. " But Wisdom is justified of all her children." FRIENDS' BIBLE : Luke, vii, 35. " Fortune when personified." " Go to Sherlock. "O Death! 55 ; Merchant's Gram. 172. " Ye cannot serve God and Mammon." Matt, vi, 21. " Ye cannot serve God and Mam- Religion. I am the offspring of Truth and Love, and the parent of Benevolence, Hope, and Joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called Superstition : she is called the child of Discontent, and her followers are Fear and Sorrow.' " E. Carter. " Neither Hope nor Fear could enter the retreats ; and Habit had so absolute a power, that even Conscience, if Relicion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance." Dr. John . : s ; " (as it is in /V.v/.'.s (inimmar, p. 57 ;) for the sentence, as it stands in Murray, is ambiguous. " In the History of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at no't finding him the great in in." Smollett's 1'oltairc, Vol. v, p. 82. " Do not those same poor peasant* u>e tin- /rrt-r, and the ir<-dgc, and many other instruments ?" Harris a,id Mur. (or. Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of liquors ; geometry, fur the measuring o:' estates i astronomy, for the making <>' . and . ISr> n-n. " Schoolmas- ters and schoolmistresses, if honest friends, are to be encouraged." Discip. cor. " We never as- sumed to ourselves a. faith-making or a worship-making power." Barclay cor. " Potash and pearlosh are made from common ashes." Webster cor. Both the ten tyliable and the eif/ht-s-yl- lable verses are iambics." Blair cor. " I say to myself, thou sai/st to thyself, he says to /> &c." Dr. Murray cor. " Or those who have esteemed themselves skillful, have 'tried for the mastery in tiro-horse or four-horse chariots." Ware cor. "I remember him barefooted and bareheaded, running through the streets." Edyncorth cor. " Friends have the entire control of ihescJioo/Jiouse and dwelling-house." Or : "of the school houses and dirtll ing-houses." Or: "of the scfioolhouse and the direlling-houses." Or : " of the scJioolJiomes and the dtn-Uing-Jiottse." Or : " of \\\e school, undo ft/it- dice! ling-houses." [For the sentence here to be corrected is eo ambiguous, that any of these may have been the meaning intended by it.] The Friend cor. " The meeting in held at the Jirst-mentioned place in Firstmonth ; at the lust-mentioned, in Second/nonth ; and so on." Id. " Meetings for worship arc held, at the same hour, on Firstday and Fourth day." Or : "on First day a and Fourthdays." Id. " Every part of it, inside and outside, is covered with gold leaf." Id. " The Kastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last Seventh day in Second month, FifthmoiitJi. Eitihlhmonth, and Elt'.rcnthmonth." Id. ' Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third Fifthday in each month, at ten o'clock ; meetings for worship [are held,] at the same hour, on Firs/days and Fifthdnys" Id. " Ketch, a vessel with two ma>ts, a mainmast and a nii-zen/nmif " \\\''istcr cor. " I only mean to susgest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted her- self [either] as a Cis- Atlantic or [as a] Trans-Atlantic partisan." Jefferson cor. " Bv large hammers, like those used for paper-mills and fulling-mills, they beat their hemp." Johnson cor. 'ANT-HILL, or ANT-HILLOCK, . A sm&\\ protuberance of earth, formed by ants, for their habitat ion." Id. " It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms ctliedjMtmamal or pronouns." " Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable To light of star or sun., their umbrage spread." Milton cor. V. THE IlYiMtr.x. " Er il-th inking ; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking; singular number ;" \'c. Churchill cor. " Evil-speaking ; a noun, compounded of the noun i-cil and the imperfect participle speaking." Id. "I am a tall, broad-shouldered, impudent, black fellow." Sj,cet. or Joh. cor. " Ingratitude ! thou marble-hearted fiend." Shak. or Joh. cor. " A popular // i//sc is indeed the many-headed tyranny." Sidney or Joh. cor. "He from the many- / city flies." S mdy.v m Joh. cor. "He matty*l*nffltaged nations has surveyed." Pope or Joh. cor " The hor- is the large green cucumber, and the best for the tablt>." Mart, or Joh. cor. " The bird of night did sit, even at noon-day, upon the market-place. 1 ' Shak. or Joh. cor. " These make a general gaol-delivery of souls not for punishment " South or Joh. cor. " Thy air, thou other gold-bound brow, is like the first." Shak. or Joh. cor " His person formed to the highest degree; flat-nosed and blobber-lipped." L'Estr. or Joh. cor. "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a blood-shedder." Ecc/ns. xxxiv, 22. "Bloody-minded, udj., from bloody and mind; Cruel, inclined to bloodshed." Johnson cor. "Blunt-witted lord, ig- noble in demeanour." Shak. or Joh. cor. "A young fellow, with a bob-wig and a black silken bag tied to it." S/>cr(. or Joh. cor. " I have seen enough to confute all the bold-faced atheists of this age." BrctmaaU or Joh. cor. "Before milk-white, now purple with love's wound." Joh. Diet. " For what dse is a red-hot iron than fire ? and what else is a burning coal than red-hot wood ? " \' trton or Joh. cor. "/ V/-< -r//is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume, in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck, just between the ears." Far. or Joh. cor. " Quick-witted, brazen-far' d, with fluent tongues, Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs." Dryden cor. RULE VI. No HYPHEN. " From his fond parent's eye a teardrop fell." Snellint/ cor. " How great, poorjackdaw, would thy sutieriiu's he ! " Id. " Placed, like a s'-nrerrou- in a field of corn." Id. " Soup for the alms- . t a i , nt a quart." Id. " Up into the ica(c/>toirer get, and see all things despoiled of fal- lacieN." l)ii,ie oi Joh. cor. " In the dai/time she [Fame] sitteth in a iratchtoicer, and flietb most by night." ]in<-o/i or Juh. cur. " The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the ground' : his instruction." Dryd. or Joh cor. " Madam's own haiM the mousetrap baited." Prior or Jn/i mi-. " By the sinking of the airshaft, the air has liberty to circulate." Riiy or Joh. cor. " Tin- multiform and ama/inir operations of the airpump and the loadstone." Watts or Joh. cor. ' Many of the ///' !///,;., are i:am d from animals." Jnfinsun cur. You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an cr/.tkin." Shak. or Joh. tor. They may serve as landmarks, to show what lies in the direct way of truth." L<><-k>- or Juh cor. "A packhorse is driven constant- ly in a narrow lar.e and dirty road." Locke or Juh. ><-. "A /// ///horse, still bound to go in one circle." Sidney or Joh. cor. " Of singing birds, they have linnets, qohlfinches, ruddocks, Canary birds, hl'idihirilx, thrushes, and divers oth or Joh. cor. "Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with r .- [or, rather, containing the tntire charge of a gun]." Joh cor. " Deep i.i^tit, dark night, tlie silent of thtf night, The time of night when Troy was set on fire, The time when .v ry, and bandogs howl." \ Ksi-K.vur. : in Johnson's Diet. w. Screechoicl. PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS IX THE FIGURE OF \VORDS. >\ I. MlXK!) EX.VMI'IJS. " They that live in glass houses, should not throw stones." Adage. " If a man profess Chris- tianity in any manner or form irh a member of it." Id. " But will our sage writers on law forever think by tradition ? " Id. " Some still retain a sovereign power in their territories." Id. " They yell images, prayers, the sound of bells, remission of sins, &e." Perkins cor. " And the law had sacrifices offered every day, for the sins of all the people." Id. " Then it may please the Lord, they shall find it to be a restorative." Id. " Perdition is repent- ance put off till a future day." Maxim cor. " The angels of God, who tcill good and cannot will evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of will" Perkins cor. " Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of all sin." Id. "Knell, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral." Diet. cor. " If gold with dross or grain with c/ntjf you find, Select and leave the chaff and dross behind." G. Brown. RULE II. OTHER FINALS. " The mob hath many heads, but no brains." Maxim cor. "Clam ; to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter." See Webster's Diet. "W/ntr; to pronounce the letter r with too much force." Sec ih. "Flip; a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirit sweetened." See ib. "Glyn; a hollow between two mountains, a glen." See Walker's Diet. "Lam, or belam ; to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon." See Red Book. "Bun; a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread." S,-i- IIVW/v'.v l)i,-t. "Brunei, or Brunette; a woman with a brown complexion." See ib. and Butt's Diet. " Wad set ; an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland." To dod sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails." Id. "In aliquem arietare. Cic. To run full butt at one." W. Walker cor. "Neither your policy nor your tem- per would permit you to kill me." Phil. Mu. cor. " And admit none but his own offspring to fulfill them." Id. "The sum of all this dispute is, that some make them Participles."/?. Johnson cor. " As, the ichittliny of winds, ttie buzz and hum of insects, the hiss of serpents, the crash of falling timber." Murray's Gram. p. 331. " Van ; to winnow, or a fan for winnow- ing." See. So//. " Creatures that buzz, are very commonly such as will sting." G. Brown. "ll<' : /. buy, or borrow; but beware how you find." Id. " It is better to have a house to let, than a house to yet." Id. "Let not your tongue cut your throat." Preceptcor. "A little wit will save a fortunate rnan." Adage cor. " There is many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip." Id. " Mothers' darlings make but milksop heroes." Id. " One eye-witness is worth ten hearsays." " The judge shall job, the bishop bite the town, And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown." POPE: in Johnson's Diet. 10. Job. RULE III. DOUBLING. " Friz, to curl ; frizzed, curled ; frizzing, curling." Webster cor. " The commercial interests served to foster the principles of Whiyyism." Payne cor. "Their extreme indolence shunned every species of labour." Robertson cor " In poverty and stripped-ness, they attend their little meetings." The Friend cor. " In guiding and controlling the power you have thus obtained." Abbott cor. "1 began, Thou beyannest or beyanst, He began, &c." A. Murray COT. "Why docs began change its ending ; as, I began, Thou beyannest or buyanst f " Id. " Truth and con- science' cannot be controlled by any methods of coercion." Hints cor. "Dr. Webster nodded, water." See Johnson's Diet. " Pottager ; (from pottage ;) a porringer, a small vessel for chil- dren's food." See ib. " Coinpromit, compromised, c o m/>rom itting ; manumit, manumitted, manu- mitting." Webster cor. "Inftrnbic , that may be inferred or deduced from premises." Walker. " Acids are either solid, liquid, or gasseous." Gregory cor. "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the y asses." Id. " Do we sound yasses and /v like cases and caseotis? No: they are more like glasses and osseous." G. Broion. "I shall not need here to mention Sirimming, when he is of an age able to learn." Locke cor. " Why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two Ens, and dimmish and rammish with one Em, each ? " C. liroiot. "Gas forms the plural regularly, yasses." Peirce cor. " Sin- gular, gas; Plural, yasses." Clark cor. "These are contractions from shed ded, burst cd." //'- It-It < or. " The Present Tense denotes what is occurring at the present time." Day cor. " The verb ending in i-th is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, He loveth, He walketh, He run- neth." Davis cor. " Thro' Freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings, Degrading nobles and controlling kings." Johnson. Rn.E IV. No DOUHLIXO. "A bigoted and tyrannical clergy will be feared." See Johnson, Walker, &c. " Jacob worshiped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff." Murray's Key. 8vo, p. 16-3. " For it is all inurcel- /.v/y destitute of interest." See Johnson, Walker, and Worcester. "As, box, boxes ; church, "Wvrship makes worshiped, worshiper, worshipiny\; gossip, gossiped, //o.s.v ipcr, gossiping ; Jillip, jWijKd,jilliper, f fillipiny." Web. Diet. " I became as J'd;;ety as a rly in a milk-jug. See ib. " That eno -mous error'seems'to be riveted in popular opinion." See ib. " Whose mind is not biased by personal attachments to a sovereign." See ib. " Laws against usury originated in a biyotid 88G GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ORTHOGRAPHY. [PART I. prejudice against the Jews." Webster cor. " The most critical period of life is usually between thirteen and seventeen." Id. "Generalissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force." Every Diet. "Tranquilize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful." Webster's Diet. "Pommelled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword-hilt." Webster et al. cor. "From what a height does the jeweller look down upon his shoemaker!" Red Book cor. " You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow-traveller." Id. " I observe that you have writ- ten the word counselled with one I only." Ib. " They were offended at such as combated these notions." Robertson cor. "From libel, come libelled, libeller, libelling, libellous; from grovel, yrovelled, groveller, grovelling ; from gravel, gravelled and gravelling." Webster cor. " Woolliness, the state of being woolly." Worcester's Diet. " Yet he has spelled chapelling, bordeller, medal- ist, metaline, metalist, metalize, clavellated, &c., with II, contrary to his rule." Webster cor. "Again, he has spelled cancellation and snivelly with single I, and cupellation, pannellation, wit- tolly, with II." Id. "Oily, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib." Walker cor. "Medalist, one curious in medals; Metalist, one skilled in metals." Walker's Rhym. Diet. " He is benefited" Webster. " They travelled for pleasure." Clark cor. " Without you, what were man ? A grovelling herd, In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd." Beattie cor. RULE V. FINAL CK. " He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic." Kirkham corrected. " The leading object of every public speaker should be, to persuade." Id. " May not four feet be as poetic as five ; or fifteen feet, as poetic as fifty ? " Id. "Avoid all theatrical trick and mimicry, and especially all scholastic stiffness." Id. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in music, or in mathematics, or in logic, without long and close application to the subject." Id. "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of metallic and magnetic excitement, were also very extraordi- nary." Id. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an epidemic." Id. "What can prevent this republic from soon raising a literary standard?" Id. "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon topics quite foreign to the subject before me." Id. 11 Of the Tonic, Subtonic, and Atonic elements." Id. " The subtonic elements are inferior to the tonics, in all the emphatic and elegant purposes of speech." Id. " The nine atonies and the three abrupt subtonics cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabic impulse."* Id. " On scientific principles, conjunctions and prepositions are [not] one [and the same] part of speech." Id. "That some inferior animals should be able to mimick human articulation, will not seem wonderful." L. Murray cor. " When young, you led a life monastic, And wore a vest ecclesiastic ; Now, in your age, you grow fantastic." Denham's Poems, p. 235. RULE VI. RETAINING. "Fearlessness ; exemption from fear, intrepidity." Johnson cor. "Dreadlcssness ; fearlessness , in- trepidity, undauntedness.'' Id. " Regardlessly , without heed ; Rcgardlessness, heedlessness." Id. "Blamelessly, innocently; Blamelessness, innocence." Id. "That is better than to be flattered into pride and carelessness." Id. " Good fortunes began to breed a proud recklessness in th< m." Id. " See whether he lazily and listlessly dreams away his time." Id. " It may be, the p; late of the soul is indisposed by listlessness or sorrow." Id. "Pitilessly, without mercy ; Pitiless ness, unmercifulness." Id. " What say you to such as these ? abominable, accordable, agreeable, c." Tooke cor. "Artlessly; naturally, sincerely, without craft." Johnson cor. "A chillness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever." See Webster. " Smallncss; littleness, mir.ute- ness, weakness." Walker's Diet, ct al. "Galless, adj. Free from gall or bitterness." Webster cor. "Tallness ; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness" Webster's Diet. "Willful; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible." See ib. " He guided them by the skill- fiMtess of his hands." See ib. "The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof." FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps. xxiv, 1. " What is now, is but an amassment of imaginary conceptions." Glanville cor. "Embarrassment ; perplexity, entanglement." Walker. " The second is slothfulness, where- by they are performed slackly and carelessly." Perkins cor. "Installment ; induction into office, part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time." See Webster's Diet. "Inthrall- ment ; servitude, slavery, bondage." Ib. " 1, who at some times spend, at others spare, Divided between carelessness and care." Pope cor. RULE VII. RETAINING. "Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells." Lowth's Gram. p. 41; 38; Cooper's, 51 ; Lennie's,26. " There are a few compound irregular verbs, as befall, bt-tijj Ash cor. " That we might frequently recall it to our memory." Calvin cor. " The a Comly's, i-spcak, Sec." -Ash cor. " That we might frequently recall it to our memory." Calvin cor. " The angels ex- ercise a constant solicitude that no evil befall us." Id. "Inthrall; to enslave, to shackle, to re- duce to servitude." Johnson. "He makes resolutions, o.r\^. fulfills them by new ones." See Webster. " To enroll my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution." See Webster. " Forestall ; to anticipate, to take up beforehand." Johnson. "Miscall; to call wrong, to name improperly." Webster. "Beth-rail; to enslave, to reduce to bondage." Id. "Befall; to hap- pen to, to come to pass." Walker's Diet. " Unroll ; to open what is rolled or convolved." Web- ster's Diet. "Counterroll ; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds." See ib. "As Sisyphus tiprolls a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit." G. Brown. "Unwell; not well, indisposed, not in good health." Webster. "Undersell ; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other." Johnson. "Inwall; to enclose or fortify with a wall." Id. "Twibill; an instrument with two bills, or with a point and a blade ; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battleaxe." Diet. cor. " What you miscall their folly, is their care." Dry den cor. "My heart * Kirkham borrowed this doctrine of " Tonics, Subtonics. and Atonies," from Rush ; and dresged it up in his own worse bombast. See Obs. 13 and 14, on the Powers of the Letters. G. B. CHAP. IV. J KEY TO FALSE ORTHOGRAPHY. - SPELLING. 887 will sigh when I miscall it so." SJtak. cor. " But if the arrangement recalls one set of ideas more readily than an other." Murray's Gram. Vol. i, p. 334. " "Tis done ; ana since 'tis done, 'tis past recall ; And since 'tis past recall, must be forgotten." Dryden cor. RI-LE VIII. FINAL LL. "The righteous is taken away from the evil to come." Isaiah, Ivii, 1. "Patrol; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes." See Joh. Dirt. " Mar- shal ; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order." See ib. "HWr//,- a de- structive grub that gets among corn." See ib. " It much excels all other studies and arts." }V. Walker cor. " It is essential to all magnitudes, to be in one place." Perkins cor. " By nature I was thy vassal, but Christ hath redeemed me." Id. " Some, being in want, pray for 'temporal blessings." Id. " And this the Lord doth, either in temporal or in spiritual benefits." Id. " He makes an idol of them, by setting his heart on them." Id. " This trial by desertion serveth for two purposes." Id. " Moreover, this destruction is both perpetual and terrible." Id. " Giv- ing to several men several gifts, according to his good pleasure." /(/. "Until; to some time, pl.u-e, or degree, mentioned." See Diet. "Annul; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish." See Diet. " Nitric acid combined with argil, forms the nitrate of argil." Gregory cor. " Let modest Foster, if he will, excel Ten metropolitans in preaching well." Pope cor. RULE IX. FINAL E. " Adjectives ending in able signify capacity ; as, comfortable, tenable, improvable." Priestley cor. " Their mildness and hospitality are ascribablc to a general administration of religious ordinances." Webster cor. " Retrench as much as possible without obscuring the sense." J. Brown cor. "Changeable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable." Walker cor. "Tamable, suscep- tive of taming; Untamable, not to be tamed." Id. "Reconcilable, Unreconcilable, Reconcilable- ness ; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness." Johnson cor. " We have thought it most advisable to pay him some little attention." Merchant cor. "Provable, that may be proved ; Ileprovable, blamable, worthy of reprehension." Walker cor. "Movable and Immovable, Morably and Immovably, Movables and Removal, Movablcness and Improvableness, Unremovable and Unimprovable, Unremovably and Removable, Provable and Approvable, Irrcprovable and Reprovable, Unreprovable and Improvable, Unimprovablcncss and Improvably." Johnson cor. " And with this cruelty you are chargeable in some measure yourself." Collier cor. " Mothers would certainly resent it, zsjitdying it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex." Brit. Gram. cor. "Tithable, subject to the payment of tithes ; Salable, vendible, fit for sale ; Losable, possible to be lost; Sizable, of reasonable bulk or size." See Webster's Diet. "When he began this custom, he VISA puling and very tender." Locke cor. " The plate, coin, revenues, and movables, Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd." Shak. cor. RULE X. FINAL E. "Diversely; indifferent ways, differently, variously." See Walker's Diet. " The event thereof contains a wholesome instruction." Bacon cor. " Whence Scaliger falsely concluded that Arti- cles were useless." Briyhtland cor. " The child that we have just seen, is wholesomely fed." Murray cor. " Indeed, falsehood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince." Collier cor* " In earnest, at this rate* of management, thou usest thyself very coarsely." Id. " To give them an arrant/ement and a diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit. "'Murray cor. "Alger's ( Jrummar is only a trifling enlargement of Murray's little Abridgement." G. Brown. " You ask whether you are to retain or to omit the mute e in the words, judgement, abridgement, acknowledge/in '/it, lodgement, adjndt/r/m nt, and prejudgement ." tied Book cor. " Fertileness, fruitfulness ; fertilely, fruitfully, abundantly." Johnson cor. "Chastely, purely, without con- tamination; Chastencss, chastity, purity." Id. "Rhymester, n. One who makes rhymes ; a ver- sifier ; a mean poet." Walker t Chalmers, Maunder, Worcester. "It is therefore a heroical mrnt to dispossess this imaginary monarch." Berkley cor. "Whereby is not meant the present time, as h . 'nut the time past." R. Johnson cor. " So far is this word from af- fecting the noun, in regard to its t<-t/y rt/uiralrnt."] Id. " Both these tenses may represent a fu- turity, implied by the dependence of the elans--." /,/. Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial ; Shy, shirr, shiest, shi/ij, .v/r/w.v.v , Fly, Hies, flying, flier, high-flier ; Sly.'.sVar, sliest, slily, sliness ; Spy, spies, spying, Ipied. espial ; Dry, drier, driest, drily, driness." Cobb, l\'< l tst>-r, >id Chalmers cor. " I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandizrtti- at her piano." Kirkham cor. "Send her away: for she crieth after us." Matt, xv, 23. " IVIKD, a. overgrown with ivy." Ct>bb's Diet., and Mtn/}ff>./s wait." T. O. ChurchiWs Gram. p. 326. >\ II. Mixrn K \\MI-LES. of the rolls ; ( '.mnfr/ -rulhnent, a counter account." Id. ".Millennium, [from mille and annus,] the nd." .See Johnson s Dirt. "Millennial, [[ikesep- thousand years during which Satan shall be bound. lt &c.,] pertaining to the millennium, or to a thousand years." See M '"/ distinguishec What should be repeated, is left to their discretion." Id. " Because they are abstracted or sep- arated from material substances." Id. " All motion is in time, and therefore, icherercr it exists, implies time as its concomitant." Harris's Hermes, p. 9-5. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blamable spelling." Brit. Gram. cor. " They will always be ignorant, ana of rough, There is, in most English dictionaries, a contracted form of this phrase, written prithee, or I prithee ; but Dr. Johnson censures it as a familiar corruption, which some writers have injudiciously used ; " and, as the abbrevia- tion amounted to nothing but the slurring of one vowel sound into an other, it baa now, I think, Ttry deservedly bt coine obsolete. Q. BROWN. 62 890 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ETIMOLOGY. [PART II. uncivil manners." Webster cor. " This fact will hardly be believed in the northern states." Id. " The province, however, was harassed with disputes." Id. " So little concern has the legislature for the interests of learning.' 1 Id. " The gentlemen will not admit that a schoolmaster can be a gentleman." Id. " Such absurd quid-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided." Churchill cor. " When we say of a man, ' He looks slily ; ' we signify, that he takes a sly glance or peep at something." Id. "Peep; to look through a crevice ; to look narrowly, closely, or slili/." Web- ster cor. " Hence the confession has become a hackneyed proverb." Waylandcor. " Not to men- tion the more ornamental parts of gilding, varnish, &c." Tooke cor. "After this system of self- interest had been riveted." Dr. Broinn cor. " Prejudice might have prevented the cordial ap- probation of a bigoted Jew." Dr. Scott cor. " All twinkling with the dewdrop sheen, The brier-rose fell in streamers green." Sir W. Scott cor. LESSON III. MIXED EXAMPLES. ; The infinitive mood has, commonly, the sign to before it." Harrison cor. " Thus, it is advisa- lengths, intermixed, forma Pindaric poem.'' Priestley cor. " He'll surprise you." Frost cor. " Unequalled archer ! why was this concealed?" Knowles. "So gayly curl the waves before each dashing prow." Byron cor. " When is a diphthong called a proper diphthong ?" Inf. S. Gram. cor. " How many .Esses would the word then end with ? Three ; for it would be goodnesses." Id. "Qu. What is a triphthong? Ans. A triphthong is a coalition of three vowels in one syllable." Bacon cor. " The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately ." Murray. " The cubic foot of matter which occupies the centre of the globe." Cardellcor. " The wine imbibes oxygen, or the acidifying principle, from the air.'' Id. "Charcoal, sulphur, and nitre, make gunpowder," Id. " It would be readily understood, that the thing so labelled was a bottle of Madeira wine." Id. " They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchan- dise." Matt, xxii, o. "A diphthong is the union of two vowels, both in one syllable." Russell cor. " The professors of the Mohammedan religion are called Mussulmans." Maltby cor. " This shows that let is not a mere sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb." Id. " Those preterits and participles which are firstTmentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible." Murray's Gram. 107; Fish's, 81 ; Ingersoll's, 103. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by c,r and cst ; and dissyllables, by more and most." Murray's Gram. p. 47. " This termination, added to a noun or an adjective, changes it into a verb : as, modern, to modernize ; a symbol, to symbol- ize." Churchill cor. "An Abridgement of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others." Maltby's Gram. p. 2. "For the sake of occupying the room vantageously, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at." Nutting cor. " So contend- ed the accusers of Galileo." O. B. Peirce cor. Murray says, " They were travelling post when/ie met them." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 69. " They fulfill the only purposes for which they we ' " ' designed." Peirce cor. See Webster's Diet. " On the fulfillment of the event." Peirce, rir/J.t. "Fullness consists in expressing every idea." Id. " Consistently with fullness and perspicuity " Peirce cor. " The word veriest is a regular adjective; as, 'He is the veriest fool on ear** 1 '' Wright cor. " The sound will recall the idea of the object." Ililey cor. " Formed for gre; tcrprises." Hiley's Gram. p. 113. " The most important rules and definitions are printed in type, Italicized." Hart cor. "HA/MLETED, a., accustomed to a hamlet, countrified." We* Peirce cor. " The word veriest is a regular adjective; as, ' He is the veriest fool on earth.' Formed for great en- large Webster, and Worcester. "Singular, spoonful, cupful, coach fill, handful ; plural, spoonfuls, cupful s t coachfuls, handfuls." Worcester's Universal and Critical Diet. "Between superlatives and following names, Of, by grammatic right, a station claims." Brightland cor. THE KEY. -PART II. - ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. PARTS OF SPEECH. The first chapter of Etymology, as it exhibits only the distribution of words into the ten Parts of Speech, contains no false grammar for correction. And it may be here observed, that as mistakes concerning the forms, classes, or modifications of words, are chiefly to be found in sentences, rather than in any separate exhibition of the terms ; the quotations of this kind, with which I have illustrated the principles of etymology, are many of them such, as might perhaps with, more propriety be denominated false syntax. But, having examples enough at hand to show the ignorance and carelessness of authors in every part of gram- mar, I have thought it most advisable, so to distribute them as to leave no part destitute of this most impressive kind of illustration. The examples exhibited as false etymology,^ are as distinct from those which are called false syntax, as the nature of the case will admit. CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING A, AN, AND THE. LESSON I. ARTICLES ADAPTED. "Honour is a useful distinction in life." Milnes cor. "No writer, therefore, ought to foment a humour of innovation." Jamiesoncor. " Conjunctions [generally] require a situation between the things of which they form a union." Id "Nothing is more easy than to mistake a u CHAP. II.] KEY TO FALSE ETYMOLOGY. ARTICLES. 891 for an a." Tooke cor. " From making so ill a use of our innocent expressions." Penn cor. ' To grant thee a heavenly and incorruptible c own of glory." Setrel cor. " It in no wise follows, that such a one was able to predict." Id. " With a harmless patience, they have borne most heavy oppressions." Id. " My attendance was to make me a happier man." S/ rt. fr. " On the wonderful nature of a human mind." Id. " I have got a hussy of a maid, who is most craftily given to this." Id. "Argus is said to have had a hundred eyes, some of which were always awake." Stories cor. " Centiped, having a hundred feet; centennial, con- siting of a hundred years." Town cor. "No good man, he thought, could be a heretic." tiilpin cor. "As, a Christian, an infidel, a heathen." Ash cor. "Of two or more words, usually joined by a hyphen." Blair cor. " We may consider the whole space of a hundred years as time present." InaersoU's Gram. p. 138. "In guarding against such a use of meats and drinks." Ash cor. " Worship is a homage due from man to his Creator." Monitor cor. "Then eulogium on the deceased was pronounced." (irimshaic cor. "But for Adam there I found a help meet for him." Bible cor. "My days are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned as a hearth." Id. "A foreigner and a hired servant shall not eat thereof." Id. "The hill of God is as the hill of Bashan; a high hill, as the hill of Bashan." M " But I do declare it to have been a holy offering, and such a one too as was to be once for all." Penn cor. ' 1 hope that does not make ashamed those that have it." Barclay cor. " Where there is not a unity, we may exercise true charity." Id. " Tell me, if in any of these such a union can be found ? " Dr. Brown cor. " Such holy drops her tresses steeped, Though 'twas a hero's eye that weeped." Sir W. Scott cor. LESSON II. ARTICLES INSERTED. " This veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world." Sherlock cor. "The copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb." L. Murray cor. " Every com- bination of a preposition and an article with the noun." Id. "Either signifies, 'the one or the other:' neither import*, 'not either;' that is, 'not Me one nor the other.'" Id. "A noun of multitude may have a pronoun or a verb agreeing with it. either of the singular number or of the plural." Bucks COT. "The principal copulative conjunctions are, and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since." Id. " The two real genders are the masculine and the feminine." Id. " In which a mute and a liquid are represented by the same character, th." Gardiner cor. "They said, John tftc Baptist hath sent us unto thee." Bible cor. " They indeed remember the names of an abundance of places." S>,ect. cor. " Which created a great dispute between the young and the old men." Coldsmith cor. ' Then shall be read the Apostles' or the Nicene Creed." Com. I'm I/IT <<. " The rules concerning the perfect tenses and the supines of verbs are Lily's." A". Banry*4 Gr. cor. " It was read by the high and the low, the learned and the illiterate." Dr. Johnson eor. " Most commonly, both the pronoun and tJtf verb are understood." Buchanan -ignify the thick and the slender enunciation of tone." Knight cor. " The difference between a palatial and a guttural aspirate is very small." I'?- " Leaving it to waver between the figurative and the literal sense." Jamiesnn <'-<>r. " Whatever verb will not admit of both an -ive signification." Ale.r. Mn,-,- 1th r. "A'.v then makes an other and distinct syllable." Brii/htland eor. " The eternal clamours of us people." Dr. Broicn eor. "To tho.se whose taste in elocution is but tittle cultivated." Kirkham eor. " They considered they had but a sort of gourd to rejoice in." Ii, n- . Now there was but one sm-h bough, in a spacious and shady grove." Bacon cor. " Now the Absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way tairnrdx making a man easy." Collier eor. "This is true of mathematics, irith which taste has but little to do." Todd cor. "To stand prompter to a pausing yet ready comprehension." Rush eor. " Such an obedience as the and tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer." Chalmers cor. "For the gratification of a moment, in/ ami unholy desire." ]\'ayland eor. " The body is slenderly put together ; the mind, a rambling sort of thin;/." Collier eo'r. " The only nominative to the verb, nui , E' /-." Murray cor. "And though in ijeneral it ought to be admitted, &c." Blair cor. " Philosophical writing admits of a polished, neat, and elegant style." Id. " But notwithstand- ing this defect, Thomson is a stronc and be,mtifn! describer." Id. " So should he be sure to be ransomed, and many poor men's lives should he saved." Shak. cor. " Who felt the wrong, or feared it, took alarm, Appealed to law. and Justice lent her arm." Pope cor. 892 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ETYMOLOGY. [PART II. LESSON IV. ARTICLES CHANGED. " To enable us to avoid too frequent a repetition of the same word." Bucke cor. t( The for- mer is commonly acquired in a third part of the time." Burn cor. " Sometimes an adjective be- comes a substantive ; and, like other substantives, it may have an adjective relating to it : as, ' The chief good.' " L. Murray cor. "An articulate sound is a sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech." Id, "A tense is a distinction of time : there are six tenses." Maunder cor. " In this case, an ellipsis of the last article would be improper." L. Murray cor. " Con- trast always has the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in a stronger light." Id. et al. " These remarks may serve to show the great importance of proper use of the arti- cles." Lowth et al. cor. " 'Archbishop Tillotson,' says the author of a history of England, died in this year.' " Dr. Blair cor. " Pronouns are used in stead of substantives, to prevent too frequent a repetition of them." A. Murray cor. " THAT, as a relative, seems to be introduced to prevent too frequent a repetition of WHO and WHICH." Id. "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it." L. Murray cor. " THAT is often used as a relative, to prevent too frequent a repetition of WHO and WHICH." Id. et al. cor, " His knees smote one against the other." Logan cor. " They stand now on one foot, then on the other." IV. Walker cor. "The Lord watch between thee and me, when we are absent one from the other." Bible cor. " Some have enumerated ten parts of speech, making the participle a distinct part." L. Murray cor. " Nemesis rides upon a hart because the hart is a most lively creature." Bacon cor. " The transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to the other." Dr. Wilson cor. " So difficult it is, to separate these two things one from the other." Dr. Blair cor. " Without a material breach of any rule." Id. " The great source of looseness of style, in opposition to precision, is an injudicious use of ivhat are termed synonymous u-ords." Blair cor. ; also Murray. " Sometimes one article is improperly used for the other." Sanborn cor. " Satire of sense, alas ! can Sporus feel ? Who breaks a butterfly upon the wheel ? " Pope cor. LESSON V. MIXED EXAMPLES. " He hath no delight in the strength of a horse." Maturin cor. " The head of it would be a universal monarch." Butler cor. " Here they confound the material and the formal object of faith." Barclay cor. " The Irish [Celtic] and the Scottish Celtic are one language ; the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Armorican, are an other." Dr. Murray cor. " In a uniform and perspicu- ous manner." Id. " SCRIPTURE, n. Appropriately, and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and the New Testament ; the Bible." Webster cor. "In two separate volumes, entitled, igi regenerate? No." Hopkins cor. "Some grammarians subdivide the vowels into simple and compound." L. Murray cor. " Emphasis has been divided into the weaker and the stronger em- phasis." Id. " Emphasis has also been divided into the superior and the inferior emphasis." Id. ""Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person." Merchant cor. " The adverb where is often used improperly, for a rela- tive pronoun and a preposition " : as, " Words where [in which] the h is not silent." Murray, p. 31. " The termination ish imports diminution, or a lessening of the quality." Merchant cor. " In this train, all their verses proceed : one half of a line always answering to the other." Dr. Blair cor. " To a height of prosperity and glory, unknown to any former age." L. Murray cor. "Hwilc, who, which, such as, such a one, is declined as follows." Gwilt cor. "When a vowel precedes the y, s only is required to form the plural- as, day, days." Bucke cor. " He is asked what sort of word each is ; whether a primitive, a derivative, or a compound." British Gram, cor. " It is obvious, that neither the second, the third, nor the fourth chapter of Matthew, is the first ; consequently, there are not 'four first chapters.' "Churchill cor. " Some thought, which a writer wants the art to introduce in its proper place." Dr. Blair cor. " Groves and meadows are the most pleasing in the spring." Id. " The conflict between the carnal and the spiritual mind, is often long." Gurney cor. "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sub- lime and the Beautiful." Burke cor. " Silence, my muse ! make not these jewels cheap, Exposing to the world too large a heap." Waller cor. CHAPTER III. NOUNS. CORRECTIONS IN THE MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. LESSON I. NUMBERS. " All the ablest of the Jewish rabbies acknowledge it." Wilson cor. "Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian rabbies." Campbell cor. " The seeming sin- gularities of reason soon wear off." Collier cor. " The chiefs and arikics, or priests, have the power of declaring a place or object taboo." Balbi cor. "Among the various tribes of this fam- ily, are the Pottawatomies, the Sauks and Foxes, or Saukies and Ottogamies." Id. " The Shawnees. Kickapoos, Menom'onies, Miamies, and Delawares, are of the same region." Id. " The Mohegans and Abenaquies belonged also to this family." Id. " One tribe of this family, the Winnebagoes, formerly resided near lake Michigan." Id. "The other tribes are the loways, the Ottoes, the Missouries, the Quapaws." Id. " The great Mexican family comprises the Az- tecs, the Toltecs, and the Tarascoes." Id. " The Mulattoes are born of negro and white pa- rents; the Zamboes, of Indians and Negroes." Id. "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Caesars, the Louises, or the Charleses, the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures." Burgh cor. " Which was the notion of the Platonic philosophers and the Jewish rabbies." Id. CUAP. III.] KEY TO FALSE ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 893 " That they should relate to the whole body of virtuosoes." Cobbett cor. " What thanks have ye ? for sinners also love those that love them." Bible cor. " There are five ranks of nobility ; dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons." Balbi cor. "Acts which were so well known to the two Charleses." Payne cor. "Courts-martial are held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks." Ob- sen-i-reor. " It becomes a common noun, and may have the plural number; as, the two Davids, the ttvo Sripiox, the two Po/npeys." Stamford cor. " The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hares, rats, and reptiles." Bal.bi cor. "And lei fowls multiply in the earth." Bible cor. " Then we reached the hillside, where eight buffaloes were grazing." Martineau cor. " CORSET, n. a bodire for a woman." Worcester cor. "As, the Bees, the Cees, the Double-ues." Peirce cor. " Simplicity is the mean between ostentation and rusticity." Pope cor. " You have disguised yourselves like tipstajfs." Gil Bias cor. "But who, that ^a* any taste, can endure the inces- sant quick returns of' the atsoes, and the likcicises, and the moreovers, and the howevers, and the notwithstandings f " Campbell cor. "Sometimes, in mutual sly disguise, Let ays seem noes, and noes seem ays." Gay cor. LESSON II. CASES. " For whose name's sake, I have been made willing." Penncor. " Be governed by your conscience, and never ask any body's leave to be honest." Collier cor. " To overlook nobody's merit or mis- behaviour." Id. "And Hector at last fights his way to the stern of Ajax's ship." Coleridge cor. " Nothing is lazier, than to keep one's eye upon words without heeding their meaning." Museum cor. " Sir William Jones's division of the day." Id. " I need only refer here to Voss's excellent account of it." Id. " The beginning of Stesichorus's palinode has been preserved." Id. "Though we have Tibullus's elegies, there is not a word in them about Glycera." Id. " That Horace was at TJialiarchus's country-house." Id. " That Sisyphus'* foot-tub should have been still in existence." Id. " How everything went on in Horace's closet, and in Mecenas's ante- chamber." Id. " Who, for elegant brevity's sake, put a participle for a verb." W. Walker cor. " The country's liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope." Id. "A brief but true account of this people's principles." Barclay cor. "As, The Church's peace, or, The peace of the Church ; Virgil's ^Eneid, or, The ^Eneid of Virgil." Brit. Gram. cor. " Which, with Hubner's Com- pend, and Wells's Geographia Classica, will be sufficient." Burgh cor. " Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupiter enchanted with Venus's girdle." Id. Dr. Watts' s Logic may with success be read to them and commented on." Id. " Potter's Greek, and Kennel's Roman Antiquities, Straw-huts' a and Hehicus's Chronology." Id. " SING. Alice's friends, Felix's property ; PLUR. The Alices' friends, The Felixes' property." Peirce cor. " Such as Hurfhiis's company at Bacchus' a festivals." Ainsicorth cor. "Burns's inimitable Tarn o' Shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance." Scott cor. " Nominative, men ; Genitive, [or Posses- sive,] men's ; Objective, men." Cutler cor. "Men's happiness or misery is mostly of their own making." Locke cor. " That your son's clothes be never made strait, especially about the breast." Id. "Children's minds are narrow and weak." Id. " I would not have little children much tormented about punctilios, or niceties of breeding." Id. " To fill his head with suitable ' s." Id. " The Bun/usdisciitses and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those days, as they do ." Id. " To see the various ways of dressing a calf's head ! " Shenstone cor. " He puts it on, and for decorum's sake Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she." Cowper cor. LESSON III. MIXED EXAMPLES. " Simon the wizard was of this religion too." Bunyan cor. "M.VMMODIES, n. Coarse, plain, India muslins." Wt 'i*t< > ,-or. " Go on from single persons to families, that of the Pompeys for in- stance." Collier cor. " By which the ancients were not able to account for phenomena." Bailey cor. "After this I married a woman who had lived at Crete, but a Jeiccss by birth." Josephus cor. " The very he>ithen* arc inexcusable for not worshiping him." Todd cor. "Such poems Citniocns'x Lusiad, Voltaire's Henriade, &c." Dr. Blair cor. " My learned correspondent ites a word in defence of large scarfs." Spect. cor. " The forerunners of an apoplexy are dull- ss, vertigoes, tremblings." Arbutlniof cor. " I'ertiao, in Latin,] changes the o into vies, mak- g the plural rertit/'n-'ft : " [not so. in English.] Churchill cor. "Noctambulo, [in Latin,] changes ,e o into "//j'.v, making the plural noetatitkuldnit : " [not so, in English.] Id. " What shall we say of noctambiifoesf It is the regular English plural." G. Brown. "In the curious fretwork of rocks undf/ rot toes." Blair cor. " Wharf makes the plural tcharfs, according to the best usage." a. llrown. "A few cents' worth of macaroni supplies all their wants." Balbi cor. "C sounds hard, like k, at the end of a word or si/liable." Blair cor. " By which the virtuosoes try The magnitude of every lie." Butler cor. "Quartoes, octaroes, shape the lessening pyre." Pope cor. hing within square royal roofs." Sidney cor. "Similes should, even in poetry.be used with moderation." Dr. Bl-iir cor. "Si'miles should never betaken from low or mean objects." Id. " It were certiinly bi-ttrr to s.-iy, ' Tin //o//.v O^Lonfe/thaa. ' The Lords' House.' " Murray cor. " Read your answers. r///V.v' figure? 'Five.'" Tens' f 'Six.' Hundreds'? 'Seven.'" Abbott cor. ''Alexander conquered Darius's army." Kirkham cor. " Three days' time was requisite, to pre- pare matters." Dr. Brown eor. "So w<- say, that Cicero's style and Sallust's were not one ; iior Ctrsar's and Liry's ; nor Homer's and UeriotFli nor Herodotits's and Thttcydides's ; nor Euripides' s and Aristophanes's ; nor /.'/< /v///r/.s'.s and Jiudtvus's." Pnttcnham cor. " LEX (i. e. ''tw,) is no other than our ancestors' past participle ///. laid down." Tookecor. "Achaia'g Ilium slain for the Atridte's sake." Cowper cor. "The corpses of her senate manure the lields of Thessaly." Addison cor. "Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear : And spotted corpses load the frequent bier." Dryden cor. much * 894 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ETYMOLOGY. [PART II. CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF COMPARISON, &c. LESSOX I. DEGREES. " I have the real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts." Cowley corrected. " The most honourable part of talk, is, to give the occasion." Bacon cor. " To give him one of the most modest of his own proverbs." Barclay cor. " Our language is now, certainly, more proper and more natural, than it was formerly." Burnet cor. " Which will be of the greatest and most frequent use to him in the world." Locke cor. " The same is notified in the 'most considerable places in the diocese." Whitgift cor. " But it was the most dreacljul sight that ever I saw." Bunyan cor. " Four of the oldest, soberest, and discreetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regu- late it." Locke cor. " Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of more ancient time, without this skill." W. Walker cor. " Far the most learned of the Greeks." Id. " The more learned thou art, the humbler be thou." Id. " He is none of the best, or most honest." Id. "The most proper methods of communicating it to others." Burn cor. " What heaven's great King hath mightiest to send against vs."-~MMon cor. " Benedict is not the most unhopeful husband that I know." Shakspeare cor. " That he should immediately do all the meanest and most trifling things^himself." Ray cor. " I shall be named among the most renotvn'd of women." Milton cor. "Those have the most inventive heads for ail purposes." Ascham cor. " The more icretched are the contemners of all helps." B. Johnson cor. " I will now deliver a few of the most proper and most natural considerations that belong to this piece." Wotton cor. "The most mortal poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man." Bacon cor. " He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the most faithful and most affectionate allies the Medes ever had." Rollin cor. " ' You see before you,' says he to him, ' the most devoted servant, and the most faithful ally, you ever had.' " Id. " I chose the most flourishing tree in all the park." Cowley cor. " Which he placed, I think, some centuries earlier than did Julius Africanus afterwards." Bolingbroke cor. "The Tiber, the most noted river of Italy." Littleton cor. " To farthest shores th' ambrosial spirit flies." Pope. "That what she wills to do or say, Seems wisest, worthiest, discreetest, best." Milton cor. LESSOX II. MIXED EXAMPLES. " During ihejirst three or four years of its existence." Taylor cor. " To the first of these divisions, my last ten lectures have been devoted." Adams cor. "There are, in the twenty-four states, not fewer than sixty thousand common schools." J. O. Taylor cor. " I know of nothn g which gives teachers more trouble, than this want of firmness." Id. " I know of nothing else that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong." Id. " None need this purity and this simplicity of language and thought, more than does the instructor of a common school." Id. " I know of no other periodical that is so valuable to the teacher, as the Annals of Education." Id. "Are not these schools of the highest importance? Should not every indi- vidual feel a deep interest in their character and condition ? " Id. " If instruction were made a liberal profession, teachers would feel more sympathy for one an other." Id. " Nothing is more interesting to children, than novelty, or change." Id. "I know of no other labour which affords so much happiness as the teacher's." Id. " Their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable duties, that they engage in." Id. " I know of no exercise more beneficial to the pupil than that of drawing maps." Id. "I know of nothing in which our district schools are ' ' T know of no other branch school exercise for which : There is nothing belonging to our fellow-men, which we should respect"?nore sacredly than their good name." Id. "Surely, never any other creature was so unbred as that odious man." Congreve cor. " In the dialogue be- tween the mariner and the shade of the deceased." Phil. Museum cor. " These master-works would still be less excellent and finished." Id. " Every attempt to staylace the language of polished conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy." Id. " Here are a few of the most unpleasant words that ever blotted paper." Shakspeare cor. " With the most easy and obliging transitions." Broome cor. "Fear is, of all affections, the least apt to admit any con- ference with reason." Hooker cor. " Most chymists think glass a body less destructible than gold itself." Boyle cor. " To part with unhacked edges, and bear back our barge undinted." Shak. cor. " Erasmus, who was an unbigoted Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage." Addison cor. "There are no fewer than five words, with any of which the sentence might have terminated." Campbell cor. " The ones preach Christ of contention ; but the others, of love." Or, " The one party preach," c. Bible cor. " Hence we find less discontent and fewer heart- burnings, than where the subjects are unequally burdened." H. Home, Ld. Kames, cor. "The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field." Milton, P. L., B. ix, 1. 86. " Thee, Serpent, subtlest beast of all the field, I knew, but not with human voice indued." 7d. P. L., B. ix, 1. 560. " How much more grievous would our lives appear, To reach th' eir/ht-hundreth, than the eightieth year ! " Denham cor. LESSOX III. MIXED EXAMPLES. " Brutus engaged with Aruns ; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced each other at the same time." Lempriere cor. " Her two brothers were, one after the other, turned into stone." Kamcs cor. " Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, A gold ring, a silver cup." Lenniecor. " Fire and water destroy each other." Wanostrocht cor. " Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative." Lowth, Murray, et al. cor. " Two negatives destroy each other, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative." Kirkhamand Feltoncor. " Two negatives CHAP. V.] KliV TO FALSE ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 895 destroy each other, and make an affirmative." Flint cor. "Two negatives destroy each other, being equivalent to an affirmative." 7-Vo.v/ cor. " Two objects, resembling each other, are presented to the imagination." Parker cor. " Mankind, in order to hold converse with one an other, found it necessary to give names to objects." Kirkliam cur. " I), /-, 'mf /',-/ words are formed from their primitives in various ways." ("HUJH r cor. " There are many dijf'ercnt ways of deriving words one from an of her." Murray cor. " When several \erbs !mrr n joint construction in a sentence, the auxiliary is usually expressed with the first on'y." Frost cor. " Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and comiix/ in immediate succession, are also separated by the comma." Murray ct a/, cor. " Two or more adverbs, cominij in immediate .succession, must be separated by nma" lidem. " If, however, the two members are very closely connected, the comma is ii/inecex*nri/." lidem. " Gratitude, when exerted towards others, naturally produces a very pleas- ing sensation in the mind of a oent r<>s man." L. Murray cor. " Several verbs in the infinitive mood, comint/ in succession, anil having a common dependence, are also divided by commas." Comly cor. " The several words of which it consists, have so near a relation one to an othi r." Murray if a/, cor. " When two or more verbs, or two or more adverbs,* i>< >/// in immediate succession, and have a common dependence, they must be separated by the comma." Comly cor. "One noun frequently follows another, both meaning the same thing." Sanbomcor. "And these two tenses may thus answer each other." R. Johnson cor. " Or some other relation which two objects bear to 'her." Jamieson cor. " That the heathens tolerated oneanother, is allowed." A. Fuller cor. "And yet these two persons love each oilier tenderly." E. Reader cor. " In the six hundred and first year." Bible cor. " Xor is this arguing of his, any tJiinn but a reiterated clamour." Bardny nil of them the inward life of Christianity is to be found." Id. " Though Alvarez, Des- p-iuti r, and others, do not allow it to be plural." R. Johnson cor. " Even the most dusipated and shameless blushed at the sight." Lempriere cor. " We feel a hiijher satisfaction in surveying the life of animals, than [in contcmjilatituj} that of vegetables." Jamieson cor. " But this man is so full-fraught with malice." Barclay cor. "That I suggest some things concerning the most proper means." Dr. Blair cor. " So, hand in hand, they passed, the loveliest pair That ever yet in love's embraces met." Milton cor. "Aim at s upremacy ; without such height, "NVill be for thee no sitting, or not long." Id. cor. m CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS AND USES OF PRONOUNS. LESSON I. RELATIVES. He we attend to this pause, every appearance of sinasonr/ must be carefully avoided." Murray cor. "For thou shalt go to all to whom I shall send thee." Bible cor. "Ah ! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years dnriny which 'I have possessed my kingdom." Smi>>orn cor. " In the same manner in tcJiich relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed." Id. " Parse or explain all the other nouns contained in the examples, after the rery manner o/"the word which is parsed for you." Id. " The passive verb will always h'ace the person and number that beloiuj to the verb be, of which it is in part com- posed." Id. ' "You have been taught that a verb must always aarcc in person and number with I its subject or nominative." Id. "A relative pronoun, also, must always in/ret- in person, in num- ber, and even ///gender, with its antecedent." Id. " The answer always ayrees in case with the 'ii which asks the question." Id. "One sometimes represents an antecedent noun, in the definite manner of a personal pronoun." f Id. " The mind, beine carried forward to the time at which the event is to happen, easily conceives it to be present.'' Id. " SAVE and SAVING are [sel- diun fo l>e] parsed in the manner /// irliich r.xrr.PT ami r.xcr.iTiNG are [commonly explained]. Id. "Adverbs qualify verbs, or modify their meaning, as adjectives yuu/ifi/ nouns [and describe things.]" Id. " The third person singular of verbs, terminates in .s ores, like the plural number of nouns." Id. " He saith further : that, ' The apostles did not bapti/e anew such persons as had been baptized with the baptism of John.' " Barclay <(>-. " For wi> irho live," or, " For we that arealire, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake." Bible cor. " For they who believe in (iod, must be careful to maintain good works." Bard,ty,-or. " Nor yet of those who teach things that they onuht not, for filthy lucre's sake." Id " So as to hold such bound in heaven as they bind on'carth, and such loosed in heaven "s they loose on earth." Id. "Now, if it be an evil, to do any thing out of strife ; then such things a M to be done, are they not to be I avoided "and forsaken?" Id. "All such as do not satisfy themselves with the superficies of religion." Id. "And lie is the same in subs'ance, that lie was upon earth, th- in spirit, soul, and body." Id. "And those that d > not thus, are such, as the Church of ran have no charity for." Or: "And tln.-e that do not thus, are pi -rsons toward whom the Church of Rome can" have no charity." Id. " Before his book, he ji/accx a great list of what he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers." Id. "And this is what he should have proved." /i: depends on the [preposition to, understood after the adjective} NKAH." /''. ".I.imcs died i-n the day on which Henry returned." Id. *Tli; ;ne of Murray, and his hun(!. G. UROWN. mple : Imperfect articulation ecnu-s not so much from h:ol j ">r. " Who wrote before the first century had elapsed." Id. " The original and analogical form has grown quite obsolete." Lowth cor. " Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, have perished." Murray cor. " The poems had got abroad, and were in a great many hands." cor. " It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, 'The bubble is ready to " Co'i'/i'tt cur. " I drove my suitor from his mad humour of love." SJiak. cor. " Se viri- liter expedivit. ('I.!;S. " "What follows, might /ttcr hare been wanting altogether." Dr. Blair cor. " This member of the sentence might much better have been omitted altogether." Id. " One or the other of them, therefore, might bolter have beon omitted." Id. " The whole of this last member of the sen- tence might better have been dropped." Id. " In this cas... tli-\- ,,i!nht much better be omitted." Id. " lie ///v/*^ better have said ' the prn,lu -timis.' " Id. "The'Greeks ascribed the origin of poetry to Orpheus, Linus, and Mu-a-us." Id. "It teas noticed long ago, that all these fictitious names liuve the same number of syllables." Phil. Must-um mr. " When I found that he hid committed nothing worthy of death, I il-t, r/nineil to send him." Bible cor. "I would rather be a door-keeper in the house of my God." Id. " As for such, I wish the Lord would open * From the force of habit, or to prevent the possibility of a false pronunciation, these ocular contractions are still c unetimes carefully maJe in printing poetry ; but they are not very important, aii'l -nine m-item authors, or their printers, dbrvgard them altn^cthfr. In correcting short poetical examples. I shall in general take no partic- ular jains to ilisriiiKiiish them from prose. All needful contractions however will be preserved, and sometimes aJso a capital letter, to show where the author commenced a line. GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ETYMOLOGY. [PART II. their eyes." Or, better : "May the Lord open (or, I pray the Lord to open) their eyes." Bar- clay cor. " It would have made our passage over the river very difficult." W alley cor. "We should not have been able to carry our great guns." Id. " Others would have questioned our Srudence. if we had." Id. " Beware thou be not BECJESARED; i.e., Beware that thou do apt windle or, lest thou dwindle into a mere Cocsar." Harris cor. "Thou raisedst (or, famil- iarly, thou raised) thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes." Arbuthnot cor. " Life hurries off apace ; thine is almost gone already." Collier cor. " ' How unfortunate has this accident made me ! ' cries such a one." Id. " The muse that soft and sickly woos the ear." Pollokcor. " A man might better relate himself to a statue." Bacon cor. " I heard thee say but now, thou liked not that." Shak. cor. " In my whole course of wooing, thoucriedst. (or, familiarly, thou cried,) Indeed!" Id. "But our ears have grown familiar with '/ have ivrote,' *I have drank,' &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical." Lowth et al. cor. "The court was in session before Sir Roger came." Addition cor. " She needs (or, if you please, need ) be no more with the jaundice possessed." Swift cor. " Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day when you were here." Id. " If spirit of other sort, So minded, hath (or has) o'erleaped these earthy bounds." Milton cor. " It would have been more rational to have forborne this." Bar- clay cor. "A student is not master of it till he has seen all these." Dr. Murray cor. " The said justice shall summon the party." Brevard cor. "Now what has become of thy former wit and humour ? " Spect. cor. "Young stranger, whither wanderst thou ? " Burns cor. " SVBJ. Pres. If I love, If thou love, If he love. Imp. If I loved, If thou loved, If he loved." Merchant cor. " SUBJ. If I do not love, If thou do not love, If he do not love." Id. ' If he has committed sins, they shall be forgiven him." Bible cor. " Subjunctive Mood of the verb to call, second per- son singular: If thou call, (rarely, If thou do call,) If thou called." Ililey cor. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb to love, second person singular : If thou love, (rarely, If thou do love,) If thou loved," Bullions cor. "I was; thou wast; he, she, or it, was: We, you or ye, they, were." White cor. "I taught, thou taur/htest, (familiarly, thou taught,) he taught." Ooar cof. "We say, 'If it rain,' 'Suppose it rain,' ' Lest it rain,' ' Unless it rain.' This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD." Weld cor. " He has arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood." Priestley cor. " He might much better have let it alone." Tooke cor. " He were better without it. Or: He would be better without it." Locke cor. "Hadst thou not been by. Or : //' thou hadst not been by. Or, in the familiar style : Had not thou been by." Shak. cor. "I learned geography. Thou learned arithmetic. He learned grammar." Fuller cor. "Till the sound has ceased." Sheridan cor. " Present, die ; Preterit, died; Perf. Participle died" Six English Grammars corrected. " Thou bow'dst thy glorious head to none, fear'dst none." Or : "Thou bowed thy glorious head to none, feared none." Pollok cor. " Thou lookst upon thy boy as though thou guess'd it." Knowles cor. " As once thou slept, while she to life was formed." Milton cor. " Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest, But may imagine how the bird was killed?" Shak. cor. " Which might have well become the best of men." Idem cor. CHAPTER VII. PARTICIPLES. CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. LESSON I. IRREGULARS. "Many of your readers have mistaken that passage." Steele cor. "Had not my dog of a steward run away." Addison cor. " None should be admitted, except he had broken his collar-bone thrice." Id. " We could not know what was written at twenty," Waller cor. " I have written, thou hast written, he has written ; we have written, you have written, they have writtcti." Ash cor. "As if God had spoken his last words there to his people." Barclay cor. " I had like to have come in that ship myself." Observer cor. " Our ships and vessels being driven out of the harbour by a storm." Hutchinsoncor. " He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have written, had he written in the same language." Bolingbroke cor. " When his doctrines grew too strong to be shaken by his enemies." Atterbury cor. " The immortal mind that hath forsaken her man- sion." Milton cor. " Grease that's sweated (or siveat) from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame." Shak. cor. " The court also was chidden, (or chid) for allowing such questions to be put." Stone cor. " He would have spoken." Milton cor. " Words interwoven (or interweaved) with sighs found out their way." Id. " Those kings and potentates who have st rived (or striven.)" Id. " That even Silence was taken." Id. "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had stolen them from me." Id. " I have chosen this perfect man." Id. " I shall scarcely think you have sicuin in a gondola." Shak. cor. " The fragrant brier was woven (orwea-ved) between." Dryden cor. " Then finish what you have bcc/un." Id. " But now the years a numerous train have run." Pope cor. " Repeats your verses written (or writ) on glasses." Prior cor. " Who by turns have risen." Id. " Which from great authors I have taken." Id. " Even there he should have fallen. " Id. "The sun has ris'n, and gone to bed, Just as if Partridge were not dead." Swift cor. "And, though no marriage words are spoken. They part not till the ring is broken." Swift cor. LESSON II. REGULARS. " When the word is stripped of all the terminations." Dr. Murray cor. " Forgive him, Tom ; his head is cracked." Swift cor. " For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer hoiscd (or hoisted) with his own petar." Shak. cor. "As great as they are, I was nursed by their mother." Swift cor. " If he should now be cried down since his change." Id. "Dipped over head and ears in CHAP. VIII.] KEY TO FALSE ETYMOLOGY. - ADVERBS. 899 debt." Id. " We see the nation's credit crac ked." Id. " Because they find their pockets picked." Id. " O what ;i pleasure ;//.m/with pain!" Id. "And only with her brother /inked." Id. " Because he ne'er a thought allowed, That might not be conf&sed" Id. " My love to Sheelah is more firmly fi.red." Id. " The observations anncj-ctl to them will be intelligible." /'////. MHS, a m cor. "Those eyes are always Jixed on the general principles." Id. " Laborious con- jectures will be banished from our commentaries." I/I. " Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was rtestabUahedi in his stead." Id. "A Roman who was attached to Augustus." Id. " Xor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had talked about two such." Id. "And ttie reformers of language have generally rushed on." Id. " Three centuries and a half had then elapsed since the date." Ih. " Of such criteria, as has been re marked alreadv, there is an abundance." Id. " The English have surpassed every other nation in their services." Id. " The party addressed is next in dignity to *he speaker." Harris cor. " To which we are many times helped.'" W. ll'alk- "But for him, I should have looked well enough to myself." Id. "Why are you ve.red, Lady ? why do frown ? " Milton cor. "Obtruding false rules pranked in reason's garb." Id. " But, like David equipped in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed." Camp- bell eor. "And when their merchants are blown up, and. cracked, Whole towns are cast away in storms, and wrecked." Butler cor. LESSON III. MIXED EXAMPLES. " The lands are held in free and common soccage." Tnnnbnll cor. "A stroke is draicn under such words. "CMett's dr., 1st Ed. " It is struck even, with a strickle. "IF. Walker cor. "Whilst 'andcrina, without any care, beyond my bounds." Id. " When one would do something, unless hindered by something present"." 7?. 'Johnson cor. ' It is used potentially, but not so as to be rendered by these signs." Id. " Now who would dote upon things Jtnrried down the stream thus fast ? " Collier cor. " Heaven hath timely tried their growth." Milton eor. " O ! ye mis- took, ye should have snatched his wand." Id. " Of true virgin here distressed." Id. " So that they have at last come to be substituted in the stead of it." Barclay cor. " Though ye have lain among the pots." Bible cor. "And, lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked oft'." Scott's <:las ! is quickly auesscd." Sait'f cor. " The kettle to the top was hoised, or hoisted." Id. " In chains thy syllables are linker/." Id. " Rather than thus be overtopped, Would you not wish their laurels ernp/iedf " Id. " The HYPHEN, or COXJOINEH, is a little line drawn to connect WD! (Is. or parts of words." Cobbett cor. " In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broken." R. Johnson cor. " Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition /ircfi.red to them." Grant cor. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of Vale'rius, would _ set every body a laughing." /. Walker cor. "Being mocked, scourged , *//// upon, and crucified." (Jit met/ cor. " For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known, Till barb'rous /ion/is those sfn/is Jntd ovcrtJirown." Roscommon cor. " In my own Thames may I be droirncd, 1 stoop beneath 'the crowned." Or thus: " In my own Thames may I be drau-n'd dead, If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd head." Swiff cor. CHAPTER VIII. ADVERBS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING THE FORMS OF ADVERBS. " AVc can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat." Blair corrected. " When he was restored ayreeably to the treaty, be was a perfect savage." Webster eor. " How I shall acquit myself suitably to the importanee of the trial." Dn/n-an cor. "Can any thing show your llolini'ss'hnw iniiroi'thily you treat mankind ?" S/iect. cor. "In what other, consist t nt/y with : and comnr .n you LTO ai.out to explain it to him ? " Loicth cor. "AynetMyto this rule, the short vowel Sh. . haraete:s." Il/An// cor. " We shall give a remarkably line example of this figure." See Blair's I'lu-t. p. lo(>. "All of which is most abominably false " B'trc/aif enr. " He heaped up great riches, but passed his timo tnisen/b/y." Murray cor. " He is HP\- \!tb i-xpn^sing any thing clearly and simply." Dr. Blaircor. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clearly and csaff/y, lie appear* dr\ " /'/. " Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, <_rlide the most softly." Or : " Where liquids and vowels most abound, the utterance '/slow pare." I\-r/i;r\ i or. /'/// to yive an appearance of ' That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions, independently of artful pronunciation." Id. " Cornaro had become very corpulent, prei-iomly to the adoption of his temperate habits." Hitchcock cor. " Bread, which is a solid, and tolerably hard, sub- stance." Da if cor. "To command every body that was not dressed as finely as himself." Id. 4 Many of them have sen reel >/ outlived thoir authors." J. Ward eor. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deeply." Wilson cor. "The people are miserably poor, and subsist on fish." Hume cor. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years ago,\.o make." Bitcke cor. " There 900 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO ETYMOLOGY. [PART II. is no truth on earth better established than the truth of the Bible." Taylor cor. " I know of no work more wanted than the one which Mr. Taylor has now furnished." Dr. Nott cor. "And therefore their requests are unfrequent and reasonable." Taylor cor. " Questions are more easily proposed, than answered rightly." Dilhoyn cor. " Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from which they are all derived." Murray cor. " If there be no special rule which requires it to be put further fonvard." Milnes cor. " The masculine and the neuter have the same dialect in all the numbers, especially when they end alike." Id. "And children are more busy in their play Than those that wiseliest pass their time away." Butler cor. CHAPTER IX. CONJUNCTIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. "A Verb is so called from the Latin verbum, a word." Bucke cor. " References are of ton marked by letters or figures." Adam and Gould cor. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together." Lennie, Bullions, and Brace, cor. (2.) "A Conjunction is used to connect words or sentences together." R. C. Smith cor. (3.) "A Conjunction is used to con- nect words or sentences." Maunder cor. (4.) " Conjunctions are words used to join words or sen- tences." Wilcox cor. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences." M'Culloch, Hart, and Day, cor. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words or sentences together." Mac- intosh and Hiley cor. (7-) "The Conjunction joins words or sentences together." L. Murray cor. (8.) " Conjunctions connect words or sentences to each other." Wright cor. (9.) " Conjunc- tions connect words or sentences." Wells and Wilcox cor. (10.) " The conjunction is a part of speech, used to connect words or sentences." Weld cor. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences together." Fowler cor. (12.) " Connectives are particles that unite words or sentences in construction." Webster cor. " English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know little or nothing about it." J. O. Taylor cor. "Lest, in stead of preventing diseases, you draw them on." Locke cor. " The definite article the is fre- quently applied to adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree." Murray et al. cor. " When nouns naturally neuter are assumed to be masculine or feminine." Murray cor. " This form of the perfect tense represents an action as completely past, though often as done at no great distance of time, or at a time not specified." Id. " The Copulative Conjunction serves to connect words or clauses, so as to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, or a consequence." Id. " The Disjunctive Conjunction serves, not only to continue a sentence y connecting its parts, but also to express opposition of meaning, either real or nominal." Id. If we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that thi'y abound with all the terms necessary to communicate the observations and discoveries of their a i- thors." Id. " When a disjunctive conjunction occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun or pronoun." Murray et al. cor. " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, or the nouns for which they stand, in gei- der and number." Murray cor. " Neuter verbs do not express action, and consequently do not govern nouns or pronouns." Id. "And the auxiliary of the past imperfect as well as of the pres- ent tense." Id. " If this rule should not appear to apply to every example that has been pro- duced, or to others which might be cited." Id. "An emphatical pause is made, after something of peculiar moment has been said, on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention." Murray and Hart cor. "An imperfect* phrase contains no assertion, and does not amount to a proposition, or sentence." Murray cor. " The word was in the mouth of every one, yet its meaning may still be a secret." Id. " This word was in the mouth of every one, and yet, as to its precise and defi- nite idea, this may still be a secret." Harris cor. " It cannot be otherwise, because the French prosody differs from that of every other European language." Smollett cor. " So gradually that it may be engrafted on a subtonic." Rush cor. " Where the Chelsea and Maiden bridges now are." Or better : " Where the Chelsea or the Maiden bridge now is." Judge Parker cor. "Adverbs are words added to verbs, to participles, to adjectives, or to other adverbs." R. C. Smith cor. " I could not have told you who the hermit was, or on what mountain he lived." Bucke cor. "AM and BE (for they are the same verb} naturally, or in themselves, signify being." Brightland cor. " Words ure signs, either oral or written, by which we express our thoughts, or ideas." Mrs. Bet /nine cor. " His fears will detect him, that he shall not escape." Comly cor. " Whose is equally ap- plicable to persons and to things." Webster cor. " One negative destroys an other, so that two are equivalent to an affirmative." Bullions cor. "No sooner does he peep into the world, Than he has done his do." Hudibrascor. CHAPTER X. PREPOSITIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. " Nouns are often formed /rom participles." L. Murray corrected " What tenses are formed from the perfect participle ? " Ingersoll cor. " Which tense is formed/rom the present, or root of 'the verb ? " Id. " When a noun or a pronoun is placed before a participle, independently of the rest of the sentence." Churchill's Gram. p. 348. " If the addition consists o/'two or more words." Mur. et al. cor. "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently of the rest of the sentence." Lowth's Gram. 80; Churchill's, 143; Bitcke's, 96; Merchant's, 92. " For * The word " imperfect " is not really necessary here ; for the declaration is true of any phrase, as this name is commonly applied. G. BROWN. CHAP. XI.] KEY TO FALSE ETYMOLOGY. INTERJECTIONS. 901 the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present a variety of false constructions." Murray cor. " For your satisfaction, I shall present you a variety of false constructions." Inijersoll cor. " I shall here present [to] you a scale of derivation." Bucke cor. " These two manners of repre- sentation in respect to number." Loicth and Churchill cor. " There are certain adjectives which seem to be derived from verbs, without any variation." Loicth cor. " Or disqualify us lor receiving instruction or reproof from others." Murray cor. " For being more studious than any other pupil in the school." Id. '" Misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way." Id. " These people reduced the greater part of the island under their own power." Id. " The principal accent dis- tinguishes one syllable of a. word from the rest." Id. " Just numbers are in unison with the hu- man mind." Id. " We' must accept of sound in stead of sense." Id. "Also, in stead of consulta- tion, he uses consult." Priestley cor. "This ablative seems to be governed by a preposition understood." }V. Walker cor. "Lest my father hearof it, by some means or other." Id. "And, besides, my wife would hear of it by some means." Id. " For insisting on a requisition so odious to them." Robertson cor. " Based on the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality." Mfi/inul cor. " Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired^/row the spelling-book." Mur- ray cor. " They do not cut it otf : except from a few words ; as, due, duly, c." Id. " Whether . j; at such time, or then finished." Loioth cor. "It hath disgusted hundreds with that con- fession." Barclay cor. " But they have egregiously fallen into that incpnveniency." Id. " For is not this, to set nature at work ? " Id. "And, surely, that which should set all its springs ctfwork, ' Attcrbnry cor. " He could not end his treatise without a panegyric on modern learning." '!', mp/ecor. " These are entirely independent of the modulation of the voice." J. Walker cor. " It is dear at a penny. It is cheap at twenty pounds." W. Walker cor. " It will be despatched, on most occasions, without resting." Locke cor. "Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!" Pope. " When the objects or the facts are presented to him." R. C. Smith cor. " I will now present you a synopsis." Id. " The disjunctive conjunction connects words or sentences, and suggests an oppo- sition of meaning, more or less direct." Id. " I shall now present to you a few lines." Bucks cor. " Common names, or substantives, are those which stand for things assorted." Id. "Ad- jectives, in the English language, are not varied by genders, numbers, or cases ; their only inflection is for the degrees of comparison." Id. " Participles are [little more than] adjectives formed from verbs." Id. " I do love to walk out on a fine summer evening." Id. "Ellipsis, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words of a sentence." Merchant cor. " The preposition to is generally required before verbs in the infinitive mood, but after the following verbs it is properly omitted; name-ly, bid, dire, feel, need, let, make, hear, see: as, ' He bid me do it ; ' not, ' He bid me to do it.' " Id. " The infinitive sometimes follows than, for the lutft-r term of a comparison ; as, [' Murray should have known better than to write, and Mer- chant, f>:-f'"r th in to copy, the text here corrected, or the ambiguous example they appended to it.']" Id. " Or, by prefixing the adverb more or less, for the comparative, and most or least, for the superlative." Id. "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun." Id. "Prom monosyl- lables, the comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er." Perley cor. " He has particu- larly named these, in distinction from others." Harris cor. "To revive the decaying taste for ancient literature." Id. " He found the greatest difficulty in writing." Hume cor. "And the tear, that is wiped with a little address, May be followed perhaps by a smile." Cowper, i, 216. CHAPTER XI. INTERJECTIONS. CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF INTERJECTIONS. " Of chance or change, O let not man complain." Seattle's Minstrel, B. ii, 1.1. " O thou p>r- Rccutor ! O ye hypocrites!" Russell's Gram. p. 92. "O thou my voice inspire, Who touch' d Isaiah's hallo'w'd lips with fire ! " Pope's Messiah. "O happy we! surrounded by so many bless- ing ! " Mi-i-ch'int cor. "() thou irho art so unmindful of thy duty ! " Id. " If I am wrong, O ' teach my heart To find that better way." Murray's Ilendir, p. 248. " Hcus ! evocate hue Davum. ' Ter. "Ho! call Davus out hither." II. Walker cor. " It was represented by an analogy (O how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the ceremonies of paganism." Murray cor. "O that Ishmael might live before thee ! " Friends' Bible; and Scott's. "And he said unto him, () let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." Ah/er's Bible ; and Scott's. "And he said O let not the Lord be angry." A/-/;r's Cram. p. 87. "^ that 1 had digged myself a cave!" Fletchi-r <<. "Oh, my good lord ! thy comfort comes too late." Shak. ear. " The vocative takes no article ; it is distinguished thus : O Pedro ! O Peter ! () Dios ! O God ! " Bucke cor. "Oho ! But, the rel- ativ'.- is always the same." f'oWx-tt cor. "All-hail, ye happy men !" Jaudon cor. "O that I had wings like a dove!" Scott's Bible. "O ylorious hope*! O hless'd abode! " O. J>. /' (tram. p. 304. " Welcome, friends ! how joyous is your presence ! " T. Smith cor. "O blissful days ! but, ah ! how soon yc p i>^ ' " Ptarm / anil /'<>.. "O golden days ! O bright unvalued hours ! What bliss, did ye but know that bliss, were yours ! " Barbauld cor. "J/i me ! what perils do environ The man that meddles with cold iron ! " Hudibras cor. 902 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. THE KEY. - PART III. - SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. SENTENCES. I The first chapter of Syntax, being appropriated to general views of this part of grammar, to an exhibition of its leading doctrines, and to the several forms of sentential analysis, with an appli- cation of the principal rules in parsing, contains no false grammar for correction ; and has, of course, nothing to correspond to it, in this Key, except the title, which is here inserted for form's sake. I CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE I. UNDER NOTE I. AN OR A. " I have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel." Bible cor. " There is a harshness in the following sentences." Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152. " Indeed, such a one is not to be looked for." Dr. Blair cor, " If each of you will be disposed to approve himself a useful citizen." Id. " Land with them had acquired almost a European value." Webster cor. " He endeavoured to find out a wholesome remedy." Neef cor. "At no time have we attended a yearly meeting more to our own satisfaction." The Friend cor. "Addison was not a humorist in character." Kames cor. "Ah me ! what a one was he ! " Lily cor. " He was such a one as I never saw before.'' Id. " No man can be a good preacher, who is not a useful one." Dr. Blair cor. "A usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison." Id. " Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of a horse." Locke cor. "A universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article." Priestley cor. "Architecture is a useful as well as a fine art." Kames cor. " Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve a uniform signification." Nutting cor. " Such a work required the patience and assiduity of a hermit." Johnson cor. " Resentment is a union of sorrow with malignity." Id. " His bravery, we know, was a high courage of blasphemy." Pope cor. " HYSSOP ; an herb of bitter taste." Pike cor. " On each enervate string they taught the note To pant, or tremble through a eunuch's throat." Pope cor. UNDER NOTE II. AN OR A WITH PLURALS. "At a session of the court, in March, it was moved." &c. Ilutchinson cor. " I shall conversations, of which I kept memoranda." D. D'Ab. cor. " I took an other dictionary, and with a. pair of scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS." A. B. Johnson cor. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, and about forty-five years old." Gardiner cor. "Ant it came to pass, about eight days after these sayings." Bible cor. " There were slain of them about three thousand men." 1 Mace. cor. " Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed other Alps of snow." Addison cor. "To make them satisfactory amends for all ;he losses they had sustained." Goldsmith cor. "As 9, fast-fruit of many that shall be gathered." Barclay cor. " It makes indeed a little amend, (or some amends,) by inciting us to oblige people." Sheffield cor. "A large and lightsome back stairway (or flight of backstairs) leads up to an entry above." Id. " Peace of mind is an abundant recompense for' any sacrifices of interest." Murray et al. cor. "With such a spirit, and such sentiments, were hostilities carried on/' Robertson cor. " In the midst of a thick ivood, he had long lived a voluntary recluse." G. B. " The flats look almost like a young forest." Chronicle cor. "As we went on, the country for a little way improved, but scantily." Freeman cor. " Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a captivity of seventy years at Babylon." Rollincor. " He did not go a great way into the country." Gilbert cor. "A large amend by fortune's hand is made, And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd." Rowe cor. UNDER NOTE III. NOUNS CONNECTED. "As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds, and the odour of flowers." Kames cor. " The last order resembles the second in the 'mildness of its accent, and the softness of its pause." Id. " Before the use of the loadstone, or the knowledge of the compass." Drydcn cor. " The perfect participle and the imperfect tense ought not to be confounded." Murray cor. " In proportion as the taste of a poet or an orator becomes more refined." Blair cor. "A situation can never be intricate, so long as there is an angel, a devil, or a musician, to lend a helping hand." Kames cor. "Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or a bone broken." Inst. p. 262. " Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given." Ib. " I despise not the doer, but the deed." Ib. " For the sake of an easier pronunciation and a more agreeable sound." Lowth cor. "The levity as well as the loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history." Bolingbroke cor. UNDER NOTE IV. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. " It is proper that the vowels be a long and a short one." Murray cor. " Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or a short time before." Id. et al. " There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter." Adam cor. " The numbers are two ; the singular and the plural." Id. et al. " The persons are three ; the first, the second, and the third." lidem. " Nouns and pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objec- tive." Comly and Ing. cor. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the infinitive, the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative." Bullions et al. cor. "How many numbers have pronouns ? Two, the singular and the plural." Bradley cor. " To distinguish between an CHAP. II.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. ARTICLES. 903 interrogative and an exclamatory sentence." Murray ct al. cor. " The first and^e last of which are compound members." Loicth cor. " In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and the diffuse, the nervous and the feeble manner." Blair cor. " The passive and the neuter verbs I shall re- serve for some future conversation." Ingersoll cor. " There are two voices ; the active and the passive." Adam ct al. cor. " WHOSE is'rather the poetical than the regular genitive of WHICH." Johnson cor. " To feel the force of a compound or a derivative word." Town cor. " To pre- serve the distinctive uses of the copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions." Murray et al. cor. " E has a long and a short sound, in most languages." Bicknell cor. " When the figurative and tlie literal sense are mixed and jumbled together." Dr. Blair cor. " The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and the Phoenician stand in connexion." Conant and Fowler cor. "Thejan- guages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and the Swedish." Fowler cor. UNDER NOTE V. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. " The path of truth is a plain and safe path." Murray cor. " Directions for acquiring a just and happy elocution." Kirkham cor. " Its leading object is, to adopt a correct and easy method." Id. " How can it choose but wither in a long and sharp winter ? " Cowley cor. " Into a dark and distant unknown." Dr. Chalmers cor. " When the bold and strong enslaved his fellow man." Chazotte cor. " We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an ac- curate and perfect sentence." Murray cor. "And hence arises a second and very considerable source of the improvement of taste." Dr. Blair cor. " Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and agreeable emotion." Id. "The deepest and bitterest feeling still is that of the separation." Dr. M'Rie cor. "A great and good man looks beyond time." See Brown's Inst. p. 263. " They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance." Ib. " The light and worthless kernels will float." Ib. " I rejoice that there is an other and better world." Ib. " For he is determined to revise his work, and present to thejmblic an other and better edition." Kirkham cor. " He hoped that this title would secure to him an ample and independent authority." L. Murray cor. etal. " There is, however, an other and more limited sense." J. Q. Adams cor. UNDER NOTE VI. ARTICLES OR PLURALS. " This distinction forms what are called the diffuse style and the concise." Dr. Blair cor. " Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic manner and the Asiatic." Adams cor. " But the great design of uniting the Spanish and French monarchies under the former, was laid." Botingbroke cor. " In the solemn and poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected." Allen cor. " They cannot be, at the same time, in both the objective case and the nominative." Or : " They cannot be, at the same time, in both the objective and the nomina- tive case." Or : " They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative case, and also in the objec- tive." Or: " They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative and objective cases." Mur- ray's Gram. 8vo, p. 148. Or, better: "They cannot be, at the same time, in both cases, the nominative and the objective." Murray et al. cor. " They are named the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees." Smart cor. "Certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection; namely, that of the comparative and superlative degrees." Foicler cor. " In the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense." Murray et al. cor. " The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first- future tense, of this mood, are conjugat- ed like the same tenses of the indicative." Kirkham bettered. " What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third persons ? " Id. " Nouns are sometimes in the nomi- native' or the objective case after the neuter verb be, or after an active-intransitive or a passive verb." Id. " The verb varies its endinf/ in the singular, in order to agree with its nominative, in the first, second, and third person*." Id. " They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stress." Rush cor. " In a sonnet, the first, the fourth, the fifth, and the eighth line, usually rhyme to one an other : so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh lines ; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth lines; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth lines." Churchill cor. "The iron and golden ages are run ; youth and manhood are departed." Wright cor. " If, as you say, the iron and the golden ai/c are past, the youth and the manhood of the world." Id. "An Ex- position of the Old and New Testaments." Henry cor. " The names and order of the books of the Old and the New Testament." Bible cor. " In the second and third persons of that tense." Murray cor. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine nature." Gurney cor. "Among whom arose the Italian, Spanish, French, and English languages." Murray cor. 11 Whence arise these two numbers, the singular and the plural." Burn cor. UNDER NOTE VII. CORRESPONDENT TERM. " Neither the definitions nor the examples are entirely the same as his." Wardcor. " Because it makes a discordance between the thought and the expression." Kamcs cor. " Between the adjective ami fhr following substantive." Id. " Thus Athens became both the repository and tlic nursery of learning." Chazoltc cor. " But the French pilfered from both the Greek and the Latin." Id. " He shows that Christ is both the power and the wisdom of God." The Friend cor. " That he might be Lord both of the dead and of the living." Bible cor. " This is neither the obvious nor the grammatical meaning of his words." Blair cor. " Sometimes both the accusative ar d the infinitive are understood." Adam and (iouldcor. " In some cases, we can use either the nominative or the accusative, promiscuously." I idem. " Both the former and the latter substan- tive are sometimes to be understood." li'dcm. " Many of which have escaped both the com- m ?ntator and the poet himself." Pope cor. " The verbs MUST and OUGHT, have both a present and a past signification." L. Murray cor. " How shall we distinguish between the friends and the er.emics of the government ? " Dr. \Vebster cor. " Both the ecclesiastical and the secular powers concurred in those measures." Dr. Campbell cor. "As the period has a beginning and an end within itself, it implies an inflection." J. Q. Adams cor. " Such as ought to subsist between a principal and an accessory." Ld. Kames cor. UNDER NOTE VIII. CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR. " When both the upward and the downward slide occur in the sound of one syllable, they are called 904 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. a CIRCUMFLEX, or WAVE." Kirkham cor. " The word THAT is used both in the nominative and in the objective case." Sanborn cor. " But, in all the other moods and tenses, both of the active and of the passive voice, [the verbs] are conjugated at large." Murray cor. " Some writers on gram- mar, admitting the second-future tense into the indicative mood, reject it from the subjunctive." Id. "After the same conjunction, to use both the indicative and the subjunctive mood in the same sentence, and under the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety." Id. " The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood in this tense." Id. " I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or the English language." Chazotte cor. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active-transitive and the active-intransitive verb, as be- tween the active and the passive." Nixon cor. UNDER NOTE IX. A SERIES OF TERMS. "As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and the husbandman." Chazotte cor. " They may be divided into four classes ; the Humanists, the Philanthropists, the Pestalozzians and the Productives." Smith cor. " Verbs have six tenses ; the present, the im- perfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future, and the second-future." Murray et al. cor. " Is is an irregular neuter verb, [from be,' was, being, been; found in] 'the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number." Murray cor. " SHOULD GIVE is an irregular active- transitive verb, [from give, gave, giving, given ; found] in the potential mood, imperfect tense, first person, and plural number." Id. " Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case." Id. " THEM is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case." Id. "It is surprising that the Jewish, critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, a point of admiration, or a parenthesis." Dr. Wilson cor. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth verses." Or : " The fifth, the sixth, the seventh, and the eighth verse." O. B. Peirce cor. " Substitutes have three persons ; the First, the Second, and the Third." Id. " JOHN'S is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and posses- sive case: and is governed by 'WIFE,' according to Rule" [4th, which says, &c.] Smith cor. " Nouns, in the English language, have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- jective." Bar. and Alex. cor. " The potential mood has four tenses ; viz., the present, the im- perfect, the perfect, and the pluperfect." Ingersoll cor. " Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend, And own the patron, patriot, and friend." Savage cor. UNDER NOTE X. SPECIES AND GENUS. "The pronoun is apart of speech* put for the noun." Paul's Ac. cor. "The verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense." Id. "The participle is a part of speech derived fn and Mi/tim's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation." Phil. Museum cor. " Law's. K'/icfirds's, and Watts's Survey of the Divine Dispensations." Or thus : ''Law, Edwards, ana Watts's, Surveys of the Divine Dispensations." Burgh cor. "And who was Enoch's Saviour, and the prophets' f " Bayly cor. " Without any impediment but his own, his parents', or his guardian's will." Journal corrected. " James relieves neither the boy's nor the girl's distress." * The propriety of this conjunction, "nor," is questionable : the reading in both the Yulgate and the Septuagint is l% they, and their wires, and their sons, and their daughters." 908 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. Nixon cor. tl John regards neither the master's nor the pupil's advantage." Id. "You re- ward neither the man's nor the woman's labours." Id. " She examines neither James's nor John's conduct." Id. " Thou pitiest neither the servant's nor the master's injuries." Id. " We promote England's or Ireland's happiness." Id. " Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same ? " G. Brown. " Were Cain and Abel's occupations the same ? " Id. if What was Simon and Andrew's employment ? " Id. " Till he can read for himself Sanctius's Minerva with Sciop- pius's and Perizonius's Notes." Locke cor. "And love and friendship's finely-pointed dart Falls blunted from each indurated heart." Or : "And love's and friendship's finely-pointed dart Fall blunted from each indurated heart." Goldsmith cor. UNDER NOTE III. CHOICE OF FORMS. " But some degree of trouble is the portion of all men." Murray et al. cor. " With the names of his father and mother upon the blank leaf." Abbott cor. "The general, in the name of the army, published a declaration." Hume cor. " The vote of the Commons." Id. " The House of Lords." Id. "A collection of the faults of writers;" or, "A collection of literary faults." Swift cor. "After ten years of wars." Id. " Professing his detestation of such practices as those of his predecessors." Pope cor. " By that time I shall have ended my year of office." W. Walker cor. " For the sake of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip." Bible and Mur. cor. " I endure all things for the sake of the elect, that they may also obtain salvation." Bibles cor. " He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth." W. Allen. " The throne we honour is the peo- ple's choice." Rolla. "An account of the proceedings of Alexander's court." "An excellent tutor for the child of a person of fashion! " Gil Bias cor. " It is curious enough, that this sentence of the Bishop's is, itself, ungrammatical." Cobbett cor. " The troops broke into the palace of the Emperor Leopold." Nixon cor. " The meeting was called by desire of Eldon the judge." Id. "The occupation of Peter, John, and Andrew, was that of fishermen." Murray s Key, R. 10. "The debility of the venerable president of the Royal Academy, has lately increased." Maunder cor. UNDER NOTE IV. NOUNS WITH POSSESSIVES PLURAL. " God hath not given us our reason to no purpose." Barclay cor. " For our sake, no doubt, this is written." Bible cor. "Are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sake ? " Harris and Murray cor. " Some sailors who were boiling their dinner upon the shore." Day cor. "And they, in their turn, were subdued by others." Pinnock cor. " Industry on our pa>~t is not superseded by God's grace." Arrowsmith cor. "Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured." Locke cor. " Though he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor." See 2 Cor. viii, 9. ," It were to be wished, his correctors had been as wise on their part." Harris cor. "The Arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their ivord, and respectful to the r kindred." Sale cor. " That is, as a reward of some exertion on our part." Gurney cor. "So that it went ill with Moses for their sake." Ps. cor. "All liars shall have their part in the burn- ing lake." Watts cor. " For our own sake as well as for thine." Pref. to Waller cor. "Ey discovering their ability to detect and amend errors." L. Murray cor. " This world I do renounce ; and, in your sight, Shake patiently my great affliction off." Shak. cor. " If your relenting anger yield to treat, Pompey and thou, in safety, here may meet." Howe cor. "And the UNDER NOTE V. POSSESSIVES WITH PARTICIPLES. " This will encourage him to proceed without acquiring the prejudice." Smith cor. notice which they give of an action as being completed or not completed." Mur. et al. cor. " Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents it from taking place." Priestley and A. Mur. cor. " They have apostolical authority for so frequently urging the seeking of the Spirit." The Friend cor. " Here then is a wide field for reason to exert its powers in relation to the objects of taste." Blair cor. " Now this tlvey derive altogether from their greater capacity of imitation and de- scription." Id. "This is one clear reason why they paid a greater attention to that construc- tion." Id. " The dialogue part had also a modulation of its own, which was capable of being set to notes." Id. "Why are we so often frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse?" Id. " Which is only a preparation for leading his forces directly upon us." Id. " The nonsense about which, as relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation." Fowle cor. "Who, upon breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription." Rollin cor. "A prince will quickly have reason to repent of having exalted one person so high." Id. " Not- withstanding it is the immediate subject of his discourse." Churchill cor. " With our definition of it, as being synonymous with time." Booth cor. " It will considerably increase our danger of being deceived." Campbell cor. " His beauties can never be mentioned without suggesting his blemishes also." Blair cor. " No example has ever been adduced, of a man conscientiously ap- proving an action, because of its badness." Or: "of a man who conscientiously approved of an action because of its badness." Gurney cor. " The last episode, of the angel showing to Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined." Blair cor. " And the news came to my son, that he and the bride were in Dublin." M. Edgeworth cor. " There is no room for the mind to exert any great effort." Blair cor. " One would imagine, that these critics never so much as heard that Homer wrote first." Pope cor. " Condemn the book, for not being a geography : " or, " be- cause it is not a geography." Peirce cor. " There will be in many words a transition from being the figurative to being the proper signs of certain ideas." Campbell cor. " The doctrine that the Pope is the only source of ecclesiastical power." Rel. W. cor. " This was the more expe- dient, because the work was designed for the benefit of private learners." L.Murray cor. " This was done, because the Grammar, being already in type, did not admit of enlargement." Id. CHAP. III.] KEY TO FALSB SYNTAX. OBJECTIVES. 909 CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE V ; OF OBJECTIVES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. THE OBJECTIVE FORM. " Whom should I meet the other day but my old friend! " Spect. cor. " Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but him that takes it off." Barclay cor. " Let none touch it, but them who are clean." Sale cor. " Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and them that dwell therein." Ps. cor. " Pray be private, and careful whom you trust." Mrs. Gojfe cor. " How shall the people know whom to entrust with their property and their liberties ? " J. O. Taylor cor. " The chaplain entreated my comrade and me to dress as well as possible." World cor. " And him that cometh to me, I will in no wise cast out." John, vi, 37. "Whom, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke." Hope of Is. cor. " Whoever or what- ever owes us, is Debtor ; and whomever or whatever we owe, is Creditor." Marsh cor. " De- claring the curricle was his, and he should have in it whom he chose." A. Ross cor. " The fact is. Burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries, whom we can rank as a first-rate orator." Knickerb. cor. " Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the Messalinas of our time." Dr. Brown cor. " They would find in the Roman list both the Scipios." Id. " He found his wife's clothes on fire, and her just expiring." Ob- server cor. " To present you holy, and unblamable, and unreprovable in his sight." Colossians, i, 22. " Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence; him who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness." Stuart cor. " If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, ichom will they mind?" Collier cor. "He having none but them, they having none but him." Drayton cor. " Thee, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign ; Of thy caprice maternal I complain." Burns cor. "Nor weens he who it is, whose charms consume His longing soul, but loves he knows not whom." Addison cor. UNDER NOTE I. OF VERBS TRANSITIVE. " When it gives that sense, and also connects sentences, it is a conjunction." L. Murray cor. " Though thou wilt not acknowledge thyself to be guilty, thou canst not deny the fact stated." Id. " They specify some object, like many other adjectives, and also connect sentences." Kirk- Jiam cor. "A violation of this rule tends so much to perplex the reader and obscure the sense, that it is safer to err by using too many short sentences." L. Murray cor. "A few exercises are sub- joined to each important definition, for him [the pupil] to practise upon as he proceeds in com- mitting the i/rammar to memory." Nutting cor. "A verb signifying an action directly transitive, governs the' accusative." Adam et al. cor. " Or, any word that can be conjugated, is a verb." Kirkham cor. " In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to a close, appears to write rather carelessly." Dr. Blair cor. " He simply reasons on one side of the question, and in learning the conjugations, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied." Kirk)iam cor. " He said Virginia would have emancipated her slaves long ago." Lib. cor. "And having a readiness " or, "And holding ourselves in readiness 'Jy-or, "And. being in readiness to revenge all disobedience." Bible cor. " However, in these cases, custom generally determines what is right." Wriyht cor. " In proof, let the following cases be taken" Id. " We must ni'irci-l that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles." Id. " How should we icondcr at the expression, ' This is a soft question ! ' " Id. "And such as prefer this course, can p;irse it as a possessive adjective." Goodenow cor. " To assign all the reasons that induced the author to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity." Alexander cor. "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing. "^L. Murray's Gram. p. 63. UNDER NOTE II. OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE. " In his seventh chapter he expatiates at great length." Barclay cor. " He quarrels with me for adjuring some ancient testimonies agreeing with what I say." Id. " Repenting of his de- sign." Hume cor. " Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail to produce the most dangerous effects." Id. "'The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject." .U/.s. Mu- ccnilmf <('. " He is uhvnvs master of his subject, and seems to play with it: " or, " seems to sjiort himwlf with it." Blair cor. " But as soon as it amounts to real disease, all his secret infirm- ities show "themselves." Id. "No man repented of his wickedness." Bible cor. "Go one w.iy <>r other, either on the right hand, or on the left." Id. " He lies down by the river's edge." Or : " He lays himself down on the r/tvr'.v brink." If". Walker cor. " For some years past, l)iate hcrl an (ii-(l<-nf /ri.ime cor. " The practice of confiscating ships that had been wrecked." Id. " The nearer his m litary successes brought him to the throne." Or : " The nearer, through his military successes, he approached the throne." Id. " In the next example, 'you ' represents ' ladies ;' therefore it is pi iral." Kirkham cor. " The firs>t ' its' stands for ' vale ; ' the second ' its ' represents ' stream.' " Id. " Pronouns do not always prevent the repetition of nouns." Id. "Very is an adverb of de- the adjective voorf." Id. " You will please to commit to memory the following paragraph." Id. " Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs form some of their tenses by means 910 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. of auxiliaries" Mur. cor. " The deponent verbs in Latin also employ auxiliaries to form sev- eral of their tenses." Id. " I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body h;vs made since." Id. "Monotonous delivery assumes as many set forms, as ever Proteus did of flatt- ing shapes." Kirkhamcor " When words in apposition are uttered in quick succession." Nix- mi cor. " Where many such sentences occur in succession." L. Mur. cor. " Wisdom leads us to speak and do what is most proper." Blair and Mur. cor. "Jul. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague ? Rom. Neither, fair saint, if either thee displease." Or : " Neither, fair saint, if either thou dislike." Shak. cor. UNDER NOTE IV. OP PASSIVE VERBS. "To us, too, must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws." Or: "We too must have the privilege," &e. Murray cor. tf For not only is the use of all the ancient poetic feet allowed [to] us," &c. Id. et al. " By what code of morals is the right or privilege denied me ? " Bartlett cor. " To the children of Israel alone, has the possession of it been denied." Keith cor. "At York, all quarter loas refused to fifteen hundred Jews." Id. " He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided there were paid him fifty-five dollars in advance." Prof. Chazotte cor. "And when it was demanded of him by the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come." Or : "And when the Pharisees demanded of him," &c. Bible cor. "A book has been shown me." Dr. Campbell cor. "To John Home Tooke admission was refused, only because he had been in holy orders." " Mr. Home Tooke having taken orders, admission to the bar was refused him." Churchill cor. " Its reference to place is disregarded." Dr. Bidlions cor. " What striking lesson is taught by the tenor of this history ? " Bush cor. " No less a sum than eighty thousand pounds had been left him by a friend." Dr. Priestley cor. " Where there are many things to be done, there must be allowed to each its share of time and labour." Dr. Johnson cor. "Presenting the subject in a far more practical form, than has heretofore been given it" Kirkham cor. " If to a being of entire impartiality should be shown the 'two companies." Dr. Scott cor. "The command of the British army was offered to him" Grimshaw cor. " To whom a considerable sum had been unexpectedly left." Johnson cor. "Whether such a privilege may be granted to a maid or a widow." Spect. cor. " Happily, to all these affected terms, the public suffrage has been denied." Campbell cor. " Let the parsing table next be shown him." Nutting cor. "Th'en the use of the analyzing table may be explained to him." Id. "To Pittacus there was offered a great sum of money." Sanborn cor. " More time for study had been allowed him." Id. " If a little care were bestowed on the ioalks that lie between them." Blair's Rhet p. 222. " Suppose an office or a bribe be offered me." Pierpont cor. "Is then one chaste, one last embrace denied? Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side ? " Rowe cor. UNDER NOTE V. OF PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE. " The preposition TO is used before nouns of place, when they follow verbs or participles of mo- tion." Murray et al. cor. " They were not allowed to enter the house." Mur. cor. " Their se'ia- rate signification has been overlooked." Tooke cor. " But, whenever YE is used, it must be in the nominative case, and not in the objective." Cobbett cor. " It is said, that more persons than one recede handsome salaries, to see that acts of parliament are properly worded." Churchill cor. " The following Rudiments of English Grammar have been used in the University of Pennsylva- nia." Dr. Rogers cor. " It never should be forgotten." Newman cor. "A very curious fact has been noticed by those expert metaphysicians."' Campbell cor. " The archbishop interfered, that Michelet's lectures might be stopped." The Friend cor. " The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely quelled." Daily Adv. cor. " Besides those which are noticed in these exceptions." Priestley cor. "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are employed." 'Id. " The arguments which have been used." Addison cor. "The circumstance is properly noticed by the author." Blair cor. " Patagonia has never been taken into possession by any European nation." Gumming cor. " He will be censured no more." Walker cor. " The thing was to be terminated somehow " Hunt cor. " In 1798, the Papal Territory was seized by the French." Pinnock cor. " The idea has not for a moment escaped the attention o/the Board." C. S. Journal cor. " I shall easily be excused/row the labour of more transcription." Johnson cor. " If I may be allowed to use that expression." Campbell cor. " If without offence I may make the observation." Id. " There are other characters, which are frequently usedin composition." Mur. et al. cor. " Such unaccount- able infirmities might be overcome, in many cases, and perhaps in most." Beattie cor. " Which ought never to be employed, or resm-ted to." Id. " That care may be taken of the widows." Or : " That the widows may be provided for." Barclay cor. " Other cavils will yet be noticed." Pope cor. " Which implies, that to all Christians is eternal salvation offered" West cor. " Yet even the dogs are allowed to eat the crumbs which fall from their master's table." Campbell cor. " For we say, the light within must be heeded." Barclay cor. "This sound of a is noticed in Steele's Grammar." J. Walker cor. " One came to receive ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles." M. Edgeworth cor. "Let therefore the application of the several questions in the table be carefully shown [to] him." Nutting cor. "After a few times, it is no longer noticed by the hearers." Sheridan cor. " It will not admit of the same excuse, nor receive the same indul- gence, from people of any discernment." Id. " Of inanimate things, property may be made." Or : " Inanimate things may be made property ; " i. e., " may become property." Beattie cor. "And, when some rival bids a higher price, Will not be sluggish in the work, or nice." Butler cor. UNDER NOTE VI. OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. "All the words employed to denote spiritual or intellectual things, are in their origin metaphors." Dr. Campbell cor. "A reply to an argument commonly brought forward by unbelievers." Dr. Blair cor. " It was once the only form used in the past tenses." Dr. Ash cor. " Of the points CHAP. III.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX SAME CASES. 911 and other characters used in writing." Id. " If THY be the personal pronoun adopted." Walker cor. "The Conjunction is award used to connect [words or] sentences." Burn cor. "The points tchich answer these purposes, are the four following." Harrison cor. " IXCBXSB signifies perfume exhaled by fire, and u.ted in religious ceremonies." L. Mur. cor. " In most of his orations, there is too much art ; he carries it even to ostentation." Blair cor. " To illustrate the great truth, so often overlooked in our times." ('. N. Journal cor. " The principal figures cal- culated to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Impre- cation." Formey cor. " Disgusted at the odious artifices employed by the judge." Juniu.s cor. "All the reasons for which there MV/.V allotted to m a condition out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise." Bp. Butler cor. " Some characteristical circumstance being generally invented or seized upon" Ld. Kames cor. "And BY is likewise used with names that shew The method or the means of what ice do." Ward cor. UNDER NOTE VII. OF CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS. " Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison, as do adjectives." Priestley cor. " But the author who, by the number and reputation of his works, did more than any one else, to briny our language iuto'its present state, teas Dryden." Blair cor. " In some states, courts of admiralty have no juries, nor do courts of chancery employ any at all." Webster cor. " I feel grateful to my friend." Murray cor. " This requires a writer to have in his own mind a very clear appre- hension of the object which he means to present to us." Blair cor. " Sense has its own har- mony, which naturally contributes something to the harmony of sound." Id. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i, which was formerly inserted, and which gave to the word an additional syllable." Priestley cor. " There are few to whom I can refer with more advantage than to Mr. Addison." Blair cor. " DEATH, (in theolot/y,) is a perpetual separation from God, a state of eter- nal torments." Webster cor. " That could inform the traveller as well as could the old man him- self ! " O. B. Peirce cor. UNDER NOTE VIII. OF YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE. "Ye daughters of Kabbah, gird you with sackcloth." SCOTT, FRIENDS, and the COMPREHEN- SIVE BIBLE: Jer. xlix, 3. "Wash you, make you clean." SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL. : Isaiah, i, 16. "Strip you, and make you bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins." SCOTT, FRIENDS, KT AL. : Isaiah, xxxii, 11. " Ye are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me." SCOTT, BRUCE, and BLAYXEY : Job, xix, 3. " If ye knew the gift of God." Or : " If thou knew the gift of God." See John, iv, 10. " Depart from me. ye workers of iniquity ; I know you not." Pent ny ton cor. CORRECTIONS UXDER RULE VI ; OF SAME CASES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. OF PROPER IDENTITY. "Who would not say, ' If it be /,' rather than, ' If it be me?' " Priestley cor. "Who is there? It is /." Id. " It is he." Id. "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes ; they are the ti'tmi.:" fd. "It is not I, that you are in love with." Addison cor. "It cannot be 7." Sir iff cor. " To that which once was thou." Prior cor. " There is but oneman that she can have, and that man is myself." Priestley cor. " We enter, as it were, into his body, and become in some measure he." Or, better: "and become in some measure identified' with him." A. Smith und Pr. cor. "Art thou proud yet ? Ay, that I am not thou." Shak. cor. " He knew not who they were." Milnes cor. "Whom do you think me to be?" Dr. Lowth's Gram. p. 77. " Who do men say that I, the Son of man, am ? " Bible cor. " But who say ye that I am?" Id. "Who think ye that I am ? I am not he." Id. "No; I am in error; I per- ceive it is not the person that I supposed it was." Winter in London cor. "And while it is llctlint I servo, life is not without value." Ware cor. "Without ever dreaming it was he." C/ur, /><< XII <. " Or he was not the illiterate personage that he affected to be." Montyom. cor. " Yet was he the man who w,is to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles." Barclay cor. "Sweet was the thrilling ecstasy ; 1 know not if 'twas love, or thou." J. lloqg cor. " Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was /." Dri/dcu cor. " Xo matter where the vanquished be, or who." Row* -No; I little thought it had been he." Crattoncor. " That reverence, thai godly fear which is cvi-r due to ' Him who can destroy both boclv and soul in hell.' " Mnturin cor. "It is we that they seek to please, or rather to astonish." ./. Went cor. " Let the same be her that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaa<-." Bih'r cor. "Although I knew it to be him." " Dear gentle youth, is 't none but thou?" Dorset ,-or. " Who do they say it is ? " t\>ick-r cor. " These are her garb, not she ; they but express Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress." More cor. UNDKH NOTE I. Or THE CASE DOUBTFUL. " I had no knowledge of any connexion between them." Col. Stonecor. " To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same thin;/, as to be the actors of it ourselves." (That is, "For ? to pro- mote iniquity in others, is nearly' the same thintj as for us to be the actors of it ourselves.") Mur- ray cor. " It must arise from ttUidlt feting M ourselves." Blair and Murray cor. "Because there has not been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement." Mass. Legisl. cor. " PUPILAGE, n. The state of & pupil, or scholar." l)ictionari> \ >r. " Then the other jxirt, being the definition, tcould itvlnde all verbs, of every description." Peirce cor. " Johr.'s friend- ship f-i me from inconvenience." Id. " William's jud-ifship" or, " William's appoint- ment tn tin- attic o/"judge t " changed his whole demeanour." Id. " William's prar. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than those of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities ? " Murray's Sequel, p. 115. " It distinguishes still more remarkably the feelings of the former from those of the latter." Kames cor. "And these good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world." Campbell cor. "These twenty years h;ive I been with thee." Gen. cor. " In this kind of expressions, some words seem to be understood." IT. Walker mr. " He thought this kind of excesses indicative of greatness." Hunt cor. " This sort of fellows is very numerous." Or thus : "Fellows of this sort are very nu- merous." Speet.eor. "Whereas men of this ,\<>rt cannot give account of their faith." Or: " Whereas these >nen cannot give account of their faith." 1 tare fay cor. "But the question is, whether those are the words." Id. " So that expressions of this sort are not properly optative." It. Johnson i-ii,-. " Many things are not such as they appear to be." Sanbwn cor. " So that all possible means are UM < " We have strict statutes, and most biting laws, Which, for these nineteen years, we have let sleep." Shak. cor. " They could not speak ; and so I left them both. To bear these tidings to the bloody king." Shak. cor. II. OK Fixr.D NCMUKRS. "Why, I think she cannot be above six feet two inches high." Spe-f. cor. "The world is pretty regular for about forty aid ten west." Iunds of gold went to one shield." 1 Kinns cor. "Such an assemblage of men us there appears to have been at that Mwibft." The yrioul cor. "And, truly, he has saved me from this labour." Barclay cor. " Within these three miles may you see it coming." Sh" -t of the churches, not all, had one rulint/ elder or more." 'Hutch . cor. " While a Minute Philosopher, not six /7high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe." Berkley cor. " The wall is ten feet high." Harrison cor. "The stalls must be ten feet broad." Walker cor. "A close prisoner in a room twenty feet square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at lib- erty to walk twenty feet southward, not to walk twenty feet northward." Locke cor. " Nor, after 914 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART II [. all this care and industry, did they think themselves qualified." C. Orator cor. " No fewer than thirteen Gypsies were condemned at one Suffolk assize, and executed." Webster cor. '" The king was petitioned to appoint one person or more." Mrs. Macaulay cor. " He carries weight. ! he rides a race ! Tis for a thousand pounds." Cowper cor. " They carry three tiers of guns at the head, and at the stern, two tiers." Joh. Diet. cor. "The verses consist of two sorts of rhymes." Formey cor. "A present of forty camel-loads of the most precious things of Syria." Wood's Diet. cor. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutia." S. Barrett cor. " So many spots, like naeves on Venus' soil, One gem set off with many a glittering foil." Dryden cor. " For, off the end, a double handful It had devour'd, it was so manful." Butler cor. UNDER NOTE III. OP RECIPROCALS. " That shall and will might be substituted one for the other." Priestley cor. " We use not shall and loill promiscuously the one for the other." Brightland cor. " But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from one an other also." Fowle cor. " Or on some other relation which two objects bear to each other." Blair cor. " Yet the two words lie so near to each other in meaning, that, in the present case, perhaps either of them would have been sufficient." Id. " Both orators use great liberties in their treatment of each other." Id. " That greater separation of the two sexes from each other." Id. "Most of whom live remote from one an other." Webster cor. " Teachers like to see their pupils polite to one an other." Id. " In a little time, he and I must keep company with each other only." Sped. cor. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon one an other." Kames cor. " They cannot perceive how the ancient Greeks could understand one an other." Lit. Conv. cor. " The poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with one an other in his breast." Hazlitt cor. "Athamas and Ino loved each other." C. Tales cor. " Where two things are compared or contrasted one loith the other." Or: "Where two things are com- pared or contrasted with each other." Blair and Mur. cor. " In. the classification of words, almost all writers differ from one an other." Bullions cor. " I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell; We'll no more meet ; we'll no more see each other." Shak. cor. UNDER NOTE IV. OF COMPARATIVES. "Errors in education should be less indulged than any others." Locke cor. " This was less his case than any otJier man's that ever wrote." Pref. to Waller cor. "This trade enriched some other people, more than it enriched them." Mur. cor. "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any other ancient character known." Wilson cor. " The Christian religion gives amove lovely character of God, than any other re- ligion ever did." Murray cor. " The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any other in. New Spain." Robertson cor. " Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind, than any other that ever was written." Pope cor. " Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any other writer." Blair cor. "One son I had one, more than all my other sons, the strength of Troy." Or : " One son I had one, the most of all my sons, the strength of Troy." Cowper cor. " Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son of his old age." Bible cor. UNDER NOTE V. OF SUPERLATIVES. " Of all simpletons, he was the greatest." Nutting cor. " Of all beings, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude." Id. " This lady is jirettier than any of her sisters." Peyton cor. " The relation which, of all the class, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet men- tioned." Blair cor. " He studied Greek the most of all noblemen." W. Walker cor. " Andin- deed that was the qualification which was most wanted at that time." Goldsmith cor. " Yet we deny that the knowledge of him as outwardly crucified, is the best of all knowledge of him." Barclay cor. " Our ideas of numbers are, of all our conceptions, the most accurate and distinct." Duncan cor. " This indeed is, of all cases, the one in which it is least necessary to name the agent." J. Q. Adams cor. " The period to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important moment of your lives." Id. " Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of all the pronouncing dictionaries yet known." D. H. Barnes cor, "This is the tenth persecution, and, of all the ten, the most bloody." Sammes cor. " The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world." Buckecor. " Of all writers whatever, Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention." Pope cor. " In a version of this par- ticular work, which, more than any other, seems to require a venerable antique cast." Id. " Be- cause I think him the best-informed naturalist that has ever written." Jefferson cor. " Man is capable of being the most social of all animals." Sheridan cor. " It is, of all signs (or expres- sions) that which most moves us." Id. " Which, of all articles, is the most necessary." Id. " Quoth he, This gambol thou advisest, Is, of &\\ projects, the unwisest.' " S. Butler cor. UNDER NOTE VI. OF INCLUSIVE TERMS. " Noah and his family icere the only antediluvians who survived the flood." Webster cor. " I think it superior to any other grammar that we have yet had." Blair cor. "We have had no other grammarian who has employed so much labour a,ndjud(/cment upon our native language, as has the author of these volumes." British Critic cor. "Those persons feel most for the dis- tresses of others, who have experienced distress themselves." L. Murray cor. "Never was any other people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation." Id. et al. " No other tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek." Blair cor. " Never was sovereign so much beloved by the people." Or : "Never was any other sovereign so much beloved by his people." L. Murray cor. " Nothing else ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child." Id. et al. " Of all the figures of speech, no other comes so near to painting as does metaphor." Blair et al. cor. " I CHAP. IV.] KKY TO FALSE SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 915 know no other writer so happy in his metaphors as is Mr. Addison." IH'iircor. " Of all the English authors, none is more happy in his metaphors than Addison." Jamie^on cor. " Perhaps no other writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle." Blair and Jumiexon < or. " Never was any other writer so happy, in that concise and spirited style, us Mr. Pope." Blair cor. " In the harmonious structure and disposition of his periods, no otht-r writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero." Blair and Jamifson cor. " Nothing ehe delights me so much as the works of nature." Mur. cor. "No person was ever more perplexed than he has been to- day." Id. " In no other case are writers so apt to err, as in the position of the word only." Maunder cor. " For nothing is more tiresome than perpetual uniformity." Blair cor. "\aity/it else sublimes the spirit, sets it free, Like sacred and soul-moving poesy." Sheffield cor. UNDER NOTE VII. EXTRA. COMPARISONS. " How much better arc ye than the fowls ! " Bible cor. " Do not thou hasten above the Most 77/7/j." A'.V//Y/\ cor. " This word, PEER, is principally used for the nobility of the realm." Cow- ell cor. " Because the same is not only most genera Uy received, &c." Barclay cor. " This is, I say, not the best and most important evidence'." Id. " Otter unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most Iliyh " The Psalter cor. " The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most Iliyh." I//. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first great lesson that should be taught them, is, to admire frugality." Goldsmith cor. " More yenerdl terms are put for such as are more restricted." Rev. J. Brown cor. " This, this was the unkindest cut of all." En- jield's Speaker, p. 3-)3. " To take the basest and most squalid shape." Shak. cor. " I'll forbear : 1 h !>> fallen out with my more heady will." Id. " The power of the Most Iliyh guard thee from sin." Percival cor. " Which title had been more true, if the dictionary had been in Latin and ffV/v//." I'ersteaan cor. " The waters are frozen sooner and harder, than further upward, within the inlands." Id. " At every descent, the worst may become more depraved." Mann cor. " Or as a moat defensive to a house Against the envy of les< happy lands." Shak. cor. " A dreadful quiet felt, and worse by far Than arms, a sullen interval of war." Diyden cor. UNDER NOTE VIII. ADJECTIVES CONNECTED. " It breaks forth in its hiyheit, most energetic, and most imjtriNsittned strain." Kirkhamcor. " He has fallen into the ri/est and grossest sort of railing." Man-lay cor. " To receive that hiyher and more yent-ru' instruction which the public affords." J. O Taylor cor. " If the best thin'g.s have sing ronstnu-tion." Rush cor. " God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah :sons." H'wid cor. " The frst six books of the ^Eneid are extremely beauti- ful." I-'tJi-fiii-i/ tor. "Only a few instances more can here be given." Murray cor. "A few years more wi'll obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form." Xitttinf/ cor. " Some define them to be verbs devoid of thejirst tn- > persons." Crombie cor. " In an other such Kssay-tractas this." M'hiti- cor. " But we fear that not an other swh man is to be found." Ed. Irciny cor. "Ofor an other mn-h sleep, that I might see H / "John behaves verycivtUy Tor, irith true di-ility) to all men." A/. '"All the sorts of words hitherto considered, have each of them some meaning, even when taken neparat- '//." //<'','/-, or. "He behaved himself conformably to that blessed example." Sprat or. "Marrclhmsht graceful." C/arrndon cor. " r l'he Queen having changed her ministry, suitably to her wisdom." Sicift cor. " The assertions of this author are more easily detected." Id. " The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no more strona/y than that." Bentley cor. "If one author had spoken more nobly and iftily than an other.'" Id. " Xenophon says expressly." Id. " I can never think so very meanly of him." Id. "To con- vince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have impiously committed." Bible cor. " I think it very ably written." Or: "I think it written in a very mas- 916 GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. terly manner." Swift cor. " The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it represents in a lively manner." Addison cor. "Agreeably to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." Burder et al. cor. "Agreeably to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents." Paley. "Words taken independently of their meaning, are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender." Maltby cor. " Conceit in weakest bodies strongliest works." Shak. cor. UNDER NOTE XI. THEM FOR THOSE. " Though he was not known by those letters, or the name CHRIST." Bayly cor. " In a gir, or some of those things." Better: "In a gig, or some such vehicle." M. Edgeworth cor. " wnen cross-examined by those lawyers." Same. "As the custom in those cases is." Same. " If you had listened to tlwse slanders." Same. "The old people were telling stories about those fairies ; but, to the best of my judgement, there is nothing in them" Same. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles, than the testimony of those old Pharisees ? " Hibbard cor. UNDER NOTE XII. THIS AND THAT. " Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : that is the anticipation of good, this of evil." List. p. 265. " The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should not therefore account these happy, and those miserable." Inst. p. 266. " Ellen and Margaret, fearfully, I Then turned their ghastly look each one, Sought comfort in each other's eye ; That to her sire, this to her son." Scott cor. " Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids, In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades ; Those by Apollo's silver bow were slain, These Cynthia's arrows stretch'd upon the plain." Pope cor. "Memory and forecast just returns engage, That pointing back to youth, this on to age." Pope, on Man. UNDER NOTE XIII. EITHER AND NEITHER. duty' "These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; namely, truth, and interest: but the arguments directed towards any of them are generally distinct." Dr. Blair cor. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still any of the accounts may be cor- rect in principle ; for all these divisions, and their technical terms, are arbitrary." Green cor. " Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient; as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds ; and has no letter to represent any of five simple consonant sounds." Churchill cor. " Then none of these five verbs can be neuter." Peirce cor. "And the assertor* is in none of the four already mentioned." Id. "As it is not in any of these four." Id. " See whether or not the word comes within the definition of any of the other three simple cases." Id. "No one of the ten was there." Frazee cor. " Here are ten oranges, take any one of them." Id. " There are three modes, by any of which recollection will generally be supplied ; inclination, Eractice, and association." Rippingham cor. " Words not reducible to any of the three preced- ig heads." Fowler cor. " Now a sentence maybe analyzed in reference to any of these four classes." Id. UNDER NOTE XIV. WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST. " Does not all proceed from the law. which regulates all the departments of the state ? " Blair cor. "A messenger relates to Theseus all the particulars." Ld. Kames cor. "There are no feicer than twenty-mne diphthongs in the English language." Ash cor. " The Redcross Knight runs through all the steps of the Christian life." Sped. cor. " There were not fewer than fifty or sixty persons present." Mills and Merchant cor. " Greater experience, and a more cultivated state of society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression." Blair and Murray cor. " By which means, knowledge, rather than oratory, has become the principal requisite." Blair cor. " No fewer than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets." Lempriere cor. "Temperance, rather than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases." Murray cor. " I do not suppose, that we Britons are more deficient in genius than our neighbours." Id. "In which, he says, he has found no fewer than twelve untruths." Barclay cor. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and all the operations were fixed." Hume cor. "In these ligid opinions, all the sectaries concurred." Id. " Out of whose modifications have been made nearly all complex modes." Locke cor. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no fewer than five different tones." Blair cor. " These people, though they possess brighter qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she." Murray cor. "It is certain, that we believe our own judgements more jirmly, after we have made a thorough inquiry into the things." Brightland cor. "As well as the whole course and all the reasons of the operation." Id. " Those rules and principles which are of the (/reatest practical advantage." Newman cor. "And all curse shall be no more." Rev. cor. (See the Greek.) "And death shall be no more." Id. "But, in recompense, we have pleasanter pictures of ancient manners." Blair cor. "Our language has suffered a greater number of injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries." Webster cor. "All the conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society." Ld. Kames cor. * All our lexicographers, and all accurate authors, spell this word with an o ; but the gentleman who has fur- nished us with the last set of new terms for the science of grammar, writes it with an e, and applies ifc to the verb and the participle. With him, every verb or participle is an " assrrter ; " except when he forgets his creed, as he did in writing the preceding example about certain " verbs." As he changes the names of all the parts of speech, and denounces the entire technology of grammar, perhaps his innovation would have been sufficiently broad, had he for TILE VERB, the most important class of all, adopted some name which he knew how to spell. G. B. CHAP. V.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. PRONOUNS. 917 UNDER NOTE XV. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. "To such as think the nature of it deserving of their attention." Butler cor. " In all points, more deserving of the approbation of their readers." Keepsake cor. " But to give way to childish sensations, was unbecoming to our nature." Lempriere cor. " The following extracts are deftcrring of the serious perusal of all." The Friend cor. " Xo inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving of attention." Buiwer cor. " The opinions of illustrious men are de~ i of great consideration." Porter cor. "And resolutely keep its laws, Uncaring for conse- quences!" Or: "\ut //eeding consequences." Burns cor. "This is an item that is deserving of more attention." Goodell c or. " Leave then thy joys, tauviting to such age : " Or, " Leave then thy joys not suiting such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage." Dryden cor. UNDER NOTE XVI. FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES. " The tall dark mountains and the deep-to?ied seas." "Dana. " O ! learn from him To sta- tion quick-eyed Prudence at the helm." Frost cor. " He went in a one-horse chaise." Dr. Blair cor. "It ought to be, 'in a one-horse chaise.' " Crombiecor. " These are marked with the above- mentioned letters." Folker cor. "A. many -headed faction." Ware cor. " Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar, for the perhaps heaven-inspired effort. " Foicle cor. "Com- mon-metre stanzas consist of four iambic lines ; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourtcen-syllable lines." Goodenow cor. "Short-metre stanzas con- sist of four iambic lines ; the third of eight, the rest of six syllables." Id. "Particular-me- tre stan/as consist of six iambic lines ; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight." Id. 'ii'itli-mctre stanzas consist of six iambic lines ; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six." Id. "Long-metre stanzas are merely the union of four iambic lines, of ten syllables each." Id. "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the 'Old- Testament poets." Blair cor. " You, sulphurous and thought-executed fires, \'aunt-couriers to oak-cleaving thunderbolts, Singe my white head! And thou, all-shaking thunder, Strike flat the thick rotundity o' th' world ! " Lear, Act iii, Sc. 2. CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE X AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. OF AGREEMENT. " The subject is to be joined with its predicate." Wilkins cor. " Every one must judge of his own feelings." Byron cor. " Every one in the family should know his or her duty." Penn cor. "To introduce its possessor into that way in which he should go." Inf. S. Gram. cor. 11 Do not they say, that every true believer has the Spirit of God in Am?" Barclay cor. " There is none in his natural state righteous ; no, not one." Wood cor. " If ye were of the world, the world would love its own." Bible cor. " His form had not yet lost all its original brightness." Milton cor. " No one will answer as if I were his friend or companion." Steele cor. " But, in systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have a manifest tendency to make them worse." Waykmdcor. "And nobody else would make that city his refuge anymore." Joseph us cor. "What is quantity, as it respects syllables or words ? It is the time which a speaker occupies in pronouncing them." Bradley cor. " In such expressions, the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that it is usually parsed as such." Bullions cor. " The tongue is like a racehorse ; which runs the faster, the less weight he carries." Or thus : "The tongue is like a racehorse; the less weight it carries, the faster 'it runs." Addison, Mur- ray, et al. cor. "As two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with his jaws, one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets." News- >,-. " Kvery body nowadays publishes memoirs; every body has recollections whicli he thinks worthy of recording." Duchess D'Ab. cor. " Every body trembled, for himself, or for his friends." Goldsmith cor. "A steed comes at morning : no rider is there ; But his bridle is red with the sign of despair." Campbell cor. UNDER NOTE, I. PRONOUNS WRONG OR NEEDLESS. " Charles loves to study ; but John, alas ! is very idle." Merchant cor. " Or whatman is there of you, irho, if his son ask bread, will give him a stone ? " Bible cor. " Who, in stead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." Tillotson cor. " Whom ye de- livered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pil;ite." Hibft cor. " Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber." Id. " Then Manasseh knew that the Lord was God." 1<1. " Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the trouble, put into distinct propositions, and express clearly to others." Sot- Iflnir's Rhet. p. 93. " But the painter, being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, cannot exhibit various stages of the same action." Murray's Gram, i, 103. " What he subjoins, is without any proof at all." Barclay cor. " George Fox's Testimony concerning Robert Barclay." Title cor. "According to the advice of the author of the Postcript." Barclay cor. " These things seem as ugly to the 2ye of their meditations, as those Ethiopians that were pictured on Nemesis's pitcher." Bacon r. " Moreover, there is always a twofold condition propounded with the Sphynx's enigmas." 918 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. Id. " Whoever believeth not therein, shall perish." Koran cor. " When, at Sestius's en- treaty, I had been at his house." W. Walker cor. " There high on Sipylus's shaggy brow, She stands, her own sad monument of wo." Pope cor. UNDER NOTE II. CHANGE OF NUMBER. " So will I send upon you famine, and evil beasts, and they shall bereave you." Bible cor. " Why do you plead so much for it ? why do you preach it up ? " Or : " Why do ye plead so much for it ? why do ye preach it up ? " Barclay cor. " Since thou hast decreed that I shall bear man, thy darling." Edicard's Gram. cor. "You have my book, and I have yours ; i. e., your book." Or thus: "Thou hast my book, and I have thine; i. e., thy book." Chandler cor. " Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what thou art." Bullions cor. "Return, thou backsliding Israel, saith the Lord, and I will not cause mine anger to fall upon thee." Bible cor. "The Almighty, unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity, has sent me to give thee warning." Ld. Kames cor. "Wast thou born only for pleasure ? wast thou never to do any thing ? " Collier cor. " Thou shalt be required to go to God, to die, and to give up thy ac- count." Barnes cor. "And canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glory of the Creator ? would not such a sight annihilate thee ? " Milton cor. " If the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing, wouldst thou have refused ? " C. S. Journal cor. "Art thou a penitent : evince thy sincerity, by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance." Vade-Mecum cor. " I will call thee my dear son: I remember all thy tenderness." C. Tales cor. " So do thou, my son : open thy ears, and thy eyes." Wright cor. " I promise you, this was enough to discourage you." Bunyan cor. " Ere you remark an other's sin, Bid your own conscience look within." Gay cor. " Permit that I share in thy wo, The privilege canst thou refuse ? " Perfect cor. "Ah ! Strephon, how canst thou despise Her who, without thy pity, dies? " Swift cor. " Thy verses, friend, are Kidderminster stuff; And I must own, thou'st measured out enough." Shenst. cor. " This day, dear Bee, is thy nativity ; Had Fate a luckier one, she'd give it thee." Swift cor. UNDER NOTE III. WHO AND WHICH. " Exactly like so many puppets, which are moved by wires." Blair cor. "They are my ser- vants, whom I brought forth* out of the land of Egypt." Leviticus, xxv, 55. " Behold, I and the; children whom God hath given me." See Isaiah, viii, 18. "And he sent Eliakim, who was over the household, and Shebna the scribe." Isaiah, xxxvii, 2. " In a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses which rilled them." M'llvaine cor. "They are not of those who teach things that they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake." Barclay cor. "As a lion among the beasts of the forest, as a young lion among the flocks of sheep ; ichich, if he go through, both treadeth down and teareth in pieces." Bible cor. "Frequented by every fowl which nature has taught to dip the wing in water." Johnson cor. " He had two sons, one of whom was adoptee, by the family of Maximus." Lempriere cor. "And the ants, which are collected by the smell, are burned with fire." The Friend cor. "They being the agents to whom this thing was trust- ed." Nixon cor. " A packhorse which is driven constantly one way and the other, to and from market." Locke cor. "By instructing children, whose affection will be increased." Nixon cor. 14 He had a comely young woman, who travelled with him." Hutchinson cor. "A butterfly, who thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to light upon a beehive." Inst. p. 267. " It is an enormous elephant of stone, which disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower." Ware cor. " He was met by a dolphin, which sometimes swam before him, and some- times behind him." Edward's Gram. cor. " That Caesar's horse, which, as fame goes, I Was not by half so tender-hoof'd, Had corns upon his feet and toes, | Nor trod upon the ground so soft." Butler cor. UNDER NOTE IV. NOUNS OF MULTITUDE. " He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him." Murray's Key. " The court, which gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary." Ib. p. 187. " Nor does he describe classes of sinners that do not exist." Mag. cor. " Because the nations among which they took their rise, were not savage." Murray cor. "Among nations that are in the first and rude periods of A_- T~>7 ' _ it TM . . ^ .i.' 1 *._!?*. I . ^ * . . 7 7 Al f 11 may say, 'the crowd which was going up the street.' " Cobbett's E. Gram. H 204. " Such mem- bers of the Convention which formed this Lyceum, as have subscribed this Constitution." N. Y. Lyceum cor. UNDER NOTE V. CONFUSION OF SENSES. "The name of the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case." Kirkham cor. " Of which reasons, the principal one is, that no noun, properly so called, implies the presence of the thina named." Harris cor. "Boston is a proper noun, which distinguishes the city of Boston from other cities." Sanborn cor. "The icord CONJUNCTION means union, or the act of joining together. Conjunctions are used to join or connect either words or sentences." Id. "'The word INTERJECTION means the act of throwing beticeen. Interjections are interspersed among other words, to express strong or sudden emotion." Id. "Indeed is composed of in and deed. The words may better be written separately, as they formerly were." Cardell cor. "Alexander, on the contrary, is a particular name ; and is employed to distinguish an individual only." Jamiesoncor. " As an indication that nature itself had changed its course." Or : " that Nature herself had changed her course." History cor. " Of removing from the United States and their territories * It -would be better to omit the word "/br*A," or else to say" whom I brought forth from the land of Egypt." The phrase, "/ortA out off is neither a very common nor a very terse one. O. BBOWIC. CHAP. V.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. PRONOUNS. 919 the free people of colour." Jenifer cor. " So that gh may be said not to have its proper sound." Or thus : " So that the letters, a and h, may be said 'not to have their proper sounds." Webster cor. "Are we to welcome the loathsome harlot, and introduce her to our children ? " Maturin cor. "The first question is this: ' Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall hereafter simply denominate good use, always uniform, [i. e., undivided, and unequiv- ocal,] in its decisions ? ' " Campbell cor. " In personifications, Time is always masculine, on ac- count of his mighty efficacy; Virtue, feminine, by reason of her beauty and. loveliness." Murray, Blair, ct urh a. construction, is improper." Adam and Gould cor. " His friend bore the abuse very patiently ; tchosc forbearance, however, served only to increase his rudeness : it produced, at length, contempt and insolence." Murray and Emmons cor. " Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical ; and some examples of ellipsis may be found, under nearly all the different parts of speech." .Murray, Guy, Smith, be. cor. UNDER NOTE XV. REPEAT THE PRONOUN. " In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or their external struc- ture, beauty and design are equally conspicuous." Kames cor. " It puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper, or in its figurative sense." Id. ior my obligations to the muses, nor my expectations from them, are so great." Cowlty cor. "The Fifth Annual Report of the Atisl as they list." Barclay cor. ' Each person per- formed his part handsomely." Flint cor. " This block of marble rests on two layers of stones, 64 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them." Parker and Fox cor. " Love gives to all our powers a double power, Above their functions and their offices. " Or: " Love gives to every power a double power, Exalts all functions and all offices." Shak. cor. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XI ; OF PRONOUNS. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. " The jury will be confined till they agree on a verdict." Brown's Inst. p. 145. "And mankind directed their first cares towards the needful." Formey cor. " It is difficult to deceive a free people respecting their true interest." Life of Charles XII cor. "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but their follies and vices are innumerable." Swift cor. " Every sect saith, ' Give us liberty : ' but give it them, and to their power, and they will not yield it to any body else." Cromicell cor. " Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up themselves as a young lion." Bible cor. "For all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth." Id. " There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put them in great con- sternation." Goldsmith cor. UNDER NOTE I. THE IDEA OF UNITY. " The meeting went on with its business as a united body." Foster cor. "Every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for itself." Gould cor. " It would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that state against its own government." Dr. Webster cor. " The mode in which a lyceum can apply itself' in effecting a reform in common schools." N. Y. Lye. cor. " Hath a nation changed its gods, which yet are no gods ? " Jer. cor. " In the holy Scriptures, each of the twelve tribes of Israel is often called by the name of the patriarch from whom it descended." Or better : " from whom the tribe descended." Adams cor. UNDER NOTE II. UNIFORMITY OF NUMBER. "A nation, by the reparation of the wrongs which it has done, achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give." Adams cor. " The English nation, from whom we de- scended, have been gaining their liberties inch by inch." Webster cor. "If a Yearly Meeting P ure ^^_ and yet are not washed from their filthiness." Id. "He hath not beheld iniquity in Jair,t/*,* <>>r. "And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within him ? " Maturin cor. " This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for its service to the body." Collier cor. " If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thce." Bible cor. " The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any great author ; whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to his reputation." Pope cor. " Either James or John, one or the other, will come." Smith cor. " Even a rugged rock or a barren heath, though in itself disagreeable, contributes, by contrast, to the beauty of the whole." Kames cor. " That neither Count Rechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved himself right in this affair." Spect. cor. " If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffers for his opinions, he is a ' martyr.' "Fuller cor. " If an ox gore a man or a woman, that he or she die ; then the ox shall urely be stoned." Exod.cor. "She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring him." Johnson cor. " Here is a task put upon children, which neither thig author himself, nor any other, has yet undergone." R. Johnson cor. " Hence, if an adjective or a participle be subjoined to the verb when the construction is singular, it will agree both in gender and in number with the collective noun." Adam and Gould cor. "And if you can find a diphthong or a triphthong, be pleased to point that out too." Bucke cor. "And if you can find a trisyllable or a polysyllable, point it out." Id. " The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic has intrenched himself." Chr. Spect. cor. "While the man or woman thus assisted by art, expects his charms or hers will be imputed to nature alone." Opie cor. " When you press a watch, or pull a clock, it answers your question with precision ; for it repeats exactly the hour of the day, and tells you neither more nor less than you desire to know." Bolingbroke cor. " Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary, 7* in his mansion monarch more than I." King cor. CHAPTER VI. VERBS. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIV AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. VERB AFTER THE NOMINATIVE. " Before you left Sicily, you icere reconciled to Verres." Duncan cor. " Knowing that you were my old master's good friend." Spect. cor. " When the judge dares not act, where is the loser's remedy ? " HV/.v//-/- ro/\ " Which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extends." Mur. cor. ' They presently dry without hurt, as myself have often proved." R. Williams cor. Whose goings-forth have been from of old, from everlasting." Micah, v, 2. " You were paid courteous to me." Byron cor. "As to what thou sayst respecting the diversity of opinions." M. II. cor. " Thy nature, Immortality, who knows? " />, >; st cor. " The natural distinction of sex in animals, gives rise to what, in grammar, are called genders." Id. " Some pains have likewise been taken." S -ntt <<>,-. "And many a steed in his stables was seen." I'enwarne cor. " They were forced to eat what never was esteemed food." Josephus cor. " This that you your- self have spoken, I desire that they may take their oaths upon." Hutchinson cor. "By men whose experience best qualifies them to judge." Committee cor. " He dares venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish." Walton cor. " If a gudgeon meet a roach, He ne'er will preside**." .V. Wain cor. " I can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress /tflwbeenastonishi: .<((< <<>,. " Which of these two kinds of vice isthe more criminal ?" Dr. liroirn cor. "Every twenty-four hours afford to us the vicissitudes of day and night." Smith' a False Syntax, Xctc Gram. p. 103. Or thus : " Every period of twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night." Smith mr. " Every four years add an other day." Smith's "ii. p. in: 1 ,. Better thus : EverjfovrtA war adds an other day." Smith cor. " Every error I could find, Has my busy muse employe-l." Stoiftcor "A_studious scholar deserves the approbation of his teacher." San'torn cor. "Perfect submission "to the rules of a school indicates good breeding." Id. "A comparison in which more than two are concerned." Len- nie's Gram. p. 78. " By the facilities which artificial language affords them." O. B. Peirce cor. " Now thyself ^a,^ lost both lop and top. r-or. " Glad tidings are brought to the poor." Ctimpb. cor. " Upon which, all that is pleasurable or affecting in elocution, chiefly depends." S/n-r. cor. " Xo pains hare been spared to render this work complete." Bullions cor. " The United States contain more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe." Clinton cor. " I urn mindful that myself am strong." Fowler cor. " Myself am (not is) weak ; " "Thyself tirt (not is) weak." Id. " How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rises from clerical or city feast ! "Pop* cor, 924 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. VERB BEFORE THE NOMINATIVE. " Where were you born ? In London." Buchanan cor. "There are frequent occasions for commas." Ingersoll cor. " There necessarily folloiv from thence these plain and unquestionable consequences." Priestley cor. "And to this impression contributes the redoubled effort." Kames cor. " Or, if he was, were there no spiritual men then ? " Barclay cor. " So, by these two also, are signified their contrary principles." Id. " In the motions made with the hands, con- sists the chief part of gesture in speaking." Blair cor. "Dares he assume the name of a popular magistrate?" Duncan cor. "There were no damages as in England, and so Scott lost his wager." Byron cor. " In fact, there exist such resemblances." Kames cor. "To him give all the prophets witness." Acts, x, 43. " That there were so many witnesses and actors." Addison cor. " How do this man's definitions stand affected?" Collier cor. "Whence come all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings ? " Id. " Nor do the scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent." Barclay cor. " Nor does the scripture cited by thee prove the contrary." Id. " Why then citest thou a scripture which is so plain and clear for it ? " Id. " But what say the Scrip- tures as to respect of persons among Christians ? " Id. " But in the mind of man, while in the savage state, there seem to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses." Robertson cor. " What sounds has each of the vowels ? " Griscom cor. " Out of this have grown up aristrocra- cies, monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies." Broivnson cor. "And there were taken up, of frag- ments that remained to them, twelve baskets." Bible cor. " There seem to be but two general classes." Day cor. " Hence arise the six forms of expressing time." Id. " There seem to be no other words required." Chandler cor. " If there are two, the second increment is the syl- lable next to the last." Bullions cor. " Hence arise the following advantages." Id. "There are no data by which it can be estimated." Calhoun cor. " To this class, belongs the Chinese lan- guage, in which we have nothing but naked pi'imitives." Fowler cor. [t^p" " Nothing but naked roots," is faulty ; because no word is a root, except some derivative spring from it. G. B.] " There were several other grotesque figures that presented themselves." Spect. cor. " In these consists that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol." Perci val cor. " Here come those I have done good to against my will." Shak. cor. " Where there are more than one auxiliary." Or : " Where there are more auxiliaries than one." O. B. Peirce cor. " On me to cast those eyes where shines nobility." Sidney cor. " Here are half-pence in plenty, for one you'll have twenty." Swift cor. "Ah, Jockey, ill advisest thou, I wis, To think of songs at such a time as this." Churchill cor. UNDER NOTE I. THE RELATIVE AND YERB. " Thou, who lovest us, wilt protect us still." A. Murray cor. " To use that endearing language, * Our Father, who art in heaven.' " Bates cor. " Resembling the passions that produce these actions." Kames cor. " Except dwarf, grief, hoof, muff, &c., which take s to make the plurf 1." Ash cor. "As the cattle that go before me, and the children, be able to endure." Gen. tor. " Where is the man who dares affirm that such an action is mad ? " Dr. Pratt cor. " The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting, that are any- where to be met with." Dr. Blair cor. " In some studies, too, that relate to taste and line writing, which are our object," &c. Id. " Of those affecting situations which make man's heart feel for man." Id. " We see very plainly, that it is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speaks." Id. " It should assume that briskness and ease which are suited to the freedom of dialogue." Id. "Yet they grant, that none ought to be admitted into the ministry, but such as are truly pious." Barclay cor. " This letter is one of the best that have been written about Lord Byron." Hunt cor. " 1'hus, besides what were sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships." Goldsmith cor. " To have made and declared such orders as were necessary." Hutchitison cor. " The idea of such a collection of men as makes an army." Locke cor. " I'm not the first that has been wretched." Southern cor. "And the faint sparks of it which are in the angels, are concealed from our view." Calvin cor. " The subjects are of such a nature, as alloics room (or, as to allow room) for much diversity of taste and sentiment." Dr. Blair cor. " It is in order to propose ex- amples of such perfection, as is not to be found in the real examples of society " Formey cor. " I do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as have been attributed to him." Id. "That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed." Milton, P. L., B. i, 1. 8. " With respect to the vehemence and warmth which are allowed in popular eloquence." Dr. Blair cor. "Ambition is one of those passions that are never to be satisfied." Home cor. " Thou wast he that led out and brought in Israel." Bible cor. "Art thou the man of God, that came from Judah?" Id. " How beauty is excell'd by manly grace And wisdom, Avhich alone are truly fair." Milton cor. "What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown, While others sleep, thus roamst the camp alone ? " Pope cor. UNDER NOTE II. NOMINATIVE WITH ADJUNCTS. " The literal sense of the words is, that the action had been done." Dr. Murray cor. " The rapidity of his movements was beyond example." Wells cor. " Murray's Grammar, together with riety of objects in some natural landscapes, occasions neither confusion nor fatigue." Kames cor. " Such a clatter of sounds indicates rage and ferocity." Gardiner cor. " One of the fields makes threescore square yards, and the other, only fifty five." Duncan cor. " The happy effects of this fable are worth attending to." Bailey cor. " Yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays, still lingers with us." Gould cor. " Enough of its form and force is retained to render them uneasy." Maturin cor. " The works of nature, in this respect, are extremely regular." Pratt cor. " No CHAP. VI.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. VERBS. RULE XIV. 925 small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases, has been made by commerce." Bicknell cor. " The dialect of some nouns is noticed in the notes." Mi/nes cor. " It has been said, that a discovery of the full resources of the arts, affords the means of debasement, or of perversion." Rush cor. " By which means, the order of the words is disturbed." Holmes cor. "The two- fold influence of these and the others, requires the verb to be in the plural form." Peircc cor. "And each of these ajfords employment." Percival cor. " The pronunciation of the vowels t* best explained under the rules relative to the consonants." Cuar cor. "The judicial power of these courts extends to all cases in law and equity." Hall and Baker cor. " One of you has stolen my money." Humorist cor. " Such redundancy of epithets, in stead of pleasing, pro-luces sa- tiety and disgust." Kum.es cor. " It has been alleged, that a compliance with the rules of Rhet- oric, tends to cramp the mind." Hi ley cor. " Each of these is presented to us in different rela- tions." Ucndi ick cor. " The past tense of these verbs, (should, would, might, could,) is very indefinite with respect to time." Bullions cor. " The power of. the words which are said to gov- ern this mood, is distinctly understood." Chandler cor. "And now, at length, the fated term of years The world's desire hath brought, and lo ! the God appears." Lowth cor. " Variety of numbers still belongs To the soft melody of odes, or songs." Brightland cor. UNDER NOTE III. COMPOSITE on CONVERTED SUBJECTS. " Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish, is hardly granted to th same ma'n." Johnson cor. " To lay down rules for these, is inefficacious." Pratt cor. " To pro- fess regard and act injuriously, discovers a base mind." L. Murray et al. cor. " To magnify to the height of wonder things great, new, and admirable, extremely pleases the mind of man." Fisher cor. " In this passage, ' according as ' is used in a manner which is very common." Webster cor. "A CAUSE DK, is called a preposition; A c.vrsE QUE, a conjunction." Webster cor. "To these it is given to speak in the name of the Lord." The Friend cor. " While wheat has no plural, oats has seldom any singular." Cobbett cor. " He cannot assert that II (i. e-., double Ell) is in- serted in fullness to denote the sound of u." Cobb cor. "Ch, in Latin, has the power of k." Gould cor. "7Y, before a vowel, and unaccented, has the sound of si or ci." Id. " In words de- rived from French, as chagrin, chicanery, and chaise, ch is sounded like sh." Bucke cor. " But, in the words schism, schismatic, &c., the ch is silent." Id. ti Ph, at the beginning of words, is always sounded like /." Bucke cor. "Ph has the sound of /, as in philosophy." Webster cor. "Sh has one sound only, as in shall." Id. "Th has two sounds." Id. ",Sc, before a, o, u, or r, has the sound of sk."Id. "Aw has the sound of a in hall." Bolles cor. "Ew sounds like u." Id. "Ow, when both rowels are sounded, has the power of ou in thou." Id. "Vi, when both vowels are pronounced in one syllable, sounds like iri short, as in languid." Id. "Ui three other sounds at least expresses, As who hears GUILE, REBUILD, and BKUISE, confesses." Brightland cor. UNDER NOTE IV. EACH, ONE, EITHER, AND NEITHER. " When each of the letters which compose this word, 7ms been learned." Dr. Weeks cor. "As neither of us denies that both Homer and Virgil have great beauties." Dr. Blair cor. t( Yet neither of them is remarkable for precision." Id. " How far each of the three great epic poets -tinguished himself." Id. " Each of these produces a separate, agreeable sensation." Id. " On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians keeps the sabbath." Tr. of Iron. cor. "And each of them bears the image of purity and holiness." Hope of Is. cor. " Was either of these meet- or, " each of which has in effect its un-n verb." Lowth cor. " Sometimes, when the word ends in s, neither of the signs is used." A. Mur. cor. "And as neither of these manners offends the cur." J. Wiilkrr,-<,r. " Neither of these two tenses is confined to this signification only." R. John- son cor. " But neither of these circumstances is intended here." Too/te cor. " So that all are indebted to each, and each is dependent upon all." Bible Rep. cor. "And yet neither of them ex- presses any more action in this case, than it did in the other." Bullions cor. " Each of these ex- pressions denotes action." llu!l A <-f>/-. " Neither of these moods seems to be defined by distinct boundaries." Butler cor. "Neither of these solutions is correct." Bullions cor. "Neither bears any sign of case at all." Fici<-r cor. " Each in his turn, like Banquo's monarchs, stalks." Or : "All in their turn, like Banquo's monarchs, stalk." Byron cor. "And tell what each doth by the other lose." Shak. cor. r.vnr.u NOTE V. VEUB BETWEEN TWO NOMINATIVES. " The quarrels of lovers are but a renewal of love." Adam et al. cor. " Two dots, one placed above the other, are called a *//>>-ut him, lie would not act accordingly." Murray cor. " If there were no liberty, there would be no real crime." Formcy cor. " If the house were burnt down, the case would be the same." Foster cor. "As if the mind were not always in action, when it prefers any thing." West cor. " Suppose I were to say, ' Light is a body.'" Harris cor. "If either ox'ygen or azote were omitted, , life would be destroyed." Gurncy cor. "The verb dare is sometimes used as if it were an auxiliary." Prietttey cor. " A certain lady, whom I could name, if it were necessary." Sjwt. r r. " If the e were dropped, c and g would assume their hard sounds." Ilwhnnnn <<-. "He would no more comprehend it, than if it were the speech of a Hottentot." .Y< - /'.--,/-. " If thou knew the gift of God," &c. Bible cor. " I wish I were at home." O. />'. ''. "Fact alone does not constitute right: if it did, general warrants were lawful." Juniun mr. "Thou loofot upon thy boy, as though thou guessed it." * All the corrections under this head are directly contrary to the teaching of William S. Cardell, Oliver B. Peirce, and perhaps some other such writers on ^rarnmar; and some of them are contrary also to Murray's late editions. But 1 am confident that these authors teach erroneously ; that their use of indicative forms for mere suppositions that are contrary to the fact-, is positively unxriimmatical ; and that the potential imperfect is less elegant, io euch injoincw, than the simple subjunctive, which they r^:t or dirtort. 928 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. Putnam, Cobb, or Knoioles cor. " He fought as if he contended for life." Hiley cor. " He fought as if he were contending for his life." Id. "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf, I As if thou knew my tale of grief, As if thou shed for me a tear ; | Felt all my sufferings severe." Letham cor. Last Clause of Note IX. The Indicative Mood. "If he knoics the way, he does not need a guide." Inst. p. 191. " And if there is no differ- ence, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected." Murray cor. " I cannot say that I admire this construction, though it is much used." Priestley cor. " We are disappointed, if the verb does not immediately follow it." Id. " If it was they, that acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault." Murray cor. "If art becomes apparent, it disgusts the reader." Jamieson cor. " Though perspicuity is more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book." Campbell cor. "Although the efficient cause is obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open." 'Blair cor. "Although the barrenness of language, or the want of words, is doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes." Id. "Though it en- forces not its instructions, yet it furnishes a greater variety." Id. "In other cases, though the idea is one, the words remain quite separate." Priestley cor. " Though the form of our language is more simple, and has that peculiar beauty." Buchanan cor. " Human works are of no sig- nificancy till they are completed." Kames cor. " Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanishes altogether." Id. " And our relish improves by use, till it arrives at perfection." Id. " So long as he keeps himself in his own proper element." Coke cor. " Whether this translation was ever published or not, I am wholly ignorant." Sale cor. " It is false to affirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually is day." Harris cor. " But we may at midnight affirm, ' If it is day, it is light.' " Id. " If the Bible is true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest." Dickinson cor. " Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered." Bible cor. " If David then calleth (or calls) him Lord, how is he his son ? " Id. " "Pis hard to say, if greater want of skill Appears in writing, or in judging, ill." Pope cor. UNDER NOTE X. FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES. " If a man has built a house, the house is his." Wayland cor. " If God has required them of him, as is the fact, he has time." Id. " Unless a previous understanding to the contrary has been had with the principal." Berrian cor. " O ! if thou hast hid them in some flowery cave." Milton cor. " O ! if Jove's will has 'linked that amorous power to thy soft lay." Id. " SUB- JUNCTIVE MOOD: If thou love, If thou loved." Dr. Priestley, Dr. Murray, John Burn, David Blair, Harrison, and others. "Till religion, the pilot of the soul, hath lent thee her unfathom- quished humility." West cor. " Whether he has gored a son, or has gored a daughter." Bib'e cor. " It is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile, relates to what goes befoie or to what follows." Kames cor. "And bridle in thy headlong wave, I "And bridle in thy headlong wave, Till thou our summons answer'd Aos." Or: | Till thou hast granted what we crave." Milt. cor. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XV AND ITS NOTE. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. THE IDEA OF PLURALITY. " The gentry are punctilious in their etiquette." G. B. " In France, the peasantry #0 bare- foot, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes." Harvey cor. "The people rejoice in that which should cause sorrow." "Murray varied. " My people are foolish, they have not known me." Bible and Lowth cor. "For the people speak, but do not write." Phil. Mu.cor. " So that all the people that were in the camp, trembled." Bible cor. " No company like to confess that they are ignorant." Todd cor. " Far the greater part of their captives were anciently sacrificed." Robertson cor. f 'More than one half of them were cut off before the return of spring." Id. "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, suppose the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning." Blair and Mur. cor. " A multitude of words in their dialect approach to the Teutonic form, and therefore afford excellent assistance." Dr. Murray cor. "A great majority of our authors are defective in manner." /. Brown cor. " The greater part of these new-coined words have been rejected." Tooke cor. " The greater part of the words it contains, are subject to certain modifications or inflections." The Friend cor. " While all our youth prefer her to the rest." Waller cor. " Mankind are appointed to live in a future state." Butler cor. '" The greater part of human kind speak and act wholly by imitation." Rambler, No. 146. "The greatest part of human gratifications approach so nearly to vice." Ib. No. 160. " While still the busy world are treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before." Young cor. UNDER THE NOTE. THE IDEA OF UNITY. "In old English, this species of words was numerous." Dr. Murray cor. "And a series of exercises in false grammar is introduced towards the end." Frost cor. "And a jury, in conform- ity with the same idea, was anciently called homagium, the homage, or manhood." Webster cor. " With respect to the former, there is indeed a plenty of means. "-^Kames cor. " The number of school districts has increased since the last year." fhroop cor. " The Yearly Meeting has pur- chased with its funds these publications." Foster cor. "Has the legislature power to prohibit assemblies ? " Sullivan cor. " So that the whole number of the streets was fifty." Rollin cor. "The number of inhabitants was not more than four millions." Smollett cor. "The house of Commons loas of small weight." Hume cor. "The assembly of the wicked hath (or has) CHAP. VI.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. - VERBS. - RULE XVI. 929 inclosed me." Psal. cor. "Every kind of convenience and comfort is provided." C, S. Journal cor. "Amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants in Spain, the body of the clergy has suffered no diminution ; but it has rather been gradually increasing." Payne cor. " Small as the num- ber of inhabitants is, yet their poverty is extreme." Id. "The number of the names was about one hundred and twenty." Ware and Acts cor. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVI AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITS EM'. THK, VEKH AITEU JOINT NOMINATIVES. " So much ability and [so much] merit arc seldom found." Mur. eta/, cor. " The etymology and /nt'i.r of the language are thus spread before the learner." Bullions cor. " Dr. Johnson tells us, that, in Knirlish poetry, the accent and the quantity of syllables are the same thing." Adams cor. " Their general scope and tendency, having never been clearly apprehended, arc not remem- bered at all." /,. Murray cor. " The soil and sovereignty were not purchased of the natives." Kiiupp cr. " The bnldnesfl, freedom, and variety, of our" blank verse, arc infinitely more favour- able to sublimity of style, than [are the constraint'and uniformity of] rhyme." Blair cor. " The vivacity and sensi'bility of the Greeks seem to have been much greater than ours." Id. " For sometimes the m<>od and tense are signified by the verb, sometimes they are signified of the verb by something else." R. Johnson cor. " The verb and the noun making a complete sense, whereas the participle and the noun do not." Id. " The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through ail their mazes, are a subject too extensive tor an undertaking like the present." Kames cor. " The true meaning and etymology of some of his words were lost." Knit/fit cor. " When the force and direction of personal satire are no longer understood." Junius cor. " The frame and condition of man admit of no other principle." Dr. Broicn cor. "Some considerable time and care were necessary." Id. " In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure have been thrown upon Milton." Blair cor. " With rational beings, nature and reason are the same thing." ('oilier cor. "And the flax and the barley were smitten." Bible cor. "The colon and semicolon divide a period ; this with, and that without, a connective." Ware cor. " Consequently, wherever space and time are found, there God must also be." Newton cor. "As the past tense and perfect participle of LOVE end in ED, it is regular." Chandler cor. " But the usual arrange- ment and nomenclature prevent this from being readily seen." Butler cor. "Z)o and did simply imply opposition or emphasis." .1. Murray cor. "/ and an other make the plural WE ; thou and an other are equivalent to YE ; he, she, or it, and an other, make THEY." Id. "/and an other or others are the same as WE, the first person plural ; thou and an other or others are the same as YE, the second person plural ; he, she, or it. and an other or others, are'the same as THEY, the third person plural." Buchanan and Brit. Gram. cor. " God and thou are two, and thou and thy neighbour are two." Love Conquest cor. " Just as AN and A have arisen out of the numeral ONE." l-'nirlercor. " The tone and style of all of them, particularly of the first and the last, are very different." Blair cor. " Even as the roebuck and the hart are eaten." Bible cor. " Then I may conclude that two and three do not make five." Barclay cor. " Which, at sundry times, thou and thy brethren have received from us." Id. " Two and two are four, and one is five : " i. e., " and one, added to four, is Jive." Pope cor. " Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, excel pnde and ignorance under costly array." See Murray's Key, Rule 2d. "A page and a half have been added to the section on composition." Bullions cor. "Accuracy and expertness in this ex- ercise are an important acquisition." Id. " Woods and groves are of thy dressing, Hill and dale proclaim thy blessing." Or thus " Hill and valley boast thy blessing." Milton cor. UNDER THE RILE ITSELF. THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES. " There are a good and a bad, a right and a wrong, in taste, as in other things." Blair cor. " Whence have arisen much stiffness and affectation." /(/. " To this error, are owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and [that] harshness, in his figurative language, which I before noticed.'' Blair and Jamie.son cor. " Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there prevail an obscurity and a hardness of style." Blair cor. See Jam it-son's Hint. p. l.">7. " There are, however, in that work, much good sense and excellent criticism." Blair cor. " There are too much low wit and scur- rility in Plautus." Or : " There i,i, in riautus, too much of low wit and scurrility." Id. " There arc too much reasoning and refinement, too much pomp and studied beauty, in them." Or: " There is too much of reasoning and refinement, too much q/'pomp and studied beauty, in them." Id. " Hence arise the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation." Rush cor. ''And such pilots are he and his brethren, according to their own confession." Barclay cor. Of whom are Ilymeneus and Philetus ; who concerning the truth have erred." Bible cor. " Of whom arc Mvmeui'us and Alexander ; whom I have delivered unto Satan." Id. "And so were James and John, the sons of Zebedee." Id. " Out of the same mouth, proceed blessing and curs- ing." /,/. " Out of the mouth of the Most High, pro:- red not evil and good." Id. " In which there are most plainly a right and a wrong." It/>. Butler cor. " In this sentence, there are both an actor and an object." R. C. Smith cor. " In the breastplate, were placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim." Milntancor. " What are the gender, number, and person, of the pronoun* in the first c.ram/>le ' " R. ('. Smith cor. " There seem to be a familiarity and a want of dignity in it." Priestley cor. " It has been often asked, what arc Latin and Greek ? " Lit. Journal cor. " For where do beauty and high wit, liutin your constellation, meet : " Butler cor. " Thence to the land where Jloic Ganges and Indus." Milfoncor. " On these foundations, seem to rc.st the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies." Dr. Brown cor. " But what have disease, * This is what Smith must have meant by the inaccurate phra?c. " those in the first." For his first example is, " IIu went to school ; " which contains only the one pronoun " lie." See Smiths Ntw Cram. p. 19. 05 930 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell ? " Dr. Johnson cor. " How are the gender and number of the relative known ? " Bullions cor. " High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust, And feebler speed the blow and thrust." Scott cor. UNDER NOTE I. CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE. " In every language, there prevails a certain structure, or analogy of parts, which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage." Blair cor. "There runs through his whole manner a stiffness, an affectation, which renders him [Shaftsbury] very unfit to be considered a general model." Id. " But where declamation for improvement in speech is the sole aim." Id. " For it is by these, chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of any kind, is laid open." Lowth cor. " In all writing and discourse, the proper composition or structure of sentences is of the highest importance." Blair cor. " Here the wishful and expectant look of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts." Campbell cor. " Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, with the sign of the cross, puts away devils." Barclay cor. " By which an oath with a penalty was to be imposed on the members." Juniuscor. " Light, or knowledge, in what man- ner soever afforded us, is equally from God." Bp. Butler cor. " For instance, sickness or un- timely death is the consequence of intemperance." Id. " When grief or blood ill-tempered vexeth him." Or : " When grief, with blood ill-tempered, vexes him." Shak. cor. " Does continuity, or connexion, create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?" Collier cor. "His greatest concern, his highest enjoyment, was, to be approved in the sight of his Creator." Mur- ray cor. "Know ye not that there is* a prince, a great man, fallen this day in Israel ?" Bible cor. " What is vice, or wickedness ? No rarity, you may depend on it." Collier cor. _ " There is also the fear or apprehension of it." Bp. Butler cor. " The apostrophe with s ('s) is an ab- breviation for is, the termination of the old English genitive." Bullions cor. " Ti, ce, OK ci, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of sh ; as in partial, ocean, special." Weld cor. " Bitter constraint o/"sad occasion dear Compels me to disturb your season due." Milton cor. "Debauchery, or excess, though with less noise, As great a portion of mankind destroys." Waller cor. UNDER NOTE II. AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION. " Wisfdom, and not wealth, procures esteem." Key, Inst. p. 272. " Prudence, and not pornp, is the basis of his fame." Ib. " Not fear, but labour has overcome him." Ib. " The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference." Ib. " Not her beauty, but her talents attract at- tention." Ib. " It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attract attention." Ib. "It is h beauty, and not her talents, that attracts attention." Ib. " His belly, not his brains, this impulse gives : He'll grow immortal ; for he cannot live." Or thus : " His bowels, not his brains, this impulse give : He'll grow immortal ; for he cannot live." Young cor. UNDER NOTE III. AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE. " Common sense, as well as piety, tells us these are proper." Fam. Com. cor. " For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, has nothing left but to abandon him- self to chance." Kames cor. " And accordingly hatred, as well as love, is extinguished by long absence." Id. " But at every turn the richest melody, as well as the sublimest sentiments, is at- well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, was conspicuous." Robertson cor. " When their extent, as well as their value, teas unknown." Id. " The etymology, as well as the syntax, of the more difficult parts of speech, is reserved for his attention at a later period." Parker and Fox cor. "What! myself owe to him.no one but myself knows." Wright cor. "None, but thou, O mighty prince ! can avert the blow." Inst. Key, p. 272. " Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent." Ib. " Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, was heard." G. B. " All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute." G. B. UNDER NOTE IV. EACH, EVERY, OR NO. "Give every word, and every member, its due weight and force." Murray's Gram. Vol. i, p. 316. " And to one of these belongs every noun, and every third person of every verb." Dr Wil- son cojr. " No law, no restraint, no regulation, is required to keep him within bounds." Lit. Journal cor. " By that time, every window and every door in the street was full of heads." pie." Abbott cor. "Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty." Inst. Key, p. 272. "And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was dis- contented, resorted unto him." Bible cor. "Every private Christian, every member of the church, ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that he may know his faith and belief to be founded upon them." Barclay cor. "And every mountain and every island was moved out of its place." Bible cor. " No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, No cavern'd hermit rests self-satisfied." Pope. * According to modern usage, has would here be better than is, though isfaUen is still allowable. G. BROWN. CHAP. VI.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. VERBS. RULE XVII. 931 UNDER NOTE V. WITH, OR, &c., FOR AND. " The sides, A,' B, and C, compose the triangle." Tobitt, Felch, and Ware cor. " The stream, the rock, and the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination." Blair ror. " While this, with euphony, constitutes, finally, the whole." O. B. Pet roe cor. " The bag, with the guineas and dollars in i't, was stolen." Cobbed cor. "Sobriety, with great indus- try and talent, enables a man to perform great deeds." Or: "Sobriety, industry, and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds." Id. " The it, together with the verb, expresses a state of being." Id. " Where Leonidas the Spartan king, and his chosen band, fighting for their coun- try, were cut off to the last man." Kames cor. "And Leah also, and her children, came near and bowed themselves." Bible cor. "The First and the Second will either of them, by itself, coalesce with the Third, but they do not coalesce with each other." Harris cor. " The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy and Comedy are hurtful and dangerous representa- tions." Formey cor. "Both grief and joy are infectious : the emotions ichicfy they raise in the spectator, resemble them perfectly." Kames cor. " But, in all other words, the q and u are both sounded." Ensell cor. "Q and u (which are always together) have the sound of AM?, as in queen; or of k only, as in opaque." Or, better: "Q has always the sound of A:; and the u which follows it, that of ic ; except in French words, in which the" is silent." Goodenow cor. "In this selection, the a and i form distinct syllables." Walker cor. "And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, &c., extends around on each side of the square." Lib. cor. "Affection and interest guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life ; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste." Jamieson cor. " She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, and anger, produce among children." John- son cor. "The King, Lords, and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government." (trombie et al. cor. " If we say, ' I am the man who commands you,' the relative clause, with the antecedent man, forms the predicate." Crombie cor. "The spacious firmament on high, I And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame. The blue ethereal vault of sky, | Their great Original proclaim." Addison cor. UNDER NOTE VI. ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. " There are a reputable and a disreputable practice." Or : " There is a reputable, and there is a disreputable practice " Adams cor. "This man and this were born in her." Milton cor. " This man and that were born in her." Bible cor. "This and that man were born there." Hcndrick cor. " Thus le in l?go, and le in leai, seem to be sounded equally long." Adam and Gould cor. "A distinct and an accurate articulation form the groundwork of good delivery." Or: "A distinct and accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery." KirkJiam cor. " How arc vocal and written language understood ? " Sanders cor. " The good, the wise, and the learned man, are ornaments to human society." Or : " The good, wise, and learned man is an ornament to human society." Bartlett cor. "In some points, the expression of song and that o/'speech are identical." Rush cor. " To every room, there were an open and a secret pass- age." Johnson cor. " There are such things as a true and a false taste ; and the latter as often directs fashion, as the former." Webster cor. " There are such things as a prudent and an impru- dent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs." Bp. Butler cor. "The lot of the outcasts of Israel, and that of the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in an other corresponded with wonderful exactness." Hope of Israel cor. " On these final sylla- bles, the radical and the vanishing movement are performed." Rush cor. " To be young or old, and to be good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events." Spurzheim cor., and Felch. " The eloquence of George Whitfield and that of John Wesley were very different in charade/ each from the other." Dr. Sharp cor. " The affinity of m for the series beginning with b, and that of n for the series beginning with t, give occasion for other euphonic changes." Fowler cor. " Pylades' soul, and mad Orestes', were In these, if right the Greek philosopher." Or thus : " Pylades' and Orestes' soul did pass To these, if we believe Pythagoras." Or, without ellipsis : " Pylades and Orestes' soul-s did pass To these, if we believe Pythagoras." Cowley corrected. UNDER NOTE VII. DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. " To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, are the best ways to ensure success." Murray cor. " To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, are both one." Locke cor. " With whom, to will, and to do, are the same." Dr. Jamieson cor. " To profess, and to possess, are very different things." Inst. Key. p. 272. " To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, are duties of universal obligation." Ih. " To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or .slowly, are all equally alien from the nature of thought." Dr. Johnson. " The resolv- ing of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, and [u] stating [o/"] the accidents which belong to these, are culled PARSING." Or, according to Note 1st above": "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, with [a] stating [of] the accidents which belong to these, is called PARSING." Bullions cor. " To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, were once a girl's employments; but now, to dress, and to catch a beau, are all she calls enjoyments." Kimball cor. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVII AND ITS NOTES. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR. " We do not know in what either reason or instinct consists." Johnson corrected. 'A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, constitutes a nominative case absolute." Bicknell cor. " The relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, uses to govern : " or," usually governs."-*- Adam, Gould, et al, cor. " In the different modes of 932 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYIvTAX. [PART I [I. pronunciation, which habit or caprice gives rise to." Knight cor. " By which he. or his deputy, was authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest." Junius cor. " Wherever objects were named, in which sound, noise, or motion, icas concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious." Blair cor. " The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, is a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes." Kames cor. " Be- cause their foolish vanity, or their criminal ambition, represents the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect." I). Boilcau cor. " Hence naturally arises indifference or aversion between the parties." Dr. Brown cor. "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent be- liever, is a character nowhere to be found." Tract cor. " Copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitles them to imitation." Johnson cor. "Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, is often of decisive influence." Duncan cor. "A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale, relieves the folio page." Z)' Israeli cor. " For outward matter or event fashions not the character within." Or: (according to the antique style of this modern book of proverbs :) ' ' fashioneth not the character within." Tapper cor. " Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, has warmed cold brains." Dry den cor. " Motion is a genus; flight, a species; this flight or that flight is an individual." Harris cor. " When et, ant, vel, sive, or nee, is repeated before different members of the same sentence." Adam, Gould, and Grant cor. " Wisdom or folly governs us." Fisk cor. "A or an is styled the indefinite article." Folker cor. "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoots up into a prodigy?' Sped. cor. "Is either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified ? " Prof. Fowler cor. " Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, Is lost on hearers that our merits know." Pope cor. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF. NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY NOR. " Neither he nor she has spoken to him." Perrin cor. " For want of a process of events, neither knowledge nor elegance preserves the reader from weariness." Johnson cor. "Neither history nor tradition furnishes such information." Robertson cor. "Neither the form nor the power of the liquids has varied materially." Knight cor. " Where neither noise nor motion is concerned." Blair cor. " Neither Charles nor h'is brother was qualified to support such a sys- tem." Junius cor. " When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion, serves, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track." Campbell cor. " In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, is fairly laid before men." Butler cor. " Neither the intellect nor the heart is capable of being driven." Abbott cor. " Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana is in any way connected with the Sun or Moon." Coleridge cor. " Of which, neither he, nor this grammar, takes any notice." R. Johnson cor. "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight extends so far." Robertson ccr. " Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, considers Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first discoverer of the continent of America." Id. " Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, has be< n thought worthy of a moment's consideration." Junius cor. " Nor Avar nor wisdom yields our Jews delight, They will not study, and they dare not fight." Crabbe cor. " Nor time nor chance breeds such confusions yet, Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great." Rowe cor. UNDER NOTE I. NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE. " The definite article, the, designates what particular thing or things are meant." Merchant cor. " Sometimes a word, or several words, necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, are not expressed, but are omitted by ellipsis." Burr cor. " Ellipsis, (better, El- lipses,') or abbreviations, are the wheels of language." Maunder cor. " The conditions or tenor of none of them appears at this day." Or : " The tenor or conditions of none of them appear at this day." Hutchinson cor. "Neither men nor money was wanting for the service." Or: " Neither money nor men were wanting for the service." Id. " Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, requires emphatic distinction to be frequent." Dr. Barber cor. " Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature, is uppermost : now I am for the latter part of the dis- junction." Collier cor. " Their riches or poverty is generally proportioned to their activity or indolence." Cox cor. " Concerning the other part of him, neither he nor you seem to have enter- tained an idea." Home cor. " Whose earnings or income is so small." Discip. cor. " Neither riches nor fame renders a man happy." Day cor. " The references to the pages always point to the first volume, unless the Exercises or Key is mentioned." Or, better: "unless mention is made of the Exercises or Key." Or : " unless the Exercises or Key be named." L. Murray cor. UNDER NOTE II. COMPLETE THE CONCORD. " My lord, you wrong my father ; neither is he, nor am I, capable of harbouring a thought against your peace." Walpole cor. " There was no division of acts ; tJiere were no pauses, or intervals, in the performance ; but the stage was continually full ; occupied either by the actors, or by the chorus." Blair cor. " Every word ending in b, p, or/, is of this order, as also are many that end in v." Dr. Murray cor. " Proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than is the general system of human life and human knowledge." Bolingbroke cor. " By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we are cleansed." Barclay cor. "And those were already converted, and regeneration was begun in them." Id. " For I am an old man, and my wife is well advanced in years." Bible cor. "Who is my mother ? or who are my brethren ?" See Matt, xii, 48. " Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor are the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering." Bible cor. " Information has been obtained, and some trials have been made." "-Martineau cor. " It is as obvious, and its causes are more easily understood." Webster cor. "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English contains as many as any other." Priestley cor. " The winters are long, and the cold is intense." Morse cor. " How have I hated instruction, and how hath my heart despised reproof!" Prov. cor. "The vestals were /ma ue> ii CHAP. VI.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. VERBS. RULE XVII. 933 abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta teas extinguished." Lempricre cor. " Riches beget pride ; pride begets impatience." Bullions cor. " Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters are sounds." Enclytica cor. " Words are imple- ments, and grammar is a machine." Id. UNDER NOTE III. PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON. "Thou or /must undertake the business." L. Murray cor. "He and I were there." Ash cor. "And we dreamed a dream in one night, he and I." Bible car. " If mv views remain the same as his and mine were in 1833." Good ell cor. " My father and I wore riding out." Inxt. I 273. "The premiums were given to George and' me." Ik. "Jane and I are invited." Ib. " They ought to invite my sister and me." Ih. " You and I intend to no." Guy cor. "John and I are going to town." Brit. Gram. cor. "lie and I are sick." James Brown cor. " Thou and I are well." Id. "He and I are." Id. "Thou and I are." Id. "He and I write >." Id. "They and I are well." Id. "She, and thou, and /, were walking." Id. UNDKU NOTE IV. DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES. "To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice." Inst. Key, p. 273. " To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy." Ib. " To write all sub- stantives with capital letters, or to exclude capitals from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought an offence too small for animadversion ; but the evil of innovation is always something." Dr. Barroic cor. "To live in such families, or to have such servants, ts a i from God." Fam. Com. cor. " How they portioned out the country, what revolutions the y experienced, or what wars they maintained,"/* utterly unknown." Or: "How they por- tioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced," and what wars they maintained, are things utterly unknown." Goldsmith cor. " To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, is an attainment of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or by writing, to address the public." Dr. Blair cor. UNDER NOTE V. MAKE THE VERBS AGREE. " Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and go into the mountains, andsrafr that which is gone astray ? " Bible cor. " Did he not fear the Lord, and beseech the Lord, and did not the Lord re- pent of the evil which he had pronounced? " Id. "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such a one, and briny me into judgement with thee ? " Id. " If any man among you seemeth to be reli- gious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain." Id. " If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or &tt n*rr cor. " The man has spoken, and he still speaks." Ash cor. " For you have Init mistaken me all this while." Shak. cor. "And will you rend our ancient love asunder ? " Id. " Mr. Birney has pled (or pleaded) the inexpediency of passing such resolutions." Liberator cor. " Who have worn out their years in such most painful labours." Littleton cor. "And in the con- clusion you were chosen probationer." Spectator cor. " How she was lost, ta'en captive, made a slave ; And how against him set that should her save." Bunyan cor. UNKI.II NOTE XII. OF VERHS CONFOUNDED. " But Moses preferred to while away his time." Parker cor. " His face shone with the rays of the sun." S/O^H Allen cor. " Whom they had set at defiance so lately." Bolingbroke cor. "And when he had sat down, his disciples came unto him." Bible cor. " When he had sat down on the judgement-seat." Or: "While he was Kitting on the judgement-seat." Id. "And, they having kindled a fire in the midst of the hall, and sat down together, Peter sat down among them'." Id. "So after he h;ieeu said already in general terms." Id. "As I hinted before." Or: "As I hare, iiinti il already." Id. " What, I belirve, was hinted once before." Id. " It is obvious, as iras hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion." Id. "They did anciently ;i great deal of hurt." Boliltfbrotu cor. "Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he trr/.v t.he high priest.'' See Aftx, : xxiii, "> : Webster cor. " Mo.-t prepositions oiiginaliy denoted the relations of plioo ; and/row these they were transferred, to denote, by similitude, other relations." Lowth and C/i. KH NOTE I. EXPUNGE OF. " In forming his sentences, he was very exact." L. Murray. " For not believing which, I con- demn them." Han-lay cor. " To prohibit his hearers from reading that book." Id. " You will please them exceedingly in crying down ordinances." Mitchell cor. " The warwolf subsequent- ly became an engine for casting stones." Or: "for the casting of stones." Cons. Misc. cor. " The art of dressing hides and working in leather was practised." Id. In the choice they had made of him for restoring order." Rollin cor. " The Arabians exercised themselves by compos- ing orations and poems." Sale cor. " Behold, the widow-woman was there, gathering sticks.'' Hible cor. "The priests were busied in offering burnt-offerings." Id. " But Asahel would not turn aside from following him." Id. " lie left off building Itamah, and dwelt in Tirzah." Id. " Those who accuse us of denying it, belie us." Barclay cor. "And breaking bread from house to house." Acts, iv, 46. " Those that set about repairing the walls." Barclay cor. "And secretly begetting divisions." Id. "Whom he had made use of in gathering his church." Id. " In defining and distinguishing the acceptations and uses of those particles." W. Walker cor. " In making this a crime, we overthrow The laws of nations and of nature too." Dnjden cor. UNDER NOTE II. ARTICLES REQUIRE OF. " When we have in view the erecting of a. column." Id. " The straining o/'an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not so frequent." Id. " The cutting of evergreens in the shape of animal*, is very ancient." /(/. " The keeping of juries without meat, drink, or fire, can be ac- counted for only on the same idea." Webster cor. " The writing of the verbs at length on his slate, will be a very useful exercise." Beck cor. " The avoiding of them is not an object of any moment." Sheridan cor. "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the signification of a word by degrees." Brit. Gram. cor. " Comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the quality by degrees ." ltur/i>iun cor. "The placing of a. circumstance before the word with which it is con- nected is the easiest of all inversion." Id. " " What is emphasis ? It is the emitting of a. stronger and fuller sound of voice," &c Bradley cor. " Besides, the varying o/the terms will render the use of them more familiar." A. Mitr. '.cor. "And yet the confining of themselves to this true principle, has misled them." Tooke cor. " What is" here commanded, is merely the relieving of his misery." Way land cor. "The accumulating of too great a quantity of knowledge at ran- dom, overloads the mind in stead of adorning it." Formey cor. " For the compassing of his point." Rollin cor. " To the introducing of such an inverted order of things." Butler cor. " Which require only the doing o/'an external action. "Id. " The imprisoning o/my body is to satisfy your wills." Fox cor. "Who oppose the conferring of such extensive command on one person." Daman cor. " Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating of their forces." Sale cor. " The keeping of one day of the week for a sabbath." Barclay cor. " The doing of a. thing is contrary to the forbearing of it." Id. " The doubling of the Sigma is, however, sometimes ."Kniyht cor. " The inserting of the common aspirate too, is improper." Id. " But in indeed given the orders himself for the shutting of the gates." Id. " So his whole life was a doing of the will of the Father." Piminyton cor. "*It signifies the suffering or receiving of the action expressed." 1'riestlry cor. " The pretended crime therefore was the de- claring of himself to be the Son of God." West cor. " Parsing is the resolving of a. sentence into its different parts of speech." Beck cor. UNDER NOTE II. AI>JI:c thus exempted, is further apparent." ././//< II "/.\/ cur. " Her situation in life does not allow her to be genteel in everv thing." Same. " Provided you do not dislike to be dirty when you are invisible." s 1 here is nowan imperious necessity for her to Ac acquainted with her title to eternity." Same. "Disregard to the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness." Same. " The legislature prohibits the opening of shops on Sunday." Same. " To attempt to prove that any thins* is right." <). 11 1', !><< ,-n,-. '" The comma directs ?/.v f<> make a pause of a second in duration, or less." Id. " The rule which directs ;/.v to put other words into the place of it, is wrong." Id. " They direct us to call the specifying adjectives, or adnames, adjective pronouns." Id. " William dis'likes to attend court." Frost cor. " It may perhaps be worth while to remark, that Milton makes a distinction." Phil. M". cor. "Tbpntfa* regard and m-t ityurioiuty, discovers a base mind." Murray <( al . cor. " You have proved beyond contradiction, that this course of action is the sure way to procure such an object." Campbell cor. 940 GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. UNDER NOTE VIII. PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &c. of their own compositions."- Buchanan cor. " But puritj guage."- Jamieson cor. " But the most important object is the settling of the English quantity." Walker cor. " When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to an other is a very wide step taken." Campbell cor. " It would be a loss of time, to attempt further to illustrate it." Id. " This leaves the sentence too bare, and makes it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense." Cobbett cor. " This is a requiring of more labours from every private member." J. West cor. " Is not this, to use one measure for our neighbours and an other for our- selves ? " Same. "Do we not charge God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature ? " Same. " This is not, to endure the cross, as a disciple of Jesus Christ ; but, to snatch at it, like a. partisan of Swift's Jack." Same. " What is spelling ? It is the combin- ing of letters to form syllables and words."' O. B. Peirce cor. " It is the choosing o/\such letters to compose words," &c. Id. " What is Parsing r (1.) It is a describing of the nature, use, and powers of words." Id. (2.) " For Parsing is a describing of the words of a sentence as they are used." Id. (3.) " Parsing is only a describing of the nature and relations of words as they are used." Id. (4.) " Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is a statement o/' facts con- cerning words ; or a describing of words in their offices and relations, as they are." Id. (5.) and describing of its various qualities, and its grammatical relations to other words in the sen- tence." Peirce cor. (7.) " For the parsing of a word is an enumerating and describing of its various properties, and [its~\ relations to [other words in] the sentence." Id. (8.) "The parsing of a, noun is an explanation of its person, number, gender, and case ; and also of its grammatical relation in a sentence, with respect to some other u'ord or Avoids." Ingersoll cor. (9.) "The parsing of any part of speech is an explanation of all its properties and relations." Id. (10.) " Parsing is the resolving of a. sentence into its elements." Fowler cor. " The highway of the upright is, to depart from evil." Prov. xvi, 17. " Besides, the first step towards exhibiting the truth, should be, to remove the veil of error." Peirce cor. " Punctuation is the dividing of sen- tences, and the words of sentences, by points for pauses." Id. "An other fault is the using of the imperfect tense SHOOK in stead of the participle SHAKEN." Churchill cor. " Her employ- ment is the drawing of maps." Alger cor. "To go to the play, according to his notion, is, 'o lead a sensual life, and to expose one's self to the strongest temptations. This is a begging of the question, and therefore requires no answer." Formey cor. " It is an overvaluing q/"ourselves, 1.0 reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities." Comly's Key, in his Gram. >. 188 ; Fish's Gram. p. 135. " What is vocal language ? It is speech, or the expressing of idei a by the human voice." C. W. Sanders cor. UNDER NOTE IX. VERBS OF PREVENTING. " The annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment from becoming a law." O. B. Peirce cor. ' " Which prevents the manner from being brief." Id. " This close prevents them from bearing forward as nominatives." Rush cor. " Because this prevents it from growing drowsy." Formey cor. " Yet this does not prevent him from being great." Id. " To prevent it from being insipid." Id. " Or whose interruptions did not prevent its continuance." Or thus : " Whose interruptions did not prevent it from being continued." Id. " This by no means prevents them from being also punishments." Wayland cor. " This hinders them not/row being also, in the strictest sense, punishments." Id. " The noise made by the rain and wind, pre- vented them from being heard." Goldsmith cor. "He endeavoured to prevent it from taking effect." Id. " So sequestered as to prevent them from being explored." Jane West cor. "Who prevented her from making a more pleasant party." Same. " To prevent us from being tossed about by every wind of doctrine." Same. "After the infirmities of age prevented htm from bearing his part of official duty." R. Adam cor. "An understanding of the literal sense ' or, "To have understood the literal sense, would not have prevented them from condemning the guiltless." Butler cor. " To prevent splendid trifles /rom passing for matters of importance." Kames cor. " Which prevents him from exerting h'imself to any good purpose." Beattie cor. " The nonobservance of this rule very frequently prevents us from being punctual in the perform- ance of our duties." Todd cor. " Nothing will prevent him from being a student, and possess- ing the means of study." Id. " Does the present accident hinder you from being honest and brave ?" Collier cor. " The e is omitted, to prevent two Ees from coming together." Fowle cor. "A pronoun is used for, or in place of, a noun, to prevent a repetition of the noun." San- born cor. " Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents it from being tired with the fre- quent recurrence of the rhymes." Campbell cor. ; also Murray. " Timidity and false shame pre- vent us from opposing vicious customs." Mur. et al. cor. " To prevent them from being moved by such." Campbell cor. " Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents it from taking place." Priestley cor. " Which prevents us from making a progress towards perfection." Sheridan cor. " This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time from being settled." Id. "That nothing but affectation can prevent it from always taking place." Id. "This did not prevent John from being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." Or : "Notwithstanding this, John was acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." Henry, Webster, Sanborn, and Fowler cor. UNDER NOTE X. THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE. " This would make it impossible for a noun, or any other word, e\erto be in the possessive case." O. B. Peirce cor. "A great part of our pleasure arises from finding the plan or story well con- C1IAP. VII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. RULE XX. 941 ducted." Blair cor. "And we have no reason to wonder that this was the case." Id. " She objected only, (as Cicero says,) to Oppianicus as having two sons by his present wife." Id. "The subjugation q/"the Britons by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their calling of these Saxons to their assistance." Id. " What he had there said concerning the Saxons, that they expelled the Britons, and changed the customs, the religion, and the language of the coun- try, is a clear and good reason why our present language is Saxon, rather than British." Id. "The only material difference between them, except that the one is short and the other more prolonged, is, that a metaphor is always explained by the words that are connected with it." Id. et Mur. cor. " The description of Death, advancing to meet Satan on his arrival." Rushcor. " Is not the bare fact, that God is the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon ? " Chalmers cor. "As in the case of one who is entering upon a new study." Beattiecor. ' The manner in which these ajf'fct the copula, is called the imperative mood." Wilkins cor. " ~\\V are freed from the trouble, because our nouns hart- .scarcely any diversity of endings." Buchanan cor. " The verb is rather indicative of the action as being doing, or done, than o/'the time of the event; but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable." Booth cor. "Nobody would doubt that this is a sufficient proof." Campbell cor. "Against the doctrine here maintained, that conscience, as well as reason, is a natural faculty." Beattie cor. " It is one cause why the Greek and English languages are much more easy to learn, than the Latin." Bucke cor. "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance in which such has been the fact." Lib. cor. "A:i an-n'h forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror." Wood cor. " The prisoners, in attempting to escape, aroused the keepers." Peircecor. " I doubt not, in the least, that this /uis been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world." Blair cor. " From the general rule he lays down, that f he verb is the parent word of all language." Tooke cor. " He was ac- cused of being idle." Or : " He was accused of idleness" Fetch cor. " Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him for so removing." Or: "with the circumstances of his removal." Edmond- son cor. " The spectacle is too rare, of men deserving solid fame while not seeking it." Bush cor. " What further need was there that an other priest should risef " Heb. vii, 11. UNDEK NOTE XI. REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES. " Viewing them separately, we experience different emotions." Or: "Viewed separately, they produce different emotions." Kames cor. " But, this beinf/ left doubtful, an other objection, occurs." Id. "As he proceeded from one particular to an other, the subject grew under his hand." Id. " But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain is broken." Id. "After some days' hunting, (or, After some days spent in hunting, ) Cyrus communicated his design to his officers." Rollin cor. " But it is made, without the- appearance of being made in form." Blair cor. " These would have had a better effect, had they been disjoined, thus." Blair and cor. "In an improper diphthong, but one of the vowels is sounded." Murray, Alaer, et "And / being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady." Blair, Mur. i. cor. " By often doing the same thing, we make t/ie action habitual.' Or : " ]\'hat is ne, becomes habitual." Murray cor. "They remain with us in our dark and solitary Murray cor. "In an improper diphthong, but one of the vowels is sounded." Murray, Alaer, et and Jam. often done, becomes habitual." Murray cor. "They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when we are surrounded with friends and cheerful society." Id. ' Besides showing what is right, one may further explain the matter by pointing out what is wrong." Lowth cor. " The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, and comprises accent, quantity, em- phasis, ptiuses, and tones." Murray cor. "A person may reprove others for their negligence, by say- ing, ' You have taken great care indeed.' " Id. " The word preceding and the word following it, are in apposition to each other." Id. "He having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed." (/ cor. " Were the voice to fall at the close of the last line, as many a reader is in tne habit of allowing tt to do." Kirkham cor. " The misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, which only deprived them of his assistance." Kames cor. " Taking them as nouns, we may explain this construction thus." Grant cor. " These have an active significa- tion, except those which come from neuter verbs." Id. " From its evidence not being universal." Or: " From the/r that its evidence is not universal." Butler cor. "And this faith will con- tinually grow, as we acquaint ourselves with our own nature." Channing cor. " Monosyllables ending with any consonant but /", /, or *, never double the final consonant, when it is preceded by a sinule vowel ; except add, ebb," c. Kirkham's Gram. p. 23. Or : " Words ending with any con- sonant except f, I, or *, do not double the final letter. Exceptions. Add, ebb, &c." Bullions's E, Gram. p. 3. (See my 2d Rule for Spelling, of which this is a partial copy.) " The relation of Maria as being the object of the action, is expressed bv the change of the noun Maria to Mariam : " [i. e., in the Latin language.] Booth cor. " In analyzing a proposition, one mutt first diridc it into its logical subject and predicate." Andrars ami Stoddard car. " In analyzing a simple sen- tence, one should first resolve it into its logical subject and logical predicate." Wells cor. U.NDKU N()TK XII. Or P.VUTK Il'LKS .\M " The instant discovery of passions at their birth, is essential to our well-being." Kames cor. " I am now to enter on a consideration of the sources of the pleasures of taste." BUiir cor. " The varieties in the use o/'tlium are indeed many." Murray cor. " '/'/// changing o/"tiin's and seasons, the removing and the sett in;/ up of kings, belong to Providence alone." id. "Adhtr- to the partitions, seemed the cause of France; art i-ptmi'-c of the will, that of the house of may oraise bestowed on him was his ruin." Id. "Deception is not convinrcnunt." Id. "He never feared the loss of a. friend." Id. " The making of books is his amusement." A/yer cur. " W L - ^all it the declining (or, tlie declension ) of a noun." Ingersoll cor. " Washington, however, [Hirsued the same policy of neutrality, and'opposed firmly th-c taking of any part in the wars of 942 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. Europe." Hall and Baker cor. " The following is a note of Interrogation, or of a question : (?)." Inf. S. Gram. cor. " The following is a note of Admiration, or of wonder : (!)." Id. "The use 'or omission of the article A forms a nice distinction in the sense." Murray cor. "The placing of the preposition before the word which it governs, is more graceful." Churchill cor. (See Loicth's Gram. p. 96; Murray's, i, 200 ; Fisk's, 141; Smith's, 1670 "Assistance is abso- lutely necessary to their recovery, and the retrieving of their affairs." Butler cor. " Which ter- mination, [ish,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or a lessening of the quality." Mur. and Kirkham cor. "After what has been said, will it be thought an excess of refinement* to suggest that the different orders are qualified for different purposes ? " Kames cor. " Who has nothing to think of, but the killing of time." West cor. " It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or the measuring of time." Sheridan cor. " The possessive case [is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which"] denotes possession, or the relation of property." $. R. Hall cor. UNDER NOTE XIII. PERFECT PARTICIPLES. " Garcilasso was master of the language spoken by the Incas." Robertson cor. " When an inter- esting story is broken off in the middle." Kames cor. " Speaking of Hannibal's elephants driven back by the enemy." Id. " If Du Ryer had not written for bread, he would have equalled them." Formey cor. " Pope describes a rock broken off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain." Kames cor. " I have written, Thou hast written, He hath or has written ; c." Ashand Maltb;/ cor. "This was spoken by a pagan." Webster cor. ' But I have chosen to follow the common arrangement." Id. " The language spoken in Bengal." Id. "And sound sleep thus broken olf with sudden alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one." Locke cor. " This is not only the case of those open sinners before spoken of." Leslie cor. " Some grammarians have written a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation." Ensell cor. " There hath a pity arisen in me towards thee." G. Fox Jun. cor. "Abel is the only man that has underyonc the awful change of death." De Genlis, Death of Adam. " Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands, Smit with keen heat, the traveller stands." Ode cor. CHAPTER VIII. ADVERBS. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXI. UNDER NOTE I. THE PLACING OF ADVERBS. Id. " Having once had some considerable object set before us." Id. " The positive seems to be improperly called a degree."* Adam and Gould cor. " In some phrases, the genitive onty is used." lid. " This blunder is said to have actually occurred." Smith cor. " But not every man is called James, nor every woman, Mary." Buchanan cor. "Crotchets are employed for nearly the same purpose as the parenthesis." Churchill cor. " There is a still greater impropriety in a double comparative." Priestley cor. "We often have occasion to speak of time." Lowth cor. l " The following sentence cannot possibly be 'understood." Id. "The words must generally be separated from the context." Comly cor. " Words ending in ator, generally have th'e accent on the penultimate." L. Mur. cor. " The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, constructed differently from the English tongue." Id. "Adverbs seem to have been originally contrived to express compendiously, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more." Id. " But it is so, only when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case." Id. "''Enter boldly,' says he, 'for here too there are gods.' " Harris cor. " For none ever work for so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less." Sedywick cor. " For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive again as much." Bible cor. Or, as Campbell has it in his version : " that they may receive as much in return." Luke, vi, 34. " They must be viewed in exactly the same light." Murray cor. " If he speaks but to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention." Id. UNDER NOTE II. ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES. "Upward motion is commonly more agreeable than motion downward." Blair cor. "There are but two possible ways of justification before God." Cox cor. "This construction sounds rather harsh." Mur. cor. "A clear conception, in the mind of the learner, of regular and well- formed letters." C. S. Jour. cor. " He was a great hearer of * * * Attains, Sotion, Papirius, Fabi- anus, of whom he makes frequent mention." L' Estrange cor. " It is only the frequent doing of a thing, that makes it a custom." Leslie cor. " Because W. R. takes frequeiit occasion to in- sinuate his jealousies of persons and things." Barclay cor. "Yet frequent touching will wear gold." Shak. cor. " Uneducated persons frequently use an adverb, when they ought to us adjective: as, ' The country looks beautifully ;' in stead of beautiful."^ Bucke cor. "Th iective is put absolute, or without its substantive." Ash cor. " A noun or a pronoun i) use an 'The ad- jective is put absolute, or without its substantive." Ash cor. " A noun or a pronoun in the second person, may he put absolute in the nominative case." Harrison cor. "A noun or a pro- * From this opinion, I dissent. See Obs. 1st on the Degrees of Comparison, and Obs. 4th on Regular Com- parison, in the Etymology of this work, at pp. 266 and 272. G. BROWN. t " The country looks beautiful; " that is, appears beautiful is beautiful. This is right, and therefore the use which Bucke makes of it, may be fairly reversed. But the example was ill chosen ; and I incline to think, it may also be right to say, " The country looks beautifully: for the quality expressed by beautiful, is nothing else than the manner in which the thing shows to the eye. See Obs. llth on Uule Uth. G. BROWN. CHAP. VIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. ADVERBS. RULE XXI. 943 noun, when put absolute with a participle," &c. Id. and Jaudon cor. "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independent ot' the remaining part of the sentence." Wilbur and Lir. cor. 'At my late return into England, I met a book entitled, ' The Iron Age.' " CowUycor. " But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the mere practice of Homer and Virgil." Ku/ncs co/\ UNDER NOTE III. HERE FOR HITHER, &c. " It is reported, that the governor will come hither to-morrow." Kirkham cor. " It has been reported that the governor will come hither to-morrow." Id. "To catch a prospect of that lovely land whither his steps are tending " Maturin cor. " Plautus mak^s one of his characters ask an other, whither he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn ; that is, with a lantern in his hand." Adam* cor. " When we left Cambridge, we intended to return thither in few Anon. cor. " Duncan comes hither to-night." ('hurt-hilt's Gram. p. 323. " They talked of returning hither last week." See J. M. Putnam's Gram. p. 129. UNDER NOTE IV. FROM HENCE, &c. "Hence he concludes, that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute." Webster cor. " Whence we may like- wise date the period of this event." Murray cor. " Hence it becomes evident, that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain sounds, [or certain written signs,] having certain meanings." Hum's car. " They returned to the city whence they came out." A. Mur- ray cor. " Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas ; and thence lias arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar." G. Brown. "What am I, and whence ? That is, What am I, and whence am If " Jaudon cor. UNDER NOTE V. THE ADVERB HOW. " It is strange, that a writer so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle." Blair cor. " Ye know that a good while ago God made choice among us," &c. Bible cor. " Let us take care lest we sin ; i. e. that we do not sin." Priestley cor. " We see by these instances, that prepositions may be necessary, to connect such words as are not naturally connected by their own signification." L. Murray coi: " Know ye not your own selves, that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates ? " Bible car. " That thou muyst know t/iat the earth is the Lord's." Id. UNDER NOTE VI. WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE. " ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construc- tion, but not wanting to complete the sense." G. B. " PLEONASM is the insertion of some word or words more than are absolutely necessary, either to complete the construction, or to express the sense." G. B. " HYSTERON-PROTERON is a.fvn N< TION c^m^fntm the two Latin words con, together, and jungo, to join." Mi-rr/mnt ><. " How different f/v;w this is the life of Fulvia! " Addison cor. " LOVED is a participle or adjective, derived from the word lore." Ash cor. "But I would inquire of him, what an office is." 11 MfeJby cnr. " For the capacity is brought into action." Id. " In this period, language and taste arrive 'at purity." Webster cor. "And, should you not aspire to (or after) distinction in the republic of letters.'" Kirkham cnr. "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and into prisons." Luke, xxi, 12. "//ie that is kept from falling into a ditch, is as * Many example" and authorities may be cited in favour of these corrections ; as, " He acted independently of foreii?n assistance. "-Muirny's Kn/, ii, p. Ul " Iii-k-peiidcntly of any necessary relation." Murray's Gram, i, p. 225. " Independently q/"this peculiar mode of con<:ru>"i >n." Blair's Rhft. p 413. "Independent of the will of the people/' \Vtbst f rs Essayi, p. 13. " Independent one of an other." Barclay's Works, i, 84. " The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence." Lennie's Gram p. 86. " Some sentences are inde- pendent of each other.' 1 Murray's Gram, i, 277. "As if it were independent o/it." Priettley's Gram. p. 186. " Independent of appearance and how. : ' Blair's Rhet. p. 13. 948 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. truly saved, as he that is taken out of one." Barclay cor. " The best of it is, they are hut a sort of French Hugonots." Addison cor. " These last ten examples are indeed of a different nature from the former." R. Johnson cor. " For the initiation ot students into the principles of the English language." Ann. Rev. cor. " Richelieu profited by every circumstance which the con- juncture afforded." Bolingbroke cor. "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake of a word may endanger life." Merchant's Key, p. 18-5. Or better: "In naming drugs or plants, to mistake a word, may endanger life." Murray cor. " In order to the carrying of its several parts into execution." Butler cor. "His abhorrence of the superstitious figure." Priestley. "Thy prejudice against my cause." Id. "Which is found in every species of liberty." Hume cor. " In a hilly region on the north of Jericho." Milman cor. " Two or more singular nouns coupled by AND require a verb or pronoun in the plural." Lennie cor. " Books should to one of these four ends conduce, To wisdom, piety, delight, or use." Denham cor. UXDER NOTE II. Two OBJECTS OK MORE. " The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled among themselves for precedence." Const. Mi so. cor. " The distinctions among the principal parts of speech are founded in nature." Webster cor. " I think I now understand the difference between the active verbs and those which are passive or neuter." Inyersoll cor. " Thus a figure including a space within three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle." Locke cor. "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase and a simple sentence, and between a simple sentence and a compound sen- tence." Lowth, Mu>ray, et al. cor. "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law, to exercise usury towards one an other." Sale cor. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among themselves." Addison cor. " This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity of the three cases." Nutting cor. " When two or more infinitives or clauses are connected disjunct- ively as the subjects of an affirmation, the verb must be singular." Jaudon cor. "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, require a comma after each ; [except the last, which must sometimes be followed by a greater point.]" D. Blair cor. "The difference, between one vowel and an other is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each." Churchill cor. " Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between one foot and an other, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound." Kames cor. "The superlative degree implies a comparison, sometimes between two, but generally among three or more." Smith cor. " They are used to mark a dis- tinction among several objects." Levizac cor. UNDER NOTE III. OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS. "This would have been less worthy q/'notice." Churchill cor. " But I passed it, as a thing unworthy of my notice." Werter cor. " Which, in compliment to me, perhaps you may ore day think worthy q/"your attention." Bucke cor. " To think this small present worthy of an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment." Id. "There are but a few miles o/"portage." Jefferson cor. " It is worthy o/'notice, that our mountains are not soli- tary." Id. " It is about one hundred feet in diameter."* Id. " Entering a hill a quarter or half of & mile." Id. "And herself seems passing to an awful dissolution, whose issue it is not given to human foresight to scan." Id. " It was of a spheroidical form, about forty feet in di- ameter at the base, and had been about twelve feet in altitude." Id. " Before this, it was covered with trees of twelve inches in diameter; and, round the base, there was an excavation of five feet in depth and^?#e in width." Id. " Then ihoumayate&i grapes to thy fill, at thine own pleasure." Bible cor. " Then he brought me back by the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary." Id. " They will bless God, that he has peopled onehalfo/ the world with a race of freemen." Webster cor. "Of what use can these words be, till their meaning is known ? " Town cor. " The tents of the Arabs now are black, or of a. very dark colour." The Friend cor. " They may not be un- worthy of the attention of young men." Kirkham cor. " The pronoun THAT is frequently ap- plied to persons as well as to things." Merchant cor. "And ' who ' is in the same case that ' man ' is in." Sanborn cor. " He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet in diameter." The Friend cor. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was of the size of a cart." Id. " Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled from Rome." L' Estrange cor. " I was prevented from reading a letter which would have undeceived me." Hawkesworth cor. " If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned for the inaccuracy of its demonstration." Booth cor. " The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but of effeminacy." Dr. Brown cor. " Afraid of the virtue of a nation in its opposing of bad measures:" or, " in its opposition to bad measures." Id. "The uniting of them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."^ Gar diner cor. " I might be excused from taking any more notice of it." Watson cor. " Watch therefore ; for ye know not at what hour your Lord will come." Bible cor. " Here, not even infants were spared from the sword." M'llvaine cor. " To prevent men from turning aside to false modes of worship." John Allen cor. " God expelled them from the garden of Eden."--.Bnfer cor. " Nor could he refrain from expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind." Home cor. " Who now so strenuously opposes the granting to him o/any new powers." Duncan cor. " That the laws of the censors have banished him/Vow the forum." Id. " We read not that he was degraded from his office in any other way." Barclay cor. " To all to whom these presents shall come, greeting." Hutchinson cor. " On the 1st of August, 1834." Brit. Parl. cor. " Whether you had not some time in your life Err'd in this point on which you censure him." Shak. cor. * The preposition of which Jefferson uses before about, appears to me to be useless. It does not govern the noun diameter, and is therefore no substitute for the in which I suppose to be wanting ; and, as the preposition about seems to be sufficient betwwen is and feet, I omit the of. So in other justanpes belpw, G. BROWN. CHAP. XI.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 949 UNDER NOTE IV. OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS. "And the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter" Barclay cor.; also Acts. "Adjectives, in our language, have neither case, nor gender, nor number ; the only varia- tion they have, is comparison " Buchanan cor. " ' It is to you that I am indebted lor this priv- ilege ; ' that is, ' To you am I indebted ; ' or, ' It is you to whom I am indebted.' " Snnbor/i cor. " BOOKS is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, and neuter gender." Inyersoll cor. " BROTHER'S is a common noun, of the thiid person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case." Murray cor. " VIRTUE'S is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, [neuter gender,] and possessive case." Id. " When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is vain to oppose the prevailing usage." Campbell and Murray cor. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering Rome." Collier cor. "And, notwithstanding its verbal power, we have added the TO and other signs of exertion." Booth cor. "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the noun, in stead of separate woids : " or, " and not by separate words." Id. " Is it such a fast that I have chost n, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and bow down his head like a bulru>h ? " Bacon cor. Com- pare Isa. Iviii, 5. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental in stead of the necessary antecedent." \Vaylundcor. "About the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed." Balbi cor. ' God divided between the light and the darkness" Burder cor. " Notwithstanding this, we are not against outward significations of honour." Barclay cor. " Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, ought to be our rule." Id. " Such verb cannot admit an objective case after it." Loicthcor. " For which, God is now visibly punishing these nations." C. Leslie cor. " In this respect, Tassp yields to no poet, except Homer "Blair cor. " Notwithstanding the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty." Hume cor. " Their effoits seemed to anticipate the spirit which became so general afterwards." Id. UNDER NOTE V. THE PLACING OP THE WORDS. " But how short of its excellency are my expressions ! " Baxter cor. "In his style, there is a remarkable union of' harmony with ease." Blair cor. " It disposes q/"the light and shade mthe ../i _ j i __.i__ _ J.L : L - I . _ l " - J . tt T-I .*._ Odyssey some defects which must be acknowledged." Or: " At the same time, it must be ac- knowledged that there are some defects in the Odyssey." Id. "//t the concluding books, how- ever, there are beauties of the tragic kind." Id. "These forms of conversation multiplied by degrees, and grtw troublesome." Kames, EL of ( 'rit. ii. 44. "When she has made her own. choice, she se\\m,Jor form's sake, a conge-d'-elire to her friends." Ib. ii, 46. " Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds in his hand the reins of the whole creation." Spectator cur ; also Kanics. " Next to this, the measure most frequent in English poetry, is th:it of eight syllables." Blair cor. " To introduce as great a variety o/'cadences as possible." Jnmicson cor. " He addressed to them several exhortations, suitable to their circumstances." Murray cur. " Habits of temperance and self-denial must be acquired." Id. "In reducing to practice the rules prescribed." Id. " But these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make upon the mind the impression ofoneobject, notof many." Blair and Mur. cor. "Errors with resnect to the use of shall and will, are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writers." N. Butler cor. CHAPTER XL PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. CORRECTIONS OF THE PROMISCUOUS EXAMPI.ES. LESSON I. ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. " Such a one, I believe, yours will be proved to be." Peet and Farnum cor. " Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tense, it may be observed," &c. L. Ainsworth cor. " The subject is certainly worthy too great." Id. "The conjugation of a vtrb is the naming of its several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, in rei/ular order." Id. " The long-remembered beggar was his guest." hi. "Participles refer to nouns or pronouns." Id. " F has (i uniform sound, in every position, except in OF." Better: " F has one unvaried sound, in every position, except in OF." I'.. J . lll!<>, 1; >< / . " There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter." Id. " When so and THAT occur together, sometimes the particle SO is taken as an adverb." Id. " The definition of the articles shows that they modify [the import of] the word to which they belong." Id. "The auxiliary, su U.L. WILL, or SHOULD is implied." Id. "Sinyle-rln/med trochaic omits the final shoit syllable" liroirn's Innt. p. 237. "Auree- ably to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book." Burder, Unllock, and Webster cor. "The first person is that which denotes the speaker.'' In>>t. p. 32. ''Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word." L. Murray's Gram. p. 235 ; Felton's, 134. " Thomas's horse was caught." Felton cor. " You were loved." Id. ' The 950 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. nominative and the objective end alike." T. Smith cor. " The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, the singular and the plural." Id. "I is called the pronoun of the first person, because it represents the person speaking." Frost cor. "The essential elements of the phrase are an intransitive gerundive and an adjective." Hazen cor. "Wealth is no justifica- tion for such impudence." Id. "That he was a soldier in the revolution, is not doubted." Id. "Fishing is the chief employment of the inhabitants." Id. " The chief employment of the in- habitants, is the catching of fish." Id. " The cold weather did not prevent the work from being finished at the time specified." Id. " The man's former viciousness caused him to be suspected of this crime." Id. " But person and number, applied to verbs, mean certain terminations." Barrett cor. " Robert felled a tree." Id. " Charles raised himself up." Id. " It might not be a useless waste of time." Id. " Neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others, which characterizes the vulgar." Id. "/iso/the first person, because it de- notes the speaker." Id. "I would refer the student to Hedge' s or Watts's Logic." Id. " Hedge's, Watts's, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic." Parker and Fox cor. " Letters that make a full and perfect sound of themselves, are called vowels." Or: "The letters which make," &c Cutler cor. " It has both a singular and a plural construction." Id. "For he beholds (or beholdeth) thy beams no more." Id. Carthon. " To this sentiment the Committee have the candour to in- cline, as it will appear by their summing-up." Macpherson cor. "This reduces the point at issue to a narrow compass." Id. " Since the English set foot upon the soil." Exiles cor. " The arrangement of its different parts is easily retained by the memory." Hiley cor. " The words employed are the most appropriate that could have been selected." Id. " To prevent it from launching ! " Id. " Webster has been followed in preference to others, where he differs from them." Or : " Webster's Grammar has been followed in preference to others, where it differs from them." Frazee cor. " Exclamation and interrogation are often mistaken the one for the other." Buchanan cor. " When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt k'eeps its vigils." Felton cor. Or thus : " When all nature 's hush'd asleep, Nor love, nor guilt, doth vigils keep." LESSON II. ANY PARTS OF SPEECH. "A Versifier and a Poet are two different things." Brightland cor. " Those qualities will arise from the well-expressing of the subject." Id. " Therefore the explanation of NETWORK, is not noticed here." Mason cor. " When emphasis or pathos is necessary to be expressed." Hum- phrey cor. " Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, or whether it is proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question." Id. "But not every writer in those days was thus correct." Id. "The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no fewer than four." Id. " Our present code of rules is thought to be generally correct." Or : "The rules in our present code are thought to be generally correct." Id. "To prevent It from running into an other." Id. "Shakspeare, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius that England has pro- duced." Id. " This I will illustrate by example ; but, before doing so, a few preliminary remarks may be necessary." Id. "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of them to two accents nearly equal." Id. " But some cases of the kind are so plain, that no one needs to ex- ercise (or, need exercise) his judgement therein." Id. "I have forborne to use the word." Id. " The propositions, ' He may study,' ' He might study,' ' He could study,' affirm an ability or power to study." E. J. Hallock cor. " The divisions of the tenses have occasioned gramma- rians much trouble and perplexity." Id. " By adopting a familiar, inductive method of pre- senting this subject, one may render it highly attractive to young learners." Wells cor. " The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with one an other: " or " one with an other." Id. " So as not wholly to prevent some sound from issuing." Sheridan cor. " Letters of the Alphabet, not yet noticed." Id. " ' IT is sad,' ' IT is strange,' &c., seem to express only that the thing is sad, strange, &c." Well-wishers cor. " The winning is easier than the preserving of a conquest." Same. " The United States find themselves the owners of a vast region of country at the west." -H. Mann cor. " One or more letters placed before a word are a prefix " S. W. Clark cor. "One or more letters added to a word, are a Suffix." Id. "Two thirds of my hair have fallen off." Or: " My hair has, two thirds of it, fallen off." Id. " ' Sus- pecting' describes us, the speakers, by expressing, incidentally, an act of otirs." Id. " Daniel's predictions are now about being fulfilled." Or thus : " Daniel's predictions are now receiving their fulfillment." Id. " His scholarship entitles him to respect." Id. " I doubted whether he had been a soldier." Id. "The taking of a madman's sword to prevent him from doing mischief, cannot be regarded as a robbery." Id. " I thought it to be him ; but it was not he." Id. " It was not /that you saw." Id. " Not to know what happened before you were born, is always to be a boy." Id. " How long were you going ? Three days." Id. " The qualifying adjective is placed next to the noun." Id. "AM went but /." Id. " This is a parsing of their own lan- guage, and not of the author's." Wells cor. "Those nouns which denote males', are of the mas- culine gender." 'Or : " Nouns that denote males, are of the masculine gender." Wells, late Ed. "Those nouns which denote females, are of the feminine gender." Or: "Nouns that denote fe- males, are of the feminine gender." Wells, late Ed. " When a comparison among more than two objects of the same class is expressed, the superlative degree is employed." Wells cor. " Where d or t goes before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted form, coalesces into one letter with the radical d or t." Dr. Johnson cor. "Write words which will show what kind of house you live in what kind of book you hold in your hand what kind of day it is." Weldcor. " One word or more are often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning." Id. "Good is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person to whom, or thing to which, it is applied." Or : -'of every person or thing that it is applied to." Id. "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting of himself to that occupation which he pre- fers, and for which he is specially fitted." Wayland, Wells, and Weldcor. " There was a chance for him to recover_his senses." Or : " There was a chance that he might recover his senses." CHAP. XII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 951 Wells and Marautay cor. " This may be known by the absence of any connecting word immediately preceding it." Weld cor. "There are irregular expressions occaMonally to be met with, which usage, or custom, rather than analogy, sanctions." Id. " He added an anecdote of Quin relieving Thomson from prison." Or: "He added an anecdote of Quin as relieving Thomson from prison." Or : " He added an anecdote of Quin's relieving of Thomson from prison." Or better: " He also told how Quin relieved Thomson from prison." Id. " The daily labour of her hands procures for her all that is necessary." Id. "That it is I, should make no change in your deter- mination." Hart cor. " The classification of words into what are called the Parts of Speech." Weld cor. "Such licenses may be explained among what are usually termed Figures." Id. " Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." Beattie. " They fall successive, and successive rise." Pope. LESSON III. ANY PARTS or SPEECH. "A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the usual form of a word." See Brown's Institutes, p. 221). "A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation/rom the usual con- struction of a word." See Brown's Inst. p. "230. " Synecdoche is the naming of the whole of any thing for a part, or a part for the whole." Weld cor. "Apostrophe is a turning-ojf* from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing." Id. " Even younif pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will unconsciously gain, in a litle time, more knowledge of the structure of language, than they can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing." Id. ''A. fe\v rules of construction are employed in this part, to guide the pupil in the exercise of parsing." Id. "The name of any person, object, or thing, that can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun." Id. "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every two words, as well as at the close of each rerse." W. Day cor. "The casting of types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452." Id. " On perus- ing 'it, he said, that, so far [was it] from showing the prisoner's guilt, [that] it positively estab- lisned his innocence." Id. " By printing the nominative and verb in Italic letters, we hall enable the reader to distinguish them at a glance." Id. " It is well, no doubt, to avoid unneces- sary words." Id. "/ meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, ' Where are you going ? ' " Id. " To John, apples were first denied; then they were promised to him; then they were offered to him." Lennie cor. "Admission was denied him." Wells cor. "A pardon was offered to them." L. Murray's Grammar, 8vo,p. 183. " A ne\vpotato was this day shown me." Darwin, Webster, Frazee, and Weld, cor. "Those nouns or pronouns which denote males, are of the mas- culine gender." S. S. Greene cor. " There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative." Id. " The first two refer to direction ; the third refers to locality." Id. " The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and an indirect object." Id. " I was not aware that he was the judge of the supreme court." Id. "An indirect ques- tion may refer to any of the five elements of a declarative sentence." Id. " I am not sure that he will be present." Id. " We left New York on Tuesday." Id. " He left the city, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer." Id. " We told him that he must leave us ; "=" We told him to leave us." Id. " Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left the place, in disgust." Id. " He left the company, and took his brother with him." Id. " This stating, or declaring, or denying q/'any thing, is called the indicative mood, or manner of speaking." Weldcor. " This alace at our f took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynolds's." Id. " The manner in which a young lady may employ herself usefully in reading, will be the subject of an other paper." Id. " Very little time is necessary for Johnson to conclude a treaty with the bookseller." Id. " My father is not now sick ; but if he were, your services would be welcome." Chandler's Common School Gram., Ed. of 1847, p. 79. "Before we begin to write or speak, we ought to fix in our minds a clear concep- tion of the end to be aimed at." Blair cor. " Length of days is in her right hand ; and, in her left hand, are riches and honour." See Proverbs, iii, 16. " The active and the passive present ex- press different ideas." Bullions cor. "An Improper Diphthona, (sometimes called a Digraph.) is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels ts sounded." bowler cor. (See G. Brown's defi- nition.) "The real origin of the words is to be sought in the Latin." Fowler cor. " What sort of alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine." Id. " The Kunic alphabet, whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic alphabet." Id. " Com- mon to the Masculine and Neuter Genders." Id. " In the Anglo-Saxon, HIS was common to both the Masculine and the Neuter Gender." Id. " When time, number, or dimension, is speci- fied, the adjective follows the substantive." Id. " Nor pain, nor grief, nor anxious frar, In- vades thy bounds." Id. " To Brighton, the Pavilion lends a lath-and-plaster grace " Fowler cor. "From this consideration, / naotgive* to nouns but one person, the THIRD." D. C. Allencor. " For it seems to guard and cherish .E'en the wayward dreamer me." Anon. cor. CHAPTER XII. GENERAL REVIEW. CORRECTIONS UNDER ALL THE PRECEDING RULES AND NOTES. LESSON I. ARTICLES. "And they took stones, and made a heap." ALGER'S BIBLE: Gen. xxxi, 46. "And I do know many fools, that stand in better place." Shak. cor. "It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and Me violence of pursuit." Kames cor. " The word NEWS may admit of either a singular or a plural application." Wright cor. " He has gained a fair and honourable reputa- * Murray, Jamieson, and others, have this definition with the article "a," and the comma, but without the hyphen : "APOSTROPHE is a turning off from the regular course," &c. See errors under Note 4th to Kuie 20th. 952 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. tion." Id. " There are two general forms, called the solemn and the familiar style." Or : " called the solemn and familiar styles." S.inborn cor. "Neither the article nor the preposition can be omitted." Wright cor. "A close union is also observable between the subjunctive and the potential mood." Id. " Should we render service equally to a friend, a neighbour, and an enemy ? " Id. " Till a habit is obtained, of aspirating strongly." Sheridan cor. " There is a uniform, steady use of the same signs." Id. "A traveller remarks most of the objects which he sees." Jamieson cor. " What is the name of the river on which London stands ? Thames." G. B. " We sometimes find the last line of a couplet or a triplet stretched out to twelve syllables." Adam cor. "The nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case." Blair cor. "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of the wrongs which good men perpetrate." Channing cor. "The gathering of riches is a pleasant torment." L. Cobb cor. " It is worth being quoted." Or better : " It is worth quoting." Coleridge cor. " COUNCIL is a noun which admits of a singular and a plural form." Wright cor. " To exhibit the connexion between the Old Testament and the New." Keith cor. "An apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or q/'letters." Guy cor. "He is immediately ordained, or rather acknowledged, a hero." Pope cor. " Which is the same in both the leading and the following state." Brightland cor. " Pro- nouns, as will be seen hereafter, have three distinct cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." D. Blair cor. "A word of many syllables is called a polysyllable." Beck cor. " Nouns have two numbers ; the singular and tha plural." Id. " They have three ganders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter." Id. " They have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." Id. " Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two numbers ; the singular nnd the plural ; three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter ; three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." Id. "He must be wise enough to know the singular from the plural." Id. "Though they may he able to meet every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer." Chalmers cor. " Yet for love's sake I rather be- seech thee, being such a one as Paul the aged." Biblecor.; also Webster. "A people that jeop- arded their lives unto death." Bible cor. " By preventing too great an accumulation of seed within too narrow a compass." The Friend cor. "Who fills up the middle space between the animal and the intellectual nature, the visible and the invisible world." Addison cor. " The Psalms abound with instances of the harmonious arrangement of words." Murray cor. "On an other table, were a ewer and a vase, likewise of gold." Mirror cor. " TH is said to have two sounds, a sharp and a flat." Wilson cor. "The SECTION () is sometimes used in the subdi- viding of a chapter into lesser parts." Brightland cor. " Try it in a dog, or a horse, or any other creature." Locke cor. " But particularly in the learning of language^, there is the leas i occasion to pose children." Id. "O/'what kind is the noun RIVER, and why ?" R. C. Smith cor. " Is WILLIAM'S a proper or a common noun ?" Id. What kind of article, then, shall we call the?" Or better : " What then shall we call the article the?" Id. " Each burns alike, who can, or cannot write, Or with a rival's, or a eunuch's spite." Pope cor. LESSON II. NOUNS, OR CASES. "And there are stamped upon their imaginations ideas that follow them with terror and affright.'" Locke cor. " There's not a wretch that lives on common charity, but's happier than /." Ven. Pres. cor. " But they overwhelm every one who is ignorant of them." //. Mann cor. " I have received a letter from my cousin, her that was here last week." Inst. p. 129. " Gentlemen'* houses are seldom without variety of company." Locke cor. " Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their masters' feet." Id. " We blamed neither John's nor Mary's delay." Nixon cor. " The book was written by order of Luther the reformer." Id. " I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's Sermons, and somebody's else, (I forget whose,) and [about the rooni] a set of noisy children." Byron cor. " Or saitn he it altogether for our sake?" Bibli cor. " He was not aware that the Dukeioas his competitor." Sanborn cor. " It is no condition of an adjective, that the word must be placed before a noun." Or: "It i" no condition on which a word becomes an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun." Id. and Fowle cor. "Though their reason corrected the wrong ideas which they had taken in." Locke cor. "It was he that taught me to hate slavery." Morris cor. " It is he and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others." Id. " Payment of tribute is an acknowledgement of him as being King (of him as King or, that he is King ) to whom we think it due." C. Leslie cor. " When we .comprehend what is taught us." Ingersoll cor. "The following words, and parts of words, must be noticed." Priestley cor. " Hence tears and commiseration are so often employed" Blair cor. " JOHN-A, NOKKS, n. A fictitious name used in law proceedings." A. Chalmers cor. " The construction of icords denoting matter, and the part grasped" Fisk cor. "And such other names as carry with them the idea of something terrible and hurtful." Locke cor. ' Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared from the trouble and fatigue." Pike cor. "It is not the owning of one's dissent from an other,\ha,t I speak against." Locke cor. "A man that cannot fence, will be more careful to keep out of bullies and gamesters' company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon punctilios." Id. "From such persons it is, that one may learn more in one day. than in a year's rambling from one inn to an other." Id. "Along syllable is generally considered to be twice as long as a short one." D. Blair cor. " I is of the first person, and the singular number. THOU is of the second person singular. HE, SHE, or IT, is of the third person singular. WE is of the first person plural. YE or You is of the second person plural. THEY is of the third person plural." Kirkham cor. "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is denoted by some word in the nominative case." Id. " Nobody can think, that a boy of three or seven years of age should be argued with as a grown man." Locke cor. " This was in the house o/one of the Pharisees, not in Simon the leper's." Hammond cor. "Impossible ! it can't be /." Swift cor. "Whose grey top shall tremble, He descending " Milton, P. L., xii, 227. "Of Mhat gender is woman, and why ? " R. C. Smith cor. "O/'what gender, then, is man, and why ?'" Id. ' Who is t/us I ; whom do you mean, when you say /?" Green cor. " It has a pleasant CHAP. XII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 953 air, but the soil is barren." Locke cor. " You may, in three days' time, go from Galilee to Jeru- salem." W. Whiston cor. "And that which is left of the meat-offering, shall be Aaron's and his sons'." FRIENDS' BIHLE. " For none in all the world, without a lie. Can say o/this, "Tis mine,' but Bunyan, I." Bunt/an cor. LESSON III. ADJECTIVES. " When he can be their remembrancer and advocate at all assizes and sessions." Leslie cor. "Doixo denotes every manner of action; as, to dance, to play, to write, &c." Buchanan cor. " Seven feet long," " eight feet long," " fifty feet long." W. Walker cor. " Nearly the whole of these twenty-five millions'of dollars is a dead loss to the nation." Fotcler cor. "Two nega- tives destroy each other." Green cor. " We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in one an other." Friend cor. " The Russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the world." Inst. p. 26-5. " You will always have the satisfaction to think it, of all your expenses, the money best laid out." Locke cor. " There is no other passion which all mankind so naturally indulge, as pride." Stecle cor. " O, throw away the viler part of it." Shak. cor. " He showed us an easier and more agreeable way." Inst. p. 265. "And the last Jour are to point out those further improvements." Jamiesonand Campbell cor. " Where he has not clear ideas, distinct and different." Locke cor. " Oh, when shall we have an other such Rector of Laracor ! " Hazlitt cor. "Speech must have been absolutely necessary previously to the formation of socie- ty." Or better thus : " Speech must have been absolutely necessary to the formation of society." n cor. " The boroughs sent representatives, ac- -ordint; to laic." /'/. " No man bi-lit-ves but that there is some order in the universe." G. B. The noon is orderly in her changes, and she could not be so by accident." Id. "The riddles of t'heSphynx(oT,Thc Sphynx's riddles) are generally of two kinds/'' Bacon cor. "They must gene- 68 954 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. then resoved Utelfinto a committee of the whole. The severity with which persons uphold things qui square, a triangle, or a hexagon, pleases the eye by its regularity, and is a beautiful _ Blair cor. " Elba is remarkable for being the place to which Bonaparte was banished in 1814." Olney's Geoff. " The editor has the reputation of being a good linguist and critic." ReL Herald. " It is a pride which should be cherished in them." Locke cor. "And to restore to us the hope of fruits, to reward our pains in their season." Id. " The comic representation of death's victim relating his own tale." Wright cor. "As for Scioppius's Grammar, that wholly concerns the Latin tongue." Wilkins cor. "And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer Before all temples th' upright heart and pure, Instruct me, for Thou knowst." Milton, P. L., B. i, 1. 17. LESSON V. VERBS. "And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field." Friends' Bible ; also Bruce" s, andAlger's. "Whereof every one bears [or beareth] twins." BIBLE COR. : Song, vi, 6. " He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles that are planted in it." Ad- dison cor. " GENII [i. e., the word GENII] denotes aerial spirits." Wright cor. " In proportion opening wealth we had in England, was the slow result of long industry and wisdom." Or: " The riches we had in England were," &c. Davenant cor. " The following expression appears to be correct : ' Much public gratitude is due.' " Or this : " ' Great public thanks are due.' " Wright cor. " He has been enabled to correct many mistakes." Lowth cor. " Which road dost thou take here ? " In- gersollcor. "Dost thou learn thy lesson ? " Id. "Did they learn their pieces perfectly ? " Id. '" Thou learned thy task well." Id. " There are some who can't relish the town, and others can't bear with the country." Sir Wilful cor. " If thou meet them, thou must put on an intrepid mien." Neefcor. " Struck with terror, as if Philip were something more than human." Blair cor. " If the personification of the form of Satan were admissible, the pronoun should certainly have been masculine." Jamiesoncor. " If only onefolloivs, there seems to be a defect in the sen- tence." Priestley cor. " Sir, if thou hast borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him." Bible cor. " Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound." Id. " Every auditory takes in good part those marks of respect and awe icith which a modest speaker naturally commences a pu )- lie discourse." Blair cor. " Private causes were still pleaded in the forum ; but the public we.'e no longer interested, nor was any general attention drawn to what passed there." Id. "Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the inflections of the classic tongues were not original y formed out of obsolete auxiliary words ? " L. Murray cor. " If the student observe that the princi- pal and the auxiliary form but one verb, he will have little or no difficulty in the proper application of the present rule." Id. " For the sword of the enemy, and fear, are on every side." Bible cor. " Even the Stoics agree that nature, or certainty, is very hard to come at." Collier cor. " His politeness, his obliging behaviour, was changed." Or thus : " His polite and obliging behaviour was changed." Priestley and Hume cor. " War and its honours were their employment and ambition." Or thus : "War was their employment ; its honours were their ambition." Goldsmith cor. "Do A and AN mean the same thing ? " Green cor. " When several words come in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error." Cobbett cor. " The sentence should be, ' When several words come in,' &c." Wright cor. " The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs." Churchill's New Gram. p. 104. Or thus : " The nature of our language, (that is, the accent and pronunciation of it, ) in- clines us to contract even all our regular^ verbs." Lowth cor. "The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs." Hiley cor. " Prompt aid, and not promises, is what we ought to give." G. B. " The position of the several organs, therefore, as well as their functions, is ascertained." Med. Mag. cor. " Every private company, and almost every public assembly, affords opportunities of re- marking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution." En- fitld cor. " Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, makes up in us the temper or character which answers to his sovereignty." Butler cor. " In happiness, as in other things, there are a false and a true, an imaginary and a real." A. Fuller cor. " To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, are equally unphilo- sophical." G. Brown. " I know a bank whereon doth wild thyme blow, Where oxlips and the nodding violet grow." Shak. cor. LESSON VI. VERBS. "Whose business or profession prevents their attendance in the morning." Ogilby cor. "And no church or officer has power over another." Lcchfordcor. " While neither reason nor experience is sufficiently matured to protect them." Woodbridge cor. "Among the Greeks and Romans, almost every syllable was known to have a fixed and determined quantity." Or thus : "Among the Greeks and Romans, all syllables, (or at least the far greater number,) were known to have severally a fixed and determined quantity." Blair and Jamieson cor. "Their vanity is awakened, and their passions are exalted, by the irritation which their self-love receives from contradiction." Tr. of Mad. De Staelcor. "He and I were neither of us any great swimmer." Anon. "Virtue, honour nay, even self-interest recommends the measure." Murray cor. (See CHAP. XII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 955 Obs. 5th on Rule 16th.) "A correct plainness, an elegant simplicity, is the proper character of an introduction." If fair cor. " In syntax, them is %vhat grammarians call concord, or agree- ment, and there is government." Inf. N a mm. cor. " People find themselves able, without much study, to write and speak Knplish intelligibly, and thus arc led to think that rules are of no utility." Webster cor. " But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and who addresses himself to our judgement, rather than to our imagination." Blair cor. " But practice has determined it otherwise ; and has, in all the Ian- priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and she return unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat." Id. " Since we never have studied, and never shall study, your sublime productions." Neef cor. " Enabling us to form distincter images of objects, than can be formed, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not found." Kdmes cor. " I hope you will consider that what is spoken comes from my love." Shak. cor. " We shall then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred." lluah cor. "I knew it was Crab, and went to the fellow that whips the dogs." Shak. cor. " The youth teas consum- ing by a slow malady." Murray's Gram. p. 64 ; Ingersoll's, 4o ; Fisk's, 82. " If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points might be ac- complished." \Vriyht cor. " If you will replace what has been, for a long time, expunged from the language." Or: " If you will replace what was long dyo expunged from the language." Campbell cor. "As in all those faulty instances which I havejmf been giving." Blair cor. " Thi* mood is also used improperly in the following places." Murray cor. " He seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to have known what it was that nature had bestowed upon him." Johnson cor. " Of which I have already given one instance, the worst indeed that occurs in the poem." Blair cor. " It is strange he never commanded you to do it." Anon. " History painters would have found it difficult, to invent such a species of beings." Addisoncor. " Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly ; it must be explained with reference to some language already known." Lowth cor. "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so con- trived as simply to express these, no other tenses would have been needful." Blair cor. " To a writer of such a genius as Dean Swift's, the plain style is most admirably fitted." Id. '* Please to excuse my son's absence." InsL p. 279. " Bid the boys come in immediately." Ib. " Gives us the secrets of his pagan hell, "Where restless ghosts in sad communion dwell." Crabbe cor. "Alas ! nor faith nor valour now remains ; Sighs are but wind, and I must bear my chains." Walpole cor. LESSON VII. PARTICIPLES. " Of which the author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying the foundation-stone." D. Blair cor. " On the raising qfsuch lively and distinct images as are here described." Kames cor. " They are necessary to the avoiding of ambiguities." Brightfandcor. " There is no neglecting of it without falling into a dangerous error." Or better: "None can neglect it without falling," &c. Burlamagui cor. "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fight- ing of (or with) windmills." Webster cor. " That these verbs associate with other verbs in all the tenses, is no proof that they have no particular time of their own." Murray cor. " To justify mi/xf/f'in not following the track of the ancient rhetoricians." Blair cor. " 'trie putting-together of letters, so as to make words, is called Spelling." Inf. S. Gram. cor. " What is the putting- r of vowels and consonants called ? " la. " Nobody knows of their charitableness, but themselves." Or : " Nobody knows that they are charitable, but themselves." Fuller cor. " Pay- ment was at length made, but no reason was assigned for so long a postponement of it." Murray ct a/, cor. " Which will bear to be brought into comparison with any composition of the kind. Ji/air cor. " To render vice ridiculous, is to do real service to the world." Id. " It is a direct copying from nature, a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was supposed to pass, in conversation." Id. " Propriety of pronunciation catisixf.* hi giving to every word that sound which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 200 ; and again, p. 219. " To occupy the mind, and prevent us from regretting the insipidity of a uniform plain." Kames cor. " There are a hundred ways in which any thing tuny happen. Steelecor. " Tell me, seign- ior, for what cause (or why) Antonio sent Claudio to Venice yesterday." Bucke cor. "As you an- looking about for an outlet, some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view." Kames cor. "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read without communicating a new idea." Or thus : "A person may read a hundred volumes of modern novels without acquiring a new idea." r cur. " Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to the coining, or at least the new compounding, of words." Blair cor. " When laws were written on brazen tablets, (in<{ enforced by the sword." Pope cor. "A pronoun, which saves the naming of a person or jildint is a struggle for consolation hand, the accelerating or the retarding of the natural course, excites a pain." Id. " Human affairs require the distributing of our attention." Id. " By neglecting this circumstance, the onfhorofthe following example /m.v made it defective in neatness." Id. "And therefore the suppressing of copulatives must animate a description." Id "If the omission of copulatives gives force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid." Id. " It skills not, to ask inv leave, said Richard." Sr-ott " fid, " When I visit them, they shall be cast down." Bible cor. "Neither our virtues nor our vices are all our own." Johnson and Sanborn cor. " I could not give him so early an answer as he had desired." Peirce cor. " He is not so tall as his brother." Nixon cor. " It is CHAP. XII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 957 difficult to judge whether Lord Byron is serious or not." L. Blessington cor. " Some nouns are of both the second and the third declension." Gould cor. " He was discouraged neither by dan- ger nor by misfortune." Wells cor. " This is consistent neither with logic nor with history." Dial cor. " Parts of sentences are either simple or compound." I). Blair cor. " English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables, than by feet :" or, " than by the number of feet." Id. " I know not what more he can do, than pray for him." Locke cor. " Whilst they are learning, and are applying themselves with attention, they are to be kept in good humour." Id. "A man cannot have too much of it, nor have it too perfectly." Id. " That you may so run, as to obtain ; and so fight, as to overcome." Or thus : " That you may so run, that you may obtain ; and so fight, that you may overcome." Penn cor. " It is the artifice of some, to contrive false periods of business, that they may seem men of despatch." Bacon cor. "'A tall man and a woman.' In this phrase, there is no ellipsis ; the adjective belongs only to the former noun ; the quality respects only the man." Ash cor. " An abandonment of the policy is neither to be ex- pected nor to be desired." Jackson cor. " Which can be acquired by no other means than by frequent exercise in speaking." Blair cor. " The chief or fundamental rules of syntax are com- mon to the English and the Latin tongue." Or: "are applicable to the English as well as to the Latin tongue." Id. " Then I exclaim, cither that my antagonist is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree." Or thus : "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist is either void of all taste, or has a taste that is miserably corrupted." Id. " I cannot pity any one who is under no distress either of body or of mind." Kames cor. " There was much genius in the world, before there were learning and arts to refine it." Blair cor. " Such a writer can have little else to do, than to new-model the paradoxes of ancient scepticism." Dr. Broicn cor. 11 Our ideas of them being nothing else than collections of the ordinary qualities observed in them." Duncan cor. "A non-ens, or negative, can give neither pleasure nor pain." -rKames cor. " So that they shall not justle and embarrass one an other." Blair cor. " He firmly refused to make use of any other voice titan his own." Murray's Sequel, p. 113. " Your marching regi- ments, sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or as subjects." Junius cor. "Consequently they had neither meaning nor beauty, to any but the natives of each country." Sheridan cor. " The man of worth, who has not left his peer, Is in his narrow house forever darkly laid." Burns cor. LESSON X. PREPOSITIONS. "These may be carried on progressively beyond any assignable limits." Kames cor. "To crowd different subjects into a single member of a period, is still worse than to crowd them into one period." //. " Nor do we rigidly insist on having melodious prose." Id. " The aversion we have to those who differ from us." Id. " For we 'cannot bear his shifting of the scene at every line." Halifax cor. "We shall find that we come by it in the same way." Locke cor. "Against this he nas no better defence than that." Barnes cor. " Searching the person whom he suspects of having stolen his casket." Blair cor. " Who, as vacancies occur, are elected by the whole Board." Lit. Journal cor. "Almost the only field of ambition for a German, is sci- ence." Lieber cor. " The plan of education is very different from the one pursued in the sister country." Coley cor. "Some writers on grammar have contended, that adjectives sometimes relate to verbs, and modify their action." Wilcox tor. "They are therefore of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and of adjectives." Ingersoll cor. "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting of the aspirate or the doubling of the vowel." Knight cor. "The distinction and arrangement of active, passive, and neuter verbs." Wright cor. "And see thou a hostile world spread its delusive snares." Kirkham cor. " He may be prt'cnutioned, and be made to see how thosejom in the contempt." Locke cor. " The contending of themselves in the present want of what they wished for, is a virtue." Id. " If the complaint be about something really worthy of your notice." Id. " True fortitude I take to be the quiet pos- session of a man's self, and an undisturbed doing o/'his duty." Id. " For the custom ot torment- ing and killing beasts, will, by degrees, harden their minds even towards men." Id. "Children are whipped to it, and made to spend many hours of their precious time uneasily at Latin." Id. "On this subject, [the Harmony of Periods,] the ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail; more particular, indeed, than on any other head that regards lan- guage." See Blair's Rhet. p. 122. " But the one should not be omitted, and the other retained." Or: " But the one should not be used without the other." Bullions cor. "From some common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted." Murray and Weld cor. "There are rt-ry many causes which disqualify a witness for being received to testify in particular cases." .[(in/us >r. "Aside from all regard to intt -hould expect that," \c. MW>.s7rr ror. " My opinion was given after ;i rather cursory perusal of the book." Murray cor. "And, [on] the next day, he was put on board of his ship " Or thus: "And, the next day, he was put (thoard his ship." Id. " Having the command ot no emotions, but what are raised by sight." K'/nii .v i-or. " Did these moral attributes exist ii. some other being besides himself." Or. "in some other being than himself." \\'ayland >r. He did not behave in that manner from pride, or f from] contempt of the tribunal." Murray's .Vyw/, p. 113. "These prosecutions at William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court." Mnrnn/ and Pm stli-i/ cur. " To rfstorc- myself to the good graces of my fair critics." Dri/dm for. " Objects denominated beautiful, please not by virtue of any one quality common to them all." Blair car. "This would have been less worthy of notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it." Churchill cor. "A Grecian youth, o/* talents rare, Whom Plato's philosophic care," c. WHITEHEAD : E. R. p. 196. LESSON XL PROMISCUOUS. " To excel has become a much less considerable object." Blair cor. " My robe, and my in- tegrity to Hcav'n, are all I dare now call my wn."'En/ield'* fycafcr, p. 347. "/or thou the 958 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. garland wearst successively." Shak. cor. ; also Enfield. "If then thou art a Roman, take it forth." lid. " If thou prove this to be real, thou inust be a smart lad indeed." Neefcor. "And an other bridge of four hundred /ee in length." Brightland cor. " METONYMY is the putting of one name for an other, on account of the near relation ichich there is between them." Fisher cor. "ANTONOMA.SIA is the putting o/"an appellative or common name for a proper name." Id. "That it is I, should make no difference in your determination." Bullions cor. " The first and second pages are torn." Or: " The first and the second page are torn." Or: "The first pay? and the second are torn." Id. " John's absence from home occasioned the delay." Id. " His neglect of opportunities for improvement, was the cause of his disgrace." Id. "He will regret his neglect o/'A/s-opportunities/or improvement, when it is too late." Id. "His expertness at dancing does not entitle him to bur regard." Id. " Ceesar went back to Rome, to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to carry away with him." Goldsmith cor. "And Caesar took out of the treasury, gold to the amount of three thousand pounds' weight, besides an immense quantity of silver."* Id. " Rules and defi- nitions, which should always be as clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure." Greenleaf cor. " So much both of ability and o/'merit is seldom found." Or thus : " So much of both ability and merit is seldom found. "f Murray cor. " If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become of decency and virtue ? "j Murray's False Syntax, ii, 62. Or: "If such maxims and practices prevail, what will become of decency and virtue?" Murray and Bullions cor. " Especially if the subject does not require so much pomp." Blair cor. "How- ever, the proper mixture of light arid shade in such compositions, the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense, has ever been found an affair of great nicety." Blair's Rhet. p. L51. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is so much noticed by foreigners." Addison, Coote, and Murray cor. " To speak impatiently to servants, or to do any thing that betrays unkindness or ill-humour, is certainly criminal." Or better : " Impatience, unkindness, or ill-humour, is certainly criminal." Mur. et al. cor. "Here are a fullness and grandeur of expression, well suited to the subject." Blair cor. " I single out Strada/rom among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus." Murray cor. " I single him outfrom among the moderns, because," &c. Bolingbroke cor. " This rule is not al- ways observed, even by good writers, so strictly as it oughttobe." Blair cor. " But this gravity and assurance, which are beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood." Pope cor. "The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road, have some in- fluence upon the low people in the neighbourhood." Kames cor. "They become fond of regu- larity and neatness ; and this improvement of their taste is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors." Id. " The phrase, ' it is impossible to exist,' gives ue. the idea, that it is impossible for men, or any body, to exist." Priestley cor. " I'll give a thou- ber of the persons men, women, and children who were lost in the sea, was very great." O: 1 thus: "The number of persons men, women, and children that were lost in the sea, was very great." Id. " Nor is the resemblance between the primary and the resembling object pointed out." Jamieson cor. " I think it the best book of the kind, that I have met with." Mathews cor. " Why should not we their ancient rites restore, And be what Rome or Athens was before ? " Roscommon cor. LESSON XII. TWO ERRORS. " It is labour only that gives relish to pleasure." L. Murray cor. " Groves are never more agreeable than in the opening of spring." Id. " His Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, soon made him known to the literati." See Blair's Lect. pp. 34 and 45. "An awful precipice or tower from which we look down on the objects which are below." Blair cor. " This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure ; and for no other cause than this, that three distinct metaphors are crowded together." Id. "I purpose to make some observations." Id. " I shall here follow the same method that I have all alnnor rmrsiied."'^7r/. " Mankind fit no other trrn.p. rpspmhlp nna n.n. nt.hpr so rminVi as thnv dr in poems does, is, to cnoose some maxim or point 01 morality. always been most justly admired, and indeed it abounds with beauties of the highest kind." Id. " There is in the poem no attempt towards the p vinting of characters." Id. " But the artificial contrasting of characters, and the constant introducing o/'them in pairs and by opposites, give too theatrical and affected an air to the piece." Id. " Neither of them is arbitrary or local." Kames cor. " If the crowding of figures is bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon an other." Id. " The crowding-together of so many objects lessens the pleasure." Id. " This therefore lies not in the putt ing -off of the hat, nor in the making of compliments." Locke cor. " But the Samaritan Van may have been used, as the Jews used the Chaldaic, both for a vowel and for a consonant." Wilson cor. " But if a solemn and a familiar pronunciation really exist in our lan- guage, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?" J. Walker cor. "By making * This sentence may be written correctly in a dozen different ways, with precisely the same meaning, and very nearly the same words. I have here made the noun gohl the object of the verb took, which in the original appears to govern the noun treasure, or money, understood. The noun amount might about as well be made its object, by a suppression of the preposition to. And again, for "pounds' 1 weight," we may say, " pounds in weight." The words will also admit of many different positions. G. BROWN. t See a different reading of this example, cited as the first item of false syntax under Rule 16th above, and there corrected differently. The words " both of," which make the difference, were probably added by L. Murray in some of his revivals ; and yet it does not appear that this popular critic ever got the sentence right. G. BROWX. t " If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become of national liberty ? " Hume's History, Vol. Tl, p. 254 ; Priestley's Gram. p. 128. CHAP. III.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 959 sounds follow one an other agreeably to certain laws." Gardiner cor. " If there were no drink- ing o/"intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards." Ptirce cor. " Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was of being thought to have none." Goldsmith ror. " Lysander, having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for the building of gal- leys" Id. " The use of these signs is worthy of remark." Briqhtland cor. " He received ~me in the same manner in which I would receive you." Or thus : " He received me as I would re- ceive you." R. C. Smith cor. " Consisting of both the direct and the collateral evidence." But- ler cor. " If any man or woman that believetfe hath widows, let him or her relieve them, and let not the church be charged." Bible cor. " For men's sake are beasts bred." W. Walker cor. " From three o'clock, there were drinking and gaming." Id. "Is this he that I am seeking, or not." " Id. "And for the upholding of every one's own opinion, there is so much ado." Scin-.l cor. " Some of them, however, will necessarily be noticed." Sale cor. "The boys conducted themselves very indiscreetly." Merchant cor. "Their example, their influence, their fortune, every talent they possess, -dispenses blessings on a\\ persons around them." Id. and Murray cor. " The two Reynoldses reciprocally converted each other."' Johnson cor. " The destroying of the last two, Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself." Goldsmith cor. "Moneys are your suit." Shak. cor. "Ch is commonly sounded like tch t as in church ; but, in words derived from Gre^k, it has the sound of k." Murray cor. " When one is obliged to make some utensil serve for pur- poses to which it was not originally destined." Campbell cor. " But that a baptism with water is a washing-away of sin, thou canst not hence prove. "-^Barclay cor. " Being spoken to but one, it infers no universal command." Id. " For if the laying-aside of copulatives gives force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid." Btu'hanan cor. " James used to compare him to a cat, which always falls upon her legs. 1 ' Adam oar, " From the low earth aspiring genius springs, And sails triumphant, borne on eagle's wings." 'Lloyd cor. LESSON XIII. TWO ERRORS. "An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, is always faulty." Blair cor. " Yet in this we find that the English pronounce quite agreeably to rule." Or thus: " Yet in this we find the English pronunciation perfectly agreeable to rule." Or thus : " Yet in this we find that the English pronounce in a manner perfectly agreeable to rule."-^J. Walker cor. " But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, is a habit, though absolutely neces- sary to the forming of habits." Butler cor. "They were cast; and a heavy fine teas 'imposed upon them." Goldsmith cor. " Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit of the author, or relish the composition. "#/*> cor "The scholar should be instructed in relation to the finding of his words." Or thus : " The scholar should be told how to find his words." Osborn cor. "And therefore they could neither have forged, nor have reversified them." Knight cor. "A dispensary is a place at which medicines are dispensed to the poor." Mur cor. " Both the connexion and the number of words are determined by general laws." Xeefcor. "An Anapest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last one accented ; as, c6ntravene, acqui- Mur. cor. "An explicative sentence is one in which a thing is said, in a direct manner, I to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer." Lowth and Mur. cor " BUT is a conjunction whenever it is neither an adverb nor a preposition."* Smith cor. " He wrote in the name of king Ahasuerus, and sealed the writing with the king's ring." Bible cor. " Camm and Andland had departed from the town before this time." Sewel cor. "Be- fore they will relinquish the practice,' they must be convinced." Webster cor. "Which he "had thrown up before he set out." Gri'wsAato cor. " He left to him the value of a hundred drachmas in Pcrs'ian money." Spect. cor. "All that the mind can contemplate concerning them, must be divided among the three." Cardell cor. " Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent im- methodical disputants, of all that hare fallen under my observation." Sped. cor. " When you have once got him to think himself compensated for his suffering, by the praise which is given him for his courage." Locke cor. " In all matters in which simple reason, or mere speculation, is concerned." Sheridan cor. "And therefore he should be spared from the trouble of attend- ing to any thing else than his meaning." Id. "It is this kind of phraseology that is distin- guished by the epithet idiomatical ; a species that was originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation." Campbell and Murray cor. " That neither the inflection nor tin- let- ters are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium." Kniuht cor. " In those cases in which the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms." 'Murniy cor. " But these people who know not the law, are accursed." 'liible cor. "And the magni- tude of the c/u>ruses has weight and sublimity." Gardiner cor. "Dares he deny that there are some of his fraternity guilty ? " Barclay cor. "(jiving an account of most, if not all, of the papers which, had passed betwixt them." Id. "In this manner, as to both parsing and correct- ing, should all the rules of syntax be treated, being tti ken ;> regularly according to their order." Murray cor. "7t> Ovando were allowed a brilliant retinue and a bodyguard." Sketch cor. * it I or he. that you requested to go : " Kirkham cor. " Let thee and me go on." Bunyan cor. " This I nowhere affirmed ; and / do wholly deny it." Barclay cor. " But that I deny ; and it remains for him to prove it." Id. " Our country sinks beneath the yoke ; She. weeps, she bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds." Shak. cur. " Thou art the Lord who chose Abraham, and brouglU him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees." liible and Mur. cur. " He is the exhaustless fountain, from which emanate all these attributes that exist throughout this wide creation." Wayland cor. " I am he who has communed with the son of Neodes ; I am he who has entered the gardens of pleasure." Wright cur. h were in ancient times the tales received, Such by our good forefati. lieved." Howe cor. LESSON XIV. TWO ERRORS. " The noun or pronoun that stands before the active verb, usually represents the agent." .4 Murray cor. " Such seem to have been the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill, when he * According to my notion, but is never a preposition ; but there are some who think otherwise. G. BROWN. 960 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. penned the first part of his grammar." Merchant cor. " Two dots, the one placed above the other [:] are c'alled Sheva, and are used to represent a very short e," Wilson cor. " Great have been, and are, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them" [ : i. e. of nat- ural remedies]. Butler cor. " As ,two are to four, so are four to eight." Everest cor. "The then distinguish ? " Barclay cor. " He had now grown so fond of solitude, that all company hail become uneasy to him." Life of Cic. cor. "Violence and spoil are heard in her; before me continually are grief and wounds." Bible cor. " Bayle's Intelligence from the Republic of Letters, which makes eleven volumes in duodecimo, is truly a model in this kind." Formey cor. " Pauses, to be rendered pleasing and expressive, must not only be made in the right place, but also be accompanied with a proper tone of voice." Murray cor. " To oppose the opinions and rectify the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity some- times require of us." Locke cor. " It is very probable, that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, whether it were lawful for the Hollanders to throw off* the monarchy of Spain, and withdraw entirely their allegiance to that crown." Or : " about the law- fulness of the Hollanders' rejection of the monarchy of Spain, and entire withdrawment of their allegiance to that crown." Murray cor. "A naming of the numbers and cases of a noun in their order, is called the declining of it, or its declension." Frost cor. " The embodying of them is, therefore, only a collecting of such component parts of words." Town cor. "The one is the voice heard when Christ was baptized; the other, when he was transfigured." Barclay cor. "An understanding of the literal sense" or, "To have understood the literal sense, would not have prevented them from condemning the guiltless." Butler cor. "As if this were, to take the exe- cution of justice out of the hands of God, and to give it to nature." Id. "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is an allowing of the thing, though not of the showing of it." Or: "which yet is, to allow the thing, though not the showing of ' the arranging of them under distinct heads, and the reducing of them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in language." Knight cor. " The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he hath done it, and until he hath performed the intents of his heart." Bible cor. " We seek for deeds more illustrious and heroic, for events more diversified and sur- prising." Blair cor. " We distinguish the genders, or the male and the female sex, in four dif- ferent ways." Buchanan cor. " Thus, ch and g are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in those Hebrew names which have not been modernized, or changed by public use. ' Dr. Wilson cor. "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing which is conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion." Murray and Lowth cor. "A Noun is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea." Maunder cor. "A Noun i; the name of any thing in existence, or of any thing of which we can form an idea." Id. " Th? next thing to be attended to, is, to keep him exactly to the speaking of truth." Locke cor. " Th3 material, the vegetable, and the animal world, receive this influence according to their several ca- pacities." Dial cor. "And yet it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen ; if those things can be called principles, which consist merely in words." Campbell cor. "Art thou so bare, and full of wretchedness, And fearst to die ? Famine is in thy cheeks, Need and oppression starve in thy sunk eyes." Shak. cor. LESSON XV. THREE ERRORS. " The silver age is reckoned to have commenced at the death of Augustus, and to have contin- ued till the end of Trajan's reign." Gould cor. " Language has indeed become, in modern times, more correct, and more determinate." Dr. Blair cor. " It is evident, that those words are the most agreeable to the ear, which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, and in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants." Id. " It would have had no other effect, than to add to the sentence an unnecessary word." Id. " But as rumours arose, that the judges had been corrupted by money in this cause, these gave occasion to much popular clamour, and threw a heavy odium on Cluentius." Id. "A Participle is derived/row a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and of an adjective." Ash and Dems cor. " I shall have learned my grammar before you will have learned yours." Wilbur and Livingston cor. " There is no other earthly object capable of making so various and so forcible impressions upon the human mind, as a complete speaker." Perry cor. " It was not the carrying of the bag, that made Judas a thief and a hireling." South cor. "As the reasonable soul and the flesh are one man, so God and man are one Christ." Creed cor. "And I will say to them who were not my people. Ye are my peo- ple ; and they shall say, Thou art our God." Bible cor. " Where there is in the sense nothing that requires the last sound to be elevated or suspended, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper." L. Mur. cor. " Each party produce words in which the letter a is sounded in the manner for which they contend." J. Walker cor. " To countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from an actual commission of the same crimes." L. Mur. cor. " ' To countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions,' is a phrase or clause which is made the subject of the verb 'is.'" Id. " What is called the splitting of parti- cles, that is, the separating of a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided." Blair et al. cor. (See Obs. loth on Rule 23d.) " There is properly but one pause, or rest, in the sentence ; and this falls betwixt the two members into which the sentence is divided." lid. "To go barefoot does not at all help a man on, in the way to heaven." Steele cor. " There is nobody who docs not condemn this in others, though many overlook it in themselves." Locke cor. " Be careful not to use the same word in the same sentence either too frequently or in different senses." Murray cor. " Nothing could have made her more unhappy, than to have CHAP. XII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL REVIEW. 961 natural affinity or mutual dependence. Murray cor. "Animals, again, are nttei other, and to the elements or regions in which they live, and to which they are as ap Id. " This melody, however, or so frequent varying of the sound of each word, is a p ing, but of the fine ear of that people." Jamieson cor. " They can, each in its turn, married a man of such principles." Id. "A warlike, various, and tragical age is the best to write of, but the worst to write in." Cow ley cor. " When thou instancest Peter's baptizing of Cor- nelius." Barclay cor. "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or topics, which have no natural affinity or mutual dependence." Murray cor. "Animals, again, are fitted to one an are as appendices." proof of noth- be used upon occasion." Duncan cor. " In this reign, lived the poets Gower and Chaucer, who are the first authors that can properly be said to have written English." Bucke cor. " In translating ex- pressions of this kind, consider the [phrase] ' it is,' as if it were they are." W. Walker cor. " The chin has an important office to perform ; for, by the degree of its activity, we disclose either a polite or a vulgar pronunciation." Gardiner cor. "For no other reason, than that he was found in bad company." Webster cor. " It is usual to compare them after the manner of polysyllables." Priestley cor. " The infinitive mood is recognized more easily than any other, because the preposi- tion TO precedes it." Bucke cor. "Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, and so do con- junctions : how, then, can you tell a conjunction from a preposition f " Or : " how, then, can you distinguish the former from the latter * " R. C. Smith cor. " No kind of work requires a nicer touch, And, this well finish'd. none else shines so much." Sheffield cor. LESSON XVI. THREE ERRORS. "On many occasions, it is the final pause alone, that marks the difference between prose and verse: this will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines." L.Murray cor. " I shall do all I can to persuade others to take^or their cure the same measures that I have taken for mine." Guardian cor. ; also Murray. " It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, that they will set a house on fire, as it were, but to roast their eggs." Bacon cor. " Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause in which both his honour and his life were concerned ? " Dun- can cor. " So the rests, or pauses, which separate sentences or their parts, are marked by points." Lowth cor. "Yet the case and mood are not influenced by them, but are determined by the nature of the sentence." Id. "Through inattention to this rule, many errors have been com- mitted : several of which are here subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner." Murray cor. " Though thou clothe thyself with crimson, though thou deck thee with ornaments of gold, though thou polish thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair."* Bible cor. " But that the doing of good to others will make us happy, is not so evident ; the feeding of the hungry, for example, or the clothing of the naked." Or: "But that, to do good to others, will make us happy, is not so evident; to feed the hungry, for example, or to clothe the naked." Kames cor. " There is no other God than he, no other light than his." Or : " There is no God but he, no light but his." Penn cor. " How little reason w there to wonder, that a poiccrful and accomplished orator should be one of the characters that are most rarely found ! " Blair cor. " Because they express neither the doing nor the receiving of am. action." Inf. N. Gram. cor. " To find the answers, will require an effort of mind ; and, when rig Jit answers en, tht-ij will be the result of reflection, and show that the subject is understood." Id. " ' The sun rises,' is an express ion trite and common ; but the same idea becomes a magnificent im- age, when expressed in the language of Mr. Thomson." Blair cor. " The declining of a word is the giving of its different endings." Or : " To decline a word, is, to give it different endings." Ware c.or. "And so much are they for allowing every one to follow his own mind." Barclay cor. ' More than one overture for peace were made, but Cleon prevented thjem from taking effect." iit/i cor. " Neither in English, nor in any other language, is this word, or that which cor- responds to it in meaning, any more an article, than TWO, THREE, or FOUR." Webster cor. "But the most irksome conversation of all that 1 have met with in the neighbourhood, has been with two or three of your travellers." Sped. cor. "Set down the first two terms of the supposition, one under the other, in the first place." Smiley cor. " It is a useful practice too, to fix one's eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly." Blair cor. " He will generally please nit hearers most, when to please them is not his sole or his chief aim." Id. "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform the soldiers, that they could obtain for them no other terms than (hose of surrendering their arms and passing under the yoke." Id. " Nor are mankind so much to blame, in their choice thus determining them." Swift cor. "These forms are what are called the Numbers." Or: "These forms are called Numbers." Fosdick cor. "In those language* which admit but two genders, all nouns are either masculine or feminine, even though they ae- sinuate beings that are neither male nor female." Id. " It is called Verb or Wordby way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, and one without which the other p;irts of speech cannot form any complete sense." Gould cor. " The sentence will consist of two members, and these will commonly be separated from each other by a comma." Jamieson cor. " Loud and soft in speaking are like thefortt and piano in music ; they only refer to the different degrees of force used in the same key : whereas high and low imply a change of key." Sheridan cor. " They are chiefly three : the acquisition of knowledge; the assisting of the memory to treasure up this knowledge ; and the communicating of it to others." Id. ' Thin kind of knaves I know, icho in this plainness Harbour more craft, and hide corrupter ends, Than twenty silly ducking observants." Shak. cor. LESSON XVII. MANY ERRORS. "A man will be forgiven, even/or great errors, committed in a foreign language ; but, in the use * " Cum vestieria te coccino, cum ornata fueris monili aureo, et pinxeris stibio oculos tuos, frustra compounds." Vulgate "'Euv TrFpi/Ju?^ KVKKIVOV, KOI Koourjoy KOOUCJ xpvcu' iuv ) \picri orifii roi'f o$aAuoi'f oov eif uuTOlov upaicuoc, aav."Sfptua^int. " Quoique tu te reviles de pourpre, que tu te pares d'ornemens d'or, et que tu te peignes les yeux avec du fartl, tu t'smbellis en vain." French Bible. 69 962 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. ting-off of these bodies." Sherlock. " They differ from the saints recorded in either the Old or the New Testament." Newton cor. " The nature of relation, therefore, consists in the refer- ring or comparing of two things to each other ; from which comparison, one or both come to be denominated." Locke cor. " It is not credible, that there is any one who will say, that through the whole course of his life he has kept himself entirely undefiled, without the least spot or stain of sin." Witsius cor. " If to act conformably to the will of our Creator. if to promote the welfare of mankind around us, if to secure our own happiness, is an object of the highest moment ; then are we loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." Or : " If, to act conformably to the will of our Creator, to promote the welfare of mankind around us, and to secure our own happiness, are objects of the highest moment ; then," &c. Murray et al. cor. " The verb being in the plural number, it is supposed, that the officer and his guard are joint agents. But this is not the case : the only nominative to the verb is ' officer.' In the expression, ' with his gtiard,' the noun 1 guard' is in the objective case, being governed by the preposition with; and consequently it cannot form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent sub- ject^br the agreement, the true nominative to the verb, or the term to which the verb peculiarly re- fers, is the word ' officer.' " L. Murray cor. " This is an other use, that, in my opinion, contributes to make a man learned rather than wise ; and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination." Addison cor. " The work is a dull performance ; and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination." Murray cor. "I would recommend the 'Ele- ments of English Grammar,' by Mr. Frost. The plan of this little icork is similar to that of Mr. L. Murray's smallest Grammar; but, in order to meet the understanding of children, its definitions and language are simplified, so far as the nature of the subject will admit. It also embraces more examples jfor Parsing, than are usual in elementary treatises." S. It. Hall cor. " More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two months of winter ; but ivhat falls, makes a much greater show upon the earth, in winter than in summer, 'because there is a much slower evaporation." Murray cor. " They often contribute also to render some persons prosper- ous, though wicked ; and, ^ohat is still worse, to reward some actions, though vicious ; and pun- ish other actions, though virtuous." Butler cor. " Hence, to such a man, arise naturally a se- cret satisfaction, a sense of security, and an implicit hope of somewhat further." Id. " So much for the third and last cause of illusion, that was noticed above ; which arises from the abuse of very general and abstract terms ; and which is the principal source of the abundant nonsense that has been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians." Campbell cor. "As to those animals which are less common, or which, on account of the places they inhabit, fall le^ s under our observation, as fishes and birds, or which their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single noun to designate both gender;, the masculine and the feminine." Fosdick cor. "Adjectives may always be distinguished ly their relation to other words : they express the quality, condition or number, of whatever things are mentioned." Emmons cor. "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner." Broivris Inst. p. 2). " The joining -together of two objects so grand, and the representing o/'them both, as subject at one moment to the command of God, produce a noble effect." Blair cor. " Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental ; but, as they have the appearance of weakness, thoy displease the eye, whenever they are used to support any massy part of a building, or what seems to require a more substantial prop." Id. "In a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the Greeks', the Latins' t and the Hebrews', and also unlike that of any modern nation." W. C. Fowler cor. LESSON XVIII. MANY ERRORS. " The empire of Blefuscu is an island, situated on the northeast side of Lilliput, from which it is parted by a channel of only 800 yards in width." Swift and Kames cor. " The nominative case usually denotes the agent or doer ; and any noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is always in this case." Smith cor. " There are, in his allegorical personages, an originality, a rich- ness, and a variety, which almost vie with the splendours of the ancient mythology." Hazlittcor. "As neither the Jewish nor the Christian revelation has been universal, and as each lias been afforded to a greater or a less part of the world at different times ; so likewise, at different times, both reve- lations have had different degrees of evidence." Butler cor. " Thus we see, that, to kill a. man with a sword, and to kill one with a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action ; but, if the point of the sword first enter the body, the action passes for a distinct species, called stabbing." Locke cor. " If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour con- cerning that which was delivered him to keep, or deceivehis neighbour, or find that which was lost, and lie concerning it, and swear falsely; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c. Bible cor. "As, to do and teach the commandments of God, is the great proof of virtue ; so, to break them, and to teach others to break them, are the great proofs of vice." Way land cor. " The latter simile, in Pope's terrific maltreatment of it, is true neither to the mind nor to the eye." Coleridge cor. "And the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, like Eteocles and Polynices, each endeavouring to plunge his sword into the other's heart, and to assure himself of the throne by the death of his rival." Goldsmith cor. " Is it not plaiu, therefore, that neither the castle, nor the planet, nor the cloud, which you here see, is that real one which you suppose to exist at a distance ? " Berkley cor. " I have often wondered, how it comes to pass, that every body should love himself best, and yet value his neighbours' opinion about himself more than his own." Collier cor. " Virtue, ('Aptr^, Virtus,} as well as most of its species, when sex is figuratively ascribed to it, is made feminine, perhaps from its beauty and amia- ble appearance." Harris cor. " Virtue, with most of its species, is made feminine who n personi~ ned ; and so is Vice, perhaps for being Virtue's opposite." Brit. Gram. cor. ; also Buchanan. " From this deduction, it may easily be seen, how it comes to pass, that personification makes so CIIAP. XIII. J KEY TD FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 963 great a figure in all compositions in which imagination or passion has any concern." Blair cor. "An Article is a word placed before a noun, to point it out as such, and to show how far its signifi- cation extends." Folker cor. ' "All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights; among which are the rights of enjoying and defending life and liberty ; qfacquiring, possessing, and protecting property; and, in "a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness." N. If. cor. " From those grammarians who form their ideas and make their decisions, respecting this part of English grammar, from the principles and construction of other languages, of languages which do not in these points accord with our own, but which differ considerably from i't, we may natur- ally expect grammatical schemes that will be neither perspicuous nor consistent, and that will tend rather to perplex than to inform the learner." Murray and Hill <-or. "Jmh-i-d there are but very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or who have a relish for any pleasures that are not criminal ; every diversion which the majority take, is at the expense of some one virtue or other, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly." Addison cor. " Hail, holy Love ! thou bliss that sumst all bliss ! (lir'st and receiv'st all bliss ; fullest when most Thou giv'st; spring-head of all felicity ! " Pollok cor. CHAPTER XIII. GENERAL RULE. CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. LESSON I. ARTICLES. (1.) " The article is a part of speech placed before nouns." Or thus : "An article is a word placed before nouns." Comfy cor. (2.) "The article is a part of speech used to limit nouns." Gilbert cor. (3.) "An article is a word set before nouns to fix their vague signification." Ash cor. (4.) "The adjective is a part of speech used to describe something named by a noun." Gilbert cor. (5.) "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun." Id. and Weld cor. : Inst. p. 45. (6.) "The pronoun is a part of speech which is often used in stead of a noun." Brit. Gram, and Buchanan cor. (7.) "A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to be acted upon." Merchant cor. (8.) "The verb is a part of speech which signifies to be, to act, or to receive an action." Comly cor. (9.) "The verb is the part of speech by which any thing is asserted." Weld cor. (10.) "The verb is a part of speech, which expresses action or existence in a direct manner." Gilbert cor. (11.) "A participle is a word derived from a verb, and expresses action or existence in an indirect man- ner." Id. (12.) "The participle is a part of speech derived from the verb, and denotes being, doing, or suffering, and implies time, as a verb does." Brit. Gram, and Buchanan cor. (13.) "The adverb is a part of speech used to add some modification to the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and participles." Gilbert cor. (14.) "An adverb is an indeclinable word added to a verb, [apar- ticiplr,} an adjective, or an other adverb, to express some circumstance, accident, or manner of its signification." Adam and Gould cor. (15.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an other adverb, to express the circumstance of time, place, degree, or manner." Dr. Ash cor. (16.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, a participle, or, sometimes, an other adverb, to express some circumstance respecting the sense." Beck cor. (17.) " The adverb is a part of speech, which is added to verbs, adjectives, participles, or to other adverbs, to express some modification or circumstance, quality or manner, of their signification." Buchanan cor. (18.) "The adverb is a part of speech whichwe add to the verb, (whence the name,) to the adjective or participle likewise, and sometimes even to an other adverb." Bucke cor. (19.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences." Gilbert and Weld cor. (20.) " The conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together." Ash cor. (21.) " The conjunction is that part of speech which connects sentences, or parts of sentences, or single words." D. Blair cor. (22.) "The conjunction is a part of speech that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more sentences, to make one." Bucke cor. (23.) "The conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words or sentences together ; but, chiefly, to join simple sentences into such as are compound." Kirkham cor. (24.) "A conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together, and shows the manner o drum, et al. cor. (25.) "A preposition is a and govern the subseauent term." Gilbert c serves to connect other words, and to show . . . sentences together, and shows the manner of their dependence, as they stand in connexion." Brit. drum, et al. cor. (25.) "A preposition is a word used to show the relation between other words, and govern the subseauent term." Gilbert cor. (26.) "A preposition is a governing word which w the relation between them." Frost cor. (27.) "A preposition is a part of speech, which, being added to certain other parts of speech, serves to show their state of relation, or their reference to each other." Brit. Gram, and Buchanan cor. (30.) " T/K' interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or strong emotion." Gilbert cor. (31.) "An interjection is an unrtin<'rtr'. "These principles ought to be deeply impressed, upon the mind of every American." Dr. N. Webster cor. " Th words 964 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. CHURCH and SHIRE are radically the same." Id. "They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive case of nouns." L. Murray cor. " Will, in the second and third persons, only foretells." Id. : Lowth's Gram. p. 41. " Which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood." Murray cor. " The very general approbation which this performance of Walker's has received from the public." Id. " Lest she carry her improvements of this kind too far." Or thus : " Lest she carry her improvements in this way too far." Id. and Campbell cor. " Charles was extrav- agant, and by his prodigality became poor and despicable." Murray cor. " We should entertain no prejudice against simple and rustic persons." Id. " These are indeed ihefoundation of all solid merit." Dr. Blair cor. "And his embellishment, by means of figures, musical cadences, or other ornaments of speech." Id. " If he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other ornament of style." Id. " The most eminent of the sacred poets, are, David, Isaiah, and the author of the Book of Job." Id. " Nothing, in any poem, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam." Id. " When two vowels meet to- gether, and are joined in one syllable, they are called a diphthong." Inf. S. Gram. cor. " How many Esses would goodness' then end with ? Three; us goodness' s." Id. "Birds is a noun; it is the common name of feathered animals." Kirkham cor. "Adam gave names to all living creatures." Or thus : "Adam gave a name to every living creature." Bicknell cor. " The steps of a flight of stairs ought to be accommodated to the human figure." Or thus : "Stairs ought to be accom- modated to the ease of the users." Kames cor. " Nor ought an emblem, more than a simile, to be founded on a low or familiar object." Id. "Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the Gothic." Tooke cor. " The mint, and the office of the seci-ctary of state, are neat buildings." The Friend cor. " The scenes of dead and still existence are apt to fall upon us." the three following methods of distinguishing the sexes. " Jaudon cor. " There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes." Lennie et al. cor.; also Merchant. "The sexes are distinguished in three ways." Maunder cor. " Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether an imitative art." Blair cor. "Do we for this the gods and conscience brave, That one may rule and all the rest enslave? " Roice cor. LESSON III. ADJECTIVES. cor. " For, of all men that I met in am surprised to see so much of the distribution, and so many of the technical terms, of the Latin grammar, retained in the gram mar of our tongue." Priestley cor. " Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him any assistance.' Hume and Priestley cor. " Else he will find it difficult to make an obstinate person believe him." Brightland cor. "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison in c manner peculiar to themselves ? " Inf. S. Gram. cor. " Yet all the verbs are of the indicative mood." Lowth cor. " The word candidate is absolute, in the nominative case." Murray cor "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented." L. Murray, D. Blair, Jamieson, Kirkham, Bullions, Guy, Merchant, and others. "A Dactyl has the first syllable ac- cented, and the last two [syllables] unaccented." Murray et al. cor. " It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or* other piece of writing." Jaudon's Gram. p. 195 ; John Flint's, 105. "Five and seven make twelve, and one more makes thirteen." Murray cor. " I wish to cultivate a nearer acquaintance with you." Id. "Let us consider the means which are proper to effect our purpose." Or thus : " Let us consider what means are proper to effect our purpose." Id. " Yet they are of so similar a nature as readily to mix and blend." Blair cor. " The Latin is formed on the same model, but is more imperfect." Id. " I know very well hovr great pains have been taken." Or thus : " I know very well how much care has been taken." Temple cor. " The management of the breath requires a great deal of care." Blair cor. "Because the mind, during such a momentary stupefaction, is, in a. great measure, if not totally, insensible." Kames cor. " Motives of reason and interest alone are not sufficient." Id. " To render the composition distinct in its parts, and on the whole impressive." Id. "A and an are named the Indefinite article, because they denote indifferently any one thing of a kind." Maunder cor. " The is named the Definite article, because it points out some particular thing or things." Id. " So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in any sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it." Or : " that, in every sort of com- position, we ought to be very strict in our attention to it." Or : " that, in no sort of composition, can we be too strict," &c. Blair cor. "Every sort of declamation and public speaking, was car- ried on by them." Or thus: "All sorts of declamation and public speaking, were carried on by them." Id. " The former has, on many occasions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains." Id. " When the words, therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like are used in connexion with conjunctions, they are adverbs." Kirkham cor. " itude nations make jfew or no allusions to the productions of the arts." Jamieson cor. " While two of her maids knelt on each side of her." Or, if there were only two maids kneeling, and not four : " While two of her maids knelt, one on each side of her." Mirror cor. " The personal pronouns of the thirdperson, differ from one an other in meaning and use, as follows." Biillions cor. " It was happy for the state, that Fabius con- * The word " any " is here omitted, not merely because it is unnecessary, but because " every any other piece," with which a score of our grammarians have pleased themselves, is not good English. The impropriety might perhaps be avoided, though less elegantly, by repeating the preposition, and saying," or of any other piece of writing." G. BROWN. CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 965 objected, that in all the preceding sentences the words must and ought are in the present tense." Murray cor. " But it will be well, if you turn to them now and then." Or: " if you turn to them occasionally." Bucke cor. " That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support, every other." Rollin cor. "The phrase, 'Good, my lord,' is not common, and is low." Or : " is uncommon, and low." Priestley cor. " That brother should not war with brother, And one devour or vex an other." Cowper cor. LESSON IV. PRONOUNS. " If I can contribute to our country's glory." Or : " to your glory and that of my country" Goldsmith cor. "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each tteverb." Lowth cor. " He is likewise required to make examples for himself." Or: " He himself is likewise re- quired to make examples." J. Flint cor. " If the emphasis be placed wrong, it will pervert and confound the meaning wholly." Or : " If the emphasis be placed wrong, the meaning will be per- verted and confounded wholly." Or : " If we place the emphasis wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly." Blair cor. ; also Murray. " It was this, that characterized the great men of antiquity ; it is this, that must distinguish the moderns who would tread in their steps." Id. " I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish as the Presbyterian ; for, in that, the Papists and the Presbyterians are very much alike." Barclay cor. " Will he thence dare to say, the apostle held an other Christ than him that died ? " Id. " Why need you be anxious about this event ?" Or: " What need have you to be anxious about this event." Collier cor. "If a substantive can be placed after the verb, the latter is active." A. Murray cor. "To see bad men honoured and .prosperous in the world, is some discouragement to virtue." Or: "It is some discour- agement to virtue, to see bad men," &c. L. Murray cor. " It is a happiness to young persons, to be preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed." Id. "At the court of Queen Elizabeth, where all was prudence and economy." Bullions cor. "It is no wonder, if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was so remarkable for her prudence and economy." Priestley, Murray, et al. cor. "A defective verb is a verb that wants some parts. The defective verbs are chiefly the auxiliaries and the impersonal verbs." Bullions cor. " Some a noun." Merchant cor. " To some of these, there is a preference to be given, which custom and judgement must determine." L. Murray cor. " Manv writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or that of which it literally implies the idea." Id. " Say, dost thou know Vectidius ? Whom, the wretch Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch ? " Dryden cor. LESSON V. VERBS. "We should naturally expect, that the word depend would require from after it." Priestley's Gram. p. 158. "A dish which they pretend is made of emerald." Murray cor. " For the very nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is expressed." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 311. "Without a careful attention to the sense, we should be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun." Blair cor. " For any rules that can be given, on this subject, must be very general." Id. " He wotild be in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be." Id. " There I should prefer a more free and diffuse manner." Id. " Yet that they also resembled one an other, and agreed in certain qualities." Id. " But, since he must restore her, he insists on having an other in her place." Id. " But these are far from being so frequent, or so common, as they have been supposed to be." Id. "We are not led to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or the painful feelings." Kames cor. " Which are of greater im- portance than they are commonly thought." Id. " Since these qualities are both coarse and common, let us find out the mark of a man of probity." Collier cor. " Cicero did what no man had ever done before him ; he drew up a treatise of consolation for himself." Biographer cor. " Then there can remain no other doubt of the truth." Brightland cor. " I have observed that some satirists use the term." Or : "I have observed some satirists to use the term." Bul- lions cor. " Such men are ready to despond, or to become enemies." Webster cor. "Common nouns are names common to many things." Inf. S. Gram. cor. "To make ourselves heard by one to whom we address ourselves." Blair cor. " That, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and may relish its beauties." Or : "and to relish its beauties." Murrai/ t or. " On the stretch to keep pace with the author, and comprehend his meaning." niair cor. " For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and the money have been given to the poor." Bible cor. " He is a beam that has departed, and has left no streak of light behind." Ossian cor. " No part of this incident ought to have been represented. ;/ hole should have been reserved for a narrative." Kames cor. " The rulers and people but the irhole debauching themselves, a country is brought to ruin." Or: "When the rulerg and people de- hauch themselves, they bring ruin on a country." Ware cor. "When a title, fas Doctor, Miss, r, &c.,) is prefixed to a name, the latter only, of the two words, is commonly varied to form the plural ; as, The Doctor \rt tit-tons,' ' The two Miss Iludsons.' "A. Murray cor. Where- fore that field has been called, 'The Field of Blood,' unto this day." Bible cor. " To compre- hend the situations of other countries, which perhaps it may be necessary for him to explore." Dr. liroirn cor. " We content ourselves now with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors used." Priestley cor. "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have erred before them." Id. "The voice of nature and that of revelation unite." Or: "Revelation and the voice of nature unite." Or : " The voice of nature unites with revelation." Or : " The voice of nature unites with that of revelation." Wayland cor. " This adj'ective, you see, we can't admit ; But, changed to WORSE,' the word is just and fit." Tobitt cor. 966 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. LESSON VI. PARTICIPLES. " Its application is not arbitrary, or dependent on the caprice of readers." Murray cor. " This is the more expedient, because the work is designed for the benefit of private learners." Id. " A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have a statue erected for him." Dr. Blair cor. " From some likeness too remote, and lying too far out of the road of ordinary thought." Id. " In the commercial world, money is a fluid, running from hand to hand." Dr. Webster cor. " He pays. understood to con- great master of ?-___ __, .. , .. 1 the writing of " Bates's Rep. cor. " Exclamations are sometimes mistaken for interrogations." Hist, of Print, cor. " Which cannot fail to prove of service." Smith cor. " Hewn into such figures as would make them incorporate easily and firmly." Beat, or Mur. cor. "After the rule and exam- ple, there are practical inductive questions." J. Flint cor. " I think it will be an advantage, that I have collected my examples from modern writings." Priestley cor. " He was eager to recommend it to his fellow-citizens." Id. and Hume cor. " The good lady was careful to serve me with every thing." Id. " No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient, in such a sense as to render one superfluous and useless." Butler cor. " Description, again, is a representation which raises in the mind the conception of an object, by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols." Blair cor. " Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for an end." Or : " for the termination of our discourse." Id. " There is a distinction, which, in the use of them, is worthy of attention." Maunder cor. "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and which is easily managed." Ed. Reporter cor. " The conspiracy was the more easily discovered, because the conspirators were many." Murray cor. Nearly ten years had that celebrated work been published, before its importance was at all un- and the subsequent shortening of them when that necessity had ceased." Brown cor. " Before the performance commences, we see displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene." Kirkham cor. "It forbade the lending of money, or the sending of goods, or the embarking of capital in any way, in transactions connected with that foreign traffic." Brougham cor. " Even abstract ideas have sometimes the same important prerogative conferred upon them." Jamieson cor. "Ment, like other terminations, changes y into *', when they is preceded by a consonant." Kirkham 's Gram. p. 25. " The term PROPER is from the French propre, own, or the Latin proprius ; and a Proper noun is so called, because it is peculiar to the individual or family bearing the name. The term COMMON is from the Latin communis, pertaining equally to several or many ; and z Common noun is so called, because it is common to every individual comprised in the class." Fowler cor. " Thus oft by mariners are showed (Unless the men of Kent are liars) Earl Godwin's castles overflowed, And palace-roofs, and steeple-spires." Swift cor. LESSON VII. ADVERBS. " He spoke to every man and woman who was there." Murray cor. " Thought and language act and react upon each other." Murray 1 s Key, p. 264. " Thought and expression act and react upon each other." Murray's Gram. 8vo, p. 356. " They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several pro- fessions." Campbell's Rhet. p. 160. " Before they are capable of understanding much, or in- deed any thing, of most other branches of education." Olney cor. " There is no more beauty in one of them, than in an other." Murray cor. "Which appear to be constructed according to no certain rule." Blair cor. "The vehement manner of speaking became less universal." Or better : " less general." Id. "Not all languages, however, agree in this mode of expression." Or: " This mode of expression, however, is not common to all languages." Id. " The great oc- casion of setting apart this particular day." Atterbury cor. "He is much more promising now, than Ae was formerly." L. Murray cor. " They are placed before a participle, without dependence on the rest of the sentence." Id. "This opinion does not appear to have been well considered." Or : " This opinion appears to have been formed without due consideration." Id. " Pre- the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject, may be questioned." Id. " But, with regard to this matter also, there is a great error in the common practice." Webster cor. " This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not known." Or: "which makes things that are already known, its means of finding out those that are not so." Foreman cor. " Now, who is not discouraged, and does not fear want, when he has no money ? " C. Leslie cor. " Which the authors of this work consider of little or no use." Wilbur and Liv. cor. "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins to be obscure." Blair cor. " But this is a manner which deserves to be avoided" Or : " which does not deserve to be imitated." Id. "And, in this department, a per- son effects very little, icheneverhe attempts too much." Campbell and Murray cor. " The verb that signifies mere being, is neuter." Ash cor. " I hope to tire but little those whom I shall not happen to please." Rambler cor. " Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and who pronounced others very indistinctly." Sheridan cor. " The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons/or thus distinguishing them." Or : " The learner may point out the active, the passive, and the neuter verbs in the fol- lowing examples, and state the reasons for calling them so." C. Adams cor. " These words are almost always conjunctions." Barrett cor. "How glibly nonsense trickles from his tongue ! How sweet the periods, neither said nor sung ! " Pope cor. CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 967 LESSON VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. " Who, at least, either knew not, or did not love to make, a distinction." Or better thus : " Who, at least, either knew no distinction, or did not like to make any." Dr. Murray cor. " It is childish in the last degree, to let this become the ground of estranged affection." L. Murray cor. " When the regular, and when the irregular verb, is to be preferred, p. 107." Id. " The shall more willingly agree to and advance the same than I." Morton cor. " That it cannot but be hurtful to continue it." Barclay cor. "A conjunction joins words or sentences." Beck cor. The copulative conjunction connects words or sentences together, and continues the sense." Cram, cor. " But the divine character is such as none but a divine hand could draw." Or : " But the divine character is such, that none but a divine hand could draw it." A. Keith cor. " Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, he is insensible of a God ? " Gibbons cor. " It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little further desire on the part of the author, than for its general utility." Toirn cor. " This will sufficiently explain why so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect." Sheridan cor. " Of these, they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated ACCENTS, the term being used in the plural number." Id. "And this is one of the chief reasons why dramatic rep- resentations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind." Id. " Which is the chief reason why public reading is in general so disgusting." Id. "At the same time in which they learn to read." Or: " While they learn to > read." Id. " He is always to pronounce his words with exactly the same accent that he uses in speaking." Id. " In order to know what an other knows, and in the same manner in which he knows it." Id. " For the same reason/or which it is, in a more limited state, assigned to the several tribes of animals." Id. " Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner in which other arts are taught." Or: "Were there masters to teach this, as other arts are taught." Id. " Whose own example strengthens all his laws ; Who is himself that great sublime he draws." Pope cor. LESSON IX. PREPOSITIONS. " The word so has sometimes the same meaning as ALSO, LIKEWISE, or THE SAME." Priestley cor. " The verb use relates not to ' pleasures of the imagination;' but to the terms fancy and imagination, which he was to employ as synonymous." Blair cor. " It never can view, clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a time." Id. " This figure [Euphemism] is often the same as the Periphrasis." Adam and Gould cor. "All the intermediate time between youth and old age." W. Walker cor. " When one thing is said to act upon an other, or do something to it." Lowth cor. " Such a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has of life." Or: " Such a composition has as much meaning in it, as a mummy has life." Lit. Conv. cor. " That young men, from fourteen to eighteen years of age, were not the best judges." Id. "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and of blasphemy." Isaiah, xxxvii, 3. " Blank verse has the same pauses and accents that occur in rhyme." Kames cor. " In prosody, long syllables are distinguished by the macron ("); and short ones, by what is called the breve (")." liucke cor. " Sometimes both articles are left out, especially from, poetry." Id. "From the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted." Or: "In the following example, the pronoun and participle are not expressed." Murray cor. [But the example was faulty. Say,] " Conscious of his weight and importance," or, "Being conscious of his own weight and importance, he did not solicit the aid of others." Id. " He was an excellent person ; even in his early youth, a mirror of the ancient faith." Id. " The carrying of its several parts into execu- tion." Butler cor. " Concord is the agreement which one word has with an other, in gender, number, case or person." L. Murray's Gram. p. 142. " It might perhaps have given me a greater taste for its antiquities." Addison cor. " To call on a person, and to wait on him." Priestley cor. " The great difficulty they found ' fixing just sentiments." Id. and Hume cor. " Developing the differences of the three." J. lirotrn cor. " When the singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es to form the plural." Murray cor. " We shall present him a list or specimen of them." Id. " ft is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the principles." Dymond cor. "In this example, the verb arises is understood before ' curiosity ' and before ' knowledge.' " Murray it , -or. "St. Paul positively stated, that, ' He that lnreth and Mur. cor. " This class exhibits a lamentable inefficiency, and a great want of simplicity." Gardiner cor. " Whose style, in all its course, flows like a limpid 968 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. stream, through ichich we see to the very bottom." Blair cor. ; also Murray. " We admit va- rious ellipses." Or thus : "An ellipsis, or omission, of some words, is frequently admitted." Len- nie's Gram. p. 116. " The ellipsis of articles may occur thus." Murray cor. " Sometimes the article a is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers ; as, 'A magnificent house and gar- dens.' " Id. " In some very emphatical expressions, no ellipsis should be alloiced." Id. "Ellip- ses of the adjective may happen in the following manner." Id. " The following examples shoio that there may be an ellipsis of the pronoun." Id. "Ellipses of the verb occur in the following instances." Id. "Ellipses of the adverb may occur in the following manner." Id. " The fol- lowing brief expressions are all of them elliptical."* Id. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning will often be left ambiguous." Id. ; also Hart and Blair cor. " He regards his word, but thou dost not regard thine." Bul- lions, Murray et al. cor. " I have learned my task, but you have not learned yours." lid. " When the omission of words would obscure the sense, weaken the expression, or be attended with impropriety, no ellipsis must be indulged." Murray and Weld cor. "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to them all, separately and individually considered." Murray cor. "He was to me the most intelligible of all who spoke on the sub- ject." Id. " 1 understood him better than / did any other who spoke on the subject." Id. " The roughness found on our entrance into the paths of virtue and learning, decreases as we ad- vance." Or: " The roughnesses encountered in the paths of virtue and learning diminish as we advance." Id. "There is nothing which more promotes knowledge, than do steady application and habitual observation." Id. " Virtue confers on man the highest dignity of which he is ca- pable ; it should therefore be the chief object of his desire." Id. and Merchant cor. "The su- preme Author of our' being has so formed the' human soul, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper happiness." Addison and Blair cor. " The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans : ' Because,' say they, 'any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures.' " lid. " The divine laws are not to be reversed by those of men." Murray cor. " In both of these examples, the relative which and the verb icas are un- derstood." Id. et al. cor. " The Greek and Latin languages, though for many reasons they can- not be called dialects of one and the same tongue, are nevertheless closely connected." Dr. Mur- ray cor. " To ascertain and settle whether a white rose or a red breathes the sweetest fragrance." Or thus : " To ascertain and settle which of the two breathes the sweeter fragrance, a white rose or a red one." J. Q. Adams cor. " To which he can afford to devote but little of his time and labour." Blair cor. "Avoid extremes ; and shun the fault of such As still are pleased too little or too much." Pope cor. LESSON XL OF BAD PHRASES. " He might as weZHeave his vessel to the direction of the winds." South cor. "Without good-nature and gratitude, men might as well live in a wilderness as in society." UEstranyc cor. "And, for this reason, such lines very seldom occur together." Blair cor. " His greatness did not make him happy." Crombie cor. " Let that which tends to cool your love, be judged in all." Crisp cor. " It is worth observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death." Bacon cor. "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more audible than the rest." Sheridan and Murray cor. " Before he proceeds to argue on either side." Blair cor. " The general change of manners, throughout Europe." Id. " The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, through all his works." Id. " The French writers of sermons, study neatness and elegance in the division of their discourses ." Id. "This seldom fails to prove a refrigerant to passion." Id. "But their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, excuse themselves for not standing forth to demand vengeance." Murray's Sequel, p. 114. "Alleging, that their decrial of the church of Rome, was a uniting with the Turks." Barclay cor. " To which is added the Catechism by the Assembly'of Divines." N. E. Prim. cor. " This treachery was always present in the thoughts of both of them." Robertson cor. " Thus far their words agree." Or : " Thus far the words of both agree." W. Walker cor. "Aparithmesis is an enumeration of the several parts of what, as a whole, might be expressed in few words." Gould cor. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is a figure in which what might be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts." Dr. Adam cor. " Which may sit from time to time, where you dwell, or in the vicinity." J. O. Taylor cor. " Place together a large-sized animal and a small one, of the same species." Or : " Place together a large and a small animal of the same species." Kames cor. " The weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the quantity of fluid displaced by it." Percival cor. " The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to the Optative." Givilt cor. "No feeling of obligation remains, except that of an obligation to fidelity." Waylandcor. " Who asked him, why whole audiences should be moved to tears at the representation of some story on the stage." Sheridan cor. "Are you not ashamed to affirm, that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints, are as filthy rags ? " Barclay cor. "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of kindred signification." Sanborn cor. " But he has judged better, in forbearing to repeat the article the." Blair cor. " Many objects please us, and are thought highly beautiful, which have scarcely any variety at all." Id. " Yet they sometimes follow them." Emmons cor. " For I know of nothing more important in the whole subject, than this doctrine of mood and tense." R. Johnson cor. " It is by no means impossible for an error to be avoided or suppressed." Philol. Museum cor. " These are things of the highest importance to children and youth." Murray cor. " He ought to have omitted the word many." Or : " He might better have omitted the word many." Blair cor. " Which might better have been separated.'" Or : " Which ought rather to have been separated." Id. " Figures and metaphors, therefore, should never be used *This correction, &s well as the others which relate to what Murray says of the several forms of ellipsis, doubt- less conveys the sense which he intended to express ; but, as an assertion, it is by no means true of all the exam- ples which he subjoins, neither indeed are the rest. But that is a fault of his which I cannot correct. G. BEOWN. CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 969 profusely." Id. and Jam. cor. " Metaphors, or other figures, should never be used in too areat abundnncr." Murray and Russell cor. '' Something like this has been alleged against Tacitus." Bolinybroke cor. " O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand, ]\'ho with the blood of each must one day stain thy hand ! " Sheffield cor. LESSON XII. OF TWO ERRORS. " Pronouns sometimes precede the terms which they represent." L. Murray cor. " Most prepo- sitions originally denoted relations of place." Lowth cor. " WHICH is applied to brute animals, and to things without life." Bullions cor. " What thing do they describe, or of what do they tell the kind ? " Inf. N. dram. cor. " Iron cannons, as well as brass, are now universally cast solid." Jamieson cor. " We have philosophers, more eminent perhaps than those of any other nation." Blair cor. " This is a question about words only, and one which common sense easily determines." Id. " The low pitch of the voice, is that which approaches to a whisper." Id. " Which, as to the effect, is just the same as to use no such distinctions at all." Id. " These two systems, therefore, really dilfer from each other but very little." Id. " It is needless to give many instances, as examples occur so often." Id. " There are many occasions on which this is neither requisite nor proper." Id. " Dramatic poetry divides itself into the two forms, comedy and tragedy." Id. " No man ever rhymed with more exactness than he." [I. e., than Roscommon.] Editor of Waller cor. " The Doctor did not reap from his poetical labours & profit equal to that of his prose." Johnson cor. " We will follow that which we find our fathers practised." Or : " We will follow that which we find to hare been our fathers' practice." Sale cor. "And I should deeply regret that I had published them." Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Figures exhibit ideas with more ricidncas and power, than could be given them by plain language." KirkJiam cor. " The allegory is finely drawn, though the heads are various." Sped, cor. " I should not have thought it worthy of this place." Or: " I should not have thought it worthy of being placed here." Crombie cor. " In this style, Tacitus excels all other writers, ancient or modern." Kames cor. " No other author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue socow/;/^fysSh.akspeare." Id. " The names of all the things we see, hear, smell, taste, or feel, are nouns." Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Of what number are the expressions, ' these boys,' these pictures,' &c. ? " Id. " This sentence has faults somewhat like those of the last." Blair cor. " Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language ; which qualities form one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty." Id. " Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague ; none with less precision, than the word sublime." Id. " Hence no word in the lan- guage is used with a more vague signification, than the word beauty." Id. " But still, in speech, he made use of general terms on ly." Id. "These give life, body, and colouring, to the facts I recited ; and enable us to conceive of them as present, and passing before our eyes." Id. " Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height, than the adventurous spirit of knight- hood had crcr attaim-d in fact." Id. " We write much more supinely, and with far less labour, than did the ancients." Id. " This appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, and the modern." Id. " To violate this rule, as the English too often do, shows great incorrectness." Id. " It is impossible, by means of &ny train- ing, to prevent tin m from appearing stiff and forced." Id. "And it also gives to the speaker the disagreeable semblance of one who endeavours to compel assent." Id. "And, whenever a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note, than to run the hazard of becoming too familiar." Id. "It is the great business of this life, to prepare and qualify ourselrcs for the enjoyment of a better." Murray cor. "Prom some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted; and in others it is stigmatized as a barbarism." Crombiecor. 'You cannot see a thing, or think of one, the name of wJiirh is not a noun." Mack cor. "All the fleet have arrived, and are moored in safety." Or better : " The whole fleet has arrived, and is moored in safety." Murray cor. LESSON XIII. OF TWO ERRORS. " They have srrrrally their distinct and exactly-limited relations to gravity." Hosier cor. " But where the additiomil s would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose." Murray cor. "After o, it [the w] is sometimes not sounded at all ; and sometimes it is sounded like a single it." Lowth cor. "It is situation chiefly, that decides the fortunes &nd charac- ters of men." Ilium <<>/. , also Murray. "The vice of covetousness is that [vice] which enters more deeply into the soul than any other." Murray et al.cor. "Of all rices, covetousness enters the most deeply into the soul." lid. "Of all rices, covetousnes's is that which enters the most deeply into the soul." Campbril cor. " The vice of covetousness is a fault which enters more' deeply into the soul than any other." (iuardian cur. " WOULD primarily denotes inclination of will; and SHOULD, obligation: but they vary their import, and are often used to express simple Or : " but both of them vary their import," ttc. Or : " but both vary their import, and are used to express aimpie MHfe," Loirth, Murray, ct a!, cor. "A double condition, in two corre- spondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made by tin- word n.vn ; as, 'Had he done this, he had -lied.' " Murray et a/, cor. "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, as well as to those of sense." Murray cor. "Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing of the mountains, which in itself ha* :-o nutch grandeur, burlesque and ridiculous." Blair cor. " To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but (o which, even in divers respects, none are comparable." Barclay cor. " To distinguisli them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner that we use with regard to other ideas." Sheridan cor. " For it has nothing to do " For it has nothing to do with language [the Latin] crrr been . , , .;//' some one-nine* into the pleas- ures of taste." lifair cor. " But the following sentences would have been better without it." Murray cor. " But I think the following sentence would be better icithout it." Or : " But I think 70 cool manner that we use witn regard to other ideas." Xfieriaan cor. ' with parsing, or the analysing Of Language." KirkJiam cor. Or : " Fc the parsing, or analy/ing, f language." Id. " Neither has that Ian 'i;on in Britain."- . "All that I purpose, is, / 970 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. it shouldbe expunged from the following sentence." Priestley cor. " They appear, in this case, like wjly excrescences jutting out from the body." Blair cor. "And therefore the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the JEneid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, ought not to have been inserted in these celebrated poems." Id. " Ellipsis is an elegant sup- pression, or omission, of some word or "words, belonging to a sentence." Brit. Gram, and Buchanan cor. " The article A or AN >is not very proper in this construction." D. Blair cor. " Now suppose the articles had not been dropped from these passages." Bucke cor. "To havegiven a separate name to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking." Blair cor. "Ei, in general, has the same sound as long and slender a." Or better : "Ei generally has the sound of long or slender a." Murray cor. "When a conjunction is used with apparent redun- dance, the insertion of it is called Polysyndeton." Adam and Gould cor. " EACH, EVERY, EITHER, and NEITHER, denote the persons or things that make up a number, as taken separately or dis- tributively." M'Oulloch cor. " The principal sentence must be expressed by a verb in the indica- tive, imperative, or potential mood." -Clark cor. " Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to be urgent." Blair cor. "All sorts of subjects admit of explanatory comparisons." Id. et al. cor. "The present or imperfect participle denotes being, action, or passion, continued, and not per- fected." Kirkham cor. " What are verbs ? Those words which chiefly express what is 'said of things." Fowle cor. " Of all those arts in which the wise excel, The very masterpiece is writing-weU" Sheffield cor. " Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell, That art's chief masterpiece is writing-well." Pope cor. . LESSON XIV. OF THREE ERRORS. " From some words, the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether ; so that, in respect to the latter, they ha,ve become obsolete." Campbell cor. " Surely, never any other mortal was so overwhelmed with grief, as I am at this present moment." Sheridan cor. "All languages differ from one an other in their modes df inflection." Bullions cor. "The noun and the verb are the only indispensable parts of speech ; the one, to express the subject spoken of; and the other, the predicate, or what is affirmed of the subject." M'Culloch cor. " The words Italicized in the last three examples, perform the office of substantives." Murray cor. "A sen- tence so constructed is always a mark of carelessness in the writer." Blair cor. " Nothing is more hurtful to the grace or the vivacity of a period, than superfluous and dragging words at the conclusion." Id. " When its substantive is not expressed with it, but is referred to, being under- stood." Lowth cor. " Yet they always have substantives belonging to them, either expressed or understood." Id. " Because they define and limit the import of the common names, or general terms, to which they refer." Id. " Every new object surprises them, terrifies them, and makes a strong impression on their minds." Blair cor. ft His argument required a more full development in order to be distinctly apprehended, and to have its due force." Id. "Those participles which are derived from active-transitive verbs, will govern the objective case, as do the verbs from which they are derived." Emmons cor. " Where, in violation of the rule, the objective case whom fol- lows the verb, while the nominative /precedes it." Murray cor. "To use, after the same con- junction, both the indicative and the subjunctive mood, in the same sentencej and under the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety." Lowth, Murray, et al. cor. "A nice discern- ment of the import of words, and an accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary on these occasions." Murray cor. " The Greeks and Romans, the former especially, were, in truth, much more musical than we are ; their genius was more turned to take delight in the melody of speech." Blair cor. "In general, if the sense admits it early, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, the better ; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, and be quite disencumbered." Murray et al. cor. ; also Blair and Jamieson. " Thus we find it in both the Greek and the Latin tongue." Blair cor. "Several sentences, constructed in the same manner., and having the same number of members, should never be allowed to come in succession." Blair et al. cor. " I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors ; and these, with little variation, will be applicable to tropes of every kind." Blair cor. " By selecting words with a proper regard to their sounds, we may often imitate other sounds which we mean to describe." Blair and Mur. cor. " The disguise can scarcely be so perfect as to deceive." Blair cor. " The sense does not admit of any other pause, than one after the second syllable ' sit ; ' this there- fore must be the only pause made in the reading." Id. " Not that I believe North America to have beenflrsj peopled so lately asm the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration." Webster cor. " Money and commodities will always flow to that country in which they are most wanted, and in which they will command the most profit." Id. " That it contains no visible marks of certain articles which are of the utmost importance to a just delivery." Sheridan cor. "And Virtue, from her beauty, we call a fair and favourite maid." Mack. cor. "The definite article may relate to nouns of either number." Inf. S. Gram. cor. LESSON XV. OF MANY ERRORS. (1.) " Compound words are \, by Murray and others, improperly] included among the derivatives." Murray corrected. (2.) "The Apostrophe, placed above the line, thus ', is used to abbreviate or shorten words. But its chief use is, to denote the possessive case of nouns." Id. (3.) "The Hyphen, made thus -, connects the parts of compound words. It is also used when a word is di- vided." Id. (4.) "The Acute Accent, made thus ', denotes the syllable on which stress is laid, and sometimes also, that the vowel is short : as, 'Fancy.' The Grave Accent, made thus ', usually denotes, (when applied to English words,} that the stress is laid ivhere a voicel ends the syllable : as, ' Favour.' " Id. (5.) "The stress is laid on long vowels or syllables, and on short ones, indis- criminately. In order to distinguish the long or open vowels from the close or short ones, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave accent on the former, and the acute on the latter." Id. (6.) "The Diaeresis, thus made ", is placed over one of two contiguous vowels, to show that they are not a. diphthong." Id. (7.) "The Section, made thus , is sometimes used to mark the CHAP. XIII.] KEY I'O FALSE SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 971 subdivisions of a discourse or chapter." Id. (8.) "The Paragraph, made thus^, sometimes do- notes the beginning of a new subject, or of & passage not connected with the text preceding . This character is now seldom used [for such rritt<-n thus " ", murk the be- ginning anrl the end of what is quoted or transcribed from some speaker or author, in his own words. In type, they are inverted commas at the beginning, apostrophes at the conclusion." Id. (10.) "The Brace teas former/;/ used in poetry at the end of a triplet, or where three linos rhi/med to- gether in heroic terse ; it also x-rrrs to connect scrcral terms with one, wh> < eom/non to all, and thus to prevent a repetition of the common term " Id. (11.) "Sr/wv// asterisks put to- gether, generally denote the omission of some letters beton'iin/ imply a defect in the manuscript from ichirh the ' " Id. (12.) " The Ellipsis, m'/de thus , or thus ****, is used where some letters of a. word, or some words of a. verse, are omitted." Id. (13.) "The Obelisk, which is made thus f ; and the Parallels, irhi-h arc in'ide thus || ; and sometimes th<> letters of the alphabet ; and also tJie Arabic figures; are used as references to notes in the margin, or at the bottom, of the page." Id. ( 14. ) " The note of interrogation should not be employed, where it is only said that a ques- tion has been asked, and where the words are not used as a q'uestion ; as, ' The Cyprians asked me why I wept.' " Id. ct a '. cor. ( 15. ) " The note of interrogation is improper after mere expres- sions of admiration, or of any other emotion, though they may bear the form of questions." lid. (16.) " The parenthesis incloses something irhich is thrown into the body of a sentence, in an under tone ; und which affects neither the sense, nor the construction, of the main text." Loirth cor. (17.) " Simple members connected by a relative not wed restrictively , or by a conjunction that implies comparison, are for the most part divided by the comma." Id. (18.) " Simple members, or sentences, connected as terms of comparison, are for the most part separated by the comma." Murray et al. cor. (19.) " Simple sentences connected by a comparative particle, are for the most part dicided by the comma." Ritsscllcor. (20.) "Simple sentences or clauses connected to form a comparison, should generally be parted by the comma." Merchant cor. (21.) "The simple mem- bers of sentences that express contrast or comparison, should generally be divided by the comma." Jaudon cor. (22.) "The simple members of a compar' -<., when they are long, are separated by a comma." Cooper cor. (23.) " Simple sentences connected to form a comparison, or phrases placed in opposition, or contrast, are usually separated by the comma." Hiley and Bullions cor. (24.) " On whichever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, the second, the third, or the fourth, every change of it strikes out a different sense." Murray cor. (25.) " To say to those who do not understand sea phrases, ' We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would yi>;- them little or no information." Murray and Hiley cor. (26.) " Of those dissyl- lables which are sometimes nouns and sometimes verbs, 'it may be observed, that the verb is com- monly accented on the latter syllable, and the noun, on the former." Murray cor. (27.) "And this gives to our language an advantage over most others, in the poetical or rhetorical style." /'/. et al. cor. (28.) "And this gives to the English language an advantage over most others, in the poetical and the rhetorical style." Lowth cor. (29.) " The second and the third scholar may read the same sentence ; or as many may repeat the text, as are necessary to teach it perfectly to the whole class." Osborn cor. 30. " Bliss is the same, in subject, or in king, In who obtain defence, or who defend." Pope's Essay on Man, IV, 58. LESSON XVI. OF MANY ERRORS. The Japanese, the Tonquincse, and the Coreans, speak languages differing from one an other, and from that of the inhabitants of China; while all use the same written characters, and, by means of them, correspond intelligibly with one an other in writing, though ignorant of the lan- guage spoken by th/'ir correspondents : a plain proof, that the Chinese characters are like hiero- glyphics, and essentially independent of language." Jamieson cor.; also Blair. "The curved line, in ste-'id of remaining round, is changed to a square one, for the reason before mentioned." Knight <-or. " Every render should content himself with the use of those tones only, that he is habituated to in speech ; and should give to the irords no other emphasis, than what he would the same words, in discourse. [Or, perhaps the author meant : and should give to the 'emphnf/i- trordx no other intonation, tlmn what In- would girt; &c.] Thus, whatever he utters, will be delircred with ease, and will appear natural." Sheridan cor. "A stop, or pause, is a total cessation of sound, during a perceptible, and, in musical or poetical compositions, a measurable space of time." Id. " Pauses, or rests, in speaking or reading, are total cessations of the voice, during perceptible, and, in many cases, measurable spaces of time." Murray et al. cor. "Those itire nouns which denote small things of the kind named !/ their primitives, are called Diminutive Nouns: as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling ; from l;i:nb, hill, sack, goose." liir- >/. '* FPfaf 4r ft, that nonsense to often not beiivj perceived t>y the writer or by the reader ? " (\i>n]>h,U cor. "An Interjection is a word used to ex- press sudden emotion. >ns are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of discourse, and hnre no reference to the structure of those parts." M'( 'tdloch cor. "The ' "'nd this is nearly obsolete." Macintosh cor. " But the arrangement, government, -n and (jould cor. " Some words hare the same form in both numbers." Mur- ray ct (if. cor. " Some nouns have the same/o/vn in both numbers." Merchant eta/, cor. " Others have the same form in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine." Frost cor. "The following list denotes the consonant sounds, of which there are twenty-two." Or: "The following list denotes the twenty-two simple sounds of the consonants." Mur. et al. cor. "And is the ignor- ance of these peasants a reason for other persons to remain ignorant ; or does it render the sub- ject the less irorthy of our inquiry ? " Harris and Mur. cor. " He is one of the most correct, and perhaps he is the best, of our prose writers." Lowth cor. " The motions of a vortex and of a whirlwind are perfectly similar." Or: " The motion of a vortex and that of a, whirlwind are perfectly similar." Jamieson cor. " What I have been saying, throws light upon one important verse in the Bible ; which verse I should like to hear some one read." Abbott cor. "When there are any circumstances of time, place, and the like, by which the principal terms of our sen- tence must be limited or qualified." Blair, Jam. and Aliir. cor. " Interjections are words that express emotion, affection, or passion, and that imply suddenness." Or : " Interjections express emotion, affection, or passion, and imply suddenness." Bucke cor. " But the genitive expi the measure of things, is used in the plural number only." Adam and Gould cor. "The build- ings of the institution have been enlarged; and an expense has been incurred, which, with the increased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission." Murray cor. " These sentences are far less difficult than complex ones." S. S. Greene cor. " Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife They sober lived, nor ever wished to stray." Gray cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III. OF DEFINITIONS. (1.) "A definition is a short and lucid description of a thing, or species, according to its nature and properties." G. BROWN: Ree. Darid Blair cor. (2.) "Language, in general, signifies the ex- pression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, or written words, which are used as the signs of those ideas." Dr. llwjh Blair cor. (3.) "A word is one or more syllables used by common con- sent as the sign of an idea." Bullions cor. (4.) "A word is one or more syllables used as the si an of an idea, or of some manner of thought." Ifazen cor. (5.) " Words are articulate sounds, or their irriffi-'i I to convey ideas." Hiley cor. (6.) "A word is one or more syllables used (intf/i/ or in writing, to represent some idea." Aart cor. (7.) "A word is one or more syllable* used as the sign of an idea." N. l\ r . Clark cor. (8.) "A word is a letter or a combination of letters, a sound or a combination of sounds, used as the sign of an idea." Wells cor. (9.) " Words are articulate sounds, or their written signs, by which ideas are communicated." \\~ri-iht cor. (10.) " Words are certain articulate sounds, or their irritf -. used by common consent as signs of our ideas." Bui Horn, Loirt/i. Murray, et al. cor. (11.) " Words are sounds or written symbols used as signs of our ideas." H'. Allen cor. (12.) " Orthography literally means vritutff." Kirkham and Smith cor. [The word orthography stands for different things: as, 1. The art or practice of writing words with their proper letters; 2. That part of grammar which treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.] (13.) "A vowel is a letter which forms a jierfe,-t SOUTH! ir/im uttered alone." lust, p. 1G. (1418.) "Spelling is the art of ex- pressing words by their proper letters." (19.) "A syll ible is one or more letters, pronounced np'il'se of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word." Loirfh, Mt> cor. f'2').) " A svll.iM* ' v. uttered in one complete sound." , 'rum. nnd 'Hitch, cor. (LM. ) "A syllable is one'or more let fern n-nr, <, nting a distinct sound, or v uttered by a single impulse of the voice." 1\ ('22.) "A syllable is so much of a word as is sounded at once, irh.-th<-r if be the whole or a part." Bullions ei>r. (23.) -'A .syllable- is so many letter* . led at once ; anil is either a word, or a part of a word." (24.) "A diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syllable, as in bear and l Or: "A diphthong i* (/ "f two vowels in onesyllable." Brit. Cram. p. 1-5; Buchanan's, 3. (2-5.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels pttftopetAtr in one syllable; as, ea in f>cat, oi in p. boy." Brit. (Irani, and Bucban", , "An adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- noun, to describe the object named An adjective is a word to a noun or pronoun, to describe or define the o\-e ( mentioned" R. C. Smith cor. (31.) "An adjective is a word tchich, without assertion or time, serves to describe or define something ; 974 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART ill. as, a good man, every boy." Wilcox cor. (32.) "An adjective is a word added to a noun or pro- noun, and generally expresses a quality." Mur. and Lowth cor. (33.) "An adjective expresses the quality, not of the noun or pronoun to which it is applied, but of the person or thing spoken of; and it may generally be known by the sense which it thus makes in connexion with its noun ; as, 'A good man,' 'A genteel woman.' " Wright cor. (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, a' participle, an adjective, or an other adverb. 1 " Wilcox cor. (35.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb, to modify the sense, or de- note some circumstance." Bullions cor. (36.) "A substantive, or noun, is a name given to some object which the senses can perceive, the understanding comprehend, or the imagination enter- tain." Wright cor. (37 54.) "Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex." Brown's Inst. p. 35. (55 and 56.) "A case, in grammar, is the state or condition of a noun or pronoun, with respect to some other word in the sentence." Bullions and Kirkham cor. (57.) "Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words." Brown's Inst. p. 36. (58.) " Government is the power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification." Saiworn et al. cor. Sec List. p. 104. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which co'ntains only one assertion, command, or question." Sanborn et al. cor. (60.) " Declension means the putting of a noun or pronoun through the dif- ferent cases and numbers." Kirkham cor. Or better: "The declension of a word is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases." See Inst. p. 37. (61.) " Zeugma is a figure in which two or more words refer in common to an other which literally agrees with only one of them." Fisk cor. (62.) "An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect par- ticiple by assuming d or ed ; as, smite, smote, smitten." Inst. p. 75. (63.) "A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is.'" Inst. p. 46. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IV. OF COMPARISONS. "Our language abounds more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most other tongues." Or: "We abound more in vowel and diphthongal sounds, than most nations." Blair cor. "A line thus accented has a more spirited air, than one which takes the accent on any other syllable." Kames cor. " Homer introduces his deities with no greater ceremony, than [what] he uses towards mortals ; and Virgil has still less moderation than he." Id. " Which the more refined taste of later writers, whose genius was far inferior to theirs, would have taught them to avoid." Blair cor. "As a poetical composition, however, the Book of Job is not only equal to any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone." Id. " On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem which abounds with beauties of every kind, and which justly entitles its author to be equalled in fame with any poet." Id. " Most of the French writers compose in short sentences; though their style, in general, is not concise; commonly less so than that of most English writers, whose sentences are much longer." Id. " The principles of the Reformation were too deeply fixed in the prince's mind, to be easily eradicated." Hume cor. " Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity, more than sufficient to counterbalance the benefit derived from them." Leo Wolf cor. " The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire, than have the inhabitants of any other country." Gardiner cor. "When the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds that of the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent." Rush cor. " What then can be more obviously true, than that it should be made as just as we can make it." Dymond cor. " It was not likely th^at they would criminate themselves more than they could not avoid." Clarkson cor. "In their understandings they were the most acute people that have ever lived." Knapp cor. " The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was used formerly." John Ward cor. " In reality, its relative use is not; exactly like that of any other word." Felch cor. "Thus, in stead of having to purchase two books, the Grammar and the Exercises, the learner finds both in one, for a price at most not greater than that of the others." Alb. Argus cor. " They are not improperly regarded as pro- nouns, though they are less strictly such than the others." Bullions cor. " We have had, as will readily be believed, a much better opportunity of becoming conversant with the case, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had." Brit. Friend cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V. OF FALSITIES. " The long sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound of a, as heard in bar, and that of e, as heard in be." Churchill cor. " The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is of course an impropriety, and not a true ellipsis." Priestley cor. "Not every substantive, or noun, is necessarily of the third person." A. Murray cor. *'A noun is in the third person, when the subject is merely spoken of; and in the second person, when the subject is spoken to ; and in the first person, when it names the speaker as such." Nutting cor. " With us, no nouns are literally of the masculine or the feminine gender, except the names of male and female creatures." Dr. Blair cor. "The apostrophe is a little mark, either denoting the possessive case of nouns, or signifying that something is shortened: as, 'William's hat;' ' the learn'd,' for ' the learned."' Inf. S. Gram. cor. " When a word beginning with a vowel is coupled with one beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must not be repeated, if the two words be adjectives belonging to one and the same noun ; thus, ' Sir Matthew Hale was a noble and impartial judge ; ' ' Pope was an elegant and nervous writer." Maunder cor.* " IF and y are consonants, when they precede a vowel heard in the same syllable : in every other situation, they are vowels." Mur. et al. cor. See Inst. p. 16. "The is not varied before adjectives and substantives, let them begin as they will." Bucke cor. "A few English prepositions, and many which we have borrowed from other languages, are often prefixed to words, in such a manner as to coalesce with them, and to become parts of the compounds or derivatives thus formed." Lowth cor. " H, at the beginning of syllables not accented, is iveaker, but not entirely silent ; as in historian, widowhood." D. Blair cor. "Not every word that will make sense with to before it, is a verb ; for to may govern nouns, pronouns, * The article may be repeated in examples like these, without producing impropriety ; but then it will alter the construction of the adjectiveti, and render the expression more formal and emphatic, by suggesting a repetition of the noun." G. BROWX. ' CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. CRITICAL NOTE VI. 975 or participles." Kirkham cor. "Most verbs do, in reality, express actions ; but they are not in- trinsically the mere names of actions : these must of course be nouns" Id. "The nominative denotes trie actor or subject; and the verb, the action which is performed or received by this actor or subject.'' Id. "But, if only one creature or thing acts, more than one action may, "at the same instant, be done ; as, ' The girl not only holds her pen badly, but scowls, and distorts "her features, while she writes.' " Id. "Nor is each, of these verbs of the singular number because it denotes but one action which the girl performs, but because, the subject or nominative is of the singular num- ber, and the words muxt agree." Id. "And when I say, 'Two men walJc,' is it not equally ap- parent, that walk is plural because it agrees with men? " Id. " The subjunctive mood is formed by tvtintf the simple verb in a supjtositive sense, and without personal infection." Beck cor. " The A. Murray cor. " Here let it be observed again, that, strictly speaking, all finite verbs have numbers and persons ; and so have nearly all nouns and pronouns, even when they refer to irra- tional creatures and inanimate things." Barrett cor. " The noun denoting the person or per- sons addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent : except it be put in apposition with -r / " Or : " What nouns on- frequently uxtd one after an other? " .^in- born cor. (3.) "Words are derived from other u-nrdx in various ways." Idem ct al. cor. (4.) MM I'Ui-.rosmox is derived from the two Latin words prtc and pono, which signify before and plan-." M ">.) "lie was much laughed at for such conduct." Bullions cor. (6.) nominal ad.'n-fice belongs to some noun, expressed or understood." Ingcraull cor. (7.) " If he [Addison] fails in any thing, it is in strength anil precision ; tin >r,i,,t of' which renders his manner not altogether a proper model." Blair cor. (8.) " Indeed, it" Horace /.v deficient in any thing, his fault is this, of not being sufficiently attentive ti juncture, <>///// connexion of parts." Id. ( ( J.) "The pupil is now >u|>;>o>ed to be acquainted with the ten parts of speech, and their most usual modifications." Taylor cor. (10.) "I could see, feel, taste, and smell the rose." <>r. (11.) "The/ is preceded by a vowel, it remains un- < an additional syllable; us, coy, coyly."' lid. (17.) " Hut y preceded by a vowel, hanged, in almost all in9\ ,." K/r/.hamcor. (18.) " Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound." \\'rightcor. ' (19.) "The neuter pronoun it maybe employed . 976 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART ITT. to introduce a nominative of any person, number, or gender ; as, 'It is he ; ' 'It is she ; ' ' It is they ; ' 'It is the land.' ' Buckecor. (20 and 21.) "It is, and it icas, are always singular ; butthey may introduce words of & plural construction: as, 'It was the heretics that first began to rail.' SMOLLETT." Merchant cor.; also Priestley et al. (22.) "Wand y, as consonants, have each of them one sound." Town cor. (23.) " The word as is frequently a relative pronoun." Bucke cor. (24.) "From a series of clauses, the conjunction may sometimes be omitted with propriety." Mer- chant cor. (25.) " If, however, the two members are very closely connected, the comma is un- necessary ; as, ' Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.' " Murray etal. cor. (2627.) "The mind has difficulty in taking effectually, in quick succession, so many different views of the same object." Blair cor.; also Mur. (28.) "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of definitives, which may either accompany their nouns, or represent them understood." Kirkham cor. (29.) "When the nominative or antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb or pronoun must agree with it in the plural number." Id. et al. cor. (30 34.) "A noun or a pro- noun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Brown's Inst. p. 176. (35.) " Here the boy is represented as acting : the word boy is therefore in the nominative case." Kirkham cor. (36.) "Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs." Cooper cor. (37.) "Names of males are masculine. Names of females are feminine." Adam's Gram. -p. 10. (38.) "' To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's.' Here to-day's and yesterday's are substantives." Murray et al. cor. (39.) " In this example, to-day's and yesterday's are nouns in the possessive case." Kirkham cor. (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to find by chance an elephant feeding at large in the open fields," Kames cor. (41.) " If we were to contrive a new language, %ve might make any articulate sound the sign of any ideaj apart from previous usage, there would be no impropriety in calling oxen mew, or rational beings oxen." Murray cor. (42.) "All the parts of a sentence should form a consistent whole." Id. et al. cor. (43.) " Full through his neck the weighty falchion sped, Along the pavement roll'd the culprit's head." Pope cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VII. OF SELF-CONTRADICTION. (1.) " Though ' The king, with the lords and commons,' must have a singular rather than a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus : ' The king, the lords, and the commons, form an excellent constitution.' " Mur. and Ing. cor. (2 3.) "L has a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. This letter is sometimes silent ; as in half, talk, psalm." Mur. and Fisk cor.; also Kirkham. (4.) "The words means and amends, though regularly derived from the singulars mean and amend, are not now, even by polite writers, restricted to the plural number. Our most distinguished modern authors often say, ' by this means,' as well as, ' by these means.' " Wrightcor. (5.) "A friend exaggerates a m'an's virtues; an enemy, his crimes." Mur. cor. (6.) "The auxiliary have, or any form o/'the perfect tense, belongs not properly to the subjunctive mood. We suppose past facts by the indicative ; as, If I have loved, If thou hast loved, &c." Merchant cor. (7.) " There is also an impropriety \nusing both the indicative and the subjunctive mood, with the same conjunction ; as, 'If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray,' &c. [This is Merchant's perversion of the text. It should be, and one of them go astray ; ' or, ' be gone astray,' as in Matt, xviii, 12.] " Id. (8.) " The rising series of contrasts conveys transcend- ent dignity and energy to the conclusion." Jamieson cor. (9.) "A groan or a shriek is instantly understood, as a language extorted by distress, a natural language which conveys a meaning that words are not adequate to express. A groan or a shriek speaks to the ear with a far more thrilling effect than words ; yet even this natural language of distress may be counterfeited by art." Dr. Porter cor. (10.) "If these words [book and pen] cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality, then they cannot be ' these icords ; " and then, also, one and one cannot be two." James Brown cor. (11.) " Nor can the real pen and the real book be added or counted to- gether in words, in such a manner as will not constitute plurality in grammar." Id. (12.) "Our is a personal pronoun, of the possessive case. Murray does not decline it." Mur. cor. (13.) "This and that, and their plurals these and those, are often opposed to each other in a sentence. When this or that is used alone, i. e., without contrast, this is applied to what is present or near; that, to what is absent or distant." Buchanan cor. (14.) "Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their imperfect participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its variations." "Be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before either the perfect or the imperfect participle of an other verb ; but, in every other situation, it is a principal verb." Kirkham cor. (15.) "A verb in the imperative mood is almost always of the second person." " The verbs, according to a foreign idiom, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person." Id. (16.) "A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is." "Pronouns of the fh'st person do not disagree in person with the nouns they represent." Id. (17-) " Nouns have three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." "Per- sonal pronouns have, like nouns, three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective." Beck cor. (18.) " In many instances the preposition suffers a change and becomes an adverb by its mere application." Murray cor. (19.) " Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, ashes, Among cernim cor. that are commonly transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object." Bullions cor. (23.) " When first young Maro, in his boundless mind, A work t' outlast imperial Rome design'd." Pope cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII. OF SENSELESS JUMBUNG. "There are two numbers, called the singular and the plural, which distinguish nouns as signify- ing either one thing, or many of the same kind." Blair cor. " Here James Monroe is addressed , CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. CRITICAL NOTE IX. 977 he is spoken to ; tic name is therefore a noun of the second person." Mack cor. " The number and pvrson of an Enc/liyh verb can seldom be ascertained until its nominative is known." Em- motts cor. "A noun of multitude, or a siHr/iilar noun signifying many, may have a verb or a pro- noun agreeing with it in either number ; yet not without regard to the import of theow, as con- veying the idea of unity or plurality." Ltnrth ft nl. >r. " To form the present tense and the past imperfect of our active or neuter rerbs, the auxiliary do, and its preterit did, are sometimes used: as, I do now love ; I did then love." Luicth cor. "If these be perfectly committed to memory, tin- /earner \\ ill be able to take twenty lines for his second lesson, and the task may be increased each day." Osborn cor. "Ch /* generally sounded in the same manner as if it "were. teJt : as in Chearlf9^chwrch t rds may be classified under ten general heads : thesorts, or chief classes, of trords, are usually termed the ten parts of speech." Nutting cor. " ' Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' Nobility is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case ; and is governed by of." Kirk ham cor. "Gh is either silent, as in plough, or hax the sound of /', as in laugh." Town cor. " Many nations were destroyed, and as many languages or dialects were lost and blotted out from the general catalogue.'' Chazotte cor. " Some languages contain a greater number of moods than others, and each exhibits its own as forms peculiar to itself." Murray cor. "A SIMILE is a simple and express comparison ; and is generally introduced by like, as, or so." Id. See Inst. p. 233. " The word tchat is sometimes improperly used for the conjunction that." Priestley, Murray, et al. cor. "Brown makes no ado in condemning the absurd principles of preceding works, in relation to the gender of pro- nouns." I'circf ear. " The nominative usually precedes the verb, and denotes the agent of the action." Beck cor. "Primitive trords are those which are not formed from other \cords more simple." IVriyht cor. "In monosyllables, the single vowel t always preserves its long sound before a single consonant with e final ; as in thine, strive: except in yicc and lice, which are short ; and in shire, which has the sound of long e." Murray et al. cor. " But the person or tiling thrrf /> merely spoken of, being frequently absent, and perhaps in many respects unknown to the -. it is thought mfirr necessary, that the third person should be marked by a distinction of gender." Loirth, Mur. et al. cor. "Both rowels of every diphthonc/ tcrre, doubtless, originally Though in many instances they are not so at present, (he combinations in trhich one only is heard, still retain the name of diphthongs, beinr/ distinr/uixhed from others by the term itn- trroper." Mur. et al. cor. tl Moods are dijfercnt forms of the verb, each of which expresses the "being, action, or passion, in SO/HP p'irfiritfar manner." last. p. 33; A. Mur. cor. " The word THAT is a demonstrative adjcrtirc, irhaierer it is followed by a noun to which it refers." L. Mur. cor. "The guilty soul by Jesus trash' d, Is future glory's deathless heir." Fairjield cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX. OF WORDS NEEDLESS. "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writ- ing." Sunburn eor. "And hence we infer, that there is no dictator here but use." Jamieson " Whence little is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation." Town cor. " The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with confidence." Merchant cor. " Shalt thou build me a house to dwell in ? " Or : " Shalt thou build a house for me to dwell in?" Bihlc cr.r. "The hmi of different impi>rt." B!, >n< .*ir. "Wiite twenty short sentences containing ad- jectives." A'ibutt cor. "This general tendency of the language srems to have given oc.-a.^iun to a very great corruption." Churchill's (irain'. p. 113. "The second requisite of a perfect sen- tence l unity." Murray eor. " It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting their names." Id. " The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six." Id. et al. cor. " He who employs 71 978 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design ; he cannot err from inadvertence, as he may with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions." Jamieson cor. " The vocative case, in some grammars, is wholly omitted ; why, if we must have cases, I could never understand." Bucke ' cor. "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb have ; passive verbs, with the auxiliary am or be." Id. " What then may AXD be called ? A conjunction." Smith cor. " Have they ascertained who gave the information ? " Bullions cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X. OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS. "All words signifying concrete qualities of things, are called adnouns, or adjectives." D. Blair cor. " The macron [~] signifies a long or accented syllable, and the breve [ j indicates a short or unaccented syllable." Id. "Whose duty it is, to help young ministers." Friends cor. "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and what follows." Phil. Mu. cor. " The work is not completed, but it soon will be." R. C. Smith cor. " Of whom hast thou been afraid, or whom God that made them." Bucke cor. " The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining them, or from introducing them on unsuitable occasions." Mur. cor. " The preposition in is set before the names of countries, cities, and large towns ; as, ' He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' 'But, before the names of villages, single houses, or for- eign cities, at is used ; as, ' He lives at Hackney.' " Id. et al. cor. " And, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor is any image formed." Kamcs cor. " Intrinsic beauty and relative beauty must be handled separately." Id. " He should be on his guard not to do them injustice by disguising them or placing them in a false light." Blair cor. " In perusing that work, we are frequently interrupted by the author's unnatural thoughts." Murray cor. " To this point have tended all the rules which I have/s given." Blair cor. " To this point have tended all the rules which havejws^ been given." Murray cor. " Language, as written, or as oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear." Journal cor. " He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and to prove are very different." Walpole cor. " They crowded around the door so as to prevent others from going out." Abbott cor. "A ic/ord denoting one person or thing, is of the singular number; a word denoting more than one person or thing, is of the plural number." J. Flint cor. " Nouns, according to the sense or relation in which they are used, are in the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case: thus, Nom. man, Poss. man's, Obj. man." D. Blair cor. "Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, and to which they belong." Sanborn cor. "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and a verb." Abbott cor. the north STANDS or STANDETH, are of the third person singular." Kirkham cor. " I grew immediately roguish and pleasant, to a high degree, in the same strain." Sivift cor. "An Anapest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last one accented." Blair cor. ; also Kirkham et al. ; also Mur. et al. " But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and words written." Or: "But hearing and vision do not differ more than spoken words and written." Wilson cor. " They are considered by some authors to be prepositions." Cooper cor. " When those powers have been deluded and have gone astray." Phil. Mu. cor. " They will understand this, and icill like it." Abbott cor. "They had been expelled from their native country liomagna." Hunt cor. "Future time is expressed in two different ways." Adam and Gould cor. " Such as the borrow- ing of some noted event from history." Kamcs cor. " Every finite verb must agree with its nom- inative in number and person." Bucke cor. " We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of any handsome thing we see." Murray cor. " Under this head, I shall consider every thing that is necessary to a good delivery." Sheridan cor. "A good ear is the gift of nature ; it may be much improved, but it cannot be acquired, by art." Murray cor. " ' Truth ' is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case." Bullions cor. by Brown's Form. (t Possess is a regular active-transitive verb, found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number." Id. " 'Fear' is a common noun, of the third person, singular ." Abbott cor. " And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to and the south pole." Harris cor. " WALKS or WALKETH, RIDES or RIDETH, and being, been ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number : and agrees with its nominative fear ; according to the Rule which says, 'Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number.' Because the meaning is~~'fear is.' " Id. "Ae in the word Gaelic, has the sound of long a." Wells cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI. OP LITERARY BLUNDERS. "Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix or preposition a and nouns." Kirkham cor. " Participles are so called, because they participate or partake the properties of verbs and of adjectives or nouns. The Latin vror&participium, which signifies a participle, is derived from par- 'tisl.pn, to partake." Merchant cor. " The possessive precedes an other noun, and is known by the sign 's, or by this ', the apostrophe only." Beck cor. " Reciprocal pronouns, or compound person- al pronouns, are formed by adding self or selves to the simple possessives of the first and second per- scns, and to the objectives of the third person; as, myself, yourselves, Tiimself, themselves." Id. M The word SELF, and its plural SELVES, when used separately as names, must be considered nouns ; but when joined to the simple pronouns, they arc not nouns, but parts of the compound personal pro- nouns. "Wright cor. " The Spondee, ' rolls round,' expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course." Webster and Frazee cor. "Active -transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, 4 John learned his lesson.' " Frazee cor. " Prosody primarily signified accent, or the modulation of the voice; and, as the name implies, related to poetry, or song." Hendrickcor. " On such a principle of forming them, there would be as many modds as verbs ; and, in stead of four moods, CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. CRITICAL NOTE XII. 9T9 we should have four thousand three hundred, which is the number of verbs in the English lan- guage, according to Lowth."* IluUock cur. "The phrases, 'To let out blood,' ' To go a hunt- ing,' are not elliptical; for out is needless, and a is a preposition, governing hunting." Bullions cor. " In Rhyme, the last syllable of every line corresponds in sound in'th that of some Other line pen which John made,' what word expresses the obju-t of M.VDK ? " Id. " ' That we fall into no sin : ' no is a definitive or pronominal adjective, not compared, and relates to sin." D. Blair cor. " ' That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance :' all is a pronominal adjective, not compared, and relates to doings." Id. " ' Let him be made to study.' H'/iy '.s the sign to ex- pressed before study f Because be made is passive; and passive verbs do not take the infinitive after them without the preposition to." Sanbom cur. "The following verbs have both the pre- terit tense and the perfect partii-iple like tin- present : viz. , Cast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c." Buchanan cor. "The agreement which any word has with an other in person, r, gender, or case, is called COXCOKD ; and the power which one word has over an t>r. respect to ruling its case, mood, or form, is called GOVKHNMI.NT." Bucke car. " The word ticks tells what the watch is doing." Sanborn cor. "T/ie Breve (") marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Macron ("), a long one." Bullions and Lcnnie cor. " ' Charles, you, by your diligence, are past.' " Kirkham cor. "A simple sentence usually has in it but one nominative, and b'ut one finite verb." Folkcr cor. "An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the per- fect participle by assuming d or ed." Browns Inst. p. 75. " But, when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense, a comma is sometimes inserted before the relative ; as, ' There is no c/i the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." Murray's Grim. p. 273. Or : " But, when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense, no comma is usually inserted before the relative ; as, chich can supply the place of virtue.' " Kirkham cor. " Two There is in the female sex no charm irhich can supply capitals vscd in this way, denote different words; but one repented, marks the plural number: as, L. D. Ley is Doctor ; LL. D. Legum Doctor." Gould cor. " Was any person present besides the mercer? Yes; his clerk." Murray cor. "The word adjective comes from the Latin adjec- tlvum : and this, fromarf, to, andjacio, I cast." Kirkham cor. " Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by icldch]the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in n , T 1 f _*.! _1 \-A 31 _../.*. 1 - 1 1 . 1 -1 . f low the same nominative, an auxiliary that is common to them both or all, is usually expressed to the first, and understood to the rest : as, ' He has gone and left me ; ' that is, ' He has gone and ////* left rue.' " Comly cor. "When I use the word pillar to aenote a column that supports an edifice, I employ it literally." Hiley cor. "In poetry, the conjunction nor is often used for neither; as, 'A stately superstructure, that nor wind, Nor wave, nor shock of falling years, couldmove.' PoLLOK." Id. UNDER CRITICAL NOTB XII. OF PERVERSIONS. _._ the beginning search just and true me, Lord, Lo: yet for your sakes he became poor, flood." SCOTT'S BIBLE: Job, xxii, 16. " Take my yoke upon -Mutt. xi, 29. " I go to prepare a place for you." John, xiv, 2 >.>u hath ne quickened, who .-> and sim>. . 1. "Go, flee thee away into the land of Ju* dah"- 1-; LowW* Gram. p.H. Or: " Go, flee away into the land of Jufi\i>',.' 'Hart Hitherto shalt thou come, ' .fob, xxxviii, 11. " The day is thine, the night also is thine." Psal. Ixxiv, 16. tl T . worketh patience^; and patience, experience; and experience, hope." /I'-w/i.v, v, 4. " J' dust return to the earth as it teas; and the unto Uod who gave^it." /. . It the last it bite; ud stingeth like an adder. Thine i yes sh.< n, and thine /n.trt shall utter perverse things : Yea, thou shall be as he that lieth down in the midst of the sea." xxiii, 32, 33, 34. " The memory of the just is blessed: but the name of the wicked shall rot." Proc. x, 7. " He that is slow to anger, is bctU-r than tu :nd he that ruleth his spirit, than he that takcth a city."- . '.',1. "For whom the Lord Ion th he correcteth ; even as a father the son in whom he delighteth." J'rov. iii, 12. " : 'uturclcuse is that ichich ex- presses what tfiY/take place hereafter." Broicn's List, nf E. Gram. p. 54. "Teach me to feel mother's woe, To hide thefault I sec."- ; 'raycr. " Surely thou art OIK- of them ; for thou art a Galilean." Mark, > ircly thou also art one of them ; for thy speech be- wrayetb, thee." Mutt, xxvi, "3. " btrait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto " The ffhn^c number of verbs in the English language , regular and irregular, rimple and compounded, Uken , ii about 4&U.'' Lowth'i G>m. j>. Wj Murray's, 12ao, p. fcS ; 8vo,p.'100; ti aL IT III. lah, vi, 980 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. life." Matt, vii, 14. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayest be their king." Nehemiah, vi, 6. " There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayest be feared." Psal. cxxx, 4. "But yester- day, the word of Ccesar might Have stood against the world." Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 250. drudging goblin vitness glori- blessedmar- , _ thou fallst a bless- ed martyr." K. cor. '* I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the Moray's silver star, Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake comes winding far ! " Scott's Lady of the Lake, p. 162. " Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." Pope, on Man, Ep. i, 1. 185. "And he that is learning to arrange his sentences with accuracy and order, is learning, at the same time, to think with accu- racy and order." Blair's Lect. p. 120. " We then, as workers together with him, beseech you also that ye receive not the grace of God in vain." 2 Cor. vi, 1. "And on the boundless of thy good- ness calls." Young's Last Day, B. ii, 1. 320. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men ; Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own." Cowper's Task, B. vi, 1. 90. " O ! let me listen to the words of life ! " Thomson's Paraphrase on Matt. vi. " Save that, from rnder ivy-mantled tower," &c. Gray's Elegy, 1. 9. "Weighs the men's wits against the Lady's ir." Pope's Rape of the Lock, Canto v, 1. 72. "Till the publication of Dr. Lowth's small In- troduction, the grammatical study of our language formed no part of the ordinary method of in- struction." Hiley's Preface, p. vi. " Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee." Gen. xiii, 8. " What ! canst thou not forbear me half an hour ? " Shakspeare. " Till then who knew the force of those dire arms ? " Milton. " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; Alike fantastic, if too new or old : Be not the first by whom the new are tried Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." Pope, on Criticism, 1. 333. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII. OF AWKWARDNESS. " They slew Varus, whom I mentioned before." Murray cor. " Maria rejected Valerius, whom she had rejected before." Or: "Maria rejected Valerius a second time." Id. "In the English language, nouns have but two different terminations for cases." Churchill's Gram. p. '64. " Socrates and Plato were the wisest men, and the most eminent philosophers in Greece." Buchanan's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "Whether more than one were concerned in the business, does not yet appear." Or: "How many were concerned in the business, does not yet appear." Murray cor. "And that, consequently, the verb or pronoun agreeing with it, can never with propriety be used in the plural number." Id. et al. cor. "A second help may be, frequent and free converse with others of your own sex who are like minded." Wes- ley cor. " Four of the semivowels, namely, I, m, n, and r, are termed LIQUIDS, on account of the fluency of their sounds." See Brown's Inst. p. 16. " Some conjunctions are used in pairs, so that one answers to an other, as its regular correspondent." Lowth et al. cor. " The 'ThesAesof Italy/ SHAK." Churchill cor. "The separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, is [censured by some writers, as being] improper." C. Adams cor. " The word WHOSE, according to some critics, should be restricted to persons ; but good writers still occasion- ally use it with reference to things." Priestley et al. cor. " New and surpassing wonders present themselves to our view." Sherlock cor. "The degrees of comparison are often inaccurately ap- plied and construed." Alger's Murray. Or : " Passages are often found in which the degrees of comparison have not an accurate construction." Campbell cor. ; also Murray. " The sign of posses- give rogative form, ice must express it thus." Or: "This sentence, to have the interrogative form, should be expressed thus." Murray cor. " Never employ words that are susceptible of a sense different from that which you intend to convey." Hilcy cor. " Sixty pages are occupied in ex- tion; as, ' James is building the house.' Often, however, it takes a passive meaning; as, 'The analyze it, by such qi has been paid to this explanation q/"what it means." G. "BROWN : Hiley cor. UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIV. OF IGNORANCE. " What is a verb f It is a word which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." Or thus : " What is an assertorf Ans. ' One who affirms positively ; an affirmer, supporter, or vindicator ' WEBSTER'S DICT." Peirce cor. " Virgil wrote the Mneid." Kirkham cor. " Which, to a super- cilious or inconsiderate native of Japan, would seem very idle and impertinent." Locke cor. " Will not a look of disdain cast upon you throw you into a ferment f" Say cor. " Though only the conjunction if 'is here set before the verb, there are several others, (as that, though, lest, un- less, except,) which may be used with the subjunctive mood." Murray cor. "When proper names have an article before them, they are used as common names." Id. et al. cor. " When a CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. VARIOUS RULES. 981 proper noun has an article before it, it is used as a common noun." Merchant cor. " Seeming to rob the death-field of its terrors." Id. " For the same reason, we might, without any detri- ment to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular." Kirkham cor. " It n-mot-rs all possibility of being misunderstood." Abbott cor. "Approximation to per- fection is all that we can expect." Id. "I have often joined in singing with musicians at Nor- wich." Gardiner <-,,,-. "\Vhennotstandingin regular prosaic order." Or: "in the regular order of prose." Pelrce cor. "Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire." Kirkham cor. " Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, prejixiny the mouth-clos- ing M to most of their words ; as, ' M-yes,' for ' Yes.' " Gardiner cor. " That noted close of his f esse videatttr,' exposed him to censure among his etmttmfOfontf n Blair cor. "A man's oicn is what he has, or possesses by right ; the word own being a past participle of the verb to owe, which formerly signified to have or possess." Kirkham cor. "As requires so ; expressing a com- parison of manner : as, 'As one dieth, so dieth the other.' " Mur. et al. cor. " To obey our pa- rents, is an obvious duty." Parker and Fox cor. "Almost all the political papers of the kingdom Lave touched upon these things." \Vri sumetinn uls the meaning of a personal pro- noun and a copulative conjunction." Id. " Personal pronouns, being used to supply th< of nouns, :i: ctup'.'iyrd in the same clauses with the nouns which they represent." Id. and Smith Idom any occasion for a substitute where the principal word is it." Mur. cor. " We hardly consider little children as persons, because the trrm person gives us the idea of reason, or inttllir/en ."-- af. cor. "The occasions for exerting these two qualities are different."- '. cor. " I'll tell you with whom time ambles withal, icith whom time trots withal, with whom time gallops withal, and with whom he stands still withal. I pray thee, with whom doth he trot withal ? "Buchanan's Gram. p. 122. || By great- ness, I mean, not the bulk of any single object onh/, but the largeness of a whole view. : cor. "The question may then be put, What more does he than mean ? " Blair cor. "The question might be put, What more does he than mean ? "Id. " He is surprised to find himself at o great a distance from the object with which heart out." Id. ; also Murray cor. "Few rules can be given which will hold f/ood in all cases." Lowth and Mur .tion js the arrangement of icordu into metrical lines according to (he laws of verse." Johnsoncor. " Versifi- cation is the arrangement of icords into rhyth of some />" ' ' ', so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation ofsyUu'tU's il/Jfcrin;/ inquanttty" Mn> friend Charlotte, to whom no one imputed blaine, w'as too prompt in her own vindicat. Mu,;-ty cur. Mr. 1'tit's joining q/"the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one' which at once presents itself." I" . "To the framing q/such a sound constitution of mind." Lady cor. " ' I beseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, ' that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called,' " See Eph. 982 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART iv, 1. " So as to prevent it from being equal to that." Booth cor. "When speaking of an ac- tion as being performed." Or : " When speaking of the performance of an action" Id. "And, in all questions of actions being so performed, cst is added for the second person.' Id. " No account can be given of this, but that custom has blinded their eyes." Or: " No other account can be given of this, than that custom has blinded their eyes." Dymond cor. "Design, or chance, makes others wive ; But nature did this match contrive." Waller cor. LESSON II. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. " I suppose each of you thinks it is his own nail." Abbott cor. " They are useless, because they are apparently based upon this supposition." Id. " The form, or manner, in which this plan may be adopted, is various." Id. "The making of intellectual effort, and the acquiring of knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind." Id. "This will do more than the best lecture that ever was delivered." Id. "The doing of easy things is generally dull work." Id. " Such are the tone and manner of some teachers."' Id. " Well, the fault is, that someone was disorderly at prayer time." Id. " Do you remember to have spoken on this subject in school ? " Id. " The course above recommended, is not the trying of lax and inefficient measures." Id. " Our com- munity agree that there is a God." Id. " It prevents them from being interested in what is said." Id. " We will also suppose that I call an other boy to me, whom I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian." /(/. " Five minutes' notice is given by the bell." Id. " The Annals of Edu- cation give notice of it." Or : " The work entitled 'Annals of Education ' gives notice of it." Id. "Teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful." Id. "She thought a half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties." Id. " The difference between an honest and a hypocritical confession." Id. " There is no point of attainment at which we must stop." Id. " Now six hours' service is as much as is expected of teachers." Id. " How many are seven times nine ? " Id. " Then the reckoning proceeds till it comes to ten hundred." Frost cor. " Your success will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that you be diligent." Id. "Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense : If I be known, If thou be known, If he be known ; " &c. Id. " If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved ; " &c. Fr. right. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. Interjections are so called because they are generally thrown in between the parts of dis- course, without any reference to the structure of those parts." Frost cor. " The Cardinal numbers are those which simply tell how many ; as, one, two, three." Id. " More than one organ 'are con- cerned in the utterance of almost every consonant." Or thus : "More organs than one are con- cerned in the utterance of almost any consonant." Id. " To extract from them all the terms which we use in our divisions and subdivisions of the art." Holmes cor. "And there were written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe." Bible cor. " If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of John." Whiston's Jos. cor. " The preposition to, signifying in order to, was anciently preceded by for ; as, ' What went ye out for to see?'" Murray's' Gram. p. 184. "This makes the proper perfect tense, which, in English, is always expressed by the auxiliary verb have ; as, ' I have written.' " Dr. Blair cor. " Indeed, in the formation of charac- ter, personal exertion is the first, the second, and the third virtue." Sanders cor. " The reduc- ing of them to the condition of the beasts that perish." Dymond cor. " Yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is the same, or that both are divine." Or : " Yet this affords no reason to aver that the nature of the gift is not the same, or that both are not divine." Id. " If God has made known his will." Id. " If Christ has prohibited them, nothing else can prove them right." Id. "That the taking of them is wrong, every man who simply consults his own heart, will know." Id. "From these evils the world would be spared, if one did not write." Id. " It is in a great degree our o\vnfault." Id. " It is worthy of observation, that lesson-learning is nearlv excluded." Id. " Who spares the aggressor's life even to the endangering of his own." Id. " Who advocates the taking o/'the life of an aggressor." Id. "And thence up to the inten- tionally and voluntarily fradulent." Id. "And the contention was so sharp between them, that they departed asunder one from the other." SCOTT'S, FRIENDS', ALGER'S, BRUCE'S BIBLE, AND OTHERS : Acts, xv, 39. " Here the man is John, and John is the man ; so the words are imagin- ation and .fancy ; but THE imagination and THE fancy are not words : they are intellectual powers." Rev. M. Harrison cor. " The article, which is here so emphatic in the Greek, is quite forgotten in our translation." Id. "We have no fewer than twenty-four pronouns." Id. "It will admit of a pronoun joined to it." Id. " From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate one with an _6ther." Id. " It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducting of terms derived from the classical languages." Id. " The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that pleases him." Or : " any impression that he chooses." Id. "The proportion of names ending in SON preponderates greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North." Id. "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English language and the Danish." Id. "A century from the time when (or at which] Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet." Id. " I saw the colours waving in the wind, And them within, to mischief how combin'd." Bunyancor. LESSON III. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. "A ship excepted : of which we say, ( S7te sails well.' " Jonson cor. " Honesty is reckoned of ittle worth." Lily cor. " Learn to esteem life as you ought." Dodsley cor. "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy tou'c-heth us less sensibly than the smallest sorrow " Id. "Youth is no apology forfricolousncss." Whiting cor. " The porch was of the same width as the temple " Mi/man cor. " The other tribes contributed neither to his rise nor to his downfall." Id. " His whole religion, with all its laws, would have been shaken to its foundation." Id. " The English has most commonly been neglected, and children have CHAP. XIII.] KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. VARIOUS RULES. 983 been taught only in the Latin syntax." J. M r urd ror. " Thev are not noticed in the notes." Id, " He walks in righteousness, doing what he would hare others do to him." Fisher cor. " They stand indi'jtfndent of the rest of the sentence." Iw/i rin'l r>-. " My uncle and his son were in, town yesterday." /. "She and her sisters are well." Id. " His purse, with its con- tents, ira.t abstracted from his pocket." Id. " The great constitutional feature of this institution anything or things before named; and THAT may represent any person or persons, thing or things, that have been speaking, spoken to, or spoken of." 7V/7- y ear. "A certain number of syllables occurring in a jwrtirulcr order, form a foot. ' ' are so called, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along." Mur. r. "" The lowing herd windy slowly o'er the lea." Elegy i ! 2. " Iambic verses have their second, fourth, and other even syllables accented." Ruinous cor. " Contractions that are not allowable in prose, are often made in poetry." Id. " Yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd." Milton. " It never presents to his mind more than one new subject at the same time." Felton cor. "An abstract nmm is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance." Brown's Inxt . of E. Gram. p. 32. "A noun is of the first person when // denotes the sneaker" Ftlton cor. " Which of the two brothers is a graduate* " JJallock cor. " I am a linen-draper bold, As all the world doth know." -(' t 'Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!" Pope. "This do; take to you censers, thou, Korah, and all thy company." Bible cor. " There are three participles ; the imperfect, the perfect, and tlir /./ . reading, read, having read. Transitive verbs have an active ttnd passice parti- ciple : that is, their form for the perfect is sometimes active, and sometimes passive; as, read, or loved. ' ' Greene cor. " Ifrjv'n, in my connubial hour decree My spouse this man, or such a man as he." Pope cor. LESSON IV. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. " The past tenses (of Hiley's subjunctive mood) represent conditional past facts or events, of which the speaker is uncertain." Jlilcy cor. " Care also should be taken that'they be not intro- duced too abundantly." Id. " Till they have become familiar to the mind." Or: "Till they become familiar to the mind." Id. " When once a particular arrtngementa&d phraseology have become familiar to the mind." Id. " I have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions that I could devise." Id. " When you are conversant with the Rules of Grammar, you will be qualified to commence the study of Stylo." LI. *'('!>, 'fur, /, /, .// >/, has a soft sound, like .v." L. Murray ci>r. "(/ before e, i, or i/, is otnentOy soft; M -'if. " C before , t, or y. aTtpoy* sounds soft, like *. Hileycor. " *soft before r, i, or // ; as in (jenius, < -/< ,td, is both defec- ((1 redundant." //. " Kn: - force used in the e ' . /,. Murray. "So s'imple a question as, Do you ride to t >:: .Me of as many a* four different acceptations, the sense varying as the emphasis is differently placed." lid. " Thus, bravely, for ' in a brave manner,' is derived from //,-.. " In thin main;' different parts of speech are often formed from one root by IU-MIIS of different "//". s." //ours." //. " When words are connected in pairs, there is i/\ual!t/ a ma after each pair." Hi'- y, Bullions, and Lennie cor. " Whcii words arc connected in pairs. but comma a 984 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO SYNTAX. [PART III. the pairs should be marked by the comma." Farnum cor. " His book entitled, 'Studies of Na- ture,' is deservedly a popular work." Biog. Diet. " Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown." GRAY. " 'Youth,' here, is in the nominative case, (the verb ' rests' being, in this instance, transitive,) and is the subject of the sentence. The meaning is, 'A youth here rests his head,' &c." Hart cor. " The ?ronoun 7, as well as the interjection O, should be written with a capital." Or : " The pronoun , and the interjection O, should be written with capitals." Weld cor. " The pronoun / should always be written with a capital." Id. " He went from London to York." Id. "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb, to modify its meaning." Id. (See Lesson 1st under the General Rule.) " SINGULAR signifies, ' expressing only one ' denoting but one person or thing. PLURAL, (Latin, pluralis, fromplus, more,) signifies, ' expressing more than one.' " Weldcor. " When the present ends in e, d only is added to form the imperfect tense and the perfect participle of regular verbs." Id. " Synceresisis the contraction of two syllables into one ; as, seest for see'st, drowned for droivn-ed." Id. (See Brown's Inst. p. 230.) "Words ending in ee are often inflected by mere consonants, and without receiving an additional syllable beginning with e : as, see, seest. sees ; agree, agreed, agrees." Weld cor. "In monosyllables, final/, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, is doubled ; as in staff", mill, grass." Id. " Before ing, words ending in ie drop the e, and. change the i intoy ; as, die, dying." Id. " One number may be used for the other or, rather, the plural may be used for the singular ; as, we for /, you for thou." Greene cor. " STROB'- ILE, n. A pericarp made up of scales that lie one over an other." Worcester cor. " Yet ever, from the clearest source, hath run Some gross allay, some tincture of the man." Lowth cor. LESSON V. UNDER VARIOUS RULES. " The possessive case is usually followed by a noun, expressed or understood, which is the name of the thing possessed." Felton cor. " Hadmer of Aggstein was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as was Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson ; or as is Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk." H. C. Wright cor. "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by itself." J. W. Wright cor. " Mary is not handsome, but she is good-natured, and good- nature is better than beauty." St. Quentin cor. "After the practice of joining all words together had ceased, a note of distinction was placed at the end of every word." Mur. et al. cor. " Neither Henry nor Charles dissipates his time." Hallock cor. " ' He had taken from the Christians above thirty small castles.' KNOLLES :" Brown's Institutes, p. 200; Johnson's Quarto Diet. ^c. What. " In what character Butler was admitted, is unknown." Or : " In whatever character Butler was admitted, that character is unknown." Hallock cor. " How are the agent of a passive and the object of an active verb often left ? " Id. " By SUBJECT, is meant the word of whose object some- thing is declared." Or: " By SUBJECT, is meant the word which has something declared of the thing signified." Chandler cor. " Care should also be taken that a transitive verb be not used in stead of a neuter or intransitive ; as, lay for lie, raise for rise, set for sit, &c." Id. " On them depends the duration of our Constitution and our country." Calhoun cor. " In the present sen- tence, neither the sense nor the measure requires WHAT." Chandler cor. "The Irish thought themselves oppressed by the law that forbid them to, draw with their horses' tails." Brightland cor. "So and willingly are adverbs. So is an adverb of degree, and qualifies willingly. Willingly is an adverb of manner, and qualifies deceives." Cutler cor. " Epicurus, for experiment's sake, confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons." Id. " Derivative words are such as are formed from other words by prefixes or suffixes ; as, injustice, goodness, falsehood." Id. " The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost from sight." Or: " and it should still be kept in view." Hart cor. " The Tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential Moods." Or: "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Potential Mood." Id. "A triphthong is a union of three vowels, uttered by a single impulse of the voice ; as, uoy in buoy." Davis cor. "A common noun is the name of a species or kind." Id. " The superlative degree implies a comparison either between two or among more." Id. "An adverb is a word serving to give an additional idea to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or on other adverb." Id. When sev- eral nouns in the possessive case occur in succession, each showing possession of things of the same sort, it is generally necessary to add the sign of the possessive to each of them : as, ' He sells men's, women's, and children's shoes.' 'Doffs', cats', and tigers' feet are digitated.' " Id. 11 'A rail-road is being made,' should be, 'A railroad is making;' 'A school-house is being built,' should be, 'A school-house is building.'" Id. "Auxiliaries are of themselves verbs; yet they resemble, in their character and use, those terminational or other inflections which, in other lan- guages, serve to express the action in the mood, tense, person, and number desired." Id. "Please to hold my horse while I speak to my friend." Id "If I say, 'Give me the book,' I demand some particular book." Butler cor. "Here are five men." Id. "After the active verb, the object may be omitted ; after the passive, the name of the agent may be omitted." Id. " The Progressive and Emphatic forms give, in each case, a different snade of mean- ing to the verb." Hart cor. " THAT may be called a Redditive Conjunction, when it an- swers to so or SUCH." Ward cor. " He attributes to negligence your want of success'vn. that business." Smart cor. "Do WILL and GO express but one action ? " Or : "Does' will go ' express but one action ? " B&rrett cor. " Language is the principal vehicle of thought." G. Brown's Inst., Pref., p. iii. "Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; many, to those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things." Bidlions cor. " If there are any old maids still extant, while mysogynists are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves." Kirkham cor. " The second method, used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any other people of Europe." Sheridan cor. " Neither con- sonant nor vowel is to be dwelt upon beyond its common quantity, when it closes a sentence." Or : " Neither consonants nor vowels are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence." Or, better thus : " Neither a consonant nor a vowel, when it closes a sentence, CHAP I.] KEY TO PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE COMMA. 985 is to be protracted beyond its usual lenylh." Iff. " Irony is a mode of speech, in which what is said, is the opposite of what is meant." McElKgott'* Manual, p. 103. " The person speaking, and the person or persons spoken to, are supposed to be present." Wells cor. ; also Murray. "A Noun is a name, a word used to express the idea of an object." Wells cor. "A syllable is such a word, or part of a word, as is uttered by one articulation." Weld cor. " Thus wond'rous fair ; thyself how wond'rous then ! Unspeakable, who sitst above these heavens." Milton, B. v, 1. 156. "And feel thy sovran vital lamp ; but thou Rei'isitst not these eyes, that roll in vain." Id. iii, 22. " Before all temples th' upright heart and pure." Id. i, 18. " In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den." Id. vii, 458. " The rogue and fool by fits are fair and wise ; And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise." Pope cor. THE KEY. -PART IV. -PROSODY. CHAPTER I. PUNCTUATION. SECTION L THE COMMA. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I. OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma." Felton cor, "A regular and virtuous education is an inestimable blessing." Mur. cor. " Such equivocal expressions mark an intention to deceive." Id. " They are t/tis and that, with their plurals these and those." Bullions cor. "A nominative and a verb sometimes make a complete sentence ; as, He sleeps." Felton cor. " TENSE expresses the action as connected with certain relations of time ; MOOD represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionality, &c." Bui/ions cor. " The wora noun means name." In;/ersoll cor. lf The present or active participle I explained then." Id. "Are some verbs used both transitively and intransitively ? " Cooper cor. " Blank verse is verse without rhyme." Brown's Institutes, p. 235. "A distributive adjective denotes each one of a number considered separately." Hallock cor. "And may at la'st my weary age Find out the peaceful hermitage." MILTON : Ward's Gr. 158; Hiley's, 124. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES. "A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense." Lennie, p. 6. " To main- tain a steady course amid all the adversities of life, marks a great mind." Day cor. " To love our Maker supremely and our neighbour as ourselves, comprehends the whole moral law." Id. " To be afraid to do wrong, is true courage." Id. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune." Bullions cor. " That he should make such a remark, is indeed strange." f/arnum cor. " To walk in the fields and groves, is delightful." Id. " That he committed the fault, is most certain." Id. " Names common to all things of the same sort or class, are called Common nouns ; as, man, woman, day.'" Bullions cor. " That it is our duty to be pious, admits not of any doubt." Id. " To endure misfortune with resignation, is the characteristic of a great mind." Id. " The assisting of a friend in such circumstances, was certainly a duty." Id. "That a life of virtue is the safest, is certain." Hallock cor. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity, should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number." Id. UNDER RULE II. Or SIMPLE MEMBERS. When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated." Day cor. " If he become rich, he may be less industrious." Bullions cnr. " The more I study grammar, the better I like it." Id. " There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a better servant than master." Id. " The verb do, when used as an auxiliary, gives force or emphasis to the expression." /'. K. Day cor. " What- soever it is incumbent upon a man to do, it is surely expedient to do well." Adams cor. "The soul, which our philosophy divide-; into various capacities, is still one essence." Channiny cor. " Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for forming it." Hut/inns cor. " We will do it, if you wish." Id. "He who doc-; well, will be rewarded." Id. "That which is always tin- . "(! in the present tense." Id. "An observation which is always true, must be expressed in the present tense." Id. "That part of orthography which treats of com- bining letters to form syllables and words, is called SIM 11. INC." Day "'. "A noun can never be of the first person, except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person." Id. " When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the s une object, they require a singular verb and pronoun." Id. "James has pone, but he will return in a few days." Id. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender, as the noun for which it stands." Id. " Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid." Bullions cor. " She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence." M . p. 6. "The man who has no sense of religion, is little to be trusted." Bull inns cur. " He who does the most good, has the most pleasure." hi. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances, when we last saw them." Id. " If the day continue pleasant, I shall return." l\-lton cor. " The days that are past, are gone forever." 'Id. " As many as are friendly to the cause, will sustain it.'' Id. " Such as desire aid, will receive it." /'/. ' " Who gave, you that book, which you prize so much ? " Bullions cor. " He who made it, now preserves and governs it." Id. " Shall he alone, whom rational we call, Be pleas'd with nothing, if not blest with all ? " Pope. RT IT. GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO PROSODY. [PART UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS. " Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born." Bucke cor. " The remorse which, issues in reformation, is true repentance." Campbell cor. "Men who are intemperate, are destructive members of community." Alexander cor. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action which extends to an object." Felton cor. " They to whom much is given, will have much to answer for." Murray cor. " The prospect which we have, is charming." Cooper cor. " He is the person who informed me of the matter." Id. " These are the trees that produce no fruit." Id. " This is the book which treats of the subject." Id. " The proposal was such as pleased me." Id. "Those that sow in tears, shall reap in joy." Id. "The pen with which I write, makes too large a mark." Incjer soil cor. " Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the persons who labour under it, by the prejudice it affords every worthy person, in their favour." Id. " Irony is a figure whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express." Bucke cor. " Catachresis is a figure whereby an improper word is used in stead of a proper one." Id. " The man whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman." Frost cor. UNDER RULE III. OF MORE THAN Two WORDS. "John, James, and Thomas, are here : that is, John, and James, and Thomas, are here." Cooper cor. " Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 116. " To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case." Id. ib. p. 9. " Wheat, corn, rye, and oats, are extensively cultivated." Id. "In many, the definitions, rules, and leading facts, are prolix, inaccurate, and confused." Finch cor. " Most people consider it mysterious, difficult, and useless." Id. " His father, and mother, and uncle, reside at Rome." Farnum cor. " The rela- tive pronouns are who, which, and that." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 23. "J7/,is sometimes a de- monstrative, sometimes a relative, and sometimes a conjunction." Bullions cor. " Our reputa- tion, virtue, and happiness, greatly depend on the choice of our companions." Day cor. " The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful." Felton cor. "Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes principal verbs." Id. "John, and Thomas, and Peter, reside at Oxford." Webster cor. " The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful, and the most durable." Id. " Love, joy, peace, and blessedness, are reserved for the good." Id. " The hus- band, wife, and children, suffered extremely." Murray cor. " The husband, wife, and children, suffer extremely." Sanborncor. " He, you, and I, have our parts assigned us." Id. " He moaned, lamented, tugged, and tried. Repented, promised, wept, and sighed." Coioper. UNDER RULE IV. OF ONLY Two WORDS. " Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds." Murray cor. " The hive of a city or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it." Id. " When a direct address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, independent." Infjersoll cor. " The verbs love and teach, make loved and taught, in the imperfect and participle." Id. " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." Murray's Gram,. Svo, p. 152. " Thou or I am in fault." Ib. p. 152. " A verb is a word that expresses action or being." P. E. Day cor. " The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb or a preposition." Id. " Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive." Id. " Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive." Id. " If a verb does not form its past indicative by add- ing d or ed to the indicative present, it is said to be irregular." Id. " The young lady is study- ing rhetoric and logic." Cooper cor. " He writes and speaks the language very correctly." Id. " Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own hands." Mur. cor. " This accident or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender." Bullions cor. " Grant that the powerful still the weak control; Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole." Pope cor. UNDER EXCEPTION I. Two WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS. " Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern phi- losophy." Day cor. " Levity, and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of grati- tude to Him." Mur. cor. " In the following Exercise, po'int out the adjectives, and the substan- tives which they qualify." Bullions cor. " When a noun or pronoun is used to explain, or give emphasis to, a preceding noun or pronoun." Day cor. " Superior talents, and brilliancy of intel- lect, do not always constitute a great man." Id'. "A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase speak of, is a noun." Bullions cor. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three." Hiley cor. " He would not do it himself, nor let me do it." Lennie's Gram. p. 64. "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mood, and give other moods to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive." Peirce cor. UNDER EXCEPTION II. Two TERMS CONTRASTED. " We often commend, as well as censure, imprudently." Mur. cor. " It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little, as to take much ; to purloin a book or a penknife, as to steal money ; to steal fruit, as to steal a horse ; to defraud the revenue, as to rob my neighbour ; to overcharge the public, as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the post-office, as to cheat my friend." Wayland cor. " The classification of verbs has been, and still is, a vexed question." Bullions cor. " Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not common to all, are called Proper nouns." Id. "A hero would desire to be loved, as well as to be reverenced." Day cor. " Death, or some worse misfortune, now divides them." Better: "Death, or some other misfortune, soon divides them." Murray's Gram. p. 151. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns, nor two sovereigns.' " Goldsmith cor. "From nature's chain, whatever link you strike, Tenth, or ten-thousandth, breaks the chain alike." Pope. CHAP. I.] KEY TO TROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE COMMA. 9S7 UNDER EXCEPTION III. OF AN ALTERNATIVE OF "WORDS. "Me/re, or Measure, is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains." Illlcy cor. " The Ca>snra, or the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts." Id. " It is six feet, or one fathom, deep." Bullions cor. "A Brace is used in poetry, at the end of a triplet, or three lines which rhyme together." Felton cor. " There are four princi- pal kinds of English verse, or poetical feet." Id. " The period, or full stop, denotes the end of a complete sentence." Scmoor* cur. " The scholar is to receive as munyjetons, or counters, as there are words in the sentence." St. Qttentin cor. " That [thing], or the thinq, which purifies, fortifies also the heart." P< ir<; ,-,,,-. " That thing, or Uie thin APPOSITION. ' Smith & Williatns's store ; Nicholas the emperor's army." D,n/ cor. " He was namr Hum tli'- f'on'/ucrar." //. " John the Baptist was beheaded." Id. "Alexander the copper- mith did me /;/'///( rr/7." 2 Tim. iv. 14. "A nominative in immediate apposition; as, 'The boy // '' "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other: as, ' I teach the boy Henry.' " Id. Kfi.E VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. " But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness ; but pale," &c. DK. JOHNSON: Mur. . p. 4. " I looked up, and beheld an inclosnro, beau- tiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent." HAWKI.SWOUTH : ih. p. 20. ".1 is an article, indefinite, and belongs to ' book: "Bullions cor. " The first expresses the rapid move- RUT. chief- GKAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO PROSODY. [PART ment of a troop of horse over the plain, eager for the combat." Id. " He [, the Indian tain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil ; a prince, true to his subjects, and indignant of their wrongs ; a soldier, daring in battle, firm in adversity, patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering, and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused." W. Irving. "For thee, who, mindful of th' unhonour'd dead, Dost in these lines their artless tale relate." GRAY: Mur. Seq. p. 258. "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest ; Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." GRAY: Enf. Sp. p. 245. " Idle after dinner f ,] in his chair, Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair." Murray's Gram. p. 257. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES. " When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it: as, Charles the Great ; Henry the First ; Lewis the Gross." Webster cor. " Feed me with food con- venient for me." Prow, xxx, 8. " The words and phrases necessary to exemplify every prin- ciple progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred." Ingersoll cor. " The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which expresses being or action unlimited by person or number." Day cor. "A man diligent in his business, prospers." Fro&t cor. "Oh wretched state ! oh bosom black as death ! " SHAK. : Enjield, p. 368. UNDER RULE IX. OF FINITE VERBS. " The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one." Bullions and Lennie cor. "The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause longer than the comma ; the Colon, longer than the semicolon ; and the Period, longer than the colon." Ililey cor. " The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the Comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon." L. Murray's Gram. p. 266. " WHO is applied only to persons ; WHICH, to animals and things ; WHAT, to things only ; and THAT, to persons, animals, and things." Day cor. "A or an is used before the singular number only ; the, before either singular or plura'l." Bullions cor. " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist." -Day cor. ; also Pope. "Words are formed of syl- lables ; syllables, of letters." St. Quentin cor. " The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb, the PASSIVE VOICE." Frost cor.; also Smith: L. Murray's Gram. p. 77. " The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case ; and the ob- jective, the accusative." Murray cor. " Benevolence is allied to few vices ; selfishness, to fewer virtues." Kames cor. " Orthography treats of Letters ; Etymology, of Words ; Syntax, of Sen- tences ; and Prosody, o/ Versification." Hart cor. " Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood ; Heaven, those that love their foes, and do them good." Waller. UNDER RULE X. OF INFINITIVES. " His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words." Bullions cor. " It is a mark of distinction, to be made a member of this society." Farnum cor. " To distinguish the conjugations, let the pupil observe the following rules." Day cor. " He was now sent for, to preach before the Parliament." E. Williams cor. " It is incumbent on the young, to love and honour their parents." Bullions cor. " It is the business of every man, to prepare for death." Id. " It argued the sincerest candor, to make such an acknowledgement." Id. " The proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second elliptical." Id. character sounds of c and g. and speaking of a language." Barrett cor. " Four kinds of type are used in the following pages, to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary." Hart cor. UNDER RULE XL OF PARTICIPLES. " The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown." Murray's Grammar, p. 66. " The officer, having received his orders, proceeded to execute them." Day cor. " Thus used, it is in the present tense." Bullions, E. Gr., 2d Ed., p. 35. "The imperfect tense has three distinct forms, corresponding to those of the present tense." Bullions cor. "Every possessive case is governed by some noun, denoting the thing possessed." Id. " The word that, used as a conjunction, is [generally] preceded by a comma." Hiley's Gram. p. 114. " His narrative, being composed upon so good authority, deserves credit." Cooper cor. " The hen, being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle." Murray cor. " Pronouns, being used in stead ly is, to complete tne construction 01 tne nrst memoer, ana leave tnat 01 tne second euymctu. Id. " ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction, given to a certain person, to show the laracter in which he is represented." Peirce cor. " The object of this is, to preserve the soft unds of c and g." Hart cor. "The design of grammar is, to facilitate the reading, writing, noun, they are personal pronouns." Bullions cor. " He, with vinv crown advancing, First to the lively pipe his hand address'd." Collins. UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES. "But when they convey the idea of many acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number." Day cor. " Two or more singular antecedents connected by and, [when they happen to introduce more than one verb and more than one pronoun,] require verbs and pro- nouns of the plural number." Id. " Words ending iny preceded by a consonant, change y into t, when a termination is added." Butler cor. "A noun used without an article to limit it, is CHAP. I.] KEY TO PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE COMMA. 989 generally taken in its widest sense." Ingersoll cor. " Two nouns meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together." Bitcke cor. " Each one must give an account to God for the use, or abuse, of the talents committed to him." Cooper cor. " Two vowels united in one sound, form a diphthong." Front cor. " Three vowels united in one sound, form a triph- thong." Id. "Any word joined loan adverb, is a secondary adverb.'' Barrett cor. "The person spoken to, is put in the Second person ; the person spoken of, in the Third person." Cutler cor. "A man devoted to his business, prospers." Frost cor. UNDER. RULE XII. OF ADVERBS. " So, in indirect questions ; as, ' Tell me ichea he will come.' " Butler cor. " Now, when the verb tells what one person or thing does to an other, it is transitive." Bullions cor. " Agreeably to your request, I send this letter." Id. " There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification." Id. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is Tike unto a mer- chant-man seeking goodly pearls." Scott's Bible, Smith's, and Bruce's. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea." Same. "Cease, however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers." Webster cor. "Time admits of three natural divisions; namely, Present, Past, and Future." Day cor. "There are three kinds of comparison ; namely, Regular, Irregular, and Adverbial." Id. " There are five personal pronouns; namely, /, thou, . and it." Id. "Nouns have three cases; viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective." Bullions cor. " Hence, in studying Grammar, we have to studv words." Frazee cor. " Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns and pronouns." Miller cor. " The time of the parti- ciple, like that of the infinitive, is estimated from the time of the leading verb." Bullions cor. " The dumb shall sing, the lame his crutch forego, And leap exulting, like the bounding roe." Pope. UNDER RULE XIII. OF CONJUNCTIONS. "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them." 's Bible, et al. "Their intentions were good; but, wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed." Mnr. cor. " The verb be often separates the name from its attri- bute ; as, ' War is expensive.' " Webster cor "Either and or denote an alternative ; as, ' I will take either road at your pleasure.' " Id. "Either is also a substitute for a name ; as, 'Either of the roads is good.' " Id. " But, alas ! I fear the consequence." Day cor. " Or, if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent ? " Luke, xi, 11. " Or, if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion ? " ALGEU'S BIBLE : Luke, xi, 12. " The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case ; as, To enjoy is to obey.' POPE." ('idler cor. " The plural is commonly formed by adding * to the singular; as, book, books." Bullions, P. Lessons, p. 16. "As, 'I were to blame, if I did it.' " Smart cor. " Or, if it be thy will and pleasure, > Direct my plough to find a treasure." UNDER RVLE XIV. OF PREPOSITIONS. " Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." But- ler and Bullions cor. " In the first two examples, the antecedent is person, or something equiva- lent; in the last \one], it is thin;/." Butler cor. " In what character he was admitted, is un- known." Id. "To what place he was going, is not known." Id. " In the preceding examples, John, Cfrsar, and James, are the subjects." Id. " Ves is generally used to denote assent, in to a question." Id. "That, in its origin, is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, [ther/an, thirt/an, thici/eun, or thit/an,] to take." Id. " But, in all these sentences, as and so are adverbs." Id. "Aft<>r an interjection or an exclamatory sentence, is usually placed the mark of exclamation." D. Blair cor. "Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinction of voice." Bui/ions cor. " To the inflection of verbs, belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons." Id. "As and so, in the antecedent member of a comparison, are prop- erly Adverbs." Better : "As OR so, in the antecedent member of a comparison, is properly an adverb." Id. " In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition." Id. " In the following Exercise, point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor." Id. "Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint." Brown's Institutes, p. 49. "No one's interest is con- cerned, except mine." llallock car. "In most of the modern languages, there are four con- cords." St. (jucntin cor. "In illustration of these remarks, let us suppose a case." Hart for. " On the right management of the emphasis, depends the life of pronunciation." See Blair'* Rht. p. 330. UNDER Rn.r. XV. Or IXTOUBCTIOXS. " Behold, he is in the desert." I 'de. "And Lot said unto them, Oh, not so, my Lord." Atyer's Bible. "Oh, let me escape thither, (is it not a little one ?) and my sou! live." Friends' Bible, and Ali/cr's. " Behold, I come quickly." Rev. xxii, 7. " Lo, I am with vou always." Dni/ <-nr. "And, lo, I am with you alway." 1 '.// r's Bible. "Ha, ha, ha; how laughable that is ! " Bullions cor. " Interjections of laughter ; ha, ha, ha." Wright cor. XVI. Or WORDS UKPKATED. " Lend, lend your wings ! " &c. Pope. " To bed, to bed, to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come. What is done, cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed." SUVK- BPEAiiK : /' .'r, p. 130. " I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore, encore, let him roar, let him roar, once more, once more." Id. ib. p. 136. "Vital spark of heavenly flame! Quit, oh quit this morta'l frame ! " Pope. " O the pleasing, pleasing anguish, When we love, and when we languish." Addison. " Praise to God, immortal praise, For the love that crowns our days ! "Barbauld. 990 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO PROSODY. [PART IT. UNDER RULE XVII. OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. "Thus, of an infant, we say, 'It is a lovely creature.' " Bullions cor. " No being can state a falsehood in saying, ' I am ; ' for no one can utter this, if it is not true." Cardell cor. " I know they will cry out against this, and say, ' Should he pay,' means, ' If he should pay.' " Pcirce sense that is not active ; why may it not also allow us to say, ' Wheat -is selling at a dollar,' in a sense that is not active ?" Hart cor. " 'Man is accountable,' equals, 'Mankind are accounta- ble.' " Barrett cor. " Thus, when we say, ' He may be reading,' may is the real verb ; the other parts are verbs by name only." Smart cor. " Thus we say, an apple, an hour, that two vowel sounds may not come together." Id. " It wouldbe as improper to say, an unit, as to say, an youth ; to say, an one, as to say, an wonder." Id. " When we say, ' He died for the truth, 'for is a prepo- sition." Id. " We do not say, ' I might go yesterday ; ' but, c I might have gone yesterday.' " Id. " By student, we understand, one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academi- cal citizenship ; but, by bursche', we understand, one who has already spent a certain time at the university." Howitt cor. SECTION II. THE SEMICOLON. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I. OF COMPLEX MEMBERS. 'The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit; but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth." Day cor. " But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him." Bullions cor. " For the sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant ; and, because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form." Id. " But if I say, ' Will a man be able to carry this burden ? ' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed ; the reference is not to number, but to the species ; and the answer might be, 'No ; but a horse will.' " Id. " In direct discourse, a noun used by the speaker or writer to designate himself [in the special relation of speaker or writer], is said to be of the^ntf person ; used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person ; and, when used to designate a person or thing [merely] spoken of, it is said to be of the third person." Id. "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures; but virtue consoles us, even in our pains." Day cor. " Vice is infamous, though in a prince ; and virtue, honourable, though in a peasant." Id. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a noun; because, 'A noun is the name cf any person, place, or thing.' " Bullions cor. " This is the sword with which he did the deed; And that, the shield by which he was defended." Bucke cor. UNDER RULE II. OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. " A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenance ; a chilling terror convulsed his frame ; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents." Jerningham cor. " The Lacedemonians never traded ; they knew no luxury ; they lived in houses built of rough materials ; they ate at public tables ; fed on black broth; and despised every thing effeminate" or luxurious." Whelp- ley cor. " Government is the agent ; society is the principal." Wayland cor. " The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb; to which was subsequently added the Conjunction." 'Bullions cor. " The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind, are but reflections from the parents' own intellect ; the first manifestations of temperament, are from the contagious parental fountain ; the first aspirations of soul, are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit." Jocelyncor. "Older and oldest refer t:> and such as may be easily remembered." Goldsbury cor. "Gently make haste, of labour not afraid; A hundred times consider what you've said." Dryden cor. UNDER RULE III. OF APPOSITION, &c. (1.) "Adjectives are divided [, in Frost's Practical Grammar,] into two classes; adjectives denoting quality, and adjectives denoting number." Frost cor. (2.) " There are [, according to four parts j namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody." Lennie, Bullions, et al. (14.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."- Hendrickcor. (15.) " Grammar is divided into four parts ; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody." Chandler cor. (16.) " It is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody." Cooper and Frost cor. (17.) "English Grammar has been usually di- vided into four parts ; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. "Nutting cor. (18.) " Temperance leads to happiness ; intemperance, to misery. "lliley and Hart cor. (19, 20.) "A CHAP. I.] KEY TO PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE COLON. 991 friend exasperates a man's virtues ; an enemy, his crimes." Ililey cor. ; also Murray. (21.) " Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives ; thus, ' The first and second pages are torn.' " BM&KMMO0r. (22.) " Of these, [i.e., ;':ie Latin has six ; the Greek, five ; the German, four; the Saxon, six ; the French, three; &c." Id, " In imj it ends, when doing is expressed ; In d, ' t, n, when suffering's confessed." Briyhtland cor. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. " In old books, i is often used for./; v, for u ; vv, for ir ; and //' or ij, for y." JTart cor. " The forming of letters into words and syllables, is also called Spelling." Id. " Labials are formed chiefly by the lips; dentals, by the teeth ; palatals, by the palate; gutturals, by the throat; nasals, by the nose ; and linguals, by the tongue." Id. " The labials are/?, b, f, v ; the dentals, t, d, s, z ; the palatals, g soft and,/"; the gutturals, k, q, and c and g hard; the nasals, m and n; and the linguals, / and r." Id. " Thus, 'The man, having finished his letter, will carry it to the post-off;< >-.' " Id. " Thus, in the sentence, ' He had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' con- -sivc, signifying being mncraled ; but, in the former combination, it goes to make up a form the force of which is active." Id. "Thus, in Latin, ' He had concealed the dagger,' would bo, t Pvgionem abdidvrat ' but, '//c had the dagger concealed,' would be, 'Pugionem addition habcbai.' " Id. "Here, for instance, means, 'in this place;' note, 'at this time;' &c." /'/. " Here when both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb ; and also con- :!ie two verbs, and so resembles a conjunction." Id. "These words wire all, no doubt, originally other parts of speech ; viz., verbs, nouns, and adjectives." /(/. " The principal parts of a sentence, are the subject, the attribute, and the object; in other words, the nominative, the verb, and the objective." Id. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun; the adverb, with the verb or adjective; the pronoun, with its antecedent ; Ac." Id. "Bcticecn refers to two ; among, to more than two." Id. "At is used after a verb of rest ; to, after a verb of motion." Id. '' Verbs are of three kinds; Active, Passive, and Neuter." L. Murray. [Active] " Verbs are divided into two classes ; Transitive and Intransitive." Hendrick cor. " The Parts of Speech, in the English language, are nine ; viz., the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction." Bullions cor. See Ltnnic. "Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, are declined ; the rest are indeclinable." Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. (Irani. p. 18. " The first expression is called ' the Active form ; ' the second, ' the Passive form.' " Weld cor. " 0, 'tis a godlike privilege to save ; And he that scorns it, is himself a slave." Cowper cor. SECTION III. THE COLON. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I. OP ADDITIONAL REMARKS. "O/* is a preposition : it expresses the relation between fear and Lord." Bullions cor. Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man : that tends to excite pride ; this, discontent- jnt." Id. et al. cor. " Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them beneath e brutes : this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth ; that opens for them prospect to the skies." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 189. "Love not idleness: it destroys many." toll . l% Children, obey your parents : 'Honour thy father and mother,' is the first com- lanoment with promise." Bullions cor. " Thou art my hiding-place and my shield : I hope iu > cxix, 114. " The sun shall not smite thcc by day, nor the moon by ni^ht. he Lord shall preserve thee from all evil : he shall preserve thy soul.'" Psalm cxxi, 6. " Here nod the highest place in the class of objects among which she ia numbered the ^'.Uous of antiquity : she is one of them." Bullions, E. Gram. p. 114. " From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose, I wake : how happy they who wake no more !" Young, N. T., p. 3. UNDER RULE II. OF GREATER PAUSES. " A taste of& thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it, implies only capacity for ijoymrnt . 'as ' When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish ic of vice.' " Bullions cor. "The Indicative mood simply declares a thing: as, 'He I;' ' lie /. loved : ' or it asks a question ; as, ' Latest thou me ? ' " Id. and Lcnn'ic cor. ; also . " The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past ; as, /.<..-, and nqii'Tt-d:' or it represents the action dcfiniU-ly as unfinished and .'me now entirely put ; ///me nouns have no plural ; as, //., m : others have no singular ; , ashes, shears, tongs: others arc alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer, means, 7 / cor. The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in an other: thus, in the scn- rnce, ' He believes my story,' believes is transitive; but, in this phrase, ' Hi- believes in C/od,' it intransitive." liutli-r cor. " Let the divisions be distinct : one part should not include an ii should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place ; and all the parts, well fitti-d together and united, should present a perfect whole.'' Goldsbttry cor. "In the use of the transitive verb, there arc al - uings implied ; the actor, the aft, and the object acted upon : in the use of the intransitive, there are only ttco ; the subject, or the thing spoken of, and the state or action attributed to it." Bullions " "Why labours reason ? instinct were as well; Instinct, far better: what can choose, can err." Young, vii,622. UNDKR RULE III. OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. " The sentence may run thus : ' lie is related to the same person, and is governed by him.' " .ya'reineiuber this ancient proverb: 'Know thyclf." " llullo^k ec/r. "Con- 992 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO PROSODY. [PART IT. sider this sentence: 'The boy runs swiftly.' " Frazee cor. "The comparative is used thus: * Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative, when the word other is left out : thus, ' Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity.' " Bullions and Lennie cor. " Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus sowing dragon's teeth : ' Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant : 'The Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever.' They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.' " Hiley and Hart cor. "For sects he car'd not: ' They are not of us, Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.' " Crabbe cor. " Habit, with him, was all the test of truth : ' It must be right ; I've done it from my youth.' Questions he answer'd in as brief a way : 'It must be wrong ; it was of yesterday.' " Id. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. " This would seem to say, ' I doubt nothing, save one thing ; namely, that he will fulfill his promise:' whereas that is the very thing not doubted." Bullions cor. "The common use of language requires, that a distinction be made between morals and manners : the former depend upon internal dispositions ; the latter, upon outward and visible accomplishments." Beattie cor. Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart, yet I honour the heroes among our like one, may have it understood : thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, ' Give me that ; ' but not, ' Give me the ; ' [so I may say,] ' Give me one ; ' but not, ' Give me a.' " Bullions cor. "The Present tense has three distinct forms : the simple; as, I read: the emphatic ; as, I do read: and the progressive ; as, I am reading." Or thus: "The Present tense has three dis- tinct forms ; the simple; as, 'I read;' the emphatic ; as, ' I do read;' and the progressive; as, ' I am reading.' " Id. " The tenses in English are usually reckoned six; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second-future" Id. "There are three participles; the Present 'or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound perfect : as, loving, loved, having loved." Or, better : " There are three participles from each verb ; namely, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect : as, turning, turned, having turned." Murray et al. cor. " The participles are three ; the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect : as, loving, loved, having loved." Better : " The participles of each verb are three; the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect: as, turning, turned, having turned." Hart cor. " Will is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb: as, present, I will ; past, I willed; &c." Frazee cor. " And both sounds of x are compound : one is that of gz, and the other, that of ks." Id. " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." Mur. 28 : Cooper cor. " The Pronoun stands in stead of the noun : as, ' The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful.' "Murray cor. "A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it: as, ' The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful.' " Id. "A Pronoun is a word used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words : as, ' The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful.' " Cooper cor. " A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, Animal, tree, insect, fish, fowl" Id. "Nouns have three persons; the first, the second, and the third." Id. "So saying, her rash hand in evil hour Forth reaching to the fruit, she pluck'd, she eat : Earth felt the wound ; and Nature from her seat, Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe, That all was lost." MILTON, P. L., Book ix, 1. 780. SECTION IV. THE PERIOD. CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I. OF DISTINCT SENTENCES. " The third person is the position of a word by which an object is merely spoken of; as, ' Paul and Silas were imprisoned.' ' The earth thirsts.' ' The sun shines.' " Frazee cor. "Two, and three, and four, make nine. If he were here, he would assist his father and mother ; for he is a dutiful son. They live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society. They went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day." Golds- bury cor. " We often resolve, but seldom perform. She is wiser than her sister. Though he is often advised, yet he does not reform. Reproof either softens or hardens its object. He is as old as his class- mates, but not so learned. Neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him. Let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall. He can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices." Id. "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd, Thy image, lovely Anna ! hung portray'd ; Th' unconscious figure smiling all serene, Suspended in a golden chain was seen." Falconer. UNDER RULE II. OP ALLIED SENTENCES. " This life is a mere prelude to an other which has no limits. It is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgement will find us." Merchant cor. " He went from Boston to New York. He went (I say) from Boston ; he went to New York. In walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair." Goldsbury corrected. CHAP. I.] KEY TO PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. THE DASH. 993 " I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house. During the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree." Goldsbury corrected. " ' George came home ; I saw him yesterday." Here the word him can extend only to the indi- vidual George." Barrett corn'/txl. " Commas are often used now, where parentheses were [adopted] formerly. I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement." Buckets Classical Grammar, p. 20. " Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel, Didst let them pass unnotic'd, unimprov'd. And know, for that thou slumberst on the guard, Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar For every fugitive." COTTON : Hallock and Enfield cor. UNDER RULE III. OF ABBREVIATIONS. " The term pronoun (Lat. pronomen) strictly means a word used for, or in stead of, a noun." Bullions corrected. " The period is also used after abbreviations ; as, A. D., P. S., G. "W. Johnson." Butler cor. "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes, or parts of speech : viz., the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposi- tion, and Conjunction." Bullions cor. 'Metre [Melody] is not confined to verse : there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.' Epea Pter., ii, 61. [First American Ed., ii, 53.] Mr. H. Tooke's idea was prob- ably just, agreeing with Aristotle's; but [,if so, it is] not accurately expressed." Churchill cor. '' Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M. Being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when j'ounc? ; and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he. held ten or twelve years." Tooke's Annotator cor. " I, nor your plan, nor book condemn ; But why your name ? and why A. M. ? " Lloyd cor. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. " If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath," &c. Isaiah, Iviii, 13. " He that hath eeris of herynge, here he." WICKLIFI i: : M iff. xi, 15. " See General Rules for Spelling, iii, v, and vii." Butler cor. " False witnesses did rise up." Ps. xxxv, 11. "An explicative sentence is used for explaining ; an interrogative sentence, for inquiring ; an imperative sentence, for commanding." Barrett cor. " In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears. Susan labours with her needle for a livelihood. Notwithstanding his poverty, he'is a man of integrity." Golds, cor. "A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable ; a worl of four or more syllables, a'polysyllable." Frazee cor. " If I say, '//' it did not rain, I would take a walk ; ' I convey the idea that it does rain at the time of speaking. 'If it rained,' or, 'Did it rain,' in [reference to] the present time, implies thai it does not rain. 'If it did not rain,' or, ' Did it not rain,' in [reference to the] present time, implies that it does rain. Thus, in this peculiar application, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation ; and a negative sentence, an affirmation." Id. " 'If I were loved,' and, ' Were I loved; ' imply I am not loved ; 'If I tcere not loved,' and, ' Were I not Cloved,' imply I am loved. A negative sentence implies an affirmation, and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive." Id. " What is Rule III ? "Hart cor. " How is Rule III violated ? " Id. " How do you parse letter in the sentence, ' James writes a letter ? ' Ans. Letter is a common noun, of the third per- son, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by the verb writes, ac- cording to Rule III, which says, 'A transitive verb governs the objective case.' " Id. " Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the gen'ral pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause ; An awful pause ! prophetic of her end. And let her prophecy be soon fulfill'd : Fate, drop the curtain ; I can lose no more." Young. SECTION V. THE DASH. CORRECTIONS UM>I:H Rn.i: I. OF ABRUPT PAUSES. " And there is something in vour very strange story, that resembles Does Mr. Bevil know your history particularly ? " llnn/h'a NMO&r, p. 149. " Sir, Mr. Myrtle Gentlemen You are friends I am but :i servant But "lh. p. 118. "An other man now would have given plump into this foolish story ; but I No, no, your humble servant for that." GAUK: \<>(hinr. " Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense ?" Id. " Thus the declarative mode [i. e., the indicative mood] may be used in asking a question; as, 'ir/mt man is frail ? '" Id. " What connexion has motive, wish, or supposition, with the term suh-unctii-e /" Id. "A grand reason, truly, for calling it a golden key!" Id. "What ' sit//', ring ' the man who can say this, must be enduring! "Id. " What is Brown's Rule in re- lation to' this matter ? " Id. * In Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. H, p. 49">. this sentence is expressed and pointed thus: "0, shame! where i* thy blush ' " Hui-f.t. Act iii. Sc. 4. This is as if the speaker meant, " ! it is a shame ! where is thy blush?' Such is not the sense above j for there u 6'Aame " la the person addressed. 996 GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. KEY TO PROSODY. [PART IV. " Alas ! how short is life ! " Day cor. " Thomas, study your book." Id. " Who can tell us who they are?" Sanborn cor. "Lord, have mercy on my son; for he is lunatic, and sorely vexed." See Matt, xvii, 15. " O ye wild groves ! O, where is now your bloom ? " Felton cor. " who of man the story will unfold ? " Farnum cor. " Methought I heard Horatio say, To-morrow. Go to I will not hear of it to-morrow ! " COLTON. " How his eyes languish ! how his thoughts adore That painted coat which Joseph never wore ! " SECTION VIII. THE CURVES. CORRECTIONS UNDER BULB I. OF PARENTHESES. "Another [, better written as a phrase, Another,"] is composed of the indefinite article an, (which etymologically means one,) and other ; and denotes one other." Hallock cor. " Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses, or Times." Bucke cor. *' In some very ancient languages, (as the Hebrew,) which have been employed chiefly for ex- pressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or har- mony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often." Murray cor. ft Before I shall say those things, O Conscript Fathers ! about the public affairs, which are to be spoken at this time ; I shall lay before you, in few words, the motives of the journey and the return." Brightland cor. " Of well-chose words some take not care enough, And think they should be, like the subject, rough." Id. " Then, having showed his wounds, he'd sit him down." Bullions cor. UNDER RULE II. OF INCLUDED POINTS. " Then Jael smote the nail into his temples, and fastened it into the ground: (for he was fast asleep, and weary :) so he died." SCOTT'S BIBLE -.Judges, iv, 21. ' Every thing in the Iliad has manners, (as Aristotle expresses it,) that is, every thing is acted or spoken." Pope cor. "Those nouns that end in/or_/e, (except some few ivhich I shall mention presently,) form plurals by changing those letters 'in to ves : as, thief, thieves; wife, wives." Bucke cor. "As requires as; (expressing equality of degree;) thus, ' Mine is as good as yours.' As [re- quires] so; (expressing equality or proportion;) thiis, ( As the stars, so shall thy seed be.' So [requires] as ; (with a negative expressing inequality ;) as, 'He is not so wise as his brother.' So [requires] that ; (expressing a consequence ;) as, ' I am so weak that I cannot walk.' "* Bul- lions cor. "A captious question, sir, (and yours is one,) Deserves an answer similar, or none." Cowper cor. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. " "Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite, referring to the same thing, must be of the same case ; ( 61 ;) as, 'Alexander is a student.' " Bullions cor. " When the objective is a rela- tive or [an] interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it: ( 40, R. 9:) Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary." Id. " It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antecedent to a relative ; and always, to omit a relative, when of the nominative case." Id. " In every sen- tence, there must be a verb and a nominative or subject, expressed or understood." Id. " Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions under- stood ; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives, without a governing word : ( 50, Rem. 6 and Rule:) as, He gave [to] me a full account of the affair.' " Id. "When should is used in stead of ought, to express present duty, ($ 20, 4,) it may be followed by the present; as, ' You should study that you may become learned.' " Id. " The indicative present is frequently used after the words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action ; ($ 24, I, 4 ;) as, ' When he comes, he will be welcome.' " Id. " The relative is parsed [, accord- ing to Bullions,'} by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent ; (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent ;) thus, ' The boy who ' ' Who ' is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative; and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent." Id. " 'Now, now, I seize, I clasp thy charms ; And now you burst, ah cruel ! from my arms.' Pope. Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second person plural. The text would have been better, thus : ' Now, now, I seize, I clasp your charms ; And now you burst, ah cruel ! from my arms.' " John Burn cor. See Lowth's Gram. p. 35 ; ChiirchiWs, 293. SECTION IX. ALL POINTS. MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED. "The principal stops are the following : the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period, or Full Stop [.], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of Exclamation [!], the Paren- * If, in each of these sentences, the colon were substituted for the latter semicolon, the curves might well l e spared. Lowth has a similar passage, which (bating a needful variation of guillemots) he pointed thus : ''as , .<;> expressing a comparison of equality ; ' as white a* snow : ' as , so ; expressing a comparison sometimes of equal- ity ; ' as the stars, so shall thy seed be ; ' that is, equal in number : but. " &.c. L'>wth' l s Gram. p. 109. Murray, who broke this passage into paragraphs, retained ac first these semicolons, but afterwards changed them all to colons. Of later grammarians, some retain the former colon in each sentence; some, the litter; and some, neither. Hiley points thus : "As requires as, expressing equality ; as, ' He is as good as she.' " Hilty's E. Gram. p. 107. CHAP. I.] KEY TO PROSODY. BAD ENGLISH CORRECTED. 997 thesis [( )], and the Dash [ ]." Bullions cor. " The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The chief marks employed, are the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of Exclamation [!], the Parenthesis [( )], and the Dash []." I(l - " Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game, ' You chide me,' says the youth, ' for a trifling fault.' ' Custom,' replied the philosopher, 'is no trifle.' 'And,' adds Mon- taigne, ' he was in the right ; for our vices begin in infancy.' " Home cor. "A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died. ' My father,' says the skip- per, 'my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned.' 'Well,' replies the mer- chant, and are not you afraid of being drowned too ? ' " Id. " The use of inverted commas derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them ; [and,] as an acknowledgement for the improvement, his countrymen call them after his name, GUILLEMETS." Hist. cor. " This, however, is seldom if ever done, unless the word following the possessive begins with * : thus, we do not say, ' the prince' feather;' but, ' the prince's feather.' " Bullions cor. "And this phrase must mean, ' the feather of the prince ; ' but ' prince' 's-feather,' written as one word, [and with both apostrophe and hyphen,] is the name of a plant, a species of amaranth." G. Broicn. " Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow." Inyersoll cor. ; also Murray. "When an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a comma or by a. colon ; as, ' The Scriptures give us an amiable represen- tation of the Deity, in these words : God is love.' " Hiley cor. " Either the colon or the y the English [,] open and shut. But whatever propriety there may be in the use of these terms in other languages, it is certain thev must tie used with caution in English for fear of confounding them with loin/ and short. Dr. Johnson and other grammarians call the a in father the open a: which may, indeed, distinguish it from the slender a in paper ; but not from the broad a In water, which is still more open. Each of thc.-c lett'-rs ."tin- seven vowels] has a short sound, which may be called a shut sound; but the long sounds cannot be so properly denominated open as more or less&road ; that is, the a in paper, the slender sound ; the a \njather, the, broadish or middle sound ; and the a in tcater, the broad sound. The same may be observed of the o. This letter has three long sounds, heard in move, note, nor ; which graduate from slender to broadish, ami broad [,] like [tho>e three sound-; of] the a. The i also in mine may be called the broad i, and that In machine the slender t; though each of then is equally long; and though tin-so vowels that are long [,] may be said to be more or less ojieit according to the different apertures of the mouth in torniinv them, vet the short vowels cannot be said to be more or lc>s .e caivi.il not to confound hunt anil open, and close and shut, when we speak of the quantity and quality of the vowels. 1 he truth ot 'it is, ' continues he, " all vowels cither terminate a syllabic, or are united with a consonant. In the tlrst case, it' the accent be on the syllable, the vowel is long, though it may not bo . here a syllable is terminated by a consonant, except that consonant he r, whether the accent be on the syllable or not, the vowel has its slun-t sound, which, compared with its long one. m.iy bo called * cun-ful not to confound " ]" u with l"ii>i. or shut with fhi'i-t', or clatr with flint ; and vet. if he himself doe, not, in the verv paragraph above quoted, confound them all, does not identif- in -ene. or tail to distinguish, the two words i;i c.i. h oi the-.' pairs, I know not who can need his "caution." It' there are vowel sounds which graduate through several degrees of openness or broad- wo-ild seem ino.t natural to cxpr. > these- l.\ iv.-iilarlv i oinparini; the epithet pn fernd ; as. open, opener, optneft ; ot broad, broader, broadett. And again, If "all rowels that end s\ iiaMi-s mav in- -aid to lie open." then it i* not true, that " the lOBff Sounds " Ol .r,it,i\ cannot be so "denominated;" orthat /. may, indeed, distinguish it from the slender a in paper." Nor. on this prin- ciple, can it tie said that " the broad a in v,//.r is still inr, /i,-n ; " t,.r this n no more " ends a svilaMe " than the others. If any vowel sound is to lie called the <>j- ti sound tic-cause the letter ends a syllable, or i- n..t -hat :!sonnnt, it is. undoubtedly, the primal and molt usual sound, as found in the letter wh. n accented, and not some other of ran- n. . urn in . i }>r. ivrl-v s.ivs. It is _-reat!v to , at the different sounds of a vowel should be called by the names long, short, slender, and broad, which co-ivcv no idea of the nature of the sound, for mat ami not arc as l<"i- in poi-trv as mule and notr. The tirst sound of a vowel [,] as [that of a in] fate [,] may bo called of , n. lie. a'ise it is the sound w hicb the vi.w.-l -fu-r.iil v has \\ hen it ends a s\ ll.ild- : tin- - of ./ in; t\it. mav be called cl*. , li<-caue It Is the sound which the vowel generally has when n is joined with a consonant following hi the same Syllable, a* TiM-teiij when there are more than two sounds of any vowel [,] thry ma-, benomb red onward | a- .///;. 4 fall." PerUy's Gram. p. 73. OBS. 5. Walker thought a long or short vowel sound ossontlal to a long or short quantity in any syllable. By thK if he was wr'Mit; in it. (as, in the chapter on Vcr-iricatii-n, I have argued that he wa, he probably dis- turbed more the pr.i-.er di-tinctn-n of ijuaMiti. s. tlian that of vov. ; \!s l<>n>i and tliort, there- rley 's regret seems to bare cause ; but, In making t tion lu" slender, and broad," he rea- sons ill : ir as his view is rijjht, however, it coincides with the following earlier Mggestkm: " Th 1002 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. terms long and short, which are often used to denote certain vowel sounds, being also used, with a different import, to'distinguish the quantity of syllables, are frequently misunderstood ; for which reason, we have sub- stituted for them the terms open and close ; the former, to denote the sound usuallv given to a vowel when it forms or ends an accented syllable ; as, ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by ; the latter, to denote the sound which the vowel commonly takes when closed by a consonant ; as, ao, eb, ib, ob, ub." Brown's Institutes, p. 285. I. OF THE LETTER A. The vowel A has four sounds properly its own ; they are named by various epithets : as, 1. The English, open, full, long, or slender a ; as in aid, fame, favour, efficacious. 2. The French, close, curt, short, or stopped a ; as in bat, banner, balance, carrying. 3. The Italian, broadish, grave, or middle a ; as in far, father, aha, comma, scoria, sofa. 4. The Dutch, German, Old- Saxon, or broad a ; as in watt, haul, ^calk > warm, water. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Concerning the number of sounds pertaining to the vowel a, or to certain other particular letters, and consequently in regard to the whole number of the sounds which constitute the oral elements of the English language, our educational literati, the grammarians, orthocpists, orthographers, elocutionists, phonographers, and lexicographers, are found to have entertained and inculcated a great variety of opinions. In their different countings, the number of our phonical elements varies from twentv six to more than forty. Wells says ihere are " about forty elementary sounds." School Gram. 64. His first edition was more positive, and stated them at "forty-one." See the last and very erroneous passage which I have cited at the foot of page 149. In Worces- ter's Universal and Critical Dictionary, there appear to be noted several more than forty -one; but I know not whether this author, or Walker either, has anywhere told us how many of his marked sounds he considered to be severally different from all others. Sheridan and Jones admitted twenty- eight. Churchill acknowledges, as undisputed .and indisputable, only twenty-six; though he enumerates, " Of simple vowel sounds, twelve, or perhaps thirteen," (New Grammar, p. 5,) and says, " The consonant sounds in the English language are nine' teen, or rather twenty." P. 13. OBS. 2. Thus, while Pitman, Comstock, and others, are amusing themselves with the folly of inventing new " Phonetic Alphabets," or of overturning all orthography to furnish " a character for each of the 38 element- ary sounds," more or fewer, one of the acutest observers among our grammarians can fix on no number more definite or more considerable than thirty-one, thirty-two, or thirty-three ; and the finding of these he announces with a " perhaps," and the admission that other writers object to as many as five of the questionable number. Churchill's vowel sounds, he says, " mav be found in the following words : 1. Bate, 2. Bat, 3. Ball; 4. Bet, 5. Be; 6 Bit; 7. P.ot, 8. Bone, 9. Boon; 10. Hut, 11. Bull; 12. Lovely; 13. Wool." New Grammar, p. 5. To this he adds: " Many of the writers on orthoepy, however, consider the first and fourth of the sounds above distinguished as actually the same, the former differing from the latter only by being lengthened in tbc pronun- ciation. They also reckon the seventh sound, to be the third shortened ; the twelfth, the fifth shortened : and the eleventh, the ninth shortened. Some consider the fifth and sixth as differing only in length ; and most es- teem the eleventh and thirteenth as identical." 76. OBS. 3. Now, it is plain, that these six identifications, or so many of them as are admitted, must diminish by six, or by the less number allowed, the thirteen vowel sounds enumerated by this author. By the best authori- ties, W initial, as in " Wool," is reckoned a consonant ; and, of course, its sound is supposed to differ in some degree from that of oo in " Boon," or that of u in " Ball," the ninth sound or the eleventh in the foregoing eeries. By Walker, Murray, and other popular writers, the sound of y in " Lovely " is accounted to he essen- tially the same as that of e in "Be." The twelfth and the thirteenth, then, of this list, being removed, and three others added, namely, the a heard in far, the i in fine, and the u in fuse, we shall have the four- teen vowel sounds which are enumerated by L. Murray and others, and adopted by the author of the present work. OBS. 4. Wells says, "A has six sounds:!. Long; as in late. 2. Grave; as in father. 3. Broad; as in fall. 4. Short ; as in man. 5. The sound heard in care, hare. 6. Intermediate between a in man and a in father ; as in orass, pass, branch." School Grammar, 1850, p. 33. Besides these six, Worcester recognizes a seventh sound, the "Aobscure; us in liar, rival." Univ. and Crit. Diet. p. ix. Such a multiplication of the oral elements of our first vowel, or, indeed, any extension of them beyond four, appears to me to be unadvisable ; because it not only makes our alphabet the more defective, but is unnecessary, and not sustained by our best and most popular orthoepical authorities. The sound of a in liar, (and in rival too, if made " obscure,") is a borrowed one, pertaining more properly to the letter u. In grass, pass, and branch, properly uttered, the a is essentially the same as in man. In care and hare, we have the first sound of a, made as slender as the r will admit. OBS. 5. Concerning his fifth sound of a. Wells cites authorities thus : " Walker, Webster, Sheridan, Fulton and Knight, Kenrick, Jones, and Nares, give a in care the long sound of a, as in fate. Page and Day give it the short sound of a, as in mat. See Page's Normal Chart, mid Day's Art of Elocution. Worcester and Perry make the sound of a in care a separate element ; and this distinction is also recognized by Russell, Mandeville, and Wright. See Russell's Lessons in Enunciation, Mandevillc's Elements of Reading and Oratory, and Wright's Orthography." Wells'* School Grammar, p. 34. Now the opinion that a in care has its long, primal sound, and is not properly "a separate element," is maintained also by Murray, Hilev, Bullions, Scott, and Cobb ; and is, undoubtedly, much more prevalent than any other. It accords, too, with the scheme of Johnson. To count this a by itself, s'eems too much like a distinction without a difference. OBS. 6. On his sixth sound of a, Wells remarks as follows: "Many persons pronounce this a incorrectly, giving it either the grave or the short sound. Perry, Jones, Nares, Webster, and Day, give to a in grass the grave sound, as in father ; while Walker, Jamicson, and Russell, give it the short sound, as in man. But good speakers generally pronounce a in grass, plant, etc., as a distinct element, intermediate between the grave and the short sound. "School Gram. p. 34. He also cites Worcester and Smart to the same effect ; and thinks, with the latter, "There can be no harm in avoiding the censure of both parties by shunning the extreme that offends the taste of each." Ib. p 35. But I say, that a needless multiplication of questionable vowel powers, difficult to be discriminated, i* " harm," or a fault in teaching ; and, where intelligent orthoepists dis- pute whether words have " the grave or the short sound" of a, how can others, who condemn both parties, acceptably split the difference, and form " a distinct element" in the interval ? Words are often mispronounced, and the French or close a may be mistaken for the Italian or broadish a, and vice versa ; but, between the two, there does not appear to be room for an other distinguishable from both. Dr. Johnson says, (inaccurately in- deed,) "A has th ree sounds, the slender, [the] open, and [the] broad. A slender is found in most icoids, us face, mane. A open Is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it ; us father, rather, congratulate, fancy, glass. A broad resembles the a of the German ; as all, wall, call, esr The short a approaches to the a open, as yrass." Johnson's Grammar, in his Quarto Dictionary, p. 1. Thus the same word, grass, that serves Johnson for an ex- ample of "the short a," is used by Wells and Worcester to exemplify the "a intermediate;" while of the Doctor's five instances of what he calls the " a open," three, if not four, are evidently such as nearly allreaderg nowadays Avould call close or short ! Obs. 7. There are several grammarians who agree in ascribing to our first vowel five sounds, but who never- theless oppose one an other in making up the five. Thus, according to Hart, "A has five sounds of its own, as in fate, fare, far, fall, fat." Hart's E. Grain, p. 26. According to W. Allen, "A has five sounds ; the long or slender, as in cane ; the short or open, as in can ; the middle, as in arm ; the broad, as in all; and the broad contracted, as in want." Allen's E. Gram. p. 6. P. Davis has the same sounds in a different order, thus : ' a [as in] mane, mar, fall, mat, what. " Davis' s E. Gram. p. xvi. Mennve savs, "A has five sounds ; as, 1 fame, 2 fat, 3 false, 4 farm, 5 beggar." Mennye's E. Gram. p. 55. Here the fifth sound is the seventh of Worcester, DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. The only proper diphthong in which a is put first, is the word ay, meaning yes : in which a has its middle sound, as in ah, and y is like open e, or ee, uttered feebly ah-ee. APPENDIX i. (ORTHOGRAPHY.) SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 1003 Aa, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, and not as pertaining to two syllables, usually takes the sound of close a ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. In many words, as in Badly Gadl, Ga'dsh, the diaeresis occurs. In baa, the cry of a sheep, we hear the Italian sound of a ; and, since we hear it but once, one a or the other must be silent. JE, a Latin improper diphthong, common also in the Anglo-Saxon, generally has, ac- cording to modern ortho ; pists, the sound of open e or ee ; as in Ctpsar, eenigma, pcean ; sometimes that of close or .thort e ; as in aphrrrcsis, diuresis, et cetera. Some authors, judg- ing the a of this diphthong to be needless, reject it, and write Cesar, enigma, &c. Ai, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open or long a ; as in sail, avail, vainly. In a final unaccented syllable, it sometimes preserves the first sound of a as in chilblain, mortmain: but oftener takes the sound of close or short i ; as in certain, curtain, mountain, villain. In said, saith, again, and against, it takes the sound of close or short e ; and in the name Britain, that of close or short u. Ao, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word gaol, now frequently written as it is pro- nounced, jail; also in gaokr, which may be written jailer ; and in the compounds of gaol : and, again, it is found in the adjective extraordinary, and its derivatives, in which, according to nearly all our orthoepists, the a is silent. The name Pharaoh, is pronounced Fd'ro. Au, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a ; as in cause, caught, ap- plause. Before n and an other consonant, it usually has the sound of grave or middle a ; as in aunt, flaunt, gaunt, launch, laundry. So in laugh, laughter, and their derivatives. Gauge and ganger are pronounced gage and gager, and sometimes written so. Aw, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like broad a; as in ilratr, drawn, draicl. Ay, an improper diphthong, like ai, has usually the sound of open or long a ; as in day, pay, delay ; in sayst and says, it has the sound of close or s/tort e. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. Awe is sounded au, like broad a. Aye, an adverb signifying always, has the sound of open or long a only ; being diiferent, both in sound and in spelling, from the adverb ay, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. The distinction is maintained by Johnson, Walker, Todd, Chalmers, Jones, Cobb, Maunder, Bollcs, and others; but Webster and "Worcester give it up, and write " ay, or aye," each sounded ah-ee, for the affirmation, and " aye," sounded a, for the adverb of time : Ainsworth, on the contrary, has ay only, for either sense, and does not note the pronunciation. II. OF THE LETTER B. The consonant B has but one sound ; as in boy, robber, cub. B is silent before t or after m in the same syllable ; as in debt, debtor, doubt, dumb, lamb, climb, tomb. It is heard in subtile, fine ; but not in subtle, cunning. III. OF THE LETTER C. The consonant C has two sounds, neither of them peculiar to this letter ; the one hard, like that of k, the other soft, or rather hissing, like that of *. C before a, o, u, I, r, t, or when it ends a syllabic, is generally hard, like k ; as in can, come, curb, clay, crab, act, ac- tion, accent, flaccid. C before e, i, or y, is always soft, like s ; as in cent, civil, decency, acid, In a few words, c takes the fiat sound of s, like that of z ; as in discern, tujficc, sacrifice, tice. C before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh ; as in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. C is silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, cor- puscle, and the second syllable of Connecticut. Ch is generally sounded like tch, or tsh, which is the same to the ear ; as in church, chance, chil 1. But, in words derived from the learned languages, it has the sound of A ; as in char- acter, scheme, catechise, chorus, choir, chyle, patriarch, drachma, mayna charta : except in chart, charter, charity. Ch, in words derived from the French, takes the sound of sh ; as in 'tine. In Hebrew words or names, in general, ch sounds like k ; as in Chebar, Sirach, Enoch : but in and cherubim, we have Anglicized the sound by ut- tering it as tch. Loch, a Scottish word, sometimes also a medical term, is heard as lok. h, before a vowel, is pronounced ark ; as in archives, archangel, archipelago : except in arched, archer, archery, archenemy. Before a consonant, it is pronounced artch ; as in arch- bishop, archdukr, archfiend." See H'. Alien' s dram. p. 10. Ch is silent in schism, yacht, and drachm. In schedule, some utter it as k ; others, as sh ; and many make it mute : I like the first practice. IV. OF THE LETTER D. The general Bound of the consonant D, is that which is heard in dog, eddy, did. D, in the termination ed, preceded by a sharp consonant, takes the sound of t, ^hen the e is suppressed or unheard : as in faced, stuffed, cracked, tripped, passed ; pronounced faste, shift, cruet, tript, past. D before ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally sounds like .;"; as in Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous. So in verdure, arduous, education. 1C04 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. V. OF THE LETTER E. The vowel E has two sounds properly its own, and I incline to think, three : 1. The open, long, full, or primal e ; as in me, mere, menial, melodious. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped e ; as in men, merry, ebony, strength. 3. The obscure or faint e ; as in open, garden, shovel, able. This third sound is scarcely perceptible, and barely sufficient to articulate the consonant and form a syllable. E final is mute, and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel or diphthong ; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except 1. In the words, be, he, me, we, she, in which it has the open sound ; and the article the, wherein it is open before a vowel, and obscure before a consonant. 2. In Greek and Latin words, in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable, or the basis of one ; as in Penelope, Pasiphae, Cyanee, Gargaphie, Aminoe, apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, extempore, epitome. 3. In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the sound of close or curt u, heard before the r ; as in acre, meagre, centre. Mute e, after a single consonant, or after st or th, generally preserves the open or long sound of the preceding vowel ; as in cane, here, pine, cone, tune, thyme, baste, waste, lathe, clothe : except in syllables unaccented ; as in the last of genuine; and in a few monosylla- bles ; as bade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, live, shove, love. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. E before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an improper diphthong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. We do not hear both vowels in one syllable, except per- haps in eu or ew. Ea, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open or long e ; as in ear, fear, tea : fre- quently, like close or curt e; as in head, health, leather : sometimes, like open or long a ; as in steak, bear, forswear : rarely, like middle a; as in heart, hearth, hearken. Ea in an unaccent- ed syllable, sounds like close or curt u ; as in vengeance, pageant. Ee, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like one open or long e ; as in eel, sheep, tree, trustee, referee. The contractions e'er and ne'er, are pronounced air and nair, and not like ear and near. E'en, however, preserves the sound of open e. Been is most commonly heard with the curt sound of i, bin. Ei, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like the primal or long a ; as in reign, veil : fre- quently, like open or long e ; as in deceit, either, neither, seize : sometimes, like open or long i ; as in height, sleight, heigh-ho ; often, in unaccented syllables, like close or curt i ; as in for- eign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereign ; rarely, like close e ; as in heifer, nonpareil. Eo, an improper diphthong, in people, sounds like open or long e ; in leopard and jeopardy, like close or curt e ; in yeoman, according to the best usage, like open or long o ; in George, Georgia, georgic, like close o ; in dungeon, puncheon, sturgeon, &;c., like close u. In /eo/f, and its derivatives, the close or short sound of e is most fashionable ; but some prefer the long sound of e ; and some write the word "fief." Feod, feodal, feodary, an&feodatory, are now commonly written as they are -pronounced.,feud, feudal, feudary, feudatory. Eu and eic are sounded" alike, and almost always with the diphthongal sound of open or long u; as in feud, deuce, jewel, dew, few, new. These diphthongs, when initial, sound like yu. Nouns beginning with this sound, require the article a, and not an, before them ; as, A European, a ewer. After r or rh, eu and ew are commonly sounded like oo ; as in drew, grew, screw, rheumatism. In seic and Shrewsbury, ew sounds like open o : Worcester, how- ever, prefers the sound of oo in the latter word. Sheiv and strew, having the same meaning as show and strow, are sometimes, by sameness of pronunciation, made to be the same words ; and sometimes distinguished as different words, by taking the sounds shu and stroo. Ey, accented, has the sound of open or long a; as in bey, prey, survey ; unaccented, it has the sound of open e ; as in alley, valley, money. Key and Icy are pronounced, kee, lee. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. Eau, a French triphthong, sounds like open o ; as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau, bureau : except in beauty, and its compounds, in which it is pronounced like open u, as if the word were written buty. Eou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable, especially after c or g ; as in crus-ta-ceous, gor-geous. Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in eous, in all of which he separates these vowels ; as in ex-tra-ne-ous. And why, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies asfa-ba-ce- ous in four syllables and her-ba-ceous in three, it is not easy to tell. The best rule is this : after c or g, unite these vowels ; after the other consonants, separate them. Ewe is a triphthong having the sound of yu, and forming a word. The vulgar pronunci- ation yoe should be carefully avoided. Eye is an improper triphthong which also forms a word, and is pronounced like open i, or the pronoun /. VI. OF THE LETTER F. The consonant F has one unvaried sound, which is heard in fan, effort, staff; except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov. APPENDIX i. (ORTHOGRAPHY.) SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 1005 VII. OF THE LETTER G. The consonant G has two sounds ; the one hard, guttural, and peculiar to this letter ; the other soft, like that of./. G before a, o, u, /, r, or at the end of a word, is hard ; as in game, ;//ie, gull, glory, grace, log, bog ; except in goal. G before e, i, or y t is soft ; as in gem, ginger, elegy. Except 1. In get, give, gewgaw, finger, and a few other words. 2. When a syllable is added to a word ending in g : as, long, longer; fog, foggy. G is silent before m or n in the same syllable ; as in phlegm, apothegm, gnaw, design. G t when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel; as in resign, impregn, impugn. Gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard ; as in ghastly, gherkin, Ghibelline, ghost, ghoul, ghyll : in other situations, it is generally silent ; as in high, mighty, plough, bough, though, through, fight* night, bought. Gh final sometimes sounds like f; as in laugh, rough, tough; and sometimes, like g hard; as in burgh. In hough, lough, shough, it sounds like k, or ck; thus, hock, lock, shock. VIII. OF THE LETTER H. The sound of the consonant H, (though articulate and audible when properly uttered,) is little more then an aspirate breathing. It is heard in hat, hit, hot, hut, adhere. H at the beginning of a word, is always sounded; except in heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, with their compounds and derivatives. 77 after r, is always silent ; as in rhapsody, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. H final, immediately following a vowel, is always silent ; as in ah, Sarah, Xinerch, Shiloh. IX. OF THE LETTER I. The vowel 7 has three sounds, each very common to it, and perhaps properly its own : 1. The open, long, full, or primal i ; as in life, fine, final, time, bind, child, sigh, pint, resign. This is a diphthongal sound, equivalent to the sounds of middle a and open e quickly united. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped i ; as in ink, limit, disfigure, mimicking. 3. The feeble, faint, or slender i, accentless ; as in divest, doctrinal, diversity. This third sound is equivalent to that of open e, or ee, uttered feebly. 7 generally has this sound when it occurs at the end of an unaccented syllable : except at the end of Latin words, or of ancient names, where it is open or long ; as in literati, Nervii, Eli, Levi. In some words, (principally from other modern languages,) t has the full sound of open e, under the accent ; as in Porto Rico, machine, magazine, antique, shire. Accented t followed by a vowel, has its open or primal sound ; and the vowels belong to separate syllables ; as in pliant, diet, satiety, violet, pious. Unaccented i followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound ; as in expatiate, obedient, various, abstemious. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 7, in the situation last described, readily coalesces with the vowel which follows, and is often sunk into the same syllable, forming a proper diphthong ; as in fustian, quotient, ques- tion. The terminations cion, sion, and tion, are generally pronounced shun; and cious and tious are pronounced shus. le is commonly an improper diphthong. le in die, hie, lie, pie, tie, vie, and their derivatives, has the sound of open i. le in words from the French, (as cap-a-pie, ecurie, grenadier, siege, bier,') has the sound of open e. So, generally, in the middle of English roots; as in chief, fiicf; but, in sieve, it has the sound of close or short i. In friend, and its derivatives or compounds, it takes the sound of close e. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. The triphthongs icu and iew both sound like open or long u ; as in lieu, adieu, vietc. The three vowels iou, in the termination ious, often fall into one syllable, and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this ending; and more than two hundred derivatives from them. Walker has several puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation ; such Q,sfas-ti(l-i-ous&ndper-fid-ioit3,con-ta-gi-ous&nd.sac-ri-le-gious. After r, ;/, f, or c, \ els should coalesce ; as in gra-cious, re-li-gious, vex-a-tima, ob-nox-ious, and about two hundred other words. After the other consonants, let them form two sylla- bles ; (except when there is a synseresis in poetry ;) as in du-bi-ous, o-di-ous, va-ri-ous, en- vi-ous. \. OF THE LETTER J. The consonant J, the tenth letter of the English alphabet, has invariably the sound of soft g, like the g in giant, which some say is equivalent to the complex sound dzh; as, jade, jet, jilt, joy, j '.prejudice. XI. OF THE LETTER K. The consonant A', not silent, has uniformly the sound of c hard ; and occurs where c would have its soft sound : as in keep, looking, kind, smoky. K before n is silent ; as in knarc, know, knuckle. In stead of doubling c final, we write ck; as in lack, lock, luck, at toe':. In English words, k is never doubled, though two Kays n. ay come together in certain compounds; as in brickkiln, jackknife. Two Kays, belonging 1006 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. to different syllables, also stand together in a few Scripture names ; as in Akkub^Va kbakkar, Bukki, Bukkiah. Habakkuk, Hakkoz, Ikkesh, Sukkiims. C before k, though, it does not always double the sound which c or k in such a situation must represent, always shuts or shortens the preceding vowel ; as in rack, speck, freckle, cockle, wicked. XII. OF THE LETTER L. The consonant L, the plainest of the semivowels, has a soft, liquid sound ; as in line, lily, roll,folloio. L is sometimes silent ; as in Holmes, alms, almond, calm, chalk, walk, calf, half, could, would, should. L, too, is frequently doubled where it is heard but once ; as in hill, full, travelled : and any letter that is written twice, and not twice sounded, must there be once mute ; as the last in baa, ebb, add, see, staff", egg, all, inn, coo, err, less, buzz. XIII. OF THE LETTER M. The consonant Mis a semivowel and a liquid, capable of an audible, humming sound through the nose, when the mouth is closed. It is heard in map, murmur, mammon. In the old words, comptj accompt, comptroller, (for count, account, controller,} the m is sounded as n. M before n, at the beginning of a word, is silent ; as in Mnason, Mnemosyne, mnemonics-, XIV. OF THE LETTER N. The consonant N, which is also a semivowel and a liquid, has two sounds ; the first, the pure and natural sound of n ; as in nun, banner, cannon ; the second, the ringing sound of ng, heard before certain gutturals ; as in think, mangle, conquer, congress, singing, twinkling, Cen'chrea. The latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words ending in ing, and in such others as require it. The sounding of the syllable ing as if it were in, is a vul- garism in utterance ; and the writing of it so, is, as it would seem by the usage of Burns, a Scotticism. N final preceded by m, is silent ; as in hymn, solemn, column, damn, condemn, autumn. But this n becomes audible in an additional syllable ; as in autumnal, condemnable, damning. XV. OF THE LETTER O. The vowel O has three different sounds, which are properly its own : 1. The open, full, primal, or long o ; as in no, note, opiate, opacity, Roman. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped o ; as in not, nor, torrid, dollar, fond'e. 3. The slender or narrow o, like oo ; as in prove, move, ^cho, to, do, tomb. O, in many words, sounds like close or curt u ; as in love, shove, son, come, nothing, dost, attorney, gallon, dragon, comfit, comfort, coloration. One is pronounced wun ; and once, wunce. In the termination on immediately after the accent, o is often sunk into a sound scarcely perceptible, like that of obscure e ; as in mason, person, lesson. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. Oa, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open or long o; as in boat, coal, roach, coast, coasticise : except in broad and groat, which have the sound of broad a. Oe, an improper diphthong, when./waZ, has the sound of open or long o ; as in doe, foe, throe : except in canoe, shoe, pronounced canoo, shoo. (E, a Latin diphthong, generally sounds like open e ; as in Antceci, foetus : sometimes, like close or curt e ; as \nfoctid,fccticide. But the English -word. fetid is often, and perhaps generally, written without the o. Oi is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o or broad a, and that of open e ; as in boil, coil, soil, rejoice. But the vowels, when they appear together, sometimesbelong to separate syllables ; as in Stoic, Stoicism. Oi unaccented, sometimes has the sound of close or curt i ; as in avoirdupois, connoisseur, tortoise. Oo, an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of o ; as in coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has, in some words, a shorter or closer sound, (like that of u in bull,} as in foot, good, wood, stood, wool; that of close u, in blood &&& flood ; and that of open o, in door and floor. Derivatives from any of these, sound as their primitives. Ou is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close or curt o, and that of u as heard in bull, or u sounded as oo ; as in bound, found, sound, ounce, thou. Ou is also, in cer- tain instances, an improper diphthong; and, as such, it has six different sounds :(!) That of close or curt u; as in rough, tough, young, flourish. (2.) That of broad a; as in ought, bought, thought. (3.) That of open or long o ; as in court, dough, four, though. (4.) That of close or curt o ; as in cough, trough, lough, shough ; which are, I believe, the only ex- amples. (5.) That of slender o, or oo ; as in soup, you, through. (6.) That of u in bull, or of oo shortened ; only in would, could, should. Ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou, or like a union of short o with oo ; as in brown, dowry, now, shower : but it is often an improper diphthong, having only the sound of open or long o ; as in know, show, stow. Oy is a proper diphthong, equivalent in sound to oi ; as in joy, toy, oyster. APPENDIX i. (ORTHOGRAPHY.) SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 1007 TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. (Eu is a French triphthong, pronounced in English as oo, and occurring in the word ma- nwm-re, with its several derivatives. Owe is an improper triphthong, and an English word, in which the o only is heard, and heard always with its long or open sound. XVI. OF THE LETTER P. The consonant P, when not written before h, ha commonly one peculiar sound ; which is heard in pen, pine, sup, supper. The word cupboard is usually pronounced kubburd. P, writ- ten with an audible consonant, is sometimes itself silent ; as in psalm, psalter, pseudography, psychil-j;/ 1 /, /> t ifni ijan, ptyalism, receipt, corps. Ph generally sounds like/,- as in philosophy. In Stephen and nephew, ph has the sound of t'. The h after p, is silent in diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, ophthalmic ; and both the p and the h are silent in apophtJiegm, phthisis, phthisical. From the last three words, ph is sometimes dropped. XVII. OF THE LE1TER Q. The consonant Q, being never silent, never final, never doubled, and not having a sound peculiar to itself, is invariably heard, in English, with the power of k; and is always fol- lowed by the vowel u, which, in words purely English, is sounded like the narrow o, or oo, or, perhaps, is squeezed into the consonantal sound of w ; as in queen, quaver, quiver, quar- ter, request. In some words of French origin, the u after q is silent; as in coquet, liquor, burlesque, etiquette. XVIII. OF THE LETTER R. The consonant R, called also a semivowel and a liquid, has usually, at the beginning of a , pro- hard) greater reputation as an orinocpisi, teacnes mat, - mere is a distinction in tnc sound oi tins letter, w says he, "In my opinion, of no small importance ; and that is, the [distinction of] the rough and [the r. Hen .Ioii-on," continues he, " in his Grammar, says, ' Jt is sounded firm in the beginning of words, , liquid in tin- middle and ends, as in rur- /, riper ; and so in the Latin.' The rough r is formed by jarrii word, or before a vowel, a rough or pretty strong sound ; as in roll, rose, roam, proudly, pro- rogue. " In other positions," it is said by many to be " smooth " or " soft ; " " as in } foreword." W.Allen. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. The letter tf turns the tip of the tongue up against or towards the roof of the mouth, where the sound may be lengthened, roughened, trilled, or quavered. Consequently, this element may, at the will of the speaker, have more or less little or nothing, or even very much of that peculiar roughness, jar, or whur, which is com- monly said to constitute the sound. The extremes should here be avoided. Some readers very Improperly omit the sound of;- from many words to which it pertains ; pronouncing or as awe, nor as know, for as faugh, and war as the first syllable of water. On the other hand, " The excessive trilling of the r, as practised by some speakers, is a great fault. " D. P. Page. OBS. 2. Dr. Johnson, in his " Grammar of the English Tongue," savs, "R has the same rough snarling sound as in other tongues." P. 3. Again, In his Quarto Dictionary, under this letter, he says, "7i is called the canine letter, because it is uttered with some resemblance to the growl or snarl of a cur : it has one constant sound in Knglish, such as it has In other languages; as, red, rose, more, murinticJi:" 1 Walker, however, who has a greater reputation as an orthoepist, teaches that, " There is a distinction in the sound of this letter, which Is," -- the rough and [the] smooth 'Is, and more . irring the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth near the fore teeth : the smooth r is a vibration of the lower part of the tongue, near the root, against the inward region of the palate, near the entrance of the throat." Walker't c. No. II:': u,-t,ir<, lti,-t. p. 48. OBS. 3. Wells, with his characteristic indecision, forbears all recognition of this difference, and all intimation of the qualitv of the sound, whether smoother rough; saying, in his own text, only this: "/ has the sound heard in rare." School Orttmmtar, p. In. I Inn, referring the student to sundry authorities, he adds in a foot- rtain " limitations, " that are said to "present a general view of UM different opinions whi> among orthoepists respecting this letter." And so admirably are these authorities or opinions balanced and i st an other, that it i- hard to tell which has the odds. First, though it is not at all proba- ble that \Vell>'s utterance of " rare " exhibit* twice over the rough snarl of Johnson's r, tin- "general view" M tended to confirm the indefinite teaching above, thus: " 'A' has one constant sound in Knglish. ' John- ton. The same riew is adopted by \\vt.ster. ferry, Kenrick, Sheridan, Jones, Jamewn, Knowles, and other*." School Grain ni'ir, \>. 4u. In counterpoise of th-->e, \Vells next cites about as manv more namely, Frazee, Page, Kiissi-ll, Walker, Itush, Barber, Oomstock, and Smart, as maintaining or admitting that r has sometimes a rough sound, and sometimes a smoother one. XIX. OF THE LETTER S. The consonant S has a sharp, hissing, or hard sound ; as in sad, sister, thus : and aflat, buzz- ing, or soft sound, like that of z ; as in rose, dismal, bosom, husband. N, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is always sharp ; as in see, steps, cliff's, sits, stocks, smiths. S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded by a sharp consonant, is generally flat ; as in eyes, trees, beds, bags, wives. But in the English termination ous, or in the Latin us, it i^ sharp ; &3 joyous, vigorous, hiatus. >\ i* generally sharp ; as in pass, kiss, harass, assuage, basset, cassock, remissness. But the first t :x possess, or any of its tegular derivatives, as well as the two in dissolve, or its proximate kin, sound like two Zees ; and the soft or flat sound is commonly given to each s in hyssop, hussy, and hussar. In scisscl, scissible, and scissile, all the Esses hiss ; in tcissors, the last three of the four are flat, like z ; but in the middle of sctssure and scission we hear the sound of zh. S, in the termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a consonant ; as in aspersion, ses- sion, passion, mission, compulsion: and that of zh, after a vowel ; as in invasion, elision, con- fusion. In the verb assure, and each of its derivatives, also in the nouns pressure &ndjt.isure, with their derivatives, we hear, according to Walker, the sound of sh for each *, or twice in each 1008 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. word ; but, according to the orthoepy of Worcester, that sound is heard only in the ac- cented syllable of each word, and the vowel in each unaccented syllable is obscure. S is silent or mute in the words, isle, island, aisle, demesne, corps, and viscount. XX. OF THE LETTER T. The general sound of the consonant T, is heard in time, letter, set. T, immediately after the accent, takes the sound of tch, before u, and generally also before eon ; as in nature, fea- ture, virtue, righteous, courteous : when s or x precedes, it takes this sound before ia or io ; as in fustian, bastion, mixtion. But the general or most usual sound of t after the accent, when followed by i and an other vowel, is that of sh; as in creation, patient, cautious. In English, t is seldom, if ever, silent or powerless. In depot, however, a word borrowed from the French, we do not sound it ; and in chestnut, which is a compound of our own, it is much oftener written than heard. In often and soften, some think it silent ; but it seems rather to take here the sound of/. In chasten, hasten, fasten, castle, nestle, whistle, apostle, epistle, bustle, and similar words, with their sundry derivatives, the t is said by some to be mute ; but here it seems to take the sound of*; for, according to the best authorities, this sound is heard twice in such words. Th, written in Greek by the character called Theta, (0 or capital, $ or 6 small,) represents an elementary sound ; or, rather, two distinct elementary sounds, for which the Anglo-Saxons had different characters, supposed by Dr. Bosworth to have been applied with accurate discrimination of "the hard or sharp sound of th," from " the soft or flat sound." (See Bosivorth's Compendious Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, p. 268.) The English th is either sharp, as in thing, ethical, thinketh ; or flat, as in this, whither, thither. "Th initial is sharp ; as in thought : except in than, that, the, thee, their, them, then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, thou, thus, thy, and their compounds." W. Allen's Grammar, p. 22. Th final is also sharp ; as in south : except in beneath, booth, with, and several verbs for- merly with th last, but now frequently (and more properly) written with final e ; as loathe y mouthe, seethe, soothe, smoothe, clothe, wreathe, begueathe, unclothe. Th medial is sharp, too, when preceded or followed by a consonant ; as in Arthur, ethnic, sicarthy, athwart : except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, murther, northern, worthy. But "th between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English ; as in gather, neither, whither : and sharp in words from the learned languages ; as in atheist, ether, method." See W. Allen's Gram. p. 22. "Th, in Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthisis, and their compounds, is pronounced like t." Ib. XXI. OF THE LETTER U. The vowel ?7has three sounds which may be considered to be properly its own : 1. The open, long, full, primal, or diphthongal u; as in tube, cubic, juvenile. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped u ; as in tub, butter, justice, unhung. 3. The middle u, resembling a short or quick oo ; as in pull, pulpit, artful. U forming a syllable by itself, or U as naming itself, is nearly equivalent in sound to you, and requires the article a, and not an, before it ; as, a U, a union. U sometimes borrows the sound of some other vowel ; for bury is pronounced berry, and busy is pronounced bizzy. So in the derivatives, buried, burial, busied, busily, and the like. The long or diphthongal u, commonly sounded as yu, or as ew in eiver, or any equivalent diphthong or digraph, as ue, ui, eu, or ew, when it follows r or rh, assumes the sound of slender o or oo ; as in rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, rheum, fruit, truth, brewer. DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. 17, in the proper diphthongs, ua, ite, ?', uo, uy, has the sound of w or of oo feeble ; as in persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy. Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound 1. Of middle a; as in guard, guardian. 2. Of close a; as in guarantee, piquant. 3. Of obscure e ; as in victuals and its compounds or kindred. 4. Of open u; as in mantuamaker. Ue, an improper diphthong, has the sound 1. Of open u; as in blue, ensue, ague. 2. Of close e ; as in guest, guesser. 3. Of close u ; as in leaguer. Ue final is sometimes silent; as in league, antique. Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound 1. Of-open i ; as in guide, guile. 2. Of close i ; as in conduit, circuit. 3. Of open u ; as in juice, sluice, suit. Uo can scarcely be called an improper diphthong, except, perhaps, after q in liquor, liquorice, liquorish, where uor is heard as ur. Uy, an improper diphthong, has the sound 1. Of. open y ; as in buy, buyer. 2. Of feeble y, or of ee feeble ; as in plaguy, roguy. TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. Uai is pronounced nearly, if not exactly, like way ; as in guai-a-cum, quail, quaint. Uaw is sounded like wa in water; as in squaw, a female Indian. Uay has the sound of ivay ; as APPENDIX I. (ORTHOGRAPHY.) SOUNDS OP LETTERS. 1009 in Par-a-guay : except in quay, which nearly all our orthoepists pronounce kee. Uea and uee are each sounded wee ; as in queasy, queer, squeal, squeeze. Uoi and uoy are each sound- ed woi ; as in quoit, buoy. Some say, that, as u, in these combinations, sounds like w, it is a consonant ; others allege, that w itself has only the sound of oo, and is therefore in all cases a vowel. U has, certainly, in these connexions, as much of the sound of oo, as has to; and perhaps a little more. XXII. OF THE LETTER V. The consonant V always has a sound like that of f flattened ; as in love, vulture, vivtdous. It is never silent, never final, never doubled. XXIII. OF THE LETTER W. W, when reckoned a consonant, (as it usually is when uttered with a vowel that follows it,) has the sound heard at the beginning of wine, win, woman, woody ; being a sound less vocal than that of oo, and depending more upon the lips. W before h, is usually pronounced as if it followed the h ; as in what, when, where, while : but, in who, whose, whom, whole, whoop, and words formed from these, it is silent. Before r, in the same syllable, it is also silent ; as in wrath, wrench, wrong. So in a few other cases ; as in sword, answer, two. W is never used alone as a vmcel; except in some Welsh or foreign names, in which it is equivalent to oo ; as in " Cwm Cothy," the name of a mountain in Wales ; " Wkra" the name of a small river in Poland. See Lockhart's Napoleon, Vol. ii, p. 15. In a diphthong, when heard, it has the power of u in bull, or nearly that of oo ; as in new, note, brow,fr n. Aw and ow are frequently improper diphthongs, the w being silent, the a broad, and the o long ; as in law, flaw, tow, snow. W, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a con- sonant, we have no diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter. XXIV. OF THE LETTER X. The consonant " X has a sharp sound, like ks ; as in ox : and a flat one, like gz ; as in example. X is sharp, when its ends an accented syllable ; as in exercise, exit, excellence : or" when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant ; as in expand, extreme, expunge. X unaccented is generally flat, when the next syllable begins with a vowel ; as in exist, exemption, exotic. X initial, in Greek proper names, has the sound of z; as in Xanthus, Xantippe, Xenophon, Xerxes." See W. Allen's Gram. p. 25. XXV. OF THE LETTER Y. Y, as a consonant, has the sound heard at the beginning of yarn, young, youth ; being rather less vocal than the feeble sound of i, or of the vowel y, and serving merely to modify that of a succeeding vowel, with which it is quickly united. F, as a vowel, has the same sounds as i : 1. The open, long, full, or primal y ; as in cry, crying, thyme, cycle. 2. The close, curt, short, or stopped y ; as in system, symptom, cynic. 3. The feeble or faint y, accentless ; (like open e feeble ;) as in cymar, cycloidal, mercy. The vowels i and y have, in general, exactly the same sound under similar circumstances and, in forming derivatives, we often change one for the other : as in city, cities; tie, tying easy, easi/y. Y, before a vowel heard in the same syllable, is reckoned a consonant ; we have, there- fore, no diphthongs or triphthongs commencing with this letter. XXVI. OF THE LETTER Z. The consonant Z, the last letter of our alphabet, has usually a soft or buzzing sound, the same as that of sflat; as in '/.< />, zenith, breeze, dizzy. Before u primal or i feeble, z, as well as sflat, sometimes takes the sound of zA, which, in the enumeration of consonantal sounds, is reckoned a distinct element ; as in azure, seizure, glazier ; osier, measure, pleasure. END OP THE FIRST APPENDIX. 73 APPENDIX II. TO PART SECOND, OR ETYMOLOGY. OF THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. Derivation, as a topic to be treated by the grammarian, is a species of Etymology, wine explains the various methods by which those derivative words which are not formed by mere grammatical inflections, are deduced fiom their primitives. Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in English, may be traced to ulterior sources, and many ,of them are found to be compounds or derivatives in the other languages from which they Lave come to us. To show the composition, origin, and literal sense of these, is also apart, and a highly useful part, of this general inquiry, or theme of instruction. This species of information, though insignificant in those whose studies reach to nothing better, to nothing valuable and available in life, is nevertheless essential to education and to science ; because it is essential to a right understanding of the import and just ap- plication of such words. All reliable etymology, all authentic derivation of words, has ever been .highly valued by the wise. The learned James Harris has a remark as follows : " How useful to ETHIC SCIENCE, and indeed to KNOWLEDGE in general, a GRAMMATICAL DIS- QUISITION into the Etymology and Meaning of WORDS was esteemed by the chief and ablest Philosophers, may be seen by consulting Plato in his Cratylus ; Xenophon's Memorabilia, IV, 5, 6 ; Arrian. Epict. I, 17 ; II, 10 ; Marc. Anton. Ill, 11 ; " &c. See Harris's Hermes, p. 407. A knowledge of the Saxon, Latin, Greek, and French languages, will throw much light on this subject, the derivation of our modern English; nor is it a weak argument in favour of studying these, that our acquaintance with them, whether deep or slight, tends to a bet- ter understanding of what is borrowed, and what is vernacular, in our own tongue. But etymological analysis may extensively teach the origin of English words, their composition, and the import of their parts, without demanding of the student the power of reading foreign or ancient languages, or of discoursing at all on General Grammar. And, since many of the users of this work may be but readers of our current English, to whom an un- known letter or a ff eeign word is a particularly uncouth and repulsive thing, we shall here forbear the use of Saxon characters, and, in our explanations, not go beyond the precincts of our own languagr, except to show the origin and primitive import of some of our defin- itive and connecting particles, and to explain the prefixes and terminations which are fre- quently employed to form English derivatives. The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom literature is unknown, are among those transitory things which, by the hand of time, are irrecoverably buried in ob- livion. The fabric of the English language is undoubtedly of Saxon origin ; but what was the particular form of the language spoken by the Saxons, when about the year 450 they entered Britain, cannot now he accurately known. It was probably a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic. This Anglo-Saxon dialect, being the nucleus, received large accessions from other tongues of the north, from the Norman French, and from the more polished languages of Rome and Greece, to form the modern English. The speech of our rude and warlike an- cestors thus gradually improved, as Christianity, civilization, and knowledge, advanced the arts of life in Britain; and, as early as the tenth cemury, it became a language capable of expressing all the sentiments of a civilized people. From the time of Al red, its progress may be traced by means of writings which remain ; but it can scarcely be called English, as I have shown in the Introduction to this work, till about the thirteenth century. And for two or three centuries later, it was so different from the modem English, as to be scarcely intelligible at all to the mere English reader ; but, gradually improving bv means upon which we need not here dilate, it at length became what we now find it, a language copious, strong, refined, impressive, and capable, if properly Tiscd, of a great degree of beauty and harmony. SECTION I. DERIVATION OF THE ARTICLES. 1. For the derivation of our article THE, which he calls " an adjective" Dr. Webster was satisfied with giving this hint: " SHX. the ; Dutch, de." Am>-r. Diet. According to Home Tooke, this definite article of ours, is the S^xon verb % 'THK," imperative, from THEAN, to take; and is nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those, because our that is "the past APPENDIX ii. (ETYMOLOGY.) DERIVATION OF WORDS. 1011 participle of THKAX," and "means taken." Diversions of Purify, Vol. ii, p. 40. But this is not very satisf ictory. Examining ancient works, we find the word, or something resem- bling it,, or akin to it, written in various forms, as .?<, see, ye, te, rh-, th<>, thd, and others that cannoc be shown by our modern letters ; and, tracing it as one article, or one and the same word, through what we suppose to be the oldest of thee forms, in stead of accounting the forms a-< si u r ns of different roots, we should sooner regard it as originating in the imperative of SKO.V, to see. L'. A.v, our indefinite article, is the Saxon &n, ane, an, ONE ; and, by dropping n before a conso.iant, becomes a. G-iwin Douglas, an ancient English writer, wrote ane, even before a consonant ; as, "Ane book," "Ane lang spere," ".4/te volume." OBSERVATIONS. OBS 1. The words of Torke, concerning the derivation of That and T)ie, as nearlv as they can be prlven In ourl.t : "TKATUM- - i\.,ii Tha?t, 1. c. Theail, Theat> means taten, atsumect; being in. -n-l/ f the Aiulo-Saxoi, verbThean, Thcgan, Thion, Thlhan, Thicgan, Thigian ; sumere, assumere, nil-:, to get, to (ate, to asxutne. ' 111 imne he TIIK That caused mo To make myselfe a frere.' 8tr T. Afore" s Wortes, pay 4. .< it is called; N the imperative . rt Tln-aii : wlij..-li may verv well Huppl.v the ndent Anglo-Saxon article 8e, which lathe Imperative of Seon, vi.iere : for it ans\\ same ;i . to say ... see man, or late man." Diversion* \ >[ ii, p. 49. OBS -2. -Now, h.'tween T/i'ft :in>\ rtea/. there 1* a considerable difference of form, for as and ea are not the !. in tin- iil''iitilVum ofso m;inv infinitive-;, a-* f >nnin:: 1> it one ver!>, then- i-t room lor rirxr. . .1.- tint these are tr iU- on* r.>,,t. a- tlutt ourarti -I,- Th,- is the same, in its origin, a- the old Anglo-Saxon 5*. Dr. Bosworth, in hii narr, gives no such word siu-li i , :t-; ima^inarv ; but he baa inserted tnui-tlicr '* Thlc- gan, thicgear., thigan, to receive, or take;'' 1 ant, separately. "Tlu'im, to thrive, or flourish," " Thihan, to 'i'jurifih;" as well as the preterit "Tlieat, hc Inl," fr.nu " Theotan, to huicl." And jilain. th it the old verl) ' TIIK." a-* use. I i>\ \lure. is from Theon, to thrive, rather than from Thicgan, " Hi in it>' I):- TIIK " --' III mi-tit he thrire," not. " III ifli.'ht lie tui-e." 'I'lie wont tli? was originally tliun-t, or t/iut. In course of time f,] it be- :i I the short form a { lin-il, in usa^i-. a >h.i'!e of meaning 'litl'ercnt from the original ] Tlwt is ilemnnstrativi- wit' without empli-i 1 *!'*." //' lite improbable ; because th rthortetting of a mono*yllAble of five letters by striking oat the third and the fifth. Is no lu abbreviation. Bwworth's Dictionary explains TIIK as "An in- t for all Hi.' ,-a-e- t, especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt - ixon, o-s in the Chronicle after the year LU8." SECTION II. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. In En'jU-ihi Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from par- ticiples. I. Xouns are derived from Xouns in several different ways : 1. liy the adding of ship, d')in, ric, icick, or, ate, hood, or head : as, fellow, fellowship ; king, , ''ii*]i:>))rii- ; btiilijf, or baity, bailiicick ; senate, senator; tetrarch, tetrarchate; chtl-!. These generally denote dominion, office, or character. 2. Hy the adding of iun: as, music, musician; physic, physician ; theology, theologian; gram M; college, c!;iu ; ring, ringlet ; cro$$, crossli '; hill, hil!-l; ; run, run in-/; OOQ . ,'nl->l, jiistolet ; eagle, eaglet ; Ml these denote little things, and are calk-d diminutives. 6. By the adding of M* : as, psalm, psalmist ; botany, botanist ; dial, 10. l*y the addition of r.-s.s, ix, or inc. or the e: I masculines to femiuiues so ter- minating : :i<, ' . . abbot, abbess ; governor, governess; testator, testatrt 11. N >uaa are derived fr- . several different ways : 1. By the adding of //><., ity, sliiji, ilom, or lio.xl : as, good, goodness; real, reality ; hard, hards! i 2. By the changing Of t into ce or cy : as, rmliunt, radiance ; consequent, consequence; fia- grant, ji'ijran i ; CUfTt "<'y. 3. By the changing of* some of the letters, and the adding v^ t or as, ng, length; 1012 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. broad, breadth; wide, width; high, height. The nouns included under these three hei generally denote abstract qualities, and are called abstract nouns. 4. By the adding of ard : as, drunk, drunkard ; dull, dullard. These denote ill character. 5. By the adding of ist : as,, sensual, sensualist; separate, separatist; royal, royalist ; fatal, fatalist. These denote persons devoted, addicted, or attached, to something. 6. By the adding of a, the Latin ending of neuter plurals, to certain proper adjectives in an : as, Miltonian, Miltoniana ; Johnsonian, Johnsoniana. These literally mean, Miltonian things, sayings, or anecdotes, &c. ; and are words somewhat fashionable with the journalists, and are sometimes used for titles of books that refer to table-talk. III. Nouns are derived from Verbs in several different ways : 1. By the adding of ment, ance, ence, ure, or age : as, punish, punishment; abate, abatement; ripent, repentance; condole, condolence; forfeit, forfeiture ; stow, stowage; equip, equipage; truck, truckage. 2. By a change of the termination of the verb, into se, ce, sion, tion, ation, or ition ; as, ex- pand, expanse, expansion ; pretend, pretence, pretension ; invent, invention ; create, creation ; omit, omission; provide, provision; reform, reformation; oppose, opposition. These denote either the act of doing or the thing done. 3. By the adding* of er or or : as, hunt, hunter ; write, writer ; collect, collector ; assert, as- sertor ; instruct, instructer, or instructor. These generally denote the doer. To denote the person to whom something is done, we sometimes form a derivative ending in ee : as, prom- isee, mortgagee, appellee, consignee. 4. Nouns and Verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but different in pronunciation : as, a house, to house ; a use, to use ; a reb'el, to rebel 1 ; a rec'ord, to record' ; a cem'ent, to ce- ment'. Of such pairs, it may 'often be difficult to say which word is the primitive. 5. In many instances, nouns and verbs are wholly alike as to form and sound, and are distinguished by their sense and construction only : as, love, to love; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; to revise, a revise ; to rebuke, a rebuke. In these, we have but the same word used differently. IV. Nouns are often derived from Participles in ing ; as, a meeting, the understanding, murmurings, disputings, sayings, and doings : and, occasionally, one is formed from such a word and an adverb or a perfect participle joined with it ; as, "The turning -away," " His goings-forth," " Your having -boasted of it." SECTION III. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. In English, Adjectives are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from participles. I. Adjectives are derived from Nouns in several different ways : 1. By the adding of ous, ious, eous, y, ey, ic, al, ical, or ine : (sometimes with an omission or change of some of the final letters :) as, danger, dangerous ; glory, glorious ; right, righteous ; rock, rocky ; clay, clayey ; poet, poetic, or poetical ; nation, national ; method, methodical ; ver- tex, vertical ; clergy, clerical; adamant, adamantine. Adjectives thus formed, generally ap- ply the properties of their primitives, to the nouns to which they relate. 2. By the adding of ful: as, fear, fearful; cheer, cheerful ; grace, graceful; shame, shame- ful ; power, powerful. These come almost entirely from personal qualities or feelings, and denote abundance. 3. By the adding of some : as, burden, burdensome ; game, gamesome ; toil, toilsome. These denote plenty, but do not exaggerate. 4. By the adding of en: as, oak, oaken; silk, silken; wheat, wheaten ; oat, oaten; hemp, hempen. Here the derivative denotes the matter of which something is made. 5. By the adding of ly or ish : as, friend, friendly ; gentleman, gentlemanly ; child, childish ; prude, prudish. These denote resemblance. The termination ly signifies like. 6. By the adding of able or ible : as, fashion, fashionable ; access, accessible. But these terminations are generally, and more properly, added to verbs. See Obs. 17th, 18th, &c., on the Rules for Spelling. 7. By the adding of less : as, house, houseless ; death, deathless; sleep, sleepless ; bottom, bot- tomless. These denote privation or exemption the absence of what is named by the primitive. 8. By the adding of ed: as, saint, sainted ; bigot, bigoted ; mast, masted ; wit, witted. These have a resemblance to participles, and some of them are rarely used, except when joined with some other word to form a compound adjective : as, three-sided, bare-footed, long-eared, hundred-handed, fiat-nosed, hard-hearted, marble-hearted, chicken-hearted. 9. Adjectives coming from proper names, take various terminations : as, America, Ameri- can ; England, English ; Dane, Danish ; Portugal, Portuguese ; Plato, Platonic. 10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change of termination: as, paper currency ; a gold chain ; silver knee-buckles. 11. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives in several different wa^s : 1. By the adding of ish or some : as, white, whitish ; green, greenish ; lone, lonesome ; glad, gladsome. These denote quality with some dimunition. APPENDIX ii. (ETYMOLOGY.) DERIVATION OF WORDS. 1013 2. By the prefixing of dis, in, or un : as, honest, dishonest ; consistent, inconsistent ; wise, un- wise. These express a negation of the quality denoted by their primitives. 3. By the adding of y or ly : as, stcarth, swarthy ; good, goodly. Of these there are but few ; for almost all derivatives of the latter form are adverbs. III. Adjectives are derived from Verbs in several different ways : 1. By the adding of able or ible : (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters :) as, perish, perishable ; vary, variable ; convert, conrcrtib!* .'/./>/<>, or diridnble. These, according to their analogy, have usually a passive import, and denote susceptibility of receiving action. 2. By the adding of ive or ory : (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters :) as, elect, elective ; interrogate, interrogative, interrogatory ; defend, defensive ; defame, de- famatory ; explain, explanatory. 3. \Vords ending in ate, are mostly verbs ; but some of them may be employed as adjec- tives, in the same form, especially in poetry; as, reprobate, complirntr. IV. Adjectives are derived from Participles, not by suffixes, but in these ways : 1. By the prefixing of un, meaning not ; as, unyielding, unregarded, undeserved, unendowed, unendeared, unendorsed, unencountered, unencumbered, undisheartened, undishonoured. Of this sort there are very many. 2. By a combining of the participle with some word which does not belong to the verb ; as, way -faring, hoUow-sounding, long-drawn, deep-laid, dear -purchased, down-trodden. These, too, are numerous. 3. Participles often become adjectives without change of form. Such adjectives are dis- tinguished from participles by their construction alone : as, "A lasting ornament ; " " The starving chymist ; " " Words of learned length ; " " With counterfeited glee." SECTION IV. DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS. I. The English Pronouns are all of Saxon origin ; but, in them, our language differs very strikingly from that of the Anglo-Saxons. The following table compares the simple per- sonal forms : Eng. I, My or Mine, Me ; We, Our or Ours, Us. Sax. Ic, Min, Me or Mec ; We, Ure or User, Us. Eng. Thou, Thy or Thine, Thee; Ye, Your or Yours, You. Sax. Thu, Thin, The or Thee; Ge, Eower, EoworEowic. Eng. He, His, Him; They, Their or Theirs, Them. Sax. He, His or Hys, Him or Hine ; Hi or Hig, Hira or Heora, Heom or Hi. Eng. She, Her or Hers, Her ; They, Their or Theirs, Them. Sax. Heo, Hire or Hyre, Hi ; Hi or Hig, Hira or Heora, Heom or Hi. Eng. It, Its, It ; They, Their or Theirs, Them. Sax. Hit, His or Hys, Hit ; Hi or Hig, Hira or Heora, Heom or Hi. Here, as in the personal pronouns of other languages, the plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives from the nominative singular. Many of these pro- nouns, perhaps all, as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in our language, and in that from which it chiefly comes, were very variously written by the Middle English, Old English, Semi-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history of our language, will meet with them under all the following forms, (or such as these would be with Saxon characters for the Saxon forms,) and perhaps in more : 1. I, J, Y, y, i, ic, che, ich, Ic; MY, mi, min, MINE, myne, myn; ME, mee, me, meh, mec, mech : WE, wee, ve ; OUR or OURS, oure, ure, user, usse, usser, usses, ussum ; Us, ous, vs, uss, usic, usich, usig, usih. 2. THOU, thoue, thow, thowe, thu ; THY or THINE, thi, thyne, thyn, thin ; THEE, the, theh, thec : YE, yee, ze, zee, ge ; Yoru or Youiis, youre, zour, gour, goure, cower ; You, youe, yow, gou, zou, ou, iu, iuh, eow, iow, geo\v, eowih, cowic, iowih. 3. HE, hee, se ; His, hise, is, hys, vs. hyse ; HIM, hine, hen, hyne, hym, im : THKY, thay, thei, the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hie, heo, hig, hyg, hy ; THEIH or THEIRS, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, theora, hare, here, her, hire, hira, hiora, hiera, heora, hyra ; THEM, theym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, em, hem, heom, hom, him, hi, hig. 4. SHE, shoe, sche, scho, sho, scae, seo, heo, hio, hiu ; HER, (possessive,) hur, hir, hire, hyr, hyre, hyra, hera; HER, (objective,) hire, hyre, hir, hi. The plural forms of this feminine pronoun are like those of the mainline He ; but the " If "///- II V.v/u r.s to Knowledge," in their small Grammar, (erroneously, as I suppose,) make hira masculine only, and heora feminine only. See their Princip^s <>f Cnunmar, p. 38. 5. IT, yt, itt, hit, hyt, hyt. The possessive It* is a modern derivative ; His or Hys was formerly used in lieu of it." The plural forms of this neuter pronoun, It, are like those of He and She. According to Home Tooke, who declares hcrt to have been one of its ancient forms, ' this pronoun was merely the past participle ot the verb H.VITAN, hfrtan, nominate," to name, and literally signifies " the said; " (l)iceniona of Purify, Vol. ii, p. 4(> ; \\\ Allen's Gram. p. 57 ;) but Dr. Alexander Murray, exhibiting it in an other form, not adapted to this opinion, 1014 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, or pronoun, inflected from the masculine, thus : " He, heo hita, this." Hist, of Lang. Vol. i, p. 315. II. The relatives are derived from the same source, the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and have passed through similar changes, or varieties in orthography. They have been found in all the following forms : 1. WHO, ho, wha, hwa, hua, wua, qua, quha ; WHOSE, who's, whos, quhois, quhais, quhase, hwaes; WHOM, whome, quhum, quhome, hwom, hwam, hwscm, hwaene, hwone. 2. WHICH, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, quilch, quilk, quhilk, hwilc, hwylc, hwelc, whilk, huilic, hvilc. For the Anglo-Saxon forms, Dr. Bosworth's Dictionary gives " hwilc, hwylc, and hwelc ; " but Professor Fowler's E. Grammar makes them " huilic and hvilc" See p. 240. Whilk is a Scotch form. 3. WHAT, hwat, hwet, quhat, hwret. This pronoun, whether relative or interrogative, is regarded by Bosworth and others as a neuter derivative from the masculine or feminine hwa, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modern English, it is not always of the neuter gender. See the last note on page 297. 4. THAT, Anglo-Saxon Thset. Tooke's notion of the derivation of this word is noticed above in the section on Articles. There is no certainty of its truth ; and our lexicographers make no allusion to it. W. Allen reaffirms it. See his Gram. p. 54. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. In the Well-Wishers' Grammar, (p. 30,) as also in L. Murray's and some others, the pronoun Which is very strangely and erroneously represented as being always " of the muter gender." (See what is said of this word in the Introduction, Chap, ix, If 32.) Whereas it is the relative most generally applied to brute animals, and, in our common version of the Bible, its application to persons is peculiarly frequent. Fowler says, "In its origin it is a Compound." A 1 . Gram. p. 240. Taking its first Anglo-Saxon form to be "Huilic," he thinks it traceable to " tiwa, who," or its " ablative tor," and "We, like." Ib. If this is right, the neuter sense is not its primitive import, or any part of it. OBS. 2. From its various uses, the word That is called sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction ; but, in respect to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same. As a relative pro- noun, it is of either number, and has no plural form different from the singular ; as, "Blessed is the man that heareth me." frov. viii, 34. " Blessed are they that mourn." Matt, v, 4. Asan adjective, it is said by Tooke to have been formerly " applied indifferently to plural nouns and to singular ; as, ' Into tliut holv ordres.' Dr. Martin. 'At that dayes. ' Id. ^That euyll aungels the deuilles.' Sir Tho. More. 'This pleasure undoubtedly farre excelleth all that pleasures that in this life maie be obteined.' Id." inversions ojPurtry, Vol. ii, pp. 47 and 48. The introduction of the plural form those, must have rendered this usage bad English. SECTION V. DERIVATION OF VERBS. In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from verbs. I. Verbs are derived from Nouns in the following different ways : 1. By the adding of ize, ise, en, or ate : as, author, authorize ; critic, criticise ; length, lengthen ; origin, originate. The termination ize is of Greek origin, and ise is most probably of French : the former is generally preferable in forming English derivatives ; but both are sometimes to be used, and they should be applied according to Rule 13th for Spelling. 2. Some few verbs are derived from nouns by the changing of a sharp or hard consonant to a flat or soft one, or by the adding of a mute e, to soften a hard sound : as, advice, advise ; price, prize; bath, bathe; cloth, clothe; breath, breathe; wreath, wreathe; sheath, sheathe; grass, graze. II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives in the following different ways : 1. By the adding of ize or en: as, legal, legalize; immortal, immortalize; civil, civilize; human, humanize ; familiar, familiarize ; particular, particularize ; deaf, deafen; stiff, stiffen ; rough, roughen ; deep, deepen ; weak, weaken. 2. Many adjectives become verbs by being merely used and inflected as verbs : as, warm, to warm, he warms ; dry, to dry, he dries ; dull, to dull, he dulls ; slack, to slack, he slacks ; forward, to forward, he forwards. III. Verbs are derived from Verbs in the following modes, or ways : 1. Bv the prefixing of dis or un to reverse the meaning : as, please, displease ; qualify, dis- qualify ; organize, disorganize ; fasten, unfasten ; muzzle, unmuzzle ; nerve, unnerve. 2. By the prefixing of a, be, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up, or with : as, rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle ; bid, forbid ; see, foresee ; take, mistake ; look, overlook ; run, outrun ; go, undergo ; hold, uphold ; draw, withdraw. SECTION VI. DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES. All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner explained in Chap- ter 7th, under the general head of Etymology ; and when foreign participles are intro- duced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to some other class of words, or part of speech. SECTION VII. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of ly ; which is an abbreviation for like, and which, though the addition of it to a noun forms an adjec- tive, is the most distinctive as well as the most common termination of our adverbs : as, APPENDIX ii. (ETYMOLOGY.) DERIVATION OF WORDS. 1015 candid, candidly ; sordid, sordidly ; presumptuous, presumptuously. Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. '2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English words; as, /< , t<>- fin;/, alirai/.s, already, i-lm-ir/,. . -ithal. The formation and the meaning of these art', in general, sufficiently obvious. 3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix, or inseparable preposition, a; as, Abreast, abroach, a'/road, across, afar, afield, a;/o, ayotj, aland, atom;, ami**, atilt, 4. Xri-tlx, as an adverb, is a contraction of need is; prithee, or j>r ;jthee, of / pray thic ; alone, of all one ; only, ot '. on^-likc ; anon, of the Saxon an on; i. e, in one [instant]; never, of ne ever , ; i. e., /tot CVUT. Gibbs, in Fowler's Grammar, makes needs "the Genitive case." P. 311. 5. Very is from the French veray, or vrai, true ; and this, probably, from the Latin vena. Rather appears to be '.he regular comparative of the ancient rath, soon, quickly, willingly ; which comes from the Anglo-Saxon "Rathe, or II rat he, of one's own accord." Bo* But the parent language had also "Hrathre, to a mind." Id. That is, to ones mind, or, perhaps, more willingly. OBSERVATIONS. OBS. 1. Many of our most common adverbs are of Anglo-Saxon derivation, being plainly traceable to certain 1 forms, ni the saino import, which tho etymologist regards but as the same words differentlv spelled : . . all, cal, or ;vll ; Aln>*t. eiilma-st. ora'lin:i'-t ; Al.>. i al.swa, or ttlswa ; A'/s. , . IK-s ; El*twheie, elles- hwa-r ; /.';/''///, ^fin>:_, cr j:eiioh : t-'.rm. fiirn, t-tin, or a-tVn ; Enr, em-r, a-lcr, IT ;i Ire ; D"(rincard, tlune- wranl ; /-'"nront, ti>r\vc:inl. nrtore\\ eard : //;, trufl, hannvoiird : JJomtirard*, lunnw rardes : ll, na ; ,Vo/, nolit, or nocht ; (nit, ut. or nte ; .$<, swa; Still, stille, or stvlle; Tl,i, thc-iine : Tltn-r tlicr, thar, tha-r : Tlti'/it-r, tliidcr, <>r thydt-r ; Thnx, thuss, <.r thus ; Together, to. or ti>'_M -i!r. : / - . li%\ cum-. <>r li\\aino ; Wherr, Invar ; Whither, hwider, hwyder, or hwyther ; l'ea t OBS. 8. According to Home Tooke. "5^i7/and Els? are the imperatives Stell and Alft of their respective ^''-t/aji, to put, and .!/<-./. to di-miss." Diversions, Vol. i, p. 111. He afterwards repeats ih<> doctrine S'lil \- <>nlv tin- imperative ,s7e// or Steall, of Siellan or Strut/tan, pom-re. "lb. p. 14t;. " Tl.i- i /M, formerly wrl tii . 'T.itivo ofM/esaw or Alysan, dimittere." 76. p. 148. These ulterior and rein- mologies are perhaps too conjectural. SECTION VIII. DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. The Ent/lish Conjunctions are mostly of Anglo-Saxon origin. The best etymological vocabularies of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Anglo- ^ characters; but Home Tooke, in }\i* I>1> /->/*. of Parley, (a learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage,) traces, or professes to trace, these and many other English particles, to Saxon verbs or participles. The following deriva- tions, so far as they partake of such speculations, are offered principally on his authority : I. ALTH />. <>f 1'., Vol. i, p. 111. That is, "To give the heap." The truth of this, if unappart-nt, I must leave so. 4. As, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als ; but Tooke says that aU itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es or as, meaning if, that, or ichic/i. 5. lii-;c vt'^K, from be and r///v, HUMUS />// can.sc the he being written for by. 6. Bora, the tiro, is from the pronominal adjective bnth ; whieh, according to Dr. Alexander Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic tlagoth, signifying ilmhld. The Anglo-Saxons wrote for it r'mtn, fnifirii, hnta, and but tea ; \. e., ba, both, tira, two. 7. BIT. ( in Saxon, lutte, hutun, }nit<>n, or hutiin, ) m-a;iing esci-pt, >/<(, mnr, only, else ////, that not, <>r on the e mtranj. is referred by Tooke and s.me others, t- two roots, cachof tin-in but a conjectural etymon for it. " Ut r, implying addition," say they, is from Hot, the im- r, drnotin:; r.ce,-j>ti.ni, is iroin Be-utan, the imj>erativc of Hi'ou-\it.in, t't ' mi'." See 1). "jr., \"ol. i, pp. Ill and 1 .)">. 8. EiTunt. MM <>f th" tu:>, like the pronominal adjective JTIHKK, is from the Anglo-Saxon her, a word of the MU id the same imi>oit. >\\- nearly is fioin " Kac, the imperative of Eacan, to add." 10. Kvi N, \\ lirtlier a noun, an adjective , an adverb, or a conjunction, appears to come from the same source, the Annl"-S.i\un word Mien or ,1-ifen. II. K\ci i- 1. whieh, whr;. .iiction. mean- unless, is the imperative, or (ac- cording to Dr. Johnson) an ancient j effect jiaiticiple, of tii< TJ. 1 . from the Sax<>n preposition />>/-, whieh. to express this meaning, our ancestors combined with something el>e, rrducing to one \\ord eome such }>hrase a- that, F>- this, J-'or this that ; as, ' Forthn, Fortham, Forthan, Forthamthe, Forthan the.'' See Jios worth's Diet. \'.\. IF. aice. y rant, allow, is from " Gif, the imperative of tho Anglo-Saxon Gifan, to gift-." Tooke's I . Vol. i, p. 111. 14. LK-T, that not, dioni^e,/, is from " I-esed, the perfect participle of Losan, to dismiss." 15. NEITHEII, not either, is a union and contraction of ne either : our old writers Jrequently 1C 16 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. used ne for not ; the Anglo-Saxons likewise repeated it, using ne ne, in lieu of our corre- sponsives neither nor ; and our modern lexicographers still note the word, in some of these senses. 16. NOR, not other, not else, is supposed to be a union and contraction of ne or. 17. NOTWITHSTANDING, not hindering, is an English compound of obvious formation. 18. OR, an alternative conjunction, seems to be a word of no great antiquity. It is sup- posed to be a contraction of other, which Johnson and his followers give, in Saxon characters, either as its source, or as its equivalent. 19. PROVIDED, the perfect participle of the verb provide, becomes occasionally a disjunc- tive conjunction, by being used alone or with the particle that, to introduce a condition, a saving clause, a proviso. 20. SAVE, anciently used with some frequency as a conjunction, in the sense of but, or except, is from the imperative of the English verb save, and is still occasionally turned to such a use by the poets. 21. SEEING, sometimes made a copulative conjunction, is the imperfect participle of the verb see. Used at the head of a clause, and without reference to an agent, it assumes a conjunctive nature. 22. SINCE is conjectured by Tooke to be " the participle of Seon, to see," and to mean "seeing, seeing that, seen that, or seen as." D. of P., Vol. i, pp. Ill and 220. But Johnson and others say, it has been formed " by contraction from sithence, or sith thence, from sithe, Sax." Joh. Diet. 23. THAN, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the Gothic than, or the Anglo-Saxon thanne, which was used for the same purpose. 24. THAT, when called a conjunction, is said by Tooke to be etymologically the same as the adjective or pronoun THAT, the derivation of which is twice spoken of above ; but, in Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, as abridged by Chalmers, THAT, the conjunction, is referred to " thatei, Gothic ; THAT, the pronoun, to " that, thata, Gothic ; that, Saxon ; dot, Dutch." 25. THEN, used as a conjunction, is doubtless the same word as the Anglo-Saxon Thenne, taken as an illative, or word of inference. 26. " TH.OUGH, allow, is [from] the imperative Thaf, or Thafig, of the verb Thafian or Thafigan, to allow" Tooke s Diversions, Vol. i, pp. Ill and 150. 27. " UNLESS, except, dismiss, is [from] Onles, the imperative of Onlesan, to dismiss." Ib. 28. WHETHER, a corresponsive conjunction, which introduces the first term of an alter- native, is from the Anglo-Saxon hwather, which was used for the same purpose. 29. YET, nevertheless, is from " Get, the imperative of Getan, to get" Tooke. SECTION IX. DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. The following are the principal English Prepositions, explained in the order of the list : 1. ABOARD, meaning on board of, is from the prefix or preposition a and the noun board, which here means " the deck of a ship " or vessel. Abord, in French, is approach, arrival, or a landing. 2. ABOUT, [Sax. Abiitan, or Abuton,] meaning around, at circuit, or doing, is from the prefix a, meaning at, and the noun bout, meaning a turn, a circuit, or a trial. In French, bout means end ; and about, end, or but-end. 3. ABOVE, [Sax. Abufan, Abufon, A-be-ufan,] meaning over, or, literally, at-by-over, or at-by-top, is from the Saxon or Old English a, be, and ufa, or ufan, said to mean " high, up- wards, or the top." 4. ACROSS, at cross, athwart, traverse, is from the prefix a and the word cross. 5. AFTER, [Sax. ^Efter, or ^Eftan,] meaning behind, subsequent to, is, in form, the com- parative of aft, a word common to seamen, and it may have been thence derived. 6. AGAINST, opposite to, is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, Ongean, or Ongegen, each of which forms means again or against. As prefixes, on and a are often equivalent. 7. ALONG, [i. e., at-long,] meaning lengthwise of, near to, is formed from a and long. 8. AMID [, i. e., at mid or middle,] is from a and mid; and AMIDST [, i. e., at midst,] is from a and midst, contracted from middest, the superlative of mid. 9. AMONG, mixed with, is probably an abbreviation of amongst ; and AMONGST, according to Tooke, is from a and mongst, or the older " Ge-mencged," Saxon for " mixed, mingled." 10. AROUND, about, encircling, is from a and round, a circle, or circuit. 11. AT, gone to, is supposed by some to come from the Latin ad; but Dr. Murray says, " We have in Teutonic AT for AGT, touching or touched, joined, at" Hist, of Lang, i, 349. 12. ATHWART, across, is from a and thwart, cross ; and this from the Saxon Thweor. 13. BATING, a preposition for except, is the imperfect participle of bate, to abate. 14. BEFORE, 15. BEHIND, 16. BELOW, 17. BENEATH 18. BESIDE [, I. e., by-side,] is from be and the noun or adjective side. 19. BESIDES [, i. e., by-sides,] is probably from be and the plural noun sides. i. e., by-fore,] in front of, is from the prefix be and the adjective/ore, i. e., by-hind,] in rear of, is from the prefix be and the adjective hind. i. e., by-low,] meaning under, or beneath, is from be and the adjective low. [, Sax. or Old Eng. Beneoth,] is from be and neath, or Sax. Neothe, low. APPENDIX ii. (ETYMOLOGY.) DERIVATION OP WORDS. 1017 20. BETWEEN, [Sax. Betweonan, or Betwynan,] literally, by-ttcain, seems to have been formed from be, by, and twain, two, or the Saxon Twegen, which also means tiro, tirain. 21. BETWIXT, meaning betin-fn, [Sax. Betweox, Bctwux, Betwyx, Betwyxt, &c.,] is from be, by, and ticyx, originally a "Gothic" word signifying "two, or twain." See Tooke, Vol. i, p. 329. 22. BEYOND, past, [Sax. Begeond,] is from the prefix be, by, and yond, [Sax. Geond,] past, far. 23. BY [, Sax. Be, Bi, or Big,] is affirmed by Tooke to be "the imperative Byth, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Beon, to be." D. of P., Vol. i, p. 326. This seems to be rather ques- tionable. 24. CONCERN-ING, the preposition, is from the first participle of the verb concern. 25. DOWN, the preposition, is from the Anglo-Saxon Dune, down. 26. DURING, prep, of time, is from the first participle of an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use ; as, " While the world may dure" Chaucer's Knight's Tale. 27. ERE, before, prep, of time, is from the Anglo-Saxon Jl-]r, a word of like sort. 28. EXCEPT, bating, is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the ancient per- fect participle of the verb to except ; and EXCEPTING, when a preposition, is from the first participle of the same verb. 29. FOR, because of, is the Anglo-Saxon preposition For, a word of like import, and sup- posed by Tooke to have come from a Gothic noun signifying cause, or sake. 30. FROM, in Saxon, Fram, is probably derived from the old adjective Frum, original. 31. IN, or the Saxon In, is the same as the Latin in : the Greek is n> ; and the French, en. 32. INTO, like the Saxon Into, noting entrance, is a compound of in and to. 33. MID and MIDST, as English prepositions, are poetical forms used for Amid and Amidst. 34. NOTWITHSTANDING, not hindering, is from the adverb not, and the participle with- standing. 35. OF is from the Saxon Of, or Af ; which is supposed by Tooke to come from a noun signifying offspring. 36. OFF, opposed to on, Dr. Johnson derives from the " Dutch af" 37. ON, a word very otten used in Anglo-Saxon, is traced by some etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the Dutch aan ; but no such derivation fixes its meaning. 38. OUT, [Sax. Ut, Ute, or Utan,] when made a preposition, is probably from the adverb or adjective Out, or the earlier I't ; and OUT-OF, [Sax. Ut-of,] opposed to Into, is but the adverb Out and the preposition Of usually written separately, but better joined, in some instances. 39. OVER, above, is from the Anglo-Saxon Ofer, aver; and this, probably, from Ufa, above, high, or from the comparative, Ufera, higher. 40. OVERTHWART, meaning across, is a compound of over and thwart, cross. 41. PAST, beyond, gone by, is a contraction from the perfect participle passed. 42. PENDING, duri.-ig or hanging, has a participial form, but is either an adjective or a preposition : we do not use pend alone as a verb, though we have it in depend. 43. RESPECTING, concerning, is from the first participle of the verb respect. 44. ROUND, a preposition for about or around, is from the noun or adjective round. 45. SINCE is most probably a contraction of the old word Sit hence ; but is conjectured by Tooke to have been formed from the phrase, "Seen as." 46. THROUGH [, Sax. Thurh, or Thurch,] seems related to Thorough, Sax. Thuruh ; and this again to Thuru, or Duru, a Door. 47. THROUGHOUT, f/nid- through, is an obvious compound of through and out. 48. TILL, [Sax. Til or Tille,] to, until, is from the Saxon Til or Till, an end, a station. 49. To, whether a preposition or an adverb, is from the Anglo-Saxon particle To. 60. TOUCHING, with ret/ant to, is from the first participle of the verb touch. 51. TOWARD or TOWARDS, written by the Anglo-Saxons Toweard or Toweardes, i* a com- pound of To and Ward or Wcard, a guard, a look-out; "Used in composition to express situation or direction." Bosworth. ')'!. UNDER, [(rothic, 1'iidar; Dutch, Onder,] beneath, beloir, is a common Anglo-Saxon word, and very frequent prefix, affirmed by Tooke to be "nothing but on-neder," a Dutch compound=on lower. See Dicrrxions of Parley, Vol. i, p. 331. 53. UNDERNEATH is a compound of under and neath, low ; whence nether, lower. 54. UNTIL is a compound Irom on or un, and till, or///, the end. 55. UNTO, now somewhat antiquated, is formed, not very analogically, from un and to. 56. UP is from the Anglo-Saxon adji-dive, " I'p or Upp, high, lofty." 57. UPON, which appears literally to mean high on, is from the two words up and on. 58. WITH comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon With, a word of like sort and import ; which Tooke says is an imperative verb, sometimes from " Withan, to Join," and some- times from " Wyrthan, to be." See his Diversions, Vol. i, p. 262. 59. WITHIN [. i. e., by-in,] is from with and in : Sax. Withinnan, Binnan, or Binnon. 60. WITHOUT [, i. e., by-out,] is from with and out : Sax. Withiitan,-uten,-iiton ; Butan, Baton, Biitun. 1018 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. OBSERVATION. In regard to some of our minor or simpler prepositions, as of sundry other particles, to go beyond the forms and constructions which present or former usage has at some period given them as particles, and to ascertain their actual origin in something ulterior, if such they had, is no very easy matter; nor can there be either satis- faction or profit in studying what one suspects to be mere guesswork. " How do you account for IN, OUT, ON,X OFF, and AT 'i " says the friend of Tooke, in an etymological dialogue at Purley. The substance of his answer is, " The explanation and etymology of these words require a degree of knowledge in all the antient northern languages, and a skill in the application of that knowledge, which I am very far from assuming : and though I am almost persuaded by some of my own conjectures concerning them, I am not willing, by an apparently forced aud far-fetched derivation, to justify your imputation of etymological legerdemain. "Diversions, Vol. i, p. 370. SECTION X. DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as Interjections, (such as Good! Strange! Indeed!,} do not require an explanation here; and those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or deriva- tion. The interjection HEY is probably a corruption of the adjective High ; ALAS is from, the French Ilelas ; ALACK is probably a corruption of Alas ; WELAWAY, or WELLAWAY, (which is now corrupted into WELLADAY,) is said by some to be from the Anglo-Saxon Wd-ld-wa, i. e., Wo-lo-wo ; " FIE," says Tooke, "is the imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb Fian, to hate ; " Heyday is probably from high day ; AVAUNT, perhaps from the French avant, before ; Lo, from look ; BEGONE, from be and gone ; WELCOME, from well and come ; FAREWELL, from fare and well. SECTION XI. EXPLANATION OF THE PRE IXES. In the formation of English words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes ; which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin, or character ; and the greater part of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. The roots to which they are prefixed, are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called SEPARABLE RADICALS ; those which are not such, INSEPARABLE RADICALS. CLASS I. THE ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 1. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at, or to : as in a-board, a-shore, a-foot, a-bed, a-soak, a-tilt, a-slant, a-far, a-field ; which are equal to the phrases, on board, on shore, on foot, in bed, in soak, at tilt, at slant, to a distance, to the fields. The French a, to, is probably the same particle. This prefix is sometimes redundant, adding little or nothing to the meaning ; as in awake, arise, amend. 2. .-BE, as a prefix, signifies upon, over, by, to, at, or for : as in be-spattcr, be-cloud, be-times t be-tide, be-howl, be-speak. It is sometimes redundant, or merely intensive; as in be-gird, be- deck, be-loved, be-dazzle, be-moisten, be-praise, be-guote. 3. COUNTER, an English prefix, allied to the French Contre, and the Latin Contra, means against, or opposite ; as in counter -poise, counter-evidence, counter -natural. 4. FOR, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition For, seems generally to signify from : it is found in the irregular verbs far-bear, far-bid, far-get, far-give, far-sake, far-swear ; and in for -bat he, for -do, far-pass, far-pine, far-say, far-think, far-waste, which last are now disused, the for in several being merely intensive. 5. FORE, prefixed to a verb, signifies before ; as in fare-know, fore-tell : prefixed to a noun, it is usually an adjective, and signifies anterior ; as in fore- side, fore-part. 6. HALF, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition ; and, often, merely to denote imperfection : as, half-sighted, seeing imperfectly. 7. Mis signifies ivrong or ill ; as in mis-cite, mis-print, mis-spell, mis-chance, mis-haj). 8. OVER denotes superiority or excess ; as in over-power, over-strain, over-large. 9. OUT, prefixed to a verb, generally denotes excess; as in out-do, out-leap, out-poise: prefixed to a noun, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior ; as in out-side, out-parish. 10. SELF generally signifies one's own person, or belonging to one's own person ; but, in self-same, it means very. We have many words beginning with Self, but most of them -seem to be compounds rather than derivatives ; as, self-love, self-abasement, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-willed, self -accusing. 11. Ux denotes negation or contrariety ; as in un-kind, un-load, un-truth, un-coif. 12. UtfDER denotes inferiority ; as in under-value, under -clerk, wider-growth. 13. UP denotes motion upwards ; as in up -lift : sometimes subversion ; as in up-set. 14. WITH, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition With, signifies against, from, or back ; as in with-stand, with-hold, with-draw, tvith-stander, with-holdment, with-drawal. CLASS II. THE LATIN PREFIXES. The primitives or radicals to which these are prefixed, are not many of them employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix Ad, Con, Ex, In, Ob, or Sub, is often changed before certain consonants ; not capriciously, but with uniformity, to adapt or as- similate it to the sound which follows. APPENDIX ii. (ETYMOLOGY.) DERIVATION OP WORDS. 1019 1. A, An, or ABS, means From, or Away : as n-rrrt, to turn from, or away ; ab-duce, to lead from ; ab-duction, a carrying-away ; >' . draw from, or away. 2. AD, forming ac, of, al, an, ap, as, at, means To, or At : h~ to turn to; ac- cede, to yield to ; af-Jlux, a llowing-to ; al-ly, to bind to ; an-nejr, to link to; ap-ply, to put to; as-sunie, to take to; at-tc.st, to witness to; ad-mirc, to wonder at. 3. A.VTK means Fore, or Before: a**, anfi'-pnvt, a fore-t ,t, foregoing, or going before; a)id--ntit,idanc, before the world; ante-date, to date before. 4. CIKCIM means Kound, Around, or About: as circum-rolce, to roll round; ei scribe, to write around ; //>/TKO, means Against, or Counter : as, contra-diet, to speak against ; contra-rcne, to come against; contra- nut n- t countermure ; contro-rcrt, to turn against. 7. DE means Of, From, or Down : as de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw from; de-pend, to hang down ; de-press, to press down ; de-crease, to grow down, to grow less. 8. Dis, or l)i, means Away or Apart : as, dis-pcl, to drive away ; dis-sect, to cut apart ; . to turn away. 9. E or Ex, making also ec, ef, means Out : as, e-ject, to cast out ; e-lect. to choose out; ex-chide, to shut out ; ex-cite, to summon out ; ec-stacy, a raising-out ; ef-face, to blot out. 10. EXTUA means Beyond, or Out of: as, extra-vacant, syllabled ex-trai-'a-t/ant, roving beyond ; extra- vasate, ex-trai'a-sate, to flow out of the vessels ; extra-territorial, being out of the territory. 11. IN, which makes also il, im, ir, means In, Into, or Upon : as, in-spire, to breathe in ; il-l>ttl<', to draw in by deceit; im-mnrc, to wall in ; ir-ruptiitn, a rusliing-in ; //<-\ look into; in-scribc, to write upon; in-sult, to jump upon. These syllables, prefixed to English nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their meaning; as in in-Justice, il-lcyality, im-)Htrfialifi/ t ir-n-lii/ion, ir-ratimial, i/i-nrrun-, iti-sa/te. 1'2. Ivi KK means Between, or In between : as inter -sperse, to scatter in between ; inter- jection, something thrown in between; intcr-jacent, lying between; inter-communication, communication between. 13. INTHO means In, Inwards, or Within : as, intro-duce, to lead in; intro-vert, to turn in- wards ; iittro-.ipect, to look within ; in tro- mission, a scnding-in. 14. On, which makes also oc, of, op, means Against : as, ob-trude, to thrust against ; oc-ctir, to run against ; of-fer, to bring against ; op-pose, to place against ; ob-ject, to cast against. 15. PER means Through or By : as, per-vade, to go through ; per-chance, by chance ; per- cent, by the hundred ; per-pkx, to tangle through, or to entangle thoroughly. 16. POST means After : as, post-pone, to place after ; post-date, to date after. 17. PK.T-:, or PRK, means Before : as, pre-snme, to take before : pre-position, a placing- before, or thing placed before; pr/, SHJ>, .w//-, and stis, means Under, and sometimes Up: as, srtb- wrihi', to write under; .v ;i Undermining; .s -tii)- fjsst, to convey under ; sup- ply, to put unil- r ; '-.nn-under; sus-tain, to hold up; sub-jt-ct, cast under. ]', neath : ns, sulit, r-fmnis, flo\\in<: 1 t-neath. : means Over or Abnv ,,ns, flowing over ; snjxr-/ .ir.ing above ; Mii>rr-latire, carried over, or carryin ' overlook, to ov< '11. TI:\NS, whence THAN ai; 1 Ti:.\, n .- d, Over, To aimtlier state or ])lace: as, tranx-us, head 2. AMPHI means Two, Both, or Double: as, am/>hi-binnji t living in two elements; amphi- ' brac/i, both [sides] short; amtihi-tln-iitrc, a double theatre. 3. ANTI means Against : a-*, nnti-slarrry, against slavery ; anti-acid, against acidity ; anti- febrile, against fever; anti-thesis, a placing- against. 1020 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 4. APO, APH, From : as, apo- strophe, a turning -from ; aph-ceresis, a taking-from. 5. DIA, Through : as, dia-gonal, through the corners ; din-meter, measure through. 6. EPI, EPH, Upon : as, epi-demic, upon the people ; eph-emera, upon a day. 7. HEMI means Half: as, hemi-sphere, half a sphere ; hemi-stich, half a verse. 8. HYPER means Over : as, hyper -critical, over-critical ; hyper-meter, over-measure. 9. HYPO means Under : as, hypo-stasis, substance, or that which stands under ; hypo- thesis, supposition, or a placing-under ; hypo-phyllous, under the leaf. 10. META means Beyond, Over, To an other state or place : as, meta-morphose, to change to an other shape ; meta-physics, mental science, as beyond or over physics. 11. PARA means Against: as, para-dox, something contrary to common opinion. 12. PERI means Around : as, peri-phery, the circumference, or measure round. 13. SYN, whence Sym, Syl, means Together: as, syn-tax, ' a putting-together; sym- pathy, a suffering-together ; syl-lable, what we take together ; syn-thesis, aplacing-together. CLASS IV. THE FRENCH PREFIXES. 1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means To. I have suggested above that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Saxon prefix a. It is found in a few English compounds or derivatives that are of French, and not of Saxon origin : as, a-dieii, to God; i. e., I commend you to God ; a-larm, from alarme, i. e., a forme, to arms. 2. BE means Of or From : as in de-mure, of manners ; de-liver, to ease from or of. 3. DEMI means Half : as, demi-man, half a man ; demi-god, half a god ; demi-devil, half a devil. 4. EN, which sometimes becomes em, means In, Into, or Upon : as, en-chain, to hold in chains ; em-brace, to clasp in the arms ; en-tomb, to put into a tomb ; em-boss, to stud upon. Many words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix : as embody, or imbody ; ensurance, or insurance ; ensnare, or insnare ; enquire, or inquire. 5. SUR, as a French prefix, means Upon, Over, or After : as, sur-name, a name upon a name ; sur-vey, to look over ; sur-mount, to mount over or upon ; sur -render, to deliver over to others ; sur-feit, to overdo in eating ; sur-vive, to live after, to over-live, to outlive. END OF THE SECOND APPENDIX, APPENDIX III. TO PART THIRD, OR SYNTAX. OF THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. Style, as a topic connected with syntax, is the particular manner in which a person cx- s his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, different from mere grammar, in any limited sense, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; in- volves, to some extent, and shows his literary, if not his moral, character ; is, in general, that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume ; and, sometimes, partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man, of his profession, sect, clan, or province, but even of national peculiarity, or some marked feature of the age. The words which an author employs, may be proper in themselves, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax, and yet his style may have great faults. In reviews and critical essays, the general characters of style are usually designated by such epithets as these ; concise, diffuse, neat, negligent, terse, bungling, nervous, weak, forcible, feeble, vehement, languid, simple, affected, easy, stiff, pure, barbar- ous, perspicuous, obscure, elegant, uncouth, florid, plain, flowery, artless, fluent, dry, piquant, dull, stately, flippant, majestic, mean, pompuous, modest, ancient, modern. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But, in forming his style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, uncouth, barbarous, or obscure style is always faulty ; and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, neatness, and purity, are qualities always to be aimed at. In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and writing some- thing, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object, will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And If he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both language and taste as well as sentiment; and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer nothing more thsi.i a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to three things, purity, propriety, and precision ; and, with respect to sentences, to throe othc: /////, unity, and strength. Under each of these six heads, we shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good style. SECTION I. OF PURITY. Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as belong to the lan- guage which we write or speak. Its oppositcs are the faults aimed at in the following pts. PuKCKi-T I. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms : such as the French words fruii-he.ur, hautettr, -d, martyrized, rewnition, marvrlizc, Ihnpitude, ajfectattd, adore mrnt, absquatulate. Of this sort is O. B. Peirce's " assimilarity," used on page 19th of hw English Grammar; and still worse is Jocelyn's " irradicable," for uneradicable, used on page oth of his Prize Essay on Education. PRKCEPT IV. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, however serious the subject. The following is an example : " Personifications, however rich the 1022 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; analogies, however imposing the objects of parallel, and the" media of comparison ; can never expose the consequences of sin to the ex- tent of fact, or the range of demonstration." Anonymous. SECTION II. OF PROPRIETY. Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them. Im- propriety embraces all those forms of error, which, for the purposes of illustration, exercise, and special criticism, have been so methodically and so copiously posted up under the various heads, rules, and notes, of this extensive Grammar. A few suggestions, however, are here to be set down in the form of precepts. PRECEPT I. Avoid low and provincial expressions : such as, " Now, says I, boys ; "- "Thinks I to myself; " "To get into a scrape ; " " Stay here while I come back ; " "By jinkers ; " "By the living jingoes." PRECEPT II. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely poetical : such as, morn, eve, plaint, corse, ^ceal, drear, amid, oft, stecpy ; " what time the winds arise." PRECEPT III. Avoid technical terms : except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are proper. PRECEPT IV. Avoid the recurrence of a word in different senses, or such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language : as, " His own reason might have suggested better reasons." " Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason than this; that the manager, in countenance,/atfottra/ his friend." " I want to go and see what he ivants." ^ PHECEPT V. Supply words that are wanting : thus, instead of saying, " This action in- creased his former services," say, " This action increased the merit of his former services." "How many [kinds of] substantives are there? Two; proper and common." See E. Devis's Gram. p. 14. " These changes should not be left to be settled by chance or by ca- price, but [should be determined] by the judicious application of the principles of Orthog- raphy." See Foivlcr's E. Gram., 1850, p. 170. PRECEPT VI. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions : as, " His memory shall be lost on the earth." "I long since learned to like nothing bvt what you do." PRECEPT VII. Avoid unintelligible, inconsistent, or inappropriate expressions : such as, ' I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." " These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." PRECEPT VIII. Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not put the cart before the horse : as, " The scribes taught and studied the Law of Moses." " They can neither return to nor leave their houses." " He tumbled, head over heels, into the water." " ' Pat, how did you carry that quarter of beef ? ' ' Why, I thrust it through a stick, and threw my shoulder over it.' " SECTION III. OF PRECISION. Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as to say, with no deficiency or surplus of terms, whatever is intended by the author. Its opposites are noticed in the following precepts. PRECEPT I. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or of sentiment : as, " "When will you return again f " " We returned back home again." " On entering into the room, I saw and discovered he had fallen doicn on the floor and could not rise up." "They have a mutual dislike to each other." " Whenever I go, he always meets me there." " Where is he at? In there." " His faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded." PRECEPT II. Repeat words as often as an exact exhibition of your meaning requires them ; for repetition may be elegant, if it be not useless. The following example does not appear faulty : " Moral precepts are precepts the reasons of which we see ; positive precepts are precepts the reasons of which we do not see." Butler's Analogy, p. 165. PRECEPT III. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, and employ those which are the most suitable ; as, "A diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celeb- rity, obtain rewards, win prizes, and get high honour, though he earn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet no two of them can here be correctly in- terchanged. PRECEPT IV. Observe the proper form of each -word, and do not confound such as re- semble each other. " Professor J. W. Gibbs, of Yale College," in treating of the "Pecu- liarities of the ('ockne> Dialect," says, "The Londoner sometimes confounds two different forms; as, contagious for contiguous; eminent for imminent; humorous for humorsome ; ingeniously for ingenuously ; luxurious for luxuriant ; scrupulosity for scruple ; successfully for su c s.tu-t',iij." bee Fowler's E. Gram. p. 87; and Pref., p. vi. PRECEPT V. Lhmk clearly, and avoid absurd or incompatible expressions. Example of error : " To pursue those remarks, would, probably, be of no further service to the learner than tl.at of burdening his memory with a catalogue of dry and uninteresting peculiarities ; which APPENDIX in. (SYNTAX.) QUALITIES OF STYLE. 1023 way nratify curiosity, without affording information adequate to the trouble of the perusal." Wright'* a ram. p. \-2-2. Piuxi-i'T VI. Avoid words that are useless ; and, especially, a multiplication of them into sentences, members, or clauses, that may well be spared. Example : " If one could really be a spectator of what is passing in the world around us without taking part in the events, or sharing in the passions and actual performance OH tlte ruti/d stf theatre, (iii-l />itj)(;f/i>/ irlthnnr < . n-hut a t to i>e elliptical; and. in som" particular instances, mist he so; hut, at the sain,- time, th.- t'.ai ex;,--,.^,,,,,, perhaps, mav have morepreeutoa, though It be li - Forc\am;il" : "A word of one syllable, Is called a mono- syllable ; a word of two syllabi* dis,vllahlf : a word of three syllable*, u co/forf a tri.*y liable: a word <.f four or more s\ lialiles, ,.<,,///.tc \vas never made to cater for vanity." J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 119. PHECKPT II. In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. For example : Guard your side from being known. If it be attacked, the best way is, to join in the attack." K \Mi.s : Art. of Tliinl;inv in bein^ a xfur,> to party prejudice." (). II. /', ,, \ drum., ls:i!>, p. L'o 1 . The meaning of this third j);irf <>f it Itn/.-ni syntax, is, in proper Kniilish, as follows : "A partici- ple not transitive, with the it, may have alter it a nominative den the -am- tiling; and also, when a preposition -roverns the participle, a nominative may lol- lo\v, in agreement with one whi< ;. . ' In doctrine, the former clause of the sentence is erroneous : it serves only to propagate f.dse syntax bv rule. See the former example, and a note of mine, referring to it, on pa^e ."ion of this work. SECTION V. OF IMTY. Unity consi-ts in avoiding needless pauses, and keeping one object predominant through- out a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be lew or many, re- 1024 THE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. quires strict unity. The chief faults, opposite to this quality of style, are suggested in the following precepts. PRECEPT I. Avoid brokenness, hitching, or the unnecessary separation of parts that naturally come together. Examples: "I was, soon after my arrival, taken out of my In- dian habit." Addison, Tattler, No. 249. Better : " Soon after my arrival, I was taken out of my Indian habit." Churchill's Gram. p. 326. " Who can, either in opposition, or in the ministry, act alone ? " Ib. Better : " Who can act alone, either in opposition, or in the ministry ? " Ib. " I, like others, have, in my youth, trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me." Ib. p. 327. Better : " Like others, I have trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me." PRECEPT II. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error : " The two volumes are, indeed, intimately connected, and con- stitute one uniform system of English Grammar." Murray's Preface, p. iv. Better thus : " The two volumes are, indeed, intimately connected. They constitute one uniform system of English grammar." PRECEPT III. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal subject in favour of adjuncts, or change the scene unnecessarily. Example : " After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness, which was not then expected." Better : " The vessel having come to anchor, I was put on shore ; where I was unexpectedly welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." See Blair's Rhet. p. 107. PRECEPT IV. Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject. Example : " But (saith he) since I take upon me to teach the whole world, (it is strange, it should be so natural for this man to write untruths, since I direct my Theses only to the Christian world : but if it may render me odious, such Peccadillo's pass with him, it seems, but for Pice Fraudcs :) I intended never to write of those things, concerning which we do not differ from others." R. Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 279. The parts of this sentence are so put together, that, as a whole, it is scarcely intelligible. SECTION VI. OF STRENGTH. Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence, such an ar- rangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. Perhaps it is essential to this quality of style, that there be animation, spirit, and vigour of thought, in all that is uttered. A few hints concerning the Strength of sentences, will here be given in the form of precepts. PRECEPT I. Avoid verbosity : a concise style is the most favourable to strength. Ex- amples : " No human happiness is so pure as not to contain any alloy." Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 270. Better : " No human happiness is unalloyed." " He was so much skilled in the exer- cise of the oar, that few could equal him." Ib. p. 271. Better : " He was so skillful at the oar, that few could match him." Or thus : "At the oar, he was rarely equalled." " The/ reason why they [the pronouns] are considered separately is, because there is something particular in their inflections." Priestley's Gram. p. 81. Better : "The pronouns are con- sidered separately, because there is something peculiar in their inflections." PRECEPT II. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. Inversion of terms sometimes increases the strength and vivacity of an expression : as, "All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me." Matt, iv, 9. "Righteous art thou, O Lord, and upright are thy judgements."- Psalms, cxix, 137. "Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints." Ps. cxvi, 15. PRECEPT III. Have regard also to the relative position of clauses, or members ; for a weaker assertion should not follow a stronger ; and, when the sentence consists of two mem- bers, the longer should be the concluding one. Example : " We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." Better : " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them." See Blair's Rhet. p. 117 ; Murray's Gram. p. 323. PRECEPT IV. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resemblance or op- position will be rendered more striking, if a pretty near resemblance in the language and construction of the two members, be preserved. Example : " The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him." Better : " The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of others." See Murray's Gram. p. 324. It. PRECEPT V. Remember that it is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or be in- troduced earlier. " For instance, it is a great deal better to say, 'Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty,' than to say, 'Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of.' "Blair's Rhet. p. 117 ; Murray's Gram. p. 323. END OP THE THIRD APPENDIX. APPENDIX IV. TO PART FOURTH, OR PROSODY. OF POETIC DICTION. Poetry, as defined by Dr. Blair, " is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers." Rhet. p. 377. The style of poetry dif- fers, in many respects, from that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figures, which have been treated of in one of the chapters of Prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim of a poet, is, to please and to move ; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may also, and he should, have it in his view, to in- struct and to reform; but it is indirectly, and by pleasing and moving, that such a wiiter accomplishes this end. The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry, is versifica- tion : yet there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar, as to be hardly distinguish- able from prose ; and there is also a species of prose, so measured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to approach very nearly to poetic numbers. This double approximation of some poetry to prose, and of some prose to poetry, not only makes it a matter of acknowledged difficulty to distinguish, by satisfactory definitions, the two species of composition, but, in many instances, embarrasses with like difficulty the at- tempt to show, by statements and examples, what usages or licenses, found in English works, are proper to be regarded as peculiarities of poetic diction. It is purposed here, to enumerate sundry deviations from the common style of prose ; and perhaps all of them, or nearly all,' may be justly considered as pertaining only to poetry. POETICAL PECULIARITIES. The following are among the chief peculiarities in which the poets indulge, and are indulged : I. They not unfreq\icntly omit the ARTICLES, for the sake of brevity or metre ; as, ' What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, Li.ce shipwreck' ''// lj'(r'd, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops ng of the mortal sin." Milton, J\ L., B. ix, 1. 1002. II. They sometimes abbreviate common NOI'NS, after a manner of thcirowu : as, amaze, for amazement ; acclaim, for a . '/on; corse, for corpse; eve, Oi for evening; fount, for fountain ; lidm, for /' >-nt, for lamentation; morn, for tnorn- tint, for con treat, for wealth. III. .- verbal forms substantively, or put verbs for nouns; perhaps for brevity, as above : thus, 1. " Instant, without disturb, they took alarm." P. Lost: Joh. Diet. v>. Airare. 2. " i >us Judge, with ply'd." P. Loat, B. x, 1. 118. 3. " If they were known, as the su.t: "'are. 4. "Mark, and perform it; secst thou lor the/at/ Of any point in't shall be death." Sh r other words, that usually come after it ; and, after it, tho-e that iiMiully come before it : 1. 2. "No/ /of hoard If. Allen* Vram. 3. "Thy chain I prove." 4. " Follows the 1<> ; nvated roar." Thomson. 5. "That pnr- VII. They more frequently place ADJEi :er their nouns, than do prose writers; as, 1C 26 THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 1. " Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, Show'rs on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold." Milton, P. L., B. ii, 1. 2. 2. "Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue." W. Allen's Gram. p. 189. 3. " This truth sublime his simple sire had taught." Seattle's Minstrel, p. 14. VIII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally belong ; as, 1. " The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." Gray's Elegy, 1. 3. 2. " Or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." Ibidem, 1. 8. 3. " Imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to day." Thomson. 4. "All thin and naked, to the numb cold night." Shakspeare. IX. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; (i. e., adjectives for nouns ;) as, 1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." Young. 2. " Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, By chance or search, was offer' d to his view, He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." Beattie. 3. " Won from the void and formless infinite." Milton. 4. "To thy large heart give utterance due; thy heart Contains of good, ivise,just, the perfect shape." Id. P. R., B. iii, 1. 10. X. They substitute quality for manner ; (i. e., adjectives for adverbs ;) as, 1. " The stately- sailing swan Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale, And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet, Bears forwards/force, and guards his osier isle." Thomson. 2. "Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." Id. Cos. of Ind. i, 8. 3. " Level at beauty, and at wit ; The fairest mark is easiest hit." Butler's Hudibras. XI. They form new compound epithets, oftener than do prose writers ; as, 1. " In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime." Thomson. 2. " The deioy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun." Idem. 3. " By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales." Idem. 4. "The violet of sky -woven vest." Langhorne. 5. "A league from Epidamnum had we sail'd, Before the always wind-obeying deep Gave any tragic instance of our harm." Shakspeare. 6. " 'Blue -eyed, strange-voiced, sharp-beaked, ill-omened fowl, What art thou ? ' ' What I ought to be, an owl.' " Day's Punctuation, p. 139. XII. They connect the comparative degree to the positive, before a verb ; as, 1. "Near and more near the billows rise." Merrick. 2. "Wide and icider spreads the vale." Dyer's Grongar Hill. 3. " Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind Take every creature in, of every kind." Pope. 4. "Thick and more thick the black blockade extends, A hundred head of Aristotle's friends." Id., Dunciad. XIII. They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in prose ; as, The dimply flood, dusky veil, aglcamy ray, heapy harvests, moony shield, paly circlet, sheety lake, stilly lake, spiry temples, steely casque, steepy hill, towery height, vasty deep, writhy snake. XIV. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form : as, dread, for dreadful; drear, for dreary ; ebon, for ebony ; hoar, for hoary ; lone, for lonely ; scant, for scanty ; slope, for sloping ; submiss, for submissive ; vermil, for vermilion ; yon, for yonder. XV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom ; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan. XVI. They employ the personal PRONOUNS, and introduce their nouns afterwards ; as, 1. "It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze." Sir W. Scott. 2. " What may it be, the heavy sound That moans old Branksome's turrets round?" Idem, Lay,*-p. 21. 3. "Is it the lightning's quivering glance, That on the thicket streams ; Or do they flash on spear and lance, The sun's retiring beams ? " Idem, L. of L., vi, 15. XVII. They use the forms of the second person singular oftener than do others ; as, 1. "Yet I had rather, if I were to chuse, Thy service in some graver subject use, Such as may make thee search thy coffers round, Before thou clothe my fancy in fit sound." Milton's Works, p. 133. 2. " But thou, of temples old, or altars new, Standest alone with nothing like to thee." Byron, Pilg., iv, 154. APPENDIX iv. (PROSODY.) POETIC DICTION. 1027 3. "Thou seest not all ; but piecemeal thou must break, To separate contemplation, the great whole." Id. ib., iv, 167. 4. "Thou rightly deemst, fair youth, began the bard ; The form thou sairxt was Virtue ever fair." Pollok, C. of T., p. 16. XVIII. They sometimes omit relatives that are nominatives ; (see Obs. 22, at p. 532 ;) as, ' For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise : " Thomson. XIX. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative ; as, 1. "Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." Armstrong. 2. "Who dares think one thing and an other tell, My soul detests him as the gates of hell." Popes Homer. XX. They remove relatives, or other connectives, into the body of their clauses ; as, 1. "Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." Darwin. 2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." Pope, Iliad, B. xxii, 1. 37. XXI. They make intransitive "VERBS transitive, changing their class ; as, 1. "A while he stands, Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid To meditate the blue profound below." Thomson. 2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they lir'd The rural day, and talk'd the flowing heart." Idem 3. " I saw and heard, for wo sometimes [1. 330. Who dwell this wild, constraint by want, come forth." Milton, P. R., B. i, XXII. They make transitive verbs intransitive, giving them no regimen ; as, 1. " The soldiers should have toss'd me on their pikes, Before I would have granted to that act." Xhakspeare. 2. " This ministrel-god, well-pleased, amid the quire Stood proud to hymn, and tune his youthful lyre." Pope. XXIII. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person ; as, 1. "Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." Thomson. 2. "Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." Beattic. 3. "And what is reason ? Be she thus drfii'd : Reason is upright stature in the soul." Young. XXIV. They employ can, could, and would, as principal verbs transitive ; as, 1. "What for ourselves we can, is always ours." Anon. 2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows, Does well, acts nobly : angels could no more." Young. 3. "What would this man ? Now upward will he soar, And, little less than angel, would be more." Pope. XXV. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends ; as, 1. " When first thy sire t send on earth Virtue, his darling child, dt'si;//t'd." Gray. 2. "As oft as I, to kiss the flood, cfaefoM ; So oft his lips ascend, to close with mine." Sandys. 3. " Besides, Minerva, to secure her care, Diffused around a veil of thicken'd air." Pope. XXVI. They place the auxiliary verb after its principal, by hyperbaton ; as, 1. " No longer heed the sunbeam bright That plays on Carron's breast he can." Lant;, 1 2. " Follow I must, I cannot go before." /, p. 147. 3. "The man who suffers, loudly may complain; And rage he may, but he shall rage in vain." Pope. XXVII. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes: as, bide, or 'ini; gird, or hnjlrd ; Inn-, or allure ; ;/. rail-i, or a rails ; vanish, or - . /Mr, or bewilder : 1. "All knees to thee shall bow. of them that In hcav'n, or earth, or under earth in hell." Milton, I'. /.., 11. iii, 1. 321. 2. "Of ai. the heels; of a bull-dog, the jaws ; Of a bear, the embraee ; of a lion, the paws." ('IninJiill's Cram. p. 215. XXVIII. verbs they abbrev; : <,}><}) ; hark, for hearken ; dark, for darken ; t//r>nf, for f/irmf, ,/ ; x/mrp, for .\tuir, XXIX. They employ several verbs that an not UM d in prose, or aroused but rarely ; as, fiji}/ii f , astound, br -em, troir. XXX. They sometime- TU tion of the infinitive ; as, 1. " Who would not sin Himself to simj, and bid' I tin- lofty rhym'-." Milton. 2. " For not, to have, been dipp'd in LttM lake, Could save the son of Thetis from to die." Spenser. 1028 TIIE GRAMMAR OP ENGLISH GRAMMARS. XXXI. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than prose writers, and in construction somewhat peculiar ; often, intensive by accumulation : as, 1. "He came, and, standing in the midst, explain'd The peace rejected, but the truce obtain d." Pope. 2. " As a poor miserable captive thrall Comes to the place where he before had sat Among the prime in splendor, now dtpos'd, Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, shunn'd, A spectacle of ruin or of scorn." Milton, P. E., B. i, 1. 411. 3. " Though from our birth the faculty divine Is chain' d and tortured cabin 1 d, cribb'd,confined." Byron, Pilg. C. iv, St. 1! XXXII. In turning participles to adjectives, they sometimes ascribe actions, or active properties, to things to which they do not literally belong ; as, " The green leaf quivering in the gale, The ivarbling hill, the lowing vale." MALLET : Union Poems, p. 26. XXXIII. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom ; as, oft, haply, inly. XXXIV. They give to adverbs a peculiar location in respect to other words ; as, 1. " Peeping from, forth their alleys green." Collins. 2. " Erect the standard there of ancient Night." Milton. 3. "The silence often of pure innocence Persuades, when speaking fails." Shakspeare. 4. " Where Universal Love not smiles around. Thomson. 5. " Robs me of that which not enriches him." Shakspeare. XXXV. They sometimes omit the introductory adverb there ; as, "Was nought around but images of rest." Thomson. XXXVI. They briefly compare actions by a kind of compound adverbs, ending in like; " Who bid the stork, Columbus-like, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before?" Pope. XXXVII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or or, and nor nor, as correspondents ; as, 1. "Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." Goldsmith. 2. " Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." Johnson. 3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, Is nor of earth, nor heaven." Shakspeare. 4. "Toss it, or to the fowls, or to the flames." Young, N. T., p. 157. 5. "Nor shall the pow'rs of hell, nor wastes of time, Or vanquish, or destroy." Gibbon's Elegy on Da-vies. XXXVIII. They oftener place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, before the words on which they depend, than do prose writers ; as, "Against your fame with fondness hate combines ; The rival batters, and the lover mines." Dr. Johnson. XXXIX. They sometimes place a dissyllabic preposition after its object ; as, 1. " When beauty, Eden's bowers within, First stretched the arm to deeds of sin, When passion burn'd and prudence slept, The pitying angels bent and wept." James Hogg. 2. " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings." Lloyd. 3. " Where Echo walks steep hills among, Liat'ning to the shepherd's song." J. Warton, U. Poems, p. 33. XL. They have occasionally employed certain prepositions for which, perhaps, it would not be easy to cite prosaic authority ; as, adown, aloft, aloof, anear, aneath, askant, aslant, aslope, atween, atwixt, besouth, traverse, thorough, sans. (See Obs. 10th, and others, at p. 423.) XLI. They oftener employ INTERJECTIONS than do prose writers ; as, "O let me .gaze ! Of gazing there's no end. O let me think ! Thought too is wilder'd here." Young. XLII. They oftener employ ANTIQUATED WORDS and modes of expression ; as, 1. "Withouten that, would come an heavier bale." Thomson. 2. "He was too weet, a little roguish page, Save sleep and play, who minded' nought at all." Id. 3. " Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." Id. 4. "To number up the thousands dwelling here, An useless were, and eke an endless task." Id. 5. " Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." Id. 6. " But these Ipassen, by with nameless numbers moe." Id. THE END OF APPENDIX FOURTH, AND THE END OF THE GRAMMAR. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg.400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ^.000(11/95) \ YC 01236