<5S>7 
 
 C3ZI 
 
 STANDARD RULES 
 AND USAGE 
 
 LUELLA CLAY CARSON 
 
 -i r n ~~\ Q H 
 

 GIFT OF 
 
English Composition 
 
 COMPILATION 
 
 OF 
 
 STANDARD RULES AND 
 USAGE. 
 
 BY 
 
 LUELLA CLAY CARSON 
 
 Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, 
 University of Oregon 
 
 REVISED .EDITION 
 
 1903 
 
 The J. K. Gill Co., Publishers 
 Portland, Oregon 
 
Copyright, 1903 
 
 BY 
 
 THE J. K. GILL CO. 
 
"One of the greatest of all faults in speaking and 
 writing is this: the using of many words to say lit- 
 
 tie."— Cobbett 
 
 "The station of a syllable may cloud the judg- 
 ment of a council." — De Quincey. 
 
 "The first valuable power in a reasonable mind, 
 one would say, is the power of plain statement, or 
 the power to receive things as they befall, and to 
 transfer the picture of them to another mind un- 
 altered." — Emerson. 
 
 "After all, the chief stimulus of good style is to 
 possess a full, rich, complex matter to grapple with." 
 —Pater. 
 
 383324 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/englishcompositiOOcarsrich 
 
FOREWORD. 
 
 The following rules and suggestions were 
 compiled for the use of classes in the English 
 department of the University of Oregon. It is 
 hoped that they may also be valuable to students 
 in other departments. The second edition, en- 
 larged in scope and illustration, is now published 
 in answer to many letters from teachers in Ore- 
 gon and adjoining states, and with the hope that 
 it will be found a useful and convenient code for 
 good English. It is in no way offered as a sub- 
 stitute for any part of either grammar or rhetoric, 
 but rather as a brief, compact and, as far as may 
 be, comprehensive book of reference. The rules 
 have been, in the main, taken from standard 
 authors in the reference library of the university. 
 Among the works consulted were ^Teall's Punc- 
 tuation; Bigelow's Hand-book of Punctuation; 
 , DeVinne's The Practice of Typography ; Teall's 
 English Compound Words and Phrases ; Luce's 
 Writing for the Press ; /Typography of The New 
 York Evening Post; The Mother Tongue, by 
 Professors Gardiner, Kittredge and Miss Arnold ; 
 the grammars of Professors ^Whitney, West, 
 Maxwell, and„ Carpenter ; the rhetorics of Pro- 
 
fessors, Genung, A. S. Hill, Bain, Wendell, Scott 
 and Denney, McElroy and Newcomer. 
 
 It is desired that the rules and examples here 
 collected in compact form may prove valuable in 
 suggestion and useful for reference to students of 
 English in high schools, colleges and offices ; and 
 to all whose professions or occupations demand 
 readiness in correct expression by spoken and 
 written phrase. In the main, rules commonly 
 observed in practice are not included. An at- 
 tempt has been made to include rules that are 
 often violated; that settle doubtful points; that 
 provide for fine distinctions. Blank pages and 
 spaces are left so that students may insert rules 
 and illustrations of peculiar personal value. 
 
 I am indebted to Miss Ida Bel Roe and Miss 
 Bertha Ellsworth Slater, instructors in the Eng- 
 lish department, for compiling many of these 
 rules; and also to many students who, since the 
 issue of the first edition in 1899, have suggested 
 rules omitted in that edition, which they found 
 valuable in revising essays and in attempting to 
 make good English prose. 
 
 I wish also to acknowledge with thanks many 
 valuable suggestions made by Mr. John Gill, of 
 Portland. 
 
 LUELLA CLAY CARSON, 
 
 University of Oregon, May, 1903. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Foreword. 
 
 I. Capitalization I 
 
 II. Punctuation 5 
 
 1. The Comma 5 
 
 2. The Semicolon 8 
 
 3. The Colon 10 
 
 4. The Period-. 11 
 
 5. The Interrogation Point 13 
 
 6. The Exclamation Point 13 
 
 7. The Dash 14 
 
 III. Special Symbols 15 
 
 1. The Apostrophe 15 
 
 2. Parentheses and Brackets 16 
 
 3. Quotations 16 
 
 4. Italics 18 
 
 5. Abbreviations 18 
 
 6. The Hyphen 21 
 
 7. The Caret 22 
 
 IV. Syllabification 22 
 
 V. Compounds 24 
 
 VI. Spelling 2J 
 
 VII. Citations 30 
 
 VIII. Poetry 31 
 
 Vll 
 
IX. Construction 32 
 
 1. Grammatical Forms and Con- 
 
 structions needing Caution .... 32 
 
 2. Placing of Modifiers 37 
 
 3. Concord 38 
 
 4. Antecedents 39 
 
 5. Reference 39 
 
 6. Correlation 41 
 
 7- Unity 43 
 
 8. Emphasis 45 
 
 9. Coherence 47 
 
 X. Form 51 
 
 1. General 51 
 
 2. Outlines 53 
 
 3. Theses and Senior Parts 54 
 
 4. Note-Books 55 
 
 XL Letter Writing 57 
 
 1. General Directions 57 
 
 2. Letter Forms 60 
 
 3. Superscription 61 
 
 4. Invitations (informal and formal) 61 
 XII. Copy for the Printer 64 
 
 1. Form 64 
 
 2. Abbreviations 67 
 
 3. Miscellaneous 70 
 
 4. Phraseology 73 
 
 XIII. Style 76 
 
 1 . Vocabulary 76 
 
 2. Good Usage 76 
 
 XIV. Recommendations 79 
 
 viii 
 
I. 
 CAPITALIZATION 
 
 General Rules for Capitals. 
 
 The following words should begin with capitals: 
 
 i. The first word after a period; and, usually, 
 after the interrogation point and the exclamation 
 point. 
 
 2. The first word of every line of poetry. 
 
 3. The first word of an exact quotation in a 
 direct form ; as, "He said, 'There will be war/ " 
 
 4. The first word of every direct question; 
 as, "He said, 'Who will go?'" 
 
 5. The pronoun I and the interjection O. Oh 
 only when it begins a sentence. 
 
 6. Proper nouns. 
 
 1 
 
;/. Adjectives derived from proper nouns, un- 
 less, by long usage, they have lost all association 
 with the nouns from which they are derived ; as, 
 "Christian," "damask." 
 
 8. The words street, river, mountain, etc., 
 when they are used in connection with proper 
 names ; as, "Columbia River." 
 
 9. The words north, south, east and west, and 
 their compounds, northeast, etc., whenever they 
 refer to parts of the country, and not simply to 
 points of the compass, or general direction. 
 
 10. Names of the days of the week and the 
 months of the year. This rule is amplified to 
 include days of feasts and fasts, festivals and 
 holidays; as, "Tuesday," "Christmas," "Bank 
 Holiday." Do not capitalize names of seasons ; 
 as, "She came in the summer." 
 
 11. Words denoting family relations, such as 
 father, when they are used with the proper name 
 of the person or without a possessive pronoun; 
 as, "Uncle John." 
 
 12. Titles of honor or office whenever they 
 are used in a formal way, or in connection with 
 a proper name; as, "General Grant." 
 
13. The name of the Deity in every person, 
 and in every synonym or attribute ; as, "God, the 
 Supreme Being." 
 
 14. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity 
 when used in direct address without an antece- 
 dent; or to prevent confusion where, with an 
 antecedent, other pronouns are used. 
 
 15. The words Bible, Scriptures, etc., and all 
 names of books and parts of the Bible. 
 
 16. Words representing important events in 
 history and epochs of time, political parties and 
 religious bodies; as, "the Civil War/' "the 
 Whigs," "Presbyterians." 
 
 17. Names of personified objects; as, "There 
 Honor sleeps." 
 
 18. The first word in the title of every book, 
 periodical, play, picture, essay, or article for 
 magazine or newspaper, and usually every im- 
 portant word of the title. 
 
 In long or complex titles the nouns always 
 may be capitalized; important verbs, participles 
 and adjectives usually; articles, prepositions and 
 conjunctions rarely or never. 
 
 Note: Modern usage is modifying this rule, 
 especially when applied to citations, summaries. 
 
running titles, and tables of contents. Recent 
 English books of high merit exclude capitals 
 from all words but those that begin a sentence 
 or are proper names. 
 
 19. Two capitals are needed in a compound 
 title; as, "Attorney-General Olney." 
 
 20. A title distinctly intended as the synonym 
 of a particular person thereby becomes a proper 
 noun, and should be capitalized ; as, "He sent his 
 credentials to the President." 
 
 21. Capitalize titles of dignity or courtesy as 
 follows: your Honor, her Majesty, his Royal 
 Highness, his Excellency, etc. ; do not capitalize 
 your lordship, sir, your honor, madam, monsieur, 
 etc., when used as complimentary salutations 
 within the text of a sentence or paragraph of 
 dialogue matter. 
 
 22. Do not capitalize college departments, 
 classes, professorships, the college, the university, 
 the society, the club, consulate, legations, the holy 
 communion, communion service, the gospel for 
 the whole New Testament ; capitalize the Gospels 
 for the books called "The Gospel according to St. 
 Matthew," etc. 
 
 23. When the title of an official follows his 
 name, the capital need not be used in good book- 
 
work for the first letter of that title ; as, James G. 
 Blaine, secretary of state. In official documents 
 it is common to capitalize the titles of potentates, 
 even when they follow the name; as, "Victoria, 
 Empress of India." 
 
 24. When only the title of a person is men- 
 tioned, preceded by the article the, and the con- 
 text shows that this title is intended for one per- 
 son only, it should have a capital ; as, "the Pope," 
 "the Chief-Justice." When the context shows that 
 the title may be applied to two or more persons, 
 the capital should not be used. 
 
 II. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 1. Rules for the Comma. 
 
 A comma is used in the following instances: 
 
 1. After each but the last of a series of words 
 or phrases each of which has the same connec- 
 tion with what follows ; as, "Plain, well-punc- 
 tuated, and otherwise carefully prepared manu- 
 script is desirable." 
 
2. To separate contrasted words or phrases 
 and words or phrases in pairs ; as, "We live in 
 deeds, not years. " 
 
 3. To separate vocative words or expressions 
 from the other parts of the sentence; as, "Ven- 
 erable men, you have come." Exception : If 
 strong emotion is to be indicated, the exclamation 
 point should be used instead of the comma. 
 
 4. To separate expressions in apposition from 
 the context ; as, "Washington, the first president, 
 served." 
 
 5. To separate intermediate, transposed, and 
 parenthetical elements from the context; as, 
 "Even John, they say, subscribed." 
 
 6. After a particle standing at the head of a 
 sentence, when the particle implies the relation 
 of the sentence to something going before ; as, 
 "Lastly, the action is not feasible." 
 
 7. After a word or words independently be- 
 ginning a sentence; as, "Fortunately, it hap- 
 pened so." 
 
 8. To separate adverbs and short phrases, 
 when they break the connection between closely 
 related parts of a sentence, from the other por- 
 tions of the sentence ; as, "There are, however, 
 four elements." 
 
g. To separate dependent and conditional 
 clauses, commonly introduced by such words as 
 if, when, unless, though, etc., from the rest of 
 the sentence, unless the connection is very close. 
 
 10. To separate a relative clause which is not 
 restrictive, but which presents an additional 
 thought, from the rest of the sentence. 
 
 ii. To separate a restrictive relative pronoun, 
 referring to each of a series of nouns, from the 
 series ; as, "We visited the house, the mill, the 
 store, that Jack built." 
 
 12. To mark the omission of words ; as, "In 
 war he was warlike; in peace, peaceable." 
 
 13. Before short and informal quotations; 
 as, "He shouted, 'Come in V " 
 
 14. To separate the clauses of a compound 
 sentence when simple in construction. 
 
 15. To separate a long or involved subject 
 from its verb. 
 
 16. When two statements, each with its own 
 subject, verb, and object, are put in one sentence, 
 the comma should be used to show their dis- 
 tinctiveness ; as, "John saw William, and Wil- 
 liam saw Susan." 
 
ly. Phrases and clauses which, by inversion, 
 are placed at the beginning of sentences, are usu- 
 ally followed by a comma; though if the phrase 
 is a short one it is not always so set off. 
 
 1 8. A restrictive clause should be preceded by 
 a comma, if several words come between the rela- 
 tive pronoun and its antecedent; as, "No Amei- 
 ican could have died, who would have been more 
 universally mourned than Longfellow." 
 
 19. A title or degree, following a name, 
 should be separated from the name by a comma. 
 
 20. In general, use commas only when they 
 will be of service in unfolding the sense. In case 
 of doubt, omit the comma. 
 
 2. Rules for the Semicolon. 
 
 A semicolon is used in the following instances: 
 
 1. To separate members of a compound sen- 
 tence when they are complex or loosely con- 
 nected, or when they contain commas ; as, 
 "Writers should know how to punctuate, and 
 should do it carefully ; for they alone can always 
 be sure, with proper care, that the sense is not 
 perverted by wrong pointing." 
 
I 
 
2. To separate clauses which have a common 
 dependence. If the clause upon which they all 
 depend comes at the beginning of the sentence, 
 the clauses should be separated from it by a 
 comma; if it is placed at the end, the comma 
 should be followed by a dash ; as, "How we have 
 fared since then ; what woful schemes have been 
 adopted ; what doing and undoing, — it is a tedious 
 task to recount." 
 
 3. Before as, viz., e. g., i. e., or the full words 
 of these abbreviations, when they introduce an 
 example or specification of particulars. 
 
 4. In all sentences that contain two or more 
 members, when each member makes a distinct 
 statement, with some dependence on statements 
 in the other member or members ; as, "Some place 
 their bliss in action, some in ease; those call it 
 pleasure, and contentment, these." 
 
 5. In order to give separateness to important 
 details, the semicolon is sometimes used to set off 
 portions merely phrasal in form; as, "Of regular 
 soldiers, there were nine thousand ; of volunteers, 
 a thousand ; of priests, six hundred." 
 
6. In general, the semicolon is used to set 
 off some phase of explanation, opposition, repe- 
 tition, consequence or contrast ; and, in the more 
 loosely related subject-matter, clauses of detail 
 or common bearing. Let the writer observe 
 these logical dependencies, and the semicolon sup- 
 plies itself. 
 
 3. Rules for the Colon. 
 
 The colon is used in the following instances: 
 
 1. To introduce (1) a phrase or sentence 
 added as an explanation of a word or sentence; 
 (2) a series of statements or specifications when 
 formally introduced by a general statement or by 
 thus, as follows, this, namely, etc. ; as, "Rhetoric : 
 exposition of the laws of effective discourse" ; 
 "We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all 
 men are created equal ; that they are endowed by 
 their Creator with certain inalienable rights." 
 
 2. To separate two members of a compound 
 sentence subdivided by semicolons. 
 
 3. To separate from a complete sentence, a 
 clause not introduced by a connecting word, but 
 definitely prepared for by the previous sentence; 
 as, "And thus we bring the matter at once to the 
 test : is the evidence conclusive ?" 
 
 10 
 
4- To introduce long, formal quotations when 
 the connection is close. If the quotation begins 
 on a new line or occupies several paragraphs, 
 the colon should be followed by a dash. When 
 the quotation is short, a comma is used. 
 
 5. After the complimentary salution in a let- 
 ter or an address ; as, "Dear Sir :" 
 
 6. In general, use the colon to introduce 
 some detail or item that the language preceding 
 has made ready for. There is rarely any neces- 
 sity for more than one colon in any sentence. 
 
 4- Rules for the Period. 
 
 The period is used in the follozving instances: 
 
 1. To mark the completion of every sentence 
 which is neither interrogative nor exclamatory. 
 
 2. After abbreviations ; as, D. D., viz. 
 
 3. After every heading or sub-heading, 
 whether in a separate line or at the beginning of 
 a paragraph, or over a column of figures in tabu- 
 lar work; also after the address of a letter or 
 
 11 
 
I 
 
 printed document, as well as after the signature. 
 After a heading at the beginning of a paragraph 
 the period should be followed by a dash. 
 
 4. After roman numerals, except when they 
 are used for numbering pages ; as, "Carlyle's 
 French Revolution, Vol. I. p. 205." 
 
 5. After arabic numerals used for number- 
 ing paragraphs, or lists of particulars in the same 
 paragraph ; also when they are used for refer- 
 ences to different divisions of a book. 
 
 6. References to foot-notes, whether figures, 
 letters, or the common reference marks, should 
 have no period or other mark after them. Some- 
 times parentheses are used, but they are unnec- 
 essary. 
 
 7. To denote an omission in a -quotation, 
 where it is not desired to give the whole of it; 
 when part of a sentence is omitted, four periods 
 are commonly used, with spaces between them; 
 when a paragraph is omitted, a line of five or six 
 periods is generally used. 
 
 8. The period is now omitted at the termina- 
 tion of displayed lines in title-pages and pro- 
 grammes. 
 
 12 
 
I 
 
I 
 
5. Rules for the Interrogation Point. 
 
 The interrogation point is used in the following 
 instances: 
 
 i. After every sentence or expression asking 
 a direct question; as, "Shall a man obtain a 
 wider horizon without broader knowledge ? with- 
 out deeper sacrifice?" 
 
 2. When a question forms part of a larger 
 sentence ; as, "They asked, 'What do you propose 
 to do?' in a direct manner." 
 
 3; In parentheses to express doubt; as, "In 
 the time of Homer 850 (?) B. C." 
 
 6. Rules for the Exclamation Point. 
 
 The exclamation point is used in the following 
 instances : 
 
 1. After interjections, and all words, phrases, 
 and sentences, that express strong emotion; as, 
 "Rouse, ye Romans ! rouse, ye slaves !" 
 
 Note: When O is used before the nomina- 
 tive of address, the exclamation point follows 
 the noun; as, "O Scotia! my dear, my native 
 soil r 
 
 13 
 
2. To express doubt or sarcasm; as, "He an 
 honorable man !" 
 
 3. The exclamation point, when properly 
 used, gives force and point to language. The 
 Book of Job and the Psalms show that this point 
 is most effective when sparingly used. 
 
 7. Rules for the Dash. 
 
 The dash is used in the follozving instances: 
 
 1. Before and after a parenthetical clause 
 that is too closely connected with the whole sen- 
 tence to be enclosed in parentheses, and yet re- 
 quires for its ready comprehension to be distinctly 
 separated from the other parts of the sentence. 
 Commas should be used before the dashes only 
 where a comma would be necessary if the sen- 
 tence included between the dashes were omitted. 
 
 2. When the construction of a sentence is 
 changed or suspended, and the sentence con- 
 cluded in an unexpected manner, or with an epi- 
 grammatic turn of thought ; as, "You have given 
 the command to a person of illustrious birth, of 
 ancient family, but — of no experience." 
 
 14 
 
3- To separate a heading at the beginning of 
 a paragraph from the subject matter following; 
 and before an authority when it is given at the 
 end of a quotation. 
 
 4. To specify a period of time by connecting 
 dates ; as, i860 — 1890. Also, to define a reference 
 to a passage in the pages of any book; as, pp. 
 17—23. 
 
 III. 
 
 SPECIAL SYMBOLS. 
 
 1. Apostrophe. 
 
 The apostrophe is used in the follozving instances: 
 
 1. To denote possessive case of common and 
 proper nouns and a few indefinite pronouns ; as, 
 "The ladies' hats" ; "This one's opinion." 
 
 Note : There is no apostrophe in the posses- 
 sive pronoun ; ifs is a contraction for it is. 
 
 2. To mark the elision of a syllable in poetry 
 or in familiar dialogue ; also, the elision of letters 
 in a word ; as, "Thou ling'ring star." 
 
 3. To denote the elision of the century in 
 dates; as, '98. 
 
 15 
 
4- To denote the plural of figures, letters, and 
 signs; as, p's and q's. 
 
 2. Parentheses and Brackets. 
 
 1. Parentheses are used to inclose an expla- 
 nation, authority, definition, reference, transla- 
 tion, or other matter not strictly belonging to the 
 sentence. They are now seldom used for any 
 other purpose. 
 
 2. Brackets are restricted in their use to in- 
 terpolation, corrections, notes, or explanations 
 made by writers in quotations from others. 
 
 3. Parentheses always inclose remarks ap- 
 parently made by the writer of the text. Brackets 
 inclose remarks certainly made by the editor or 
 reporter of the text. 
 
 4. A complete sentence inclosed in paren- 
 theses, should have the point inside the parenthe- 
 sis ; when part of a sentence is so inclosed, the 
 point should be after the parenthesis. 
 
 3. Quotations. 
 
 1. Marks of quotation (" ") are used to 
 indicate a passage quoted from another author, 
 or from the writer himself. 
 
 16 
 
2. Titles of books, newspapers, pictures, etc., 
 when formally given, are quoted ; but care should 
 be taken to give with precision the exact words. 
 When such titles are well known, — as the Iliad, 
 the Nation, — it is not necessary to use quota- 
 tion marks. 
 
 3. When one quotation occurs within another, 
 single marks only should be used. 
 
 4. When special attention is invited to any 
 word or expression, it may be inclosed in single 
 quote-marks ; as, "By 'experiment' is meant the 
 process of altering the arrangements presented 
 by nature." 
 
 5. In a succession of quoted paragraphs the 
 inverted commas are used at the beginning of 
 each paragraph, but the apostrophes are used at 
 the close of the last paragraph only. 
 
 6. Many phrases in the Bible, in Shakespeare, 
 Milton, and other famous authors have become 
 common possessions, and their origin and value 
 should be known to every reader. To fence in 
 with quote-marks phrases like these — the ob- 
 served of all observers ; but the greatest of these 
 is charity — implies a low estimate of the reader's 
 knowledge of literature. This remark may ap- 
 ply also to trite proverbs and hackneyed sayings, 
 which do not need quote-marks. 
 
 17 
 
4- Italics. 
 
 i. All foreign words and expressions not in- 
 corporated in the English language, if written 
 with our alphabet, should be italicized whenever 
 they occur in an English sentence. But the 
 common Latin abbrevations, e. g., i. e., etc., viz., 
 are usually written in roman. 
 
 Note : Written words intended to be italicized 
 should be underscored. 
 
 2. Foreign words and phrases, that have been 
 practically incorporated in the English language, 
 are now put in roman ; as, alma mater, verbatim. 
 
 3. The employment of italics for emphasis, 
 generally indicates lack of definite thought and 
 skill in composition. 
 
 5. Abbreviations. 
 
 1. In all formal composition, abbreviations 
 should be as far as possible avoided. Mr., Mrs., 
 Messrs., Hon., Right Hon., Jr., Sr., Esq., Rev., 
 Right Rev., Dr., Pres., Prof., Gov. are tolerated 
 in newspapers and magazines, and even in some 
 books, but it is more decorous to spell out all 
 the words in the preceding list except Mr., Mrs., 
 Messrs., Jr., and Sr. In newspapers Gen., Capt., 
 
 18 
 
Col., and Maj. are sometimes allowed, but in 
 book-work these titles should be in full. When 
 the title is double and is connected with a hyphen, 
 as in Brig.-Generar, both parts take a capital let- 
 ter. Do not capitalize ex prefixed to a title; as, 
 ex-President. 
 
 2. The title Professor, when frequently oc- 
 curring, may be properly abbreviated, especially 
 when only the initials of the name are given (as 
 Prof. J. N. Brown) ; otherwise the title may seem 
 more prominent than the name. If the name be 
 written in full, or without initials, it is better to 
 write the title in full; as, "Professor Brown." 
 
 3. Honorable and Reverend should be pre- 
 ceded by the, and should not be used with a sur- 
 name alone; Mr. should be inserted if other 
 names or initials be lacking ; as, "The Rev. 
 Mr. Jones," or "The Hon. John Brown." Never 
 use "Rev. Black," or "The Rev. Black." 
 
 4. Honorary degrees and titles after a name, 
 or initial letters indicating membership of a so- 
 ciety, as D. D., M. P., F. G. S., are universally al- 
 lowed. Do not, however, put a title before and 
 another after a man's name. 
 
 5. The abbreviations A. D., B. C, a. m., p. m., 
 etc., e. g., i. e., viz., and, in letters, inst, prox., 
 ult., P. S. are in common use. 
 
 19 
 
6. In ordinary writings all dates should be in 
 arabic figures, but when they appear in formal 
 notes and legal documents words should be used. 
 When the numerical day of the month precedes 
 the month it should appear as ipth April or 22d 
 April. When it follows the month, the th or d is 
 not required; it should be April 10 or April 22. 
 The use of 2nd or 3rd, common in England, is 
 not to be commended ; 2d or 3d is a more ac- 
 ceptable abbreviation. The date should be spelled 
 out in full in a document ; as, "The tenth day of 
 April." 
 
 7. Numbers usually should be spelled out. 
 However, figures are used sometimes when a 
 number reaches into thousands or higher; when 
 there are many numbers which it is desirable that 
 the eye should readily catch ; when the matter is 
 technical. 
 
 8. Time should be spelled out; as, nine 
 o'clock, half past nine ; or, written in figures ; as, 
 9 130, 9 145 ; never write half past 9, or 9 o'clock. 
 
 9. Roman numerals followed by a period may 
 be used to designate rulers ; as, "Edward VI. of 
 England." 
 
 10. In foot-notes, citations, etc., abbreviations 
 and numerals are commonly used, and commas 
 
 20 
 
after such expressions are frequently omitted; 
 as, Ruskin: Mod. Painters, Vol. I. Part II. 
 Sec. I. Chap. VII. pp. 237—239 ; 
 II. Chron. xxiv. 2 (or, 2 Chron. 24:2) ; 
 Atlantic Monthly, Nov. 1902, p. 579, The New 
 Ethics, W. D. Hyde. 
 
 6. The Hyphen. 
 
 A hyphen is used in the follozving instances: 
 
 1. Between the parts of a compound word 
 that has not by usage become a single word. (See 
 compounds). 
 
 2. To unite a prefix ending with a vowel to 
 a word beginning with a vowel ; as, re-enact. 
 
 3. When the meaning or pronunciation would 
 be obscured without the hyphen; as, re-collect. 
 
 4. At the end of a line, when a part of the 
 last word is carried over to the next line. 
 
 Note: In dividing words, syllables should 
 never be broken, but the word should be sepa- 
 rated by closing the line with a full syllable fol- 
 lowed by a hyphen, and beginning the next line 
 with the next syllable. 
 
 21 
 
7. The Caret. 
 
 i. If a letter, a word, or an expression is 
 omitted a caret (a) is placed where the omission 
 occurs, and the omitted part interlined. 
 
 IV., 
 SYLLABIFICATION. 
 
 In dividing words syllables should never be 
 broken. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 i. Divide on the long or obscure vowel before 
 a single consonant. 
 
 ca-pa-ble ig-no-rant sep-a-ra-ble 
 
 me-tal-lic bi-tu-mi-nous deg-ra-da-tion 
 
 2. Divide on the consonant following a short 
 vowel. 
 
 ca-pac-i-ty sep-a-ra-ble gov-ern 
 
 for-eign ex-am-i-na-tion me-dic-i-nal 
 
 nec-es-sa-ry prob-a-ble bi-met-al-lism 
 
 me-chan-i-cal prop-er-ty phil-o-soph-i-cal 
 
 22 
 
3- Divide on the consonant, or the latter of 
 two consonants, when such division leaves a 
 complete word without change of accent (not 
 when the accent changes), except as in next 
 paragraph. 
 
 civ-il-ize 
 or-gan-ize 
 ap-pear-ance 
 vig-or-ous 
 
 char-ac-ter-is-tic 
 de-mon-ism 
 mal-o-dor-ous 
 par-don-a-ble 
 
 per-son-ate 
 re-mark-a-ble 
 gild-ed 
 bound-ing 
 
 4. Divide on the first of two consonants sep- 
 arately sounded, even when a complete word 
 would include both consonants ; on the first of 
 three consonants when the other two combine in 
 one sound ; on the second of three when the first 
 two combine. 
 
 bi-og-ra-phy 
 
 deg-ra-da-tion 
 
 de-tec-tive 
 
 con-tra-dic-to-ry 
 
 cor-re-spon-dent 
 
 im-por-tant 
 
 moun-tain 
 
 sub-jec-tive 
 
 rep-re-sent 
 
 con-duc-tor 
 
 ef-fec-tu-al 
 
 con-sis-tent 
 
 de-fen-dant 
 
 de-pen-dent 
 
 or-na-men-tal 
 
 tri-um-phant 
 
 an-chor 
 
 rep-re-sen-ta-tion 
 
 foun-dry 
 
 ex-is-tence 
 
 sec-re-ta-ry 
 
 pas -sage 
 
 suc-ces-sive 
 
 hin-drance 
 
 han-dling 
 
 ex-tinc-tion 
 
 pre-sump-tive 
 
 5. Divide so as to preserve as syllables cial, 
 cian, cient, Hon, tious, and similar terminations. 
 
 ben-e-fi-cial 
 op-ti-cian 
 
 ef-fi-cient 
 pe-ti-tion 
 
 pre-ten-tious 
 in-i-tial 
 
 '23 
 
6. Divide so as to preserve as syllables ed, 
 en, er, eth. and ing, except where a final conso- 
 nant is doubled. 
 
 op-pos-er 
 
 tak-en 
 
 mak-ing 
 
 read-er 
 
 speak-eth 
 
 rid-den 
 
 mod-el-ing 
 
 ad-mit-ting 
 
 pre-fer-red 
 
 7. Divide so as to preserve the prefixes be, 
 sub, trans (except in words like tran-scribe and 
 tran-script), and others that represent a distinct 
 meaning in the sense of the word. 
 
 be-stride sub-or-di-nate trans-at-lan-tic 
 
 be-lit-tle sub-urb trans-al-pine 
 
 sub-al-tern sub-a-que-ous trans-ac-tion 
 
 tran-scend tran-spire tran.-sub-stan-ti-ate 
 
 v. 
 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 i. Two nouns used together as one name, in 
 such a way that the first does not convey a de- 
 scriptive or attributive sense, or so that the two 
 are not in apposition, form a compound noun; 
 as, air-drill, iron-wood. 
 
 2. When the sense is clearly literal, the two 
 nouns are commonly joined by a hyphen; as, 
 paint-brush, hat-box. 
 
 24 
 
Notes : 
 
 (i) Some compounds analogical with the 
 above rule have become consolidated through fa- 
 miliar use; as, eyelid, sunbeam. 
 
 (2) Some words are so frequently used after 
 and in intimate union with others, that they are 
 instinctively treated as if they were suffixes, and 
 the unified term is written in solid form; as, 
 milkweed, railway, stairway. 
 
 3. A noun or an adjective made by adding 
 a suffix to a proper name composed of two 
 words should be compounded ; as, East-Indian, 
 New-Yorker. 
 
 Note: The names without inflection should 
 never be compounded. Thus, a New York man, 
 East India Company. 
 
 4. Any pair or series of words arbitrarily as- 
 sociated, in a joint sense not properly inherent 
 in them in separate words, should be com- 
 pounded ; as, crane's-bill, jet-black, will-o'-the- 
 wisp. 
 
 Note: This rule really covers all compound- 
 ing; and the rules for the hyphen already cited, 
 
 25 
 
in general, apply equally well to all parts of 
 speech. The following are some special points: 
 
 The hyphen should be used, 
 
 ( i ) When the compound is made up of more 
 than two parts ; as, forget-me-not. 
 
 (2) If the parts do not fully coalesce; as, 
 to-morrow. 
 
 (3) If the compound is new or uncommon; 
 as, make-believe. 
 
 (4) When prefixes or co-ordinate parts stand 
 before a capital letter; as, anti-Harrison. 
 
 (5) When a noun, adjective, or adverb is 
 compounded with a present or perfect participle ; 
 as, good-looking. 
 
 '(6) In numerals from twenty to one hun- 
 dred ; as, eighty-nine. 
 
 (7) To join military and civil titles ; as, Vice- 
 President. 
 
 (8) In compounds with half, quarter, all, and 
 self ; as, all-wise, self-esteem. 
 
 26 
 
VI. 
 SPELLING. 
 
 1. Final e silent is dropped before a suffix be- 
 ginning with a vowel; as grieve, grievance. 
 
 Exceptions: Words ending in ce and ge, 
 retain e before ous and able; as, peaceable, out- 
 rageous, changeable. 
 
 2. Final e silent is retained before suffixes be- 
 ginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness. 
 
 Exceptions: Abridgment, judgment, lodg- 
 ment, acknowledgment, truly. 
 
 3. Monosyllables and polysyllables accented 
 on the last syllable, when they end in a single 
 consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the 
 final consonant before a suffix beginning with a 
 vowel ; as, thin, thinner. 
 
 4. Derivatives formed by prefixing one or 
 more syllables to words ending in a double con- 
 sonant generally retain both consonants ; as, 
 misspell. 
 
 Exceptions : Until, and adjectives terminating 
 in ful. 
 
 5. Compounds generally retain the spelling of 
 the simple words composing them. 
 
 27 
 
Exceptions to this rule occur in some com- 
 pounds written without the hyphen. The most 
 common are compounds of full, all, well and 
 mass; as, almighty, grateful, Christmas. 
 
 6. Adjectives ending in able or ible; as, com- 
 mendable, feasible: 
 
 Adjectives derived from the Latin end in 
 able or ible, according to their derivation from 
 words ending in abilis or ibilis; as, mutable, 
 visible. 
 
 English derivatives generally end in able; as, 
 peaceable, thinkable, salable. 
 
 7. Arrangement of i and e in a digraph : 
 
 "I before e 
 
 Except after c, 
 
 Or when sounded as a 
 
 As in neighbor and weigh." 
 
 Exceptions : weird, financier, leisure, seize, 
 neither. Another determining rule is that i fol- 
 lows I, e follows c; as, believe, receive. 
 
 8. Nouns ending with or i, preceded by a 
 consonant, add es to form the plural; as, veto, 
 vetoes, alkali, alkalies. 
 
 28 
 
Exceptions : canto, duodecimo, halo, junto, 
 lasso, memento, octavo, proviso, piano, solo, tyro. 
 
 9. Compounded nouns form the plural by 
 adding the »? to the principal word ; as, sons-in- 
 law, stepsons. 
 
 Exceptions : men-servants, women-servants, 
 (Biblical forms). 
 
 10. The plural of nouns ending in ful is gen- 
 erally made by adding the s to the ending syl- 
 lable ; as, handfuls, spoonfuls. 
 
 11. Nouns ending in y preceded by a conso- 
 nant change the y to ies to form the plural; as, 
 spy, spies; valley, valleys. 
 
 \2. Nouns in common use, derived from for- 
 eign languages, usually form their plurals ac- 
 cording to the general English rule; as, cherub, 
 cherubs, 
 
 13. Do not double / or p of unaccented sylla- 
 bles before the terminations ed, er, ing; as, 
 equaled, traveler, worshiping. 
 
 14. These words conform to the British spell- 
 ing in ise : advertise, criticise, enterprise, mer- 
 chandise. 
 
 15. Retain the double letter in derivatives 
 formed by adding ness, ful; as, fullness, skillful. 
 
 29 
 
16. Words ending in s and z form the pos- 
 sessive by adding the apostrophe only ; as, "Mr. 
 Moss house." 
 
 VII. 
 
 CITATIONS. 
 
 i. Locate quotations or references to author- 
 ity by giving the author's name, the name of the 
 book, the number of the volume and the page at 
 the foot of your page. When the reference is 
 to a magazine, cite author, title of article, maga- 
 zine, month, year, and page. 
 
 2. In referring to general works, the first 
 division, whether volume, part, or act, should be 
 in roman numerals in capitals ; the others in 
 arabic numerals ; as, "Prescott's Conquest of 
 Mexico, Vol. I. pp. 220 — 229." 
 
 3. There should always be a comma between 
 the author's name and the title of the work, un- 
 less the name is put in the possessive case or a 
 connecting particle is used; as, "De Vinne, Cor- 
 rect Composition, p. 40." 
 
4- References to foot-notes, whether figures, 
 letters, or the common reference marks, should 
 have no period or other mark after them. 
 
 5. All customary marks of punctuation and 
 abbreviation must be carefully observed in writ- 
 ing citations. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 Poetry must always be quoted in the form in 
 which it is printed. The first verse quoted should 
 be set on a line by itself and written across the 
 page. The other verses should follow as printed. 
 In case of omission of any verse or verses, pe- 
 riods should be used, and when the quotation is 
 resumed it should be begun at that part of the 
 line corresponding with the printed form. When 
 only one verse or part of a verse is quoted it 
 need not be set on a separate line, but quotation 
 marks should be used unless the passage is a 
 common possession. 
 
 31 
 
IX. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Gram- 
 matical 
 Forms 
 and Con- 
 structions 
 needing 
 Caution. 
 
 i. Be heedful of foreign and ir- 
 regular plurals. 
 
 2. With two objects use compar- 
 ative degree; with more than two, 
 superlative. 
 
 3. Words used after a compara- 
 tive should exclude the subject of 
 the comparison ; words used after a 
 superlative should include the sub- 
 ject of comparison; as, "He was 
 taller than any other man present." 
 
 4. Avoid the use of the "misre- 
 lated participle." Whenever a par- 
 ticipial construction is used, the ex- 
 act noun or pronoun to which the 
 participle is attached should be ex- 
 pressed. Incorrect : " Coming down 
 the road a little stream greeted us." 
 
 5. Use the possessive case before 
 a participial noun ; as, "I read of 
 Mary's going" (not Mary). 
 
 32 
 
6. Use the present tense to ex- Grammatical 
 
 press general and universal truths ; Forms and 
 
 as, "The incident taught that eternal Construc- 
 
 vigilance is the price of liberty." tions needing 
 
 7. Determine principal tenses by 
 the exact time of the action. 
 
 8. Reckon the tenses of depend- 
 ent clauses and infinitives according 
 to their relation to the principal 
 tense; as, "I intended to go," not, 
 "I intended to have gone." 
 
 9. When several infinitives oc- 
 cur in sequence the word on which 
 each depends should be made ob- 
 vious ; as, "He wished to take his 
 father with him to gain entrance 
 and find the magistrate." If the 
 son wished to take, gain, and find, 
 place commas after him and en- 
 trance. If the father, change the 
 construction, "who would gain," 
 etc. 
 
 10. For simple futurity use shall 
 in the first person, will in the second 
 and third persons ; for determina- 
 tion, command, willingness, reverse 
 this usage. 
 
 Caution- 
 continued. 
 
Grammatical 
 Forms and 
 Construc- 
 tions needing 
 Caution — 
 continued. 
 
 v ii. In a question use the form 
 that, according to the rule, belongs 
 to the answer ; as, "Shall you go ?" 
 "I shall go." 
 
 v 12. In indirect quotations use 
 the form that would be used in the 
 direct; as, "He declares that he 
 shall go if he is not elected." (Di- 
 rect, "I shall go, etc.") 
 
 13. Make the same distinctions 
 between should and would as be- 
 tween shall and will. 
 
 14. Avoid the use of the "cleft 
 infinitive." The infinitive should 
 not be divided by an adverb between 
 the preposition to and the verb; in- 
 correct, "to so present." Place the 
 adverb either before or after the 
 infinitive. 
 
 15. In conditional clauses use in- 
 dicative mood when the condition is 
 assumed as a fact or a mere uncer- 
 tainty ; subj unctive when it 
 doubtful; as, "If it is raining 
 shall go" ; or 
 shall go." 
 
 is 
 
 I 
 If it be raining I 
 
 34 
 
1 6. The present subjunctive is Grammatical 
 used to express a future contin- Forms and 
 gency ; as, "If he be there I will see Construe- 
 him." tions needing 
 
 Caution — 
 
 17. The past subjunctive is used continued. 
 
 ( 1 ) to express a supposition imply- 
 ing the contrary ; as, "Even were I 
 disposed it would be impossible'' ; 
 
 (2) to express a mere supposition 
 with indefinite time; as, "Unless I 
 were ready I would refuse"; (3) to 
 express a wish or desire; as, "I 
 wish I were going." 
 
 18. Use the active voice instead 
 of the passive, when possible; as, 
 "I heard a song," instead of "A 
 song was heard by me." 
 
 19. The article should not be in- 
 serted in a phrase which depends 
 upon kind or sort; as, "This kind 
 of boy." 
 
 20. Who and whom should be 
 carefully distinguished in construc- 
 tion ; as, "Whom did you refer to ?" 
 
 21. Avoid the use of and which 
 and but which when a relative con- 
 struction does not precede. 
 
 35 
 
Grammatical v 22. After look, sound, taste, feel, 
 Forms and smell, an adjective is used to de- 
 Construc- scribe the subject; as, "It sounds 
 lions needing clear" (not, sounds clearly). 
 Caution — 
 
 continued. 
 
 23. Usually, the noun is followed 
 by the same preposition that follows 
 its related verb; as, "confide in," 
 "to have confidence in." 
 
 y 24. When but is used to arrest 
 an implied inference from the pre- 
 ceding and turn the thought in op- 
 posite direction, be sure that such 
 inference is natural, and that the 
 added idea is antithetic. Incor- 
 rect : "Luther's character was emo- 
 tional but exceedingly courageous." 
 (Emotion and courage are not an- 
 tithetical.) 
 
 25. A thought moving in the 
 same direction needs often to be in- 
 tensified in succeeding members, in 
 order to secure progress and cli- 
 max ; as, "We admired Mary and 
 especially Jean." 
 
 26. Use illative conjunctions to 
 indicate inference, effect or conse- 
 quence ; use causal conjunctions to 
 indicate reasons or explanations. 
 
 36 
 
27 '. Subordination inside a clause 
 already subordinate, should be made 
 by the use of a different conjunc- 
 tion; as, "// the man will repent, 
 provided that (not if) he is honest, 
 he will be engaged." 
 
 28. The infinitive should be in the 
 present when it expresses what is 
 either future or contemporary at the 
 time indicated by the principal verb, 
 whether that be in the present or 
 the past tense ; as, "He intended to 
 ivrite" ; "He appears to have stud- 
 ied." 
 
 29. Avoid, when possible, a "split 
 construction" ; as, "He had a de- 
 termined resentment toward and an 
 utter contempt for the ruling 
 power." 
 
 1. Between a word and its modi- 
 fier, do not put any expression that 
 can usurp the modification; as, "A 
 key found by a boy made of steel." 
 
 2. Place only immediately before 
 its principal. 
 
 3. Place restrictive phrases where 
 they can work in only one way ; as, 
 "At least John is honest," or "John 
 is, at least, honest." 
 
 Grammatical 
 Forms and 
 Construc- 
 tions needing 
 Caution — 
 continued. 
 
 11. 
 
 Plac- 
 ing of 
 Modifiers, 
 
 87 
 
III. Con- i. Do not let intervening words 
 
 cord. disturb agreement of verb and sub- 
 
 ject. 
 
 2. The verb be, in all its forms, 
 takes the same case after it as be- 
 fore it; as, "I know it to be him" ; 
 "It is ir 
 
 3. Treat collectives by sense 
 rather than by grammar; as, "The 
 committee were of different opin- 
 ions" ; "The committee was of one 
 mind." 
 
 4. Singular nouns, unless syn- 
 onymous or so closely connected as 
 to make up a single idea, when 
 joined by and require a plural verb ; 
 as, "The evening and the morning 
 were the first day"; "The ebb and 
 flow of the tides is now well under- 
 stood." 
 
 5. Singular nouns joined by or 
 or nor require a singular verb. 
 
 6. When the subjects joined by 
 or or nor are of different numbers 
 either use, where possible, a form of 
 the verb which is the same for either 
 
 38 
 
number, or change the construction Concord — 
 
 of the sentence, or make the verb continued. 
 agree with the nearest subject; as, 
 "One or two were there." 
 
 7. Each, every, either, and neither 
 take a singular verb. 
 
 8. Make pronoun and antecedent 
 agree in number and kind. Such 
 agreement is to be determined by 
 the logical sense. 
 
 1. Make the antecedent promi- jy Ante- 
 nent enough to be identified readily. cedents. 
 
 2. Make the reference definite 
 enough to single out the exact ante- 
 cedent intended. 
 
 1. When a number of persons, V. Refer- 
 men and women, are spoken of dis- ence. 
 tributively, the pronouns he and his 
 
 are proper forms of reference — not 
 their, not his or her; as, "Each of 
 the students has his peculiar traits." 
 
 2. When the indefinite pronoun 
 one is used, there is often ambiguity 
 in referring to it later by he, his, etc. 
 Repeat the one; as, "One is not sure 
 of one's case." 
 
Reference — 3. In many cases where refer- 
 
 continued. ence is difficult, the antecedent needs 
 to be repeated in some form, in- 
 stead of being represented by a pro- 
 noun ; as, "Jefferson, in reference to 
 this statement of Franklin's, said 
 that Franklin's opinion was dis- 
 tinctly at variance with his (Jeffer- 
 son's) practice." 
 
 4. When the antecedent is a 
 clause, it must generally be referred 
 to by more than a mere pronominal 
 word. A denning word must be 
 added to broaden the reference ; as, 
 "When an American book is re- 
 published in England, the fact (bet- 
 ter than it) is heralded/' 
 
 5. When possible arrange sen- 
 tences so that a relative pronoun can 
 refer to the nearest word that can 
 be used as an antecedent. This ap- 
 plies with especial force to the ante- 
 cedent of the restrictive relative. 
 
 6. When proximity is not possi- 
 ble, give prominence to the antece- 
 dent by its position ; that is, put the 
 antecedent in a principal grammat- 
 ical function, usually as subject, or 
 
 40 
 
it may be, as object of a verb or a Reference — 
 preposition. The antecedent may continued. 
 not be in the possessive case, nor 
 may it be left to implication. 
 
 7. "Never put an it upon paper 
 without thinking well of what you 
 are about. When I see many its in 
 a page I always tremble for the 
 writer." — Cobbett. 
 
 8. It is not enough that pronouns 
 have their antecedents in the writ- 
 er's mind, or in the sense of the 
 previous clause ; they should always 
 be referable to grammatical words. 
 
 1. Co-ordinate conjunctions join VI. Correla- 
 verbs in the same moods and tion. 
 tenses. 
 
 2. The words not only and but, 
 or but also, when correlative, should 
 be followed by the same part of 
 speech; as, "He gave me not only 
 advice but also help." 
 
 3. The correlatives so, as, are 
 used with the negative not; as, "It 
 is not so cold as yesterday." 
 
 41 
 
Correlation 4. When making comparisons, 
 
 — continued, verbs or prepositions should be re- 
 peated after than or as, when nec- 
 essary to make the grammatical re- 
 lation of the later member clear ; as, 
 "Pleasure and excitement had more 
 attraction for him than for his 
 friend." 
 
 5. In comparing complex objects 
 take care that the points compared 
 are really comparable. The fol- 
 lowing is incorrect: "No author 
 could more faithfully represent a 
 character than this portrait of 
 Count Cenci by Shelley." If we 
 should say "than Shelley has por- 
 trayed the character of Count Cen- 
 ci," the comparison would be be- 
 tween like objects. 
 
 6. Study correct usage in choos- 
 ing particles of correlation. The 
 following are some of the most 
 commonly misused particles, with 
 their corrections. Some expres- 
 sions not strictly correlative are in- 
 cluded : 
 
 Write different from, not differ- 
 ent to. 
 
 Write hardly when, not hardly 
 than. 
 
 42 
 
Write seldom or never, not sel- Correlation 
 dom or ever. — continued. 
 
 Write such as, not such which. 
 
 Write neither nor, not neither 
 or. 
 
 Write the same that (objective), 
 not the same as. 
 
 Write I do not know that, not 
 I do not know as. 
 
 J. Do not neglect to correlate 
 clauses when the reader may in any 
 way be helped by it. The particles 
 either, neither, on the one hand, 
 etc., serve to prepare for a coming 
 alternative, or, nor, etc., and help 
 the reader to anticipate ; as, (< Either 
 you must take this course or else 
 your cause is endangered." The 
 particles indeed, to be sure, etc., 
 used, by way of concession, serve 
 to prepare for a coming adversative 
 but, still, or yet; as, "To be sure 
 he agrees, yet he hesitates to act." 
 
 i. Let a sentence contain the de- yil. Unity, 
 velopment of only one idea. 
 
 2. Avoid a loose arrangement of 
 relative clauses. 
 
 43 
 
Unity — 3. Do not crowd into the same 
 
 continued. sentence ideas that have no close 
 connection. 
 
 4. Do not crowd into a sentence 
 details that belong elsewhere. 
 
 5. Avoid changing the subject 
 in a sentence. 
 
 6. Test sentences for unity by 
 putting them into periodic form. 
 
 7. The expression of a single 
 sentence, with due observance of 
 the legitimate dependencies of 
 clause and clause, may be taken as 
 the pattern of paragraph structure ; 
 conversely, the total effect of a para- 
 graph should be reducible to a sin- 
 gle sentence. 
 
 8. To secure unity in a para- 
 graph, make the paragraph con- 
 cern itself with one particular mat- 
 ter, and with that alone. 
 
 9. Usually, any sentence to be 
 worthy of a place in a paragraph, 
 should contribute directly to ex- 
 plain, or particularize, or prove, or 
 apply, the one thought of the topic. 
 
 44 
 
i. End or begin with words that VIII. Em- 
 deserve distinction. phasis. 
 
 2. To add emphasis to a princi- 
 pal element, invert its sentence 
 order. 
 
 3. To add emphasis to a modi- 
 fier, place it after its principal. 
 
 4. To add emphasis to a condi- 
 tional clause, place it last. 
 
 5. To push expectation toward 
 the end, put preliminaries first. 
 
 6. Make successive terms ad- 
 vance from weaker to stronger. 
 
 7. Emphasis may be secured by 
 use of the balanced sentence. 
 
 8. The secret of emphasis or 
 force in the structure of sentence, 
 paragraph, or whole composition, is 
 the recognition of the relative im- 
 portance of things, and the securing 
 of position, bulk, and stress, to ac- 
 cord with rank in importance. 
 
 45 
 
Emphasis — 9. Begin, and especially end, par- 
 
 continued. agraphs with important thoughts. 
 
 So arrange the sentences that what 
 
 is important in thought, shall be 
 
 prominent to the eye and ear. 
 
 10. Place relatively unimportant 
 though necessary thoughts in the 
 interior of the paragraph, with little 
 bulk or distinction of expression. 
 
 11. Words and phrases that im- 
 ply more than they say, or con- 
 noting expressions, are especially 
 forcible. Vernacular words con- 
 note vigor and simplicity ; for force 
 prefer specific words instead of gen- 
 eral ; short words instead of long ; 
 Saxon derivatives instead of Latin 
 or Greek ; idioms instead of bookish 
 words. Figures that connote some 
 implication, unexpected or enrich- 
 ing, are of peculiar force. 
 
 • 12. Cut out all unnecessary words 
 so that the strong elements, the 
 vital words, may stand forth. 
 
 46 
 
I. Coherence depends first upon IX. Cohe- 
 the development of the logical habit rence. 
 of noting the relations of ideas, and 
 of estimating closely the kind, the 
 degree, the shading of such rela- 
 tions ; secondly, upon the fine and 
 accurate use of the symbolic words 
 (pronouns, articles, prepositions, 
 conjunctions) that express such re- 
 lations. 
 
 2. The life and progress of a 
 sentence may reside in its preposi- 
 tions ; as, "A government of the 
 people, by the people, and for the 
 people, shall not perish from the 
 earth." 
 
 3. The following lists of conjunc- 
 tions suggest kind, degree, and 
 shading of relations : 
 
 (1) Additive and Cumulative.— 
 And, again, likewise, furthermore, 
 add to this, etc. 
 
 (2) Adversative. — But, still, yet, 
 however, for all that, etc. 
 
 (3) Illative. — Therefore, hence, 
 thus, so, accordingly, etc. 
 
 (4) Causal. — For, because, ow- 
 ing to, arising from, etc. 
 
 47 
 
Coherence — (5) Conditional and Defining. — 
 continued. If, though, provided, unless, when, 
 while, etc. 
 
 (6) Sequential. — That, so that, 
 as much as, etc. 
 
 4. Whenever a word or a phrase 
 depends upon another word or 
 phrase, make the kind and degree 
 of relation between them evident. 
 
 5. Every relative pronoun should 
 be so placed that its antecedent 
 cannot be mistaken. 
 
 6. Make clear the relation of 
 every participle by expressing the 
 noun or pronoun to which it relates. 
 
 7. Associate closely in expression 
 words or clauses that are associ- 
 ated closely in thought. 
 
 8. Make the similarity in rela- 
 tion of ideas evident by uniformity 
 in construction ; as, "Then came a 
 fit of despondency, almost of des- 
 pair" ; "I take four writers, each 
 of whom, despite his individuality, 
 
 48 
 
is typical of his own century: Sir Coherence- 
 Walter Raleigh of the sixteenth, — continued. 
 the age of Elizabeth; Sir Thomas 
 Browne of the seventeenth, — the 
 age of the Stuarts ; Henry Fielding 
 of the eighteenth, — the age of the 
 Georges ; Lord Macaulay of the 
 nineteenth, — the age of Victoria." 
 
 9. A needless shift of subject, or 
 voice, is, according to the principle 
 of parallel construction, very dam- 
 aging to cohesion; as, "I started 
 up and a scream was heard." What 
 is meant? 
 
 10. Do not separate adverbs 
 from the words they modify. 
 
 11. If possible, place the adverb 
 only immediately before the word 
 or construction to which it belongs. 
 
 12. An adjective phrase intro- 
 duced by the preposition of, being 
 the adjunct of a noun, naturally 
 craves the place just after its noun, 
 and in a series of phrases takes 
 precedence of phrases adverbial in 
 office. Incorrect : "The preserva- 
 tion in a race or nation by tradition 
 of historical characters is a means 
 of promoting patriotism." 
 
 49 
 
Coherence — 13. To secure coherence in a par- 
 continued. agraph, each sentence must have a 
 traceable relation, a felt reference 
 to the preceding sentence; must 
 contribute its own thought to the 
 purpose of the paragraph and, at 
 the same time, must prepare for 
 what follows. In like manner each 
 paragraph in a whole composition 
 must secure coherence. 
 
 14. Express scrupulously, when 
 necessary, the words and phrases 
 of relation which define the turning 
 points of thought, and make clear 
 and coherent the reference. 
 
 15. Explicit reference is secured 
 by the free use of connectives, con- 
 junctional and demonstrative; as, 
 "What America is to England, that 
 the Western States are to the At- 
 lantic States." 
 
 16. Implicit reference, that is, 
 an implied connection without ex- 
 pressed symbols of relation, is 
 sometimes secured by means of the 
 natural closeness of the thought and 
 the skillful management of the 
 structure; as, "From labor cometh 
 strength ; (and) from strength, vic- 
 tory." 
 
 50 
 
X. 
 FORM. 
 
 i. General. 
 
 i. Have good material: good quality of pa- 
 per, black ink, and good pen, neither "stub" nor 
 too sharp. 
 
 2. All writing should be in clear, legible hand 
 with no flourishes. Avoid these few chief faults : 
 
 (i) Extending loop-letters until they tangle 
 with the loops of the line above or the line be- 
 low. 
 
 (2) Making the letters t and d with loops. 
 
 (3) Leaving too little space between words. 
 
 (4) Leaving space between letters of the 
 same word. 
 
 (5) Failing to leave a larger space than usual 
 after a semicolon, and between sentences. 
 
 (6) Neglecting to dot i's and cross fs prop- 
 erly. 
 
 (7) Neglecting to close o's, a's and d's and 
 to discriminate between u and n. 
 
 3. Show care and accuracy in spelling and 
 punctuation. 
 
 4. Be exact in making the different points 
 of punctuation. 
 
 51 
 
5. Write on but one side of the paper. 
 
 6. Number all pages in the upper right-hand 
 corner. 
 
 7. All paragraphs should be indented about 
 one inch from the margin. 
 
 8. After each sentence a space of about an 
 inch should be left before the beginning of the 
 next sentence. 
 
 9. When special attention is invited to any 
 word or expression inclose it in single quote- 
 marks ; as, " 'Doth' is an archaism." 
 
 10. Foreign words, and, rarely, words of 
 special emphasis, are italicised. Underscore for 
 italics. 
 
 11. Make erasures by drawing a single hori- 
 zontal line through the expression, or, what is 
 better, by removing with a knife or eraser. 
 
 12. Insertions, when unavoidable, should be 
 made above the line, with a caret (a) to in- 
 dicate the place. 
 
 52 
 
13. Write name, class, division, subject, 
 pages (of text), and date, on upper right-hand 
 corner of exercises. 
 
 14. Write subject, name, class, division, and 
 date, on outside cover of essays. 
 
 2. Outlines. 
 
 1. Have points grouped under the main 
 heads : Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion; 
 if the form of discourse be argumentation, in- 
 clude Proposition under the main heads. 
 
 2. Carefully arrange points according to their 
 rank. Place points of equal importance after 
 like symbols, the symbols being set in vertical 
 rows. Indent all sub-points about one inch from 
 their principals. Do not put symbols of different 
 kinds on the same vertical. 
 
 Note : In an ordinary essay the most common 
 and lucid notation, perhaps, is to put the main 
 divisions in capital letters (A, B, C) ; the sub- 
 divisions in arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) ; and the 
 sub-subdivisions in small letters (a, b. c). 
 
3. Select points with regard to distinction, 
 sequence, and climax. That is, let each point, 
 main and subordinate, have a significance of its 
 own ; as far as possible, let each point, and each 
 group of points, grow naturally out of what pre- 
 cedes, and lead to what follows ; let the several 
 groups gather momentum as they advance, and 
 reach a culmination of interest. 
 
 4. State all thoughts in plain language and 
 in complete form. As a rule state all points of 
 the outline in sentential form. 
 
 5. Cite authorities and explicit references at 
 foot of pages. 
 
 6. Give a bibliography of sources at the close. 
 
 7. Punctuate all expressions in the outline. 
 
 3. Theses and Senior Parts. 
 
 1. Type-written copies are preferred. An 
 outline or table of contents is desirable. Ex- 
 plicit references and authorities should be given 
 in foot notes. A bibliography of sources should 
 be prefixed or given at close. All the work should 
 be done with the utmost accuracy of arrange- 
 ment and form. 
 
 54 
 
4. Note-Books. 
 
 i. Have good material: good quality of pa- 
 per, black ink, and good pen, or pointed pencil 
 and good eraser. 
 
 2. Have a regular system of grouping, tabu- 
 lating, and indexing points. 
 
 3. A system of recognizable abbreviations is 
 desirable. 
 
 4. Take legible notes that can be read several 
 weeks after dictation. 
 
 5. Leave margin or space for conspicuous 
 placing of headings. 
 
 6. Group notes under main heads, clearly dis- 
 criminating between logical definitions and mere 
 illustrations. 
 
 7. Whenever possible, make an orderly tabu- 
 lation of details under main heads. 
 
 8. Aim to get the substance of general state- 
 ments in your own words, rather than to note a 
 part of each sentence. 
 
 9. Try to get the exact words of significant 
 phrases or quotations. 
 
 55 
 
io. Keep a brief table of contents referring 
 to pages of your note-book. 
 
 ii. All notes should be written in good Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 12. (Authority for this valuable direction: 
 Professor Schafer, of the University of Oregon.) 
 
 Any report should include careful citation of 
 authorities and careful description of notes 
 taken. 
 
 Notes : 
 
 (i) Write at the top of the group of notes 
 the name of the author read, title of the work, 
 volume and pages containing the matter used in 
 the report; as, "Fiske, The Discovery of Amer- 
 ica, Vol. II. pp. 141 — 143." 
 
 (2) Every note should be described so that 
 on referring to it at any time the writer may 
 know its exact character and its relation to the 
 source whence it comes. First, if a quotation, 
 that fact should always be indicated by quote- 
 marks ; secondly, if a paraphrase, some symbol 
 (for instance, =) should be used to show it; 
 thirdly, if merely the thought of the author has 
 been taken, while the language is absolutely orig- 
 inal, the absence of quote-marks and paraphrase- 
 symbols will indicate as unnecessary any formal 
 description. 
 
 56 
 
(3) A stray note lacking these credentials of 
 character, 'source' and 'description/ is without 
 value for any scholarly purpose. 
 
 XL 
 
 LETTER WRITING. 
 
 i. General Directions. 
 
 i. The heading should contain the writer's 
 address in full and the date. Thus, 
 
 587 Morrison St., 
 Portland, Oregon, 
 Dec. 9, 1903. 
 
 Hobart College, 
 
 Geneva, N. Y., 
 Oct. 3, 1903. 
 
 2. The salutation should indicate the relation 
 between the writer and the recipient. Thus, 
 
 Dear Madam, Dear Sir, My dear Madam, 
 My dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, are appro- 
 priate salutations in business letters. 
 
 57 
 
Notes : 
 
 (i) 'Gentlemen' is the proper salutation in 
 addressing a firm or company. 
 
 (2) 'My dear Sir' is more formal than 'Dear 
 Sir.' 
 
 (3) 'Madam' may refer to a single or a mar- 
 ried lady. 
 
 (4) 'Dear Mr. Brown/ 'My dear Mrs. Deane,' 
 are used in friendly letters, or in business letters 
 addressed to a person whom one knows well. 
 
 (5) 'Dear James,' 'Dear Uncle,' 'My dear 
 George/ 'Dear Cousin Grace,' 'My dear friend' 
 (or Friend), are forms for familiar letters. 
 
 (6) The salutation should be followed by a 
 colon, or by a colon and a dash. 
 
 3. The body of the letter should be legibly 
 and clearly written, in paragraphs, each of which 
 should cover a single point. 
 
 4. The letter should close with a courteous 
 and appropriate phrase. Thus, in business let- 
 ters : 
 
 Yours truly, Yours sincerely, Very truly 
 yours, Respectfully yours ; in familiar or friendly 
 letters : 
 
 Faithfully yours, Your loving son, Yours 
 cordially, Yours, with love. 
 
 58 
 
Notes : 
 
 (i) 'Yours truly' is more formal than 'Yours 
 sincerely/ 
 
 (2) 'Respectfully yours' should never be 
 used unless special respect is intended. It is 
 proper in writing to a high official or to a person 
 much older than one's self. 
 
 5. Except in very familiar letters the writer 
 should sign his name in the form he habitually 
 uses in signing a document. 
 
 Notes : 
 
 (1) If the writer is a lady she should in- 
 dicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss 
 or Mrs. This may be done by prefixing the 
 title (in parenthesis) to the signature: '(Miss) 
 Edith Mount.' Or the proper form may be writ- 
 ten below the signature and at the left of the 
 page. A lady should not be addressed by her 
 husband's title. Incorrect : 'Mrs. Senator Wise', 
 'Mrs. Judge Ross.' 
 
 (2) Be sure that your final sentence when it 
 is united with the subscription is grammatical. 
 The following is ungrammatical : 
 
 "Hoping to see you soon, believe me, 
 
 Yours sincerely." 
 
 You will be right as to grammar if you sub- 
 stitute T am,' for 'believe me.' 
 
 59 
 
6. The name and address of the person for 
 whom a letter is intended are usually placed 
 either above the salutation or below the signa- 
 ture and at the left of the page. In familiar 
 letters the latter arrangement is usual ; in busi- 
 ness letters, the former. 
 
 2. Letter Forms. 
 
 i. Friendly Letter. 
 
 Portland, Oregon, 
 426 Jefferson Street, 
 
 My dear Martha: ay l ' I9 ° 3 ' 
 
 Please come next Saturday and spend 
 a week with me. Yours as evefj 
 
 Mary Harlowe Brown. 
 Miss Martha Drew, 
 Salem, Oregon. 
 
 2. Business Letter. 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 374 Market Street, 
 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co., . Sept 23 ' ^ 
 4 Park Street, Boston, Mass. 
 Dear Sirs : — 
 
 Please send by mail one copy of 
 Lowell's Complete Poems. Enclosed find postal 
 order for the price as catalogued. 
 Very truly, 
 
 George H. Marsh. 
 
 60 
 
3. Superscription. 
 
 In superscription or direction, which is 
 written on the envelope, never deviate from the 
 approved manner of arrangement. Thus, 
 
 Mr. John Applegate 
 43 State Street 
 Salem 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Note: Commas are not needed at the ends 
 of lines in the superscription. An abbreviation, 
 however, should of course be followed by a pe- 
 riod; as, St. for Street. Place stamp always in 
 upper right hand corner. 
 
 4. Invitations (Informal and Formal). 
 
 1. Invitations and replies are either formal 
 or informal. The reply should accord in style 
 with the invitation. 
 
 2. An informal invitation or reply is written 
 like any other familiar letter. Sometimes the 
 heading is omitted altogether and the date and 
 place put at the close. 
 
 3. Formal notes should be written on unruled 
 paper having no printed heading. They should 
 
 61 
 
be written in third person throughout with no 
 abbreviations. The date of entertainment, hour, 
 place, function, should be written in full. The ad- 
 dress and date (written out) should be placed at 
 the lower left hand of the page. 
 
 4. A reply, whether formal or informal, 
 should always repeat the date and hour men- 
 tioned in the invitation, to prevent mistake. 
 
 5. Note of Invitation. 
 
 Mrs. John Bates Wesley requests the 
 pleasure of Mr. Cob Web's company Friday even- 
 ing, December the tenth, from eight to eleven. 
 
 23 Carleton Street. 
 December fifth. 
 
 6. Note of Acceptance. 
 
 Mr. Cob Web accepts with pleasure Mrs. 
 John Bates Wesley's kind invitation for Friday 
 evening, December the tenth, from eight to 
 eleven. 
 
 14 Bond Street, 
 December fifth. 
 
 62 
 
7- Other correct forms: 
 
 Mrs. Henry Clay Barr 
 
 Luncheon 
 
 Tuesday, May the tenth, from two until 
 
 four o'clock 
 
 420 Bond Street 
 
 Miss Dorothy Wren 
 
 At Home 
 
 Saturday afternoon, June the fourth 
 
 356 Mill Street 
 
 Garden Party. 
 
 68 
 

 8. Form for an introduction that may be 
 written on the back of a visiting card : 
 
 Introducing 
 
 Miss Ruth Graham Mills 
 of Portland, Oregon 
 
 to 
 
 Mrs. George Marshall 
 84 Beacon Street, Boston 
 
 XII. 
 
 COPY FOR THE PRINTER. 
 
 1. Form. 
 
 1. Use paper from eight to ten inches long 
 and from five to six inches wide, and write across 
 the long side. 
 
 2. Leave a margin of half an inch at both 
 top and bottom of each page. Side margins are 
 often useful to the editor. If you do not write 
 your own headlines leave space for them at the 
 top of the first sheet. 
 
 3. Put your name on everything you write 
 at the top of the first sheet. 
 
 64 
 
4- Never write on both sides of the paper. 
 
 5. Write with a pen when possible, and use 
 good black ink. Never use a pencil with hard 
 lead. A pencil that makes a dim mark, pale ink, 
 and a very fine pen are poor tools. Throw them 
 away. 
 
 6. Study the columns of the paper for which 
 you write. Note the system by which the styles 
 of type are used; the position of dates; the way 
 letters to the editor are addressed; the use of 
 "headlines, " "sub-heads," and "cross lines"; the 
 style of capitalization and punctuation; the use 
 of abbreviations in writing words: the method 
 of writing numbers, that is, what numbers are 
 written in figures and what in letters; and the 
 forms used for tables, summaries, market reports, 
 shipping news and other matter. 
 
 7. Study several of the great newspapers of 
 the country, The Nezv York Evening Post, The 
 New York Times, the Philadelphia Ledger, etc., 
 and our own Oregonian for information as to 
 subject matter, method of statement, and form 
 used for the different pages. 
 
 8. Number each page at the top either in the 
 middle or at the right-hand corner. Draw a quar- 
 ter-circle or two straight lines under the number. 
 If new pages are inserted in the middle of an 
 
 65 
 
article, say after page 9, number them "9a, 9b," 
 etc. If pages are taken out, say from 8 to 12, 
 inclusive, number the seventh page "7 — 12" or the 
 thirteenth page "8 — 13." It is a common practice 
 to choose arbitrarily some letter and put it after 
 every page-number in any one article, as "ix, 
 2x," etc. Thus, confusion will be avoided if the 
 pages should happen to get mixed with those of 
 another article numbered "iz, 22," etc. 
 
 9. Write legibly, so that editor, compositor 
 and proof-reader will have no trouble, and in 
 order to get your article printed as you intended 
 it. Be especially careful with foreign and other 
 unusual words. The capitals I and J are often 
 confounded ; so are the small letters u, n, r, v, w, 
 o, a. 
 
 10. Be particular to write the names of per- 
 sons and places plainly, and, above all, spell them 
 correctly. It is important to write the names of 
 individuals and firms as they write them. Avoid 
 dividing names at the end of lines. 
 
 11. Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 
 If it is not clear that the letter as written is a 
 capital draw three lines under it. Encircle every 
 period that ends a sentence. Some writers pre- 
 fer to use the mark (X) for a period. Leave a 
 space of about an inch between sentences in the 
 same paragraph. Clearly distinguish colons from 
 semicolons and commas from periods. 
 
 66 
 
12. Avoid division of words at end of lines. 
 Never divide a word at the end of a page. 
 
 13. Indent paragraphs an inch from the mar- 
 gin. Put the paragraph mark (!f) before any 
 word not so indented if it introduces a paragraph. 
 In editing your own or another's copy you can 
 make a paragraph where you choose by insert- 
 ing the mark. 
 
 14. If you have made a break in your dis- 
 course, and afterward decide not to have a para- 
 graph, connect the last word before the break, 
 and the first word after the break, by a curved 
 line. 
 
 15. Avoid ending a paragraph with the first 
 or second line on a page. Better compress the 
 writing at the bottom of one page than carry 
 a few words over to the next. 
 
 16. Avoid having the last word on a page 
 end a sentence but not a paragraph. Better carry 
 it over to the next page. 
 
 2. Abbreviations. 
 
 17. To save time "and" may be written & with 
 a semicircle after and half enclosing it. In gen- 
 eral, curves or full circles around abbreviations 
 indicate that they are to be spelled out; e. g., 
 Gen. encircled will be printed General; 9, nine. 
 
 67 
 
) 
 
 Vice versa, a circle around a word means that it 
 is to be abbreviated; Oregon encircled will be 
 printed Or.; nine, p. Abbreviating in copy can of 
 course be carried too far, but it is safe to abbre- 
 viate most titles, the names of days and months, 
 and to use contractions easily understood, like 
 "Dem.," "Rep.," with curves above and below 
 the last letter, or circles around the abbreviation. 
 However, unless under pressure of time, it is 
 always wise to hand in copy exactly as it is to be 
 printed. 
 
 1 8. Never begin a sentence with figures. 
 Write "The sum of $25,000," etc. 
 
 19. Never write "this p. m." Say afternoon 
 or evening. 
 
 20. Spell out numbers under 1 1 ; in editorial 
 under 101. 
 
 21. Do not abbreviate given names. 
 
 22. Do not use "Reverend" or "Honorable" 
 or the abbreviations "Rev." or "Hon." without 
 the man's initials or given name or the insertion 
 of "Mr." Write "Rev. Mr. Brown" or "Reverend 
 John Brown." Many newspapers prefer the ar- 
 ticle before the title : "The Rev. D. L. Ray," "The 
 Hon. James Holmes." Never write "Rev. Brown" 
 or "Hon. Holmes." "Mr.," "Mrs." and "Dr." 
 are used alone with the surname, though it is 
 
 68 
 
better form to write out "Doctor" whenever the 
 initials are omitted; as, "Doctor Smith," "Dr. 
 John Smith." 
 
 23. Use figures for numbers of houses, words 
 for streets. "32 East Twelfth Street." 
 
 24. In dates, abbreviate names of month, and 
 give the day and year in figures. "Jan. 20, 1903." 
 
 25. Per cents should be set in figures, and 
 also sums of money. 
 
 26. In abbreviating scriptural references, 
 write "I Chron. v:2-6"; "Matt, xxvii 13-10." 
 
 27. Some abbreviations for print: 
 
 Ala. 
 
 la. 
 
 Nev. 
 
 R. I. 
 
 Alaska 
 
 I. T. 
 
 N. C. 
 
 S. C. 
 
 Ariz. 
 
 Kan. 
 
 N. D. 
 
 S. D. 
 
 Ark. 
 
 Ky. 
 
 N. H. 
 
 Tenn. 
 
 Cal. 
 
 La. 
 
 N. J. 
 
 T. H. 
 
 Colo. 
 
 Md. 
 
 N. M. 
 
 Tex. 
 
 Conn. 
 
 Me. 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Del. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Okla. 
 
 Va. 
 
 Fla. 
 
 Mich. 
 
 O. 
 
 Vt. 
 
 Ga. 
 
 Minn. 
 
 Or. 
 
 Wash. 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Mo. 
 
 Pa. 
 
 W. Va. 
 
 111. 
 
 Mont. 
 
 P. I. 
 
 Wis. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Neb. 
 
 P. R. 
 
 Wyo. 
 
 Spell out when only the county is given; as, 
 "Lane County, Oregon." 
 
"Oregon" is a short and beautiful word. Why 
 abbreviate it ever? 
 
 3. Miscellaneous. 
 
 28. In canceling draw a horizontal line 
 through the words to be omitted. Be careful to 
 show clearly where the cancellation begins and 
 ends. If the cancellation comes in the middle of 
 a paragraph, connect the last word before and the 
 first word after with a curved line. If you regret 
 a cancellation before the sheet leaves your hands 
 and have not time to rewrite the passage put on 
 the margin the word stet (Latin for "let it 
 stand"). If only a few words have been can- 
 celed, in addition to the marginal stet make a 
 dotted line under the cancelled words. 
 
 29. One line under words means that they 
 are to be printed in italics; two lines, small 
 caps; three lines, FULL CAPS. 
 
 30. If you desire to add more than a few 
 words to copy, it is better to cut the sheet and 
 paste in the new lines than to interline or write 
 the additions on the margin. When a leaf has 
 been lengthened by pasting, fold the lower edge 
 forward upon the writing; if it is folded back- 
 ward it may escape notice. 
 
 31. When writing in dialect, or quoting a sen- 
 tence with misspelled words which you want 
 printed as written, write "Follow copy" on the 
 margin. 
 
 70 
 
32. A proof of any cut to be used in illus- 
 tration should be pasted in the proper place in 
 copy. If the proof does not accompany copy, 
 leave a space in copy and write in it "Here cut," 
 with the title of the illustration. If the cut has 
 not been made send the drawing on a separate 
 sheet and indicate in copy where it is to go, 
 Drawings or unmounted prints should always 
 be sent flat. Never fold them. It is wise to send 
 them between pieces of cardboard. 
 
 33. Keep different articles separate; that is, 
 page and fold them separately. Do not write 
 consecutively paragraphs destined for different 
 departments of the paper. 
 
 34. Below the end of every article write the 
 word "Rule." If the last sheet handed in does 
 not end the article, write at the foot, "More to 
 come." 
 
 35. Date everything sent by mail, messenger 
 or telegraph. When a date heads the article it- 
 self, use tenses, "to-day," "yesterday," etc., in 
 reference to that date. When the article has not 
 its own date, use all time-expressions in reference 
 to the date on which the matter is to be printed. 
 
 36. Newspaper custom varies as to the use 
 and form of date-lines. If you can not find out 
 the practice of the paper for which you are writ- 
 ing it will be safe to follow this system : Use 
 a date-line for mattter from any other place than 
 
 71 
 
that in which the paper is printed, even if it be 
 only a suburb, provided the matter is of more 
 than local interest; insert the name of the state 
 if it be other than the state in which the paper is 
 printed. 
 
 37. Everything in the nature of news should 
 be sent in at the earliest moment possible. No- 
 where else is time so precious as in the newspaper 
 office. 
 
 38. Never act on the principle that as some 
 one else is to edit your article you need not take 
 the trouble to be absolutely accurate. After the 
 matter appears in the newspaper, read it over 
 to see what changes have been made, so that you 
 can avoid repeating any errors. 
 
 39. Address articles intended for publication 
 to the "Managing Editor." If the matter is in- 
 tended for use on any special day, or in any spe- 
 cial department, always make a note of it on the 
 envelope. 
 
 40. The lines in most newspapers average be- 
 tween seven and eight words. The news columns 
 of most newspapers are set in nonpareil, and there 
 are twelve nonpareil lines to the inch. The num- 
 ber of words in a news column ranges from 1600 
 to 2400. Editorial matter, being set in larger 
 type and leaded, will range between 1000 and 
 1500 words to the column. 
 
 72 
 
41. All correspondents should sign their full 
 names to despatches, items and articles of what- 
 soever kind, not their initials or surnames. 
 
 42. Never roll manuscript. Send folded or 
 flat. 
 
 4. Phraseology. 
 
 43. The best foundation for success in writing 
 is mastery of standard forms of expression, large 
 vocabulary, mastery of subject, and the ability 
 to write easily and naturally, as one would talk. 
 To write and re-write simple narrations is ex- 
 cellent practice. 
 
 44. Simplicity, clearness, and brevity are es- 
 sentials. Florid writing, peculiarities and eccen- 
 tricities of expression are, excepting on rare 
 occasions, wearisome. Condense whenever pos- 
 sible. When one idea has been definitely and 
 tersely expressed go on to the next. Make every 
 word count. "A good writer is known by what 
 he omits." 
 
 45. As a rule, Anglo-Saxon words are more 
 simple and direct than words of classic origin. 
 "Trustworthy men will begin work on the sta- 
 tion" is better than "Reliable men intend to com- 
 mence operations for the erection of a depot." 
 
 46. The careless use of personal pronouns 
 results in vagueness. Never write a personal 
 pronoun without careful decision as to its ante- 
 cedent. Better repeat the name than use a pro- 
 
 73 
 
noun without clear reference. The use of direct 
 quotation rather than indirect often settles the 
 difficulty. "He said to his brother that he thought 
 he ought to go." Better to write "He said to his 
 brother, 'You ought to go.' " 
 
 47. Introductions, when necessary, should be 
 brief. Make the first sentence give the gist of 
 your story. "Ex-Governor Black died in Lon- 
 don today of pneumonia, after an illness of four 
 days." Then go on with the details. 
 
 48. Suggestions for gaining brevity: 
 
 ( 1 ) Depend more on the noun and verb than 
 on qualifiers ; that is, cut out or cut down ad- 
 jective and adverbial words, phrases, and clauses 
 whenever possible. "He was a man" is more 
 vigorous than "He was a noble, honorable, con- 
 scientious man." The wordy writer expands 
 "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty" into 
 "Eternal vigilance, a vigilance that is always on 
 the alert, is the universal and inevitable price 
 of liberty, whether of conscience, thought, or 
 action." 
 
 (2) Use concrete terms instead of abstract; 
 particular instead of general; connoting expres- 
 sions instead of denoting, that is, expressions that 
 suggest more than they say by alluding to fa- 
 miliar facts of experience or history. "He has 
 the faith of Columbus" may mean more than 
 a sentence containing twice as many words : "He 
 
 74 
 
holds on in spite of the doubts of those around 
 him." 
 
 (3) Make sentences short, compact, and rich. 
 A good test of the usefulneess of words in a 
 sentence is to put the two most important 
 thoughts at the beginning and the end, and all 
 other parts as near to their governing words as 
 possible. This process will loosen useless words 
 so that they will fall out of the way and thus 
 strengthen the sentence. An example will illus- 
 trate : "Always put words that are significant at 
 the close of sentences." This expression is weak 
 because the two most important thoughts which 
 have to do with position and significance are in 
 subordinate places. Throw them into the best 
 places in a sentence, the beginning, and the end. 
 "Significant words belong at the end/' or "End 
 with words that deserve distinction. " 
 
 49. For correct forms study a few issues of 
 the best magazines, such as, The Atlantic 
 Monthly, The Century, Harper's, The Outlook or 
 Scribners. 
 
 50. What the compositor desires in every 
 manuscript is distinctness of phrase, and a sys- 
 tematic use of points and capitals. When possi- 
 ble, manuscript should be type-written before it 
 is sent to the printer. 
 
XIII. 
 STYLE. 
 
 i. Vocabulary. 
 
 i. Endeavor to enlarge your vocabulary to 
 at least three thousand words, so as to have 
 some richness of diction. 
 
 2. Good Usage. 
 
 i. Get knowledge of the principles of good 
 usage as codified in standard dictionaries, gram- 
 mars, and rhetorics, and as exemplified by reput- 
 able writers and speakers, so as to be able to rec- 
 ognize and to write good prose. 
 
 2. Good prose depends upon choice, arrange- 
 ment and connection of words. 
 
 3. Words are well chosen when they are au- 
 thorized by present, national and reputable use. 
 
 4. A word very old or comparatively new, 
 or a word derived from any source, if generally 
 understood in our own time, is in present use. 
 
 5. A word understood, and understood in the 
 same sense, in every part of the same country, 
 and among all classes of equal intelligence, is in 
 national use. 
 
 76 
 
6. A word which is used by speakers and 
 writers of established reputation is in reputable 
 use. 
 
 Note : Violations of the rules for good usage 
 in the choice of words, are called barbarisms and 
 improprieties. 
 
 (i) A barbarism is a word unauthorized by 
 either present, reputable, or national usage. It 
 may be an obsolete word, a word too new to have 
 a recognized place, a foreign word, a slang word, 
 or a misspelled word. 
 
 (2) An impropriety is an authorized word 
 used in an improper place; as, "The gas was 
 sightless/' (Used for invisible.) 
 
 7. Words are well arranged and well con- 
 nected when they follow the laws of grammatical 
 and rhetorical usage. 
 
 Note: Violations of grammatical laws are 
 called solecisms. 
 
 ( 1 ) A solecism is a faulty construction. 
 
 Note: Violations of rhetorical laws may be 
 called "irregularities. " 
 
 (1) An "irregularity" is a departure from 
 the natural order of English words, not justifiable 
 by the need of emphasis, flexibility, adjustment, 
 or some other definite result. 
 
 77 
 
8. Professor A. S. Hill classifies three of 
 these errors as follows : There are three offenses 
 against the usage of the English language : 
 
 (i) Barbarisms, words not English. 
 
 (2) Solecisms, constructions not English. 
 
 (3) Improprieties, words or phrases used in 
 a sense not English. 
 
 To these may be added a fourth offense : 
 
 (4) Irregularities, words or phrases used in 
 an arrangement not English. 
 
 9. The writer who possesses good English 
 style chooses words both for what tney say (de- 
 note) and for what they imply or involve (con- 
 note), that is, both for literal and figurative ex- 
 pression. He arranges and connects words into 
 phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, so as to make 
 his language convey his thought, above all, with 
 clearness; and then also, with force and beauty. 
 
 Notes : 
 
 (1) Clearness in style demands words that 
 fit the thought, and that can be understood by 
 those to whom they are addressed. 
 
 (2) Force in style grows out of strength of 
 character, conviction, and earnestness, coupled 
 with something to say. 
 
 (3) Beauty in style depends upon familiarity 
 with the beautiful in literature and in the world 
 around us. 
 
 78 
 
XIV. 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 It is recommended that each student set apart 
 thirty minutes a day for the careful reading of 
 classic English literature; that he own and use 
 throughout his course, a dictionary, a book of 
 synonyms, a grammar, and a rhetoric. Camp- 
 bell's ''Handbook of Synonyms and Prepositions" 
 will be found very useful. Among standard 
 grammars those of Professors West, and Whit- 
 ney, and among standard rhetorics those of Pro- 
 fessors Genung, Carpenter, Wendell, Newcomer, 
 and A. S. Hill are valuable, as well as all other 
 texts mentioned in the preface. Finally, anything 
 like mastery in English composition can be 
 achieved only through constant writing and test- 
 ing of one's own powers by the standards of the 
 masters in English prose. 
 
 Literature is an outgrowth of national prog- 
 ress. Activity, accomplishment, the experiences 
 of life, seek for expression in poem, history, phil- 
 osophy and story. Knowledge of human nature, 
 meditation upon the significance of events, and 
 every means that makes for accuracy and fitness 
 in the use of language, contribute toward the pro- 
 duction of literature. 
 
 This western slope of our beloved country has 
 been the scene of many a brave deed. A race is 
 
 79 
 
tending hither "Skilled by freedom and by great 
 events." This region will develop a literature, 
 in some degree, commensurate with its achieve- 
 ments. 
 
 He who would aspire to record the deeds of 
 his forefathers, to report the events of daily life, 
 to enshrine a gracious memory, to arouse a nobler 
 ambition, must prepare himself to m?.ke his writ- 
 ten expression worthy of the deed or thought he 
 would fasten down in print. 
 
 80 
 
Press of 
 
 THE IRWIN-HODSON CO. 
 
 Portland, Oregon 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE 0N THE LAST DATE 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY