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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
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 OF 
 
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 UNIVERSITY 
 CALIFORNIA 
 ANGELES
 
 [HOWARD PRIZE ESSAY, 1875.] 
 
 THE PEASANT'S HOME 
 
 1760-1875. 
 
 EDWARD uaMITH, F.S.S. 
 
 " NON NOBIS SOLUM NATI SUMITS. 
 
 L X D X : 
 EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS, S.W. 
 
 1876.
 
 " Labourers can nerer pay rent to make it answer. But, 
 after all, it is worth doing.'" 
 
 " Worth doing! yes, indeed!'" said Dorothea, energeti- 
 cally, forgetting her previous small vexations. " I think we 
 deserve to be beaten out of our beaut 'iful houses with a scourge 
 of small cords — all of us xcho let tenants live in such sties as 
 we see round us. Life in cottages might be happier than 
 ours, if they were real houses fit for human beings from 
 whom we expect duties and affection^'." 
 
 MiDDLEMAUCH.
 
 WD 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 >- 
 
 «c 
 
 ip 
 
 Introdvctoky .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 
 
 at 
 
 O* Obstacles to Improvement .. .. .. ,, H 
 
 CO 
 
 The ■\VoiiK of Reform . . . . . . . . 28 
 
 C? 
 
 The RuiiAL Labourer in his Model Home . . 101 
 
 CONCLUSIOX .. ., .. .. .. ..128 
 
 Ai'i'ENUix (Cost of Building Cottages) .. .. 135 
 
 -C3 
 
 'i87'870
 
 The Howaud Medal was founded in 1873, by the 
 Statistical Society of Loudon, at the instance of Dr. 
 William A. Griiy, then President of the Society. The 
 design was, to award the Prize to the Author of an 
 Essay on some question of Social Statistics in which 
 John Howard was himself interested. In November, 
 1874, the subject of the Essay for the ensuing year 
 having been announced as — " The State of the Dicell- 
 ings of the Poor in the Rural Districts of England, with 
 special regard to the Inijn'ovements that have taken place 
 since the Middle of the Eighteenth Centurg, and their 
 Influence on the Health and Morals of their Inmcctes,' — 
 the Author was induced to prepare the following 
 Sketch, with the result, that the Medal was duly 
 aAvarded to him at the opening of the Session of 
 1875-6. 
 
 It will readily be understood that a record of this 
 kind might have been indefinitely expanded ; — in- 
 deed, it would have been far easier to produce an 
 elaborate history, than to bring the case within the 
 
 B
 
 11 
 
 limits prescribed. As it is, however, it may be 
 hoped that a sufficient outline is here presented, so 
 that men and women interested in the subject may 
 fill up the blanks for themselves — a matter which is 
 in the power of any one who chooses, . either by per- 
 sonal enquiry, or through published documents. 
 There is food for thought and study in nearly every 
 day's newspaper.* 
 
 * One very important illustration occurs, for example, -while these 
 pages are going through the press, which is well worth making note 
 of : — At page 26 of the text, and elsewhere, mention is made of the 
 difficulties attendant on the disestablishment of freehold hovels by 
 the -wayside. That there is still a conflict of opinion concerning 
 these cherished dwellings, is evidenced by the report of a recent 
 deputation to the Home Secretary, on the Commons Inclosure Bill ; 
 for — 
 
 " Mr. Blackwell called attention to a case in which twenty-five 
 cottagers -were turned out, or made to pay rents by the lord of the 
 manor for cottages which had been built by them on waste lands in 
 the village of Harbury, in the county of Warwick. One of these 
 cottages had been in possession of his family for one hundred years." — 
 Bidlij Neivn, 29th February, 1876.
 
 THE PEASANT'S HOME. 
 
 17 6 — 1875. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 In the following pages it is proposed to submit a gene- 
 ral view of the efforts which have been made, since about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century, to raise the con- 
 dition of the British peasant by the improvement of his 
 home. That it is through his home (using the word in 
 its widest sense) that the character and prospects of the 
 rural labourer are likely to be the most influenced for 
 good, is undoubted ; and it is the principal object of 
 this essay to show, by examples of results, the intimate 
 connection that exists between improved dwellings and 
 improved health and morals. The amelioration of the 
 lot of the rural population by the reformation of their 
 homes has become one of the crying questions of the 
 day ; and it is hoped that the present endeavour to 
 throw light upon it, by recording some of the efforts at 
 improvement which have been made, noting the prin- 
 cipal obstacles to improvement, and, lastly, viewing 
 the question in its social aspects, may be of service. 
 Seeing that this important social question has now
 
 4 THE PEASANT S HOME. 
 
 taken firm told of tlie public mind, it will not be 
 necessary to dwell at any length upon the deplorable 
 state of things which has so long existed with reference 
 to the homes of the poor. A matter which has reached 
 the point of legislative interference maybe considered 
 as pretty well ventilated, and as not requiring anymore 
 facts or reiterations to show the necessity for reform. 
 Eoyal Commissioners and special correspondents have 
 left us no excuse for ignorance upon this vital point, 
 ^ut, with a view to comprehensiveness, — even within 
 the small limits at our disposal, — it will be as well to 
 give a passing glance at the conditions which call so 
 loudly for reform. 
 
 The principal features of defective cottage accommo- 
 dation may be thus summarised : — Dilapidation, bad 
 sanitary arrangements, insufficient water supply, de- 
 ficiency of sleeping-room accommodation, and inferior 
 structural qualities ; to which may be added numerical 
 insufficiency, — these defects prevail to a greater or less 
 extent in every part of the country, but they are more 
 obvious in strictly agricultural counties than in others. 
 Some of the large villages in these counties are simply 
 collections of hovels, utterly unfit for human habitation, 
 possessing, as they do, all possible defects accumulated 
 under one roof. 
 
 " The natural history, so to call it, of these miserable, 
 ruinous dwellings, is very various. Some of the 
 worst are parish cottages, either erected in the time of 
 the old Poor-Law, or bequeathed to the parish as a 
 last home for its aged paupers, which there are no
 
 I^"TROD■D■CTORY. O 
 
 funds to repair. Another almost uniformly bad class 
 are the cottages run up by squatters on the waste, or 
 held upon a lifehold or copyhold tenure, and which 
 have not yet fallen in to the lord of the manor. Others 
 have been put up by speculative builders, of the flim- 
 siest materials ; others are converted stables or farm- 
 houses Some belong to small proprietors, too 
 
 indigent to have any money to spare for their improve- 
 ment ; some to absentee or embarrassed landowners." 
 These remarks, from a report of Bishop Fraser,* 
 shortly and vividly describe the evil and its cause ; but 
 the account may be further epitomised, and brought 
 within the compass of two words — Indifference and 
 Neglect ; and I do not put it so unadvisedly, as if it 
 were certain individual persons or classes of individuals 
 whose neglect is to be reprobated ; rather is it our 
 habitual national indifference which requires to be 
 repeatedly disturbed, and our sympathy to be rudely 
 awakened, before we can be induced to act. Witness 
 the hard battle that is even now being fought on behalf 
 of general sanitary improvement, against the spirit of 
 slovenliness and negligence. Damp walls and leaky 
 roofs, semi-putrid wells, infected rooms, open sewers, 
 and polluted rivers, all belong to the same categor}'^ ; 
 and, with the public mind uneducated and uncon- 
 cerned on these matters, it is not surprising that reform 
 is so slow as it is, and that the majority of the cottages 
 
 * Royal Commission on the Employment of Women and Children in 
 Agriculture (1867), First Report,-^. 35.
 
 f) THE PEASANT S HOME. 
 
 that still exist (1868) in rural parishes " are deficient 
 in almost every requisite that should constitute a 
 home for a Christian family in a civilised community."* 
 That this indifierence is of long standing, "will be 
 evidenced by such an observation as the following : — 
 "In a country where so little attention has been 
 paid to farm-houses, it can hardly be expected that 
 labourers' cottages should have been an object of much 
 regard." f 
 
 Many of the dwellings of the farm-labourers consist 
 of ancient lath-and-plaster houses, which, whatever 
 they may have once been, are now little more than a 
 shelter from the weather. Dr. Eraser mentions "an 
 old converted farm-house, with so huge a chimney that 
 on a wet day the fire can't be kept alight, and the 
 occupiers have before now been obliged to go to bed 
 on a cold stormy day, to keep themselves warm." 
 At this very day, a large proportion of the older 
 " labourers' cottages " are farm-houses which have 
 been abandoned, as anyone will discover who travels 
 through the rural districts with an observant eye. 
 But it must not be forgotten that many old houses 
 possess, in themselves, the elements of durabihty, if 
 only attention is occasionally given to the destructive 
 action of Time. Many of these old timber and lath- 
 and-plaster tenements are sounder in frame than are 
 
 * Fraser, Report, p. 35. 
 
 t Agricultural Survey of Northamptonshire, by "Wm. Pitt, 
 Loudon, 1809.
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 7 
 
 some of the '' model " cottages of to -day. Many 
 dwellings of the poor in the bye-streets of rural towns 
 proclaim, by the character of their doors and windows, 
 that they are erections of the sixteenth century ; it is 
 not, however, their venerable age which 2:)roduces the 
 squalid appearance they too often present ; it is, rather, 
 the vice and improvidence of their inhabitants, or the 
 selfish neglect of their owners. Broken windows, dila- 
 pidated furniture, and a meagre supply of proper 
 fittings, will often give an appearance of squalor to an 
 old house whose structure is still sound, and which 
 is capable of being transformed into a decent and 
 healthy habitation. When, however, the materials and 
 construction of a house are of such a character that 
 the first hard winter commences a rapid process of 
 deterioration, the helpless inmates are exposed, with- 
 out any hope of remedy, to all the vagaries of our va- 
 riable climate, in a dwelling scarcely more weather-tight 
 than are the neighbouring cattle-sheds. Rheumatism 
 is the well-known scourge of the rural labourer in 
 England ; the wonder would be if it were not so, 
 when we hear of such cases as the following: — "A 
 cottage occupied by a man named Shale, in the hamlet 
 of Kilcote [Gloucestershire], his own freehold, but 
 which, from some circumstances attached to the title, 
 he cannot sell. Part of one of the outer walls had 
 fallen down, and the space was filled up by a feather- 
 bed ; the door could not be hung on the jambs ; one of 
 the sides was of wattle and dab — and the dab had 
 peeled away — and a neighbour, who lived fifty yards
 
 8 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 away, said lie could see tlie lights at night as plainly 
 as through a wattled hurdle."''^ 
 
 But, when to this ramshackle condition is added the 
 general unconcern upon sanitary matters which is 
 almost universal in rural districts, it is not surprising 
 that almost every agricultural village is, more or less, 
 a fever-bed. The limits of this paper will not permit 
 a great array of exam]3les ; and it will suffice to direct 
 anyone who desires to study the question in all its 
 details, to the Evidence accompanying the Eeport of 
 the Commission of 1867. A more recent collection of 
 facts bearing upon the subject will be found in "The 
 English Peasantry," by Mr. F.Gr. Heath (London, 1873). 
 Mr. Heath's vivid description of certain villages in 
 Somersetshire is simply appalling, as such items as 
 these will show: — "The ground-floor was literally 
 the earth " (a two-roomed cottage at Montacute, at 
 Is. per week) ; " in many cases the cottage closets 
 were built over the village brook, from which the 
 inhabitants drew some of their water-supply" (at 
 Wrington) ; in one cottage, the stone floor had gra- 
 dually " got broken away, leaving a number of pits. 
 The cottage was placed in a sort of hollow, and con- 
 sequently, in winter, water would oftentimes soak up 
 through the uneven floor " (at Stoke- sub-Hamdon ; 
 rent, Is. 6d. for two rooms, one of several, " all of 
 the same kind, and all similarly comfortless ") ; and 
 so on. 
 
 * Fkaser, Hi^jort, p. 35.
 
 INTEODUCTORY. 9 
 
 My own recollections of this county are very distinct, 
 although referring to a visit many years since ; and I 
 think it was the walk through Wrington that was one 
 of the first instances of my attention being drawn to 
 the stolid ignorance prevailing throughout society upon 
 rural sanitary conditions. Viewed from the northern 
 slope of the Mendip hills, the village appears in the 
 centre of a smiling, populous, well cultivated valley — 
 the landscape for many miles one varied collection of 
 orchards, villages, and silver water-courses. But, on 
 descending to the plain, behold, a straggling series of 
 ill-built cottages, culminating in the village street of 
 Wrington ; the inhabitants dirty and unhealthy-looking ; 
 their dwellings dilapidated; and the " silver " water- 
 courses nothing but open sewers ! I knew St. Anne's, 
 Soho, and St. Giles-in-the-Fields (at that period) very 
 intimately. I knew that hundreds of families in towns 
 were overcrowded ; and that many of the lower-class 
 habitations were sinks of dirt and crime ; I knew that 
 many efforts were being made in London to improve 
 the dwellings of the poor, and that these efforts were, 
 as yet, only " a drop in a bucket ;" but when I beheld 
 an English village, set in the midst of a smiling land- 
 scape, turn out to be little better than a collection of 
 pig-styes, I was disgusted, and depressed beyond mea- 
 sure. I don't think I ever, in the course of a tour, 
 hurried out of a place (from sheer disappointment) so 
 quickly as out of AVrington. 
 
 Somersetshire and Devonshire are probably the worst 
 counties in England, as far as the extent of the evil is
 
 10 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 concerned ; but there are black spots to be noted, more 
 or less, all over the country. Even in Northumber- 
 land, the paradise of cottage improvers, there are 
 " some of the best and some of the worst cottages in 
 England."^' 
 
 Then, with respect to overcrowding. Perhaps, after 
 all, this is the worst part of the story. A man may 
 carry his rheumatism, acquired from the sweating walls 
 and " heaving " floor of his ruinous dwelling, to a good 
 old age ; the peasant, gaining immunity from his open 
 air existence, may escape the noxious results of stag- 
 nant drains, and even of impure water ; but it is his 
 sleeping accommodation which produces the most insi- 
 dious (and often fatal) results upon his health. Over- 
 crowding has probably killed more than all other evil 
 conditions whatever. And a great deal of this is due 
 to the poor ignorant people themselves ; for families 
 will often occupy one bed-room in a crowded state, and 
 leave the other unoccupied, f So extensive is this prac- 
 tice, that some large proprietors are in the habit of 
 keeping a strict cottage registry ; so that, under a vigi- 
 lant steward, overcrowding is impossible. 
 
 But, in the large majority of cases, overcrowding is 
 distinctly caused by there being an insufficient number 
 of cottages available for the required labourers. For 
 example, as in the Unions of Depwade and Docking 
 (Norfolk), where several considerable estates are de- 
 
 * Commission (1867), Henley, Report, p. 65. 
 
 t Commission (1867), Hon. E. Stanhope, Report I., p. 92.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMENT. 11 
 
 scribed as utterly without the proper provision of cot- 
 tages ; '4n Sedgeford, the Ecclesiastical Commissioners 
 have an estate of 2,000 acres on which there does not 
 exist a single cottage ; in Snettisham the Corporation 
 of Lynn own 800 acres of land distant three miles from 
 the heart of the parish, on which there are only two 
 cottages."* The consequence is, that the labourer has 
 to find a lodging at a great distance, and after a hard 
 day's work succeeded by a toilsome trudge, has to rest 
 his exhausted frame in a small room, already occupied 
 by perhaps some eight or ten other persons. 
 
 I.— OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 The foregoing preliminary observations will be suffi- 
 cient to indicate, for our present purpose, the extent 
 and gravity of the evil. Let us now glance at some of 
 the causes which have prevailed, and at. some of the 
 obstacles which stand in the way of improvement ; and 
 it may be proj)er, first, to observe that many causes 
 act one upon another. It would be unjust, for example, 
 to stigmatise the lord of a manor upon whose " waste" 
 or otherwise unprofitable land a squatter has built a 
 mud hovel, and subsequently refuses either to be 
 governed by sanitary laws on the one hand, or to pay a 
 trifling rent for the new brick- and-slate building which 
 has been provided for him, upon the other ; and it 
 
 * Frasek, Report, p. 35.
 
 12 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 would be confessedly difficult to show to a person who 
 has inherited some small cottage property — perhaps 
 his only source of income — that it is his duty, in 
 ohedience to enlightened sanitary authority, to pull 
 down his poverty-stricken buildings, and re-erect them. 
 In truth, it is the strict notions concerning " property" 
 which prevail throughout Great Britain, which are at 
 the root of many of our failures in social reform. 
 
 But there can be little hesitation in giving, as the 
 first cause of bad or deficient cottage accommodation, 
 an indifferent, needy, or " absentee " landlord. It is 
 generally admitted that we must look to the landowners 
 for any great improvement, on account of the increased 
 cost of labour and materials forbidding the prospect 
 (now-a-days) of any profit being made in cottage- 
 building ; whilst the healthy moral condition of the 
 labouring population upon an estate is conceded to be 
 worth more than (what would be considered commer- 
 cially) a remunerative return in the shape of rent. As 
 a general rule it will be found that, of the proprietors 
 of landed estates, whether great or small, they who 
 spend a large portion of the year " at home " will see 
 the most happy and contented peasantry. Not, but 
 very favourable exceptions will occur, where affairs are 
 in the hands of an able and intelligent steward. Such 
 a steward was the late Mr. John Grrey, of Dilston, 
 Northumberland, under whose care the Derwentwater 
 estates of Greenwich Hospital were placed for a long 
 series of years, with the greatest benefit at once to the 
 proprietors and to the humblest labourer.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMEXT, 13 
 
 The Commissioners of 1867 (already quoted) never 
 lose an opportunity, in their Reports, of insisting upon 
 this point — that cottage improvement is principally 
 a landlord's question ; and instances are repeatedly 
 adduced, in which contiguous parishes clearly betray by 
 their characteristics of filthy degradation in the homes 
 of one, and comfort and moral improvement in those 
 of the other, the characters of their respective land- 
 lords. Besides, however, the broad distinctions of a 
 "good " and a "bad" landlord, the former class may 
 be sometimes subdivided into, I, those who believe 
 that by increasing the comforts of the labouring poor, 
 caring for their immediate interests by personal sym- 
 pathy, and enabling them to house their families in 
 decency and comfort, they are augmenting the value 
 of the work performed upon the estate ; and, 2, others 
 who, with narrow views of life, consider that pounds, 
 shillings, and pence, and so much per cent., must be 
 the basis of all outgoings for agricultural improvement. 
 To these may be added persons whose estates are so 
 encumbered, and whose means are so straitened, that 
 £1,000 for a row of cottages is an impossibility.* 
 
 * It is a mere truism to say that the man M'bo is receiving his 
 rents and squandering the proceeds of his estate upon the turf, or 
 upon urban pleasure, is undermining the resources of that estate. 
 But there is another kind of recklessness — that which pursues 
 political and social fantasies, and neglects the reforms which lie at 
 one's own door — that spirit which will give thousands of pounds to 
 endow a college, or build a church, or found a library, and yet will 
 forget the demands of one's natural dependants. And it is to be
 
 14 THE peasant's HOME, 
 
 But the best-disposed landlord is often obstructed by 
 the very persons he wishes to serve. Numberless 
 instances are upon record of poor families being un- 
 willing to exchange the cherished hovel for a brand- 
 new cottage ; and it requires, generally speaking, a 
 long and intimate acquaintance with many among the 
 uneducated poor, before they can learn to appreciate a 
 disinterested endeavour to serve them. In such cases 
 it requires a strong sense of duty to prevent a man 
 relinquishing his benevolent aims in disgust. 
 
 One of the principal conclusions come to of late 
 years, is that it is far more profitable to the farmer as 
 well as to the labourer, if the latter be housed in im- 
 mediate contiguity to the farmstead ; and there is 
 unanimous disapproval of the system of compelling the 
 peasant to walk long distances to and from his home. 
 There was a time, within the memory of men still 
 living, when cottages were demolished in a wholesale 
 manner, as in some parts of the north, in order to 
 provide extensive sheep-walks ; but, in very numerous 
 instances, also, under the ridiculous impression that by 
 encouraging the settlement of poor labouring families, 
 the poor-rates would be augmented. To these ignorant 
 devices a good deal of the existing deficiency is to 
 be ascribed ; and, instead of some intelligent and 
 humanely-conceived arrangement of the dwellings of the 
 
 feared that an energetic " public " life will often be found to bring 
 so many engrossing claims of its own that neither money nor time 
 are available for such demands.
 
 OBSTACLES TO lirPROVEilENT. 15 
 
 labourers being judiciously distributed over the diflPerent 
 parts of an estate, many a poor man is driven into the 
 nearest village,* and, consequently, into the hands of 
 some small house-proprietor, whose only object is his 
 weekly rent. 
 
 The Assistant- Commissioners of 1867 state that the 
 farmers are fully alive, not only to the need of raising 
 the quality of, but also to that of providing sufficient, 
 cottage accommodation ; insomuch, that a large farm is 
 often dif&cult to let if there is a deficiency in this 
 respect. Some farmers are even willing to pay interest 
 on the outlay upon new cottages. f Dr. Fraser says I : 
 " Tenants are beginning to fight shy of farms without 
 cottages, and of a labour supj^ly that has to be fetched 
 three or four miles. It would almost be a less loss 
 and inconvenience to a farmer to go that distance after 
 his water." And the Hon. E. Stanhope §: " How to 
 keep their labour at home has become a vital question 
 
 to employers All seem agreed that the one 
 
 great means of doing so is to provide decent houses at 
 a reasonable distance from work, in which the young 
 men may be induced to settle. ' Once put a man into a 
 really good house,' it was often said to me, 'and his 
 wife won't let him leave it.' " 
 
 * At Meysey Hampton, Gloucestershire, Bp. Fraser found a man 
 wlio had worked on the same farm for forty years, and had walked 
 six miles a day to and fro ; the total of which would be about 
 70,000 milps. 
 
 t NoKMAX, Report, p. 117. 
 
 X Report, p. 36. § Report I., p. 91.
 
 16 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 On the proper proportion of cottages necessary for tlie 
 labour upon an estate, there is naturally much conflict 
 of opinion ; the conditions vary in different parts of 
 the country, and no absolute rule can be laid down, to 
 be of universal application. But, whatever be the 
 actual number necessary, it is quite certain that there 
 are very many districts which are inadequately sup- 
 plied ; and, the question being raised as to who is 
 responsible for the deficiency and consequent over- 
 crowding, either in the villages or in lone cottages, we 
 can only look to the landowner. On the principle that 
 a farm must have a tenantable homestead, proper 
 accommodation for horses and live stock, granary room, 
 and so forth, before a tenant can be attracted, it is only 
 in common sense that there should be eligible housing 
 for the average labour required ; instead of this, it has 
 too often been the last thing thought of, if ever thought 
 of at all. And how the labourer is often treated, let us 
 hear from the lips of Mr. Mechi :* — "I assure you, 
 from my own experience, that a great deal of the time 
 of the labourer, and of his physical power, is devoted 
 to walking extreme distances to and from his work. 
 On every well-farmed piece of land of 100 acres it is 
 supposed that four horses and five labourers be em- 
 ployed. Strictly speaking, there should be five cottages 
 for these labourers. Landed proprietors generally 
 take especial care that there shall be a convenient place 
 
 * At the Tenth Annual Meeting of the Labourers' Friend 
 Society.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMENT. 17 
 
 for the horses, so that they may be close to their work. 
 They know practically, that if the horses were to go 
 two or three miles backwards and forwards, there 
 would be a great loss of power. 1 am sorry to say that 
 1 have known labourers walk four or five miles to their 
 work every day. I have known them get up at half- 
 past three, on a winter's morning, to be with their 
 horses at five o'clock, having to walk for an hour and 
 a half in a most inclement season, and to return the 
 same distance in the evening." 
 
 Whilst, however, this evil phase exists in many 
 quarters, it is not to be denied that there is a difficulty 
 at the other extreme. It is sometimes necessary to 
 discourage an unnecessary influx of population into 
 rural districts. Bishop Fraser himself presently says,* 
 that "a superabundance of cottages and of population 
 is nearly, if not quite, as great an evil as a defective 
 supply. It lowers wages and produces pauperism, and 
 the lowest type of rural civilisation is to be found in 
 those large, over-peopled, ' open ' parishes in which, at 
 the slack seasons of the year, there is always a con- 
 siderable number of men out of employ." The con- 
 version of large tracts of land into sheepwalks has 
 often been made capital of by persons interested in 
 defaming the character of landed proprietors ; but, as 
 is often the case with such persons, a knowledge of the 
 fact — of the actual cause of such a step being taken — is 
 absent from their minds. During the periods of agri- 
 
 * Report, p. 36. 
 C
 
 18 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 cultural distress, in the earlier part of the present 
 century, the short-sighted policy of demolishing cottages 
 was pursued to a large extent, with the object, as was 
 plainly said, of discouraging pauperism ; but there 
 have been other causes at work. For one example, a 
 reference may be made to the Statistical Eeports of 
 Scotland : in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 that portion of Great Britain was often subject to 
 years of scarcity, and occasionally of dreadful famine. 
 At such times the result has been that whole families 
 have perished from want. On one farm, in the parish 
 of Montquhidder, " out of 169 individuals, only three 
 families (the proprietors included) survived." In the 
 first half of the eighteenth century, "many farms were 
 waste." Extensive farms, being entirdy desolated, were 
 converted into sheep-walks " '^' Happily, it is long since 
 such dismal things happened in Great Britain, and I 
 think I am right in saying that it is very long since 
 there was any wholesale destruction of arable farms. 
 Frequent locomotion and rapid communication have 
 closed for ever the days of unmitigable distress ; and 
 times of scarcity, when they do come, are met by 
 alleviation of some kind or other, long before such fatal 
 results ensue. 
 
 It depends then upon the nature of the farm, and to 
 some extent upon the distance from the nearest village, 
 as to what numerical accommodation is necessary. But, 
 
 * Quoted from Mnlthus, by a writer in the Highland Quarterly 
 Journal of Agriculture, 1842, p. oil.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPEOVEilENT. 19 
 
 besides the jAysical well-being of the labourer, there 
 are certain moral considerations which cause a good 
 deal of pondering, and even anxiety, to the benevolent 
 landowner. The plan of clustering cottages into a 
 hamlet or village "brings the j^opulation nearer to the 
 church and school, but also probably nearer to the 
 beer-house too." At Eackheath, in Norfolk, "disper- 
 sion was thought to have a bad effect on education ;" 
 at Great Witchingham, in the same county, " concen- 
 tration was thought to have a bad eflect upon morals." 
 In some large parishes the population is " clustered 
 into a number of independent groups, each probably 
 with its own beer-house, but remote alike from church 
 and school, dissipating and thereby weakening the ener- 
 gies of the clergyman."* In short, the whole question 
 is beset with difficulties, and it is at least impossible to 
 lay down any hard-and-fast rule. 
 
 Again, as to the parties themselves who are directly 
 interested. The farmers generally (''almost invari- 
 ably," says Mr. Norman) prefer the labourers to live 
 near the homestead. Most farmers, and their wives, 
 take some personal interest in the welfare of the 
 labourers' families ; but this is difficult when their 
 dwellings are miles apart. At the same time, the 
 safety of the farmstead, and of the stock, is far more 
 likely to be an object of solicitude to the peasant if 
 his cottage is upon or near the farm. 
 
 * Fraser, Report, p. 39.
 
 20 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 On the part of the labourer, there is as much difference 
 of opinion, and of taste, as could well be supposed. 
 Some prefer a *'lone" cottage,* some object to it; 
 some like the society of the village, others fear the 
 contamination of their families by bad company ; and 
 so on. To us, in towns or suburbs, it is natural to 
 expect that the presence of near neighbours would be 
 desirable; but I have often had opportunities of ob- 
 serving that, born and bred under such conditions, the 
 peasant finds it very little hardship to be the occupant 
 of a lonely cottage, f indeed, no hardship at all com- 
 pared with that of having to trudge to his work several 
 miles, wasting his morning energies, with the prospect 
 of the same weary task in the evening. And when the 
 ordinary farm-labourer is so situated that there is no 
 dwelling to be had within two or three miles of his 
 daily work, it means so much additional unremiinerated 
 labour, and is unjust and cruel, besides being alto- 
 gether in favour of the beer- shop, as against the gar- 
 den or allotment. A Report upon the condition of the 
 labourers and their dwellings in Chillingham (North- 
 
 * I have been informed, by a rural medical man in Dorsetshire, 
 that the frequent preference for a " lone" cottage is based upon the 
 dislike to the prying of neighbours. 
 
 t Only this summer (1875), being in the heart of the New Forest, 
 I fell in with an under-keeper, who, with his family, lived in a 
 cottage completely isolated, the nearest habitatioH being perhaps a 
 mile off. But there was no trace of discontent on that score. He 
 had been used to that sort of thing from his childhood, and he 
 couldn't understand it being made a grievance of.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPBOVEMENT. 21 
 
 utnberland) and the neighbouring parishes, in the year 
 1838,* states, that one cause of the superior condition 
 of the agricultural labourer in that district was alleged 
 to be "their comparative isolation. Few of the hinds 
 in this disti-ict live in villages, bat are located in cot- 
 tages around the farm-stead ; and, with the farmer, 
 form a colony of themselves. They are generally in a 
 considerable degree detached from the world, have no 
 near neighbours but their fellow-labourers — no beer- 
 shops to resort to in the evenings. They have few 
 temptations, and are moral, almost from necessity." 
 
 It is not surprising, therefore, to find that this matter 
 has had considerable weight, of recent years, in the 
 minds of those who are endeavouring to ameliorate 
 the condition of the peasantry around them ; and it is 
 now the practice in many quarters, particularly in 
 Scotland and the northern counties of England, to 
 provide cottages (or lodgings for single men) sufficient 
 to accommodate as many labourers as the ordinary 
 cultivation of the farm requires. 
 
 Again, from the unwillingness to spend money upon 
 that which does not bring in a direct pecuniary return, 
 how deplorable is the state of disrepair into which 
 many small tenements are allowed to get ! Many of 
 our rural villages, at the first glance, are stamped 
 with an appearance of the grossest neglect ; the dila- 
 pidated tenements of which they are principally com- 
 
 * Journal of the Statistical Society, Vol. I.
 
 22 THE peasant's home. 
 
 posed, having been allowed, year after year, slowly to 
 rot away, with only the inefficient patching-up which 
 is possible by the unfortunate tenants. There are 
 many lone cottages in a similar condition ; which, 
 however, do not strike the observer with such force as 
 does a streetfiil of them. In such cases another class 
 of ownership comes in. Many of these village houses 
 are the direct property of the lord of the manor ; but 
 many more are in the possession of tradesmen and 
 other small proprietors, who simply expect that the 
 cottages shall be a remunerative source of income. 
 
 Here, then, is the second great cause of bad housing 
 for the rural poor. The tenant has often to pay an 
 exorbitant rent for very limited accommodation in a 
 village tenement, and generally endeavours to recoup 
 himself by taking in lodgers, the inevitable result 
 being overcrowding, and a still further restriction of 
 the accommodation necessary for himself and his 
 family. To the class of proprietors, however, whom we 
 are now considering, that is a matter of no concern 
 whatever; and there is no influence in existence 
 powerful enough to interfere. From a stringent local 
 sanitary supervision, alone, can any hope of reform be 
 looked for. Many spirited improvers of landed estates 
 have the strictest rules laid down concerning the ad- 
 mission of lodgers, and such rules have been found to 
 act in a very salutary manner ; but with the small 
 proprietor, whose object is solely a punctual payment 
 of the rent, it is almost hopeless to expect any 
 such praiseworthy care for the welfare of his tenants.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMEKT. 23 
 
 Similarly, the slow (but insidious) process of dilapida- 
 tion and decay is seldom arrested by necessary repairs : 
 as Mr. Heath says* of the cottages at Milborne-St.- 
 Andrew, Dorset, "they do occasionally succumb to 
 old age, and get pulled down, but no other form of 
 innovation is permitted amongst them." And what 
 makes the case appear more hopeless, such proprietors 
 are not amenable either to public opinion or private 
 counsel. Lord A is a bad landlord, and straight- 
 way the fact is a bye-word throughout his county ; 
 
 Lord B is a liberal-minded agricultural improver, 
 
 and lo ! his name and fame are in everybody's mouth, 
 and in the pages of every newspaper. But who cares 
 to ask about the cottage property of Mr. Mixer, the 
 village grocer, or that of Mr. Simpson, the dairyman in 
 the next town ? — unless it is to congratulate those gen- 
 tlemen upon the snug little addition to their incomes 
 thereby furnished. f 
 
 Connected with this class of small proprietors is 
 the modern building speculator. The Assistant Com- 
 missioners of 1867 bring grave charges against him; 
 
 * The Enr/lish Fcamnirij. 
 
 t " It is estimated that the proprietorshii) of less than half tlie 
 cottages in Norfolk is in the owners of the soil. The small pro- 
 prietor looks to his cottage propeiiy as a source of income purely 
 .... He grudges every 6d. expended on repair. N'ot unfrequently 
 he has mortgaged it nearly to its full value, and he is the proprietor 
 only in name.'" — Fraser, Report, p. 39. " In two villages (in 
 Bucks) the occupiers of certain cottages are expected to deal with the 
 tradesmen to whom they belong." — Culley, AV^^o?-/, p. 131.
 
 24 THE peasant's home. 
 
 one instance will suffice : — " Four cottages stood toge- 
 ther in the village near a malt-kiln ; they had gardens; 
 a speculator bought them ; he turned the kiln into six 
 cottages, and built five others on the ground which had been 
 used for gardens.''^ '^' Similar iniquities are constantly 
 being perpetrated, on the very easy plea that an 
 increasing population must have house-room, " and 
 it 's no business of mine," if people pay their rent regu- 
 larly. In some populous villages there is frequently a 
 serious diminution of garden ground by the wholesale 
 erection of cottages for poor persons, in the rear of 
 existing houses. Perhaps we shall hear the rejoinder 
 that these persons have their allotments at the other 
 end of the town ; but, at the best, an allotment is a poor 
 substitute for a home garden. 
 
 I make bold to say that one of the greatest foes to 
 the welfare of the British artisan or labourer is the 
 heartless and selfish building-speculator. In the 
 suburbs of London, particularly, whole districts could 
 be pointed out in which the dwellings are, from their 
 slovenly character, both of the foundations and the 
 superstructure, apparently intended to be devoted to 
 the production of rheumatism and low fever upon the 
 most extended scale. "Eligible building land" may 
 mean anything ; in point of fact, it is usually any piece 
 of ground upon which bricks and mortar will produce 
 better crops than anything else, whether an undrain- 
 able marsh-land, or a "gravelly" soil from which all 
 
 * Mr. Nokman's Eeport on Northamptonshire, p. 117.
 
 OBSTACLES TO IMPROVEMENT. 25 
 
 the gravel lias been studiously extracted (and replaced 
 by the contents of dust-carts). Flimsy materials — green 
 wood, cheap mortar, and cheaper bricks — are thrown 
 rapidly together, and the " villa " is soon ready for 
 sale to some deluded building-society victim. " Nine- 
 tenths of the purchase-money may remain on mortgage 
 if preferred," but the victim does not pay many instal- 
 ments before he finds that economy is not studied by 
 purchasing a cheap house, which is constantly requiring 
 repairs, besides bringing the doctor too frequently to 
 the door. 
 
 Then, what is to be the remedy ? There is but one 
 for this class of delinquents — authoritative supervision, 
 and the evil will only increase under Artisans' Dwellings 
 Acts, and Labourers' Cottage Acts, unless grants of 
 public loans are always accompanied by stipulations 
 that the work accomplished by their aid shall be care- 
 fully supervised, and be in strict accordance with the 
 enlightened sanitary views of the present day. 
 
 The third great difficulty which has to be met in 
 the important reforms we are considering is that pre- 
 sented by the lowly dwellings scattered upon the 
 heaths and commons. The feeling of proprietorship 
 entertained by the man who has built his own house, 
 is as strong in the breast of the poor labourer, who 
 has been allowed to run up a mud cottage upon a 
 piece of waste ground, as in that of the lordly pro- 
 prietor behind the park-palings yonder ; he is no more 
 to be ejected from his "castle" than is the squire. 
 His dwelling may have degenerated into a filthy hovel,
 
 26 THE peasant's home. 
 
 but his ignorance and simplicity are an effective 
 bar to the interference of any well-meaning outsider. 
 It is not easy to say when the custom first arose, but 
 it is probable that during the fii'st half of the eighteenth 
 century, when the enclosure of common-land began to 
 be reduced to a system, compensation for the loss of 
 common-rights sometimes took the form of the peasant 
 being allowed to appropriate a small plot of ground 
 for a cottage and garden. Later, as population 
 increased, and house-room was required, the custom 
 became general ; and, in some counties, where extensive 
 heaths cover a large portion of the surface, the road- 
 side is now fringed, at intervals, with these primitive 
 dwellings. At last, prescription has established a right 
 to which these small " free "-holders cling with the 
 utmost tenacity ; and prescription often wins the day 
 against a well-disposed landowner who wishes to de- 
 molish the wretched huts and replace them by some- 
 thing better, unless he is willing to pay the extravagant 
 compensation demanded. It is here that the principal 
 obstacle lies. For it by no means follows that, be- 
 cause a peasant has become an amateur builder, his 
 performance will necessarily be a bad one ; and, with 
 respect to the materials, mud or clay cottages, pro- 
 perly thatched, and fairly well built, will endure for 
 many years, as long as the demon Neglect is not 
 allowed to enter. Dr. Eraser himself says (speaking 
 of clay villages in Norfolk), that "sun-dried clay, 
 when kept clear of rain and damp and frost, forms an 
 excellent material, but j^^^ishes rapidly when ingress has
 
 OBSTACLES TO IlIPEOVEMEXT. 27 
 
 been once given to the elements of decay."* No, a mud 
 cottage is not to be despised, if but the conditions of 
 health, and decency are observed ; and if the hitherto 
 irresponsible status of its owner can be reduced by the 
 application of strong local powers, we shall soon 
 hear of fewer stories of the dilapidation, dirt, and 
 wretchedness too frequently associated with our notions 
 of such dwellings. 
 
 I suppose that the spread of education, and a vigilant 
 sanitary inspection are the two forces upon which we 
 may rely in the future for the removal of these blots 
 upon our civilisation. When the poorer classes of 
 society learn, at last, the intimate connection that exists 
 between ovei-crowdiug and fever, and between dirt and 
 disease, there will be some fairer prospect than at 
 present for their comfort and welfare. Until then, 
 good wages, cheap food, personal sympathy between 
 classes, Eoyal Commissions, general prosperity, will be 
 unavailing to improve the condition of the labouring 
 poor. It is evident that a principle of stagnation has 
 too long prevailed concerning the health of the com- 
 munity. We have offered to the labourer the stone of 
 
 * " The cob-walls of Devonshire have been known to last above 
 a century without requiring the slightest repair ; and the Eev. "W. T, 
 Eliconibe, who has himself buiit several houses of two stories with 
 cob-walls, says that he was born in a cob-wall parsonage, built in 
 the reiga of Elizabeth, or somewhat earlier, and that it had to be 
 taken down to be rebuilt only in the year 1S31." — Cottage Building, 
 by C. B. Allen. 7th Edition. London, 1873, p. 31.
 
 28 THE peasant's nOME. 
 
 household suffrage, without first giving him the bread 
 of household reform. Now that the proper housing 
 of the poor is one of the most prominent questions 
 before us, let us hope that earnest, honest efforts will 
 not cease before a wholesale reform is effected. It is 
 a matter for the consideration of the country at large — 
 not the responsibility of any particular class. From 
 Parliament alone, under the pressure of enlightened 
 public opinion, is real reform to be hoped for. 
 
 II.— THE WOEK OF EEFORM. 
 
 It will be surprising to many persons to find how 
 much paper and print have been expended on the study 
 of cottage-building, for some years past. At this 
 moment there are several Societies in existence whose 
 object is the diffusion of practical information as to the 
 improvement of the houses of the poor, and the prepa- 
 ration of plans and working-drawings ; besides, several 
 individual persons have compiled works upon the sub- 
 ject which are of standard service to those who are in- 
 terested in it. 
 
 The Society for Improving the Condition of the 
 Labouring Classes was established about thirty years 
 ago; and the means which have been adopted to promote 
 its objects are : — 1st, Arranging and executing plans as 
 models for the improvement of the dwellings of the 
 labouring classes ; 2ndly, The issue of publications 
 calculated to facilitate these objects ; 3rdly, Correspond-
 
 THE ■WORK OF REFORM. 29 
 
 ence with landed proprietors, clergymen, and others 
 desirous of improving the condition of the labouring 
 classes in their own neighbourhood. Since 1851, the 
 Society has published a periodical under the title of 
 the " Labourers' Friend ;" and the volumes already 
 issued are a mine of information upon all matters con- 
 nected with the welfare of the poor. Besides this, the 
 Society has issued some useful pamphlets, which have 
 passed through several editions ; and a series of work- 
 ing drawings, on a large scale, for the use of the pro- 
 moters of cottage-building. The operations of this 
 Society have been principally in London ; consisting of 
 the erection of large blocks of buildings, in which the 
 poorer classes can obtain one or two rooms, according 
 to their means, fitted up with modern sanitary ap- 
 pliances and the best household conveniences which 
 can be devised, on a small scale. The public approval 
 and liberal support which the Society has constantly 
 obtained is not the only result of its labours, for its 
 houses may be considered as having furnished the 
 model of most subsequent establishments of the same 
 character, whilst its plans have been extensively fol- 
 lowed in other large towns of the kingdom. But, 
 besides urban dwellings, the Society has greatly pro- 
 moted the extension of improved cottage-building for 
 agricultural labourers — and, in its earlier years espe- 
 cially, of allotment gardens. The working plans for 
 labourers' cottages published by the Society have now 
 stood the test of many years' experience, and are ex- 
 tensively used in all parts of England. It should be
 
 80 THE peasant's HOME, 
 
 mentioned, that this Society has always been partly 
 supported by voluntary subscriptions. 
 
 The Central Cottage Improvement Society, also sup- 
 ported to some extent by liberal donations, has devoted 
 itself to similar objects for a number of years; with 
 this difference, that it is essentially a Cottage society. 
 The professed objects of the Society are : — 
 
 1. The Improvement of Suburban Dwellings for 
 Artizans. 
 
 2. The Erection of Cottages for Labourers in the 
 Agricultural Districts, on such plans and specifications 
 as will give a fair return on the outlay. 
 
 3. The construction of Village Hospitals and Lodging- 
 houses, and the best means of providing village accom- 
 modation for Single Labourers. 
 
 4. The Improvement of existing Dwellings and Cot- 
 tages, Garden Allotments, etc. 
 
 The Society is now represented in upwards of eighty 
 localities, in some of which large clusters of cottages 
 have been erected, and attract the observer at once by 
 their neatness and apparently substantial character. 
 The Alexandra Cottages at Penge, for example, present 
 a most agreeable aspect, surrounded as they are by 
 ample gardens, and inhabited by a class of artizans 
 and others who can appreciate the value of a neat and 
 cheerful home. Another set of model cottages on one 
 of the plans of the Society erected at Walthamstow by 
 Mr. Ebenezer Clarke, (described by him at a meeting 
 of the Statistical Society in February, 1875), have met
 
 THE WORK OF REFORiT. 31 
 
 ■with, the utmost favour by the class for whom they 
 were designed. And in some strictly rural districts the 
 j)ians of the Society have been extensively followed. 
 Tlie Society has now merged in the Land, Building, 
 Investment, and Cottage Improvement Company (Li- 
 mited), and has extended its operations to the making 
 advances for the erection of improved dwellings and 
 the repair of existing ones, as well as for the improve- 
 ment of other landed property. 
 
 The Windsor Eoyal Society, established in 1852, 
 under the auspices of the late Prince Consort, has been 
 the means of materially adding to the comfort and 
 well-being of the labouring classes in and around 
 Windsor; indeed there are few more important examples 
 of the kind of reform we are considering, than those 
 furnished by the work of the lamented Prince. His 
 wise and benevolent mind was early directed to this 
 object, and he constantly laboured in the interest of 
 his peasantry by adding to the eligibility and comfort 
 of their homes. The very plans of their cottages were 
 prepared upon his suggestions, and received corrections 
 from his hand during their design, besides being 
 personally superintended during their erection. An 
 account of the Prince Consort's Farms, by Mr. John C. 
 Morton,* gives very full particulars, with plans of the 
 model cottages erected on the royal estates. With 
 reference to the resulting improvement in the sanitary 
 condition of the inhabitants, Mr. Edwin Chadwick is 
 
 Loudon, Longmans, 18G3 
 
 r-. '" f W' c, < ,
 
 32 THE peasant's home. 
 
 quoted by Mr. Morton, to the effect tliat the death-rate 
 among the labouring classes at Osborne was only 
 12 per 1,000; the rate for the whole kingdom being 
 23; and that of the best rural districts, about 17 per 
 1,000. 
 
 Besides these, cottage improvement societies have 
 been started at Eeigate, Maidstone, Hastings, Hert- 
 ford, and other places, which have run an almost unin- 
 terrupted career of usefulness and prosperity.* The 
 various agricultural societies have, from time to time, 
 given valuable premiums for prize plans, which have 
 been subsequently published in their journals ; and one 
 of the most singular evidences of growing interest 
 in the subject is to see the Northampton Architectural 
 Society, departing from the usual line taken up by such 
 associations, devote itself to the consideration of im- 
 proved labourers' cottages. The Society of Arts, as is 
 well known, has taken up the subject at different 
 periods ; an exhibition of cottage plans, held at the 
 office, in the Adelphi, in the year 1864, attracted a 
 good deal of notice, and gave some impetus to the 
 public mind. 
 
 Plans of various kinds are also to be found scattered 
 through the pages of such publications as The Builder, 
 
 * The Windsor Royal Society has paid upon its capital an average 
 dividend of 4| per cent. ; the Hertford Society about 4 per cent. ; 
 the Redhill and Reigate Society 5 per cent. The Hastings Cottage 
 Improvement Society, established about 1857, paid 6 per cent, 
 dividend as early as the third year of its existence. — {Eeports 
 quoted in the Labourers' i^riewrf journal).
 
 THE WOEK OF EEFORM. 33 
 
 The Agricultural Gazette, &c. ; and such comprehensive 
 works as Morton's CyclopcBdia of Agriculture, Loudon's 
 Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, and others, devote 
 a large portion of their pages to more or less complete 
 guides for the erection of dwellings for the labour 
 upon a farm. A small work (forming one of what is 
 known as WeaWs Series) on Cottage Building, by C. B. 
 Allen, Architect, has numerous good plans, and is very 
 much to be recommended. 
 
 The work accomplished by the Eoyal Agricultural • 
 Society of England deserves, I think, a fuller notice. 
 It may not be generally known, that among the objects 
 contemplated in the original formation of the Society, 
 was " to promote the comfort and welfare of labourers, 
 and to encourage the improved management of their 
 cottages and gardens." An examination of its pub- 
 lished Transactions will show that the Society has 
 given a fair proportion of effort to the ventilation of 
 the subject, not only in the offering of prizes, but also 
 in having considered the condition of the labourer's 
 dwelling as a necessary item in any Report upon 
 Improvements. 
 
 The following summary of the principal Essays which 
 the Society has published, will much contribute to our 
 knowledge of the subject : — 
 
 I. "On the Construction of Cottages," by the Rev. 
 Copinger Hill,* a paper for which a prize was awarded 
 in the year 1843. This gentleman was himself a land- 
 
 * Eoyal Agricultural Society' s Journal, lY., 356. 
 D
 
 34 THE peasant's home. 
 
 lord, and took a landlord's interest in the welfare of his 
 tenants, and in the condition of his property. The 
 principal points of his Essay are : 
 
 1. Cottages are too much in the hands of speculators, 
 who exact an exorbitant rent for very inferior accom- 
 modation. From personal experience, the writer con- 
 siders that cottage building by landowners is not neces- 
 sarily an unprofitable investment, if proper attention is 
 given to durability in the structure, combined with 
 economical modes of building ; the first means of re- 
 ducing the expense being, to buy the materials retail, 
 and employing trustworthy journeymen tradesmen. 
 
 2. The accommodation required is, a dwelling-room 
 thirteen feet square ; a pantry, or cellar with stairs, and 
 a cupboard beneath ; two bed-rooms above — bed-rooms 
 on the ground-floor undesirable. 
 
 3. Walls to be fourteen inches thick ; or nine inches 
 battened within ; or stud-work plastered on both sides. 
 
 4. Aspect, a little west of south. 
 
 5. Different interior accommodation is required in 
 country cottages as compared with those in towns. 
 
 6. A thatched roof is far preferable to slate or tile in 
 point of comfort, while the expense in the long run is 
 not greater. 
 
 7. The oven and copper to be in the dwelling-room. 
 
 8. The chimney to be an open one. 
 
 9. Clay for walls is very durable, and looks well — if 
 care is exercised in its manipulation. The writer de- 
 scribes fully its preparation. 
 
 10. Full detailed estimates are given; the result
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 35 
 
 being, that a double cottage, with clay walls, and 
 thatched roof, would cost £120 ; the same, with stone 
 walls, £147. 
 
 11. Labourers would willingly pay £3 3s. annual rent 
 for such cottages, which amount would exceed five per 
 cent. uj)on the outlay. 
 
 12. A supplementary estimate is given for two ground 
 floor cottages for aged persons, at a cost of £50. These 
 would each pay six per cent, at a rent of only 305. per 
 annum. 
 
 In dismissing Mr. Hill's Essay, it may be remarked 
 that he wrote from the county of Suffolk in the year 
 1842. There would, therefore, at this date be some 
 slight increase in the price of labour, and in part of 
 the materials, by which the estimates would have to be 
 considerably modified. 
 
 II. The next paper to which we will refer is that of 
 Mr. John Grey,* Agent to the Q-reenwich Hospital 
 Estates at Dilston, Northumberland. Here we find a 
 totally different state of things as regards the materials 
 for building to that which we have just considered. 
 Here, stone walls and slated roofs are universally pre- 
 ferred to any less durable materials ; and that not 
 entirely because stone and slate are the natural pro- 
 ducts of that part of England, for the storms and 
 snows of a Northumbrian winter would unquestionably 
 cause a greater' relative difference in the durability of 
 stone and mud, of tiles and thatch. Mr. Grey con- 
 
 * Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, V., 237.
 
 36 THE peasant's home. 
 
 siders the step of reformation in labourers' dwellings, 
 and care for their personal comfort, as " exclusively 
 the landlord's business," and that it is "the line of 
 good policy to bestow care and consideration on all that 
 relates to the comfort and happiness of the peasantry 
 around us." In pursuance of this object, a dry and 
 healthy site should be chosen for a dwelling, with a 
 cheerful aspect ; interior comfort should be studied, by 
 furnishing means for the proper separation of the dif- 
 ferent members of the family in their bed-room accom- 
 modation ; in contrivances for obtaining warmth and 
 dryness throughout the house ; in providing a good 
 fire-range, with oven; means of conserving rain-water; 
 and plenty of room for milk, household utensils, &c. 
 Accommodation must also be provided for a cow, pigs, 
 &c., as these animals are almost universally kept by 
 the peasants of Northumberland. The cost of a cottage 
 at the period (1843) when Mr. Grey wrote, was esti- 
 mated at from £60 to nearly £90, there being a differ- 
 ence of about £25 on a cottage of two floors. The 
 writer gives several plans and elevations, and a detailed 
 estimate. 
 
 III. iSir Greorge NichoUs contributes an Essay * on 
 the "Condition of the Agricultural Labourer, with 
 Suggestions for its Improvement." Of foui' principal 
 "suggestions/' that of providing comfortable cottages 
 is justly considered by the writer as being of the highest 
 importance ; and he, in common with most persons who 
 
 * Eoyal Agricultural Societijs Journal, VII., 16.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 37 
 
 have studied tlie question, throws upon the landlord 
 the responsibility of existing deficiencies, and the duty 
 of protecting the labourer alike from the thoughtless 
 neglect of his employer, and from the cupidity of 
 building speculators. The cottage-garden is also con- 
 sidered by this writer to be indispensable. 
 
 IV. The Duke of Bedford made an important com- 
 munication to the "Journal"* in the year 1849, on 
 Labourers' Cottages, recording the great interest he 
 had always felt, as a landlord, upon this subject ; and 
 the efforts which he made to meet the demands for 
 improvement. His Grace admitted that cottage-build- 
 ing was a " bad investment of money ; but this is not 
 the light in which such a subject should be viewed by 
 landlords." Several plans were contributed in illus- 
 tration of the paper. 
 
 V. A prize Essay, by Mr. J. Young Macvicar,f was 
 accompanied by some very superior plans. The writer 
 strongly recommended that cottage-holdings should be 
 rented direct from the landlord, and that a convenient 
 portion of grass land should be provided with each. 
 
 . VI. Another Essay, by Mr. Henry Goddard, of Lin- 
 coln, J calls for no special remark, except that his 
 plans are characterised by the admission of several 
 modern mechanical improvements. 
 
 VII. A Report upon the farming of Dorsetshire, in 
 the year 1854, by Mr. Louis E.uegg,§ devoted a good 
 
 * Boyal Agricultural Society's Journal, X., 185. 
 t Ibid. X., 400. X Ibid. X., 230. § Ibid. XV., 389. 
 
 ;w;'H^'o
 
 38 THE peasant's home. 
 
 deal of space to the cottage improvements of Mr. 
 Sturt, and of tlie Duke of Bedford in that county. 
 
 VIII. In the same volume* will be found a descrip- 
 tion, with specifications and plana, of prize double 
 cottages, by Mr. Greorge Arnold, of Crediton ; accom- 
 panied by a testimony of their general suitableness, by 
 a gentleman who had erected some cottages accord- 
 ing to these plans. 
 
 Besides these special papers, occasional references to 
 the gradual process of improvement which is taking 
 place, will be found in the subsequent Transactions of 
 the Society. The above will suffice to show that the 
 agricultural world is not behind the rest of us, in the 
 desire to reform the peasant's home. 
 
 With reference to the mutual relations which exist 
 between the various classes of society, the difference 
 between the moral tone of our times, and public feeling 
 a century ago, is most unmistakeable. At that period 
 the public mind was in a sluggish state of ignorance, 
 generally speaking, as to the condition and the wants 
 of the poor. One has only to glance at the literature 
 and the newspapers of the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury to see that the lower classes were uncared for, 
 almost universally. Such examples as those furnished 
 by the labours of Howard, Wilberforce, Bernard, and 
 others, were made the theme of admiration, truly ; but 
 they seemed to fail in giving any stimulus to similar 
 
 * Royal Agricultural Societj/s Journal, XV., 455.
 
 THE -WORK OF EEFOEM. 39 
 
 benevolent exertions. The practice of unselfishness 
 (where it cost much, mouey, particularly) seemed to 
 that age something angelic, superhuman — altogether 
 too good for this world : ' ' thou, xild BE>rEF actor ! ' ' 
 was the kind of strain in which such jiersons were ad- 
 dressed by the turgid poetasters of the time ; cenotaphs, 
 and chaplets, and wreaths, and other imaginary rewards 
 were freely offered ; but, as to any of the fruits of good 
 example, they were almost nil. It is true, that upon 
 this particular matter of the agricultural labourer's 
 increasing demoralisation, the evil was not so pro- 
 minent, for it is more recent than many other social 
 sores ;* but general combination in works of beneficial 
 reform, and the improvement of mankind through the 
 masses of the peojDle, was only represented by some 
 few stray examples ; which examples were held up to 
 wondering admiration for a while, in torn with Mon- 
 golfier's balloon, Burford's panorama, and the achieve- 
 ments of Admiral Lord Nelson. 
 
 However, about the close of the century, evidence 
 appeared that the leaven of practical benevolence was, 
 at last, spreading. In the year 1797, a preliminary 
 address was issued to the public, signed Thomas 
 Bernard, concerning a new Society " For Bettering 
 the Condition of the Poor." Besides Sir Thomas 
 Bernard, amongst the promoters are to be found the 
 names of William Wilberforce, the Eev. Wm. Gilpin, 
 
 * The condition of the rural labourer 18 represented, on good 
 authority, to have been " most prosperous," before the year 1775.
 
 40 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 the Thorntons, the Barclays, and many names which 
 subsequently became familiar, as the originators or the 
 supporters of useful and benevolent projects. The 
 principal aim of the Society was "to carry domestic 
 comfort into the recesses of every cottage," and the 
 means adopted were the obtaining and circulating in- 
 formation as to the following matters : — 
 
 The best form of parish relief, and the amendment 
 
 of workhouses. 
 The management and the encouragement of 
 
 Friendly Societies. 
 The condition of cottages, and the usefulness of 
 
 cottage gardens. 
 Parish mills, village shops, village kitchens. 
 The economy of fuel, and improved fire-j)laces. 
 Etc., etc., etc. 
 
 A glance through the early reports and papers of 
 the Society shows that an awakened interest in the 
 condition of the poor was at hand. It may safely be 
 said that the stimulus given by the Society's efforts to 
 restore the cottager to a share in the cultivation of the 
 land has borne fruit in the now prevalent system of 
 allotment gardens ; and that the hopes with which it 
 started, to " sweeten and encourage the labourer's toil 
 and attach him to his condition and situation," have 
 been, in numerous cases, fulfilled. At any rate, since 
 the days of that Society there have always been men to 
 follow in its footsteps ; and we cannot turn to any part 
 of England or Scotland without finding persons who
 
 THE WOEK OF REFORM:. 41 
 
 represent, in a greater or less degree, the principles 
 and the practice of Sir Thomas Bernard's philanthropic 
 friends. Indeed it will not be difficult, upon reflection, 
 to conclude that what was philanth-opy in those days is 
 only CoiiMOX Sense in our own times : — experience 
 having shown, for example, that keeping fever away 
 from your neighbours' homes is the same thing as 
 keeping it away from your own ; that securing pure 
 water, and fresh air, and sanitation for your poorer 
 neighbours, reacts sensibly upon your own health ; that 
 teaching people to be honest, clean, comfortable and 
 happy, simply means adding to your own comfort and 
 happiness. Undoubtedly, with the decent home is to 
 be found the first step towards alleviating the miseries 
 and raising the moral and social condition of the poor. 
 Mr. Disraeli once gave it as his opinion that the proper 
 housing of the agricultural labourer was a more important 
 question than that of food or raiment ; and that although 
 a man "might eat quite enough, and many might (and 
 actually do) drink a good deal too much, no one covild 
 possibly be too well housed." Lord Palmerston said, 
 " How can the land be well cultivated, if the labourers 
 are not well housed?" The late Earl of Derby was 
 well known not only for his advocacy of the decent 
 home, but for his active provision in his own county. 
 
 Now, if three Prime Ministers, of our own day, could 
 hold such principles, and not only that, but constantly 
 make good their words by careful attention to the wants 
 of their respective estates, I may safely repeat that the 
 philanthropy of 1795 ought to be considered as the
 
 42 THE peasant's home. 
 
 common sense and the daily principle of 1875: that, 
 whereas it was 'sufficient, eighty years ago, to admire 
 with a sickly sentimentalism — it is now the plain and 
 simple duty of everyone who has the ability to follow 
 a good example. 
 
 And if it is the duty of individuals to recollect that 
 they are in the position of stewards of the property and 
 the wealth that they enjoy, it would seem that the 
 same obvious duty lies also with the country at large. 
 To whatever pitch of prosperity we have i-eached, or 
 may reach, there will always be in the community a 
 great number of ignorant and helpless persons — a 
 large proportion of the population, who can never be 
 moved to improve their outward condition but through 
 legislation. 
 
 There is one characteristic of the statutes which have 
 been enacted during the present reign, that so many of 
 them bear upon the sanitary and general improvement 
 of the poorer classes; and we need not be without hope 
 that we shall soon have special legislation upon their 
 actual dwellings. It is very plain that far more stringent 
 powers are required than at present exist, to act upon 
 the sanitary condition of the people, and the conclusion 
 which I have arrived at is, that there will never be 
 wholesale reform until it is rendered compulsory for 
 sanitary officers to cause the demolition of bad and 
 unimprovable houses, and the erection of decent ones 
 in their stead, and until there is stringent inspection 
 through more independent means than at present exist. 
 Bishop Fraser says ("Eeport," p. 37), that " the exist-
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 43 
 
 ing Sanitary Act is quite ineffective, owing to the local 
 influences by which, it is hampered." Inspection of 
 cottages, by a Government official, would be likely to 
 do some good. 
 
 It has seemed to me also as very probable that some- 
 thing like a decennial sanitary Commission would have 
 a very beneficial effect upon the public miud. In 
 spite of the increasing interest in sanitary matters, 
 people are still very slow to act, and it is quite certain 
 that the voice of autliority alone will move the majority 
 of people. The day is coming, sooner or later, when 
 there will be compulsion to a far greater extent than 
 now exists. We cannot possibly go on, as a nation, 
 with our increasing population exposed to the risks of 
 open sewers, ill-drained and over-crowded houses, as 
 did our forefathers ; the evil results of such matters 
 being neglected are now too well known. 
 
 To return, however, to that branch of the subject 
 more immediately before us, let us take a cursory glance 
 at some details of the progress in reform during the 
 past century or so. And there can be little hesitation, 
 in the first place, in considering John Howard as the 
 pioneer in the good work of reforming the homes of the 
 poor. Known as he is, and will be to future ages, as 
 the prison philanthropist, we must recollect that those 
 public labours which have given him undying fame 
 belong to a period of his life after domestic ties had 
 been broken by death, and when he had begun to seek 
 in travel, and in the performance of public duties, the
 
 44 THE peasant's home. 
 
 diversion needed by a mind overwhelmed witt grief; 
 and when liis appointment as Sheriff of Bedfordshire, 
 in the year 1773, afibrded him the first authoritative 
 opportunity of inquiry into the terrible prison abuses 
 which then existed. Previously to this date he had 
 led the life of a country gentleman of moderate means 
 upon his patrimonial estate at Cardingtou, in Bedford- 
 shire. Here he had resided (with an occasional in- 
 terval of home and foreign travel) for a period of 
 above seventeen years, and " the work that stamps 
 this period with a character of its own, was that con- 
 tinuous and progressive improvement of his estate, 
 which consisted in the pulling down and rebuilding 
 of all his cottages, and of all others that he could 
 purchase, and their reconstruction, coupled with other 
 
 local improvements This was probably the 
 
 earliest, and certainly the most complete work of 
 physical, and incidentally of moral regeneration, 
 undertaken by any English landlord. To its tho- 
 rough-going and truly practical character, and the 
 transformation it effected in the health and habits of 
 the people, all Howard's biographers bear testimony."* 
 As we have seen, such an example was not at first 
 contagious. Several isolated instances, which we shall 
 presently note, occur during the next quarter of a cen- 
 tury, of which particulars are to be found in what was 
 
 * On John Howard as Statist, by Dr. "W. A. Guy, Statistical 
 Journal, XXXYI., 9.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 45 
 
 then one of tlie most valuable statistical publications, 
 now almost forgotten. I allude to the Agricultural 
 Survey of all the Counties of England and Wales, 
 prepared under the authority of the old Board of 
 Agriculture,* and with the supervision of Mr. Arthur 
 Young, who was Secretary to the Boai'd. This Survey 
 included a section upon the condition of farm build- 
 ings (including farm-houses and cottages), and the 
 result of the enquiries was, generally, by no means 
 favourable ; this, however, probably contributed to the 
 awakening of public interest upon the subject. The 
 Board itself, in the year 1800, offered prizes for the 
 best plans of cottages. To Mr. Young is due the 
 production of several of the best volumes of the series 
 of Surveys ; and he seems to have given a great deal 
 of careful consideration to the welfare of the labourer, 
 as one of the most important items in the economy of 
 farming. His volumes refer to the Eastern Counties. 
 
 Of Essex, Mr. Young saysf that there were a good 
 many modern-built cottages " very superior to the old 
 ones, being erected with brick, and covered with tile ; 
 and such as are built with lath-and-plaster, are in a 
 superior style," although many more were still wanted. 
 The Earl of Winchilsea, one of the leading supporters 
 of the Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor, 
 did a great deal for the peasantry in this and other 
 counties where .he held estates ; his especial anxiety 
 
 * Abolished about the year 1816. 
 
 t Agricultural Survey of Essex, 1807, p. 49.
 
 46 THE peasant's home. 
 
 being, however, to provide large plots of garden 
 ground. At Gosfield, the Marquess of Buckingham ; 
 Mr. Joseph French, at East Horndon ; Mr. Bramston, 
 of Skreens ; the Eev. Mr. Scott, at Oakley, are named 
 as having either extensively built cottages or provided 
 garden-ground — the gentleman at Horndon having the 
 additional merit of being only the tenant of his farm. 
 Mr. Young's Eeport on Suffolk states, that* some "in- 
 dividuals had distinguished themselves most laudably 
 by building neat and comfortable cottages for the 
 j)Oor ;" but such instances were not general, and could 
 only be " effected b}' persons of a certain income." In 
 Norfolk, one name only is given of a proprietor at Car- 
 brook who had built some capital cottages of flint- 
 work, with walls eighteen inches thick, and a roofing 
 of pantiles. f Of Lincolnshire, Mr. Young speaks J 
 much more cheerfully as to the labourer generally, as 
 being far better off than in the more southerly of the 
 Eastern Counties. Some improvements in the dwell- 
 ings had recently been made at the period of the 
 Survey ; and the allotment question had been well 
 taken up. 
 
 Let us now take these four counties, with a few 
 references as to what has been done since the period 
 referrc d to. The late Mr. Philip Pusey could say, in 
 1842, concerning Lincolnshire, that the labourer's cot- 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of Suffolk, Srd Edition, 1804, p. 11. 
 
 t Agricultural Survey of Norfolk, 1804, p. 24. 
 
 X Agricultural Survey of Lincolnshire, 1808, p. 39.
 
 THE ■WORK OF BEFORil. 47 
 
 tage was "neat and cheerful."* Another notice, f of a 
 particular parish in Lincolnshire (1842), says that the 
 ' ' cottages are good, being brick and tile, and contain 
 each four rooms, viz., two low rooms and two chambers, 
 besides a back-kitchen, pantry, &c. . . . rent thirty 
 shillings." But, in 1868, Mr. Stanhope J could state 
 that there was still a great cry for more cottages, and 
 better ones, although " within the last few years the 
 number of cottages built on many estates has been 
 very large." 
 
 Again, as to Norfolk and Suffolk : where there exists 
 ample means, a great deal has been done. A writer in 
 the "Edinburgh Eeview" for January, 1875, speaks of 
 two land-owners in Suffolk who had recently spent 
 £10,000 and £8,000 respectively, in cottage-building. 
 One of the most important instances of general refor- 
 mation is that presented in West Norfolk, consequent 
 upon the establishment of His Eoyal Highness the 
 Prince of Wales. Under the former proprietor (an 
 "absentee"), the Sandringham estate is described as 
 having been in a very miserable condition, with 
 tumble-down huts, and squalid inhabitants ; but, since 
 it came into the hands of the Prince, the cottages have 
 been rebuilt, all have gardens and out-houses, and are 
 let at from £3 to £4 per annum ; at the same time 
 that the people themselves have been raised up from a 
 condition of ignorance and semi-pauperism. Naturally 
 
 * Boyal Agricultural Society's Journal, IV. 315. 
 
 t Ibid. V. 282. % Comniksion (1867), Report I., p. 91.
 
 48 THE peasant's home. 
 
 the contagion has spread, and many surrounding pa- 
 rishes have partaken in the general improvement. 
 Bishop Fraser* mentions the estates of the Duke of 
 Grafton and Sir Edward Kerrison, in Suffolk, as de- 
 serving of special notice, in respect of the favourable 
 condition of the labourers' dwellings. The Times cor- 
 respondent, f during the Strike in 1874, reported the 
 labourer in some parts of Suffolk to be " most comfort- 
 ably housed." 
 
 But it would appear that this reformation in Norfolk 
 and Suffolk had begun in earnest forty years ago. For 
 example, Mr. Edward Twisleton, an Assistant Poor- 
 Law Commissioner, under date 1840, % thus reports 
 upon improvements which had been made in Norfolk 
 and Suffolk : — 
 
 " Some of the best which I have seen belong to the 
 Earl of Stradbroke, at Henham, near Halesworth, in 
 Suffolk ; to the Earl of Leicester, at Holkham ; and to 
 the E,ev. Mr. Benyon, at Ciilford, about five miles from 
 Bury St. Edmunds. Those of the Earl of Stradbroke 
 are built of brick, roofed with tiles ; have four rooms 
 at least, and have all proper conveniences — of pantries, 
 cupboards, and out-offices ; but, at the same time, 
 
 * Report, p. 39. 
 
 f The letters to the Times have been recently republished, under 
 the title of The Agricultural Locl--out, 1874. They present a most 
 impartial and interesting account of the condition of the Suffolk 
 peasantry. (W. Blackwood and Sons, London and Edinburgh). 
 
 X Report on Sanitary Condition of the Lalouring population (1842) 
 p. 264.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 49 
 
 they are principally "with only one story, so that the 
 bed-rooms are on the same floor with the parlour and 
 kitchen. Such cottages would only be built where land 
 is no object ; and they must be considered in the light 
 of luxuries and ornaments. Some of the cottages of 
 the Earl of Leicester, at Holkham, are perhaps the 
 most substantial and comfortable which are to be 
 seen in any part of England ; and if all the English 
 peasantry could be lodged in similar ones, it would be 
 the realization of a Utopia." After some small details 
 as to interior and exterior arrangements, the writer adds 
 that "the drainage is excellent, the water is good, 
 each cottage has about twenty rods of garden-ground, 
 and the rent (including gardens) is only £3 3s. a-year. 
 Hence it is not to be wondered at, that Mr. Emerson, 
 the builder, has been enabled to say, in a letter to me, 
 I have never knoivn in them an instance of fever, or am/ 
 epidemic,''^ certainly a good deal to boast of, consider- 
 ing that the observation referred to an experience of 
 twenty years, which was the age of these particular 
 cottages. The cost of these was stated to be about 
 £110 or £115 each; and, consequently, the rent paid 
 for them was little better than half what would be 
 thought a fair remunerative return, as a matter of 
 mere speculation. Of Culford, near Bury, Mr. Twisle- 
 ton observes : — " This is a remarkable village of about 
 fifty cottages, built within the last twenty years, by 
 Mr. Benyon de Beauvoir. The outward appearance of 
 them is pretty, and it was this which first attracted my 
 attention to them. They are built with bricks, faced
 
 50 , THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 with blue flint stones, which harmonize agreeably with 
 the blue slate of the roofs. They have each four rooms 
 — two below and two above — with a pantry, and cup- 
 board The principal room is fourteen feet by 
 
 twelve feet wide, and seven feet high, which is inferior 
 in size to those at Holkham, and they have only two 
 bed-rooms, while those at Holkham have three. At 
 the distance of a few feet from each set of cottages 
 there is a wooden building, roofed with tiles, which 
 comprises a space for fuel, and a privy for each cottage; 
 and a common oven." The average cost of the double 
 cottages at CuKord is stated to have been £170, or £85 
 each. 
 
 Lastly, of Essex ; a favourable mention appeared in 
 the " Royal Agricultural Society's Journal," for 1844,* 
 which stated that "excellent cottages" were common 
 in the district. During the succeeding quarter of a 
 century very extensive improvements have been made. 
 In one instance, the appearance of the county has been 
 completely revolutionized. Before Mr. Mechi pur- 
 chased Tiptree Hall farm, it was one of the worst in 
 the county ; but, under his careful management, com- 
 bined with bold experiment, it has not only become one 
 of the most productive, but has given the initiative to 
 improvement for many miles around : the Heath has 
 been reclaimed, and placed under cultivation ; and 
 where a few squatters dwelt, in lonely, dismal cabins, 
 are now to be seen groups of neat brick and slate cot- 
 
 * Vol. v., p. 31.
 
 THE WORK OF RErORM. 51 
 
 tages, inhabited by an industrious and well-bebaved 
 population. I don't think any one who wished to see 
 for himself a thriving and happy agricultural district, 
 could do better than select this part of Essex, between 
 Colchester and Maldon. 
 
 In Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, the work 
 of improvement would appear to have been somewhat 
 slow, and the existing accommodation for housing the 
 poor is much condemned. The "Times" correspondent 
 of 1874, however, mentioned in very favourable terms 
 the improved cottages on the Duke of Rutland's estates, 
 near Cheveley : and the Hon. E. B. Portman * those 
 of Lord Dacre, in the south of Cambridgeshire. These 
 latter are alluded to by Mr. Elihu Burritt, who, on one 
 of his visits to England (in 1863) saw the great farm 
 of Samuel Jonas at Chrishall Grange : " There was 
 one feature of this great farm-home which I regarded 
 with much satisfaction. It was the housing of the 
 labourers employed on the estate. This is done in 
 blocks of well-built, well-ventilated, and very com- 
 fortable cottages, all within a stone's-throw of the noble 
 old mansion occupied by Mr. Jonas. Thus, no long 
 and weary miles after the fatigue of the day, or before 
 its labour begins, have to be walked over by his men in 
 
 the cold and dark " f What is more, Mr. Jonas 
 
 confessed (to Mr. Portman) to a loss of five per cent, by 
 the interest he paid to the landlord on the cost of their 
 erection. 
 
 * Commission (1867), Report I., p. 106. 
 t Walk from London to John o' Groat's, p. 182.
 
 52 THE peasant's home. 
 
 In the northern and north-eastern counties of Eng- 
 land, the agricultural labourer is usually represented 
 to be in much more comfortable circumstances than are 
 his brethren in the south. His wages are higher, his 
 physique is better, and, as a general rule, his dwelling 
 is superior ; besides — and this is greatly in his favour — 
 he does not rely upon beer as a leading article of food : 
 cases are upon record of northern labourers having 
 been transported to Dorset and Wilts, from whom a 
 great deal more work, and of better quality, was 
 obtained than from the native population.* 
 
 The following remarks, amongst others which have 
 come under my notice, have produced a very favourable 
 impression upon my own mind with respect to the 
 Northumbrian peasant ; they form part of a report 
 upon the condition of the labourers and their cottages 
 in Chillingham and neighbouring parishes, in the year 
 1838t:— 
 
 ' ' Look into one of our north-country cottages during 
 a winter's evening, and you will probably see assembled 
 the family group round a cheerful coal-fire — which, by 
 the way, is an inestimable blessing to all classes, but 
 chiefly to the poor of this county, who enjoy an abun- 
 dance of cheap fuel ; you will see the females knitting 
 or spinning ; the father, perhaps, mending shoes — an 
 art which almost all acquire ; and one of the young 
 ones reading for the amusement of the whole circle." 
 
 * The Agricultural Labourer, by J. Bailey Denton, quoted by 
 Mr. Stanhope, Evidence II., p. 39. 
 t Journal of the Statistical Society, Vol. I.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 53 
 
 Now, mucli of this pleasant picture is the outcome of 
 the somewhat patriarchal system under which the farm- 
 ing population live in many parts of Northumberland ; 
 but his superior dwelling, constructed as it is of more 
 durable materials, and presenting a capacity for the 
 exercise of household virtues, which in a hovel are 
 impossible, has very much to do with it. And if the 
 people are " a remarkably sober race, rarely touching 
 beer at their work, and bearing a high character for 
 honesty," it only requires extended education and 
 cottage-building to be universal (instead of partial, as 
 they really are), to render northern Northumberland a 
 model in every way, to the entire country. That im- 
 provement is not by any means universal is undoubtedly 
 the case : as has already been mentioned, there are in 
 Northumberland "some of the best and some of the 
 worst " cottages in England. Still, from the point of 
 view we are taking, it is unmistakeable that Northum- 
 berland has made great advances in this respect, par- 
 ticularly within the last twenty-five years, and it is 
 somewhat singular to learn that public opinion and 
 taste have likewise so advanced in that time, that the 
 models and jjlans of 1847 would now be considered 
 antiquated and deficient ; as a minor obstacle, it can 
 " hardly be expected that landlords will deliberately 
 pull down, and lay out money" in building cottages 
 upon an improved model, considering the admittedly 
 unremunerative character of such outlay. The North- 
 umberland Cottage Improvement Society, established 
 at a public meeting at Alnwick about thirty years
 
 54 THE peasant's home. 
 
 since, has been the means of giving a very great im- 
 pulse to the good work; and Mr. Henley* names 
 several large proprietors who have spent a good deal 
 of money upon improvements : " On the large estates 
 of Earl Grey (at Howick) and Mr. Cresswell Cresswell, 
 attention is particularly attracted by the excellency 
 of the cottages. The Dukes of Northumbei-land have, 
 in this county, built and improved 931 dwellings for 
 farm and other labourers on their estates during the 
 last twenty years. The work of improvement is rapidly 
 progressing, and I could mention many other estates 
 on which they are all that could be wished, but the list 
 would he too long^ 
 
 To the late Mr. John Grey, of Dilston, steward for the 
 Greenwich Hospital estates in Northumberland, the 
 greatest credit is due as a liberal-minded employer of 
 labour, and during his long period of office he devoted 
 special attention to the homes of the peasantry. Of Dur- 
 ham I have not obtained any notices of modern improve- 
 ments of sufficient importance to particularise. The 
 report to the Board of Agriculture, early in this cen- 
 tury, was, comparatively speaking, favourable. Mr. 
 Henley's district included also this county, and part of 
 his general observations are intended to apply to it, 
 but he does not name any individual proprietor who 
 has signalised himself by extensive cottage building. 
 
 Of Yorkshire, Mr. Portman, Assistant-Commissioner 
 of 1867,f states that in most parts of the county there 
 
 * Report, p. 66. f Report, pp. 104, 105.
 
 THE ■WORK OF REFORM. 55 
 
 is mucli comfort in the cottages. In some places, how- 
 ever, non-resideuce of the proprietors produces its 
 usual fruits ; there is also a good deal of over- crowding 
 in this countv for want of a sufficient number of 
 dwellings. Lord Weulock, at Marston, in the Wept 
 Riding, is mentioned by Mr. Portman as having 
 devoted a good deal of attention to the best modes of 
 pi'oviding increased and improved cottage accommo- 
 dation. In the East Riding people were fully alive to 
 the necessity of improvement, and much had "been 
 effected in cottage dwellings during the last twenty 
 years." The Yorkshire Agricultural Society* held a 
 very successful exhibition of plans of cottages some 
 years ago, and awarded prizes for the best designs. 
 
 The survey of Westmoreland and Cumberland, made 
 to the old Board of Agriculture, stated that there were 
 not many cottages purposely built for labourers in 
 agriculture, "very few of that class being wanted in this 
 county,! as the farms are so small, the occupiers and 
 their families are generally sufficient for the work, 
 without any foreign aid," most of the land being in 
 the hands of small proprietors, under a customary 
 tenure. 
 
 Another writer of the period states that there were 
 "very few mere cottages" in Westmorelaud.J How- 
 ever the case may be now, as to the need of extraneous 
 
 * Labourers' Friend, 1861, p. 39. 
 
 t Agricultural Survey of Cumberland, 3rd Edition, 1805, p. 208. 
 
 X Ayricultural Survey of Westmoreland, p. 301.
 
 56 THE PEASjVNt's HOME. 
 
 labour, it is certain that some proprietors liave had 
 need to go into the cottage question. Of late years the 
 small farms have considerably diminished, and these 
 counties are becoming more like the rest of the country, 
 with respect to the conditions of labour. One conse- 
 quence of this is, that there is a good deal ot over- 
 crowding, and deficient accommodation, which is, 
 however, being met by the exertions of some of the 
 landed proprietors. Mr. Tremenheere* (Commissioner 
 of 18C7), reports that "on the extensive estates of the 
 Earl of Lonsdale, efforts are being made to increase 
 the number and imj^rove the accommodation of labourers' 
 dwellings. Mr. P. H. Howard, of Greystoke Castle, 
 who has long been convinced of the necessity of im- 
 provement in this direction, has built a considerable 
 number of excellent cottages. Mr. George Moore, an 
 extensive Cumberland proprietor, by offering prizes for 
 the best-kept cottages, has done much to raise the cha- 
 racter of the population in his neighbourhood. Lord 
 Kenlis, of Underley Park, Westmoreland, builds five 
 or six new and improved cottages on his estates every 
 year, and every married labourer on bis property will 
 eventually be provided with a cottage containing a 
 sitting-room, three bedrooms, a pantry, and a small 
 back court-yard. The rent charged for such a cottage 
 is only £2 10s. a year. The Earl of Carlisle has also 
 recently built some excellent cottages on his estate at 
 Naworth, in Cumberland." 
 
 * Report, p. 146.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 57 
 
 Mr. Tremeaheere gives it as his opinion, that the 
 cottage question cannot be effectually dealt with until 
 there is more aggregation of small estates, and the 
 labourers themselves become more amenable to the 
 progress of civilisation. There has hitherto been great 
 scarcity of extraneous labour for the small farms of 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland ; and, as a rule, the 
 labourer does not settle down, by marriage, into a 
 mode of life which makes it worth a proprietor's while 
 to encourage. 
 
 Miss Martineau published some articles on "Health, 
 Husbandry, and Handicraft," a few 3'ears ago,* which 
 contained the most valuable hints, principally on the 
 ways of life as they are and as they ought to be, amongst 
 the working classes. She describes therein some cot- 
 tages which she had built for her labourers, which are 
 deserving of the highest commendation, and will serve 
 as a farther illusti-ation of the progress which has been 
 made in Westmoreland : — 
 
 "I have built five Westmoreland cottages, the spe- 
 cifications of which, and the receipted bills for which, 
 lie before me now. The first was a dwelling for my 
 farm-man and his wife, without children ; it was built 
 in conjunction with a wash-house for my own house, 
 and a cow-stable for two cows, with all appurtenances. 
 The cottage consists of two good rooms on the ground- 
 floor, with two large closets, one used as a pantry, and the 
 other containing a bed on occasion. The wash-house 
 
 * London, 1865.
 
 58 THE peasant's home. 
 
 has the usual fittings — boiler, pump and sinlc, and all 
 conveniences. The cow-stable has stalls for two cows, 
 and a smaller one for a calf; two wiudows in the walls, 
 and one in the roof: a gutter and drain joining the one 
 from the cottage, and leading to a manure-tank, which 
 is flagged and cemented so as to be perfectly water- 
 tight, and closed with a moveable stone lid ; all the 
 buildings are two feet thick in the walls, which are of 
 the grey stone of the district, mortared in the outer and 
 inner courses, and the cavity filled in with rubble. 
 The cottage kitchen has a range with an oven, and the 
 bedroom has a fireplace. The cost of this group of 
 buildings was £130. The other four cottages are 
 built in pairs, on a terrace, with a space of a few feet 
 between the two pairs, and a flight of broad steps 
 leading up from below. There is a good piece of 
 garden ground to each cottage. The walls are two feet 
 thick, and may stand for centuries. The foundations 
 are on excavated rock. The roofs are of Coniston slate, 
 and the corner-stones are from the Eydol quarry. The 
 woodwork being properly seasoned and duly painted, 
 there is no call for repairs beyond the occasional painting 
 and whitewashing, and replacing of a slate now and 
 then in stormy weather. A more durable kind of pro- 
 perty can hardly be. When once warmed through, these 
 dwellings, if well built at first, are warm in winter and 
 cool in summer ; and they are perfectly drj^, which is 
 not always the case with houses built of stone in blocks 
 — some kinds of stone absorbing moisture. The kit- 
 chens and passages are flagged. One pair has a
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 59 
 
 boarded floor in the sitting-room ; the other is flagged. 
 Boards are usually preferred. Each cottage has two 
 out-houses behind — a coal-shed, and privy (with a 
 patent water-closet apparatus) ; the passage between the 
 house and out-houses being roofed, with a sky-light. 
 There is a cistern in each roof, to afford a fall for the 
 water-closet. Each dwelling has a pump and sink ; 
 each kitchen an oven and range ; each house has two 
 closets (for which the thickness of the walls affords 
 convenience). There is a fire-place in every room ; a 
 fan-light over the kitchen door ; a window (to open) 
 on the stairs ; a dresser in the kitchen, and shelves in 
 the pantry. Each cottage has a porch, like most 
 dwellings in this part of the country, where the pro- 
 tection of a porch to the house-door is needed in 
 stormy weather. Such is the character of my cot- 
 tages. As for their contents : the ground-floor consists 
 of a kitchen, a good-sized, light, cheerful sitting-room, 
 and a pantry under the stairs. In one pair the living- 
 room is 12 feet 8 inches long by 11 feet 3 inches broad, 
 and 7 feet high. In the other pair, the same room 
 measures 15 feet in length by 12 feet in breadth. The 
 respective kitchens are 10-^ feet by 10 feet, and 12 feet 
 by 10 feet. Up-stairs there are three bed-rooms, one 
 of which is convenient for a double-bedded room. The 
 estimate in the contract was £110 per cottage; but 
 some of the conveniences above-mentioned were an 
 after-thought, and cost £7 per house ; thus the total 
 cost of each dwelling was £117. The tenants pay no 
 rates, but a rent of £7, including the garden ground."
 
 60 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 " The nearest cottage to these is one built by a 
 friend of mine, containing a sitting-room, with a kit- 
 chen-range, a back -kitchen, and out-house ; and two 
 bed-rooms above, each with a fire-place. Cost £100. 
 Ilent, £5, exclusive of 5s. for garden-ground." 
 
 The condition of the farm-labourer in Lancashire 
 varies more than in some districts; but, upon the 
 whole, like all the northern ones, this county is ena- 
 bled to pay and to house its peasantry better than in 
 the south ; particularly in the vicinity of great manu- 
 facturing centres. Yet there are some " retired" parts 
 where things are as bad as anywhere. The following 
 is an extract from a Report, of seventy years ago.* 
 
 " Cottages for the farming labourers are not by any 
 means so deficient in number or accommodation as in 
 
 many other districts On the eastern side, and 
 
 most of the more northern parts of the county, they 
 are in general roomy, well built with some sort of 
 stone, and covered with slate, or sometimes with 
 thatch. This is also the ease in some places on the 
 western border, as about Ormskirk, Wigan, Bolton, 
 Chorley, &c ; in others, they are occasionally with 
 
 bricks, and tiles or slated Charles Gibson, Esq. 
 
 of Quernmoor Park, keejjs a few cottage houses for his 
 labourers, each of whom has a small piece of garden- 
 ground On his fine property at Eossal Hall, 
 
 F. B. Hesketh, Esq., has at present about fourteen neat 
 farm cottages with small gardens annexed, and intends 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of Lancashire, 1815, p. 103.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 61 
 
 to build half a dozen, more, and attach an acre of land 
 
 to each The late Thomas Eccleston, Esq., of 
 
 Scarisbrook Hall, had a great number of cottages builfc 
 on his different estates, both for the accommodation of 
 the farm- labourers and the artizan. They are very 
 neat, convenient, and kept in good order in most 
 cases." 
 
 Again, of Cheshire:* "The cottages in Cheshire, 
 generally speaking, cannot be considered inferior in 
 point of comfort to those of the neighbouring counties ; 
 and a gradual improvement in this respect appears at 
 present to be taking place. Those of modern erection 
 are usually built of brick, and covered with slate, or 
 neatly thatched, furnishing a comfortable habitation to 
 the farming labourer." 
 
 And in Derbyshire,t about the same period, the Earl 
 of Chesterfield, Sir Eichard Arkwright, and other 
 noblemen and gentlemen, had furnished the "most 
 important accommodation for the labouring poor." 
 
 In Staffordshire | " Sir Edward Littleton has turned 
 his thoughts to the accommodation and comforts of the 
 labourer, by erecting warm and comfortable tenements 
 for their use ; his idea is, for the sake of economy, 
 three dwellings should be put together, with a fourth 
 room to serve them all for washing, brewing, baking, 
 etc., and an oven large enough to bake for all three at 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of Cheshire, 1808, p. 86. 
 
 t Agricultural Survey of Derby, 1815. 
 
 + Agricultural Survey of Stafford, 1808, p. 28.
 
 62 TBE peasant's home. 
 
 once, they heating the oven in rotation, and giving 
 notice to their neighbours ;" etc., etc. 
 
 In these counties, and in all the north Midlands, 
 there has been much improvement also of late years. 
 In Nottinghamshire particularly, several large pro- 
 prietors, such as the late Duke of Newcastle, and the 
 late Lord Ossington, took a most fatherly interest in the 
 welfare of their tenantry ; indeed, the former, from his 
 experimental acquaintance with them, must have un- 
 derstood the affairs of his poorer neighbours, quite as 
 well as any of those matters of State in which he was 
 so well versed.* At Clumber and at Hardwicke, he, in 
 course of time, swept away everything that was an 
 offence, substituting model cottages of the best designs. 
 Lord Dartmouth in Staffordshire, also spent a great 
 deal of money and time in the improvement of farm- 
 buildings and labourers' cottages, t 
 
 In Warwickshire and Worcestershire, seventy years 
 ago, the cottages had "nothin;-par;icular to recommend 
 them;" although some few proprietors were beginning to 
 realize the existence of the evil, and some small attempts 
 at reformation were made. But, since the establishment 
 of the Worcester Cottage Improvement Society, there 
 has been a good deal of useful improvement carried 
 out, principally near the towns. The result, however, 
 of Mr. Norman's enquiries (1868-9) is not particularly 
 creditable to these two counties ; and out of ten large 
 
 * Labourers' Friend, 1852, p. 26. 
 t Ibid., 1856, p. 77.
 
 THE ■WORK OF REFORM. 63 
 
 parishes in Worcestershire, in which special enquiries 
 were made by him, only one, viz., Madresfield * (Lord 
 Beauchamp) was showing much evidence of improve- 
 ment. At Wellesbourue, Tysoe, and other places in 
 "Warwickshire, the cottages belonging to the land- 
 owners were represented as in fair condition. la 
 Shropshire, the names of Lords Powis, Bagot, and 
 Craven are mentioned by the Assistant-Commissioner 
 of 1867, as having built a few modern cottages; but 
 this county, as well as Staffordshire, seems to lag 
 behind in the march of improvement. 
 
 Of Cheshire, Mr. Stanhope gives a bad report, but 
 states that great improvements have been made upon 
 the Duke of Westminster's estates ; that Lord Crewe's 
 new cottages are very good; and on some estates near 
 Malpas the cottages were " very good and comfortable." 
 Mr. Tollemache (near Tarporley) is also named with 
 approval, f 
 
 Mr. Culley visited Derbyshire (1868-9), and appears 
 to think hopefully of the condition of the cottager ; the 
 following extract from his report records one phase of 
 his opinion :]: : — "I don't recollect visiting any cottage 
 in Derbyshire in which there was not a fireplace, with 
 a boiler on one side and an oven on the other, a pro- 
 vision which one seldom sees in other counties 
 
 There was, too, an air of cleanliness and comfort about 
 the interior of the Derbyshire cottages which gave me 
 
 * Coinml'isirni (1867), Evidence II., p. 317. 
 f Ibid, p. 73, etc. % Lvport, p. 120.
 
 64 THE peasant's home. 
 
 a very favourable impression of their mistresses." 
 Of several districts specially mentioned in his report, 
 Mr. Culley says : — " In South Derbyshire, many of the 
 cottages are very poor, but within the last twenty 
 years very great improvements have been made." 
 " Mr. E. Nesfield, agent to the Duke of Eutland, 
 speaking of the Bakewell district, says, ' Cottages are 
 generally good in this neighbourhood, and are sufficient 
 for the supply of labour, and are, for the most part, 
 conveniently situated with respect to the farms;' " and, 
 near Chesterfield, " agricultural labourers' cottages are 
 above the average." Lord Scarsdale's steward, speak- 
 ing of Kedleston and the neighbourhood, informed the 
 Assistant-Commissioner that the cottages were "nearly 
 all new and good." 
 
 Mr. Henry Tremenheere (1868-9), reporting on 
 Lancashire,* speaks very favourably of the cottage 
 accommodation, both from his own observation and 
 from the answers to his circular of questions ; but he 
 adds that the improvement is comparatively recent in 
 one portion of the county, viz., " The Fylde." In 
 that district the cottages were in a deplorable condition 
 at a late period, but " by the liberal expenditure of the 
 Earl of Derby and Colonel Clifton, the two largest 
 proprietors in the Fylde district, these wretched dwell- 
 ings are rapidly disappearing, and in their places have 
 been built substantial brick cottages with slate roofs, 
 and amply provided with all the conveniences which a 
 
 * Eeport, p. 155.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 65 
 
 labourer's family can require. All have three bed- 
 rooms, and the rent is fixed less on a calculation of the 
 outlay than on what a labourer, in receipt of fair wages, 
 ma}^ be reasonably expected to pay." 
 
 Northamptonshire presents a great contrast, in some 
 respects, to other Midland counties, as far as regards 
 the improvements in cottage building. Not that it was 
 always so, for the report made some time before 1809 
 gave a deplorable account of the appearance of both 
 cottages and farm buildings, and only two persons are 
 recorded as having ])aid much attention to them, viz., 
 the Duke of Grafton, and Lady Carbery, at Laxton ; 
 and even now there is a good deal to complain of; but 
 Mr. Norman (18b8) speaks of many excellent cottages 
 which had recently been built. In fact there is a 
 public taste for neat dwellings for the poor in this 
 county, which shows itself in constant efforts to improve 
 them, and there is scarcely a large estate in the county 
 which does not give evidence of it. Perhaps this is 
 partly to be accounted for by the sensible but some- 
 what unusual line taken up by the Northampton 
 Architectural Society, which, along with ancient tile 
 pavements, sepulchral remains, window tracery, and 
 ecclesiology generally, has found time to study plans of 
 cottages. More than twenty years ago Lord Overstone, 
 Lord Southampton, and Earl Spencer had very much 
 improved the villages on their estates ; and the 
 Assistant-Commissioner of 1867 shows that a lively 
 interest in the subject is kept up in this county, in the
 
 66 THE PEASANT 8 HOME. 
 
 minds of the landowners.* " In close parishes a great 
 number of new cottages are being or have recently been 
 built. They are of stone or brick, roofed with slate or 
 tiles; the living-room is about 12 feet by 14 ; behind 
 this is a kitchen, of rather smaller dimensions. None 
 of these cottages have less than two bed-rooms, most of 
 them have three, and a scullery in the house. The 
 water supply and drainage are usually excellent ; all 
 have gardens of from 20 to 40 poles adjoining the 
 cottage ; a pigstye, wood or coal-house, and privy, out 
 of the house, and usually an oven in the house, or 
 access to an oven adjoining it. Besides these newer 
 and more improved cottages there are a great number 
 of old. cottages belonging to the landowners in the 
 close parishes, which, although not so complete in their 
 accommodation, are nevertheless in good repair, whole- 
 some and comfortable." One passage in Mr. Normans 
 reportf certainly betokens some amount of thoughtful 
 attention given to the matter: — "Mr. Albert Pell and 
 Sir C. Isham are in the habit of building cottages in 
 blocks of two, with two bedrooms in each, and with a 
 third common bedroom, which can be entered from 
 either cottage. The advantage of this is that either 
 cottage can be increased or diminished in size by 
 blocking up one or other of the doors of the third room, 
 without moving the inmates of either house. This is 
 very desirable in order to meet the requirements of 
 increasing or diminishing families. Mr. Pell has also 
 
 * Norman, EejJoit L, p. 116. t Il^id. p. US.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 67 
 
 been in the habit of building a large landing to the 
 staircase, on which one or two of the children can sleep 
 when the cottage becomes crowded. One gentleman 
 (Mr, Hughes) thought it desirable that a common 
 barrack or lodging-house should be established in each 
 village, under the regulation of a respectable labourer 
 and his wife, in which the young men could board and 
 lodge." 
 
 The cottages in Leicestershire (1868) are described 
 as generally bad ; but "in spite of this general infe- 
 riority, some landowners have very much improved their 
 cots. A.11 Lord Howe's villages are most agreeable to 
 the eye, contain excellent cottages, and (what is far 
 more rare) almost enough of them. So with Lord 
 Berners' estate." 
 
 In Rutland "decent labourers' cottages" were 
 " much wanted.'" * 
 
 The cottage accommodation in Wales and the Border 
 Counties is mostly very deplorable. And in North 
 Wales, and the counties of Pembroke and Carmarthen, 
 "very bad everywhere." Mr. Tremenheeref says that 
 the want of improvement is only just beginning to be 
 recognised. Still, there were exceptions to the univer- 
 sal neglect, seventy years ago. Mr. Davies's Eeport,;}: 
 after a vivid description of the prevailing wretchedness, 
 
 * Stanhope, Report I., p. 92. 
 
 t Commission (1867), Report, p. 53. 
 
 X Agricultural Survey of North Wales, 1810, p. 82.
 
 68 THE peasant's home. 
 
 describes three sets of cottages "as a striking con- 
 trast In the Vale of Clwyd are several neat 
 
 hrick-built cottages. Some of them, the property of 
 Mr.Wilding,of Llanrhaiadr, and others of Mr. Edwards, 
 of Cerrig Llwydion. The latter, some years back, 
 erected thirteen cottages, all within a mile of his resi- 
 dence. They have upper stories for bed-rooms; and a 
 skilling at each end — one for a cow-house, the other 
 for a milk-room. They are slated, whitewashed, and 
 many of them ornamented with sham windows and 
 balustrades .... this information was procured from 
 one of the cottagers, who, in the dusk of the evening, 
 was literally sitting under his vine — for the wall was 
 covered with grapes. A smile of complacency sat upon 
 his countenance. And the heart of the writer of this 
 Report also, being, as it were, in unison with his, felt 
 an agreeable sympathetic sensation. Of all the excel- 
 lencies which this Vale — the Cambrian Paradise — can 
 boast of, the comfort and contentment which these 
 cottagers appeared to enjoy, gave him the greatest 
 delight." besides this, "the late Lord Penrhyn had 
 built forty cottages between 1790 and 1800 :" and Arthur 
 Blayney, Esq., of Gregynog, Montgomery, attracted 
 "a set of constant labourers," by providing good cot- 
 tages, and annexing land to each. 
 
 And in South "Wales,* Sir John Morris, Bart., of 
 Clasemont, near Swansea ; Mr. Vancouver, of Llan- 
 gennech Park, near Llaneily, Carmarthenshire ; and 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of South Wales, 1815, p. 134 et scq.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 69 
 
 Sir Edward Hamilton, in Brecknockshire, built exten- 
 sively " comfortable habitations for the labouring 
 class ;" — the last named declared to the writer that it 
 was his great ambition to make his labourers comfort- 
 able. Of the somewhat unique cottages in Glamorgan- 
 shire, Mr. Davies gives a long and commendatory 
 notice,* of which the following is a resume : — The 
 Glamorganshire cottages ax"e universally white- washed; 
 the people are very long-lived. Some of the cottages 
 are very ancient. Both from the interior and exterior, 
 the writer considers them unsurpassed in comfort and 
 convenience to any in England. They are of stone, 
 well laid in mortar ; thatched with wheat-straw, and 
 sometimes with fern (which is very durable). Mr. C. 
 S. Read, writing in the " Royal Agricultural Society's 
 Journal" (1849), t notices these cottages, and adds, 
 that "white-washing the exterior, which is mentioned 
 by a Welsh Bard in the 6th century, is still universally 
 practised." 
 
 Mr. Portman (1869), reporting on Glamorganshire 
 and Brecknockshire,;]: says that the cottages are " fairly 
 good throughout his district." Mr. Norman, whose 
 district comprised the counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon, 
 Denbigh, and Flint, says| that good cottages appeared 
 to him to be "less numerous in Wales, and to be in- 
 creasing at a slower rate than in any part of England " 
 with which he was acquainted ; but he mentions with 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of South Wales, p. 137. 
 t Vol. X., p. 149. X Report, p. 26. \ Report, p. 35.
 
 70 THE peasant's home. 
 
 approval those of Mr. Hughes at Kinmel, and Loi'd 
 Penrh}'!! at Bangor. 
 
 Mr. Culley (1869), reporting on Pembroke and 
 Carmarthen, says that the dwelh'ngs are very bad 
 everywhere;* but "the Earl of Cawdor has not only 
 recently built several improved cottages, but has also 
 published a book of cottage plans " for the use of land- 
 owners and tenants anxious to provide decent accommo- 
 dation for the labourers. In Montgomeryshire, the 
 cottages of Earl Yane and Sir W. W. Wynn were in 
 " a very satisfactory condition."! 
 
 Mr. Tremenheere, writing of Cardiganshire, says 
 that the great blot upon the county is the condition of 
 its cottages ; and their wretchedness would appear 
 "to have originated in two. causes : 1. In squatters 
 building upon the wastes at a time when manorial 
 rights were very little looked after, and any one pos- 
 sessed of a few pounds might, unmolested, erect a hovel 
 for his residence ; 2. In a long-established custom of 
 granting building leases for a long term of years, leav- 
 ing the tenant to form his own plan and choose his own 
 materials. Most of these cottages are occupied by their 
 owners until the expiration of the leases, or they tumble 
 
 down from age and decay Out of 500 
 
 cottage tenants of Sir Pryce Pryce, Bart., only forty 
 pay rack-rents." A landed proprietor is thus powerless 
 for the purpose of improvement. :|: 
 
 Mr. Loxdale, of Castle Hill, Llanilas, a gentleman 
 
 * Report, p. 49. f Report, p. 54. % Report, p. 53.
 
 THE "^OEK OF REFORM. 71 
 
 wlio had taken much interest in the improvement of 
 labourers' dwellings, informed Mr. Tremenheere that a 
 marked change for the better had " taken place of late 
 years in the Welsh people in regard to the observance 
 of some of the proprieties of life. This gentleman has 
 built a considerable number of cottages in the place of 
 the hovels which were a disgrace to his neighbourhood, 
 and he assured me that the desire for better accommo- 
 dation is becoming general among the labouring classes. 
 He has been enabled to build a considerable number of 
 excellent cottages, witli three bed-rooms above, and 
 kitchen, pantry, etc., below, for £120 each, for which an 
 agricultural labourer in receipt of fair wages is willing 
 to pay £5 a year ; and as a hopeful sign of progress, 
 he stated that he had been often reminded by labouring 
 men, while engaged in carrying out his building plans, 
 not on any account to omit a privy for every cottage." 
 Mr. Boyle (1869), speaks as badly of Monmouthshire,* 
 and mentions that there are more than 800 cotters who 
 have acquired land by the roadside on the Duke of 
 Beaufort's estate alone; "the greater number of these 
 cotters pay ten shillings a year, some as low as six- 
 pence.''^ Mr. S. R. Bosanquet told Mr. Bojde that when 
 he came into the property of Dingestow Court, all the 
 cottages were owned by squatters, but now he had 
 bought them up. But there was a general disinclina- 
 tion, at the period of this Report, to spend money on 
 
 * Jicport, I). o3.
 
 72 THE peasant's home. 
 
 building cottages ; the progress of improvement was 
 more rapid iu the adjacent county of Radnorshire. 
 Mention is made of Mr. Phillips, of Abbeyewmhir, who 
 has built " model " cottages at the rate of £400 a pair, 
 charging only £4 for the yearly rent. Still, Eadnor- 
 shire has some sad specimens, especially on the outskirts 
 of towns. 
 
 Bishop Fraser, reporting on Grloucestershire, gives 
 most miserable accounts of the cottage accommodation ;* 
 but he adds that it " was pleasant also to find out a few 
 of the largest landowners setting a noble example of 
 their consciousness of responsibility in respect of the 
 dwellings of the labourers who cultivate their land ;" 
 and especially mentions the Earls of Ducie and S. Grer- 
 mains as having made great efforts upon their estates 
 in this county. Although things are as bad in this 
 county as anywhere, there were some steps taken to 
 improve, in several districts, at the close of the last 
 century ; but they do not appear to have been very 
 generally imitated. Lord Sherborne is mentioned in 
 Dr. Eudge's report of that period as having erected 
 twenty good cottages near Northleach, to each of which 
 was assigned a garden, all for the yearly rent of thirty 
 shillings. A plan is also given of a semi circular row 
 of cottages, with " a centre room," intended for a Sun- 
 day school, 18 feet by 12, under which are a public 
 oven and furnace on one side, and a coal- house oppo- 
 
 * Report, p. 3o.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 73 
 
 site, built by E. Chamberlayne, Esq., of Maugersbury, 
 near Stow.* 
 
 In Herefordshire Mr. Norman represents the cot- 
 tages in those parts to which the evidence he obtained 
 refers, as not so very deficient, and where they were 
 bad, improvements were being gradually made.f The 
 cottage plans of the Labourers' Friend Society were 
 certainly in use in this county as far back as the year 
 1852.+ 
 
 We will now glance at the South Western counties. 
 If any part of England can be considered as worse 
 than another in the matter of housing the poor, we 
 should probably take the countries of Somerset, 
 Devon, and Dorset ; and what strikes one most 
 here, is the wholesale condition of neglect in which 
 large villages exist. These are, in some cases, 
 hopelessly bad, as we have already seen ; and I 
 do not think it will cease to be a hopeless affair until 
 there is thorough inspection under a central authority. 
 Local powers in these places are a farce, generally in- 
 vested in the hands of a few persons, through whose 
 pockets alone any interest in the matter survives, — and 
 that is dead against reformation. Consequently " little 
 progress is being made, except by some of the larger 
 proprietors." 
 
 From calculations of expenses, as well as actual 
 balance-sheets, shown to Mr. Boyle (Assistant Commis- 
 
 * Agricidtural Survey of Gloucesicr, 1807, p. 50. 
 t Evidence II., passim. 
 j Labourers' Friend, 1852, p. 62.
 
 74 THE peasant's home. 
 
 sioner of 1867) it -woiild appear to be tolerably -u-ell 
 proved that everj^ new cottage is so much out of pocket ; 
 notwithstanding this, there is gradual improvement be- 
 ing carried out by many proprietors. " Sir Alexander 
 Hood, * who builds his new model cottages of red brick 
 and tile from Bridgewater, by contract, calculates that 
 he puts up a pair for £300, fifty or sixty pounds of 
 which are expended in an out- building, containing the 
 copper, etc. . . . Tlie cottages are plain, though 
 neat ; be considers that they lose in strength wherever 
 the roof is broken, so there are no gables, and the only 
 break is where the chimney rises. He lets them for £4 
 a-piece, rather more than 2| per cent. Lord Taunton's 
 model cottages, built of red stone found on tlie spot, 
 cost £220 a pair, besides pig-sty and privy, which, are 
 away at th.e back of the garden. They are perfectly 
 square, according to a jilan of his agent, Mr. Robertson, 
 the block of two measuring 48 feet by 24. Mr. 
 Robertson thought they were a little too small, and is 
 going to build some 54 feet by 27, of which he calcu- 
 lates the cost at about £10 more. The present cottages 
 are let at £3 a-piece. Mr. Birmingham, agent to Sir 
 Thomas Acland, told me that he calculated the value 
 of a pair of three-bedroomed cottages at £200 ; but the 
 stone is close at hand, and the estate provides timber. 
 Some of the best cottages I saw in Somerset- 
 shire were those that had been converted from old farm- 
 houses ; as the farms "were enlarger" piany of the smaller 
 farmhouses fell out of use, and ha,/e been divided into 
 
 * Commission (1867), Evidence II., p. 442, etc.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 75 
 
 pairs of cottages." Sir Arthur Elton and the Earl of 
 of Cork are also named by Mr. Boyle as having built 
 improved cottages.* 
 
 The Assistant Commissioner proceeds to describe very 
 fully the difficulties that lie in the way of improvement ;f 
 some of these difficulties being financial ones, and some 
 arising from the obstinacy and ignorance of the poor 
 themselves. A case came under his notice " at Wins- 
 ford. A husband, wife, six children, and a pair of old 
 people lived all together in a cottage with but one bed- 
 room and one sitting-room, and were all moved into a 
 new three-bedroomed cottage. They said there was not 
 room in the new cottage for the old people, who re- 
 mained in the old cottage. The fact was that the new 
 bedrooms were small ; in the old cottage the one bed- 
 room had been very large, and they did not appreciate 
 the advantage of separate rooms. . . . Where 
 there are three bedrooms they will often fill the house 
 with lodgers, and herd with the whole family in the 
 kitchen. Where there was no lodger, I saw in most 
 cottages I entered that the third room was unfurnished, 
 and used as a store-room for potatoes and other vege- 
 tables." 
 
 At Maiden Bradlej^ on the borders of Wilts, "the 
 
 cottages are as good generally as any in England 
 
 The Duke of Somerset is a good landlord, and the 
 rents are cheap, from 4d. as a minimum, to Is. 2d. 
 a- week maximum, being charged to agricultural la- 
 
 * Heport, p. 129. f Jbid.
 
 76 THE peasant's home. 
 
 bourers The cottages, as a rule, have one living- 
 room, about 13 to 14 or 15 feet, by 12, 13, or 14 feet, 
 one back place or scullery, with two or three bed-rooms 
 over, famous gardens, good out-houses ; all belong to 
 the Duke of Somerset." * 
 
 At Somerton, "visited one of Col. Finney's model 
 
 cottages, with three bed-rooms Nice cottage, not 
 
 too good, and room enough for the people in it 
 
 Cost probably about £200, let at £4. Built of red tile 
 and blue lias." f 
 
 At Over Stowey, Lord Taunton's cottages ; | and some 
 new ones at East Pennard, belonging to Mr. B. 
 Napier,§ are fully described by Mr. Boyle; besides these, 
 there are others only mentioned, but all which serve 
 to show that the blot upon the fame of Somersetshire 
 will have some chance of being removed, when the 
 present beginnings have developed into general im- 
 provement. 
 
 And, although the labouring population are badly 
 housed in Devonshire, there are not wanting examples 
 of noble endeavours after amendment. Upon the Duke 
 of Bedford's estates near Tavistock, the cottages are, 
 and have been for many years, very good ; besides 
 these, Mr. Portman (1869) speaks || very favourably of 
 those of Lord Clinton, at Hatherleigh ; of Mr. Montague 
 Bere, at Morebath ("three bed-rooms and half-an-aci'e 
 
 * Evidence II., p. 496. t Il>id, P- 479. 
 
 + Ibid, p. 482. § Ibid, p. 491. 
 
 II Report, p. 43.
 
 THE WORK OF EEFOMI. /7 
 
 of garden for £5 5s. a year"); and of Mr. Amory, M.P., 
 upon whose property near Tiverton, " great improve- 
 ments are being made in the dwellings of the agri- 
 cultural poor." 
 
 Mr. Chas. Vancouver, although in his report to the 
 Board of Agriculture early iu the present century,* he 
 could say of one place that " three mud-banks and 
 a hedge-bank form the habitation of many of the pea- 
 santry," — could give several instances in which there 
 was displayed a good deal of thoughtful attention to 
 the comforts of the poor. The following will serve as 
 illustrations : — 
 
 " Lord Clifford builds very neat cottages for his 
 workmen ; the window in the upper story is so placed 
 as to admit light to the two rooms into which this iloor 
 is divided. His lordship attaches to each tenement a 
 small piece of garden- ground, .... a small orchard, 
 sufficient to produce from one to two hogsheads of 
 cider, with a sufficiency of good hoarding or winter 
 apples, is also granted to each peasant family in lieu of 
 the grazing of a cow, which they were formerly in- 
 dulged with." The Rev. Mr. Luxmore built "some 
 cottages at Bridestow, designed merely for the occu- 
 pation of the labouring poor In one row, where 
 
 two old ruinous cottages formerly stood, and which 
 were scarcely sufficient to afford a single night's shelter 
 to a gang of gipsies, there are now twelve neat comfor- 
 table cottages The first range of these buildings 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of Devon, 1808, p. 92 et acq.
 
 78 THE peasant's home. 
 
 was constructed uniform, and nearly in the follow- 
 ing manner: rooms below 16 feet square, one door and 
 one window in front ; fire-place, with an oven opening 
 back into a shed or lean-to, for fuel, tools, pig, etc. 
 Another door from this lean-to opens into a small back 
 yard fenced off from a small garden attached to each 
 tenement; under the stairs in the front room, leading 
 up to the bed-room is a pantry fitted up with shelves ; 
 opposite to the fire-place, over which there is a mantel- 
 piece, a sort of ch'esser is fastened to the wall with 
 shelves, and these constitute the fixtures in the room 
 below. The bed-room above is the same size as the 
 room below. The walls of the first eight feet of these 
 cottages are built with stone, the superstructure with 
 cob, covered with a slate roof; and cost, upon an 
 average, when finished in a plain and useful manner, 
 from £38 to £40 each." The writer adds full details 
 as to materials, etc. They were let for Is. a week. 
 Mr. Luxmore soon found that his cottages were in 
 request ; and, at the same time, that the want of a 
 . second bed-room was often a great evil, as it induced 
 overcrowding. So he set about the only real remedy — 
 built some more cottages, with two bed-rooms. 
 
 Lord E,olle is also rej)resented by this writer to have 
 encouraged the peasantry to build, and make improve- 
 ments, by inducing them to leave the villages, and 
 settle upon the borders of the commons — with the re- 
 sult, in many cases, that the cottager '' was withdrawn 
 from his former haunts in the village ; and the time 
 that would otherwise be spent in the ale-house, or in
 
 THE WORK OF REFOElf. 79 
 
 frivolous conversation with his neighbours, was now 
 employed to the immediate benefit of himself and 
 family." 
 
 Although it is now generally admitted that these 
 dwellings on the borders of the waste present formid- 
 able obstaeL s to moral and sanitary improvement, 
 it is impossible not to commend efforts like these ; 
 the object in view being the general welfare of the 
 peasantry. 
 
 There is much misunderstanding as to the real na- 
 ture of "mud" or "cob" walls; and I have thouglit 
 it worth while to reproduce here an account of the 
 process of building a mud cottage, extracted from a 
 paper on the farming of Devonshire, which appeared in 
 the Royal Agricultural Society's ninth volume : — 
 
 " The material commonly used for the walls of cot- 
 tages is provincially called * cob-earth ;' it is made by 
 mixing thi-ee bundles of straw with two cart-loads of 
 sharp or gravelly soil (red sandstone is very good for 
 this purpose) ; the whole is well wetted, and after- 
 wards trodden by men or horses. A foundation of 
 stone having been raised two feet above the ground 
 this mixture is laid on it to the depth of eighteen inches 
 or two feet, and remains until it has become firm. The 
 length of time necessary for it to harden is regulated 
 by the weather, and also by the soil used ; if it should 
 be a free soil, and the weather fine, it requires seven 
 or eight days ; but if heavier, closer in its texture, 
 and containing clay, the time will be proportionately 
 increased. A second layer is then placed on the for-
 
 80 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 mer to an equal depth, and tlius (always observing the 
 precaution of having the previous bed of earth hard 
 before any more is laid upon it), the walls are raised 
 to the required height. They now present the appear- 
 ance of a stack of straw rather than a part of a human 
 habitation. The roof, and other wood-work having 
 been completed, the walls are trimmed by cutting them 
 smoothly with a common hay-knife ; a coat of plaster 
 is now applied to both sides of the wall, and the in- 
 side receives a second coat. Before this becomes dry, 
 it is * rough cast,' by portions of fine gravel being 
 thrown violently against it, by which much adheres to 
 the surface. A coat of white-wash generally finishes 
 this part of the building. This material (cob-earth) is 
 used alike for the dwelling of the peasant and the 
 residence of the more opulent classes, and is equally 
 adapted for the cottage or the mansion. By strangers 
 to the county, as well as by many who although re- 
 siding in it are unacquainted with the value of these 
 walls, they are contemptuously designated mud walls. 
 But by whatever name they may be distinguished, 
 their intrinsic worth remains unaltered ; for the most 
 durable, healthy, economical, and comfortable wall for 
 a building is that made with good cob-earth. It ap- 
 pears to form a strong concrete, which will equally 
 resist the action of the atmosphere and climate with 
 our best building stone. In building a large house, it 
 should be commenced in May, so as to have the heat of 
 the summer months for hardening the walls. The 
 advantage of increasing the height gradually, is to
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 81 
 
 prevent bulging, wliicli would necessarily result if the 
 weight were laid on the top whilst the previous layer 
 was yet moist. For a low building, the walls may be 
 eighteen inches thick (when trimmed), but for a cottage 
 or house it should be two feet ; the walls of old erections 
 are often as much as three feet in thickness. The ma- 
 terials and labour for a cottage wall cost 3s. per perch 
 (1{)|- square feet)." 
 
 "The lime-ash floor is also peculiar to this county ; it 
 is formed from a composition of lime and sand, mixed 
 in varying proportions, according to the character of 
 the former ; thus the lime of Sandford does not require 
 any mixture of sand, and forms the hardest floors of 
 the kind ; if the lime forms a good mortar, or what 
 the masons term a ' brittle mixture,' it may be employed 
 for these floors. The proportion of sand should be 
 such as will form with tlie lime a good mortar for 
 plastering walls ; this mixture is poured on a layer of 
 stones (of the size of good road metal) to the depth of 
 four or five inches, and remains until moderately hard, 
 when it is occasional!}- beaten bj'' heavy pieces of wood 
 with large flat bottoms. In about three months from 
 the time of laying, it has the hardness and durability 
 of stone, and forms a very permanent floor: but until 
 it has attained this firmness it must not be used. The 
 usual price for this floor when complete, is Is. a square 
 yard. The kitchen and dairy-floors of farm houses are 
 generally formed in this manner, and for these it is 
 certainly much superior to any other material. 
 
 " The roof is, with few exceptions, made of thatch,
 
 82 THE peasant's home. 
 
 ■which, like the cob-earth -vrall, tends to raaintain an 
 equable temperature within the building, however 
 severe the changes without. The use of reed (instead 
 of straw) diminishes many of the objections raised 
 against these roofs, and if their durability could be 
 increased, and their liability to fire diminished by any 
 available process, it would form the best covering for a 
 labourer's cottage." 
 
 The cost is about £50, or six for £250. 
 
 Cornwall does not present quite so unfavourable a 
 picture as do several other western counties ; but, even 
 here are to be found many miserable dwelling-houses ; 
 and there are some populous districts which offer, 
 through over-crowding and bad drainage, ample oppor- 
 tunities for the importation and spread of fever. The 
 Sanitary Eeport of 1842 gave a sad account of some 
 parts of the county near large towns. Mr. Worgan's 
 report to the Board of Agriculture,* gave some par- 
 ticulars of cottages which had been furnished by Captain 
 Penrose, of Ethy, one plan being for an ingenious 
 circular cottage. 
 
 Mr. Portman (1869)| does not consider the accounts 
 of the cottages in Cornwall very satisfactory: — "It 
 would seem that the tenure by leases on lives does not 
 conduce to a good state of dwellings, neither the lessee 
 nor the landlord being interested in repairing them." 
 Where the landowners have power, there is a general 
 
 Agricultural Survey of Cornwall, 1811, p. 26, et seq. 
 •f Report, p. 43.
 
 THE WOEK OF REFORM. 83 
 
 disposition to improve them, but otherwise, " very- 
 slight progress is being made towards increasing the 
 cottage accommodation." 
 
 Perhaps we may consider the Dorsetshire labourer 
 and his dwelling as the pivot upon which revolves all 
 discussion as to the condition of our peasantry. The 
 grievance-monger begins and ends with the Dorset 
 " serf; " and the picture of his poverty-stricken family, 
 his meagre dinner and his dilapidated dwelling, are put 
 along with that of his immorality and his ignorance, so 
 that he has become a bye-word. There is, no doubt, 
 a great deal in his condition to justify this ; but that he 
 is worse off than in other counties I have never yet 
 seen evidence enough to prove ; on the contrary, I am 
 convinced there is a good deal of exaggeration about it, 
 most likely founded upon his low wages. From what I 
 have seen of the Dorsetshire labourer I should say that 
 he was not nearly so badly off as is generally stated. 
 Only this summer I conversed a long time with a wag- 
 goner, somewhat advanced in years, employed near 
 Wareham (the Earl of Eldon, lord of the manor).* 
 This man was cheerful and contented, had been upon 
 the estate all his life, remembered the great Chancellor; 
 didn't believe in the Labourers' Union, although his 
 wages had been raised Is. since the strike in the 
 Eastern Counties. But let me quote from those who 
 may be presumed to be able to judge, from their expe- 
 
 * Tliere are some famous new cottages upon Lord Eldon's estate.
 
 84 THE peasant's home. 
 
 ricnce, bettor tlian nijself. Hear, first, what Lord 
 (Sidney Godolphin Osborne, the Rector of Durweston 
 says: — "As to the low moral tone of the agriniiltural 
 labourer, in the case of ordinary labourers, I don't be- 
 lieve in it " " As to education, where there are good 
 schools accessible ... I believe there is every 
 disposition on the part of the parents to avail them- 
 selves of them.'"^-' And Mr. Elihu Burrittf (near 
 Shaftesbury, June, 1865) : " stopped frequently on the 
 way to talk with farmers and labourers, esjiecially on 
 the condition of the latter. There is an impression 
 abroad that the farm- servants in Dorset are reduced to 
 the lowest state of depression, receiving the smallest 
 wages and living on the hardest fare. Several conver- 
 sations with different persons this day led me to believe 
 that this impression comes from a misapprehension, or 
 rather exclusion, of one important element in the esti- 
 mate. The labouring men in this county, as in Wilt- 
 sliire, receive generally only 8s. per week ; but there 
 is this very considerable difference. Here every man. 
 with a family not only has a cottage and garden rent- 
 free, but frequently an additional patch of land for 
 growing potatoes ; and sometimes he is gratuitouslj' 
 supplied with the fuel he needs, in the wood grubbed 
 up in removing or trimming hedges ; and sometimes in 
 coal itself. There is also a very general agreement that 
 the farm labourers shall have the small or imperfect 
 
 * Stanhope, Tlvidenrc II., p. 7. 
 
 t Walk from London to the Land's End.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORST. 
 
 wheat, called grjsons, at os. a bushel, whatever the 
 market price of good wheat may be. Thus, by these 
 little perquisites and gratuities, their condition seems 
 to be equalised with that of the same class in the 
 northern counties of England." A country magistrate, 
 who had paid much attention to the subject of the 
 Dorsetshire labourer (his name is not given) is quoted 
 in the " Royal Agricultural Society's Journal" for 185i, 
 to the following eifect : — "A more civil, obliging, aud 
 well-coaducted peasantry does not exist in England. 
 They are, indeed, terribly addicted to beer, but intoxi- 
 cation is not very prevalent, though a mower will often 
 drink two gallons of beer a day." 
 
 Again, as to the dwellings: — "There has been," 
 says Lord S. Gr. Osborne,* "in the twenty-seven years 
 I have known Dorset, tliH greatest improvement. I 
 see it in my own parish ; I can travel nowhere and not 
 see it. It is true I could point to a few notoi-ious loca- 
 lities where the state of the dwellings of the poor is a 
 disgrace to humanity, but these are now exceptional, 
 the fact very often arising from the embarrassment 
 of the proprietors absolutely preventing them from 
 laying out one farthing on their estates which they can 
 avoid." The same gentleman gave similar testimony 
 as far back as the year 1851, at the annual meeting of 
 the Society for Improving the Condition of the La- 
 bouring Classes : — " I can speak to the fact that I can 
 
 * Stanhope, Evidence II., p. 7.
 
 86 THE peasant's home. 
 
 scarcely travel a mile about tlie country now, without 
 seeing evidence in every direction oF fresh cottages 
 springing up, nay, where they have not been built for 
 years, I know they now abound ; and, as was said to 
 me lately, by a friend of mine, the first thing you hear 
 after breakfast, on paying a visit to a country neigh- 
 bour, is, ' Come and see my new cottages.'' " 
 
 A long account is given in the Eoyal Agricultural 
 Society's Journal for 1854 * of the farming of Dorset- 
 shire, of which the following is an extract : — " Con- 
 nected materially with the improvements to be noticed, 
 is the state of the dwellings of the labouring poor. 
 For some years the cottages of Dorset (whether justly 
 or not, it is not the writer's province to determine) 
 were a bye-word and reproach. In 1843, the subject 
 was brought under the notice of a very influential 
 meeting at Blandford, and a most animated debate on 
 the whole question arose. It is pleasant to look back 
 upon the serious charges then advanced against the 
 cottages of Dorset, because it places in strong and 
 gratifying contrast their present condition. The merit 
 of the good example set in this matter belongs chiefly 
 to Henry Charles Sturt, Esq., of Critchell, who, even 
 at the period alluded to, was declared by Lord Ashley 
 * to have set an example which ought to be followed.' 
 This gentleman commenced cottage- building, not with 
 reference to existing numbers, but with reference to 
 
 * Vol. XV., p. 441.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 87 
 
 the increasing demands of the poorer population, many 
 years before the question interested, or was taken up 
 by, the public. He rebuilt the village of Tincleton, 
 placing two cottages, with three bedrooms in each, iu 
 the middle of an acre of land, dividing it ecj^ually be- 
 tween the two tenants, neither of whom trespasses on the 
 land of his neighbour. The cottages have a south aspect, 
 and are protected from the north wind by a row of 
 apple-trees in the rear. Mr. Sturt's property is scat- 
 tered over the country, but his cottages are easily 
 recognised by their comfortable and uniform appear- 
 ance. Aspect and dryness of position are always re- 
 garded as absolutely essential. Where necessary, the 
 picturesque is very properly sacrificed to actual con- 
 venience. The results are, that in the villages thus 
 favoured there is not now a single poacher, and that 
 the labourers resident in these improved dwellings 
 take pride in the cultivation of the land, and carry off 
 the best prizes for vegetables from the Labourers' 
 Friend Society. * * * The occupiers are never 
 disturbed on any pretext, as long as their rents are 
 paid, in order to encourage, as far as may be, a feeling 
 of ownership. Objection has been raised to the ex- 
 pense of these buildings, though constructed without 
 ornament, excepting a stone dressing over the windows. 
 The cost certainly exceeds the ability of a labourer to 
 pay fair interest for the outlay ; but Mr. Sturt's de- 
 fence is, that the property at large is increased in value 
 by increasing the comforts of the cultivators ; that the 
 cottages contain nothing but what is requisite ; and
 
 88 THE peasaxt's home. 
 
 that he had taken tlie rec^uisites, and not tlie cost, into 
 consideration when directing the erection of tliese 
 dwelhngs. One considerate provision deserves notice : 
 in each village houses are built on a ground-floor, for 
 aged people. Mr. Start's example lias been largely 
 followed, and the old mud-walled and thatched cottages 
 are rajmlly disappearing before neat, and often hand- 
 some erections of brick and stone. Lord Portman has 
 built good cottages at Pimperne and Durweston. The 
 Eai'l of Ilchester has built much at Evershot, Abbots- 
 bury, &c. ; E. St. Vincent Digby, Esq., at Minterne ; 
 and the Duke of Bedford has entirely rebuilt Swyre. 
 Mr. Williams, of Bridehead, Lord Shaftesbury, Sir E. P. 
 Glynn and others, may be ranked amongst cottage 
 improvers." 
 
 Further testimony to the improved condition of tlie 
 Dorsetshire peasant _ could be adduced, if space would 
 allow ; but enough has been said to prove that he is 
 not now the neglected and demoralised being that he 
 lias been painted. Even the dwellers upon the heath, 
 in their lonely "mud" cottages, have an aspect of 
 omfort and well-being; and if you could see these 
 people in " their Sunday best," in cases where they are 
 within the influence of a resident proprietor — although 
 not actually upon his estate — you would soon confess 
 that their lot is, by no means, altogether unenviable. 
 
 Not but that there are grave exceptions to the 
 growing improvement. These exceptions exist almost 
 entirely in the " open" parishes, in the midst of each 
 of which is to be found an over-crowded, ill-drained
 
 THE WORK OF heform. 89 
 
 village, the houses of which belong to all sorts and 
 classes of owners, and the inhabitants of which have to 
 walk long distances to their work, and then return in 
 the evening to the village beer-shop : here no improve- 
 ment is possible but through strong legislation ; and it 
 is idle to blame anybody or anything but the country 
 at large. Public opinion, based upon an enlighteued 
 sanitary education, is the only lever sufficiently power- 
 ful to work reform. 
 
 Much that has been said of this county applies also 
 to Wiltshire ; and, although there are still some fright- 
 ful instances of neglect, there are also evidences of 
 gradual improvement. A paper on the " AViltshire 
 Labourer," which appeared in the Times newspaper in 
 November, 1872, says, " The cottages now are infinitely 
 better than they were. There is scarcely room for 
 further improvements in the cottages now erected upon 
 estates. They have three bedrooms, and every appli- 
 ance and comfort compatible with their necessarily 
 small size. It is only the cottages erected by the 
 labourers themselves which are open to objection . . . 
 These squatters are the curse of the community. It is 
 among them that fever and kindred infectious diseases 
 break out ; it is among them that wretched couples are 
 seen bent double with rheumatism and affections of the 
 joints caused by damp. They have often been known 
 to remain so long, generation after generation, in these 
 wretched hovels, that at last, the lord of the manor 
 having neglected to claim quit rent, they can defy him,
 
 90 THE PEAS.VXT's HOME. 
 
 and claim them as their own property, and there they 
 stick, eyesores and blots, the fungi of the laud. The 
 cottages erected by farmers or by landlords are now, 
 one and all, fit and proper habitations for human beings ; 
 and I very believe it would be impossible throughout 
 the length and breadth of Wiltshire to find a single 
 bad cottage on any large estate, so well and so 
 thoroughly have the landed proprietors done their 
 work." This seems a highly-coloured picture, but I 
 have no reason to doubt that it is fairly true. Mr. 
 Norman's report to the Commission of 1867, with 
 reference to Wiltshire, is a perfect cyclopaedia of the 
 art of cottage management ; and contains plenty of 
 proof that the subject is a matter of thoughtful study 
 amongst the principal landowners in that county. It 
 may be invidious to mention names amongst so much 
 general effort at improvement; but the estates of Lord 
 Ailesbury, the Earl of Pembroke, Mr. Sotheron-Estcourt, 
 and Earl Nelson seem to have given especial pleasure 
 to the Assistant Commissioner, whilst many smaller pro- 
 prietors had within the last twenty or thirty years spent 
 a good deal of money and time on improved cottages. 
 
 As we get nearer the metropolis, in our view of the 
 dwellings of the rural poor, it is not surprising that we 
 find their appearance more favourable, and the con- 
 dition of the inhabitants (with some exceptions) more 
 comfortable. And it would appear, from Mr. Van- 
 couver's report to the Board of Agriculture,* seventy 
 
 * Agricultural Survey of Hampshire, 1810, p. 70 et seq.
 
 THE "WORK OF EEFORil. 91 
 
 years ago, that at that date the county of Hampshire 
 presented a contrast with respect to those farther west, 
 as the following extract will show : — " This county 
 seems generally to be much better supplied with com- 
 fortable dwellings for the peasantry than many others 
 in the kingdom, much attention being paid by most 
 of the country gentlemen to this important point of 
 accommodation and improvement on their respective 
 estates ; but those whose exertions were most par- 
 ticularly noticed in the progress of the tour, were those 
 of Mr. Bramston, of Hall Place ; Mr. "Wade, of Puck- 
 nell ; Colonel Mitford, of Exbury; and Mr. AVakefield, 
 of Andover." The writer gives plans and descriptions, 
 which we have not space, at present, to reproduce; 
 and he proceeds to describe the improved appearance 
 of the country in consequence. Of the Isle of "Wight, 
 he says, there are but few farms " that have not cot- 
 tages attached to them These cottages, as 
 
 well as the farm-houses, are built with brick, and the 
 different sorts of building stones, with flints, as before 
 mentioned ; the latter materials being often rough-cast, 
 and the brick-work whitewashed, not only contribute 
 to tighten them against the force of the south-westerly 
 storms, but also to give an air of much neatness, and 
 greatly to diversify and increase the natural beauties 
 of the country. Tile, but most frequently thatch, is the 
 covering of these cottages. They are all neatly plastered 
 and whitewashed in the inside. Their construction, 
 in respect to the disposition of their apartments, is 
 various ; their floors are either of brick, old ship-plank,
 
 92 THE peasant's home. 
 
 or lime aslies mixed with pounded chalk ; and arc 
 geuerally so uuiaevous as seldom, to become double- 
 tenanted Upou the whole, the peasantry of the 
 
 Isle of Wig'ht seem to enjoy as much real comfort as 
 can well be expected to comport with their station in 
 life, and the duties necessarily connected with it." 
 
 Later accounts are similar in character. A Report 
 on the farming of Hampshire, in the year 1861, speaks* 
 of general improvement in labourers' dwellings ; and 
 mentions Mr. Chute, of Vyne Earm, in South Hants, who 
 had built new farm-houses and cottages over the whole 
 of his property. *' He keeps the cottages in his own 
 hands, though he may consult the tenant of the farm 
 as to the occupiers of the cottages on it." At Hursley, 
 cottages are built " whenever required. They always 
 have three bed-rooms each, though the labouring poor 
 are hardly as yet educated up to this additional accom- 
 modation, which is often abused, and a lodger taken 
 in witliout leave, against rules. A few cottages are 
 handed over to the farmer for the use of his yearly 
 servants ;• but all the rest are under Sir Wm. Heath- 
 cote's own control, although the convenience of the 
 farmer is often considered by the landlord," Mr, 
 Portmanf (1869) specially mentions (of those which 
 he visited) the estates of Lord Eversley, at Heckfield, 
 and Lord Henry Scott, at Beaulieu, as presenting most 
 pleasing instances of progress ; on the latter of these. 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, XXII., p. 267. 
 t Report, p. 42.
 
 THE T?:ORK OF REFORM. 93 
 
 the cottages liave " living-room, scullery and pantry, 
 and three bed-roons ; 20 perches of garden, pigstye, 
 privy, etc., at a rent of one sliiUing per iveek ! " But, 
 indeed, nearly all the well-to-do proprietors in this 
 county have taken part in the general improvement of 
 the rural districts. 
 
 In the counties of Kent, Surre}', and Sussex, the 
 principal obstacle to the proper housing of the la- 
 bourer would seem to be overcrowding. The outskirts 
 of large towns like Maidstone, Horsham, Hastings, &c., 
 are largely inhabited by rural labourers, who conse- 
 quently have to walk long distances to work ; and it is 
 in these suburbs that so many houses are found filled 
 with an overflowing population, whose chief difficulty, 
 so to speak, after earning the money for the rent, is to 
 find a place to live in. The Commissioners of 1867 
 give very bad accounts on this score ; and Mr. Stan- 
 hope seems to look very unfavourably upon the cottages 
 generally in the larger villages of Kent. It is certain 
 that the lower-class dwellings in the rural parts of these 
 counties have generally been built of fairly durable 
 materials; but the inevitable result of a deficiency in 
 number is, that the villages become tainted with immo- 
 rality. The remedy for much of this would appear to 
 lie at present with the establishment of Cottage Build- 
 ing Societies ; and it is probable that, even in the few 
 years that have elapsed since Mr. Stanhope wrote, 
 great amelioration has resulted. The Central Cottage 
 Improvement Society of London alone has furnished 
 its models and plans to upwards of forty places in Kent
 
 94 THE peasant's home. 
 
 and Surrey. With, respect to the more strictly rural 
 parts of these counties, the chief proprietors have 
 built numbers of model dwellings : the Duke of Eich- 
 mond, Lord Lecoufield, and Mrs. Vernon Harcourt, 
 in Sussex, are mentioned by Dr. Fraser with special 
 approval.* 
 
 There are some secluded parts of Hertfordshire which 
 present an aspect that can only be considered as very 
 discreditable to the county ; at the same time that laud- 
 able steps are being taken towards reformation. It is 
 not uncommon to see two contiguous villages, one of 
 which betrays tokens of serious neglect while the other 
 is a picture of comfort. The Hertford Cottage Build- 
 ing Society! has been the means of improving the 
 dwellings, not only in the neighbourhood of that town, 
 but also in the more rural parts of the county ; and 
 Mr. Culley (1869) + bears testimony to many improve- 
 ments which appeared on his visit. In Watton dis- 
 trict, "the best cottages are in the parishes which 
 belong to Mr. Abel Smith;" on Earl Cowper's estates 
 they were, "generally speaking, good." At Staple- 
 ford, the cottages " are first-class. No lodgers are 
 allowed, unless by special permission " At Sandridge, 
 " they are improving." InHitchin Union, " the worst 
 are in the back lanes of towns such as Baldock and 
 
 * Report, p. 39. 
 
 + Reports quoted in Labourer's Friend Journal, passim. 
 
 X Report II., p. 120.
 
 THE WORK OF REFORM. 95 
 
 Hitchin In Codicote the cottages are very 
 
 good ; and Mr. Hancock is building very good ones at 
 Willian." 
 
 The counties of Oxford, Bucks, Berks, and Bedford- 
 shire remain to be noticed. To Mr. George Culley, as 
 Assistant Commissioner of 1867, we are indebted for 
 very full and careful notices of the cottage accommo- 
 dation in these counties ; and he reports a most de- 
 plorable state of things in some districts. Some of the 
 evidence upon which his Eeport is founded is simply 
 revolting [^e.cf., at Kidliugton, Oxfordshire,* in one of 
 the small thatched cottages "there sleep in the small 
 bed-room father and mother, two grown-up sons, two 
 grown-up daughters, three little children ;" at Steven- 
 ton, Berkshire,-]- " eleven old thatched cottages of the 
 very worst description, near the railway station, by the 
 side of the brook, which drains any filth washed into 
 it, and sewers, to make the tea of the inhabitants "]. 
 Mr. Culley's general remarks bear out the view which 
 this paj^er has taken, that, as a rule, small freeholders 
 and sj)eculators are to blame ; although there are some 
 instances where " as bad specimens as any " are to be 
 found, which belong to (non-resident) landowners. 
 He sums up with the following : J — -" It is a great mis- 
 fortune for the agricultural labourers in these counties, 
 that so small a proportion of their cottages belong to 
 the chief landowners ; when they do, there is somebody 
 
 ♦ Evidence II., p. 342. t Ibid, p. 398. 
 
 X Report I., p. 132.
 
 96 THE peasaxt's home. 
 
 to care for the manner in wliich tlie poor are housed — 
 somebody to be ashamed of a bad state of things — 
 somebody upon whom the j^ressure of public opinion 
 may be brought to bear. When they do not, the 
 labourer has either to rickle up a miserable hut for 
 himself, or pay an exorbitant rent for a house in 
 which the ordinary decencies of life become a dead 
 letter." 
 
 Of Oxfordshire, Mr. Culley says: — "The cnttnges 
 and their surroundings are best cared for in Stanton 
 Harcourt, Kirtlington, Nuneham, Sherburn, and Swyn- 
 combe, all of them close parishes, and lying under the 
 eye of a resident landowner.* 
 
 Of Berkshire " the cottages are good, and provided 
 with all necessary conveniences, in Ardington, West 
 Challow, Farnborough, Lockinge, Buckland, Coleshill, 
 Pusey, Englefield, Sulhampstead, Shaw, and Bear- 
 wood. In all of these the cottages belong to the land- 
 owners ; and, except in West Challow and Farn- 
 borough, are immediately under the eye of the 
 owner." f 
 
 Of Bedfordshire: — those villages "in which the 
 cottages are best, and the poor most cared for, are 
 Husborne Crawley, Tingrith, Biddenham, Cardington, 
 Cople, Melchbourne, Oakley, Turvey, Silsoe, and 
 Southill." In Buckinghamshire, they are Aston, Clin- 
 ton, Halton, Chilton, Botolph and Middle Claydon, 
 Shalstone, Great Brickhill, and Chenies — all of them 
 
 * Report II., p. 93. t Hcport II., p. 94.
 
 THE "WORK OF EEFORIT. 97 
 
 villages in wliich the cottages belong to the land- 
 owners ; and all of them, except three, lying as it were 
 at the door of the owner."* 
 
 Now, all this agreeable state of things is not en- 
 tirely the work of our own days. On the contrary, 
 much of it is the growth of a century of care and 
 thoughtful attention on the part of successive holders 
 of the land. Take, for example, the last three Dukes 
 of Bedford, and the work they accomplished in agri- 
 cultural improvement. Wherever they had the oppor- 
 tunity upon their estates in various parts of England, 
 of improving those estates, a principal item was the 
 providing good accommodation for the labourer. And 
 the same may be said of numerous others. The Agri- 
 cultural Survey of the Board of Agriculture f records 
 several important efforts which were made, towards 
 the close of the last century, to remove the reproach 
 ■which existed upon these counties with respect to the 
 housing of the poor. And, in our own days, very 
 great improvements have been made. Lord Radnor, 
 in Berkshire, has rebuilt the village of Coleshill, erect- 
 ing " houses replete with comforts, of most tasteful 
 elevations, and surrounded with adequate garden- 
 ground." Elihu Burritt speaks of the cottages 
 in this village as exceeding " in size, comfort, 
 elegance, and in every other requisite for a dwell- 
 ing, anything I have yet seen, for an annual rent 
 
 * Report I., p. 132. 
 
 f Agricultural Society of Berks, 1809, p. 73. 
 
 H
 
 98 THE peasant's home. 
 
 of £5." The same gentleman speaks in a similar 
 strain of some cottages at Woburn, built by the last 
 Duke of Bedford, "for £6 a year, such as would rent 
 in our New England manufacturing villages at from 
 fifty to sixty dollars."* Sir Harry Verney, Lady 
 Cowper, Mr. John Walter, Colonel Lindsay, and others 
 mentioned by Mr. Culley, not only build superior 
 dwellings for their labourers, but carefully study the 
 conditions of their letting, and the relations between the 
 labourer and his immediate employer, besides the pro- 
 vision of suitable allotments, where sufficient garden 
 ground is not available. f One of the most remarkable 
 and praiseworthy instances of devotion to this good 
 cause, which I have myself observed, occurs at the 
 village of Turvey, in Bedfordshire, on the north-western, 
 border of the county. This village has, within the last 
 twenty-five years, been entirely rebuilt by the land- 
 owner there, Mr. C. L. Higgins, and a more delightful 
 picture of neatness, comfort, and solidity in the appear- 
 ance of the houses, or of the decency, happiness and 
 cheerfulness of its inhabitants, it would be impossible to 
 conceive. Bishop Fraser says| there is ground for 
 hoping that, twenty-five years hence, the villages of 
 England will present a more pleasing picture to the eye 
 of the traveller than they do now. I would recommend 
 any gentleman who wishes to try the efi'ect of a strong 
 contrast upon his mind, as to what is and what ought 
 
 •" Walk from London to the Land's End," London, 1865. 
 t Report I., p. 133. t Report, p. 39.
 
 THE "WORK OF REFORM. 99 
 
 to be, and what ought not to be, to run down to Turvey 
 and inspect it for himself, and having done so, pass 
 through the fields to Newton Blosaomville. Its situ- 
 ation on the banks of the Ouse will attract him ; the 
 venerable church will arrest him for a minute, but the 
 village street will appear to him the most depressing 
 and revolting sight, all the more so that the force of 
 good example close by has failed to produce its legitimate 
 fruits. The cottages huddled up together, with pigstyes, 
 privies (what there are of them), and back -yards in one 
 intricate mass of confusion ; the children dirty, the 
 people sordid and hungry-looking ; a great mass of 
 filth and neglect, in one of the most fertile spots of a 
 GREAT and PROSPEROUS COUNTRY. If Dr. Praser's hope 
 is to be realised, it is clear that there must be outside 
 compulsion in some quarters, or we shall still have, 
 generation after generation, squalid Blossomvilles at 
 our doors that would do discredit to countries like 
 Turkey or Persia. 
 
 A suitable illustration, of the permanent benefit which 
 results from well-founded plans for adding to the com- 
 forts of the poor, is to be found in this county, and a 
 short reference to it may fitly conclude our sketch of 
 the gradual reformation which now appears upon the 
 face of English rural life ; I allude to Cardington, a 
 village lying about three miles south-east from Bedford, 
 with which the names of John Howard and Samuel 
 Whitbread are inseparably connected. Mr. CuUey 
 visited this place,* and reports one bad cottage ; other- 
 
 * Evidence I., p. 501.
 
 100 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 wise there is "good accommodation in every respect, 
 with a rood of land" attached to each dwelling, the 
 cottages being mostly the property of the landowner, 
 who is careful in the management of them. The visitor 
 to Cardington, whether brought there by interest or 
 by curiosity, will have his attention arrested long before 
 he reaches the village, by the aspect of neatness and 
 durability presented by the cottages which he passes ; 
 indeed, for several miles southward it is rare to come 
 across any deficiency in this respect. Many of these 
 dwellings will be noticed bearing the initials S.W., 
 with a date somewhere between 1789 and 1806, and 
 are the fitting memorials of Mr. Samuel Whitbread's 
 enlightened efforts to improve his estate, and the con- 
 dition of the people living upon it. But, some twenty 
 years before this, John Howard had come to reside upon 
 his small patrimonial estate at Cardington, and the 
 inhabitants of the village soon had reason to perceive 
 the advantage of his coming to dwell in their midst. 
 He rebuilt many of the cottages, and insisted that they 
 should be kept clean ; and they were kept clean and 
 neat, because they were capable of being so. He dis- 
 couraged idleness, and provided facilities for education ; 
 visited the poor in their homes, and gave them that 
 personal sympathy and advice without which much of 
 his work would have been unavailing. The village, at 
 this day, has the aspect of having been, at some time 
 or other, " improved " by a careful and resolute hand ; 
 for there are few places in this part of Eqgland which 
 look so neat and orderly, although more than a century
 
 THE RURAL L.U30URER IIT HIS MODEL HOME. 101 
 
 has elapsed since the improvement began. It is true 
 that years are leaving their mark upon the structure 
 of the houses, and even their plans and arrangement 
 would now be considered obsolete ; but the effect of 
 having replaced the abodes of poverty and wretchedness 
 by new and wholesome dwellings, and of instructing 
 their inhabitants in the art of being " clean, comfortable, 
 and happy," has been of the most lasting character. 
 I should have been glad to append to these remarks 
 some notice of the actual construction, the cost, etc., 
 but at this distance of time it is impossible to obtain 
 such particulars ; those were not the days when people 
 cared much about model cottages. There is one na- 
 tural, and very cheering, reflection which we can make, 
 however : If a village and its people can be so per- 
 manently altered for the better, by the conscientious 
 and resolute mind of one man, what will be the effect 
 upon England after the lapse of another century 
 — at the commencement of which we see it to be 
 the rule and not the exception, that "property" is 
 awake to its urgent responsibilities, and to its manifest 
 duties ? 
 
 III.— THE RURAL L.\BOURER IX HIS MODEL HOME. 
 
 It has not escaped the notice of writers upon the 
 condition and prospects of the poorer classes, that 
 there is a great difference between the peasantry of 
 the north and of the west and south-west of England.
 
 102 THE peasant's HOME, 
 
 Canon Girdlestone goes so far as to say that the con- 
 trast is * ' almost inconceivable : nothing less than the 
 difference between plenty and starvation, between life 
 and bare existence." * The accuracy of this view is 
 pretty well guaranteed by the unanimous voice of all 
 who, by personal inspection or the study of official 
 reports, are in a position to judge. The rural la- 
 bourer in Lincolnshire, in Kent, and in Surrey, knows 
 little (comparatively speaking) of the privations which 
 beset his brother in Dorset and Somerset : and the 
 sturdy, abstemious peasant of Northumberland has a 
 general character for sobriety and physical power of 
 endurance, which, placed beside that of the beer- or 
 cider-drinking labourer of the south, tells immeasurably 
 in his favour. 
 
 Now, I do not think that the causes of this great 
 disparity are far to seek : they appear to me to be 
 bound up, in great measure, with Gauden Allotments 
 and Drink; and it will be perfectly useless, in any 
 part of England, to attempt to raise the peasant — 
 either through improved dwellings or higher wages — 
 without at the same time, 1st, restoring him to the 
 and (as it is now-a-days called) by making him the 
 holder of an allotment, or adding a garden to his 
 cottage; 2ndly, teaching him the proper position of 
 Beer in relation to his animal economy. 
 
 Every rural labourer should be provided with suf- 
 ficient garden-ground, on which at least the whole of 
 
 * MacmillarCs Magazine, July, 1872, p. 258.
 
 THE EURAIi LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 103 
 
 his year's supply of vegetables can be grown. The 
 evidence is overwhelming, in proof of the benefits 
 derivable from the extension of the allotment system ; 
 and it is highly probable that its increase (not only in 
 rural, but also in suburban districts) has more to do 
 with attaching the poorer classes to their homes than 
 any other outside influence whatever. A cottage-garden 
 not only gives to the labourer a profitable resource for 
 the employment of his leisure time, but his family, to 
 the youngest member, has a share and an interest in its 
 cultivation — "there, under father's eye, the children 
 make their first rude essays." In the garden are objects 
 constantly presented which remind its co-oj)erative 
 possessors of the little plans and notions which they 
 have formed together ; objects upon which they can 
 look with the pride of ownership, and with the natural 
 pleasure derivable from the results of honest labour. 
 The garden is a great school of nature to the children 
 of the poor ; there they first learn the secrets of sowing 
 and gathering ; there they first appreciate the obvious 
 and unerring connection between toil and profit ; there 
 they learn the innumerable lessons to be derived from 
 watching the patient hand of Nature, in her work of 
 watering the earth, and making it bring forth plant 
 and fruit. The value of order, of patience, of industry, 
 of watchfulness, are taught within the limits of the 
 cottager's garden ; and in short, the possession or non- 
 possession of a garden frequently makes all the difi'er- 
 ence between a peasant whose mind " oscillates between 
 dulness and low joys," and another whose mind is im-
 
 104 THE peasant's home. 
 
 proved, whose intelligence is sharpened, whose soul is 
 elevated, and whose heart can learn the first principles 
 of contentment. As Mr. Cowper-Temple said on one 
 occasion* — " The feelings of possession which are 
 given to labouring men have sometimes produced most 
 remarkable changes in their whole character ; the sense 
 of their responsibility, and the delight that arises from 
 being able to speak of a bit of land as belonging to them- 
 selves — when they can talk of ' my potatoes,' and ' my 
 j)eas,' and 'my beans' — it gives a new current to their 
 thoughts, and is often the commencement of that self- 
 respect which one likes to see in their character, and 
 particularly in those who are likely to be degraded and 
 lowered by the circumstances in which they are placed." 
 One great means, then, of ameliorating the condition of 
 the rural labourer, is to be found in the simple occupa- 
 tion of tending the garden that adjoins his home. The 
 beer and ale-house question is one that we are all too 
 sadly familiar with. From the judge to the street- 
 preacher, all voices unite in deploring the abuse of 
 beer, and in execrating a system which permits the 
 prodigal establishment of beer-shops. It seems as if 
 it were impossible to say anything new about this 
 subject, and as if we must still sit down, with arms 
 a-kimbo, and murmur something about "the curse of 
 the country," and the public houses bringing more 
 ruin and disgrace upon the lower classes than all 
 other causes of mischief whatever. 
 
 * Seventh Annual Meeting of the Labourers' Friend Society.
 
 THE RtmAL LABOITEEB, IN HIS MODEL HOME. 105 
 
 Yet, if we can say nothing- new, I wisli to put upon 
 record my firm opinion that, in rural districts, the most 
 antagonistic element in relation to the beer-shop is 
 the cottage garden. All persons "wlio are intimately 
 associated with the poor, give unqualified testimony to 
 this fact ; and in those places where the most improved 
 moral tone is displayed, in the character and daily con- 
 duct of its inhabitants, it is almost invariable that the 
 hours of leisure devoted to the garden have proved the 
 most valuable ally both to the clergyman and to the 
 schoolmaster. 
 
 It is, perhaps, worth while stating here that Bishop 
 Eraser considers that drunkenness is decreasing rather 
 than increasing, in almost every part of the country 
 •which he traversed while in the execution of his duties 
 as Assistant Commissioner in 1868. " Young men," he 
 says, "are observed to care less about beer and more 
 about dress. They like to have a suit of cloth clothes 
 for Sunday, a watch, a well-bound Church service, and 
 so forth : .... of course money spent on these objects 
 is so much drawn from the capacity and the inclination 
 to spend money on beer.* 
 
 Mr. Elihu Burritt, the learned blacksmith and agri- 
 culturist, who has made long tours in England, when 
 visiting this country, is unable to suppress his frequent 
 astonishment at the absurd place which beer holds in 
 the estimation of the British artizan and labourer : and 
 
 Rc])ort, p. 43.
 
 106 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 I cannot forbear quoting the following passage from 
 one of Ms books :* — 
 
 ' ' The preponderance of drink, especially among the 
 agricultural labourers in England, is very striking and 
 sad. As a whole, beer must still stand before bread, 
 even before meat, and before both, in many cases, in 
 their expenditures. The man who sat next me, in 
 muddy leggings and smoking coat, was mildly-spoken, 
 quiet, and seemingly thoughtful. He had come for 
 his harvest allowance of 20s. worth of beer. If he 
 abstained from its use on Sundays, he would have a 
 ration of about tenpence worth daily. That would buy 
 him a large loaf of bread, two good cuts of mutton or 
 beef, and all the potatoes and other vegetables he 
 could eat in a day. But he put it all into the jug 
 instead of the basket. Jug is the Juggernaut that 
 crushes his hard earnings in the dust, or (without 
 the figure) distils them into drink. Jug swallows up 
 the first-fruits of his industry, and leaves basket to 
 glean among the sharpest thorns of his poverty. Jug 
 is capricious as well as capacious. It clamours for 
 quality as well as quantity ; it is greedy of foaming 
 and beaded liquors. Basket does well if it can bring 
 to the reaper the food of well-kept days. In visiting 
 diifferent farms, I have noticed men and women at 
 their luncheons and dinners in the field. A hot mutton- 
 chop, or a cut of roast-beef, and a hot potato, seem to 
 be a luxury they never think of in the hardest toil of 
 
 * " Walk from London to John o' Groat's."
 
 THE KUEAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 107 
 
 harvest. Both the meals I have mentioned consist, so 
 far as I have seen, of only two articles of food, bread 
 and bacon, or bread and cheese, and this bacon is never 
 warm, but laid upon a slice of bread in a thin cold 
 layer, instead of butter, both being cut down through 
 with a jack-knife into morsels when eaten. Such is a 
 habit that devours a lion's share of the English 
 labourer's earnings, and leaves food, raiment, and 
 housing to shift for themselves. If he works by the 
 piece and finds his own beer, it costs him more than 
 he pays for house rent, or for bread, or for meat, or 
 for clothes for himself and family. If his employer 
 furnishes it or pays him commutation money, it 
 amounts, for all his men, to a ta.^: of half-a-crown to 
 the acre for his whole farm." 
 
 This eloquent passage ought to be printed in large 
 type, and distributed broadcast throughout the land. 
 It tells vividly a true tale, and might, at least, set some 
 of our friends thinking, when there are such sober 
 times as will give opportunity for refl.ections. 
 
 It has been too much the fashion, for many years 
 past, to represent the rural labourer as of inferior 
 mental capacity to other classes in society : that he is 
 almost invariably possessed of the lowest tastes ; and 
 that his connection with the soil naturally debases him. 
 It is thoughtlessly considered at the same time, as 
 though it were a compensatory law of things, that the 
 pursuit of agriculture requires the smallest intelligence 
 in the peasant, while it demands a wiry, sinewy frame.
 
 108 THE PBASATCT's HOME. 
 
 The slow, and often stammering' speecli of the peasant 
 is often compared with the glib tongiie of the town 
 artizan, to the discredit of the former (even philologists 
 have been at the pains to compute that the average 
 vocabulary of the agricultural labourer contains only 
 500 words !), and he is habitually underrated, as though 
 his lot, of the hardiest toil and the most monotonous 
 livelihood, must necessarily quench his humanity ; and 
 his comparative exclusion from social advantages bring 
 him nearer to the conditicn of the cattle which he 
 tends. 
 
 Now, in such views and similar ones, I cannot give 
 the smallest acquiescence. The darker shades of human 
 character are oftener to be found in people removed 
 many degrees above the peasant in the social scale, 
 who have had the advantages of education and of good 
 example, all their lives long. The stolid exterior 
 usually manifested in the rural labourer, which has 
 misled his urban critics, is only the work of nature's 
 gracious hand, sufficiently hardening his sensibilities, 
 and enabling him to meet the severities of his lot. We 
 do not call the sailor deficient in intelligence, because 
 his landward manners are ungraceful, because his 
 speech is strange, because his weather-beaten frame 
 betokens a special calling in life ; then, \yhy sneer at 
 the rural labourer's speech and manners, because 
 they do not come up to our standard ? Why should we 
 suppose that there can be no law of progress for him? 
 Is it fair to imagine that a workman at a lathe, or at a 
 spinning-jenny, in a shoe-warehouse, or even at a
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOilE. 109 
 
 printiug-j)ress, lias better scope for Lis intellectual 
 powers (merely because he has a newspaper and an 
 Institute close at hand) than the rural labourer ? The 
 comparison seems to me altogether unjust; and when 
 once we see Education fairly within the reach of the 
 rural peasant, once again we shall see a race of men 
 upon whom we may rely for the renewal of England's 
 youth. The main vices of the English peasantry are — 
 drunkenness among the men, and unchastity with the 
 women ; and when the simple-minded, at last, generally 
 discover that an unnecessary pint of beer means a yard 
 of land swallowed and wasted, and that purity is the 
 jewel of life to either sex, not only to be praised by 
 parsons and extolled by poets, but because its pos- 
 sessor's "strength is as the strength of ten," then may 
 we hope for a development of his natural qualities, to 
 which his present conditions are, it must be admitted, 
 very often extremely unfavourable. For, what are 
 those conditions ? I will describe them, as they are in 
 many cases, by quoting the following graphic picture, 
 drawn by Sir A. H. Elton, of Glevedon, Somerset, which 
 appeared in the "Agricultural Gazette " for the year 
 1833: — "Home has no attractions for the young 
 labourer. When he goes there, tired and chilly, he is 
 in the way amidst domestic discomforts ; the cottage is 
 small, the children are troublesome, the fire is dimi- 
 nished, the solitary candle is lighted late, and extin- 
 guished early ; he treads on the children amidst an 
 explosion of screams, is perpetually taking his father's 
 chair by the chimney corner, and frequently leaving
 
 110 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 dirty thumb-marks on the linen his mother is getting 
 up for the squire's lady. If he goes to bed early, his 
 elder brother, who sleeps with him, awakes him an 
 hour after, with a kick; if late, he is scolded by his 
 mother for disturbing the four children who sleep in 
 the next bed to his own. He naturally, then, goes to 
 the public-house, where a cheerful fire and jovial society 
 are found, and becomes a loose character, and in a short 
 time is ashamed to meet his clergyman, and then 
 becomes discontented with him and all his real friends, 
 breaks from all teaching, and falls into habits of coarse 
 self-indulgence." 
 
 This description is severe, while it bears the stamp 
 of truth. Let us hope that it is by no means universal, 
 even in backward Somersetshire. The picture is easily 
 reversed, if the temptation of the beer-shop be removed, 
 and if the fruits of elementary education are shown 
 in the possession of books and other sources of recrea- 
 tion. 
 
 The real conditions of rural life among the peasantry 
 depend so much upon the surroundings of their life — 
 such as proximity to the school and the church (where 
 these two influences are faithfully ministered), the 
 absence of the beershop, and a comfortable home, that 
 our ground of hope for the rural labourer undoubtedly 
 consists in placing these influences within his reach. 
 These are the things in which he cannot help himself. 
 These are the outside influences by which he must be 
 taught to be " clean, comfortable, and happy." And 
 without these we cannot expect him either to be sober,
 
 THE RUEAL LABOTIREE, IN HIS MODEL HOME. Ill 
 
 chaste, or thrifty. The great towns are constantly 
 recruited in numbers by immigration from the rural 
 districts, and if this immigration did not steadily go 
 on, the towns would experience a dearth, of labour which 
 would tell vitally upon their progress ; so, if the con- 
 ditions of rural life are not improved, and are to become 
 as precarious as we know the conditions of life are 
 among the poor in towns, the prospect of national 
 decay is clearly in view. 
 
 But, what are the natural advantages on the side of 
 the rural labourer ? 
 
 In the first place, his very occupation provides a 
 mental stimulus. The work of sowing, and reaping, 
 and garnering, year after year, has in it so much need 
 of observation and of patience, that his earliest years 
 bring him into contact with the silent processes of 
 nature. His daily exposure to the changing seasons 
 gives him an insight into their action upon the produce 
 of the field. He tends the domestic animals, and knows 
 their habits and instincts by heart. The soils of dif- 
 ferent parts of his native district, and often of adjacent 
 fields, are necessary objects of concern to his mind. 
 His cottage-garden is his solace and his pride. 
 
 Then, secondly, his daily life in the open air — other 
 things being granted — renders him the healthiest man 
 in the community.* His frequently-overcrowded dwell- 
 ing, the ofttimes unwholesome locality in which that 
 dwelling is situated, and his own ignorance of sanitary 
 
 * Iseison's Vital Statistics, pp. 46 et scq.
 
 112 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 matters, still leave liim witli a far more favourable 
 expectation of life than any dweller in the towns. 
 
 Again, to the younger labourers especially, the very 
 pleasures of the poor are in their favour. In Sussex 
 and Hampshire, particularly, almost every peasant is 
 a born cricketer ; and this, or some other sport, through- 
 out England, furnishes means of healthy and rational 
 recreation. 
 
 Now, these advantages can be enjoyed only to the 
 most limited extent by the mechanics in towns. And 
 if we admit a comparison between the possible con- 
 ditions of the rural peasant and the urban labourer, 
 so much in favour of the former, how greatly superior 
 •will it become, when we have given him everywhere 
 a comfortable home, the means of intellectual improve- 
 ment as the result of a better education, schools for 
 his children, and the art of providing against the 
 rainy day ! Then, -we shall have servants that can be 
 trusted, and who are proof against the first breath of 
 temptation : then, we shall have a new generation of 
 mothers, in which a large jDroportion are not slatterns 
 and gossips : then, we sliall have recruits for our army 
 ■who are not the offscouring of society : then, we shall 
 have a prudent, provident, and moral race of English- 
 men. Prudent, because they have begun to learn that 
 vice is incipient ruin ; provident, because they have 
 discovered that low wages and poverty are not always 
 convertible terms ; moral, because not only that the 
 lessons of morality are within their reach, but that 
 the effect of those lessons is visible in a Home from
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 113 
 
 ■which insobriety and unchastity have been banished 
 for ever. 
 
 Let us now consider, shortly, the constitution of the 
 reformed home of the rural labourer— a home in which 
 morality will be practised, because possible ; a home in 
 which the decencies of life may be observable, even 
 with the poorest peasant ; a home that shall cast a ray 
 of promise upon the future of our country. Wherever 
 it has been attempted to work reformation in our rural 
 districts by means of improved dwellings, it has almost 
 invariably had the desired effect. Bishop Fraser saj's* 
 "all bear witness to the benefits being dii*ect, rapid, 
 general. The drunkard begins to find a better way of 
 spending his time and his money; the slattern becomes 
 a notable housewife ; the habits and dress of the chil- 
 dren indicate the difference that has taken place in the 
 tone and circumstances of the home. The greatest 
 arrears of civilisation are where the domiciles of the 
 
 people are squalid and neglected Vain, saj^ the 
 
 clergy, are churches and schools, till the people are 
 provided with better homes." And all the evidence 
 adduced by this gentleman and his colleagues is to the 
 same effect : that a dwelling constructed upon sound 
 and regular principles, with proper accommodation for 
 the conveniences of life, with the conditions of health 
 and sanitation carefully studied, and with a garden 
 added, produces an immediate change in the habits and 
 tastes of the occupiers, with very rare exceptions. 
 
 * Itcpo7-f, p. 41. 
 
 I
 
 114 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 Where there are exceptions, as in the case of persons 
 who have too long led a debauched and semi-idle life, 
 it is generally found that at least the children of such 
 parents show an indication of the benefits arising from 
 improved dwellings. Slovenly and dirty habits, con- 
 tracted in a low hovel, are not easily eradicated, even if 
 the disposition to improve is manifest. Yet, even with 
 this admission, the effect of a reformed home is very 
 perceptible upon the rising generation. To give sepa- 
 rate sleeping accommodation for the sexes, and to 
 pi'event the indiscriminate reception of lodgers, have 
 an incalculable effect upon the moral tone of a family ; 
 and to attain these ends is the first aim to be pursued 
 in giving the peasant a better home. This is a point 
 which we must keep constantly in view, in the con- 
 sideration of our subject : all the ideas of model cot- 
 tages which may be in our minds must be dismissed 
 unless they offer the conditions possible for a model 
 home. The author of " Healthy Moral Homes"* de- 
 scribes an improved Scotch cottage of the year 1806, 
 which he justly calls "a hot-bed of disease and im- 
 morality," for it cannot possibly fulfil the conditions 
 we require. 
 
 What, then, oiight we to consider deserves the name 
 of a model cottage ? 
 
 There are numerous shades of meaning in the word 
 model; we shall, perhaps, be pretty near the mark if 
 we take it to mean (for our present purpose) something 
 
 * Loudon, Longmans, 1S63.
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 115 
 
 to be copied, or imitated, ou account of its intrinsic 
 value. Not to be copied or imitated because it is easier 
 to copy than to invent, nor to be copied because the 
 rest of the world copies it, according to some current 
 fashion ; but because, as in the case of a dwelling- 
 house, it has — (1) been designed to contain within 
 itself all the requisites of a suitable habitation for man; 
 and (2) because it has stood the test of experience. 
 Let us, then, look at the subject in this light, and con- 
 sider what are the requisites of a model cottage, now 
 that we have concluded our review of some of the 
 endeavours which have been made in various parts of 
 the country to provide better houses for the rural 
 poor. 
 
 In the first place, it is possible, with the exercise of 
 a little ingenuity, to reproduce, upon a small scale, all 
 the accommodation necessary for a decent bringing-up 
 of a family, which is to be found in most houses belong- 
 ing to the lower middle classes. A living-room ; a 
 cooking-room, or bake-house ; a jpantry and three bed- 
 rooms ; an outhouse, under the roof of which are a 
 privy, a dusthole and a piggery : are indispensable for 
 the comfort of every family (in rural districts), rich or 
 poor, and it is only a question of the size of the house 
 and the materials of which it is constructed (involving, 
 of course, its cost), as to what kind of occupier it is to 
 have. 
 
 Secondly, a dwelling must be dry. For this object a 
 ground-floor must be at least a foot above the surface 
 of the ground, and, if the soil beneath is retentive of
 
 116 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 moisture, artificial means must be adopted by the 
 application of concrete or aspbalte, to secure dryness in 
 the foundation. Numerous plans are in use to prevent 
 the rising of damp in the walls, and there is therefore 
 no excuse, in our days, for neglecting proper precautions 
 on this important detail. Rheumatism and ague are 
 among the greatest enemies to the welfare of the rural 
 labourer, and the importance of a dry habitation to the 
 preservation of health and strength is universally 
 admitted. Yet, how habitually are these considerations 
 neglected ! Cottages are frequently built in wet and 
 damp situations, on the edges of bogs and marshes, 
 without a thought of the danger to their future occu- 
 piers ; such dwellings are simply furnished refrigerators. 
 Let us bring the matter home to ourselves, once more, 
 by this illustration : Mr. Edwin Chad wick once stated,* 
 before a party of .members of the Society of Arts, that 
 common bricks would absorb as much as a pound (a 
 pint) of Avater; "consequently, a cottage of one-brick 
 thickness in the walls was capable of holding 1.500 
 gallons of water when fully saturated." Why, "a fully- 
 saturated " cottage would draw the natural heat out of 
 a dozen successive families inhabiting it, before its 
 deadly work of evaporation had ceased. 
 
 Thirdly, as to Warmth. — This point is allied to the 
 last, but besides evaporation, there are other well-known 
 means of producing a chill. Smoky chimneys, which 
 necessitate a frequent draught of air, ill-fitting windows 
 
 * Journal of the Society of Arts, July 30th, 1869.
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 117 
 
 and doors, badly-arranged staircases, all contribute 
 tlieir share of this form of discomfort. And yet the 
 causes of such defects are often mere thoughtlessness, 
 and their remedies would add little to the expense of 
 construction. For one thing, I would have no rural 
 cottage built without either a porch (or a double door) 
 in the front, and a screen to the back-door (unless 
 sheltered by an out-house). Doors, fire-places, and 
 staircases, all require suitable positions with respect to 
 the rooms ; and it costs very little to add a rotatory 
 chimney-top, where such contrivance is necessaiy 
 through the imperfections of the shaft. Then, how 
 negligently is often the roofing completed : or if fairly 
 done in the first instance, the first steps of decay 
 omitted to be arrested ! In a thatch roof, which is 
 admitted to be the least heat-conducting one, and 
 therefore the warmest in winter and the coolest in 
 summer, the birds soon build their nests, and play 
 insidious havoc with the material, until the helpless 
 inmates find at last that there is almost as little shelter 
 beneath as would be provided by a well-branched 
 tree : so easily are comfortable conditions rendered 
 uncomfortable by small neglects. The same omis- 
 sion to repair incipient defects in slate or tile roofs 
 produces similar effects upon the comfort of a house- 
 hold. 
 
 Tiles give a more equable temperature to the inte- 
 rior of a house than slates, although they are not 
 equal to thatch ; but I suppose that slates, from their 
 smaller cost, and the greater facility that there is for
 
 118 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 obtaining and for working' them, will continue as our 
 staple roofing-material. The use of asphalted felt, 
 however, is now so generally understood, in mini- 
 mising the heat-conducting qualities of slate, that there 
 is no excuse for disregarding the question of warmth 
 through the roof, except on the score of expense. It is 
 as well to observe, however, that this material is a 
 dangerous element in case of fire. 
 
 Fourthly, as to Ventilation. One great source of 
 exposure to attacks of sickness, and to the premature 
 debility so common among the rural poor, is their 
 ignorance upon this subject. They have an undying 
 hatred of fresh air. Leave them to build their own 
 cottages, and they are certain to construct closed 
 windows ; and, where they are provided with proper 
 facilities for opening and shutting them, such provision 
 is generally nullified by their total disuse. And, as to 
 the use of the nose as a sanitary agent, that useful 
 organ might as well be a wooden one to thousands of 
 persons (even among those Avho, by education, may be 
 supposed to know better), for all practical purposes. 
 And, besides such an obvious error as leaving the 
 windows hermetically sealed, plans of houses are often 
 so faulty that in one or more rooms is to be found a 
 kind of cell of stagnant air, which can neither be re- 
 moved by opening the doors and windows or by lighting 
 the fire. 
 
 Now, there are numerous schemes of ventilation, and 
 new notions are frequently made public. But with two 
 or three leading principles kept in mind, most small
 
 THE RUKAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 119 
 
 houses can be kept with a wholesome current of fresh 
 air. That unexpected obstacles to proper ventilation 
 occur even in well-designed houses, everybody knows. 
 Not everybody, however — nor even many persons, seem 
 to know that the air which one has breathed cannot be 
 breathed again; or that, as Miss Nightingale says,* 
 " once insure that the air in a house is stagnant, and 
 sickness is sure to follow." So sickness does follow, 
 because the poor unfortunate inmates will have six, 
 eight, or ten persons daily confined in a space which 
 is only sufficient for the occupation of one. 
 
 Fifthly. Not less important than the foregoing, but 
 still less understood, is the question of Light. Few 
 persons in any station of life seem to be fully aware of 
 the beneficent functions performed by sunshine. Au 
 Italian proverb says : " Where the sun shines the physi- 
 cian never comes." A dark room, or a dingy room, is 
 both unhealthy and dispiriting ; and the frequent de- 
 formity, and deficiency iu intellect, which is apparent 
 with the inhabitants of some secluded mountain-valleys, 
 can have only one leading cause, viz., the pai'tial or total 
 absence of sunshine. We all know the delight of a 
 convalescent upon his being allowed to see once again 
 the sunlight upon the fields. We know the effect of 
 sunshine upon the vegetation of the opening year, and 
 upon the ripening fruits of summer. Is it not upon 
 record, even, that potatoes placed in a partially dark 
 cellar have been found after a time moved towards a 
 
 * " JS'otes on Nursing."
 
 120 THE PEASAIsVs HOME. 
 
 corner upon which, the sunlight streamed ? The value 
 of a good light upon and in a dwelling is incalculable ; 
 yet it is frequently disregarded. As a rule, the front 
 door should open southerly — not necessarily due south, 
 but south-east or south-west ; in fact, by adopting 
 one of the latter positions, the sun may shine upon 
 every side of a cottage during some portion of the 
 day. 
 
 Besides these five leading considerations, there are 
 numerous matters which are of hardly less importance. 
 Take, for example, a proper supply of water. I am 
 quite sure that the poor suffer horribly, and far more 
 frequently than we are aware of, from a scanty supply 
 of water. To a mother with the smallest idea of what 
 is decent and proper in the matter of cleanliness, it 
 must be peculiarly distressing to have to use the water 
 of a polluted stream, or of a stagnant pond, for culi- 
 nary and drinking purposes. But they have to use it. 
 All over England — for want of a general system of 
 storing rain-water, or because somebody's pocket has 
 been against providing wells — a large majority of the 
 poorer classes are dependent upon ponds and brooks. 
 And it makes one's heart ache to hear rich and 
 pompous mill-owners say (as one did only the other 
 day), that rivers were made to carry away refuse and 
 sewage. If there is anything that lies at the door of 
 this country on the score of the death and disease of 
 her sons and daughters, it is the reckless, wicked way 
 in which water is wasted. All our great towns are 
 crying out against river-pollution (most of which has
 
 THE EURAL LABOURER I:N HIS MODEL HOME. 121 
 
 grown within the last quarter of a centui'y), as a new 
 source of infection and disease ; but those great towns 
 have, at least, their water-companies, and can obtain 
 something like pure water to drink ; but who is to 
 listen to the poor villagers upon the river-bank, who 
 have no other source from which to obtain water, 
 either for washing or drinkinfi: ? 
 
 No " model " cottage can be fitly called so, that does 
 not possess a tank for rain-water, and ready access to 
 an adjacent well; perhaps it would not be too much to 
 say that every back-kitchen ought to be supplied with 
 a pump ; water is one of the things that the poor 
 seldom or never waste. The trouble and difficulty, 
 and, often the impossibility, of procuring it, no doubt 
 accounts for that. On the chalk-hills of Kent, during 
 seasons of drought, water is a very expensive article ; 
 ■whilst beneath the surface lies a never-failing store of 
 the purest and the wholesomest water known — a store, 
 however, which might as well be in the moon for all 
 the use it is to its possessors. Only, because it would 
 cost too much to bring it up from the bowels of the 
 earth ; and the ratepayer must be considered. 
 
 Then another matter, very inadequately understood, 
 not only by poor and ignorant persons, but by the 
 presumably well educated, is the proper destiny of 
 refuse. People often say, with a light mind, that dirt 
 is only "matter in its wrong place;" but very, very 
 few are the efforts made to replace it. And then 
 many, who do know a little better than their neigh- 
 bours, are so terribly delicate. The sight of a dust-
 
 122 THE peasant's home. 
 
 heap or the aroma of a manure-heap are too much 
 for their nerves. Only get it out of sight, they say. 
 
 Well, get it out of sight, but put it where it will 
 serve its purpose ; return it to that soil whence it 
 came. And, in the cottage, nothing is easier, if there 
 are suitable means of doing it provided for the purpose, 
 than to guide every atom of refuse to its proper des- 
 tiny, viz., restoring it to the soil. 
 
 For this purpose, the privy and the ash-heap should 
 be so combined, that, while at a sufficient distance from 
 the dwelling, they may be so handy that there can be 
 no excuse for neglecting their use ; while they are so 
 contrived, that the occasional operations of cleansing 
 and removal may be performed with despatch. The 
 best plan is, to place the ash-heap immediately over a 
 manure-tank, just behind the privy — so that sufficient 
 ashes may be let into the tank from time to time. The 
 combination of the ashes and the manure will be 
 far less offensive to remove ; and, what is quite as 
 important, provide a rich dej)0sit for the garden 
 crops. 
 
 We cannot expect the poor to appreciate earth- 
 closets, while the general public so tardily acknowledge 
 their value ; but I believe the day will come when 
 nobody will endure a water-closet any longer. I hope 
 the day will soon come, when there is no foolish town 
 left that pollutes a river with its sewage, instead of 
 depositing it upon the exhausted ground. It is on 
 record of one large and very populous town, that it was 
 tired, or ashamed, of seeing its sewage emptied in
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 123 
 
 dribblets into the noble river which runs through its 
 midst, and committed the astounding folly of collecting 
 it into one or two large streams at a tremendous ex- 
 pense, so that it might run away in a lump ; and all 
 because the said town was not clever enough, or not 
 bold enough, to turn its refuse off to some hungry soil, 
 where it could be properly utilised ! 
 
 In addition to these requirements, the rural labourer 
 must have a tool-house and a piggery attached to his 
 dwelling. The pig is of supreme importance to a cot- 
 tager, and often enables him to pay the rent, besides (if 
 he is tolerably fortunate, and manages well) providing 
 bacon for a large portion of the year's consumption. 
 But a piggery must be properly constructed, and placed 
 in a suitable part of the premises, or it becomes a 
 nuisance, and is unhealthy, and the stock is far less 
 profitable to its owner. 
 
 Lastly, a garden is indispensable to the comfort, 
 the happiness, and the general welfare of the rural 
 labourer, and of his family. His dwelling cannot be 
 said to be complete without it — for the garden is part 
 and parcel of his Home. I have already dwelt upon 
 the direct and indirect benefits to the peasant of a piece 
 of garden-ground ; and I will only add here, that it is 
 cruel and selfish to deny it him; and it is even an open 
 question as to whether it is not altogether unjust. 
 
 The interior arrangements of modern cottages are 
 often very defective, and sometimes show an absence 
 of practical experience in the designer, which renders 
 them uncomfortable, although they may have all the
 
 124 THE peasant's home. 
 
 requisites of light, ventilation, and warmth. The poor 
 are notoriously unwilling, as a general rule, to ex- 
 change their old roomy dwellings for these new ones. 
 They have been accustomed, perhaps, to one spacious 
 living-room in which stood one or two beds, which, 
 however, did not greatly diminish the ample space re- 
 maining. They often care very little for up-stairs bed- 
 rooms, involving as they do a narrow staircase, which 
 is especially troublesome to the aged ; and, as a shep- 
 herd of Northumberland said to Mr. Henley,* "Hew 
 is the mother to cook the dinner, and look after a sick 
 bairn when it is up-stairs ? She is always on the stairs. 
 Some people would say that the upstairs rooms are 
 more healthy. They would nae say so if they would 
 try them in the cold of the winter." Then the old big 
 room was so comfortable, from its having everything 
 handy ; the people have a habit of keeping almost the 
 entire stock of household utensils and furniture in the 
 living room, as the traditional picture of the cottage 
 fireside tells us so plainly. 
 
 When a family has to move into a decent home, con- 
 structed on modern principles, all their little traditions 
 and superstitions are thrown overboard ; they have to 
 learn the lessons of decency, and of order, in the proper 
 disposal of their children at bed-time, &c., &c. ; they 
 have to learn why there is a scullery, and why there is 
 a tool-house ; and, in Scotland, most of the peasantry 
 have even to learn the use of a i^rivy. So, in the pro- 
 
 * Commission (1867) Report I., p. 66.
 
 THE RTJEAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 125 
 
 viding a new cottage for an ignorant and obstinate 
 labonrer, whose wife has been bred uj) in the notions 
 of her grandmother, it is perhaps as well to endeavour 
 to arrange rooms and fixtures in such a way that the 
 habits of half a lifetime may not be rudely broken in 
 upon. One thing that is often omitted, for example, 
 is a proper supply of cupboards and shelves in the 
 living room (or large kitchen) of the new house ; an- 
 other is the absurdly small size of the living-room, as 
 though the new occupants only wanted a parlour or 
 "best room." I have dozens of plans in my possession 
 procured from many sources, and there is scarcely one, 
 I believe, that is not deficient in this respect.*-' The 
 principal room should be, at the least, fifteen feet 
 square ; and I would rather see it used as a bed-room 
 for the husband and wife than diminish its size for the 
 sake of giving them a small separate room. The most 
 generally appreciated arrangement is one large sitting- 
 room, a back-kitchen or scullery, and two bed-rooms. 
 Most pei'sons who furnished evidence to the Assistant- 
 Commissioners of 1867, concur in this difficulty of satis- 
 fjdng the taste and predileciions of a family removed 
 into a new house ; and it would be as well if those pre- 
 dilections were a little more considered than they 
 are. 
 
 * Excepting as regards Northumberland, where the living room is 
 sometimes sixteen leet square, and even more. Vide Henley, £vi- 
 dence I., pp. 221, 261.
 
 126 THE peasant's home. 
 
 Having got so far, we must not forget that our 
 Model Cottage is incomplete unless the inmates have 
 some practical acquaintance with the art of keeping 
 their dwelling clean and tidy. It will happen, in some 
 cases, that the new occupants have been kept from tidiness 
 by the wretched character of their previous home, but 
 that the change of condition has worked an immediate 
 improvement in daily habits, as though by magic. An 
 instance is given by Mr. CuUey, in his Report on 
 "Wigtonshire, of an Irish drainer, who " had long 
 occupied a mere hovel, which he kept in a filthy con- 
 dition," having no sooner been made occupant of a 
 respectable two-roomed cottage than " a marked change 
 took place in his habits and appearance ; not only was 
 his new abode kept scrupulously clean, but the man 
 himself was transformed from the lowest type of an 
 Irish cotter into a decent and well-conducted agricul- 
 tural labourer." 
 
 Now it is here that the jDersonal help and sympathy 
 of his so-called betters may be exercised on behalf of 
 the rural labourer. Having obtained his new cottage, 
 his capacities for self-improvement are immeasurably 
 increased. His social education may be said then to 
 commence. He learns, for the first time in his lite, 
 that self-respect is the foundation of any respect which 
 he may wish to obtain from others. He sees that a 
 ragged and slovenly interior is not compatible with 
 the neat exterior of his house ; that his slatternly wife 
 and unkempt children must now partake of the cha- 
 racter of his dwelling, or become a reproach to his
 
 THE RURAL LABOURER IN HIS MODEL HOME. 127 
 
 fellows. But he sees it in most cases, probably, be- 
 cause it is pointed out to him. It will sometimes 
 happen that all the fruits of example, and all the 
 efforts of benevolence, are thrown away upon the in- 
 corrigible, and that a radically bad family will continue 
 to poison its social atmosphere ; but that bad example, 
 unfortunate in itself, will prove a beacon to the care- 
 less ; and when a man finds that the effect of spending 
 his wages properly, avoiding the public-house parlour, 
 sending his children to school, taking a pride in his 
 garden, not onty increases his comfort, but raises his 
 importance and his credit with his neighbours, he will 
 natiu'ally be led to see that the thoughtful kindness of 
 the hand that has given him a better home is worthy 
 of some regard, for the sake of the advantages and the 
 comforts which he may now give to himself and to his 
 family. 
 
 I think, therefore, that the benefit of personal 
 sympathy between a landlord or a farmer and his 
 peasantry cannot be over-rated ; and that the im- 
 provement resulting from better dwellings can be, 
 without it, only partial. The education which we are 
 now trying to give to the agricultural labourer will 
 be only one-sided if it is to be confined to the three 
 E's. The traditions of rural life must still be main- 
 tained, and nothing ought to be allowed to destroy 
 the sense of mutual relationship by which each class 
 in turn has to rely upon the others for counsel and 
 assistance.
 
 128 THE peasant's home. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 It will scarcely be denied by any thoughtful person, 
 that upon a numerous and contented peasantry rests, 
 to a very great extent, the future welfare of this 
 country. 
 
 " A bold peasantry— their country's pride, 
 "When once destroy'd, can never be supplied ! " 
 
 We cannot, therefore, afford to remain ignorant of, or 
 indifferent to, the fate of that class of society. The 
 drain of the rural population by emigration, and by 
 their absorption into towns, has been going on with a 
 steady course for the last half-century ; and, were it 
 not for the greater powers of reproduction which 
 would seem to belong to the peasantry above the 
 dwellers in towns, it is possible that we should ere 
 now have seen a considerable diminution in the 
 number of persons available for the labours of agri- 
 culture. 
 
 With all her greatness, and glory, and ostentation 
 of factory and iron-clad, it is not safe to assume that 
 England's existing civilization is altogether a condition 
 of present or future stability. For what is that con- 
 dition from the social stand-point ? At one end of the 
 scale, society is represented (by the daily press) as 
 increasing in wealth to an extent and with a rapidity 
 unknown in times gone by : wealth (usually qualified
 
 CONCLUSION. 129 
 
 by the epithets prodigious, boundless, &c., &c.,) which 
 ' simply implies the means of scandalous rivalry in ex- 
 travagance amongst its possessors ; at the other end, 
 a draggle-tailed section of humanity, whose life is 
 represented (also by the daily press, so that there is no 
 excuse for ignorance upon the subject,) as a constant 
 effort to keep body and soul together, whose home is 
 such only in name, and whose earthly prospects are 
 supposed to be bounded by the workhouse. 
 
 Now, we might go very deeply into the question, — 
 since the taint of communistic ideas has spread so 
 extensively amongst some sections of the lower classes 
 of the people, — as to whether the poor are ever to 
 " cease out of the land," or whether (on the other 
 hand) a gradual absorj)tion and assimilation of class 
 with class is some day or other to take place, and to 
 blot out all possible social distinctions. We might 
 calculate, time after time, how far it is likely that 
 every rood of ground would maintain its man. We 
 might discover serious portents for our future pro- 
 sperity in the increasing antagonism of class with 
 class. (In point of fact, there are many alarmists on 
 this score, as we all know.) But, at any rate, the dis- 
 content which is too often apparent in persons who 
 are, or think they are, in a subordinate position in 
 life, cannot be considered as a wholesome condition of 
 things ; and now that trades-unionism has touched the 
 agricultural interest, it would be vain to say that the 
 case is not fraught with peril. 
 
 The only proper way of interpreting these things is 
 
 K
 
 130 THE peasant's HOME. 
 
 to go back to first causes. We are reaping the fruits 
 of two centuries of indifference, as well as of a good 
 deal of blundering. The revival of liberty during the 
 past hundred years has been accompanied by too many 
 fearsome, stop-gap notions. It is either your Eadical, 
 with his drastic aims, or your half-hearted Eeformer, 
 who must have his catspaw. People have either given 
 political privileges to the ignorant and venal, or have 
 withheld from the labourer both education and assist- 
 ance, from fear of the inevitable results, viz., the 
 knowledge of good and evil, and of the means of 
 raising himself,* or else have held aloof until other 
 braver spirits have proved that this or that was safe — 
 that this or that would be applauded, and ivould pay. 
 
 We are accustomed to smile at the rabid outcry of 
 some public agitators (although it would be worth 
 while occasionally to consider how much there is that 
 justifies hard words) ; but it is probable that the pro- 
 fessional demagogue has far less power over the British 
 labourer than alarmists would suppose. When some 
 little-minded fellow gets up in his wrath, and rails 
 against the squire and the parson, his ignorance is often 
 palpably evident to his chuckling listeners, however 
 they may applaud him. The habitual reverence for 
 the law which exists amongst all classes in this country, 
 
 * Like Dr. Eudge, who prepared the Agricultural Survey of 
 Gloucester (London, 1807). He would not give a cow to the agri- 
 cultural labourer, and strongly objected to any such schemes for 
 making him independent, as tending to destkot the indis- 
 pensable GKADATIONS OF SOCIETY !
 
 CONCLUSION. 131 
 
 along with the remnant of respect towards superiors 
 ■which lingers (at least outside the towns), form solid 
 obstacles to any great revolution in the relations 
 between the squire and the peasant, and their inter- 
 mediary — the farmer. The career of the Agricultural 
 Labourers' Union furnishes signal proof of this. No 
 one will now regret that the experiment was tried, 
 because not only are the interdependence and the 
 mutual interests of farmer and labourer more firmly 
 established in men's minds, but the labourers them- 
 selves have been aroused "from a state of apathy and 
 torpor, almost amounting to insensibility."'* At the 
 same time few will regret that the strike turned out a 
 failure. It was not the strike in itself that caused a 
 rise in wages, it was the being roused from "apathy 
 and torpor "—the enlargement of the mind consequent 
 upon combination and discussion, and the discovery of 
 the close connection between inefficient labour and low 
 pay, that added a shilling or two to the wages of the 
 rural labourer in the Eastern counties. 
 
 Canon Grirdlestone justly says that " the agricultural 
 interest is the backbone of old England ;" and that 
 " whatever benefits the labourer must benefit the land- 
 owner and the farmer." t One great means of benefiting 
 the labourer has been detailed in the foregoing pages ; 
 and there is plenty of evidence that the landowner has 
 done a good deal towards this end according to his 
 
 * Canon Girdlestone, in Macmillans Magazine, DecemLer, 187-i. 
 t Ibid, July, 1872.
 
 132 THE peasant's home. 
 
 ability ; and that the farmer is generally desirous of 
 having his labourer comfortable, and well-housed. The 
 writer of this paper is not, in the most remote degree, 
 connected with the agricultural interest, pecuniarily ; 
 but he believes, with the worthy gentleman just quoted, 
 that it is the backbone of old England ; and that the 
 interdependence of the three classes into which it is 
 commonly divided, is so manifest, and at the same time 
 so necessary, that whatever helps to strengthen the 
 hand, and improve the condition and prospects of 
 either one, is of vital importance to the welfare of the 
 others. 
 
 Now there some quarters in which these close na- 
 tural relations are imperfectly, or not at all, under- 
 stood ; and there are many persons who imagine that 
 the sole bond left, in our days, between master and 
 servant is : Wages. I think the notion is imaginary ; 
 and although a sordid and mean disposition is some- 
 times visible, both in master and man, there is not a 
 day passes (particularly as to rural labour) upon which 
 the contrary could not be proved. And in such cases 
 where sordidness and selfishness are uumistakeably 
 absent, and the interdependence of master and man is 
 tacitly known, 
 
 " Eloquent, though unexpress'd," 
 
 there is always a definite result in the shape of mutual 
 confidence, kindly attention of the strong towards the 
 weak, good example of the enlightened towards the 
 ignorant, active benevolence of the rich, and grateful
 
 co^rcLUSiON. 133 
 
 service of the poor. The want of frequent personal 
 intercourse between a great proprietor and his tenants 
 is the source of continual loss, both to his estate and to 
 the dwellers upon it : and there is no greater curse to 
 the landed interest of this (or, indeed, of any) country, 
 than the man who fancies that the lands he calls his 
 own are his, and not also for the benefit of the inha- 
 bitants. 
 
 "We must, however, also remember that the poor 
 themselves sometimes display the greatest unwilling- 
 ness in response to offers of sympathy and help, and 
 are inclined to regard a disinterested desire to serve 
 them as evidence of weakness rather than benevolence. 
 
 Still, generally speaking, the early steps in the im- 
 provement of the condition of the rural labourer must 
 come from those above him. They must be under- 
 taken from a principle of duty ; and any view of 
 general improvement which one may have in his mind, 
 which is based upon a desire, first of all, to make it ijcuj, 
 is pretty certain to prove fallacious. That it will pay 
 in the end is not to be doubted ; not directly at so 
 much per cent. ; not on a principle of eye-service, 
 either on the part of the benefactor or of the benefited; 
 but in the resulting moral elevation of both parties, 
 producing, eventually, better work, better feelings, 
 better worldly prospects, and better hopes for their 
 native land.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE COST OF BUILDING LABOURERS' COTTAGES. 
 
 The greatest obstacle to the extensive improvement of 
 the dwellings of the rural poor is, naturally, that pre- 
 sented by £. s. d.; and it is a difficulty that is yearly 
 increasing. And as it is universally admitted by prac- 
 tical minds that cottage-building is almost wholly 
 unremunerative in a pecuniary sense, we can easily 
 understand the anxiety with which landowners approach 
 the subject. It would appear that a first-class labourer's 
 dwelling, i.e., a brick, slated, building, with three bed- 
 rooms, and containing all the conveniences for rural 
 home-life on a small scale, cannot be built for much 
 under £200 ; so that any great steps in improvement 
 can only be undertaken at vast expense. At the same 
 time, it is possible, by studying the requirements of the 
 various classes and conditions of the labouring poor, to 
 provide accommodation sufficient for their wants at a 
 considerably lower estimate. There will always be 
 persons (chiefly old couples) to whom a two-roomed 
 cottage is a necessity, because a large one of four rooms 
 would be a useless burden to them ; and there will be 
 cases in which a small cottage is far preferable for a 
 young labourer and his wife, because unnecessary house- 
 room would expose them to the temptation of bidding 
 for lodgers. There is a very general wish, however, 
 that the model dwelling should contain three bedrooms,
 
 136 APPENDIX, 
 
 and there is little doubt that the cottage of the future 
 will be generally upon this basis. 
 
 The cost of building cottages is subject to several 
 leading variations, occasioned by the varying quality of 
 materials, distance, and cost of cartage, wages, and 
 locality. A distance of two or three miles will some- 
 times cause an increase of ten to fifteen per cent, in the 
 cost. I have been told by a practical builder that he 
 could not give me an estimate without first knowing 
 something of the proposed locality in which the cot- 
 tages were to be erected. Mr. John Birch, architect, 
 (on an occasion to which we shall presently refer) men- 
 tions a pair of cottages which cost, in Surrey, £400, 
 but a builder in Hampshire undertook the same for 
 £320. Perhaps the most curious illustration of this 
 difficult matter of cost is furnished by some correspon- 
 dence which appeared in the Builder newspaper, in the 
 year 1865, shortly after the Society of Arts had awarded 
 a prize for the best plans. The stipulated price was 
 £100 per cottage ; but Mr. Birch, who took the prize, 
 was actually unable to get them built for the money ; 
 one tender which he received reaching the sum of £312 
 per pair. Mr. Eobert Sinclair, engineer-in-chief to the 
 Great Eastern Bailway, who required some cottages 
 built near Bishop Stortford, obtained six tenders (from 
 three London and three country builders) ranging from 
 £397 to £527 per pair ! 
 
 A great deal of valuable information upon this 
 subject was obtained in the year 1873 by a Select 
 Committee of the House of Lords upon the Improve- 
 ment of Land. As all the world knows, the cost of 
 building reached a very high figure two years ago ; 
 and most of the witnesses examined before that Com- 
 mittee dejiosed to the serious increase which had
 
 APPENDIX. 137 
 
 recently become evident. Since 1873, however, prices 
 have somewhat receded, and it is probable that the 
 estimates of to-day would not exceed those of eight or 
 ten years back. 
 
 The following notes are taken from the evidence of 
 some of the gentlemen who appeared before the Com- 
 mittee alluded to. 
 
 Mr. George Ridley (an Inelosure Commissioner), said 
 that cottages cost £300 a pair ; that £10 a-piece might 
 be saved by building a row of them ; at the same 
 time, £300 would not always cover the labour, carting, 
 etc. ; and (at the pei'iod of his examination) prices had 
 so advanced, that a pair would nearly cost £400. The 
 cost of building cottages was somewhat lower in Scot- 
 land, because it is often the case that stone is near at 
 hand. Apphcations to the Commissioners had not 
 diminished on account of the increase in cost. 
 
 Mr. Bailey Denton, C.E., and Mr. J. Chalmers 
 Morton, submitted that the cost had risen from £300 
 to £330 and £350 a-pair. 
 
 Mr. H. W. Keary (land-agent at Bridgenorth), con- 
 sidered that the high prices were exceptional, but 
 thought that a pair could still be built "with judgment 
 and economy," for £300, but '^ with his own artificers.'''' 
 In these cottages Mr. Keary put three bed-rooms and 
 two bed-room^ "with a contrivance that the fifth 
 bed-room can be added either to the one or the other," 
 a contrivance that would save about £25 ; hollow walls 
 would increase the cost £10 or £20 ; and there would 
 be included an earth-closet, or privy, and a shallow 
 well. A very deep well would cost £50, Such cot- 
 tages would cost only £250 four years previous to that 
 date (1873). 
 
 Mr. James Girdwood (agent for improvements), had 
 found the cost in Buckinghamshire £350 to £375 
 a pair.
 
 138 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mr. John Henry Turner (agent for Lord Bristol), 
 had recently built two pairs of cottages, one costing 
 £315 and the other £267. 
 
 Mr. James Sanderson (land agent), had built some 
 single cottages (with 14-inch walls, stone or brick), in 
 Northamptonshire, for £130, "exclusive of carting ;" 
 but they would be "a little more expensive now." 
 
 Mr. John Birch deposed that cottages, under the 
 requirements of the Inclosuro Commissioners, would 
 cost £380 to £400 a pair. This amount might be 
 reduced £20 or £30 " by operating on small items 
 throughout." The accommodation would consist of 
 three bed-rooms, one living-room, and a scullery ; coal 
 and wood-house, privy, and piggery ; oven, washing- 
 copper, and drainage ; a tank, a well, a linen-closet, 
 shelving, and cupboards. 
 
 Mr. James M'Lean (land-agent, Wigtonshire), had 
 built double cottages for £150, exclusive of carting of 
 materials. 
 
 Mr. George Hope (farmer, East Lothian), said it 
 would cost at least £150 to build a substantial cottage, 
 with two bed-rooms. 
 
 The most recent testimony, however, which has been 
 published concerning the cost of cottage building, is 
 contained in Mr. Wilkinson's book on English Country 
 Houses (Parker and Co., London and Oxford, 1875) ; 
 and it would appear, from his experience, that this 
 kind of improvement cannot be given within such 
 limits of cost, as to give any expectation of its be- 
 coming remxmerative, in a pecuniai-y sense. Mr. Wil- 
 kinson says that " a pair of good cottages, each with 
 living-room, scullery, pantry, three bed-rooms, and out- 
 building for coals, wood, oven, etc., and water supj)ly ; 
 and where all materials, labour, and carriage have to 
 be provided, will not cost less, under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, than from £300 to £350 ; and the same pair
 
 APPENDIX. 139 
 
 may cost £400 to £450. Cottages with two bed-rooms 
 each will cost from £240 to £300 per pair ; and cot- 
 tages with one bed-room from £80 to £120 each 
 
 These estimates are based on the assumption of good 
 materials being used, and good workmen employed in 
 building them." And where there are reported cases 
 of anything being done much cheaper, he says that it 
 is generally found, upon enquiry, that either the cartage 
 of the material was done by the landlord, and the 
 lime, or sand, found upon the estate ; or else that 
 proper outbuildings and offices were not provided, and, 
 perhaps, a pump and sink not embraced in the cost. 
 
 From all this it is clear that enormous difficulties lie 
 in the way of the very best-disposed owners of pro- 
 perty, in endeavouring to reform the dwellings of the 
 peasantry, unless they possess ample resources ; es- 
 pecially when we hear of a case (mentioned by Mr. 
 Charles Eandell, before the Lords' Committee), in 
 which £8,000 had been spent upon one estate,* in ad- 
 ditions to, and repairs of cottages, with a result of an 
 increase in the rental of only £8 17 s. 
 
 * In SuflFolk, see Edinburgh Review, Jan., 1875. 
 
 E.IXON & Abnolu, Printers, 29, Poultry, E.G.
 
 February, 1876. 
 
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 MILITARY BOOKS. 19 
 
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 22 ORDNANCE SURVEY PUBLICATIONS. 
 
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 ORDNANCE SURVEY PUBLICATIONS. 23 
 
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 ORDNANCE SURVEY PUBLICATIONS. 25 
 
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 26 MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
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 EDWARD STANFORD, 55, CHARING CROSS,
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SXTRVEY. 27 
 
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 METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE PUBLICATIONS. 29 
 
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 (North).-CURRENTS and SURFACE TEMPERATURE 
 
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 METEOROLOGY of the NORTH ATLANTIC. Report to 
 
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 30 METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE PUBLICATIONS. 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN.-ON THE WINDS, &c., of the NORTH 
 
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 (Soiith).-CHARTS SHOWING the SURFACE TEMPE- 
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 CYCLONES in the SOUTHERN INDIAN OCEAN.-NOTES 
 
 on the FORM of CYCLONES in the SOUTHERN INDIAN 
 
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 INSTRUCTIONS in the USE OF METEOROLOGICAL IN- 
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 Being a Report to the Committee of the Meteorological Office. By 
 Captain Henry Toynbee, F.R.A.S., their Marine Superintendent. 
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 LEIPZIG CONFERENCE. -REPORT of the PROCEEDINGS 
 
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 MARITIME METEOROLOGY.— EEPOET of the PROCEED- 
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 METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE PUBLICATIONS. 31 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL DATA for SQUARE 3 -CHARTS of 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL DATA for S(2UAEE 3. Lat. 0"— 10'' N., 
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 QUARTERLY WEATHER REPORT of the METEOROLO- 
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 ROUTES for STEAMERS from ADEN to the STRAITS of 
 
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 STATION INSTRUCTIONS for METEOROLOGICAL TELE- 
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 STRONG WINDS. -An INQUIRY into the CONNECTION 
 
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 REPORT of the PERMANENT COMMITTEE of the 
 
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 WEATHER TELEGRAPHY AND STORM WARNINGS.- 
 
 EEPORT ON WEATHER TKLEllRAPHY and STORM 
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 32 PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND PHOTOGRAPHS. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEWS of PALESTINE, taken expressly for 
 
 the Palestine Exploiation Fund in 1865, 18G6, 1867. By Sergeant 
 
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