UC-NRLF $B 3Db TSb m>4 ill i iii! l!ii!li ilih GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE BY SUSAN ISABEL FRAZEE PASADENA HIGH SCHOOL AND CHAUNCEY WETMORE WELLS UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1921 All rights reserved COPTRIGHT, 1921 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1921 PREFACE The cynic has remarked that there are but two sorts of person who can profit by the study of formal grammar: a very young person whose speech-habits are unformed, and an older person who has formed bad habits he wishes to correct. For the former, the cynic adds, grammar, being a science, comes too early; what he needs is a good example, practice, and incidental correction, since use gains by use rather than by rule. For the latter, grammar comes too late, since he is either past helping or he must be reformed bit by bit ; he also needs a good example, practice, and incidental correction. Grammar, the cynic concludes, is a useless study. This little book audaciously pretends to be useful to both these persons. But there is another person whose habits of thought no less than of speech are in process of forming; he is enrolled in the upper class of an elementary school, in the lower class of a high school, or in the junior high school, and in beginning his indispensable training in formal composition finds himself baffled by mere problems of correct grammar, and therefore, much hindered in expression. His need is great. Under the illusory title of "English" he is in many cases being taught a mixture of grammar, rhetoric, and litera- ture, with somewhat indefinite ideas on each and no definite ideas at all as to the right relations of one branch to another. Properly enough, composition is being emphasized in his training, but often without any sound instruction in the grammatical functions of words, phrases and clauses in a sentence; structural grammar particularly is being ne- glected. This book is meant for this person especially; it is, so to speak, aimed at his head. V 4G0008 VI PREFACE For this person's sake the authors have tried to distinguish their work by three things: (1) its colloquial manner, (2) its informal method, and (3) its examples. We have written colloquially within the limits set by good taste, in the hope of saying things in words a high-school boy will recognize at least, and perhaps accept as like his own. We have arranged the book as informally as we could without destroying its systematic organization, relegating to the appendices most of the paradigms, outlines, and schemes of analysis, those bugbears of the "young idea." We have phrased the definitions and drawn the distinctions as simply, but as strictly, as possible. Minor distinctions we have put into frequent notes and remarks. Perhaps we have taken the greatest pains with the ex- amples, which are, briefly, of two kinds, the literary and the colloquial. Those who object to using literary examples on the ground that they stimulate a disgust rather than a taste for literature, need only to omit them in teaching. They may at least serve to catch the wandering attention of a browsing boy, and stimulate interest while they emphasize grammatical points, for they are fresh and not hackneyed. The colloquial examples, meant to fill everyday needs, are cast in the terms of everyday speech. The best teachers will go further and supplement if not supplant these examples with those of their own choosing, preferably with those taken from the very words and experiences of the pupils before them. The authors hope that their plan of exemplifying in com- plete sentences will be conscientiously followed. Psycholog- ically nothing can be better to form or to (Correct speech- habits than the practice of definite predication, for by way of predication every sentence states a judgment, and by means of it the pupil may learn to attach correct speech-uses to definite ideas. Secondarily, nothing in grammatical study can be of more direct and constant support to the study of PREFACE Vii composition. Even the study of literature may profit by this practice, since the one fundamental difficulty in understand- ing books is in grasping the central meaning of each successive sentence, and the habit of seeing sentences as essentially subject and predicate directs the mind to the essential and so trains it to distinguish the important from the unimportant. The authors wish to thank Miss Marian Segner of the Pasadena High School, Miss Mary Hill of San Diego High School and Professor E. P. Cubberly of Stanford University for valuable criticism and suggestions. S. I. F. C. W. W. Pasadena, Cal. April, 1921. CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 1 CHAPTER I. Nouns 10 Kinds: Common, proper, abstract, collective 10 Gender 12 Number 14 Case 21 II. Pronouns 32 Kinds: Personal, relative, interrogative, demonstra- tive, indefinite 32 Gender 33 Number 33 Case 33 Correct use 39 III. Verbs 46 The seven distinctions 47 Verbs proper: Transitive, intransitive; Voice 49 Auxiliaries 53 Modes 56 Verbals 60 Tenses 65 Verb-forms 71 Person and Number 73 Principal parts 75 IV. Adjectives and Adverbs 80 A. Adjectives 81 Kinds: limiting, pronominal, descriptive 81 Comparison 86 Care in the use of adjectives 89 iz X CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE B. Adverbs 93 Kinds: simple, conjunctive, responsive 93 Comparison 94 Correct use of negatives 96 V. Prepositions 102 Kinds: simple, compound 102 Correct use 104 VI. Interjections Ill VII. Conjunctions 112 Kinds: coordinating, subordinating 113 Correct use 117 VIII. The Sentence 120 Forms and kinds 121 Clauses and phrases 128 Analysis 135 Appendices: A. Conjugation of the verb 143 B. Analysis 154 C. The Sentence: Essentials, Modifiers 157 D. Parsing 160 DEDICATION Dear Tom: This book is dedicated to you and to Dick and Harry, and to Betty and Polly and Jane as well. Why? Because quite recently each of you has been overheard to say that you "see no sense to the study of grammar." Really? Do you mean that seriously? Perhaps you have heard English called ''the grammarless tongue" by those who should know better. But even you must know that saying to be nonsense except as applied to the prattle of babies or those sign-languages, so called, which are also tongueless tongues. Every language has a grammar, and its grammar should be known by those who use it. Do you realize that your protest amounts to this: *T see no sense in understand- ing the correct use of my mother-tongue" ? Hardly! You probably meant something more like this: ''I see no sense to learning endless rules and fine distinctions about which not one man in ten cares a copper." If pushed to the wall you would probably add, "Oh, of course I don't want to talk like an unlettered backwoodsman, but I don't want to talk like a schoolmaster either." And that would be a very sensible remark. Some teachers in schools (and in colleges no less) appear to set value upon long and strange words and upon long and intricate sentences, seeming to have forgotten, if indeed they ever have known, that language is speech, the common tongue of common men. You have no patience with the "musty schoolroom product" ; and you are right. But let one tactfully suggest that you are in little danger of the latter fault. Of the former? — Well, confess that you xii DEDICATION sometimes catch yourself in blunders you regret and would like to correct. No, it isn't your use of slang you regret, and it isn't that you use nothing but slang, or almost nothing. Of that you are quite unashamed. You know, as everyone knows but the old fogies, that slang is often amusing, " a little time, while it is new," that it is sometimes apt and is always convenient; besides, it shocks the proper person, and that alone is enough to com- mend it to you. But then, slang isn't necessarily '' bad gram- mar" ; a boy may use mountains of slang yet make no error in grammar. True, he is not likely to speak grammatically and slangily too, but he possibly may. What you regret is that every now and then you let slip things you know to be wrong the moment they are out, and that you are confused into saying other things that seem to you "all right" but that somehow bring a light smile to the lips of the well educated, a smile that makes you vaguely uncomfortable, though of course you brazen it out. You know well enough, inside of you, that the men and women you respect most don't talk that way. Only the other day when you were looking for a job (as you put it in good, homely English) you remember how you detected Mr. Robinson, your hoped-for employer, looking curiously at you as he listened; you'd have given something to know just what the mistake was you must have made. And Mr. Robinson's, ''I'll keep you in mind," was rather unsatisfactory. You felt as you walked out the door that you had spoiled your chances by slipshod speech, and you wished with all your heart that you had kept a closer watch over your tongue or had learned a better habit of talking when you were in school. It came over you then that a man can carry a hod, plow a furrow, shingle a roof, drive a car and yet murder the King's English, but that he cannot do DEDICATION xiii so and hope to get forward in the world, run a large business or an office, practice law or medicine or engineering, because people will put him down for an ignoramus. You wondered if there weren't a book some where that would help to set you right. Well, not the best book in the world can surely correct a bad habit; even reading the Bible doesn't always keep people from sinning, apparently. And were this a much better book than we could make, it wouldn't keep your tongue in the strait and narrow way. But if you are prone to stray out of that way — and who isn't — this book can help you to get back into it. There are just two things necessary to mastering anything: the first is to understand it, and the second is to practice it. Yes, we often learn to understand by practicing and .we generally acquire good habits before we understand the reasons for them. It would be possible for you to use your mother-tongue correctly without studying grammar if you were placed where you could always hear it correctly spoken. Even so you would learn it as the parrot learns, by imitation and without knowing why. However, you are not placed where you can always hear the mother-tongue correctly spoken. At home? Well, of course they don't say ''I seen" and " I done." But you know yourself the sort of speech you are used to hearing on the street and upon the ball field, and you know that there too you have learned by imitation speech-habits you would like to un-learn. Now to un-learn (if you will permit the word) you must understand why, and understanding why in the case of language, as in that of any machine or instrument, means knowing the parts themselves and how they fit and work together. Consider! If someone were to give you a six-cylinder touring car on condition that you learn to know all its parts so exactly that you could take the car apart and put it xiv DEDICATION together again correctly, and know just the right name and use and place of every part so thoroughly that you would know what was wrong when the car was out of order; would you refuse because of the work it might require? If you stop to think, it is quite as worth your while to understand your language, the car that carries your thoughts, as it is to understand a touring car. Just as you cannot run and keep in order an automobile without knowing its parts and their relations to the whole machine, so with your lan- guage: you must begin by learning its parts as they fit and work together in the whole sentence, if you are to understand and use the language rightly. And what a language it is! Has that ever occurred to you? Is there anywhere in the world, has there ever been, so good a vehicle alike for pleasure and for use, for poetry and for business? It has been kept going now for more than five centuries pretty much as it is, with alterations, certainly, new devices added and older, clumsier ones taken out; there are always new patents pending. It has withstood an appalling amount of abuse, too, at the hands of bunglers and cheap- jacks, and is in need of continual repairs. Yet the running- gear is in as good order as the best. It has cost something, all this; the total bill if you alone had to defray it would ruin you. Others have paid the costs, and now hand the car along to you. Here it is then, and it is yours to keep and to run. This book is, so to speak, a manual for keeping it in order, so that when you pass it on to other Toms, Dicks, and Harrys, Bettys, Pollys and Janes, they may find it none the worse for your having used it. With sincere regards, Your Friends The Authors. GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE INTRODUCTION Language and Grammar Grammar is one of the several sciences of languages. Philology, the science of the history and construction of language, includes, among others: phonetics, a science of articulate sounds; etymology, a science of the derivation of words; and grammar, a science of the use of words. Grammar is that science of language which defines its parts and states the laws governing their uses in the sen- tence. When thinking men realized that they must understand their language if they were to use it intelligently, they began to study it just as the scientist studied plants and minerals and animals; and just as the botanist learned that all the many thousand plants of the plant world might be divided and classified into different groups and families, so the grammarian found that words might be divided into eight different groups, called parts-of-spee ch. and that the thou- sands and thousands of new words yet to be born into the language would all fit into these groups. Grammar is the working out of this discovery. The Sentence You must of course define the parts-of-speech before you can understand the laws of their uses. To begin with, why 2 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE are tliere eight parts-of -speech, and not seven or nine? Because there are eight several uses to which words can be put in a sentence. But what is a sentence? A group of words so related that they express one com- plete thought is called a sentence. Now not every sentence contains all the eight parts-of- speech. The sentence, John won, states one complete thought with but two parts-of-speech, expressed in two words; the sentence, Oh, how happy we were when we heard of his victory! states one complete thought with eight parts- of-speech, expressed in eleven words. To express a com- plete thought you must use at least two parts-of-speech; you may use all eight parts. To express a complete thought you must use at least two words; you may use ten, twenty, a hundred or more if you can make them work together. The two essential parts of a sentence are: (1) the sub- ject (what you talk about), and (2) the predicate (what you say of the subject). The Predicate There are two kinds of predicate: The simple predicate consists of the verb and nothing else: The letters have-come. The packages have-heen-mailed. The compound predicate is of three varieties: 1. the verb with its object; The postman has-brought (verb) the letters (object). 2. the verb with its complement; My grandfather is-getting (verb) old (adjective-complement); yet he seeyns (verb) young (adjective-complement). INTRODUCTION 3 The Mayor's name is (verb) Smith (noun-complement); he will- become (verb) President (noun-complement). 3. the verb with its object and complement; The people will-elect (verb) Mr. Smith (object) President (noun- complement) . Modifiers and Connectives All the other parts of the sentence are modifiers of the subject, or of the predicate or some part of it, or of an- other modifier, or of the sentence as a whole; or they are connectives: Yes indeed, (modifiers of the whole sentence) the plain (modifiers of the subject) people elected and (connective) reelected Mr. Wilson to (connective) the presidency; the (modifier of the subject) poli- ticians merely (modifier of the verb) nominated him. To know, then, what part of speech a word is: (1) see what is its function or use in the sentence — subject, predi- cate, modifier, connective; (2) see whether the word or that form of the word may be used in that function. In these ways you may know whether it has been correctly, or, as we say, grammatically used. Let us take the following sentence apart, learn of how many different parts-of-speech it is composed, and from their use, classify them: Oh! I wish I could-have-gone with Fred and Richard when they rode from Pasadena to Boston in their touring car. Oh expresses deep feeling and is related to all the rest of the sentence; therefore it is an interjection. / takes the place of a person's name; therefore it is a pronoun. Wish expresses action; therefore it is a verb. / is another pronoun. 4 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Could-have-gone, taken in sum, expresses action, and there- fore forms the verb. With, placed before the names Fred and Richard relates them to could-have-gone; therefore it is a pre-position. Fred and Richard name the boys who rode; therefore they are nouns. And joins the names Fred and Richard; therefore it is a con-junction. When is added to the verb could-have-gone to modify its meaning by showing time; therefore it is an adverb. They takes the place of the nouns Fred and Richard; therefore it is a pronoun. Rode expresses action; therefore it is a verb. From placed before the noun Pasadena relates it to rode; therefore it is a pre-position. Pasadena is the name of a place; therefore it is a noun. T'o placed before the noun Boston relates it to rode; therefore it is a pre-position. Boston is the name of a place; therefore it is a noun. In placed before the noun car relates it to rode; therefore it is a pre-position. Their takes the place of the names Fred and Richard; therefore it is a pronoun. Touring describes the noun car; therefore it is an ad- jective. Car is the name of something; therefore it is a noun. In this sentence we find: 1. Five nouns — Fred, Richard, Boston, Pasadena, car; 2. Four pronouns — I, I, they, their; 3. One adjective — touring; 4. Three verbs — wish, could-have-gone, rode; 5. One adverb — when; 6. Four prepositions — with, from, to, in; INTRODUCTION 5 7. One conjunction^ — and; 8. One interjection — oh! Now let us classify and define each one of these eight parts-of-speech : 1. A noun is a word used to name a person, place, or thing. 2. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. 3. An adjective is a word used to limit or describe a noun, or pronoun. 4. A verb is a word which asserts action, state, or being. 5. An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to modify its meaning. 6. A preposition is a word placed before a noun, pro- noun, or other substantive, to show relation between it and some other word in the sentence. 7. An interjection is a word of exclamation which modifies the sentence as a whole or stands by itself. 8. A conjunction is a connecting word used to join diffierent parts of the sentence. Note, however, that many a word may be used as one part-of-speech in one sentence, and as another partnDf- speech in another sentence or part of the same sentence. A word may be a verb at one time, and a noun at another; an adjective now, and bye and bye, an adverb; even oc- casionally an adjective and presently a pronoun. All depends on its use in the sentence. To arms! (noun) The enemy is upon us. Arm! (verb) The enemy is upon us. Good (adjective) wear (noun) can only be had if you wear (verb) the best goods (noun). 6 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Oh, (interjection) I can't see why (adverb) we have to study grammar! Your ''oh'' (noun) is a word of protest; yoni ''why" (noun) is a word of question. You have done well (adverb) enough (adverb); why not let well- enough (compound noun) alone? Enough (noun) has been done; enough (adjective) harm at least. Some (adjective) people use words as if they were ninepins to be knocked about, but, thank Heaven, there still are some (pronoun) who know better. Expletives Besides their ordinary uses certain words are employed as expletives, or filling-out words; that is, they are not essential to the sentence, but they lend idiomatic or em- phatic force. The sentence: There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip, could as well be written without the first word, there: 'Twixt the cup and the lip is many a slip. Words generally used as adverbs or as pronouns may be used as there was used in the first sentence. In this use they are called expletives. In the following sentences the italicized words are not essential: There is a tide in the affairs of men Which taken at the flood leads on to fortune. It fortifies my soul to know That though I perish truth is so. Practice Recast the following sentences, leaving out the exple- tive, or non-essential, words: 1. It is good to be here. 2. It pays to advertise. 3. There is no use crying over spilled milk. 4. It isn't fair to pay men higher wages than we pay to women. INTRODUCTION 7 5. There is no telling how the next election may turn out. 6. It doesn't matter whether you come early or late. 7. The fear of the Lord, that is wisdom. 8. To be honest, to be kind, to earn a little and to spend a little less, to make, upon the whole, a family happier for his presence, to keep a few friends, and these without capitulation, above all, on the same grim condition, to keep friends with himself — here is a task for all that a man has of fortitude and delicacy. 9. The vacation was-passed very happily, what with sports dur- ing the days, dances and supper-parties during the evenings. Expletives, then, are mere dummy words, grammatical oddities, and not properly parts-of-speech at all. With them set aside there need be no difficulty in defining the eight parts: we have only to note what use is made of the words composing a given sentence, and we can then deter- mine what are the rules governing that use. Practice I. Take the following sentences apart and from their uses classify the different parts of speech: 1. Oh, look! There goes Galbraith Rogers flj^ing over the Mary- land Hotel. He is throwing something down to the people in front of the hotel. Let's run and see what it is. Oh! he is coming nearer. See! he is dropping roses. Hurry! or he'll land before we get there. 2. Pasadena beat San Diego 10 to 7 at football Saturday. Coach Seay said that both sides played a first-class game. 3. The High School float won the first prize in the Tournament of Roses this year. It illustrated "Midsummer Night's Dream." 4. Oh! it was the most beautiful thing I ever saw. Mr. Ely said that he used five thousand carnations and two thousand roses in the design. XL Make sentences using the following words, then classify the words according to the way in which you have used them: 1 . Man — the — boat — race — and — boy — lost — over — hat — two — ten — mile — won — but — board . 8 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 2. When — make — Fred — and — fast — that — Harold — trip — told — about — us — did — you. 3. Threes and up — twos — in — the — flapped — drowsed — their — up — crows — pool — knees — to — by — cattle — knees — over. 4. Thumping — street — heard — a — in — I — and — the — knew — I — it — stumping — was — old — wooden — was — wore — he — leg — our — neighbor — the — of — corporal — the — on. 5. Clang — with — drawbridge — charger — a — dropped — arch — the — surly — through — sprang — dark — and . III. Make sentences using as two different parts of speech each of the following words: Part — deep — mind — board — desert — peal — object — number — pound — command — plain — wound — press — ring — race — fast — man. INTRODUCTION Outline Summary 1. Kinds 2. Fonns Part-of-speech (noun, pronoun, etc.) 3. Uses L 2. 3. I 4. 1. 4. fa- b- c- Into your note book copy this outline and, as you learn the different facts belonging to the outline, fill it out. Make a similar outline for each part-of-speech. CHAPTER I Nouns The first thing you need to know about a noun is what kind of noun it is, for there is more than one kind; the next thing will be to learn its many forais and uses. Kinds of Nouns If you look at the italicized words in the stanza following you will see that while they are all names of things, they differ in the kinds of things they name. Now Rann, the Kite, brings home the night That Mang, the Bat, sets free — The herd is shut in hyre and hut, For loosed till dawn are we. This is the hour of pride and power. Talon and tusk and daw. Oh, hear the call! — Good hunting all That keep the Jungle Law! Four of these words, Rann, Kite, Mang, Bat, are individual names, and are distinguished from the others by beginning with capital letters; they belong to the class that is called proper nouns. A name-word distinguishing an object from the rest of its class is called a proper noun. The word herd, in the third line, differs from the others in that it is the name of a number of objects that taken together are thought of as one. 10 NOUNS 11 A name-word denotmg a number of objects that to- gether are taken as one, is called a collective noun. The words pride and power, in the fifth Hne, differ from all the others in that they do not name objects at all; they name qualities. The word hunting, in the seventh line, names an action. A name-word denoting a quality, action or condition, is called an abstract noun. The other words, home, night, byre, hut, dawn, hour, talon, claw, tusk, call, law, are names conmion to the class to which they belong and are called common nouns. A name-word common to a class of objects is called a common noun. Practice I. Which nouns in the following sentences are proper, which common, which collective, which abstract? 1. The Board of Education called a meeting of the citizens of Chicago to discuss the wisdom of extending the playgrounds. 2. The class voted to accept the invitation of the Chamber of Commerce to visit the exhibit, and authorized the Secretary to write a letter expressing the thanks of the class. 3. The boys called a meeting of the Athletic Club, to decide as to waj's and means for raising money for the new boat house. 4. We met a drove of sheep and a herd of cattle as we were com- ing through the canyon; they were being driven into Los Angeles to be sold. 5. The aviator said that he chased a flock of birds far up in the air, and that the birds spread their wings in surprise and fright when they saw the strange, new bird flying after them. II. Write five sentences each containing at least one proper, two common, one collective, one abstract noun. 12 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE III. In the following selections classify each of the nouns by its kind: 1. An excellent thing to remember, too, in this connection, is that England is a flower garden. In ordinary times, after an Eng- lishman is provided with a roof and four meals a day, the next thing he must have is a garden, even if it is but a flowerpot. They are continually talking about loveliness over there: it is a lovely day; it is lovely on the river now; it is a lovely spot. And so there are primroses in their speech. And then they have inherited over there, or borrowed or stolen, a beautiful literary language, worn soft in colour, like their black-streaked grey-stone buildings, by time; and, as Whistler's Greeks did their drinking vessels, they use it because, perforce, they have no other. The humblest Londoner will innocently shame you by talking perpetually like a story-book. 2. Washington, May 31. — American flyers today completed their journey from New York to England by air. The great feat, accomplished by the NC-4, which arrived at Plymouth this morning, marked the chmax of the navy's systematic experiment to determine the obstacles of trans-Atlantic flying. 3. The other day I went to my garden to get a mess of peas. I had seen the day before that they were just ready to pick. How I had lined the ground, planted, hoed, bushed them! The bushes were very fine, — seven feet high, and of good wood. How I had delighted in the growing, the blowing, the podding! What a touch- ing thought it was that they had all podded for me! When I went to pick them I found the pods all split open, and the peas gone. The dear little birds, who are so fond of the strawberries, had eaten them all. Perhaps there were left as many as I had planted; I did not count them. I made a rapid estimate of the cost of the seed, the interest of the ground, the price of labor, the value of the bushes, the anxiety of weeks of watchfulness. I looked about me on the face of Nature. The wind blew from the south so soft and treacher- ous! All nature seemed fair. But who was to give me back my peas? The fowls of the air have peas; but what has man! Gender The distinction of gender governs all nouns. The name- word, Father, Mother, John, Mary, rooster, hen, etc., generally NOUNS 13 denotes the sex. But some words, parent, friend, chicken, etc., may denote either sex, and other words, wood, stone, water, etc., name objects without sex. Nouns which denote males are masculine in gender. Nouns which denote females are feminine in gender. Nouns which denote either male or female are common in gender. Nouns which denote objects without sex are neuter in gender. Note: — Inanimate objects when personified are said to be masculine in gender if they possess strength or power; if they possess grace, beauty, delicacy, they are said to be feminine. In nearly all cases it is in better usage to make no dis- tinction in such titles of men and women as doctor, poet, author, chairman. When the sex is not known and there is no need to denote it, the custom in using pronouns is to give the preference to the masculine: Every one should do the best he can. If anyone in the room cannot see the board he will please take a front seat. If the distinction of male and female is to be kept, how- ever, the pronoun should indicate it clearly: If any boy or girl in the class did not understand the problem I shall be glad to explain it to him or her at the close of the recitation. In English there are three ways of denoting gender: By changing the endings or suffixes: god, goddess; priest, priestess; shepherd, shepherdess; hero, heroine, By changing the word: man, woman; boy, girl; gander, goose. 14 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE By combining words: billy-goat, nanny-goat; peacock, peahen; man-servant, maid-servant. Practice I. Give the class and gender of each noun in the fol- lowing sentences: The great, old mountain seems to act as a protector over the lovely valley. Men and women and young children are at work in the vineyards among the grape vines which cover acres and acres of the valley. The noon-day sun pours heat down upon them and makes them long for the rest which evening brings. II. Fill in the blanks: 1. If I am to judge by the verses she read me, I certainly con- sider her a true . 2. I know that she is a skillful since she cured my child of pneumonia. III. Write the feminine nouns corresponding to the following words: Bachelor, monk, buck, Emperor, Sultan, Duke, Baron, Earl, Czar, tiger, stag, hart, wizard, drake, host, landlord. Marquis, Abbot. Number Suppose you had bought a ranch and were to make a list of the things you need for furnishing it. These are some you might choose: an automobile, a horse, a saddle, a bridle, a lasso, a pony, a plow, a spade, a rake, a cow, a sheep, a turkey, a goose, an ox; and a man-servant and his wife to do the work. But suppose you were to find you needed more than one of each. You would then have to make changes in spelling the names in your list. NOUNS 15 The form of the noun which shows whether one or more than one object is meant, is called number, A noun which denotes one object is in the singular number, A noun which denotes more than one object is in the plural number. There are many ways in which nouns change their forms to become plural: 1. Most singular nouns form their plurals by adding "s": Singular Plural aviator aviators bicycle bicycles dirigible dirigibles dreadnaught dreadnaughts aeroplane aeroplanes biplane biplanes automobile automobiles horse horses boat boats motor motors 2. Singular nouns ending in a letter or sound which will not unite with ''s" add ''es" to form the plural: Singular Plural match matches box boxes lunch lunches latch latches watch watches class classes 3 (a). Singular nouns ending in *'y," preceded by a vowel regularly form the plural by adding '*s"; (6) those ending in ''y" preceded by a consonant change the "y" to "i" and add "es": 16 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE (a) Singular Plural (6) Singular Plural turkey turkeys navy navies play plays army armies key keys pony ponies donkey donkeys pansy pansies 4. Singular nouns ending in Uf„ ^j. . 'fe" generally form their plurals by changing the > ''f" or ''fe'^ to ''v/' and adding *'es": Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural leaf leaves calf calves knife knives elf elves beef beeves shelf shelves life lives thief thieves loaf loaves staff staves wife wives wolf wolves wharf wharves self half selves halves sheaf sheaves 5. Singular nouns ending in adding (a) ''s" or (6) o" form their plurals by es (a) Singular Plural Singular Plural chromo chromos proviso provisos lasso lassos portfolio portfolios solo solos quarto quartos dynamo dynamos contralto contraltos piano pianos (b) Singular Plural Singular Plural buffalo buffaloes mosquito mosquitoes cargo cargoes hero heroes tomato tomatoes potato potatoes Singular Plural calico caJicDcs motto mottoes negro negroes 6. A few nouns following the Old English custom still form their plurals by adding ''en" to the singular: NOUNS 17 Singular Plural ox oxen child children brother brethren 7. Some nouns form their plurals by changing one or more vowels in the middle of the singular form: Singular Plural tooth teeth man men goose geese 8. Some nouns have the same form in the plural as in the singular: Singular and Plural trout, deer, cannon, grouse, -heathen. 9. Some nouns have plural forms when they are singular in number: aini§, news , p ohtics . maihfiinatics, physic s, etc. 10. Some nouns taken from foreign languages retain the plural forms of their languages: Singular Plural axjs analysis axes analyses oasig thesis elhpsis radius datum oases theses ellipses radii 1 data J (Greek (Latin beau beaux — (. ^'rench) 11. Some nouns may be used in the plural only: measles mumps scales scissors shears stocks tongs trousers tweezers bellows spectacles 18 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 12. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plurals by adding an apostrophe and ''s" ('s) to the singular: as — A's, 6's, etc. 13. Compound nouns form their plurals in three different ways: (a) by changing the final syllable: Singular Plural spoonful spoonfuls dooryard dooryards wagonload wagonloads (6) by changing the most important word in the compound : Singular Plural son-in-law sons-in-law man-of-war men-of-war attorney-at-law attorneys-at-law daughter-in-law daughters-in-law (c) by changing both words of the compound: Singular Plural man-servant men-servants woman-servant women-servants 14. Proper nouns generally form their plurals by add- ing ''s" to the singular: Singular Plural John Johns New York New Yorks When a title precedes the proper name either the title or the proper name may be pluralized: The Misses Smith; or The Miss Smiths. 15. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning: Singular Plural brother (meaning a member of a family) brothers brother (meaning a member of a society) brethren NOUNS 19 Practice I. Make a list to be sent from the War Department ordering not fewer than thirty articles for supplies to equip and provision a company of soldiers. Denote the nouns you use in the singular and those you use in the plural, and give rules for forming the plurals. II. Make a list of not fewer than thirty articles to be sent from the Navy Department as supplies to equip and provision two destroyers. Give rules for plural forms of nouns used in the list. III. Make a list of not fewer than twenty articles for fitting out a large cattle ranch. Give rules for forming plurals of nouns used. IV. Make a list of not fewer than twenty nouns denot- ing articles needed for a camping trip. Give rules for forming plurals of nouns used. V. Make a list of forty articles needed in furnishing a house. Give rules for plurals of nouns sued. VI. Use in sentences and give the rules governing the singular and the plural forms: news radii stratum scissors mathematics sheep man-of-war parenthesis data flock mother-in-law cherub trout tableaux volcano phenomenon VII. Give a recipe for making cake and give rules for forming plurals of all nouns used. VIII. Tell how to make a kite and give rules for plurals of nouns used. IX. Tell how to make a wireless telegraph and give rules for plurals of nouns used. X. Tell the difference between an aeroplane and a dirig- ible and give rules for plurals of nouns used. 20 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE XI. Make out a shopping list for your spring clothes, to cost not more than one hundred dollars nor less than seventy-five. Give rules for plurals of nouns used. XII. Write the plural of: lio chimney cannon poet-laureate disc Hindoo alumna ito baby German hypothesis )o knight-errant Englishman oasis XIII. Choose the correct form, and give the reason: 1. She put two cupfuls (cupsfuU) of sugar in the cake. 2. He played two games of dice (dies) with the man. 3. Tidings was (were) brought to us of the near approach of the party. 4. Athletics are (is) very popular in this school. 5. Politics is (are) his principal subject of conversation. XIV. Give the number and gender of all nouns in the following : Rustily creak the crickets: Jack Frost came down last night, He sHd to the earth on a starbeam, keen and sparkUng and bright; He sought in the grass for the crickets with delicate icy spear, So sharp and fine and fatal, and he stabbed them far and near. Only a few stout fellows, thawed by the morning sun. Chirrup a mournful echo of by-gone froHc and fun. But yesterday such a rippling chorus ran all over the land. Over the hills and the valleys, down to the gray sea-sand. Millions of merry harlequins, skipping and dancing in glee. Cricket and locust and grasshopper, happy as happy could be. Scooping rich caves in ripe apples, and feeding on honey and spice, Drunk with the mellow sunshine, nor dreaming of spears of ice! Was it not enough that the crickets your weapon of power should pierce? Pray what have you done to the flowers? Jack Frost, you are cruel and fierce. With never a sign or a whisper, you kissed them, and, lo! they exhale Their beautiful lives; they are drooping, their sweet color ebbs, they are pale. NOUNS 21 They fade and they die! See the pansies, yet striving so hard to unfold Their garments of velvety splendor, all Tyrian purple and gold. But how weary they look, and how withered, like handsome court dames, who all night Have danced at the ball till sunrise struck chill to their hearts with its light. Where hides the wood-aster? She vanished as snow-wreaths dis- solve in the sun The moment you touched her. Look yonder, where sober and gray as a nun The maple-tree stands that at sunset was blushing as red as the sky; At its foot, glowing scarlet as fire, its robes of magnificence lie, Despoiler! stripping the world as you strip the shivering tree Of color and sound and perfume, scaring the bird and the bee, Turning beauty to ashes — to join the swift swallows and fly Far away out of sight of your mischief! I give you no welcome, not I! XV. Bring in: 1. Five sentences containing masculine nouns whose gender is expressed by combined words, as billy-goat; 2. Five sentences containing feminine nouns denoting gender by change in suffixes, as priestess; 3. Five sentences containing the masculine gender of goose, pea- fowl, bride, mistress, ewe; 4. A paragraph of not less than fifty words containing fifteen nouns that name inanimate objects personified, with the proper gender indicated. Case Besides their distinctions in gender and number nouns have another distinction called case. Note the different ways in which the noun girl is used in the following sen- tences: 1. The girl sang. 2. Mary is the girl. 22 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 3. I saw the girVs flowers. 4. I heard the girl. 5. They made the girl queen of the May. 6. Little girl, you made a very dainty queen. 7. They wanted the queen to be a young girl. 8. They gave the girl some flowers. 9. The flowers were for the girl. 10. Mary, the girl who was made queen, was charming. 11. They asked the girl to sing. In the first sentence girl names the subject about which the verb makes its assertion. In the second sentence girl completes the meaning of the verb and refers to the subject. In the third sentence girl names the person to whom the flowers belong. In the fourth sentence girl names the object which re- ceives the action asserted by the verb. In the fifth sentence girl helps complete the meaning of the verb and at the same time modifies the direct object queen. In the sixth sentence girl is used independently. In the seventh sentence girl completes the meaning of the infinitive to he. In the eighth sentence girl indirectly completes the meaning of the verb by naming the receiver of the flowers. In the ninth sentence girl names the object of the prep- osition for. -, In the tenth sentence girl explains and is in apposition with the subject of the sentence. In the eleventh sentence girl is the direct object of the verb asked and subject of the infinitive to sing. The distinction which shows what part a noun plays in a sentence is called its case. NOUNS 23 There are three cases: the nominative; the objective; and the possessive. The Nominative Case 1. The subject of the verb is in the nominative case: John ran. 2. A noun or pronoun independent by address is in the nominative case : John, come here; oh John! 3. A noun or pronoun that completes the verb and at the same time is identical with the subject is in the same case as the subject; it is called a predicate nominative. Mr. Wilson became President. 4. A noun or pronoun used as the principal part of an absolute phrase (a phrase used independently) is in the nominative case. The dog following me, I went out into the night. 5. A noun or pronoun in apposition with another noun in the nominative is also in the nominative case. Garfield, President of the United States, was a poor boy. A noun or pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or emphasize, but not strictly to modify it, is said to be in apposition. And I, John, (nominatives) saw these things. We, the people, (nominatives) of the United States in order to form a more perfect union, etc. Note: — Sometimes the appositive words are placed at a distance from one another: He was not a very close observer of Nature, Keats (nominative). 24 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE The Objective Case 1. The object which receives the action expressed by the verb is in the objective case: He met the King. 2. The object of a preposition is in the objective case: He spoke to the King. 3. A noun in apposition with another noun in the objec- tive is also in the objective case: He spoke to George V, King of England (objectives). 4. A noun which indirectly helps the direct object to complete the meaning of the verb and at the same time limits the meaning of the direct object is an objective com- plement and in the objective case: They chose John captain of the football team. 5. The subject of an infinitive (see page 61) is always in the objective case : They asked him to sing. The Possessive Case 1. When ownership is denoted the noun is put in the possessive case: Mother sang Tennyson's ''Sweet and Low." The possessive is the only case for which nouns change in form. This change is usually made by adding '*s" pre- ceded by an apostrophe to the nominative singular or plural : The boy's coat was torn. The men's club is just around the corner. 2. A noun or pronoun may be in the possessive case by apposition : My sister Elizabeth'' s house is two doors from my cousin Harry's. NOUNS 25 Note: Only the appositive noun has the possessive sign: My sister's house; my sister Elizabeth's house. Sometimes when the singular noun ends in '*s," or in a hissing sound, the apostrophe without an ''s" denotes pos- session: The princess' feather marked her passage through the crowd. So too when the plural ends in an "s": The boys' coats and hats hung in a row. The sprinters' race was set for two o'clock. Note: Sometimes it sounds better to use the preposition "of" with its object, rather than the more usual possessive form: The sister of the princess wore the feather; rather than The princess' sister. But in such instances be sure that '' of " with its object really means possession: Love of country probably means Love to country; But love of God may mean either: God's love to us, or our love to God. Compound Possessives Groups of words used as one noun, add an apostrophe and "s" to the last word: My sister-in-law's house is just across the way from my second- cousin's. When two or more nouns are used to denote joint pos- session of the same thing, the sign is given to the noun last named; but if the nouns denote separate possession, each must have the apostrophe: Brown and Hart's bookstore is the best in town. Neither Smith's nor Jones' has so good a stock. 26 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Practice I. Write plural possessive forms of the following nouns and use in sentences: lady Wife of Bath merchant man maidservant hero hanger-on valley wife chief Kipling and Stevenson (joint possession) Wilbur Wright and Curtis (separate possession) President Taft and President Wilson (joint possession) II. Write sentences about the following nouns, chang- ing to the possessive form: 1. The dictionaries of Webster and Worcester. 2. The poems written by Kipling and Stevenson. 3. The airships built by Wright and Curtis. 4. The flight made by President Roosevelt in the airship of Hoxey. 5. The stories written by Dickens and Thackeray. III. Tell the kind of noun, the gender, the number and the case. Give reasons for your answers: 1. Harry, the champion sprinter, won the half-mile race. 2. May I use the automobile this afternoon? 3. Harry's skates are on the back porch. 4. Lincoln, the great American, was as modest as he was great. 5. Uncle Jack gave my brother a Shetland pony. 6. Gentleness and strength should go hand in hand. 7. Mary is my cousin. 8. John, the beloved disciple, lived to be very old. 9. Tom, will you wait for Jack? ' 10. Neither Harry's nor Robert's mother knew of the race. 11. Louis XIV's reign was a turbulent one. 12. The book belongs to Mary, the finest girl in the school. 13. He obeyed the Attorney-General's orders. 14. John hit Fred, the httle lame boy. NOUNS 27 IV. Give correct possessive fonns: 1. We study in our class Burke and Webster orations. 2. Is that Harry or John boat? 3. It is neither Harry nor John boat. 4. The book was bought at Smith and Snow book-store. 5. Neither the boy nor the girl story was believed. 6. The herd leader led them astray. 7. Men and boys clothing made to order. V. Place in each blank a singular or a plural noun in the possessive case: 1. I will give you the book. 2. Which do you like better or stories? 3. and book store is on the corner of Fifth and Cedar Streets. 4. and book stores are on opposite corners of Broadway. 5. or book will do. 6. It was neither nor fault. 7. The crew were saved. VI. Tell the cases of the following nouns: 1. Howard, do you know the man to whom the letter is to be given? 2. Mary's work being finished, she walked into the town to see the stores gay with decorations for New Year's Day. 3. The man asked Marj^ to give him something to eat for supper. 4. They gave the beggar money and food. 5. They gave the poor old beggar, the skeleton of a man, a dinner and some clothes. 6. Mary, being a fine speaker, made a stirring appeal to the audience. 7. We waited at Jones and Hunt's store an hour for you. 8. Stevenson's and Kipling's philosophy of work has done much to enhance the dignity of labor in this generation. VII. Bring in: 1. Five sentences containing nouns in the nominative case: two the subjects of sentences, three in apposition with the subjects, 28 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE two the principal parts of absolute phrases, two independent by address. 2. Five sentences containing nouns in the objective case, four the direct object of the verb, two the objects of prepositions, two in apposition with other nouns in the objective case, two used in- directly to help the direct object complete the meaning of the verb. 3. Five sentences containing nouns in the possessive case, two showing joint ownership, five showing separate ownership. VIII. Classify all the nouns in the following extracts and give gender, number, and case. 1. A few nights after they passed Gibraltar his dream returned to him. She who waited by the brushwood-pile was no longer a little girl, but a woman with black hair that grew into a "widow's peak,'' combed back from her forehead. He knew her for the child in black, the companion of the last six years, and as it had been in the time of meetings on the I^ost Continent, he was filled with de- light unspeakable. 2. Then who should come to tuck him up for the night but the mother? And she sat down on the bed, and they talked for a long hour, as mother and son should, if there is to be any future for the Empire. 3. Over the edge of the purple down, Where the single lamp hght gleams. Know ye the road to the Merciful Town That is hard by the Sea of Dreams. — Where the poor may lay their wrongs away, And the sick may forget to weep? But we — pity us! Ah, pity us! We wakeful! Ah, pity us! — We must go back with Policeman Day — Back from the City of Sleep. 4. One person I have to make good, myself. But my duty to my neighbor is much more nearly expressed by saying that I have to make him happy — if I may. 5. As for punishment, failure carries its own. To be nothing, to have done nothing, to be at one with no force in the universe, /to have helped no one, to have loved no one, all this is the penalty / of nonentity, and it needs no added horrors. NOUNS 29 6. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, Whom mortals call the moon, Glides glimmerinjy o'er my fleece-like floor. By the midnight breezes strewn; And wherever the beat of her unseen feet. Which only the angels hear. May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof. The stars peep behind her and peer; And I laugh to see them whirl and flee, Like a swarm of golden bees, When I widen the rent of my wind-built tent. Till the calm rivers, lake, and seas. Like strips of the sky, fallen through me on high. Are each paved with the moon and these. 7. It was already hard upon October before I was ready to set forth, and at the high altitudes over which my road lay there was no Indian Summer to be looked for. I was determined, if not to camp out, at least to have the means of camping out in my posses- sion; for there is nothing more harassing to an easy mind than the necessity of reaching shelter by dusk, and the hospitality of a vil- lage inn is not always to be reckoned sure by those who trudge on foot. A tent, above all for a solitary, is troublesome to pitch and troublesome to strike again, and even on the march it forms a conspicuous feature in your baggage. A sleeping sack, on the other hand, is alwa3^s ready — you have only to get into it; it serves a double purpose — a, bed by night, a portmanteau by day, and it does not advertise your intention of camping out to every curious passer-by. 8. One of the pleasantest things in the world is ''going a jour- ney" — but a few know it now. It isn't every one that can go a journey. No doubt one that owns an automobile cannot go. The spirit of the age has got him fast. Begoggled and with awful squawks, feverish, exultant, ignorant, he is condemned to hoot over the earth. Thus the wealthy know nothing of journeys, for they must own motors. Vain people and envious people and proud people cannot go, because the wealthy do not. Silly people do not know enough to go. The lazy cannot, because of their laziness. The busy hang themselves with business. The halt nor the aged, alas! cannot go. In fine, only such as are whole and wise and pure in heart can go a journey, and they are the blessed. 30 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 9. ''Lavender, sweet lavender, Who will buy my sweet blooming lavender? Buy it once, you'll buy it twice, And make your clothes sweet and nice!" She was a wretched-looking creature, with a great basket, and it was so she sang through the street. By this you know where we are, for this is one of the old cries in London town. For the sake of my clothes, and for the noble pleasure of asso- ciating for an instant with the original of a coloured print of old London types, I bought a sprig of lavender. ''Thank you, sir," she said. 10. It is this clear-sighted, non-combative humour which Amer- icans love and prize, and the absence of which they reckon a heavy loss. Nor do they always ask, "a loss to whom?" Charles Lamb said it was no misfortune for a man to have a sulky temper. It was his friends who were unfortunate. And so with the man who has no sense of humour. He gets along very well without it. He is not aware that anything is lacking. He is not mourning his lot. What loss there is, his friends and neighbors bear. A man destitute of humour is apt to be a formidable person, not subject to sudden deviations from his chosen path, and incapable of fretting away his elementary forces by pottering over both sides of a question. He is often to be respected, sometimes to be feared and always — if possible — to be avoided. His are the qualities which distance en- ables us to recognize and value at their worth. He fills his place in the scheme of creation; but it is for us to see that his place is not next to ours at table, where his unresponsiveness narrows the con- versational area, and dulls the contagious ardour of speech. He may add to the wisdom of the ages, but he lessens the gaiety of life. NOUNS 31 Outline Summary Kinds Forms Nouns 1. Common 2. Proper 3. Abstract 4. Collective 1. Person — generally in the third person 2. Gender (a) masculine (b) feminine (c) neuter (d) common 3. Number (a) singular (b) plural 4. Case (a) nominative (b) objective (c) possessive Uses 1. In nominative case (a) subject of verb (b) nominative by ad- dress (c) in apposition (d) predicate nominative (e) absolute nominative 2. In objective case (a) direct object of verb (b) object of preposition (c) in apposition (d) indirect object (e) the subject of an in- finitive 3. In possessive case (a) showing possession (b) in apposition CHAPTER II Pronouns What are pronouns? Pronouns, we have seen {ante, p. 5), take the place of nouns; they can do anything in a sentence which nouns can do. Indeed it would be hard, if not im- possible, to know what to employ or how to express ourselves without using them. These, in a few sentences, are all the kinds of pronouns : What ... is an interrogative pro- noun. We, they, them., it, ourselves,. . . are personal pronouns. Which ... is a relative pronoun. Anything . . . is an i ndefinite pronoun. These ... is a demonstrative pro- noun. Try writing the sentences by replacing the pronouns with nouns; you can hardly do it without changing the construction of every sentence. Yet every pronoun has been used as subject, object, or complement, just like a noun. Personal Pronouns We speak our own names very seldom, sometimes not once a day; but probably we say /, or we, more often than any other words, and we say you or they, he, she, or it, al- most as often; that is, we use the personal pronouns. These are: Singular Plural (1) I (1) We (2) You (thou) (2) You (3) He, she, it (3) They PRONOUNS 33 The first person denotes the speaker or speakers. The second person denotes the person or persons spoken to. The third person denotes the person or persons, thing or things, spoken of. UnHke nouns the personal pronouns change their forms from the first to the second and again to the third person; and the singular of the third personal makes changes to denote differences in gender: First Personal Singular Nominative I Possessive My (mine) Objective Me Plural We Our (ours) Us Second Personal Singular Plural Nominative You (thou) You (ye) Possessive Your (yours) ; Thy (thine) Your (yours) Objective You (thee) You (ye) Singular: Nominative Possessive Objective Third Personal Masculine Feminine He His Him She Her (hers) Her Neuter It Its It Plural (all genders) : Nominative Possessive Objective They Their (theirs) Them ^ 34 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Compound Personal Pronouns Compound personal pronouns are formed iii the nomina- tive and objective cases by adding self to the singular and selves to the plural of personal pronouns: Nominative and Objective Singular Myself Yourself (thyself) Himself, herself, itself Plural Ourselves Yourselves Themselves Note: — Be careful never to use the forms, hisself, their- self, theirselves. Compound personal pronouns are used, with or without the simple personal pronouns, for emphasis: I, myself, will go. You told me, yourself. He placed me next himself. For showing emphasis in the possessive, singular or plural, own is added to the simple pronoun: Is this your own handiwork? It is my very own. Relative Pronouns Notice the italicized pronouns in the following sentences: Tom Bowling, the boy who won the quarter-mile last week also won the debate on Saturday night. The trophies which were awarded him have been photographed, and the picture placed with those of the teams and trophies that mark the school's successes from year to year. These are called relative pronouns. PRONOUNS 35 A relative pronoun relates a suhordinatp. daiifip . f ^ g aj\ antecedent noun or pmnrnm jn nnnthpr clause. In the first sentence the pronoun who relates the depend- ent clause, who won the quarter-mile last week, to its ante- cedent, the noun hoy, subject of the independent clause. In the second sentence the pronoun which relates the de- pendent clause, which were awarded him, to the antecedent, trophies. In the second sentence the pronoun that relates the de- pendent clause, that mark the school's successes from year to year, to the antecedents, teams and trophies. These are the distinctions to be made in the use of these relative pronouns: Who should always refer to persons; Which should always refer to animals or things; That may refer to persons, animals, or things. Who is the only one of the relative pronouns that can be inflected for number and case. Singular Plural Nom. Who Who Poss. Whose Whose Obj. Whom Whom Note : — Whose may be used also as the possessive of which. Compound Relative Pronouns Whoever comes will be welcome. This sentence equals — Anyone who comes will be welcome. Whoever is subject of the verb comes; the subject of the verb mil he welcome is he understood. He is antecedent to the relative whoever though placed after it: Whoever broke the plate (he) was careless. Whoever planted that tree (he) did a service to humanity. Whoever comes in at the door (he) must lock it. 36 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Whatever and whichever are also compound relatives: Whatever happens do not fail to return the book. Take whichever fits best. I shall give you whichever you choose. I shall believe whatever you say. Note: — Whatever means anything at all; but whichever means any of a number. Whn.^^q-pijpi^ i^)hn,f,-sn-p.vp.r and whinh-fip-ever are £t her forms of the compound relative pronoun: And whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely. As when preceded by such or same is a relative pronoun. She lives in the same town as you do. If I could write such papers as you do I should like to write com- positions. Same is sometimes followed by the relative pronoun fhnf nr mhirh in place of aSl She Uves in the same town that (or which) you live in. Practice I. Fill in blanks with relative pronouns and give reason for your choice: 1. Has it been proved that man is the only animal thinks? 2. Wilbur Wright invented the aeroplane lives in Dayton, Ohio. 3. The sailors and the boats are in the harbor leave for the islands tomorrow. 4. He is the same, kind, thoughtful man I left so long ago. 5. The song I liked best is the same given by that soprano sang with the sjnnphony orchestra. 6. She goes to the same school you go to. 7. He deserves all he gets. 8. I let my horse, knows the way perfectly, bring me home. II. Change the relatives in the following sentences to compound relative pronouns: PRONOUNS 37 1. I shall do what you think best- 2. I shall invite whom you wish. 3. I shall choose which I prefer. Inti^jirogative Pronouns Who brought the book? Which (book) do you mean? What (book, dog, man) do you want? When the pronouns who, which, what, are used in asking questions they are called interrogative pronouns: Who refers to persons. WJiich refers to animals or things. What refers to persons, animals, or things. Demonstrative Pronouns This is my section, porter, and that is my baggage: these are my umbrellas and those are my vaUses. In this sentence, you will notice, this, that, these, and those are used as pronouns and also to point out or demon- strate the nouns to which they refer. When this and that in the singular and these and those in the plural are used as pronouns, and point out the nouns which they denote, they are called demonstrative pronouns. Notice that this in the singular and those in the plural refer to things near at hand, while that in the singular and those in the plural point out things at greater distance. Indefinite Pronouns You may all leave the room. You are both to blame. Many were invited, hut few came. None of these will do. One of the boys brought this book. 38 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Several of the riders were thrown I shall send another tomorrow. Some of you bring the chairs. I have not any left. Either of them will do. I shall carry one of the baskets, and you may carry the other. I did not say anything to anybody. In the sentences above the italicised words are pronouns, because they are substituted for nouns, but they differ from the other pronouns we have studied in that they refer indefinitely to their antecedent nouns. Indeed the ante- cedent is as often implied as expressed. A pronoun which refers to its antecedent {expressed or implied) so as to give little idea of its identity is called an indefinite pronoun. Note : — Be careful that the pronoun shall always agree with its antecedent in person, gender, and number. Practice I. Select the nouns and pronouns in the following sen- tences and tell to what class each belongs; give the person, the number, the gender, the case; give reason for decision: 1. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me. 2. His honor rooted in dishonor stood. 3. Who else would soar above the view of men And keep us all in fearful servitude. 4. 'Tis with our judgments as with our watches: none Go just alike yet each believes his own. 5. One was fair, strong, arm'd — But to be won by force. 6. A red-faced bride who knew herself so vile, That evermore she longed to hide herself. 7. What-so-ever things are pure, . . . what-so-ever things are lovely, think on these things. PRONOUNS 39 8. Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth. 9. He that hath hght within his own clear breast May sit in the center and enjoy bright day. 10. Alice did not like shaking hands with either of them, first, for fear of hurting the other one's feelings. 11. "I know what you're thinking about," said Tweedledum. They were standing under a tree each with an arm around the other's neck, and Alice knew which was which in a moment, be- cause one of them had "Dum" embroidered on his collar, and the other "Dee." II. Use the following pronouns in sentences and tell from its use in the sentence to what class each belongs: one many who? what who-so-ever he each it which? other that those this who which anybody then it III. Write twenty sentences using in all: Five relative pronouns, referring to persons, three to animals and things, three referring to both animals and persons. Three demonstrative pronouns. Five indefinite pronouns. Two compound personal pronouns showing emphasis, Two compound relative pronouns, Two interrogative pronouns. Explain uses. IV. Bring in: Five sentences, each containing two relative pronouns. Five sentences, each containing one demonstrative pronoun. Five sentences, each containing one compound personal pronoun showing emphasis. Five sentences, each containing one interrogative pronoun. Five sentences, each containing one relative pronoun referring to animals. Correct Use of Pronouns 1. Note that some indefinite pronouns are singular in meaning, and some plural, and that as antecedents they 40 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE must be followed by pronouns in the singular or plural accordingly : Each, either, neither, everyone, anyone, no-one, everybody, nobody, are followed l^y the singular; All, both, some are followed by the plural; None is followed by either singular or plural: Is everybody ready for dinner? Are all ready for dinner? Let each take turn riding the pony. Let all ride the pony in turn. Either of the boys will lend you knife. Both of the boys will lend you knives. Neither has taken boxing lesson this morning. Both have taken boxing lesson this morning. Anyone knows must tell the truth. All know must tell the truth. Everyone knows must tell the truth. 2. Note the distinctions in meaning among either, any- one, neither, no-one: Use either and neither when speaking of two persons or things : Either (one of the two) is affirmative. Neither (one of the two) is negative. Use anyone, rather than either, when speaking affirma- tively of more than two. Use no-one, rather than neither, when speaking of more than two. 3. The only practical difficulties in the correct use of relative pronouns are in the use of case: who or whom: are you going to invite to the picnic? do you think I gave my subscription to? I will tell you I think should be captain. PRONOUNS 41 do you think I am? should be king save him makes us free? but Maud should I meet, Last night when sunset burned On the blossomed gable-ends At the end of the village street? 4. The relative pronouns who, whoever, are often mis- used for whom, whomever, because though in the objective case the latter are placed at the beginnings of clauses: I don't know who you are ( = you are who) . I don't remember whom I met ( = I met whom). You are not my enemy, whoever you are ( = you are whoever). Give my regards to whomever you see ( = you see whomever) . Instead of the general relative, whoever, whomever, to serve both as object and as subject it is better to use the two pronouns, him who, her who: He is sure to be false to whomever (whoever) trusts him. Better: He is sure to be false to him who (or her who) trusts him. Practice Fill in blanks with correct form: I. Either, neither, anyone, no one: 1. Only five boys learned the lines and of them could recite them perfectly. 2. Has of the two girls a riding habit? 3. I have worked twelve of the examples, but I do not know of them is right. 4. Mother invited Harry and Arthur, but can come. 5. of the boys in the class will be glad to do that for you. 6. There are five librarians in the library and of them will direct you to the reference books you need. 7. of the two answers is right; work those two examples again. 42 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE II. Whoever or whomever: 1. left that door open will please close it. 2. Helen, please return that book to it belongs. 3. I will give to wins the race a gold medal. 4. told you that spoke without investigating the subject. 5. Please tell comes for the dress that I could not finish it before. 6. Stranger, you be your face has a pleasing smile. 7. The concert is free to will come. III. Thou, thee, thyself, ye, thy: 1. Hail to , blithe spirit; Bird never wert. 2. But Hope, with eyes so fair, What was delightful measure? 3. I thought my partner and my guide, As being past away. 4. One came, me thought, of shape divine, And said, " mansion waits , Adam;" 5. Wife, dost know that all the world seems queer except and me; and sometimes I think even art a Httle queer? 6. . . . and so cleave His armor off him, these will turn the blade. 7. brother-star why shine here so low? ward is higher up; but have slain The damsel's champion? IV. He, him, himself: 1. Howard told me that you were coming. 2. I could hardly believe that it was standing in the door. 3. I little thought when I went to the telephone that Harry would come to the telephone, but it was , and I knew his voice, although I had not heard speak in a year, and did not know that was in town. 4. All were in the boat except Harry and . 5. It was either or his brother who brought the message. V. She, her, herself: 1. I would not ride in that machine with such a reckless driver if I were PRONOUNS 43 2. You are older than and should not allow to do such reckless things. 3. I know to be hard to reason with, but should speak to and make behave . VI. They, them, themselves: 1. Who told you that it was who drove into town when found there was no one else who could drive ? 2. The girls you speak of could not be for have left town, and then I have heard say never go anywhere by . VII. /, me, we, us, he, who, whom, it, they, yourselves: 1. It was Mary and who brought the flowers. 2. It was John you spoke to. 3. What did you and do with while we were away? 4. Will you go with Harold and ? 5. He said that you and might play tennis. 6. She will give it to either or . 7. It is and not who ought to ride home tonight. 8. You are more tired than . 9. They were all there except and . 10. Either Edith or Rob will lend you pencil. 11. pencil is mine, pencil is yours. 12. The class had room awarded to . 13. I shall give the apples to comes for them. 14. did they elect for president? 15. books are ? VIII. I, me, myself: 1. Arriving in Boston my brother and took a carriage and drove out to call on our friend. 2. The concert gave pleasure to mother and . 3. Both mother and enjoy the concert very much. 4. The book you gave to Helen and is just the book have been hoping someone would give to . 5. Between you and , he is not to be trusted. 6. I will give him the letter. 7. You should know whether you gave the letter to . 8. She is stronger than and I can do that . 44 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 9. Who is going to church this morning? Only ? 10. Was it you wished to see? IX. We, us, ourselves: 1. Our cousins and are going for an automobile ride. 2. Harry says he will take mother and in his new car. 3. They were longer than because we came across the field. 4. We ought to do our part to make the winter pleasant. 5. He told that were to be invited to the party. X. Give person, number, gender, ease, of each pronoun, and show its relation to its antecedent: 1. It was my brother who brought the word. 2. He spent some of his time at his uncle's. 3. You should be kind to one another. 4. This song is one of many that she learned from him. 5. Each said that the other was right. 6. I want each of you to bring me in his or her report tomorrow. 7. He read the story that you lent him. 8. Was it you or she who brought the book? 9. It is they who do the best work. 10. The house that we passed belongs to me. 11. The man whom you met is my brother. 12. She asked him and me to come. 13. It is a joy to be in the woods such weather. 14. Of such is the Kingdom of Heaven. 15. What is the matter with Harry? PRONOUNS 45 Pronouns OuTUNE Summary 1. Personal: /, you, thou, he, she, it, and the compounds myself, thyself, etc. 2. Relative: who, that, which, what, and the compounds whoever, whosoever, etc. Kinds \ 3. Interrogative: who, which, what. 4. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those. 5. Indefinite: each, either, all, both, many, none, some, neither, anyone, anybody, anything, another, any, one, one [ another, etc. 1. Person. 2. Gender. 3. Number. 4. Case. 1. To take the place of a noun. 2. To relate a dependent clause to its ante- cedent, noun or pronoun, in an independent clause. Forms Uses CHAPTER III Verbs Note the italicised words in the following letter: Dear Henry, I must-tell you of my visit to my old home in the eastern states. I dreaded the return after I had-heen absent so long. But I thought if I were- going at all I ought-to-go now, for my uncle's health is-failing, and soon the time will-have-come when I shall-not-have sl single relative living in the old place. Besides, I do-think some tribute of re- spect is-due one's family seat. Plowever, visiting of itself may-be-interesting, and yet the account of it make very dull reading. Nevertheless you shall-hear all about it, for I will-tell you. I shall-be as brief as I can. I suppose I might-omit many details, but how then could I give you a correct impression. Well then, listen, and the tale shall-be-told. Observe how many varieties of action, state, or being these words express; or, in other words, in how many and various ways verbs are used. If any part-of-speech may be called the most important, that part is the verb, for its business is to tell us, alone or with the aid of other words, what is said of the subject. And as there are many things to be said of any subject, even in a simple letter, so there are many varieties of meaning, time, and manner, and therefore, many forms and parts in any one verb. When you have mastered the verb in all its 46 VERBS 47 parts you will have gone a long way toward mastering correct English. Well then, just what is a verb? A verb is a word used to express action, state or being. I made a boat (action). I die (action). The boat was-made (action). I am-dead (being). I go-to-sleep (action). I awake (action). I am-asleep (being). I am-wakened (action). I am-awake (being). Now to understand these varieties of action and of being we must first learn several distinctions: 1. The distinction among three kinds of verbs: Verbs-proper, (or simple verbs) that by themselves or with the aid of other verbs make statements about the subject: The bird sings; the bird sang; the bird is-singing; the bird has- sung. Auxiliary verbs (or auxiliaries), the helping verbs, so called because without their help the right form of state- ment cannot be made: The bird may (might), can (could), must (ought-to), shall (should), will (would), sing; The bird may-have (might-have), can-have (could-have) , etc., sung. Verbals, so called because they have the root-form and the idea of verbs. Yet alone they cannot be used as verbs; they must be used as adjectives or as nouns: The singing (adj.) bird filled the room with sound. The singing (noun) of the bird filled the room with sound. To-sing (noun) seemed to make the bird glad. 2. The distinction between a transitive and an intransitive 48 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE verb, or between an active verb that takes an object and one that does not: The hunter killed (transitive) his game; but his horse died (in- transitive). 3. The distinction between the active and the passive voice, or between that form of the verb used when the sub- ject denotes the doer, and that used when it denotes the receiver of an action: You (subject) elect (active voice) your candidate; and your candidate (subject) is elected (passive voice) by you. 4. The distinction among modes or among the manners in which a verb can make its statement: The indicative, the mode of assertion: When the postman comes I shall-get a letter. The subjunctive, the mode of condition , of doubt, or passibility: If it rain or if it shine, postman always comes at nine, Were the postman to come I should-get a letter. The imperative, the mode of command: Postman, bring me a letter. 5. The distinction among tenses; or those parts of the verb which show the different times, pi;s§£nt, jmgt, or future, in which action may take place. There are six tenses: the present, past, and future; the present-perfect, past-perfect, and future-perfect. 6. The distinction among verb-forms: The simple verb-form, or that which simply indicates action or being: I move, I moved, I shall-move. VERBS 49 The progressive verb-form, or that which indicates continuing action or being: I am-moving, I was-moving, I shall-he-moving. The emphatic verb-form, or that which strongly asserts action or being: I do-move, I did-move, Do-move. 7. Finally, the distinctions: between the singular and the plural numbers (as with nouns and pronouns); and among the first, the second, and the third persons (as with pronouns) of either number. We are now ready to study the verb in detail. • Verbs Proper Here are four different types of assertion about the same thing — a boat: The torpedo sank the boat. The boat was sunk by a torpedo. The boat sank. The boat is a destroyer. In the first sentence the noun torpedo names the sub- ject which performs the act; the verb sank asserts the action; the noun boat names the object which receives the action. Active verbs which require an object to receive their action and complete their meaning are called transitive. In the second sentence the noun boat which in the first sentence was the object has become the subject, but instead of performing the act it receives the action assorted by the verb was-sunk; the doer, a torpedo, has become the object of the preposition by. * 50 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Transitive verbs which assert action of their subjects are in the active voice; transitive verbs from which their subjects receive action are in the passive voice. In the third sentence the noun boat names the subject which performs the act, and the verb sank asserts the action; there is no object. Verbs which do not require an object to receive their action in order to complete their meaning are intransi- tive. Some verbs are used either transitively or intransitively: The destroyer sank (intransitive). The destroyer sank the submarine (transitive). An intransitive active verb can never be put in the pas- sive voice. Apparent exceptions such as he is-come, he is- gone, really mean he has-come, he has-gone; that is, the regular passive auxiliary be is sometimes used with the active voice, instead of have. Other apparent exceptions are intransitive verbs used with prepositions. In the passive use these have the effect of transitive verbs: Active: He slept in the bed. Passive: The bed was slept-in. But in the latter case the verb is not really slept but slept-in, meaning occupied, and is transitive in effect. In the fourth sentence the noun boat is the subject, but no action is performed and hence no object is required; the verb is merely links the subject-nominative, boat, to the predicate-nominative, destroyer. Intransitive verbs which do not assert action but merely couple the subject with the predicate-nominative or other complement, are called copulative verbs, or copulas. VERBS 51 I am (copula) the man (predicate noun) you are looking for. Are (copula) you he (predicate-pronoun)? No, he is (copula) absent (predicate-adjective). The ordinary copula is be, but other verbs of nearly equivalent meaning are sometimes used. For instance, a physician might greet his patient thus: ''Good morning, Mr. Smith. It is I, the doctor. You seem brighter this morning. Your temperature, too, is lower, and your pulse stronger. Now, if you will just stay quiet for a few days and keep warm you'll soon he well again.'' In actual practice the only difficulty in using the copula with the predicate-nominative is with pronouns, because the nominative and objective cases of pronouns differ in form: Lo, it is I; be not afraid. It is He that hath made us, and not we ourselves. Was that Mr. Smith whom (objective case) you bowed to? The light was so dim that I could not see who (predicate-nominative) it VX18 (copula). Practice I. Tell how the verbs are used and from their use classify them: 1. The boy rode the donkey. 2. The boy rode. 3. The donkey was ridden by the boy. 4. The donkey is Pete. 5. The man wrote the letter. 6. The letter was written by the man. 7. The man wrote. 8. The letter is an invitation. 9. The lion is a beast of prey. 10. The race was run by the boy. II. The bird flew. 52 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 12. The girl made a dress. 13. The dress was made by Ann, 14. The girl sings sweetly. 15. The girl is Dorothea. 16. The band plays in the park on Sunday afternoons. 17. The tire of Harry's bicycle was punctured before he was half-way home. 18. I called for Mary this afternoon, but she had been invited out to dinner and so could not go for a walk with me. 19. Did you say that Mary had been invited to go to Europe with her Aunt? II. In the following selections classify the different types of assertion: 1. Speaking of those yellow squash-bugs, I think I disheartened them by covering the plants so deep with soot and wood-ashes that they could not find them; and I am in doubt if I shall ever see the plants again. But I have heard of another defence against the bugs. Put a fine wire-screen over each hill, which will keep out the bugs and admit the rain. I should say that these screens would not cost much more than the melons you would be likely to get from the vines if you bought them; but then think of the moral satisfaction of watching the bugs hovering over the screen, seeing, but unable to reach the tender plants within. That is worth paying for. 2. There is no dignity in the bean. Corn, which in my garden grows alongside the bean, and, so far as I can see, with no affecta- tion of superiority, is, however, the child of song. It waves in all hterature. But mix it with beans and its high tone is gone. Succo- tash is vulgar. It is the bean in it. The bean is a vulgar vegetable, without culture, or any flavor of high society among vegetables. III. Bring in: 1. Five sentences having verbs in the active voice; 2. Five sentences having verbs in the passive voice; 3. Five sentences having copulative verbs; 4. Five sentences having transitive verbs; 5. Five sentences having verbs that may be either transitive or intransitive. VERBS 53 IV. Make sentences with the following verbs used tran- sitively, and intransitively: sing run jump fly speak study waved walked sew sow dream fought won sank write live leap laugh know buy grow see play ride leave V. Use in the active and in the passive voice: made sang loved won bought invited told' heard built dug washed dressed trimmed mowed plowed cooked pealed raked sharpened chopped milked tied caught sailed cut learned embroidered buttoned printed found rowed watered studied closed blackened VI. Use in the passive voice: dig ride write ; sing buy make give hurt shoot take catch see draw Auxiliaries • In the following sentences many verbs are compound; that is, they are made up of the simple verb with some other verb, to help make the assertion. Compound forms are sometimes called verb-phrases: I often have-thotight how exciting it must-have-heen to live in the days of Queen Elizabeth when so much wa^ to he discovered and almost any marvellous tale might-he true: there might-he a "north- west passage" to China by the Arctic Ocean; there might-he an El Dorado, or Golden Land, in South America, or a Fountain of Youth in Florida. Nowadays it does-require so much credulity to believe such things. Yet we ought-to-take comfort that two mar- vellous things were-achieved in our own times: the North Pole was- 64 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE discovered and the flying machine was-invented in the same year — each by an American. A verb used to help another verb assert action is called an auxiliary. Some auxiliaries denote voice: Be is the regular auxiliary of the passive voice. Some auxiliaries denote tense: Have is the regular auxiliary of the perfect tenses; Shall and will are the regular auxiliaries of the' future tenses. Some auxiliaries denote verb-form: Be is the regular auxiliary of the progressive verb-form; Do is the regular auxiliary of the emphatic verb-form. Some auxiliaries are also verbs-proper: Have, do, be, and will are both kinds of verb: DonH (auxiliary) be (auxiliary) always worrying about what you will (auxiliary) have (verb) or what you will (auxiliary) do (verb). You may have or do almost what you will (verbs). Think rather of what you want to be (verb). r The Potential Certain auxiliaries are used with the simple verb to assert permission, possibility, power, determination, desire, duty, or necessity. In this use they are called potential auxiliaries, and the resulting verb-phrase is called the potential verb-phrase : May (might) expresses permission, possibility, or wish. Can (could) expresses power. Must expresses necessity or coercion. Ought expresses obligation or propriety. Should expresses obligation. VERBS 55 Would expresses determination or desire. The potential verb-phrase may be used in independent or in dependent clauses, and either with the Indicative or with the Subjunctive mode. Shall and Will We are sometimes confused about the correct use of shall and mil. Broadly the distinction is this: I (we) shall means I am (we are) going-to. I (we) will means I (we) want-to. The reverse is true for the second and third persons: You (he, she, they) will means You (they) are (he, she, is) going-to. You (he, she, they) shall means You (they, he, she) miist. More exactly: For the first person shall expresses futurity; will expresses determination or volition. For the second and third persons will expresses futurity; shall expresses determination or volition. Should and would generally follow the rules for shall and will: Like the writer of the hymn, I "would not live alway," but I should be interested in coming alive again a hundred years hence. Note: — In indirect quotations introduced by ''that" (expressed or understood) use the same auxiliary as in direct : Harold says, "I shall play tennis tomorrow" (direct). Harold says (that) he shall play tennis tomorrow (indirect). Harold said (that) he should play tennis tomorrow (indirect). Jack says, "Harold will have to mow the lawn" (direct). Jack says (that) Harold will have to mow the lawn (indirect). Jack said (that) Harold would have to mow the lawn (indirect). 56 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE In asking questions use the auxiliary you expect in reply: Question: Shall you go to the city tomorrow; or will you be good enough to wait until I can go with you? Answer: I will gladly wait; I shall not need to go tomorrow. Practice In the following sentences distinguish between the mean- ings indicated by the alternative auxiliaries: 1. I will (shall) go out in the motor car this afternoon. 2. I will (shall) be obeyed. 3. Shall (will) you go to church with me? 4. You shall (will) reach the top of the mountain if you keep climbing. 5. You would (should) go home in spite of our protest. 6. Shall (will) you accept her offer? 7. She said she would (should) not do it. 8. If you would (should) listen you might hear something to your credit. Modes The manner in which an assertion is made has much to do with the response it receives. For instance, suppose a boy were lazy about getting up in the morning; various members of his family might try various ways of rousing him: ' His sister might call to him: ''John, it's half-past seven, time for breakfast; you must get— «p.'' His brother or mothep-might say: • "Fd be ashamed to be such a sleepy-head, if I were you"; without rousing John. But if his father were to call: "John, get up/^ John would be likely to spring from the bed. The manner in which a verb makes its assertion is called its Mode. VERBS 57 1. The sister states two facts: When the verb assei^ts a fact it is said to be in the Indicative mod e. 2. The brother asserts an impossible condition, or a condition contrary to fact: When the verb asserts something doubtful, condition- al, contrary to fad, or improbable it is said to be in the Subjunctive mode. 3. The father gives a command. When the verb expresses an entreaty or command it is said to be in the Imperative mode. The Indicative The Indicative is the mode in which most facts are communicated and most questions asked; any straight- forward declaration or any question expecting a straight- forward declaration in reply, will probably be put in the indicative. Its forms are easy to recognize. The Subjunctive The Subjunctive has several peculiarities: 1. It always asserts something at best doubtful, and perhaps even i mprobab le or im possi ble! I do not know whether you would like (subjunctive) peanut taffy or plain molasses candy better. If I were given a million dollars I shoidd not know (subjunctive) how to spend it. 2. It is generally added to another statement (subjunctive = subjoining), usually the indicative or the infinitive. When added to the indicative it is usually preceded by some join- 58 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE ing word — if, whether, though, but sometimes the order of words is inverted ;4fistead-: You must choose between these two studies (simple indicative). // 1 miLst choose (subjunctive) I shall choose (indicative) the more practical; or; Must I choose (inverted order) I shall choose (indicative) the more practical. 3. It sometimes follows a fashion of its own for chang- ing its form to denote number or tense, especially in the verb, he, and the future auxiliaries: When I am here tomorrow (indicative) I shall give you the money. If I he here tomorrow (subjunctive) I shall give you the money. If (whenever) it is raining (indicative) you carry an umbrella. If it he-raining (subjunctive) be sure to take the car. If (whenever) he was through with his dinner (indica- tive) he was ready to work. If he were through with his dinner (subjunctive) he would-be-ready to work. Were he through with his dinner he would-be-ready to work. Present Past Note: — See also Tenses in the Subjunctive (page 68) for correct use. Practice I. Observe the signs of the subjunctive mode in the following sentences: 1. If he be alive then the money belongs to him. 2. If I were as tired as you seem to be I should stop working. 3. If he come not today you may doubt my word. 4. If he go he will first tell you. 5. If he were not going why did he say so? 6. If he were sure that he were going he would first buy his ticket. VERBS 59 7. I should be ashamed to act as he does. 8. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing. 9. Though He slay me yet will I trust Him. II. Choose the correct form in the following sentences: 1. If he (was, were) to come I should give him the message. 2. I wish I (was, were) as clever as he is. 3. Though he (be, is) sometimes harsh he is generally kind. 4. If he (went, were-to-go) on a Friday it (rained, would-rain). 5. If it (rain, rains) on Friday we must not start. III. Select from the Bible, Shakespeare, or any standard literature: 1. Five sentences having verbs in the present subjunctive. 2. Five sentences having verbs in the past subjunctive. IV. Tell the differences in meaning between the forms in italics: 1. If he is (were) honest, he will (would) succeed. 2. If he was (hod-been) honest, he (would-have-succeeded) stcc- 3. Though he fail (fails) the first time yet he will (may) succeed in the end. 4. Though he failed the first time yet will (would) I have faith in him. 5. Though you told me he failed (told me he had-f ailed) yet will (wovM) I have faith in him. 6. Though you told (were-to-tell) me so ten times a day I always forgot (should forget) it. The Imperative In the imperative: 1. The subject is thou, you or ye (generally not expressed): 2. The verb is in the second person and is always in the present tense: Please bring me the book. Do walk a little faster. 60 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Go down three blocks till you come to Sansome Street, turn to your left and walk about half a block; ring at the lower door. Note: — When a command is to be expressed for the first person, singular or plural, the form, let me (us) is used, rarely such a form as go we, turn we, etc. For the third person the form is, let him {her, them). The Verbals In the following lines observe the difference in uses of the word, flying: Boys flying kites haul in their white-winged birds, But you can't do that when you are-flying words. In the second line the asserting word is are-flying; in the first line the asserting word is haul. Omit the words ''flying kites" from the first line and you have still remain- ing a complete statement, ''boys haul in their white- winged birds"; therefore "flying" cannot be the verb. And yet it certainly has the form of a verb and gives the idea of action; therefore it must be part verb. But instead of being used to assert it is used to modify a noun; therefore it is also part adjective. Words which are verbs in form and idea hut have the use of some other part of speech are called verbals. Verbals may be active or passive in voice : Active: Asking (adjective) permission we gained the owner's good-will. Our asking (noun) permission gained the owner's good- will. Passive: Being-asked (adjective) permission the owner admitted us freely. Being-asked (noun) was all that the owner required. Active : To-die, to-sleep — No more; and by that sleep to-say we end the heartache. ... VERBS 61 Passive : To-be-imprisoned in the viewless winds, And blotni with restless violence round about The pendent world. Participles Observe again that as the noun boys, in the first quota- tion, is modified by the word flying, so the noun birds is modified by the word white-winged. Words which are verbs in form and idea but adjec- tives in use are called participles or verbal adjectives. There are two kinds of participles: 1. The present participle, always ending in ''ing"; flying, running, etc. 2. The past participle, regularly ending in "d,'' ''ed,'' "t"; or irregularly in "n," ^'ne"; heard, moved, hurt, driven, done. When the action described by the participle is rep- resented as going on at the time indicated by the verb of the sentence it is called a present participle. Seeing his automobile at the door, I was sure it must be the doctor. When the action described by the participle is rep- resented as complete at the time indicated by the prin- cipal verb, it is called the past participle. Having-met him several times at that corner I concluded that he lived in our street. Infinitives Wo^ds which are verbs in form and idea but nouns in use are called infinitives, or verbal nouns. 62 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE There are two kinds of infinitives: 1. The infinitive with 'Ho" (simple infinitive). Do you know how to-swimf In some cases the preposition is not expressed: Do you dare (to) swim so far? 2. The infinitive in "ing." Do you understand swimming? Note: — When in doubt about a verbal: (1) omit the word from the sentence or clause; if what is left contains the asserting word, the omitted word is probably a verbal; (2) look for its use in the sentence; if it modifies some noun you will be safe to treat it as a participle, if it is used as a noun you will be safe to treat it as an infinitive. Swimming (participle) with all my might I reached the man just in time to save him from drowning (infinitive). Practice I. Denote the participles and infinitives in the follow- ing and give the voice and tense: 1. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds And the wild water lapping on the crag. 2. But hastily to quench their sparkling ire, A flood of milk came rolling on the shore That on his curded wave swift Argus wore, And the immortal swan that did her life deplore. 3. I found Him in the shining of the stars, I marked Him in the flowering of His fields. 4. It is the hush of night, and all between My margin and the mountains, dark, yet clear, Mellowed and mingling, yet distinctly seen, Save darkened Jura, whose capt heights appear «- Precipitously steep: VERBS 63 5. And there was mounting in hot haste: The steed, The mustering squadron, and the clattering car, Went scouring forward with impetuous speed. 6. I made them lay their hands in mine and swear To reverence the king as if he were Their conscience, and their conscience as their King, To break the heathen and uphold the Christ, To ride abroad redressing human wrongs. To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it. To honor his own word as if his God's, To lead sweet lives in purest chastity. To love one maiden only, cleave to her, And worship her by years of noble deeds, Until they won her; for in deed I knew Of no more subtle master under heaven Than is the maiden passion for a maid. To teach high thought and amiable words And courtliness, and the desire of fame. And love of truth, and all that makes a man. Use of the Infinitive The infinitive with "to," as well as the infinitive in "ing," may be used: 1. As subject of the sentence: To-be-honest is to-be-fearless. Running is good exercise. Note: — Used with "it" as expletive the infinitive-sub- ject is placed out of its usual order in the sentence: — (See page 6, above). It is good to-be-here. = To-be-here is good. It is fun skating on this ice. = Skating on this ice is fun. 2. As object: I like to-row. I like roioing. Our friends told us to-take the first road to the left; they wished us good hunting. 64 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 3. As object of a preposition: He was about io-go. He was thinking of going. 4. As predicate nominative : To-see is to-believe. Seeing is believing. Though normally a noun the infinitive with ''to" may be an adjective or an adverb: There is a time to-weep and a time to-laugh (adjectives). The child ran to-meet her mother (adverb). Note: — The infinitive in ''ing" may be governed by a noun or pronoun in the possessive case: His buying the house seemed to make it impossible for them to go east, and so Mary's going was a great surprise to her friends. Practice Select the infinitives and participles in the following sentences, tell how they are used, and give their tenses: 1. Try to speak more slowly. 2. Climbing the last thousand feet up the mountain was a great effort. 3. I mentioned the matter to him before asking your permission. 4. Do you dare climb that mountain? 5. Speaking of mountain-climbing, have you ever tried to. climb Mt. Whitney? 6. I insist on your speaking out plainly in open meeting. 7. But you need not speak bluntly. 8. Did you hear him say who were going to attend? 9. I would not hear your enemy say so. 10. I will not have you bothering me with useless questions. 11. I dare say you think my questions annoying. 12. No, I am simply tired of answering you. VERBS 65 Perfect" Tenses Tense The form of the verb which indicates the time in which the action takes place is called the tense of the verb. Verbs have six different tenses: 1. An action may take place in the present time: Present tense. Simple J 2. An action may have taken place in past time: Tenses | Past tense. 3. An action may take place in future time: Future tense. 4. An action may be perfected or completed at the present time: Present-perfect tense. 5. An action may have been perfected or com- pleted at some past time: Past-perfect tense. 6. An action may be considered as to be perfected or completed at some future time: Future- perfect tense In the following sentences note the changes made in the form of the verb, to show differences in time: 1. I hear sl bird singing. Present tense. 2. Is it the same I heard last night? Past tense. 3. I hope I shall-hear it again tomorrow. Future tense. 4. I have-heard him three nights, now. Present-perfect tense. 5. I had-heard him two weeks ago. Past-perfect tense. 6. If he sings tomorrow night I shall- have-heard him three times. Future-perfect tense. Observe in the two following sentences two different uses of the present tense: The Colonel is-riding this morning. He rides for an hour every day. In the former sentence the verb is-riding asserts action m GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE that is going on at the time of speaking; in the latter the verb rides asserts action that is habitual: When the verb asserts action (1) as taking place, or (2) as habitual or customary at the time of speaking, it is in the present tense. Notice a like difference in the uses of the past tense : The Colonel rode his old sorrel mare yesterday. When he was younger he rode a liveUer horse. When the verb asserts action, (1) as having taken place, or (2) as habitual or customary, in past time, it is in the past tense. And there is a similar difference in the uses of the future tense : The Colonel mil-ride tomorrow if the weather permits: He will-ride every fine day, year in and year out (or wiU-be-riding). When the verb asserts action which (1) is to take place, or (2) will be habitual or customary at some future time, it is in the future tense. In the next three sentences notice the differences in the forms of the verb, and notice carefully how in every case the assertion of the verb gives an idea of the action as having been completed, (or perfected) at the time specified : 1. This makes three times he has-ridden round the park. 2. He hod-ridden three times round the park before I came. 3. He will-have-ridden three times round the park, when he reaches this bench. The present tense of the auxiliary have with the past participle of the verb, forms the present -perfect tense. The past tense, had, of the auxiliary have, with the past participle of the verb, forms the past-perfect tense. The auxiliary shall {or will) and the present of the auxiliary have, together with the past participle of the verb, form the future-perfect tense. VERBS 67 Tenses in the Passive Voice The tenses of the passive voice are regularly made up of some form of the auxiliary he with the past participle of a transitive verb. They are similar to those of the active voice : The suit is-being-made this week. Present tense. The suit was-being-made last week. Past tense. The suit will-be-done by Friday. Future tense. The suit ha.s-been-done for two days. Present-perfect tense. The suit had-been-done two days before. Past-perfect tense. The suit will-have-been-made before your return. Future-perfect tense. Practice I. Change italicized verbs in these sentences to the past tense. II. Change italized verbs in these sentences to the perfect tense. III. Change italicized verbs in these sentences to the pas- sive voice. 1. Oh wind a blowing all day long! 2. Flee as a bird to your mountain. 3. The bird flies fast and free. 4. The men are-laying the carpet. 5. The river overflows its banks. 6. The book lies on the table. 7. Mary comes to this school. 8. George, lay the book on the table. 9. The bell rings. 10. The boy sets the trap. 11. They sit in the front row. 12. The birds wake me early every morning. 13. George smms better than Harr>'. 14. Will you alight from your horse? 15. The birds light on my window every morning. 68 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 16. He lights the fire for us every morning. 17. My motlier bids me bind my hair. 18. It proves to be true. 19. The sun sets at six tonight. 20. They throw a line out to that boat. 21. The Japanese merchant bids-in that teak-wood case. 22. Mary dives Hke a fish. 23., Please break that branch of lilac for me. Correct Use of Tenses The only practical difficulties with tenses are in the use of the subjunctive mode and verbals, and in dependent phrases and clauses. 1. In the subjunctive mode the expression of statements contrary to fact is indicated by the tense employed: Thy kingdom come (present tense to express a wish for the future). Would that the night ivere come (past tense to express a wish unfulfilled in the present). If I just could have had sense enough to hold my tongue! (past- perfect tense to express a wish unfulfilled in past time). 2. Verbals themselves may be present or past in time. But they can merely assert their own action as complete or incomplete at the time asserted by the principal verbs on which they depend: Turning (present participle) to the right we follow (present) the main road to the river. Turning to the right we followed (past) the main road to the river. Having given (past participle) our word we are not free (present) to break it. Having given our word we were not free (past) to break it. Your coming (present infinitive) was (past) eagerly expected; your going will-be (future) equally regretted. Our having-covered (perfect infinitive) the distance in so short a time was what he could not (past) understand. VERBS 69 Your having-supported (perfect infinitive) your country's cause will (future) always be a source of pride to your friends. . .. . For my purpose holds (present) To-sail beyond the sunset and the baths Of all the western stars until I die. To-have-failed (past infinitive) is (present) a misfortune; not-to- have-tried (past infinitive) would-be a disgrace. 3. In general the tense of the verb in a dependent clause should agree with that of the principal statement: He knows he can do it if he likes (present). He knew he could do it if he liked (past). Of course when the sense positively calls for it the tenses of independent and dependent statement may disagree: He knows he could-do it, or could-have-done it. Again, when the verb of the dependent clause states an habitual or customary fact the tense of the dependent verb is present regardless of the principal verb: Where did you say Yosemite isf Practice I. Which of the forms in italics is right? 1. Where did you say Robert is (was) today? 2. I meant to call {have called) on you yesterday. 3. Beowulf is (was) a hero of Saxon lore who was supposed to kill {to have killed) the great fire drake. 4. I should not like {have-liked) to have-done it. 5. I should not have liked to do {to have-done) it. 6. I don't see how anyone could say that Mary is {was) prettier than Alice. 7. Should you have been willing to drive {to have driven) my car for me? 8. I meant to ask {to have asked) you yesterday. 9. He asked me to tell him how far it is {was) from New York to Boston. 10. He had not heard that you and she are {were) sisters. 70 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 11. It would have been impossible for you to prevent {to have prs' vented) the accident. 12. If you will call him he will (would) come. 13. Who told you that Mary is (was) coming? 14. She expected to call (to have called) on you tomorrow. 15. Who would have thought it possible to ride (to have ridden) this distance by noon? 16. I am telegraphing to her so that she may (might) have the house ready. II. In the following sentences give the mode and tense of the verbs and tell how they agree with their subject: 1. Col. Roosevelt said that a herd of Zebras, running through the streets of a town in Africa, knocked a girl from her bicycle. 2. You may go home when you are through. 3. John, close the windows. 4. If I see the boy, I will tell him. 5. You might bring the boys with you, when you come. 6. You may bring the girls too, if you wish. 7. Please bring me my shawl. 8. This is the forest primeval. 9. Did you say you would come? 10. How can you speak so rudely I 11. You might have been mistaken. 12. You have been too careless about this matter. 13. You may ride my horse. 14. Can you ride that horse? 15. I can skate across the pond. 16. May I skate across the pond? 17. I ought to have written some letters today. 18. Let not your heart be troubled. 19. I mailed your letter. 20. I have mailed your letter. 21. I had sung my song before my sister came. * 22. I shall give you my book when I finish it. 23. Had you finished the book, when you gave it to me? 24. You will have gone twenty miles by the time I have started. 25. You have broken your string. 26. Oh, I had broken that before you came. 27. You will have walked five miles by the time you reach their house. VERBS 71 28. I caught the horse. 29. You should have caught the horse. 30. He has caught the horse. 31. The letter has been mailed by the boy. III. In the following sentences indicate changes in the verbs to show a difference in time; tell the difference in meaning: and give the tense and mode of every verb: 1. He sings tenor. 2. He sang at the concert last night. 3. He will sing tonight. 4. Do you see that hght? 5. He saw the star fall. 6. He will see the pictures. 7. I invite you to the party. 8. I am inviting the girls to the party. 9. She invited the girls to the party. 10. We shall invite the girls to the party. 11. They will have invited the girls to the party. 12. I had invited the girls to the party before I received your letter. Verb-Forms In the following sentence are three varieties of assertion: If John waits much longer he will-be-delaying the whole expedi- tion; I do-wish he'd hurry. These varieties are called verb-forms: (1) the Simple, (2) the Progressive, and (3) the Emphatic. Only the Progressive and the Emphatic need explanation. They differ from the Simple Verb-form in always using some part of ''be" or **do" to make the assertion. Even in the simpler tenses these forms are compound; they employ verb-phrases. Progressive Verb-form Compare the different forms of the present tense of the verb write: He writes books. He is-writing a book. 72 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE The first expresses a habit or custom; the second ex- presses a particular action in progress at the time of speak- ing. When some part of the verb "6e" is combined with the present participle to show that action is, was, or will- be going on, the form is called the progressive verb- form, and its phrase the progressive verb-phrase. Emphatic Verb-form Is he writing a book? I did-hear that he was but I do-not-know. When some part of the verb "do'' is placed before the simple active verb the form is called the emphatic verb- form,, and its phrase the emphatic verb-phrase. Rarely the progressive and the emphatic verb-forms are combined : Do let us be-hurrying or we shall delay the expedition. The progressive verb-form is also used in the passive voice, in the present and past indicative and the past sub- junctive. The emphatic verb-form is found only in the active voice, in the present and past indicative, the present and past subjunctive, and the present imperative. Note: — The emphatic verb-form has come to be used idiomatically when no special emphasis is meant: / don't-think-so is less emphatic than, I-think-not-so; I-do-not-doubt is less emphatic than, I-doubt-not. Practice I. Bring to class: Five emphatic verb-phrases, each taken from the Bible, Shake- speare, Stevenson, or any standard author. Let two be in the indicative; two in the imperative; one in the subjunctive. VERBS 73 II. Give mode and tt^nse and voice of the following progressive phrases: She is playing in the garden. He was flying his kite when I came into the house. They will he going home this afternoon. You should have been doing your work at that time. I am being taught to dance. He was being dined when I came into the grounds. If he was being shown the house I am sorry I called him so soon. If he were being shown the house he would have told us. III. Bring in: Five progressive verb-phrases from the Bible, three in the in- dicative, two in the subjunctive; Five progressive verb-phrases selected from Kipling or any standard author. Tell mode, tense, voice. Person and Number The regular verb must agree with its subject in person and number; sometimes it requires a change in the form of the verb to show this agreement: I am; thou art; he is, are exceptional variations; I give; thou givest; he gives, are regular variations. Similarly the verb sometimes changes its form to denote singular or plural number: Singular Plural The child laughs, The children lav^h. The child is here, The children are here. The child has gone, The children have gone. The changes in form of the verb to make the agreement in person and number are found in the present and present- perfect tenses. But the so-called solemn style (see appendix for the conjugation of the verb), and the auxiliaries shall and will, and the verb, he, however used, carry their changes in form through other tenses. 74 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Note: — You, though used in the singular, is plural in form and always takes a plural verb: You were a crack shot even when you were a lad of fifteen. Sometimes if the subject is plural in form but singular in meaning it takes a singular verb: The news is encouraging. Physics is the hardest study I have. Correct Use of Singular and Plural Each, every, many-a, either and neither are singular. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or, either- or, neither-nor, the verb must be singular. Words joined to the subject by with, together-with, in- addition-to, or as-well-as, are parenthetical and do not affect the number of the verb. A verb agrees with the antecedent of the relative pronoun. Practice I. Insert the proper form of the verb he in the blank spaces : 1. That kind of apples scarce. 2. Each of the men provided with a gun. 3. Neither Mary nor Harry in the right place. 4. Fifteen minutes spent every morning feeding the birds. 5. The money as well as the inclination lacking. 6. Every one of those dogs mine. 7. Two times five ten. 8. My aunt with the whole family detained by the storm. 9. Three spoonfuls of butter enough for that cake. II. Which is the better form? Give reasons: 1. A boat with two fishermen {has, have) come into the harbor. 2. The ship with all its crew (were, was) lost. 3. Kipling is one of the best story writers that {has, have) written during the last decade. VERBS 75 4. Bring me one of the shawls that (is, are) lying on my lounge. 5. You are not the only one that (has, have) been fooled by him. 6. The greater part of the audience (was, were) charmed by her. 7. He is one of those singers who (charm, charms) their listeners. III. Fill in blanks with the correct verb: 1. He is down in the hammock watching a squirrel. 2. After he down he remembered that he had not the camp fire for the evening. 3. Those logs have in the water too long. Do not them on the fire; they will not burn. 4. I like to on the ground and look up at the stars when I am in the mountains. ' 5. those boughs under that tree those old ones have been on too long. We on them all last month. 6. You are them too close to the tree. 7. The bird has four eggs in that nest. I shall in wait for that old cat and if I my eyes on her while she is climb- ing toward the nest I will teach her a lesson. 8. Mary said you had my book on the table and had down for a nap. 9. You will catch cold if you too near that window. 10. One of those girls bring the letter. 11. Some of those girls students. 12. The class divided in choice. 13. Mary as well as Charlotte taking lessons of her. 14. Pontics not interesting to me. 15. Those kinds of scissors to cut with. 16. That kind of scissors hard to cut with. 17. Lives of Greek Heroes the best of all the books in that set. 18. either of you going to the play tonight? The Principal Parts The principal parts of the verb are: Pres. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Past Part. move moved moving moved see saw seeing seen 76 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Principal parts are samples of the verb, chosen to show the chief differences in asserting the time and manner of the option. One or another of these parts may be employed to make compound forms: I am-moving I did-move I have {had, will-have) moved. The principal parts also show whether a verb is regular (weak) or irregular (strong). Pres. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Past Part. Strong: fall fell falling fallen Weak: fell felled felling felled (= cause to fall) Strong: lie lay lying lain Weak: lay laid laying laid (= cause to lie) Strong: rise rose rising risen Weak: raise raised raising raised (= cause to rise) Strong: sit sat sitting sat Weak: set set setting set (= cause to sit) Weak verbs regularly form the past tense by adding the ending d, or ed, or t, to the present. Strong verbs regularly form the past tense by chang- ing the vowel without adding an ending. Note: — The verb set though really weak has a slight ir- regularity in the past indicative and past participle which have dropped the ending because it is hard to unite the sound with the final letter of the present indicative. Similar verbs are: hit hit hitting hit put put putting put bet bet betting bet Strong or Irregular Verbs The following strong verbs are examples of variations in form: VERBS 77 Pres. Inf. Past Ind. Pres. Part. Past Part. (mixed verbs) be was being been go went going gone (pure verbs) bid bade bidding bidden bring brought bringing brought buy bought buying bought choose chose choosing chosen do did doing done drink drank drinking drunk fly flew flying flown forget forgot forgetting forgotten hide hid hiding hidden ring rang ringing rung seek sought seeking sought speak spoke speaking spoken take took taking taken ^ teach taught teaching taught think thought thinking thought wear wore wearing worn write wrote writing written Some verbs have both strong and weak conji Ligations: work wrought working wrought worked working worked Note: — For the conjugation of the verb see Appendix A. Practice I. Give the following forms: 1. The active progressive of go. 2. The passive indicative of make. 3. The passive present progressive of kill. 4. The active present progressive of love. 5. The active present, singular, subjunctive of h,ugh. 6. The active present progressive of lie (to recUne) . 7. The active past and present-perfect of sing. 8. The infinitives and participles of run. 78 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE II. Use the correct form of the verb: 1. I wish you (past-perfect of give) me one. 2. The airship (past of Jiy) over the field through which the river (past of flow). 3. They (past of lay) the new stone where the old log (past- perfect of lie) so long. 4. He (past of sit) down on the ground and the children (past of lie) in the grass at his feet. 5. They (past of bring) some flowers and (past of make) a wreath, and while they (past-progressive of make) it, he (past of tell) them stories. 6. The boat (past-perfect of go) half an hour when we (past of reach) the wharf. 7. They (past of fell) the tree and let it (lie, lay) where it (past- perfect of fall). 8. He (past of rise) up in bed, reached for the window shade, and (past of raise) it. 9. He (past of set) the water-glass on the table near which he (past progressive of sit). 10. The water (past of freeze) in the bucket; it has been years since water (present-perfect of freeze) in this locahty. 11. If you go out without a wrap you (future of freeze). 12. I (future-perfect of make) five dresses when this is finished. 13. (Potential auxiliary showing permission) I go down town? 14. If (past subjunctive denoting impossibiUty) you, I (would should) not do that. VERBS 79 Kind Verbs 2. Auxiliaries 3. Verbals • Voice Infinitives Form Used Outline Summary i xr I T^ f Transitive, Intransitive. 1. Verbs Proper | g^^^^^^ ^^^^^ Conjugation. Perfect tense auxiliaries: have, has, had. Future tense auxiliaries: shall and will, should and wovld. Potential auxiliaries: ought, must, may, can, might, will, shall, would, could, should. Emphatic auxiliaries: do, did. Progressive auxiliaries: all the forms of he. Passive auxiliaries: have, and he. { Present. Participles -I Past. [ Perfect, active, passive. Present, active, passive. Past, active, passive. Active. Passive. Indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. Present. Past. Future. Perfect. I Past perfect. I Future perfect. [ First. Person ] Second. [ Third. Number ^i^^^^^- ^^^^^ I Plural 1. Verbs, to assert the action performed or received by the subject. 2. Participles, to serve as adjectives. 3. Infinitives, to serve as substantives. Mode Tense CHAPTER IV Adjectives and Adverbs * Nouns, pronouns, and verbs are enough in themselves to make complete sentences. However, taken by themselves they cannot express much beyond the simplest ideas. To express thoughtfully these parts-of-speech must be modified. The chief modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Adjec- tives modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs; they may also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Notice how much the writer of the following letter de- pends on the modifying words to express his thought: The new French teacher "isn't half-bad," as English Harry says. He is really a very good fellow. I truly think he likes his dry old subject and, what is more, that he likes us, most of us, so that he seldom gets angry, even when he can't make out the queer sounds we are making. Dull as I am at languages and that sort of thing, he even likes me pretty well. He likes Tom better, though, and of- course he likes the clever Harry best. I hope he will be more su£cess- ful than the other men have been; he is the third we have tried in two years. What interesting things have been happening to you? The, more, most, two, are limiting adjectives. New, French, half-bad, English, angry, queer, dull, clever, successful are descriptive adjectives. That, other are pronominal adjectives. Really, very, truly, seldom, even, pretty, well, better, of- course, best, most are simple adverbs. When is a conjunctive adverb. What is an interrogative adjective, 80 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 81 Adjectives Limiting Adjectives Articles Boys like to play. A boy likes to play. The healthy boy Ukes to play. Observe these three sentences. You will find there is a difference in form, and a difference in meaning, although the assertions made by the predicates are the same. The change is made in the modifications of the subjects. In the first sentence the predicate asserts a characteristic common to all boys, and the subject hoys has no modifier. In the second sentence the meaning is modified by having the subject limited to one boy. No special boy is spoken of; the assertion is made of any one boy among all boys. This modification is denoted by the article a which limits the subject. In the third sentence the meaning is still further modified by having the subject limited to one special boy, and this modification is denoted by the word ^Hhe^^ which limits the subject. Since a or its other form an, and the are used to limit the meaning of nouns they are limiting adjectives: they are called articles. The article a or an limits indefinitely. The article the limits definitely. Numerals One boy and three girls came. In this sentence one and three limit the nouns hoy and girls to a definite number. 82 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE When numerals are used to limit the meaning of nouns they are called limiting adjectives. Pronominal Adjectives Thai hat is mine; this hat is yours, but you may wear that one if you Uke. Neither hat is very becoming, I wish you had another hat. In these two sentences we have words that we have been studying as pronouns, but they cannot be pronouns here because they do not take the place of nouns. The nouns are here too, and these pronominal words modify them in place of being substituted for them. Take the sentences on page 37, Chapter II: This is my section, porter, and that is my baggage; these are my umbrellas, and those are my valises. The same things might be said in the following way: This section is mine, porter, and that baggage; these umbrellas are mine, too, and those valises. When pronouns are used to limit the meaning of nouns and are not used as substitutes for them, they he- come prnnnminr^l adlpctinpa. Not only demonstrative pronouns but interrogative* relative, and indefinite pronouns may become pronominal adjectives: Which (pronoun) is my hat? Which (adjective) hat is mine? Whatever (pronoun) you undertake, work at it with a will. Whatever (adjective) task you undertake, work at it with a will. Some (adjective) men exercise vigorously, and some (pronoun) do not. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 83 Practice Select the limiting adjectives in the following sentences and tell how they limit; note whether they are articles, numerals or pronominals: A boy's will is the wind's will And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts. And close behind her stood Eight daughters of the plough stronger than men. I said : ^Vhen first the world began, Young Nature thro' five cycles ran And in the sixth she moulded man. This truth within thy mind rehearse, That in a boundless universe Is boundless better, boundless worse. Descriptivb Adjectives A tall, white house stands within the garden wall. In this sentence the words tall and white describe the noun house. Adjectives which modify the meaning of nouns by describing them are called descriptive adjectives, Harry wore a Roman coin on his watch-fob. In this sentence the word Roman modifies the noun coin by describing it; therefore it is a descriptive adjective. Roman is an adjective derived from the proper noun Rome. When an adjective is derived from a proper noun it is called a proper adjective and should always have a capital for its initial letter. It is better to be a self-controlled man, than a devil-may-care fellow. 84 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE When adjectives are made up of two or more words they are called compound adjectives. The adjective may complete the assertion of the verb at the same time it is describing or Hmiting the meaning of the subject or the object. The ground is white. The snow makes the ground white. In the first sentence the adjective white completes the assertion of the verb and at the same time describes the sub- ject. When an adjective completes the assertion of the verb and describes the subject it is called a predicate adjec- tive, or attribute complement. In the second sentence the adjective white, as attribute of the infinitive to be helps complete the assertion of the verb makes and describes the object ground (makes the ground to-be white). When the adjective helps complete the assertion of the verb, and describes the object it is called an attribute of the object, or objective complement. Practice I. Select and classify the adjectives in the following sentences: 1. However, the egg only got larger and larger, and more and more human, and when she came within a few yards of it, she saw that it had eyes and a nose and mouth. 2. The sea was wet as wet could be. The sands were dry as dry. 3. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of Minas, Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pre, Dwelt on his goodly acres. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 85 4. Everything, from the hght and the lapis-lazuH flagstones, to the shimmering background into which the last arches run and disappear, everything, down to the smallest objects, is of an un- real, intense, fairy-like blue. 5. Certainly the bird will be blue, since everjrthing here is blue. Heavens, how beautiful it all is! 6. The clouds were pure and white as flocks new shorn, And fresh from the clear brook; sweetly they slept On the blue fields of heaven, and then there crept A httle noiseless noise among the leaves. Born of the very sigh that silence heaves. 7. I was light-hearted, And many pleasures to my vision started; So I straightway began to pluck a posy Of luxuries bright, milky, soft and rosy. 8. Here are sweet peas, on tip-toe for a flight: With wings of gentle flush o'er delicate white, And taper fingers catching at all things, To bind them all about with tiny rings. 9. Linger awhile upon some bending plank That leans against a streamlet's rushy bank, And watch intently Nature's gentle doings: They will be found softer than ring-dove's cooings. 10. And still she slept an azure-lidded sleep. In blanched linen, smooth, and lavender'd. While he from forth the closet brought a heap Of candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd, With jellies soother than the creamy curd, And lucent syrops, tinct with cinnamon; Manna and dates : spiced dainties, every one, From silken Samarcand to cedar'd Lebanon. II. Choose from any poem of Temiyson with which you are acquainted : Ten descriptive adjectives. Five descriptive adjectives used as attribute complement. Ten pronominal adjectives. Ten numerical adjectives. 86 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Comparison of Adjectives Adjectives and adverbs do not make any change in form for person and case, and with the exception of the adjec- tives this and that, they make no change for number. (Long ago they changed in form as the noun changed.) The only change they make in form is for the purpose of showing a difference in degree of the quality which the noun possesses. This change is called Comparison. There are three different degrees of comparison: the posi- tive, the comparative, and the superlative. When the adjective merely names some quality pos- sessed by the noun, and does not denote the degree, the adjective is in the positive degree: This apple is not ripe. When the adjective denotes a greater degree of the quality of an object than is possessed by some other ob- ject with which it is compared, it is in the comparative degree: This is a riper apple than that one. When an adjective denotes a quality as possessed to the greatest degree by some object among a number in comparison {two or more) , the adjective is in the super- lative degree: This is the ripest apple in the basket. Note the different ways in which the degrees of compari- son are shown in the following groups of sentences: 1. See what a ripe apricot. Yes, but here is a riper one. Oh, but this is the ripest I have found on the tree. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 87 2. What an attractive place for the camp. Is it more attractive than the spot you found down the canon? This is the most attractive spot I have found on the mountain. 3. Stop and rest; you are tired. I am less tired than you are; you carried that heavy pack. I am the least tired of us all; I rode the burro all the way. 4. This is a had road. Is it worse than the road on the other side of the mountains? It seems to me it is the worst road in the county. In the first group the comparative decree is formed by adding er to the positive, and the superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive; — rij)e -riper, -ripest. In the second, third and fourth groups the comparative and the superlative degree are formed by the use of different words. Good, -better, -best ;-much, -more, -most,' ascending scale. Bad, worse,-worst;4ittle, -less, -least,- descending scale. Adjectives Irregularly Compared Positive Comparative Superlative little less least p farther farthest far further furthest many | much J more most near nearer ' nearest next ill bad worse worst good ' well ^ better best laf^ latter last later 88 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Some Adjectives Compared In Two Ways Positive Comparative Superlative lovely able lovelier more lovely abler more able loveliest most lovely ablest most able. Some Adjectives Have No Positive Form Comparative Superlative outer upper utter iimer outmost outermost. uppermost uttermost inmost imiermost Rules for the Use of Comparative and Superlative Use the comparative degree to indicate a comparison between two objects or two sets of objects, or alternative objects. Use the superlative degree to indicate a comparison among all the objects considered. Comparative. Apples are finer than oranges. Apples are finer than any other fruit. Apples are finer than oranges, peaches, or apricots. Superlative. Apples are the finest of all fruits. Note: — In using the comparative form be careful to make the latter term exclude the former. Thus the sentence, "Apples are finer than any fruit,^' is nonsense, for apples are themselves fruit. Amend the sentence to read, ''Apples are finer than any other fruit." In using the superlative form be careful to make the latter ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 89 term include the former. Thus the sentence, "Apples are the finest of any other fruit/' is nonsense, for apples are apples and not other fruit. Care in the Use of Adjectives When used as pronouns, this and these refer to things near to hand; that and those to things farther removed. Be careful to use this and that to modify nouns in the singular, and these and those to modify nouns in the plural, as: This apple is sweet; that apple is sour. These apples are sweet; those apples are sour. This kind of apple is sweet; that kind of apple is sour. These kinds of apples are sweet; those kinds of apples are sour. Be careful in the use of a. few and a little: Few denotes not many; Little denotes not much. Give me a few friends and a little money, and T can be contented. He has fewer friends and less money than his brother had. In using connected nouns which are to be distinguished from one another, be careful to repeat the article before each, as: I do not know which was the more lovely, the vase or the rose. When two or more connected adjectives describe one object use the article before the first adjective only: He wore a blue and green tie. But when two or more connected adjectives modify dif- ferent nouns, use the article before each adjective: He found an orange and an apple orchard. He owns a silver and a gold mine. 90 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Use either and neither when referring to two objects only; any and none when referring to more than two: Neither hat can be worn. You may choose any one of those five ties, or none of them. Practice I. Indicate the correct adjectives for the following: Do you like kind of candy? Do you like those of ? Mother will give you four of of apples. Bring me six of that of roses. Bring me five of those of grapes. II. Oive the degrees of all the adjectives in the following sentences: 1. See what a lovely shell, Small and pure as a pearl, Lying close to my foot, Frail, but a work divine, Made so fairily well. With delicate spire and whorl, How exquisitely minute, A miracle of design. 2. Happy in this, she is not yet so old But she may learn; happier then in this. She is not bred so dull but she can learn; Happiest of all in that her gentle spirit Commits itself to yours to be directed. 3. "Deafer," said the blameless king, "Gawain, and blinder unto holy things Hope not to make thyself by idle vows. Being too blind to have desire to see." 4. The little bird sits at his door in the sun Atilt like a blossom among the leaves. And lets his illumined being o'ernm With the deluge of summer it receives; ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 91 His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings, And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings; He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best? 5. son, thou hast not true humihty. The highest virtue, the mother of them all: 6. Can this be Christmas — sweet as May, With drowsy sun, and dreamy air, And new grass pointing out the way For flowers to follow, every where? 7. While Kings of eternal evil Yet darken the hills about, Thy part is with broken sabre To rise on the last redoubt; To fear not sensible failure, Nor covet the game at all. But fighting, fighting, fighting, Die driven against the wall. 8. Take temperance to thy breast. While yet is the hour of choosing, As arbitress exquisite Of all that shall thee betide; For better than fortune's best Is mastery in the using. And sweeter than anything sweet The art to lay it aside! 92 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Kind Adjectives Outline Summary 1. Limiting 2. Descriptive 3. Interrogative articles numerals pronominals common proper {positive comparative superlative Use To modify nouns. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 93 Adverbs An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. The simple adverb may denote the time, the place, the degree, or the manner in which the verb performs its action; or it may denote the degree of the quality expressed by the adjective or by another adverb. Edith is coming home tomorrow. Adverb denoting time. Jack, come here. Adverb denoting place. Richard rode slowly home. Adverb denoting manner. He has nearly finished his work. Adverb denoting degree. The walls are dark purple. Adverb denoting degree of adjective. The walls are very dark purple. — Adverb denoting degree of adverb. Adverbs very closely resemble adjectives. Indeed there are some words that without change of form are either adjective or adverb, and to decide which part-of-speech a given word is, one has to note carefully its use in the sen- tence. You look very well tonight. Well is here used to show condition; therefore it is an adjective. You did that work well. Well is here used to show mamier; therefore it is an ad- verb. James ran so fast I could not catch him. Fast is here used to show manner; therefore it is an ad- verb. What &fast horse James has! Fast is here used to describe horse; therefore it is an ad- jective. 94 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE You may go if you will not walk too far. Here far is used to denote distance and place; therefore it is an adverb. You may be very homesick when you reach that far country. Here far is used to describe country; therefore it is an adjective. Please give me a little more sugar in my tea. Here little is used to show degree ; therefore it is an adverb. What a little girl you are! Here little is used to describe girl; therefore it is an ad- jective. Come early that you may get a good seat. Here early is used to show time ; therefore it is an adverb. Mother sent you some of our early corn. Here early describes corn; therefore it is an adjective. Sometimes it is rather difficult to decide, even by the use, whether the word used is an adverb or a predicate ad- jective. This is especially true when the word follows such a verb as taste, smell, look, seem, sound, feel. (See page 51). Practice In the following sentences choose the correct modifiers: 1. That apple tastes {bad badly). 2. The rat smells the cheese (cautious cautiously). 3. Mother looks (bad badly ill). 4. The coat fits (bad badly). 5. He feels {warmly warm) on the subject of labor unions. 6. He saw his duty {plain plainly). 7. The girl looked {shy shyly) at the strangers. 8. The girl looks {shy shyly), COMPAKISON OF AdVERBS Simple adverbs also resemble adjectives in that they vary their forms to show different degrees of comparison. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 95 The comparative degree of the adverb, Uke that of the adjective, is formed by adding er, or by prefixing more or less to the positive form. Positive fast long far hard short Comparative faster longer farther harder shorter Superlative fastest longest farthest hardest shortest Positive swiftly sweetly warmly Comparative more swiftly more sweetly more warmly Superlative most swiftly most sweetly most warmly Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison: Positive ill well much little Comparative worse better more less Superlative worst best most least Practice I. Fill in blanks with a proper adverb: 1. He sings . 4. Her dress was torn. 2. The fire burns . 5. My father rises . 3. The men work . 6. Speak if you wish me to understand. II. Determine what parts of speech the italicized adverbs modify and tell whether each adverb denotes time, place, manner, or degree: 1. She drives by our house very often. 2. Very beautiful pictures are in that magazine. 3. Always speak kindly but firmly to wilful children. 4. He should speak more gently. 5. You have gone there a great many times. 6. Step very quietly and don't remain more than ten minutes. III. Distinguish between the adverbs and adjectives in the following sentences and tell what they denote : 1. He looks well, and sleeps well, and works well, but he com- plains of not feeling well. 96 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 2. Speak a little lower; the little child is quietly sleeping, and a little quiet rest may be all she needs to make her well. 3. We took the fast train. I never rode so fast before; it was too fast to be safe. We reached home for luncheon, but we had to fast for breakfast. 4. What a smoothly running car this is! Your engine must run smoothly or it is an unusually smooth road. 5. It is a calm, peaceful night; the moon beams peacefully and calmly down upon the earth and all is quiet and serene. Interrogative Adverbs Why, how, when, where, etc., when used in asking questions are called interrogative adverbs: Why did you go home? How did you enjoy the concert? Where are you going for your vacation this summer? When do you start on your camping trip? Modal Adverbs Perhaps, however, possibly, surely, probably, are adverbs which sometimes seem to modify the. whole sentence rather than the verb or some adjective in the sentence. In this use they are called modal adverbs : Perhaps, 1 shall go East this summer. The boys could not come, however, so we put off the picnic until next Saturday. Possibly, you can tell me where I can find the janitor. Surely, you will not send that child to school without his breakfast. The boys will, probably, wait to hear which school won the ball game. Correct Use of Negatives Modem English does not permit the use of the double negative : Incorrect: He could not find it nowhere. Correct: He could not find it anywhere. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 97 The adverbs only, hardly, scarcely, are themselves negative in idea; they, must not be used with another negative thus making a double negative: Incorrect: I am not allowed to go to parties only on Fridays. Correct: I am allowed to go to parties only on Fridays. Incorrect: It was so dark I couldn't hardly see the road. Correct: It was so dark I could hardly see the road. Incorrect: There was such a crowd when President Wilson spoke, there wasn't scarcely standing room. Correct: There was such a crowd when President Wilson spoke, there was scarcely standing room. Responsives The responsives Yes and No are sometimes classed as adverbs, but strictly speaking they are not parts-of-speech at all. They are words used as substitutes for whole sen- tences, limiting the statements to affirmation or denial: Did you see the automobile race? Yes = I did see it. No = I did not see it. Conjunctive Adverbs Some adverbs join the principal clauses of a compound sentence. Care must be taken to use them properly: either a conuna and a coordinating conjunction or a semi-colon must also be used to connect the clauses: The men were in a hurry to go, and so they did not wait for you to return. The men were in a hurry to go; so they did not wait for you to return. Some of the conjunctive adverbs are: so, thus , also, h ence , consegumily , moreove r, still, n evertheless, th erefor e, however. 98 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Subordinating Conjunctive Adverbs When adverbs join subordinate clauses to the words in the sentence which they modify, they are subordinating conjunctions; as, when, where, while, since, though, although, as-if, if, than, before, until, till, unless, for, wherever, whenever, whereas, etc: I shall go down town when school is out. You should see our library while you are here. They will arrive at six o'clock if the train is on time. Some Special Distinctions Some and Somewhat. Some is a pronominal adjective: I have some money. Somewhat is an adverb : I am somewhat low in funds. Good and Well. Good is an adjective: He does good work. Well is either an adverb or an adjective: He works well (adverb). He is not well (adjective) enough to work. Only and Alone. Alone is an adjective: *'Sinn Fein," the name of the Irish party, means "Ourselves alone ^^ (adjective). Only is either an adverb or an adjective: The car stops at this crossing only (adjective). No, it only (adverb) slows; it doesn't stop. Practice I. Select the adjectives and adverbs and tell how they are used: Ah, there you are, my little Master! . . . How well you look and how pretty, this evening! I went before you to announce your arrival. AH is going well. We shall have the Blue Bird tonight, I am sure. I have just sent the Rabbit to beat the troop in order to convoke the principal animals of the country. You can hear them already among the foHage. Listen! They're only a Uttle shy and dare not come near. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 99 II. Select the adverbs and tell what they denote: 1. Come, dear children, let us away; Down and away below! Now my brothers call from the bay. Now the great winds shoreward blow, Now the salt tides seaward flow; Now the wild white horses play. Champ and chafe and toss in the spray. Children dear, let us away! This way, this way! 2. Why did you melt your waxen man. Sister Helen? Today is the third since you began. The time was long, yet the time ran, Little brother. 3. Under the wide and starry sky. Dig the grave and let me lie. Glad did I hve and gladly die. And I laid me down with a will. This be the verse you grave for me, Here he lies where he longed to be; Home is the sailor, home from sea. And the hunter home from the hill. 4. Jjet the blow fall soon or late. Let what will be o'er me; Give the face of earth around. And the road before me. Wealth I ask not, hope nor love. Nor a friend to know me; All I seek the heaven above And the road below me. III. In the following sentences choose the correct form — adjective or adverb — and give the reason for your choice : 1. Handle the test tube {careful, carefully). 2. He looks very {bad, badly). 3. School — Drive {slow, slowly). 4. He acted very {different, differently) from what I expected. 100 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 5. (Sure, surely) I will go. 6. Walk {quick, quickly) and you will be in time. IV. Choose between the comparatives and superlatives in the following sentences: 1. Which is the (larger, largest) San Francisco, or New Orleans? 2. The (older, oldest) of the two sisters is married. 3. Which do you Uke (better, best) grapes or peaches? 4. Which do you find (easier, easiest), Enghsh or Latin? 5. John seems to have (the best judgment of any, better judg- ment than any) boy in school. V. Fill in blanks with either some or somewhat and give reason for the choice: 1. My mother is better this morning; she has taken breakfast. 2. There is doubt about his coming back to school this term, though he is surer of coming than he was. VI. Fill in blanks with either good or well and give resaon for choice: Is your sick friend getting ? His health isn't very but for one who has been so ill he is progressing very . VII. In the following sentences distinguish the different uses of alone and of only, whether adjective or adverb: 1. Only North-Loop cars stop at this crossing. 2. They stop only to let off passengers. 3. He doesn't play base-ball; he only plays foot-ball. 4. He only won two games of the set. 5. He wasn't really playing; he only played at playing. 6. Only members (members alone) have the right to vote. 7. The weather wasn't disagreeable; it was only very warm. 8. He alone steps from the van of the freemen. He al^ne sinks to the rear and the slaves. VIII. Lring into class seven sentences, each successively containing one of the several adjectives and adverbs following: each latest pretty every last prettily ADJECTIVES AND ^bVERBS I ..lOU Adverbs Kind Form Use Outline Summary ' 1. Simple 2. Conjunctive 3. Interrogative f 1. Positive 2. Comparative 3. Superlative hence, whence, where, ivhen, because, if. 1. To modify verbs adjectives adverbs 2. To join clauses. CHAPTER V Prepositions Note the italicized words in the following passage. By afternoon we had come to the desert and could see the un- broken level ahead-of us. Into it we went without realizing what fate had in store for us. From that moment our journey became a chapter of accidents. At-once our motor began to ''skip," and within an hour it had "gone dead" on our hands. Luckily another car drew up along-side-of ours, and the motorist kindly towed us the rest of the way through the sandy waste, by-means-of a rope he had brought with him. A preposition is a word used with a noun or pro- noun, always in the objective case, to make a phrase which limits some other word. While the preposition regularly consists of one word, certain groups of related words, such as in-place of, instead- of, along-with, etc., are idiomatically used as prepositions. A preposition is regularly followed by a noun or pronoun. Sometimes, however, a preposition may idiomatically be followed : By an adjective: She was lovely in a dress of blue. By an adverb: Come at once. By another preposition: It fell from above. By a phrase: I have had replies from about thirty of my invitations. Did you hear about that man's falling from the rooff 102 PREPOSITIONS 103 However, in all these cases the words following the preposi- tions either imply nouns or have the force of nouns. A dress of-blue = A dress of blue cloth. At-once = At this instant. From-above = From above our heads. ''About thirty, etc.," and ''That man's falling" are noun-phrases (see Chapter VIII). Use of Prepositions A preposition may be used to relate its object: To a noun: He wore a ring of-gold. To a pronoun: He of-the-lion-heart led the onset. To an adjective: Radiant with light, the house welcomed us. To an adverb: Exactly to the minute the train started. Practice Select the prepositions in the following and explain their objects: 1. I would sometimes lie down, and let five or six of them dance on my hand; and at last the boys and girls would venture to come and play at hide-and-seek in my hair. I had now made a good progress in understanding and speaking their language. 2. The Emperor had a mind, one day, to entertain me with several of the country shows. I was diverted with none so much as that of the rope-dancers, performed upon a slender white thread extending about two feet and twelve inches from the ground, upon which I shall desire Uberty with the reader's patience to enlarge a little. 104 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 3. The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, For talking age or whispering lovers made! 4. Thanks, my Lord, for your venison, for finer or fatter Never ranged in a forest, or smoked in a platter; So I cut it, and sent it to Reynolds undrest. To paint it or eat it, just as he liked best. Of the neck and the breast I had next to dispose; 'Twas a neck and a breast might rival Monroe's; But in parting with these I was puzzled again, With the how, and the who, and the where, and the when. 5. Piping down the valleys wild. Piping songs of pleasant glee, On a cloud I saw a child. And he, laughing, said to me: "Pipe a song about a lamb," So I piped with merry cheer. "Piper, pipe that song again," So I piped: he wept to hear. 6. The year's at the spring And day's at the morn; Morning's at seven; The hillside's dew-pearled; The lark's on the wing; The snail's on the thorn; God's in his Heaven — All's right with the world! Correct Use of Prepositions Among, between : Use among when you wish to refer to more than two per- sons or things, or groups of persons or things. Use between when you wish to refer to two only: Though there may be differences between our two schools we three can settle them among us. By, with: Use by when you wish to denote the doer of an action: The bird was shot by my brother. PREPOSITIONS 105 Use mth generally when you wish to denote the instru- ment with which the action was performed: He shot it with a rifle. BesidS) Besides: Use beside when you mean by the side of. Use besides when you mean in addition to; May I sit beside you? Is any one besides your brother coming? In, into : Use in when you wish to denote presence inside of, or within. Use into when you wish to denote passing from without to the inside of: You can walk about in a room, but you will first have to go into the room. In, on: In is more definite than on. On denotes location only. Some words require special prepositions: Agree with a person, or an opinion. Agree to a statement, arrangement, proposal, plan, etc. Comply with a request, desire, etc. Confide in a friend (trust in a friend) . Confide a secret to. Correspond to or with sl thing. Correspond (exchange letters) with a person. Make remarks derogatory to. Differ /rom a person or thing (be different). Differ vrith a person, an opinion (disagree with). Be disappointed in what we have. Be disappointed of what we cannot get. 106 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Part from or with. Have a taste of or for food. Have a taste for sports. Be reconciled to or with. Show syrapathy with or for a person. Practice I. Choose the correct prepositions for the following sentences: 1. She confided in (to) me when she was in trouble. 2. Robert often differs from (with) me when we talk politics. 3. Mother is in (at) New Orleans, stopping at (in) the St. Charles Hotel. 4. I was disappointed in (of) my visit owing to Mother's illness. II. Fill each blank with its proper preposition: 1. My brother is living Boston. 2. whom did you receive that beautiful cabinet? 3. whom are you stopping? 4. whose house will you stop? 5. whom can I depend for help? 6. whom were you told that I would not sing? 7. They divided the apple the three children. 8. They put the flag the roof of the house. 9. The man ran the house. 10. We clamber out the roof of the veranda. 11. The men are putting the coal the cellar. 12. He died smallpox. 13. Did you say the man was killed his hired man? 14. That is the car which the race was won. 15. He let his bucket fall the well. 16. There is need great patience. 17. He is different his brother in that he is incKned to rush speculations. 18. This is different what you led me to expect. 19. The other house was palatial compared this. 20. He was overcome laughter. 21. You must conform the rules of the Club. PREPOSITIONS 107 22. Fondness drink led to his ruin. 23. The president could not agree his cabinet, and he was not always ready to agree their proposals. 24. The two companies were merged one. 25. She often drove town her husband. 26. His will is apt to make trouble the two families. 27. Hildredth, divide the money the three children. III. Show which prepositions are not needed in the following sentences: 1. No one could help from hking Jack, he is so jolly. 2. Can you push the boat off of that rock? 3. At about what time will the game begin? 4. After having walked a mile, I came in sight of the house. 5. Our house is near to the road. 6. We went on to the boat and the captain took us up on to the upper deck. 7. Hang the flag out of the window. 8. My httle brother fell off of his pony. 9. Let us build a wall of fifty feet in length. 10. Mary will take those books off from the table, if you wish her to do so. 11. As I stood pondering upon which road to take, my father drove along. 12. From thence we rode to Santa Barbara. IV. Select prepositions and denote the relation between the object and the word modified: 1. Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies, I hold you here, root and all, in my hand. Little flower — but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is. 2. The moon was afloat Like a golden boat On the sea-blue depths of the sky, When the miller of Dee With his children three On his fat, red horse rode by. 108 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 3. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree Where Alph, the sacred river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea. 4. The People of the Eastern Ice, they are melting like the snow, They beg for coffee and sugar; they go where the white men go. The People of the Western Ice, they learn to steal and fight; They sell their furs to the trading-post; they sell their souls to the white. The People of the Southern Ice, they trade with the whaler's crew; Their women have many ribbons, but their tents are torn and few. But the People of the Eldes Ice, beyond the white man's ken — Their spears are made of the narwhal-horn, and they are the last of the Men. 5. Man goes to man! Cry the challenge through the Jungle! He that was our Brother goes away. Hear, now, and judge, O ye People of the Jungle, — Answer, who shall turn him — who shall stay? Man goes to man! He is weeping in the Jungle! He that was our Brother sorrows sore! Man goes to man! (Oh, we loved him in the Jungle!) To the Man-Trail where we may not follow more. 6. Our ship was about 120 tons burthen; carried six guns and fourteen men, besides the master, his boy, and myself. We had on board no large cargo of goods, except of such toys as were fit for our trade with the negroes, — such as beads, bits of glass, shells, and odd trifles, especially little looking-glasses, knives, scissors, hatchets and the like. The wave that came upon me again, buried me at once twenty or thirty feet deep in its own body, and I could feel myself carried with a mighty force and swiftness towards the shore a very great way; but I held my breath, and assisted myself to swim still forward with all my might. I was now landed, and safe on shore, and began to look up and thank God that my life was saved in a case wherein there was some minutes before scarce any room to hope. PREPOSITIONS 109 7. A late lark twitters from the quiet skies; And from the west, Where the sun, his day's work ended, Lingers as in content. There falls on the old, gray city An influence luminous and serene, A shining peace. The smoke ascends In a rosy-and-golden haze. The spires Shine, and are changed. In the valley Shadows rise. The lark sings on. The sun Closing his benediction. Sinks, and the darkening air, Thrills with a sense of the triumphing night — Night, with her train of stars And her great gift of sleep. So be my passing! My task accomplished and the long day done, My wages taken, and in my heart Some late lark singing. Let me be gathered to the quiet west, The Sundown splendid and serene, Death. no GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Prepositions Kind Outline Summary 1. Simple: to, for, on, etc. 2. Compound: in-place-of, beside-of, over- and-above, etc. Form \ Make no change in form. I To connect noims and pronouns to other words, so as to show the relation be- tween the connected words. CHAPTER VI Interjections The interjections, or exclamatory words and phrases, have been italicized in the following sentences: What, the man is not really your brother! No, indeed! He is only my step-brother. Look! You can see there is no family re- semblance. An interjection is a word of exclamation, used either independently or to modify the sentence as a whole. In the first sentence the interjection, what, changes the sentence from an ordinary declaration to an exclamatory question, but it modifies no one part. The imperative interjection, look, stands by itself. Interjections make no change in form or use. The most common are: 0! Oh! Ah! Alas! Lo! Amen! Hurrah! Other parts-of-speech become interjections when used in an exclamatory sense: Never! Indeed! What! The imperative may be an interjection: Look! Stand! Hurry! Stop! Groups of words having an exclamatory sense may form phrase interjections: Great-Heavens! By-Jove! One-moment! Thank-Heavens! Ill CHAPTER VII Conjunctions Observe the relations among the parts of sentences, in the three following groups: Father and son look and speak alike. John as-well-as Henry resembles his father. Neither John nor Henry resembles his father. To laugh and to grow fat is about all some men live for. Either from weakness or from cowardice he would not fight. Whether in the body or out of the body, I know not. When I am twenty-one years old and (when I am made) a voter I shall decide which party to join. As-far-as we could judge the man's story was true. Because you have been frank with me I am going to tell you the whole truth. If you are exacting or irritable you will lose friends. Though I do not altogether like the man yet I voted for him. I am going to Los Angeles but I shall not visit San Francisco. Conjunctions are words used to join words, phrases, and clauses, and to show their mutual relations. Note: — As word-connectives conjunctions differ from prepositions: (1) prepositions re^a^e nouns, pronouns, or equivalents, to words of nearly every sort; conjunctions can only join words of the same sort ; (2) prepositions with their nouns, pronouns, or equivalents make gram- matical phrases (see page 129) ; conjunctives never. In the sentence: — John is different from (preposition) James; he is manlier than (conjunction) James, the words from-James form a grammatical phrase, the words than- 112 CONJUNCTIONS 113 James do not, for than belongs as much to the word John as to the word James. It really joins the two sen- tences: — ^John-is-manlier tha?i James-is-manly. Kinds Conjunctions are of two general kinds: 1. Coordinating conjunctions are those which join words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank. The chief coordinating conjunctions are: and, accordingly, also, again, besides, consequently, further- more, likewise, moreover, so; hut, however, nevertheless, nor, still, yet. The latter group are sometimes called disjunctives. 2. Subordinating conjunction s are those which join clauses of unequal rank. The chief subordinating conjunctions may be grouped into six classes, according to their uses: Causjj PvRfQgp gONDITION Concession Comparison Time Result as to if albeit as after because that unless although than as (= if not) nevertheless consequently whenever notwithstanding before for lest (= that ] QOt). though whereas since hence wherever while while until since whether yet unto therefore when whereas whence whenever while Note: — Some subordinating conjunctions have more than one kind of use: As (time) I was passing a haberdasher's shop I saw displayed in the front window an irresistible necktie, and as (cause) I happened 114 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE to have enough money in my pocket I resolved to buy it. While (concession) I was not in pressing need of a new necktie still I make it my rule to buy such things while (time) they can be had. Note: — Some conjunctions are either coordinating or sub- ordinating: Rain began to drizzle; so (and therefore) we raised our umbrellas (coordinating). It doesn't matter when you come so (if only) you come soon (subordinating). I was walking aimlessly along the street lohen (and then) a familiar voice saluted me (coordinating). Be sure you bring your knitting with you when (at the time) you come (subordinating). He is a shrewd politician; yet (but) he is not a great pohtical leader (coordinating). Though He slay me yet (still) will I trust Him (subordinating). Correlative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are related in pairs which to- gether join words, phrases, and clauses. The principal ones are: either — or neither — nor as-well — as not so — as as — as not — but also as — so not only not — not even both — and now — now though — yet whether — or Either George or Jack will gladly do the errand for you. Neither Henry nor James is so good a player as Tom used to be. CONJUNCTIONS 115 Phrase Conjunctions When groups of related words have the use of conjunctions they are called phrase-conjunctions. as-far-as in-spite-of as-good-as on-the-contrary as-long-as on-the-one-hand as-soon-as on-the-other-hand as-well-as so-as as-if sothat in-case-that to-begin-with inasmuch-as that-not in-order-that Adverbs and Conjunctions. Many adverbs and adverbial expressions are used as conjunctions: As far as the east is from the west so far hath He removed our transgressions from us (adverbial uses). As far as pluck is concerned he has plenty (conjunction). He took the instructions to be a hoax and acted accordingly. He was offended at the man's rudeness; accordingly (conjunction) he would not recognize him. However (adverb) you look at it, you must admit the fact. He is going to make a muddle of his career; however (conjunc- tion) he is of age and must manage his own affairs. Practice I. Select conjunctions, tell their kind, what they connect, and the meaning they express: 1. Mary or David will take the message for you. 2. I do not know whether the boy asked for Jack or for Gill. 3. They will either ride over in their machine, or they will come by train. 116 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 4. The baby will not sing to anyone but her mother. 5. She would not sing any song but that. 6. I intend to go, but I intend to return. 7. I cannot go until he comes. 8. Tom will take us for a ride after he has finished that game of tennis. 9. Harry, you may as well finish that story since you are so interested in it. 10. As I was coming through the orchard I heard a thrush singing. 11. I hope that as long as I live I may not pass such another night. 12. As soon as you have finished your letter, will you go for a walk with me? 13. Did you feed the chickens before you left home? 14. I did not finish the story because it is too long. 15. I will give you a rose if you will wait until I can pick it. 16. Mother says I may not go unless you will go with me. 17. She lives either in that house or in the next one. 18. The purse was neither in the drawer nor on the table. 19. It is easy both to judge and to condemn. 20. Not only the mother but also the baby is very ill. 21. He has courage as well as patience. 22. I can manage the car as well as you can. 23. He is taller than James. II. Select all the conjunctions in the following excerpts, tell what they show and classify them as to meaning: 1. Sweet son, for there be many who deem him not; Or will not deem him, wholly proven King — Albeit in mine own heart I knew him king When I was frequent with him in my youth. 2. And there were cries and clashings in the nest. That sent him from his senses. 3. Still we say as we go: — Strange to think by the way. Whatever there is to know. That shall we know some day. 4. But no word comes from the dead: Whether at all they be. Or whether as bond or free, Or by what spell they have sped. CONJUNCTIONS 117 5. You may call a jay a bird. Well, so he is, because he has feathers on him; otherwise he is just as human as you are. Yes, Sir; a jay is everything that a man is. A jay can laugh, a jay can gossip, a jay can feel ashamed, just as well as you do — maybe better. And there is another thing: in good, clean, out-and- out scolding, a blue jay can beat anything alive. 6. Bo-bo was in the utmost consternation, as you may think, not so much for the sake of the tenement, which his father and he could easily build up again with a few dry branches, and the labor of an hour or two, at any time, as for the loss of the pigs. ' ' father, the pig, the pig ! Do come and taste how nice the burnt pig eats." The ears of Ho-ti tingled with horror. He cursed his son, and he cursed himself that ever he should beget a son that could eat burnt pig- 7. If you can talk with crowds and keep j^our virtue, Or walk with Kings — nor lose the common touch, If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you, If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds' worth of distance run, Yours is the Earth and everything that's in it. And — which is more — you'll be a man, my son! Correct Use of Conjunctions Be careful not to omit conjunctions necessary to the sense: Incorrect: A Pierce Arrow is as good if not better than a Packard. Correct: A Pierce Arrow is as good as a Packard if not better. Be careful to place each term of the correlative so that there can be no doubt as to the words and ideas they are intended to connect: Incorrect: Father gave me not only the Electric but taught me how to run it also. Correct: Father not only gave me the Electric, but he also taught me how to run it. 118 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Except has sometimes been used as a conjunction, but the best present usage allows except as a preposition only; unless is the proper substitute: That which thou sowest cannot be quickened except it die. Without is another word sometimes used as a conjunction when unless would more nearly give the meaning: I will not give it to you without you promise to take care of it. Better form: I will not give it to you unless you promise to take care of it. Like is never a conjunction, although often incorrectly used instead of as, or as-if: Correct: I did that example as you did it (not, like you did it). Correct: It looks as-if it would snow (not, like it would). Practice I. Fill in blanks with the proper word, like, as, or as-if: 1. She likes to study mathematics — — I like to study English. 2. Father says that Tom looks Mother did when she was young. 3. She looks she were ill. 4. It looks it might rain before morning. 5. Don't you wish you could sing he can? II. Write Sentences showing careful discrimination in the use of the following connectives, telling in every case what the connective shows: Yet, still, but, and, while, so, ivhereas, however, since, because^ therefore, hence, for, nevertheless, as far as, not only — but also. CONJUNCTIONS 119 Outline Summary Kind Conjunctions Use (a) Simple: both, and, or, than, etc. 1. Coordinating (b) Correl- ative either — or neither — nor both— and as well as not — only but — also ( if, so, yet, after, , . c.- 1 1 unless, until, be- (a) Simple j^^^^;^,^'_ while, where, etc. 2. Subordi- nating (b) Phrase- conjunc- tions as far as as good as as soon as as if in order that as though so that Form \ Do not change their form 1. Coordinating Used to connect word.^, phrases or clauses of equal rank. 2. Subordi- nating f Used to connect subordi- nate clauses with independ- ent clauses CHAPTER VIII The Sentence As we have seen, a group of words expressing a complete thought is called a sentence. We are now going to study some of the ways in which a sentence may express a com- plete thought. The two essential parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The subject names the performer of the action asserted by the intransitive or the transitive verb: John struck the ball. Th3 hall was struck by John. The predicate is the most vital part of the sentence be- cause it asserts the thought or action of the sentence. We might express a complete thought by means of the verb alone, as — ''March!" "Go!" etc., the subject being unexpressed although understood. But the predicate itself very often needs something be- sides the verb to complete its meaning. Then a complete- ment or complement becomes one of the essential parts of the sentence. The sentence is expanded and limited by modifying words and phrases and clauses: and the various parts are linked and related by connectives. These modifying elements are not the essential parts of the sentence; consequently, they do not rank in importance with the subject, or the predicate. 120 THE SENTENCE 121 Forms of Sentences Sentences are classified as to their forms into: (1) simple sentences, (2) complex sentences, (3) compound sentences. All three are to be found in the following brief letter: Dear John, (1) The game comes off tomorrow. (2) If you wish to see it you must come tonight. (3) Take the limited, and be sure to bring your sister. A sentence that contains hut one complete statement^ co mmand^ or question is called a simple senten ce. A sentence that contains one complete statement, com- mand, or question, and one or more dependent state- ments, commands, or questions, is called a complex sentenc e. A sentence thai contains two or more complete state- ments, commands, or questions, is called a compound sentence. Simple Sentences A simple sentence may contain: more than one subject; Harry and Jack are both good fielders. more than one verb; Harry and Jack both field and hat well. more than one complement; The boys are gathering wood and hrush. a compound subject, a compound verb, a compound complement, and modifying phrases. Harry and Jack both cut and hauled wood and hrush for the camp- fire, this evening. 122 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Compound Sentences Sentences may be compound in either or both of two ways: 1. conjunctively; He is a good fellow, and I like him. 2. disjunctively; He may be a good fellow but I do not like him. 3. both; He is a good fellow and he is very popular, yet I do not like him. He is a good fellow and I hke h^d do not greatly admire him. Complex Sentences Complex sentences are of three orders: 1. Those containing one independent and at least one dependent statement: (a) If you disobey me (b) I shall certainly punish you. 2. Those containing at least two independent and at least one dependent statement, the compound-complex senten ce : (a) I forbid you to go and (a) I shall certainly punish you (b) if you disobey me. 3. Those containing at least one independent and at least two correlative dependent statements; the complex-com- pound : (a) When you are old and grey and full of sleep, (a) And sitting by the fire, (b) take down this book. Complex-compound sentences may also contain sub- dependent clauses: (a) We entered this war (b) because violations of right had occurred (c) which touched us to the quick (c) and made the life of our people impossible (d) unless they were corrected (d) and the world secured, once for all, against their recurrence. THE SENTENCE 123 Care in Punctuating Sentences Aeroplanes have at last flown across the ocean, they will soon be carrying passengers. Here we have two principal clauses joined by a comma, as one sentence. Corrected, — as, two simple sentences: Aeroplanes have at last flown across the ocean. They will soon be carrying passengers. Or, corrected as compound sentences with a conama and coordinating conjunction connecting the two clauses: Aeroplanes have at last crossed the ocean, and they will soon be carrying passengers. Or the comma and conjunction omitted and the semi- colon substituted: Aeroplanes have at last crossed the ocean; they will soon be carrying passengers. Avoid : (1) The mistake of writing a subordinate clause as a sentence: Wrong: I bought a new motor " bike." Which I have been needing for sometime. Right: I bought a new motor "bike" which I have needed for some time. (2) The mistake of writing a phrase as a sentence: Wrong : Father said he would buy me a new motor boat. Perhaps for my birthday in April. Right: Father said he would buy me a new motor boat, perhaps for my birthday in April. Practice Correct the mistakes in the following sentences, and ex- plain each mistake: 1. You will find the fishing fine in that river it is a shady spot. 2. I didn't know you Uved there, when did you move? 124 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 3. My teacher liked the song, she had me sing it three times. 4. Are you to sing or to play I don't remember which you chose. 5. One half the apples are here the others are in the cellar. 6. Flying is a dangerous sport. Especially in cloudy weather. 7. I want to express my sympathy I heard of your accident last night. 8. The butterfly is a most beautiful insect, with a magnifying glass examine its wings and you will agree with me. Kinds of Sentences Sentences are classified according to the manner in which their assertions are made: — 1. Declarative sentence: John brought the Packard home last night. 2. Interrogative sentence: Shall you need the machine this afternoon? 3. Imperative sentence: Please, Harry, do keep a firm hand on the wheel. 4. Exclamatory sentence: How smoothly the machine runs! 1. A sentence which states a fact is called a declarative sentence. 2. A sentence which asks a question is called an in- terrogative sentence. 3. A sentence which expresses a command, or an en- treaty is called an imperative sentence. 4. A sentence which expresses strong feeling in the manner of an exclamation is called an exclamatory sentence. Note: — The type of sentence can be indicated by punctu- ation: THE SENTENCE 125 Every sentence should begin with a capital letter. The declarative sentence and generally the imperative sentence should end with a period. The interrogative sentence should end with an interro- gation point. The exclamatory sentence should end with an exclamation point. So rarely may the imperative sentence. Note: — One kind of sentence may include another: 1. A declarative sentence may include a direct quotation expressed as a question, or as a command, or as an exclama- tion. Declarative sentence including a question : The boy ran about the house asking of everyone, "Have you seen my books or my hat?" Declarative sentence including a command : The boy ran about the house demanding of everyone, "Help me find my books and my hat." Declarative sentence including an exclamation : The boy ran about the house shouting, "We have won the game 2. An interrogative sentence may include a declaration, a command, or an exclamation : Did you hear him say, "I will bring the book tonight"? Interrogative sentence including a command: Did you hear the man call, "Lower the flag"? Interrogative sentence including an exclamation: Did you hear the child cry, "Fire! Fire!"? 126 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Practice I. Select and name the different kinds of sentences in the following: 1. The man cried, "Will no one come to help me?" 2. Did you hear Mary say to her Mother, "I am not going to the party tonight " ? 3. Tell the men that the boat has been sighted. 4. Ask yourself, ''What have I done to help my brother?" 5. Did you hear Mary say to her Mother that she was not going to the party? 6. Ask yourself what you have done to help your brother. 7. 'Tire! Fire!", the man shouted in the hall, 8. The man shouted, "Fire! Fire!" 9. Did the man shout "Fire! Fire!"? 10. Did you say that the man shouted, "Fire! Fire!"? II. That the man shouted, "Fire! Fire!" can not be denied. 12. "Fire! Fire!", shouted the man, 13. "Man, Man!" returned Carton, stamping his foot; "have I sworn by no solemn vow already, to go through with this, that you waste the precious moments now? 14. Take him yourself to the courtyard you know of, place him yourself in the carriage, and drive away. 15. "Siguier Petruchio, will you go with us, or shall I send my daughter Kate to you"? 16. Then here's to our boyhood, its gold and its gray! The stars of its winter, the dews of its May! And when we have done with our life-lasting toys Dear Father, take care of thy children, the boys. 17. Look! His cry is answered. A woman rushes up the scaffold — a woman who yesterday was a mother, and now is childless, because Robespierre and Death have grasped her boy. 18. In very much this way Topsy's training proceeded for a year or two. Miss Ophelia worrying herself, from day to day, with her as a kind of chronic plague, to whose infliction she became, in time, as accustomed as persons sometimes do to the neuralgia or sick- headache. 19. Tiger, tiger, burning bright In the forest of the night, THE SENTENCE 127 What immortal hand or eye Framed thy fearful symmetry? In what distant deeps or skies Burned that fire Avithin thine eyes? On what wings dared he aspire? What the hand dared seize the fire? When the stars threw down their spears And watered heaven with their tears, Did he smile his work to see Did he that made the lamb make thee? 20. Lettuce is like conversation: it must be fresh and crisp, so sparkhng that you scarcely notice the bitter in it. Lettuce, hke most talkers, is, however, apt to run rapidly to seed. Blessed is that sort which comes to a head, and so remains, like a few people I know; growing more solid and satisfactory and tender at the same time, and whiter at the center, and crisp in their maturity. Lettuce, like conversation, requires a good deal of oil, to avoid friction, and keep the company smooth; a pinch of attic salt; a dash of pepper; a quantity of mustard and vinegar, by all means, but so mixed that you will notice no sharp contrasts; and a trifle of sugar. You can put anything, and the more things the better, into salad, as into conversation; but everything depends upon the skill of mixing. I feel that I am in the best society when I am with let>- tuce. It is in the select circle of vegetables. 21. So it is our duty to take and maintain the safeguards which will see to it that the mothers of America and the mothers of France and England and Italy and Belgium and all other suffering nations should never be called upon for this sacrifice again. This can be done. It must be done. And it will be done. The things that these men left us, though they did not in their counsels conceive it, is the great instrument which we have just erected in the League of Nations. The League of Nations is the covenant of government that these men shall not have died in vain. 22. There stood Lincoln in the forefront, erect, tall, and majestic in appearance, hurling thunderbolts at the foes of freedom, while the great convention roared its endorsement! I never witnessed such a scene before or since. 128 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 23. Now, it is a fact, that there was nothing at all particular about the knocker on the door, except that it was very large. It is also a fact, that Scrooge had seen it, night and morning, during his whole residence in that place; also that Scrooge had as little of what is called fancy about him as any man in the City of London, even including — which is a bold word — the corporation, alder- men, and livery. Let it also be borne in mind, that Scrooge had not bestowed one thought on Marley since his last mention of his seven-years' dead partner that afternoon. And then let any man explain to me, if he can, how it happened that Scrooge, having his key in the lock of the door, saw in the knocker, without its under- going any intermediate process of change — not a knocker, but Marley 's face. 24. And what is so rare as a day in June? Then if ever come perfect days; Then Heaven tries the earth if it be in tune, And over it softly her warm ear lays: Whether we look, or whether we listen, We hear life murmur, or see it ghsten; Every clod feels a stir of might, An instinct within it that reaches and towers. And, groping blindly above it for light, Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers; The flush of life may well be seen ThriUing back over hills and valleys; The cowslip startles in meadows green, The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice, And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean To be some happy creature's palace; Clauses and Phrases Clauses and grammatical phrases are word-groups which function in the sentence like parts-of -speech: — subject; object or complement; modifier. His-losing-his-temper (subject-phrase) because-he-couldn't-have- his-way (modifying clause) is what-I cannot-understand (comple- ment-clause), in-so-sensible-a-fellow (modifying phrase). THE SENTENCE 129 Grammatical Phrases The grammatical phrase regularly consists of a relating word, or expression, and an object, or complement; it never contains a subject (save possibly the '' absolute" phrase) or a verb-proper. Note: — Verb-phrases indicating tense, mode, voice, verb- form, are excluded from consideration as grammatical phrases, since they have already been treated as parts and forms of the verb itself — the verb with auxiliaries; (see Chapter III, pp. 53 ff.). Phrase-connectives such as in-Jront-of, as-far-as, etc., have also been treated. (See pages 110, 119.) Grammatical phrases are of several kinds: 1. Either kind of infinitive may go to form the infinitive- phrase: the infi nitive with ^Ho" and an object or other comple- mentary expression : You ought io-do-your-duty. I want to-go-home. the infinitive in '4ng" when it takes an object: Forgiving-one' s-enemies isn't always easy. 2. Th e^ prepositio n with its object forms the prepositional- phrase: He went down-town. 3. The _participle with an object or complement may form the participial-phrase: the active participle with an object: Tuming-the-comer, the man came upon the boy. the passive participle with a complement: Being^made-wekome, the picnic party eagerly fell to. 130 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE 4. Tjie active or passive partic iple with a noun or pronoun in the nominative case may form the ahsolute-phrase, so called because it is independent of any other part of the sentence; there is no connecting word: The-train-being-late, the traveller sauntered up the platform. The train-arriving, the traveller boarded it. The absolute phrase may readily be changed into a de- pendent clause: The-train-being-late = Because the train was late. The-train-arriving = When the train arrived. The Clauses The distinctive characteristic of the clause is that it always contains a subject and a verb-proper. It may be dependent or independent: 1. The independent clause is a simple sentence. 2. The dependent clause differs from the simple sentence in that: (a) when standing alone it does not express a complete thought; (b) its sign is its introducing word: subordinating con- junction, relative pronoun, or adverb. I don't see how (adverb) he can bear to stay at home when (ad- verb) all his classmates are in service, unless (conjunction) he thinks that (conjunction) that is what (pronoun) he owes his family. The subordinate clause may have the force of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The Noun-Clause The noun-clause is used to express a direct or indirect statement or question. The noun-clause of statement is generally introduced by ■ the conjunction "that"; the THE SENTENCE 131 noun-clause of question by ''how/' ''what," "when," "why," etc. The noun-clause may be used: 1. as the subject of the verb: That he would do such a thing proves his guilt (statement). What you should do in his case will depend on the evidence (ques- tion). 2. as the object of the verb: His doing such a thing proves that he is guilty (statement). The evidence alone can decide what you should do (question). 3. In apposition with the subject: This point is not proved, that he took the money (statement) . The question, what he did with it, has never been settled (question). 4. in apposition with the object: His doing such a thing proves my point, that he is guilty (state- ment). The evidence alone can decide the question, ivhat you should do (question). 5. as attribute complement: The question is, what can we do about it? (direct) The question they asked was, what they could do about it (in- direct). The Adjectiv e-Claus e The adjective-clause is introduced by a relative pro- noun or relative adverb, expressed or understood. The adjective-clause may be used: 1. to modify the subject: The boy who brings our milk will post your letter for you. 2. to modify the object: I gave the boy the letters which I had written (object of verb). He put them in the bag which he carried (object of preposition). He lives in the house where I was born (object of preposition). 132 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE The Adverbial Clause An adverbial clause may show time, place, cause, pur- pose, comparison, manner, degree, condition, or concession: When you finish your book we shall go for a ride (time). We shall go wherever you wish (place). Susan went abroad because she wished to see the Coro- nation (cause). Albert has entered a Business College, that he may prepare himself to be a bookkeeper (purpose). You need only go on as you have begun (manner). As the twig is bent, the tree's inclined (comparison). Always do your work as well as you possibly can (degree). // you change your mind let me know (condition). Although it looks like rain, we will not defer the ride (con- cession). Practice I. Classify the clauses in the following selection, tell how they are used and what they denote: 1. When you go down town please order two quarts of ice cream. 2. I think that the dress that you wore last night is the most becoming dress you wear. 3. Did you say that your brother has bought a new boat? 4. We shall go home when ever you vnsh. 5. If your machine is ready will you take mother home? 6. Although I think it is a risk to drive that horse, I will go with you. 7. If you speak harshly to that dog, he will not like you. 8. While the attendants hastened to obey Cedric's commands, his eye distinguished Gurth the swine-herd, who, with his companion Wamba, had just entered the hall. "Send these loitering knaves up hither," said the Saxon, impatiently. And when the culprits came before the dais — "How comes it, villains! that you have loi- tered abroad so late as this? Hast thou brought home thy charge, sirrah Gurth, or hast thou left them to robbers and marauders?" THE SENTENCE 133 II. Write: 1. Three simple sentences, one with a compound subject, one with a compound predicate, and one with a compound object. 2. Five compound sentences, using in every case a different co- ordinating conjunction. 3. A compound sentence of two clauses, connecting the two parts with and, and tell the idea expressed by the conjunction; a compound sentence of two clauses connected by but, and tell the idea expressed by the conjunction. 4. A compound sentence of two parts connected by or, and give the idea expressed by the conjunction. 5. A compound sentence of two parts connected by either-or, and explain the idea expressed by the correlative. 6. A compound sentence of two parts connected by neither-nor, and explain the idea expressed by the correlative. 7. A compound sentence of two parts connected by not-only and hvl-also, and explain the idea expressed by the correlatives. 8. A complex imperative sentence containing one independent clause and one restrictive adjective-clause, connected by the con- junction that. 9. A complex interrogative sentence containing one or more inde- pendent clauses, one of them being an adjective clause connected by the relative who. 10. A complex declarative sentence containing two independent clauses connected by both; and two subordinate clauses, one an ad- jective clause, connected by which ^ and one an adverbial clause con- nected by when. 11. A compound-complex sentence containing two independent clauses connected by either-or; and two subordinate clauses, one an adjective clause, connected by the phrase-conjunction as-good-as, and one adverbial connected by the phrase-conjunction as-far-as. III. Select the simple, the complex, and the compound sentences: 1. And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him went away. And a certain man saw it, and told Joab, and said, ''Behold, I saw Absalom hanged in an 134 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE oak." And Joab said unto the man that told him, "And, behold, thou sawest him, and why didst thou not smite him there to the ground? And I would have given thee ten shekels of silver and a girdle." And the man said unto Joab, "Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would I not put forth mine hand against the King's son." 2. And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made, and he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth. Also he sent forth a dove from him to see if the waters were abated from off the face of the ground; but the dove found no rest for the sole of her foot, and she returned unto him into the ark, for the waters were on the face of the whole earth; then he put forth his hand, and took her, and pulled her in unto him into the ark. 3. And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the Lord caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided. And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground, and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left. 4. My dear Sidney Colvin: — The journey which this little book is to describe was very agreeable and fortunate for me. After an uncouth beginning, I had the best of luck to the end. But we are all travelers in what John Bunyan calls the wilderness of this world, — all, too, travelers with a donkey; and the best that we find in our travels is an honest friend. He is a fortunate voyager who finds many. We travel, indeed, to find them. They are the end and the reward of life. They keep us worthy of ourselves; and when we are alone, we are only nearer to the absent. ' Every book is, in an intimate sense, a circular letter to the friends of him who writes it. They alone take his meaning; they find pri- vate messages, assurances of love, and expressions of gratitude dropped for them in every corner. The public is but a generous patron who defrays the postage. Yet, though the letter is directed to all, we have an old and kindly custom of addressing it on the outside to one. Of what shall a man be proud, if he is not proud of his friends? And so, my dear Sidney Colvin, it is with pride that I sign myself affectionately yours, ^ j^ g^ THE SENTENCE 135 Analysis We have studied the kinds, forms and uses of individual words in the sentence, together with such modifications as person, gender, number, case, degree, mode, voice, tense. To state the kind, form, and function of a given word in a given sentence is to parse that word. (See appendix for rules.) We have now to study the construction of the sentence by taking it apart and showing how its component parts — phrases and clauses — are related. This process is called analysis. (See appendix for scheme.) In giving the analysis of a sentence it is customary: 1. to tell the kind and form of sentence: whether it be declarative, imperative, interrogative, or ^ exclamatory ; whether simple, compound, or complex; 2. to analyze the clauses of which it is made up : t o separate the independent from the depende nt dnnspR! • t Q analyze first the principal claus e, or clauses, into the e ssential parts; subject and predicate ; modifiers of essential par ts ; t o show how the essential parts are related and what thev denote; to anal yze the subordinate clause or clauses in the sam e way, and to show in what relation they stand to thp clause s on which they depend . Let us look into, or analyze, the Twenty-third Psalm, notice the kinds and forms of sentences it contains: how many simple, compound, complex; how many declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory: The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want, 136 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; He leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul; He guideth me in the paths of righteousness for His name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death I will fear no evil; For thou art with me; Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Thou preparest a table before me In the presence of mine enemies; Thou hast anointed my head with oil; My cup runneth over. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, And I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. The first two lines are made up of the simplest kind of simple sentences — direct statements consisting of the essen- tial subject and predicate, with almost no modifiers. The third and fourth lines continue the simple declaration expanding the promise by means of the infinitive phrase — to lie down in green pastures and the prepositional phrase — beside the still waters. The fifth gives the simple unmodified declaration, He re- storeth my soul. The sixth is a simple statement expanded by the two prep- ositional phrases, in the paths of righteousness, and for his name^s sake. The first line of the second stanza uses a subordinate subjunctive clause, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death. The next three lines are simple sentences. The first four lines of the last stanza consist of simple declarative statements. The poem concludes with a compound sentence which is a summing up of the whole. The poem consists of twelve simple declarative sentences, one complex, and one compound sentence. THE SENTENCE 137 Look into Our Lord's Prayer for examples of the simple imperative sentence : Our Father which art in Heaven; Hallowed be thy name, Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done, As in Heaven, so on earth. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts. As we also have forgiven our debtors. And bring us not into temptation. But deliver us from the evil one. The first stanza of the Forty-Sixth Psalm is an example of the use of the subjunctive mode: God is our refuge and strength, A very present help in trouble. Therefore will we not fear, though the earth do change. And though the mountains be moved in the heart of the seas; Though the waters thereof roar and be troubled. Though the mountains shake with the swelling thereof. The Lord of hosts is with us. The God of Jacob is our refuge. The thirty-seventh verse of the twenty-third chapter of St. Matthew gives an exclamatory sentence of deep feeling: Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them which are sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, and ye would not! Practice L Analyze the sentences in the following selections: I. With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and 138 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE his children — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. 2. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedi- cated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedi- cate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth. 3. Two of the strongest monkeys caught Mowgli under the arms and swung off with him through the tree-tops, twenty feet at a bound. 4. This is the story of the great war that Rikki-tikki-tavi fought single-handed, through the bath-room of the big bungalow in Segowlee cantonment. Darzee, the tailor-bird, helped him, and Chuchundra, the musk- rat, who never comes out into the middle of the floor, but always creeps round by the wall, gave him advice; but Rikki-tikki-tavi did the real fighting. 5. I have seen too much of success in life to take off my hat and huzzah to it as it passes in its gilt coach; and would do my little part with my neighbors on foot, that they should not gape with too much wonder, nor applaud too loudly. I look into my heart, and think that I am as good as my Lord Mayor, and know I am as bad as Tyburn Jack. THE SENTENCE 139 6. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang, And through the dark arch a charger sprang. 7. Now Zeus, after that he had brought the Trojans and Hector to the ships, left them to their toil and endless labor there. 8. They gave him of the corn-land, That was of public right, As much as two strong oxen Could plough from morn till night. 9. I fear thee, ancient Mariner! I fear thy skinny hand! And thou art long, and lank, and brown, As is the ribbed sea-sand. 10. Then they clinched and rolled over and over, whacking and pounding, snorting and growling, and making no end of dust and rumpus. But above all their noise I could clearly hear Little Johnny, yelling at the top of his voice, and evidently encouraging his mother to go right in and finish the Grizzly at once. 11. Happiness only begins when wishes end; and he who hankers after more, enjoys nothing. 12. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed; labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration. 13. It is only by labor that thought can be made healthy, and only by thought that labor can be happy; and the two cannot be separated with impunity. 14. The motto marked upon our foreheads, written upon our door posts, channelled in the earth, and wafted upon the waves, is and must be, — "Labor is honorable, and idleness is dishonorable." 15. One secret of Mr. Lincoln's remarkable success in captivating the popular mind is undoubtedly an unconsciousness of self which enables him, though under the necessity of constantly using the capital I, to do it without any suggestion of egotism. There is no single vowel which men's mouths can pronounce with such differ- ence of effect. That which one shall hide away, as it were, behind the substance of his discourse, or, if he bring it to the front, shall use merely to give an agreeable accent of individuality to what he says, another shall make an offensive challenge to the self-satisfac- tion of all his hearers, and an unwarranted intrusion upon each man's sense of personal importance, irritating every pore of his 140 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE vanity; like a dry northeast wind, to a goose-flesh of opposition and hostility. Mr. Lincoln has never studied Quintilian; but he has, in the earnest simplicity and unaffected Americanism of his own character, one art of oratory worth all the rest. He forgets himself so entirely in his object as to give his I the sympathetic and per- suasive effect of We wdth the great body of his countrymen. Homely, dispassionate, showing all the rough-edged process of his thought as it goes along, yet arriving at his conclusions with an honest kind of every-day logic, he is so eminently our representative man, that, when he speaks, it seems as if the people were Hstening to their own thinking aloud. The dignity of his thought owes nothing to any ceremonial garb of words, but to the manly movement that comes of settled purpose and an energy of reason that knows not what rhetoric means. There has been nothing of Cleon, still less of Strepsiades striving to underbid him in demagogism, to be found in the public utter- ances of Mr. Lincoln. He has always addressed the intelligence of men, never their prejudice, their passion, or their ignorance. 16. "That suggests, Mr. Lincoln, an inquiry which has several times been upon my lips during this conversation. I want very much to know how you got this unusual power of 'putting things.' It must have been a matter of education. No man has it by nature alone. What has your education been?" "Well, as to education, the newspapers are correct. I never went to school more than six months in my life. But, as you say, this must be a product of culture in some form. I have been putting the question you ask me to myself while you have been talking. I say this, that among my earliest recollections, I remember how, when a mere child, I used to get irritated when anybody talked to me in a way I could not understand. I don't think I ever got angry at anything else in my life. But that always disturbed my temper, and has ever since. I can remember going to my little bedroom, after hearing the neighbors talk of an evening with my father, and spending no small part of the night walking up and down, and trying to make out what was the exact meaning of some of their, to me, dark sayings. I could not sleep, though I often tried to, when I got on such a hunt after an idea, until I had caught it; and when I thought I had got it, I was not satisfied until I had repeated it over and over again, until I had put it in language plain enough, as I thought, for any boy I knew to comprehend. This was a kind of passion %vith me, and it has stuck by me, for I THE SENTENCE 141 am never easy now, when I am handling a thought, till I have bomided it north and bounded it south and bounded it east and bounded it west. Perhaps that accounts for the characteristic you observe in my speeches, though I never put the two things together before." 142 GRAMMAR AND PRACTICE Outline Summart Grammatical Phrases Kind and Form Clauses Sentences Use Kind and Form Use Kind and Use Form f a. the infinitive with "to", and an J ob j ect or complement ; i' b. the infinitive in "ing", and an [ object. 2. Prepositional: the preposition and its object. f a. the active participle and an object, b. the passive participle and a complement, the active or passive participle with noun, pronoun, or equivalent, in nominative case. 1. Infinitive: 3. Participial: 4. Absolute: 1. Infinitive: noun-phrase; can be subject, object, objective complement, or appositive. 2. Prepositional: adjective or adverbial phrase; can modify accordingly. 3. Participial: adjective or adverbial phrase; can modify accordingly. 4. Absolute: adverbial phrase; can modify accord- ingly. 1. Independent: 2. Dependent: the simple sentence. f a. noun-clause, \ b. adjective clause. [ c. adverbial clause. 1. Noun-clause may be subject, object, or appositive. 2. Adjective clause may modify nouns, pronouns, or equivalents. 3. Adverbial clause may modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or equivalents of any. 1. Declarative: makes an assertion. 2. Interrogative: asks a question. 3. Imperative: makes a command or entreaty. 4. Exclamatory: expresses deep feeUng. 1. Simple: but one statement, question, or command. 2. Compound: two or more independent clauses. 3. Complex: one or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. APPENDIX A. The Conjugation of the Verb By the conjugation of the verb we mean a complete display of all its parts and forms: (1) the verb-forms; (2) the modes and the verbals; (3) the tenses; and (4) the per- sons and numbers. INDICATIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Present Emphatic Form Singular Singular Singular I go you go (thou goest) he goes I am going you are (thou art) going he is going I do go you do go he does go Plural Plural Plural we go you go they go we are going you are going they are going Past we do go you do go they do go Singular Singular Singular I went you went he went I was going you were (thou wert) going he was going I did go you did go he did go Plural Plural Plural we went you went they went we were going you were going they were going we did go you did go they did go 144 APPENDIX Simple Form Singular I shall go you will go he will go Plural we shall go you will go they will go Progressive Form Simple Future Singular I shall be going you will be going he will be going Plural we shall be going you will be going they will be going Future (will or determination) Singular Singular I will go I will be going you shall (thou shalt) go you shall (thou shalt) be going he shall go he shall be going Plural we will go you shall go they shall go Singular I have gone you have (thou hast) gone he has gone Plural we will be going you shall be going they shall be going Perfect Singular I have been going you have (thou hast) been going he has been going Plural we have been going you have been going they have been going Past Perfect Singular Singular I had gone I had been going you had (thou hadst) gone you had (thou hadst) been going he had gone they had been going Plural we have gone you have gone they have gone APPENDIX 145 Simple Form Progressive Form Plural Plural we had gone we had been going you had gone you had been going they had gone they had been going Future Perfect Singular Singular I shall have gone I shall have been going you will (thou wilt) have gone you will (thou wilt) have been going he will have gone he will have been going Plural Plural we shall have gone we shall have been going you will have gone you will have been going they will have gone they will have been going SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Emphatic Form Present (If) I, you, he go (If) I, you, he do go (If) we, you, they go (If) we, you, they do go (If) I, you, he be going (If) we, you, they be going Past (If) I, you, he went (If) I, you, he did go (If) we, you, they went (If) we, you, they did go (If) I, you, he were going (If) we, you, they were going IMPERATIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Present Emphatic Form go be going INFINITIVES Present do go to go, gomg to be going 146 APPENDIX Perfect to have gone, having gone to have been going PARTICIPLES Present going having gone Perfect having been going ACTIVE VOICE INDICATIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Present Emphatic Form Singular Singular Singular I make you make (thou makest) he makes I am making you are (thou art) making he is making I do make you do (thou dost) make he does make Plural Plural Plural we make you make they make we are making you are making they are making Past we do make you do make they do make Singular Singular Singular I made you made (thou madest) he made I was making you were (thou wast) making he was making I did make you did (thou didst) make he did make Plural Plural Plural we made you made they made we were making you were making they were making we did make you did make they did make APPENDIX 147 Simple Form Singular I shall make you will (thou wilt) make he will make Progressive Form Simple Future Singular I shall be making you will (thou wilt) be making he will be making Plural we shall make you will make they will make Plural we shall be making you will be making they will be making Future (will or determination) Singular Singular I will make I will be making you shall (thou shalt) make you shall (thou shalt) be making he shall make he shall be making Plural we will make you shall make they shall make Plural we will be making you shall be making they shall be making Perfect Singular I have made you have (thou hast) made he has made Plural we have made you have made they have made Singular I have been making you have (thou hast) making he has been making Plural we have been making you have been making they have been making been 148 APPENDIX Simple Fobm SiNGULAE I had made you had (thou hadst) made he had made Plural we had made you had made they had made Singular I shall have made you shall (thou shalt) have made he shall have made Plural we shall have made you shall have made they shall have made Progressive Form Past Perfect Singular I had been making you had (thou hadst) been making he had been making Plural we had been making you had been making they had been making Future Perfect Singular I shall have been making you shall (thou shalt) have been making he shall have been making Plural we shall have been making you shall have been making they shall have been making Simple Form SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Progressive Form Emphatic Form Present (If) I, you, he make (If) I, you, he do make (If) we, you, they make (If) we, you, they do make (If) I, you, he were making (If) we, you, they be making Past (If) I, you, he made (If) I, you, he did make (If) we, you, they made (If) we, you, they did make (If) I, you, he were making (If) we, you, they were making APPENDIX 149 IMPERATIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Emphatic Form make be making do make INFINITIVES Present to make, making to be making Perfect to have made, having made to have been making making having made PARTICIPLES Present Perfect having been making PASSIVE VOICE INDICATIVE MODE Simple Form Present Singular I am made you are (thou art) made he is made Plural we are made you are made they are made Progressive Form Singular I am being made you are (thou art) being made he is being made Plural we are being made you are being made they are being made 150 APPENDIX Simple Form Past Progressive Form Singular Singular I was made you were (thou wast) made he was made I was being made you were (thou wast) being made he was being made Plural Plural we were made you were made they were made Simple Future we were being made you were being made they were being made I shall be made Future I will be made (will or determination) 1 Perfect I have been made Past Perfect I had been made Future Perfect I shall have been made SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form (If) I be made Present Past (If) I were made (If) I were being made IMPERATIVE MODE Present be made APPENDIX 151 Simple Form to be made, being made INFINITIVES Present Perfect to have been made, having been made Present being made Past made Perfect having been made INDICATIVE MODE Simple Form Progressive Form Present Singular Singular I am you are (thou j he is art) I am being you are (thou art) being he is being Plural Plural we are you are they are we are being you are being they are being Past Singular Singular I was you were (thou wast) he was I was being you were (thou wast) being he was being 152 APPENDIX Simple Form Plural we were you were they were Singular I shall be you will (thou wilt) be he will be Progressive Form Plural we were being you were being they were being Simple Future Plural we shall be you will be they will be Singular Future (will or determination) I will be you shall (thou shalt) be he shall be Plural we will be you shall be they shall be Singular I have been you have (thou hast) been he has been Perfect Plural we have been you have been they have been APPENDIX 153 Simple Form Past Perfect Singular I had been you had (thou hadst) been he had been Plural we had been you had been they had been Future Perfect Singular I shall have been you shall (thou shalt) have been he shall have been Plural we shall have been you shall have been they shall have been SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Present (If) I, you, thou, he be (If), we you, they be Past (If) I, you, he were (thou wert) (If) we, you, they were IMPERATIVE MODE be INFINITIVES Present to be, being Perfect to have been, havmg been PARTICIPLES Present being Perfect having been B. Analysis The analysis of the sentence may be written out, or it may be shown by means of Unes. Thus: (1) The man who lives in that house is the owner of a gold mine. lives house (2) That we have the better team is certain for the coach says that our men are the heavier, and that they are the better trained. have .Z^ is \ certain coach are \^ heavier they [ are \ trained 1 and! ^:X. APPENDIX 155 (3) To he pleasant when everything is going as we wish is no difficult task, hut it is not easy to he pleasant when every- thing seems to he going wrong. be \ pleasant everything: going ^ we I wish \ be \ pleasant iverything , seems v^o\%-, ^ be going /\ UA)_^ The principal parts of a sentence: subject, predicate, and comple- ment are placed on a horizontal line. The subject is separated from the predicate by a perpendicular line cutting the horizontal line. 1 The object-complement is separated from the predicate by a perpendicular Hne joining the horizontal line. \ The attribute complement is separated from the predicate by a line joining the horizontal line and slanting toward the subject. \ The objective complement is separated from the predicate by a Une joining the horizontal line and slanting toward the object com- plement. Z l_ The coordinating conjunction is placed on a horizontal line and joined to the parts it connects by perpendicular dotted lines. . The subordinate conjunction is placed upon a slanting dotted 156 APPENDIX line, or a part dotted and part heavy line when used as a modifier, the heavy part of the line to connect with the word modified by the conjunction. All modifiers are placed on lines which slant from the words they modify. Note : — This form for diagraming sentences is adopted from Reed and Kellogg's Grammar. C. The Sentence: Essentials and Modifiers (1) What the Essential Parts of a Sentence May Be A noun, or a noun with its modifiers. A pronoun or a pronoun with its modifiers. An infinitive with ''to" or an infinitive in (a) The subject may be j "ing," simple or modified. An infinitive phrase with " to " or in " ing," simple or modified. A noun-clause with its modifiers. (b) The verb may be {Transitive [ Active voice j or Intransitive Passive voice Verb-phrase Transitive [ Active voice j or Intransitive Passive voice 158 APPENDIX ^ Object comple- ment may be (c) The complement may be Attribute of the subject may be Attribute of the object may be ^ A noun, or a noun with its modifiers. A pronoun or a pronoun with its modifiers. An infinitive in "ing," simple or modified. An infinitive phrase, sim- ple or modified. A noun-clause with its modifiers. A noun, or a noun with its modifiers. A pronoun, or a pronoun with its modifiers. An adjective, simple or modified. An infinitive in "ing," sim- ple or modified. An infinitive phrase in "ing" or with "to," sim- ple or modified. A noun-clause with its modifiers. Like the object. APPENDIX 159 (2) What May Modify the Essential Parts of the Sentence (a) The subject may be modified by An adjective A possessive pronoun used adjectively A participle A single infinitive phrase A prepositional phrase An adjective clause A word, phrase, or clause used in apposi- tion (b) The verb may be modified by An adverb A prepositional phrase used adverbially An infinitive phrase used adverbially A clause used adverbially (c) The complement may be modified by An adjective A possessive pfonoun used adjectively A participle A simple infinitive phrase An adjective clause A word, phrase, or clause used in apposi- tion A prepositional phrase. D. Parsing To parse a word means to tell all about its grammatical meaning and use; that is, to: 1. Classify — give part of speech. 2. Give its modifications. 3. Tell how it is used. 4. Tell by what rule it is governed. Noun When we parse a word we tell: — Kind — common, proper, etc. Person Gender Number Case Use — (rule) Pronoun Kind Form Use (Rule) Personal Relative Demonstrative Interrogative Indefinite Person (personal) Gender (personal, relative) Number (personal, indefinite, tive, relative) Case (all kinds) Subject, object, complement Relating function (relative) , Agreement with antecedent demons tra- APPENDIX 161 Verb Kind Transitive Intransitive Conjugation Principal parts Voice Mode Tense Person Number Regular Irregular Verbals Kind Voice Tense Use Infinitive— with "to," or in "ing" Participle — present or past Adjective Kind f Article Limiting { Numeral [ Pronominal Descriptive I ^^^'^^ Form j Comparison Use 1 Degree #i" Adverb [ Simple Kind Conjunctive [ Responsive Form j Comparison Use I Degree 162 APPENDIX Preposition Kind |^™Pl« , [ Compound The relation shown Words related Conjunction Kind I Coordinating I Subordinating ( Words Parts joined i Phrases [ Clauses Interjection j Name_^^ INDEX Absolute Phrase, 23, 130 Adjectives, 5, 80 Articles, 81 Care in use of, 89-90 Classes of, 80 Comparison of, 86-88 Compound Adjectives, 84 Definition of, 5, 80 Descriptive, 80, 83 Interrogative, 80, 82 Limiting, 80, 82 Numerals, 81, 82 Pronominal Adjectives, 80, 82 Proper Adjectives, 83 Adverbs, 5, 93-94 ' Care in use of, 93 Classes of, 93 Comparison of, 94-95 Conjunctive Adverbs, 97 Conjunctive Connectives, 122 Correct use of Negatives, 96- 97 Definition of, 93-94 Distinction between Adjectives and Adverbs, 94-96 Interrogative, 96 Modal Adverbs, 96 Responsives, 97 Subordinating Conjunctive Adverbs, 98 Agreement of Collective Noun and Verb, 74 Agreement of Pronoun, 38 163 Agreement of Subject and Verb, 73 Agreement of Verb in Number, Person, Tense, 73-74 Alone, 98 Analysis of the Sentence, 137 Antecedent, 35, 38 Apposition, 23-24, 131 Attribute Complement, 84, 131 Auxiliaries, 47, 53-54, 56 B Be, Conjugation of, 151-153 Copulative Verb, 51 Regular Auxiliary of Passive, 54 Care in Punctuating Sentences, 123 Case of Nouns and Pronouns, 21 Nominative, 22-23, 31, 33-34 Objective, 23-24, 31 Possessive, 24-25, 26, 27, 31 Compound Possessive, 25 Clauses, 130 Adjective, 131 Adverbial, 132 Dependent, 130 Independent, 130 Noun, 130 Use of Subordinating Clauses, 130-132 164 INDEX Complements, 2, 159 Attribute, 84 Indirect Object, 24 Object, 84 Objective, 84 Compound Elements, 121 Complements, 121 Modifiers, 121 Predicate, 121 Sentence, 121-122 Subject, 121 Conjugation, 143-153 Conjunctions, 5, 112 Adverbs as Conjunctions, 115 Conjunctive Connectives, 112, 113, 114 Conjunctions both Coordinat- • ing and Subordinating, 114 Correct use of Conjunctions, 117-118 Correlative conjunctions, 114 Distinctions in the use of Subordinating Conjunctive Adverbs, 98 Phrase Conjunctions, 115 Connectives, 3, 122 Copulative, 50-51 D Diagraming, 154-156 Disjunctive Connectives, 122 Double Negative, 96-97 E Either, Neither, 40, 90 Essentials of the Sentence, 157 Except, 118 Expletive, 6 F Few, Little, 89 G Gender, 12-13 Go, Conjugated, 143-146 Good, Well, 98 Grammar Defined, 1 Grammatical Phrases, 128-130 I Interjection, 3, 5, 111 Little, 89 M Make, Conjugation of, 146-151 May, 54 Might, 54 Mode, 48, 56-59 Imperative, 48, 59 Indicative, 48, 57-58 Subjunctive, 48, 57, 58 Modifiers, 3, 120 Must, 54 N Nouns, 5, 10, 11 Abstract, 11 Case, 22-31 Collective, 11 Common, 11 Gender, 12-13 Common, 13 Feminine, 13 Masculine, 13 Neuter, 13 INDEX 165 Nouns — ContiniLed Number, 14-21 Plural, 14-19, 20 Singular, 14-19, 20 Predicate Noun, 23 Proper Noun, 10 O Only, 98 Other, 88 Ought, 54 Outline Summaries of, Adjectives, 92 Adverbs, 101 Clauses, 130 Conjunctions, 119 Modifiers of Essential Parts of Sentences, 159 Nouns, 31 Parsing, 160-162 Phrases, 128-130 Prepositions, 110 Pronouns, 45 Skeleton outline, 9 Verbs, 79 Parsing, 160-162 Parts-of-Speech, 3-8 Potential Auxiliaries, 54-55 Practice in use of, Adjectives, 84-87, 90-91, 94, 96, 98-100 Adverbs, 95-96, 98-100 Analysis of Sentences, 135-142 Auxiliaries, 56 Case of Nouns, 26-30, 38 Nominative, 26-30 Objective, 27-30 Possessive, 25-30 Practice in use of — Contimied Clauses, 132 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs, 90-91 Conjunctions, 115-117, 118 Expletives, 6-7 Gender, 14, 20-21 Infinitives and Participles, 62- 64 Limiting Adjectives, 83 Mode; Subjunctive, 58-59 Nouns, 11-12, 13-14, 18- 21 Number, 18-21 Parts-of-Speech, 7-8 Prepositions, 103-104, 106- 109 Pronouns, 38-39, 41-44 Demonstrative, 39 Indefinite, 41 Interrogative, 39 Personal, 39, 42^3-44 Sentences, 126-128, 133-134 Tense, 67-70 Verbals, 62-64 Verb Forms, 72-73 Verbs, 51-53, 56, 58-59, 67-68, 69-71, 74, 75, 77, 78. Predicate, 2, 120 Compound, 2 Simple, 2 Prepositions, 5, 102-110 Compound, 102 Correct use of, 104-110 Definition of, 102 Idiomatic, 102 Pronouns, 4-5, 32 Antecedents, 35, 38 Classes of. Compound Personal, 34 Compound Relative, 35-36 166 INDEX Pronouns — Continued Classes of, Demonstrative, 32, 37, 45 Distinctions in use of Rela- tive Pronouns, 35 Indefinite, 32, 37-40, 45 Interrogative, 32, 34, 45 Personal, 32, 34, 45 Relative, 32, 35, 41, 45 Punctuation, 123, 124, 125 Q Quotations, Rules for use of, 125 R Responsives, 97 S Sentences, 1-3, 120-121 Complex, 122 Compound, 122 Declarative, 124-125 Exclamatory, 124-125 Imperative, 12-4-125 Simple, 121 Shall, 55-56 Should, 55 Some; Somewhat, 98 Tense, 48, 54, 65-67 Difficulties in use of, 68 There, 6 V Verbals, 47, 60-64, 68 Infinitives, 61-64, 129 Participles, 61, 68, 79 Verb Forms, 49, 53, 71-72 Emphatic, 49, 71-72 Progressive, 49, 71-72 Verbs, 46^7, 79 Agreement of, 73-74 AuxiHaries, 47, 53-54 Conjugation, 143-153 Copulative, 50-51 Intransitive, 47, 50, 53 Irregular, 76 Principal Parts, 75-76 Regular, 76 Transitive, 47, 49-50 Voice, Active and Passive, 48, 50, 60-61, 67, 79, 149 W Which, 35, 37 Who, 35, 37 Win, 55, 56 Would, 55, 56 You, 74 »l rd Jb4^7 460008 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY