Special Method 
 IN Science 
 
 K^X^ 
 

 m MEJAOmAIA 
 O.G.Van Liew 
 
SPECIAL METHGD 
 
 ,...IN.... 
 
 n/\tiJral science 
 
 rOR THE 
 
 FIRST FOUR GRADES 
 
 or THE 
 
 CO/nA\OH SCHOOL. 
 
 THIRD EDIXION 
 
 ...BY... 
 
 Charles A. McMurry. Ph.D. 
 
 AND 
 
 Mrs. Lida b. McMurry. 
 
 PUBLISHliD BT 
 PlJBLIC-SCHOOL POBLISHINO COMPANY 
 BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS. 
 
3£ 
 
 Copyriglit, 1896, 1899. 
 BY Charles A. McMurry 
 
 NORMAL, ILL. 
 
 Printed and Bound by 
 
 Pantagraph Printing and Stationery Co. 
 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 
CtC 
 
 PRCPACC. 
 
 'HIS is the fourth of a series of Special Methods 
 in the common school studies, and isdesi.irned 
 to be a direct help to teachers in recitation 
 work. The plan is to give a broad view of the pro- 
 blem of science teaching- by a brief historical and 
 critical survey of science teaching, and of the ideas 
 thus far developed in schools. 
 
 One of the great difficulties is to find some basis 
 for selecting and arranging the most important and 
 suitable topics for a course of study when the field 
 of science furnishes such a vast and varied collec- 
 tion of materials. 
 
 The method of treating science tojiics in these 
 grades is treated at some length. 
 
 Although natural science instruction is funda- 
 mentally based upon direct observation, the best 
 books are found extremely helpful to teachers. A 
 list of about a hundred and fifty books, somewhat 
 carefully selected and classified, is presented for 
 the help of teachers, and the publishers are named 
 with addresses. 
 
 A large number of topics for first and second 
 grade, worked out and used by Mrs. Lida B. Mc- 
 Murry in primary classes, is given in the full treat- 
 
 5^.^237 
 
4 Preface. 
 
 The plan for third and fourth grades has been 
 worlred' Qut ahd more fully illustrated by examples 
 in this second edition of the book. 
 
 It is the purpose of the author to wotk out in a 
 separate volume a course of study in Natural Science 
 for the last four grades of the common school (5th 
 to 8th grade inclusive). 
 
 The other works of this series are: 
 
 Special Method in Literature and Histoyn/, espe- 
 cially the oral treatment of stories in primary and 
 intermediate grades. The history course for gram- 
 mar grades is also discussed and outlined. 
 
 Special Method in Reading, a discussion of the 
 quality, culture- value, and method of using the best 
 classics as reading exercises. A full list of one hun- 
 dred and forty-six choice books, arranged according 
 to grades, is given. 
 
 Special Method in Geography, a plan of geogra- 
 phy lessons for third and fourth grades. It deals 
 with the selection and method of important types. 
 The material for thirteen of these type studies of 
 the Mississippi Valley is given in full. 
 
 Charles A. McMurry, 
 
 Normal, Illinois. 
 State Normal University, 
 
 September 30, liG8. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Introductor}' Discussion 7 
 
 General Purposes . . 13 
 
 History of Science Teaching 15 
 
 The Leading- Aim 25 
 
 A Road to the Aim 30 
 
 Method 50 
 
 Books as an Aid to Science Teaching ... 66 
 Outline of Topics — 
 
 First Grade 79 
 
 Second Grade 82 
 
 Books for Reference 83 
 
 Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades — 
 
 The Shepherd Dog 85 
 
 Autumn Leaves and Buds 94 
 
 The Cow 97 
 
 The Sheep 104 
 
 The Rabbit Ill 
 
 The Horse 118 
 
 The Chicken 127 
 
 The Robin 142 
 
 The Red-headed Woodpecker .... 150 
 
 The Cabbage Butterfly 158 
 
 Caterpillars 161 
 
 The Common Blue Violet 165 
 
 The Morning Glory 174 
 
 The Austrian Pine 180 
 
 The Scotch Pine 190 
 
 The Common Crow 193 
 
 The Screech Owl 197 
 
 The Wild Rose 203 
 
 A Winter Study of the Fox Squirrel ... 207 
 The First Three Months in the Life of a Gray 
 
 Squirrel 211 
 
 Our Moune, Jim 218 
 
 Outline of Course of Study for Third and Fourth 
 
 Grades 223 
 
INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSION. 
 
 OR AT least three centuries there has been 
 abundant discourse among- writers on edu- 
 cation in favor of natural science study in 
 the schools. Educational reformers like Comenius, 
 Rousseau, and Colonel Parker have laid great 
 stress upon the educative value in childhood and 
 youth of the contact between mind and matter in 
 the forms which nature presents. School educa- 
 tion has always been too bookish, too much sepa- 
 rated from objects and realities of experience. 
 
 Comenius found education in his day mired in 
 Latin forms, technicalities, and abstractions. It 
 was a killing- process to try to aw^aken childlike 
 interests and mind action upon the dead rules and 
 inflections of a purely formal grammar. By means 
 of his Orbis Pictus and other books of method he 
 tried to infuse some degree of interest and meaning 
 into the lifeless drills of the schools. But it was 
 an almost hopeless task so long as Latin remained, 
 like a vast breastwork of obstruction, at the very 
 doorway of education. It was impossible to estab- 
 lish a rational system of popular education so 
 lonf^ as a dead languag-e stretched its lifeless 
 body across the threshold of school life, barring 
 
8 Special Method in Science. 
 
 enivsihte to ib^ .fields Elysiati. But thanks to the 
 power and vig"or of our native tong^ue, it has taken 
 at last the supreme place among" languag-es in a 
 child's education, and when he first enters school 
 he is in possession of this treasure. The same 
 thing has happened in Prance and Germany and 
 in other European countries. 
 
 The vernacular has become the fundamental 
 medium of thought. One of the enormities, there- 
 fore, that vexed the souls of children two or three 
 hundred years ago has been swept away. But 
 the linguistic and verbal spirit of the old regime 
 is still with us, and many teachers still think chil- 
 dren have the ideas when they have only conned 
 the forms in which ideas are expressed. In the 
 days of Latin supremacy, Comenius and the other 
 reformers tried to save instruction from empty 
 verbalism by associating the objects in nature 
 with the Latin names, and we have been trying, 
 for more than one generation, by means of object 
 lessons and nature studies, to redeem education 
 from the dry rot of verbal memorizing. But in our 
 day we have already got beyond the idea that 
 natural science is simply an auxiliary, a means of 
 making language and other studies more signifi- 
 cant and real. Nature study stands out in its own 
 right, an equal among such studies as reading, 
 mathematics, and language. 
 
 It is a matter of no little surprise with many 
 that nature study has made so small progress in 
 
Introductory Discussion. 9 
 
 the common schools. For three centuries in Eu- 
 rope and America there has been constant advo- 
 cacy and boundless faith and enthusiasm in nature 
 studies for children, but the output in the schools 
 is close up to nothing". Yet a fuller appreciation 
 of the inherent difficulties involved in a deep edu- 
 cational problem like this shows that centuries 
 rather than years are required in working-out such 
 a problem. It may be truly said that a rig"ht se- 
 lection of topics and a rig-ht teaching" of natural 
 science w^ould produce a marked change in the 
 teaching" of all subjects in the common school. 
 The method of realism in science subjects is a 
 good criterion of method in all studies. A proper 
 attitude of a teacher in handling" science topics in 
 a class is a direct protest against the major part 
 of the work in all studies now done in our schools. 
 We talk about science teaching, realism, sense 
 training, experimental work, investigation, field 
 work, etc., and still we hug our books as tightly 
 as before. If we were dropped into a school of 
 eighty children without books or paper, as was 
 Pestalozzi at Stanz, we might be helpless. True 
 science teaching is the direct realism of education. 
 In nearly all other studies we can get along with 
 books and deceive ourselves, more or less, with 
 words. But in introducing children to nature 
 studies the absurdity of using books is more ap 
 parent than in other branches of learning. In 
 natural science, therefore, more than in any other 
 
10 Special Method in Science. 
 
 study, we are forced to find the true method of 
 object study. We are dealing" with those objects 
 and phenomena which stimulate the mind to its 
 fundamental activities and supply it with elemen- 
 tary material of thought. Nature study furnishes 
 the constructive materials and illustrations out of 
 which other studies explain and make real their 
 notions. In its own right, nature study is the 
 direct acquaintance-making and examination of 
 these objects at first hand. It is, therefore, the 
 true parent of all realism in studies (realism used 
 in the sense of object-study). In contrast to this 
 we see an oppressive verbalism still prevailing in 
 the schools, and the heaving of general notions to 
 the front in most text books and recitations. The 
 movement from particular to general, from per- 
 cept to concept (general notion) is not yet recog- 
 nized as the primary law of learning. It is strange 
 that nature study with its objective realism is not 
 yet come into possession of its rightful patrimony? 
 Nature study, more perhaps than any other branch 
 of learning, advertises the foolishness of forcing 
 upon a child the general notions, the principles,, 
 before the illustrative materials have been pre- 
 sented to his mind. 
 
 The world of nature is the chosen domain of a 
 child's operations; it is the field of his enterprise, 
 of his efforts at self expression. Nature holds out 
 objective inducements and pleasures and invites 
 him to varied effort. Even if the stimulus comes 
 
Introductory Biscussi07i. 11 
 
 from literature, as from myth or historical story, 
 the place for actualizing" his ideas is in his phys- 
 ical environment. Robinson Crusoe, for example, 
 is the starter for his making" a variety of experi- 
 ments and investigations upon the dogs, parrots, 
 g"rain fields, clay, and other animate and inani- 
 mate objects in his own physical surrounding"s. 
 This is the way in which all historical and liter- 
 ary works should be studied in the schools, with 
 feet upon the ground though the eyes be turned 
 to the stars. 
 
 We may find, therefore, that the effort to dis- 
 cover the best materials and methods of science 
 teaching" w^ill bring" us face to face with the 
 broader and deeper problems of the school course. 
 Science teaching" has a direct word of warning" and 
 of helpfulness to, all the other studies. It speaks 
 also to the heart of a child as well as to his senses 
 in all his earlier years. Its place, therefore, in 
 the child's life and in the school curriculum is one 
 of no mean or secondary rank. 
 
 Nature study includes the whole broad terri- 
 tory of the physical universe. In order to make 
 the notion explicit, we speak analytically of the 
 natural sciences, botany, g'eolog"y, zoolog"y, phys- 
 ics, chemistry, physical g"eog"raphy, astronomy, 
 meteorology, physiology. But this list is simply 
 explanatory to older people. Prom the stand- 
 point of pedagogy, nature study is not a collection 
 of sciences, nor a scientific unity of all sciences in 
 
12 Special Method m Science. 
 
 one, but a practical grasp of the whole physical 
 world around us as a set of conditions environing" 
 a child. The best way to look at nature is as a 
 body of educative materials, pressing upon the 
 children from all sides, calling out their activi- 
 ties, and impressively iterating the simplest real 
 lessons. There are two phases of artificiality in 
 science teaching which we wish to avoid in the 
 early w^ork with children, though both are indis- 
 pensable as we advance into higher grades. One 
 is the notion of scientific classification, which to 
 mature minds is identical with any notion of sci- 
 ence; and the other, the use of books in science 
 studies. Nature, as she thrusts herself upon the 
 attention of children, is neither classified nor 
 bookish. Nature shows herself as an interesting 
 collection of physical realities, and it is only little 
 by little that children discover and recognize the 
 threads of system running through these objects 
 and activities, and still later that books appear 
 at all helpful in getting at the explanation of 
 things. 
 
General Purposes. 13 
 
 GENERAL PURPOSES. 
 
 P WE inquire amongf thoughtful instructors in 
 J| science what the purpose of this study is, we 
 shall get a variety of answers, somewhat as 
 follows: 
 
 The traininfif of children to observe closely and 
 accurately so as to form* habits of scrutiny. This 
 includes the sharpening" of the senses to acuteness 
 and vig"or. It includes, also, the storag-e of ele- 
 mentary percepts of strictly experimental type. 
 We deal with those objects and phenomena which 
 stimulate the mind to its fundamental activities 
 and supply it with the elementary materials of 
 thought. Nature study leads also to thoughtful- 
 ness and the exercise of reason upon the materials 
 presented. It arouses and feeds the spirit of in- 
 quisitiveness and investigation. It not only awak 
 ens an interest in the causal relations of nature's 
 work, but teaches respect for the law-abiding 
 quality and truthfulness in nature, as grounded 
 in the realism of experimental knowledge. Na- 
 ture study is also directly useful for its deepening 
 and extension of practical knowledge, as in the 
 lessons of health, temperance, and sanitation. 
 It reveals the utilities of natural products and 
 
14 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the inventions and processes of man's ingenuity 
 as embodied in telescopes, microscopes, steam en- 
 gines, medicines, ventilation, photography, mir- 
 rors, the compass, pumps, etc. Without a real 
 knowledge of these things, children and grown 
 people cannot adapt themselves to the physical 
 conditions and necessities which their own bodies 
 and the objective world around them impose. 
 
 Nature study leads up gradually to a grasp of 
 scientific classifications, of the systematic order 
 and law that prevail in the world; in short, ulti- 
 mately, to a perception of the plan and wisdom 
 that pervade nature. Here we are upon the thres- 
 hold of religion. The esthetic interests and tastes 
 cultivated by nature study, the perception of 
 beauty and grandeur and harmony, are among the 
 strongest educative influences of science study. 
 Some even claim that nature is essentially moral 
 in its teaching, and we may all agree, at least, 
 that indirectly many moral qualities are strength- 
 ened by a wise method of science study. 
 
History of Science Teaching. 15 
 
 HISTORY or SCIENCE TEACHING. 
 
 ra)Y AN" inquiry into the history and present 
 status of nature study in the grades we 
 shall find that all these ideas have their 
 influence with teachers, one person laying stress 
 upon one phase of science training, another upon 
 some other. Not only so, but there has been a 
 decided evolution and progress in ideas of method 
 in connection with science instruction in the 
 grades. 
 
 One of the advantages belonging to the study 
 of European schools is the opportunity to trace 
 the development of method in particular studies 
 as well as in the school course as a whole. The 
 schools of Germany, for example, have a much 
 longer and more gradual development under 
 trained, even expert, instructors than ours. For 
 more than a hundred years they have been work- 
 ing steadily at the problem of science teaching in 
 the common school, and, having passed through 
 a series of progressive stages, have worked their 
 way forward to a position commanding a liberal 
 and practical view of the whole subject. From 
 the rich experience of others we might learn a 
 valuable lesson but for our lack of confidence in 
 
16 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the plodding Germans, as we sometimes call them, 
 and had we not such abounding confidence in our 
 own ability to solve the most perplexing problems 
 at short notice. But great educational problems 
 are not solved in a day — not even by Americans. 
 Sometimes even centuries seem to pass by without 
 clearly marked progress. At any rate it is toler- 
 ably certain that a number of years must elapse 
 before a satisfactory course in nature lessons for 
 the grades can be fully worked out and put in 
 practice. 
 
 The following brief historical view of the suc- 
 cessive ideas that have influenced science teach, 
 ing is suggested by Dr. W. Rein's discussion of 
 natural science in the fourth school year (Das 
 vierte Schuljahr). 
 
 In taking up nature study in the common 
 schools, the first idea to make itself practically 
 operative with teachers and book-makers was 
 the notion of the wonderful. Curious or remark- 
 able plants or animals were talked of or read 
 about. Teachers presented children with some- 
 thing marvelous or prodigious in nature to excite 
 their curiosity. Things even freakish or outland- 
 ish were called in to satisfy this thirst for the 
 marvelous. Quite a number of the elementary 
 science books now in use in our schools are mainly 
 devoted to a description of such curiosities in 
 nature as the big trees of California, Mammoth 
 Cave, the ant-eater, an elephant hunt, the duck- 
 
History of Science Teaching. 17 
 
 bill of Australia, an iceberg-, a geyser. This prim- 
 itive impulse to feast on foreign wonders and 
 curiosities is directly contrary to two of the most 
 important requirements of good science study, 
 first, that the objects studied be taken from the 
 home neighborhood, as the house-cat, the dan- 
 delion, the maple tree, the butterfly, and other 
 objects already familiar to the observation and ex- 
 perience of children; and second, children should 
 learn to see wonders in the commonest objects, 
 instead of going to the world's end to find strange 
 things. Such study of foreign wonders can only 
 be made through books, pictures, and verbal 
 descriptions, while true science teaching throws 
 books aside and shows children how to look na- 
 ture directly in the face. It is a curious fact that 
 this first impulse to seek extraordinary and freak- 
 ish things in nature is the exact opposite of the 
 true method of nature study. The whole tendency 
 of this perversion of method is to put our trust 
 In books rather than in our own powers of obser- 
 vation, and to cause children to disregard the 
 marvelous things all about them in nature, and to 
 chase the world over on imaginary journeys in 
 the search for curiosities. The tendency of this 
 perversion of nature study is to teach dependence 
 upon books and hearsay, and even upon what is 
 mythical, instead of personal observation and 
 direct experience. It turns the mind away from 
 surrounding realities toward distant uncertain- 
 
18 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ties. Yet the impulse to find out the wonderful 
 in nature is legitimate and inspiring", and is one of 
 the strongest motives in nature study. Only let it 
 begin at home with familiar objects, and rest upon 
 the undoubted realities and wonders which every 
 child can find for himself at his own doorway. 
 
 The second idea which early showed itself in 
 science studies was the doctrine of utility, the 
 practical value and information contained in this 
 study for the average man or child. It is certainly 
 worth while to know the useful and hurtful things 
 in nature. The study of plants and trees brings 
 out medicinal or poisonous qualities. Some ani- 
 mals and plants are of daily use to men for food 
 or clothing or shelter. Some of the simpler les- 
 sons of physics, chemistry, and physiology have 
 \o do with comfort and health, while the common 
 inventions and machines in general use in our 
 homes, fields, and factories need to be explained 
 in science lessons. This notion of the utility of 
 science studies has a wide range of meanings, 
 from the low mercenary motive of personal gain, 
 up through all the steps of practical benefit to 
 the highest utilities which nature has to offer in 
 her service to man. One of the most striking 
 characteristics of the physical world in which we 
 live is the multiplex utility of natural science in 
 the affairs of all classes of people in all their daily 
 concerns. So far as there is progress in the world, 
 men are everywhere seeking to understand and to 
 
History of Science Teaching. 19 
 
 utilize nature, and it is one of the great problems 
 of education to prepare children for real life by 
 securing" to them such an understanding and mas- 
 tery of the physical conditions of life and of the 
 many and varied utilities in nature. In the early 
 history of science teaching, however, the utility 
 of nature study was thought of in a narrow and 
 illiberal sense. The poisonous and useful plants 
 and animals marked the limit of the study. 
 
 In the third place a more significant and fruit- 
 ful notion of science came to notice when teach- 
 ers asked the question. What mental discipline is 
 supplied by these studies? Rising above the bare 
 question of utility, teachers inquired what mental 
 habits and tendencies science studies fostered. 
 Most science teachers today lay the chief stress 
 upon the mental discipline afforded by science, 
 that is, the training of the observing powers of 
 children, the quickening of the sense perceptions, 
 learning to see and hear and take more accurate 
 note of the things seen and heard, the habits 
 formed of observing, comparing, and tracing rela- 
 tions, the respect for law and order and truthful- 
 ness impressed by such realities. All these are 
 doubly emphasized by science teachers of our day. 
 Perhaps no other idea has been so much exalted 
 by science teachers as this peculiar mental disci- 
 pline which, it is claimed, is not furnished by other 
 studies. Stated in the above form this aim is 
 comprehensive and stimulating, but when reduced 
 
20 Special Method in Science. 
 
 to the practice of the schools it runs into serious 
 error and difficulty. The test for all such drill 
 exercises, which aim at discipline and habit of 
 observation is the power to describe the objects seen 
 and compared and description becomes a mania. 
 In order to carry this observation drill into school 
 a variety of natural objects is examined and de- 
 scribed as to form and appearance, color, quality, 
 and materials. Trees, plants, and flowers, birds 
 and insects, crystals and minerals are drawn into 
 this descriptive process which easily deg"enerates 
 into a smooth rut. Every tree is analyzed into 
 roots, stem, and leaves, every flower into calyx, 
 corolla, stamens, and pistils, every leaf into ribs, 
 veins, and margins, etc., through all the round of 
 nature objects. Such descriptive work may easily 
 grow into a barren detail of external form and 
 feature. The spirit of science teaching drops out 
 and only the empty form of discipline remains. 
 
 A special advantage reputed to spring from this 
 descriptive drill is language training. But science 
 is too important to be made simply a handmaid 
 of language exercises. In fact if lessons fail as 
 science lessons they will doubly fail as language. 
 Training children, therefore, to observe and de- 
 scribe, is not the leading aim of science study. Its 
 tendency is so strong in the direction of formalism 
 and superficial study of objects that it soon loses 
 all power to stimulate effort. It does not lay hold 
 of the deeper impulses, the wide awake interest 
 
History of Science Teaching. 21 
 
 and strong-er effort of children to trace out causal 
 relations, to discover the hidden law, to explain, 
 for example, the construction and use of different 
 org"ans in plants and animals. In spite of the em- 
 phasis placed by the scientists themselves upon 
 this disciplinary value of studies, in spite of the 
 strong necessity for right habits of observation, 
 the mere discipline derived can not be regarded 
 as the controlling aim of these studies. The real 
 purpose of science teaching- in its higher influence 
 is not bare mental discipline but the permanent 
 awakening of the whole mind and spirit of the 
 child. Discipline, therefore, is one of the second- 
 ary or incidental aims of science instruction. 
 
 In the progress of science teaching in the 
 schools a fourth and more comprehensive aim has 
 been set up and pat into practice. It is the idea 
 of scientific order and classification, the reduction 
 of all the varied objects and phenomena of nature 
 to an accurate system of classes and sub-classes, 
 of gfeneral and special laws. It is an effort to get 
 the mastery of nature by reducing its endless 
 variety of forms and phenomena to system and 
 law. Dr. Rein says: "In the latter half of the 
 last century lived the great founder or reformer 
 of systematic natural science, Karl von Linnaeus. 
 His influence reached far into the nineteenth cen- 
 tury and was universal. Goethe himself affirms 
 that next to Shakespeare and Spinoza, Linnaeus 
 exercised the greatest influence upon him. 
 
22 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Through Linnaeus, system came to the highest 
 renown. In the effort to set up a s^^stem, which 
 would satisfy all requirements, was recognized the 
 highest aim of scientific natural science. In quick 
 succession followed the systems of many scien- 
 tists. Is it any wonder that system, even down 
 to the common schools, became tlie chief aim of 
 natural science instruction? Moreover, the pur- 
 suit of this aim seems to satisfy an inevitable 
 need, that of bringing knowledge into order, by 
 means of order to get a survey of the multiplicity 
 (die vielheit) of single things. For without a prin- 
 ciple of order this multiplicity would become an 
 unbearable load." (Das vierte Schuljahr, p. 115.) 
 The drift toward scientific classification or sys- 
 tem has been very strong with us, especially in 
 high schools and colleges where most teachers 
 are trained. . In the study of botany, for exam- 
 ple, the chief effort was directed to analysis 
 and determination of specimens. When chis 
 process had gone on long enough to secure a 
 superficial grasp of all the important classes of 
 plants the chief result was attained. The zoolo- 
 gies, a few years ago, contained a full classifica- 
 tion and brief description of the leiiding families 
 and orders of the animal kingdom. The text-books 
 in physics and chemistry also gave a brief outline 
 of those sciences. In all these cases the text 
 book played the principal role, and the true 
 scientific method of experiment remained unreal- 
 
History of Science Teaching. 23 
 
 ized. The text-book methods followed systematic 
 aims, but as we have broken with the text-books 
 and come in direct contact with the objects in 
 nature, other aims than those of classification 
 have become prominent. In elementary schools, 
 especially, it is not well to emphasize classifica- 
 tions but to rest the work more upon particular 
 phases of object study and experiment. The 
 studies for children should be individual and bi- 
 ographical. A life history of butterfly or squirrel, 
 or fish, with a sufficient consecutive observation 
 into details and gathering- of facts so as to give 
 a deeper insight into habits and mode of life, is 
 necessary. Until we can furnish teachers and 
 children with the opportunity of making: such bi- 
 ographical studies in nature, the science work in 
 our common schools must be greatly hampered. 
 The strong tendency of text-books in natural sci- 
 ence to be systematic (that is, to give the outlines 
 of a system), almost completely destroys their 
 value for the common schools. And yet all true 
 nature study leads up to the system and order of 
 the universe. As children gather up the rich ma- 
 terials from the biographies of trees and insects, of 
 fish or bird, they will gradually gain comprehen- 
 sive views of the chief classes and underlying 
 principles of order. The whole movement in sci- 
 ence teaching" is toward an adequate grasp of 
 classes and laws. The great mistake is made in 
 trying- to begin where we ought to end. Classifi- 
 
24 Special Method in Science. 
 
 cations are the abstract forms of science and 
 sum up the results of study, while the character- 
 istic value of early science lessons is their con- 
 creteness. Children are easily and naturally 
 attentive to the concrete phases of object study, 
 while they turn away in dislike from the barren 
 study of classes. If we can answer the question 
 how to approach the general truths of science, 
 we shall probably have the solution to the most 
 troublesome problem in this study, and at the 
 same time settle some of the most vexed ques- 
 tions in methods of teaching. 
 
The Leading Aim. 25 
 
 THE LEADING AIM. 
 
 •E ARE not content, therefore, with any of 
 the four aims of science study thus far sug- 
 gested. Neither singly nor combined have 
 they sufficient value to stand as the central, con- 
 trolling aim of the great procession of nature les- 
 sons. How, then, shall we find a standpoint from 
 which to survey this broad field of studies and 
 discover the leading aim for its conquest? 
 
 We may get a suggestion of the proper attitude 
 for attacking this problem from the child himself. 
 He is the one, after all, who is most concerned 
 with the outcome of our theories. What use has 
 he for this large world of varied realities both now 
 and in the future? If you ask him the question 
 outright, he will remain as speechless as the 
 sphinx, but if brought face to face with nature's 
 teachings he may respond heartly in a score of 
 ways. As parents and teachers it is our business 
 to take a sort of composite photograph of a child's 
 present impulses and future needs, and then, by 
 combining our knowledge of children with the 
 garnered wisdom of the w^orld in matters of edu- 
 cation, we may possibly discover a method of 
 teaching which will satisfy a child's present grow- 
 
26 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ing" needs for food and nourishment, and at the 
 same time fit him for his future life in the midst 
 of nature and society. If the old saying" is true 
 that the child is father to the man, that is, fore- 
 shadowing* what the man will be, he has within 
 him those better instincts and tendencies which, 
 if properly developed, will make him the father 
 of the right sort of man, that is, the instincts 
 which will prompt him to respond vig"orously to 
 those methods of science study which gave him 
 the best preparation for life. 
 
 We may state the broad aim of science studies 
 as a responsive insight into nature, an interested un- 
 derstanding' of the materials and activities of her 
 great workshop, an appreciation of the variety, 
 beauty, harmony, and law^ of nature's handiwork. 
 If a child is to reach maturity with a proper in- 
 sight into physical laws, forces, products, utilities, 
 and inventive appliances, he must begin early to 
 train his eye and his understanding- to look into 
 these wonders. Yet this is not a dull business to 
 a child. It is the very thing- he is most of all in- 
 clined to do if kept in a proper attitude and pru- 
 dently guided in his employments. It falls in with 
 his present impulses toward physical activity and 
 mental expansion. The native interests which 
 call forth his energetic effort, both physical and 
 mental, are powerfully directed toward the many 
 curious and useful attractions in nature. Nature 
 study should lead to something beyond useful 
 
The Leading Aim. 27 
 
 knowledge, sense-training, observation, discipline 
 and the mastery of scientific order and system. 
 With these and through them it should appeal 
 to his instinctive interests, because of its recog- 
 nized value to him, because it reveals the physical 
 world to him and to his needs. It thus enters as 
 a constituent element into his own personal cul- 
 ture and growth; it becomes a part of his life and 
 character. If we devote our whole energy to any 
 of the secondary or subordinate aims of science 
 study, we shall make the work mechanical and 
 superficial and not attain even such lower aims. 
 If we follow the higher aim, to give to each child 
 a x^ersonal insight, a sympathetic appreciation of 
 the realm of nature, so far as it can be grasped 
 by his mind, if we seek to enshrine all this know- 
 ledge in his tastes, interests, and feelings, we shall 
 find this phase of culture an essential agency in 
 personal character development. Not that it con- 
 tributes directly to his moral sense, but it appeals 
 to his esthetic tastes, religious instincts, and 
 human wants. It supplies him with the materials 
 and tools for the exercise of his present urgent 
 activities, and its utilities are found to be so inter- 
 woven with the comforts and progress of men that 
 nature is seen to lay down the conditions of life. 
 Every child, therefore, should go into nature 
 studies up to the full measure of his powers and 
 come out enriched in knowledge, in discipline, 
 
28 Special Method in Science, 
 
 and especially in sympathetic insight and strong" 
 personal attachment to their teachings. 
 
 The broad aim of science teaching, as quoted 
 from Kraepelin by Rein, is as follows: 
 
 "The aim is to open up to a pupil an under- 
 standing* of the present and to find thereby a frank 
 and all-sided philosophical view of the world, 
 founded upon reality and truth. Nature should 
 not present to man the appearance of an inextri- 
 cable chaos but that of a w^ell-ordered mechanism, 
 its parts fitting exactly to one another, ruled by 
 unchangeable laws and engaged in perpetual 
 labor and production. The proof of order in the 
 world-whole is made clear to the investigator by 
 setting up a system of things; the exact fitting 
 and mutual interaction of the single parts reveals 
 itself in the thousandfold relations of natural ob- 
 jects to one another; faith in laws governing the 
 whole is produced by a knowledge of an ever- 
 consistent causality, while ceaseless activity and 
 production arise out of the coming and going of 
 individuals as of generations." 
 
 This is a comprehensive and well-phrased 
 statement of the aim of science teaching from the 
 knowledge side. The method of approach by 
 which the attitude of the children toward this 
 great body of educative material is determined is 
 of equal importance in considering the educative 
 aim. The fundamental question in this study, as 
 in others, is the influence of these materials and 
 
The Leading Aim. 29 
 
 of the method of their acquisition upon the char- 
 acter of children. The selection and arrang-ement 
 of topics in natural science, together with the 
 method of working them over into knowledge 
 with classes, is just as important as the organized 
 knowledge itself. 
 
 The aim set up for natural science studies calls 
 for the surmounting of two commanding difficul- 
 ties. On the one side the ultimate purpose to 
 reach something of a scientific mastery of the 
 order and system of nature, and on the other side 
 to reach efficiently, through the matter and 
 method of the study, the character of the child. 
 The conquest is the child's in both cases under 
 the teacher's guidance. 
 
30 Special Method in Science. 
 
 n- ROAD TO THE AIM, 
 
 'O STATE such an aim as this for nature 
 study in the common school is easy, but to 
 illustrate and work it out in detail so as 
 show its practicality, is extremely difficult. It is 
 incumbent upon us to point out the line of effort 
 which will lead to the aim given. 
 
 The first prominent requirement is to select a 
 series of topics for the grades. The endless vari- 
 ety and multitude of objects in nature, the great 
 diversity of branches as botany, geology, physics, 
 and astronomy, seems at the start to make a se- 
 lection very difficult. In any limited department 
 of science like zoology, it is not easy to establish 
 the true order of development of the subject, 
 whether, for example, to begin with the lower, 
 simpler forms of animal life or with more complex 
 and highly organized groups. But in nature- 
 study considered as a whole the question comes 
 how to select and arrange materials drawn from 
 a dozen widely different sciences. 
 
 The question might be asked in the first place 
 whether we need a graded course of science les- 
 sons somewhat definitely laid out. We answer in 
 the affirmative. The great difficulty with most 
 
A Road to the Aim. 31 
 
 teachers, who would be glad to teach nature les- 
 sons, is that they are not sufficiently well versed 
 in scientific studies to select and arrange a series 
 of lessons for any given grade. But if some one 
 capable of making such a list will outline the 
 suitable topics, the teachers of that grade can 
 set themselves to work to qualify along the lines 
 of those topics. If the one selecting will also 
 take the pains to suggest the best ways of collect- 
 ing materials and of observing, and point out a 
 few of the most helpful books, teachers will be 
 able to make rapid progress in teaching. There 
 is simply no question but that the great majority 
 of teachers need definite suggestion and help in 
 selecting and arranging their topics, and in study- 
 ing up and observing by way of preparation. 
 
 Taking it for granted, therefore, that work of 
 this kind is imperatively needed, it will pay us to 
 still further draw the necessary limitations that 
 surround this work so that we may more definitely 
 comprehend the nature of our task. The subject 
 before us is not natural science (classified knowl- 
 edge), but nature study. We are seeking to know 
 nature in her real forms, as she shows herself in 
 field, forest, and shop, not the classified orders 
 and system of the scientific books. It is the con- 
 crete, living forms that we deal with rather than 
 the principles and schemata of the scientists. 
 Again, we shall not master any of the sciences 
 even in their outlines. We are not aiming at 
 
32 Special Method in Science. 
 
 scientific completeness. A fixed quantity of 
 knowledge and the fullness of detail necessary 
 to a system are not necessary to our purpose. 
 We shall select a few of the best type forms and 
 enter into their concrete details and relations. 
 
 The selection of topics will not be based upon 
 a strict scientific order, either in one or in all 
 the sciences. This scientific order will not be 
 ignored, but it will not control. Pedagog-ical con- 
 siderations will determine in the main the order 
 of topics. 
 
 For the first four grades, which we shall con- 
 sider in this book, we will confine ourselves mainly 
 to biology, or the study of plant and animal biog- 
 raphies. The common objects of the home neigh- 
 borhood will be mainly studied. The season of 
 the year will often suggest suitable studies. The 
 best scientific types of great classes or processes 
 in nature will be selected for detailed investiga- 
 tion. The history, literature, and geography 
 of any given grade will suggest a variety of 
 science topics. Many of these, so far as they 
 harmonize with our other principles of selection, 
 will be chosen for treatment, because they help to 
 bind, the science topics with those other studies. 
 
 The study of plant and animal life seems pecu- 
 liarly appropriate to children. They like espe- 
 cially the activities of animals, the observation 
 of their movements among the trees, in the air, or 
 in water. Of all things in nature, animal life 
 
A Boad to the Aim. 33 
 
 comes closer to the children because they find so 
 many likenesses to their own activities. Plants 
 and flowers also attract them, and they love the 
 changes and processes of growth, the seeds, flow- 
 ers, roots, fruits, and uses of natural products. 
 There is a sort of personal interest in the study of 
 animal or plant that is lacking" in other forms of 
 nature study. The seedling plant grows, feeds, 
 and develops as does the child. It has its dan- 
 gers and enemies, its childhood, maturity, and old 
 age; its winter and summer. For a child to trace 
 the butterfly from the egg through its processes of 
 change and final perfection in the insect state, is 
 a very interesting biography. 
 
 Second, the commonest objects of the home 
 neighborhood will be minutely studied. This is 
 the true basis of proper study; it gives the fullest 
 possible opportunity for real observation and in- 
 vestigation. Even the common weeds, like the 
 burdock and thistle, are far better than exotics. 
 The study of home objects should come first, be- 
 cause it forms a good basis for later study of more 
 distant ones. Besides, the home furnishes, among 
 plants and animals, enough types for a compre- 
 hensive study of these subjects so far as needed. 
 
 The season of the year must determine to a 
 large extent the best time for the study of plant 
 and animal life. The budding and blossoming of 
 the trees must be noted in the early spring. The 
 bees can be studied in spring or fall; the spring 
 
34 ' Special Method in iScience. 
 
 plants may be dug up in spring--time; the seeds 
 and pods are best noticed in autumn; the ever- 
 greens may be taken in winter and spring, Of 
 course, any given tree or plant needs to be traced 
 through the season, and the robin should be seen 
 on his return, in the nesting season, and when he 
 returns to the South in autumn. 
 
 The type studies form convenient centers of 
 instruction, which prove serviceable both scien- 
 tifically considered and as a basis for pedagogical 
 treatment of topics. It is better to make a full 
 and careful study of one of the rodents, as the 
 fox-squirrel, with the descriptive detail of his 
 nest, habits in summer and winter, his food and 
 rearing of the young, his enemies and devices for 
 escaping them, his noises and movements in climb- 
 ing and running, his fur and its uses, the make 
 of his teeth and claws as suited to their uses, and 
 his kinship with other squirrels. Such a biography 
 of individual and family life among squirrels gives 
 not only a graphic picture of this little animal, but 
 allows a variety of observation and comparison 
 with other animals, similar or opposite, that may 
 be incidental yet valuable. In. the same way the 
 study of the cow among ruminants becomes a type 
 of that class, the milkweed butterfly among but- 
 terflies, the maple or oak among trees, the dande- 
 lion or thistle or sunflower among composite 
 flowers. The type form, when fully described in 
 its continuous life history, is not only a very 
 
A Road to the Aim. 35 
 
 interesting and instructive object to children, 
 because of the abundance of attractive detail, but 
 it is a key to the understanding- of a multitude of 
 similar or related plants or animals. The study 
 of the cat, for examjjle, as to retractile claws, 
 eyes, and muscular and bony structure, gives a 
 clear view of a whole class of animals. A brief 
 comparison of the domestic cat with the tig^er, 
 wildcat, etc., is all that is needed to make the 
 knowledge fairly complete. Without the g"uid- 
 ance of these larg^er units or type forms, the topics 
 chosen by teachers are often very partial or mis- 
 cellaneous. For example, the study and compari- 
 son of leaves on trees, the comparison of twigs, 
 and the arrangement of buds and twigs, or leaves, 
 on the stem. Such topics come up incidentally 
 and naturally in the handling of a type. 
 
 The type studies furnish great units of thought, 
 which are complete, very suggestive in a purely 
 scientific sense, and yet full of the interest and 
 information of a continuous biography. They 
 give also an insight into great processes in na- 
 ture, as the development of an animal from the 
 egg and its growth and changes till maturity and 
 death. The type form, thus fully studied, allows 
 of the tracing of those deeper causal relations of 
 a plant or animal to its environment, to other 
 plants and animals as well as to soil and sun- 
 shine, to weatlier and other influences, w^hich 
 bind any topic with many other topics and knit 
 
36 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the sciences into a net-work of mutual rela- 
 tions. 
 
 The series of topics for science work in the 
 g"rades will be determined largely also by the sug- 
 gestions of the other studies. History and geog- 
 raphy and literature have many references to 
 topics in natural science. In laying out a course 
 of science studies it is no longer possible to dis- 
 regard the close relations of the other studies to 
 natural science. This is especially true in pri- 
 mary and intermediate grades where the number 
 of science topics relative to plant and animal life 
 suggested by literature, geography, and history, 
 is very great. The fairy stories and fables used 
 in first and second grade, the Robinson Crusoe in 
 second and third, and the myths in third and 
 fourth are full of plant and animal life. The 
 pioneer history stories and the geography of our 
 own country in fourth and fifth grades are rich in 
 natural products and references to vegetable and 
 animal life. The closer these subjects are drawn 
 together, the more intimately they stand related 
 and support one another, the more telling will be 
 the effect of each branch upon the children. It 
 is no longer possible to make out an isolated 
 course of study in natural science. The combined 
 effect of all studies upon a child is the great con- 
 sideration and the knowledge and discipline each 
 furnishes may be got into the bargain. 
 
A Boad to the Aim. 37 
 
 The selection of a few important type studies, 
 each of which is to be worked out in full detail, 
 has the following advantages: 
 
 1. Each type is an important center of thought 
 around which to associate a large body of related 
 material. 
 
 2. Each type is the representative of a large 
 class of more or less similar objects (basis of 
 classification). 
 
 3. Great abundance of concrete material is 
 gathered about each type object, contributing to 
 interest and clear perception. 
 
 4. A continuous biographical study of life-his- 
 tory or development has strong interest and con- 
 secutive force. 
 
 5. The deeper causal and vital relations that 
 bind plant or animal to its environment can only 
 be traced out by this detailed study of a single 
 important object. 
 
 6. A single important topic is kept before the 
 children long enough not only to gather up a 
 varied collection of experimental knowledge 
 about it, but to organize it, and to bring it into 
 relation to other topics. 
 
 7. The type studies pave the way to a recog- 
 nition oi general laios in natural phenomena which 
 give the most comprehensive views. This pro- 
 cess of working up to an understanding of the 
 general laws of nature is so important that we 
 will consider it separately. 
 
38 Special Method in Science. 
 
 The second principal means by which we seek 
 to realize the chief aim of science teaching is by 
 studying out the general laws which underlie the 
 phenomena of the organic and inorganic world. 
 
 Children are to acquire gradually an insight 
 into the unity that prevails in nature. At first 
 the endless variety of objects and activities in 
 nature gives a child no notion of the underlying 
 harmony and connection of the varied parts, 
 but as the insight into wide reaching laws is 
 revealed to him he finds strong links of union, 
 binding all the parts into one. 
 
 This unity shows itself in the life of any plant 
 or animal, in the laws which govern its internal 
 organization and external adaptation of organs 
 to environment. 
 
 Junge, as quoted by Rein, presents this unity 
 in nature based upon laws as follows: 
 
 "Life is characterized first of all by the fact of 
 movement either of the inner parts of a body (its 
 constituents) or of the external parts or organs. 
 These movements have a connection dependent 
 upon the whole as a totality of parts (law of con- 
 struction or of connection). If no agreement were 
 found in the mutual relation of all the parts they 
 could not be united into a whole. The cause of 
 these harmonized movements is the indwelling 
 agreement of the parts, not an external force 
 (contrast of organism and mechanism). 
 
A Road to the Aiw, 39 
 
 ^Through tins movement is brought about (1) 
 the growth and development of an individual 
 from a lower to a higher stage of completeness; 
 (2) the preservation of the thing itself. The 
 indwelling effort of all the parts or members 
 toward the preservation and perfection of the 
 whole is the life principle (law of preservation, 
 accommodation— of organic harmony, of develop- 
 ment). Let the impulse to harmony of inner or 
 external movements cease, there enters a condi- 
 tion of decay and death. 
 
 'Life in nature is a unit not simply as far as 
 each organism constitutes a unity, but also so far 
 as an agreement shows itself in the inner causes 
 of life activities in different individuals, that is 
 so far as laws manifest themselves. The laws 
 prevailing in individuals have at least a strong 
 resemblance to those which rule in a whole group 
 of individuals, a life society (even the earth con- 
 sidered as such), though the laws are not just the 
 same. 
 
 "Children should get an understanding of life 
 in its unity. Now it will not suffice to secure to 
 children an observation of life manifestations. 
 Such knowledge could be called at best only 
 information about life. An understanding of life 
 depends upon an explanation of phenomena as 
 based upon causes permeating the whole, as 
 based upon the laws of life activity. Without a 
 knowledge of and application of laws, there is 
 
40 Special Method in IScience. 
 
 no understanding-, just as in instruction in physics, 
 when we bring- out no law, but offer the children a 
 motley variety (as e. g., an ordinary scale, a see- 
 saw, a steel-yard, a crowbar, a wheelbarrow, a pair 
 of pincers, etc.), so all nature without a knowledg-e 
 of laws, remains a kaleidoscope, which, according 
 to the play of chance, ever brings out a different 
 picture with the same colors. When we bring- to 
 notice a law— though not mathematically exact in 
 its formulation— it furnishes the mental unity or 
 means in all these varied illustrative forms (of 
 the lever). So throug-hout the whole of nature by 
 means of laws there is revealed in the midst of 
 the most striking- diversity a uniformity of life 
 which reaches even into human affairs. 
 
 "Should we inquire upon what road a knowledge 
 of the facts and chang-es in nature, both in single 
 thing-s and in more complex wholes, may be 
 reached, a brief consideration will give us a ready 
 answer. The simpler, i. e., the less intensive and 
 extensive life displays itself, the more easily can 
 the laws of its manifestations be recognized. 
 They are more easily perceived in the changes of 
 inorganic than in those of organic nature. The 
 life of a lower organism is more easily understood 
 than that of a higher; the life of a single organ- 
 ism easier than that of a life society; and, finally 
 the life of a group or life society, accessible to 
 observation, more easily than one of the whole 
 earth. The following serial order, therefore, re- 
 
A Boad to the Aim. 41 
 
 suits: 1. Observation of life in the single thing 
 and successive recognition of the different funda- 
 mental laws; 2. Recognition of the discovered 
 laws in small life groups accessible to the child's 
 view; 3. Application of the laws to unfamiliar ob- 
 jects and life societies. 4. Application and redis- 
 covery in the entire life of the earth. It is not 
 necessary to satisfy the above mentioned require- 
 ments in a strict schematic way. Schematism 
 would do violence to organic development and 
 comprehension. It is rather advisable at every 
 stage of progress to aim at a well-rounded whole, 
 and in view of the final aim to make use, little 
 by little of the results springing from the other 
 natural sciences as the progress of instruction 
 renders them possible. In a final course all the 
 knowledge gained at different times from differ- 
 ent natural science fields should be elaborated 
 into a unity in consciousness. Thus children 
 acquire a conviction and an understanding of life 
 upon the earth, in whose chain of created things 
 man also is a link. He learns also to see himself 
 in the mirror of nature." 
 
 In biology, which furnishes a large share of 
 the topics for science lessons, there are two kinds 
 of units of thought, single animals or plants and 
 life groups. Thesingleanimalor plant, asatype, 
 we have already discussed. The biographical 
 story, or life history, in full, of such a plant or 
 animal, especially when brought into comparison 
 
42 Special Method in Science. 
 
 with similar biographies of other plants or ani- 
 mals, reveals many of the fundamental laws of or- 
 ganic life in nature. 
 
 The life society or group is a much more complex 
 object of study. It is not a scientific group, but 
 a natural group of closely related and mutually 
 dependent objects in nature. A natural forest 
 well illustrates such a group, the various forest 
 trees, the wild flowers and grasses peculiar to 
 woodsy places the birds and squirrels and insects 
 that naturally find their homes and food among 
 the trees. Even the soil, moisture, and sunlight, 
 among inorganic things, contribute the conditions 
 for a mutually dependent and helpful group of liv- 
 ing organisms. The birds depend upon the trees, 
 the trees depend on insects for the cross-fertiliza- 
 tion of flowers; the bloodroot and other wild flow- 
 ers flourish in the shade of trees. The study of 
 the different members of this family group, and 
 the study of the whole varied family in its rela- 
 tions will bring out still other fundamental laws 
 in nature. 
 
 Rein says : ' 'As the basis of our studies, we are 
 called upon always to select a natural whole; and 
 first of all, such a whole is found in every single 
 living object, for each is an organism, i. e., a thing 
 whose parts stand in relation to one another and 
 to the whole." Nature study, therefore, should 
 deal not with fragments, but with wholes; not 
 with leaves or buds as isolated topics, but with 
 
A Road to the Aim. 43 
 
 trees or plants as wholes of which the leaves or 
 buds are parts. The unit of thoug"ht should al- 
 ways be in mind and stand as the basis of study. 
 "A single living organism, however, is only a 
 part of the great world machine. In many of its 
 relations it is dependent upon other objects, as a 
 strip of earth, etc., which* influence it and in turn 
 are influenced by it. Thus we find different ob- 
 jects together. A number of objects bound to- 
 gether by common or similar needs or by mutual 
 aid rendered, form a life society, in which each one 
 fills out its place and part in the whole. These 
 life societies are considered as composed of or- 
 ganically connected single things. When several 
 such life societies, as for example, forest, field, 
 swamp, meadow, etc., whose unity the children 
 can survey, are observed and their importance for 
 the home brought out clearly, for which all taken 
 together constitute a unity; by such observations 
 the way is prepared for an understanding of the 
 entire life of the earth. Such wholes, whether 
 single objects or life groups, we analyze into 
 their parts and inquire, what parts are these, 
 what purpose have theyi and why so made and 
 not differently? With a plant before us we 
 notice the parts. As to the root, we observe 
 not only its fibres, but its work, and why so con- 
 structed; why different in sand, or clay, or in 
 rich soil. The leaf is noted as to form, also its 
 function and the reason for its being flattened 
 
44 Special Method in Science. 
 
 out; why in water plants it is modified by the 
 depth of the water; why in land plants it is some- 
 times hairy, sometimes hairless. So, also, in the 
 study of animals. Org"an and function should al- 
 ways be brought into the closest relation. So we 
 come to understand why a foot is modified to 
 adapt it to a changed purpose, as a webbed foot, 
 a wing, or a hand for grasping; why the skeleton 
 of birds, for example, is different from that of 
 mammals." 
 
 By the constant emphasis of the correlation 
 between organ and function, the child's mind is 
 kept awake to the fact that he has to do with a 
 living thing, for the eye must pass from the con- 
 struction of the organ to its use in life, and vice 
 versa. In the second place, we satisfy the demand 
 for causality, which is really the impulsive ele- 
 ment in the development of the human mind. 
 That this is present in the child is manifest in his 
 many "whys." 
 
 The study of these laws and causal relations 
 between objects and life groups in nature re- 
 veals in a striking way the total inadequacy of a 
 method of science study, which isolates the dif- 
 ferent sciences, as botany or zoology, and tries to 
 build up a system and classification of each by 
 itself. In the biography of any animal or plant, 
 and also in the life societies, the vital organic re- 
 lations between plants, animals, minerals, sun- 
 light, etc., are cross sections in the sciences, 
 
A Road to the Aim. 45 
 
 which disregard our efforts at isolation and arti- 
 ficial system making-. It is in these inter-rela- 
 tions of the different sciences that we find the 
 deeper and more instructive causes operating- in 
 nature. Classifications in botany or zoology are 
 important, but the study of causes acting between 
 different sciences is often more significant, in- 
 structive, and stimulating. 
 
 *'We answer the question —Why? — by referring 
 to a cause. A definite form of statement for the 
 connection of certain effects with certain causes 
 we denominate a natural law. (In this connection 
 we should not forget that laws are not the causes 
 of phenomena.) We do not expect, of course, to 
 give these laws to the pupil, and we shall not 
 be over hasty in pressing for their formulation. 
 When the pupil has found out in a large number 
 of living things that while structure and life show 
 great diversity, yet certain mutual relations al- 
 ways come to light, that a change in the one 
 always means a change in the others; then it is 
 not premature to let children derive the most im- 
 portant biological laws. 'They are the constant, 
 permanent element in the ebb and flow of phe- 
 nomena, as it were the spiritual in nature, and 
 nothing short of the tracing- back of i)henomena 
 to these laws can give an understanding of life, 
 and — so far as the laws are universal— a knowl- 
 edge of the unity in nature.' (Junge.) So long as 
 no law has been worked out, the teacher must be 
 
46 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the guide in making- observations. The laws, or 
 rather the final aim of the natural science instruc- 
 tion, must be ever present to his thought, whether 
 he be selecting the material of instruction or em- 
 ployed in its treatment. When a law has been 
 once recognized, then in many cases it may as- 
 sume the leadership; it gives direction to present 
 undertakings as well as to future observations 
 and experiments. Pupils now examine living crea- 
 tures according to the measure of one or more laws; 
 they begin to investigate the question whether, 
 in a given creature, manner of life, habitat and 
 structure of organs correspond, or whether an 
 organism develops from a simpler form up to a 
 stage of completeness, etc." (Rein.) 
 
 The last sentence suggests the two simple fun- 
 damental laws by which most of the phenomena 
 of organic life (plant and animal) may be inter- 
 preted and a deep insight gained into life pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 1. Is the law of^ physiological purpose, or law of 
 preservation; that is, manner of life, habitat, and 
 structure of organs correspond. Every animal or 
 plant is peculiarly adapted by its organs and mode 
 of life to its environmont. To discover and trace 
 out this law in the varied and widely divergent 
 forms of life, is one of the most instructive and 
 permanently stimulating thoughts in nature study. 
 
 2. Is the law of development Every organism 
 develops from the simple up to the stage of com- 
 
A Road to the Aim. 47 
 
 pleteness. Here again, to trace the life history 
 through its successive stages of growth up to 
 maturity, reproduction, and decay, reveals amidst 
 endless variations a sameness and constancy of 
 life processes which make nature's work almost 
 wonderful in its simplicity. Still other important 
 laws which may develop out of thoughtful nature 
 studies are taken from Junge, as follows: 
 
 3. The law of adaptation or accommodation, 
 manner of life, and structure of organs adapt them- 
 selves, within certain limits, to a changed habitat 
 or set of relations. Beyond these limits follows 
 the death or crippling of the organism. 
 
 4. The law of division of labor or differentiation 
 of organs. The more the whole work is distrib- 
 uted to different organs the more perfect is its 
 execution. Or, the more numerous the organs for 
 different services the more perfectly can each 
 organ perform its special service. 
 
 5. The law of organic harmony is the first law 
 applied to the earth as a life society. 
 
 We have dwelt somewhat at length upon these 
 laws because they serve so well to illustrate the 
 possibility of making such a study of nature in 
 the organic as well as in the inorganic world as 
 will lead on to a simple and practical conception 
 of the unity in nature. Moreover it is the actual 
 unity which, as based upon persistent and omni- 
 present relations of cause and effect, reveals 
 nature in her ordinary dress and not in the arti- 
 
48 ' Special Method in Science. 
 
 ficial form of scientific classifications, isolating" 
 the different sciences from one another. 
 
 In the study of life histories, life societies, and 
 in the working* out of simple fundamental laws, we 
 may lead on to a grasp of the unity of life pro- 
 cesses in nature and to such an interest, insight, 
 and habit of study as to greatly influence character. 
 
 The influence that nature study has upon 
 character depends largely upon the hold it gets 
 upon the child's affections. It is not simply a 
 matter of discipline, but also of attachment and 
 interest. The sources of stirring interest for 
 children in nature study are so abundant as to 
 give a strong and steady impulse to work and 
 will effort, Herbart has pointed out clearly that 
 three of the great fountains of interest and in- 
 spiration spring from the roots of nature study as 
 the sources of great rivers gush from the foot of 
 mountains. 
 
 1. The empirical interest so universal among 
 children deals with the superficial phases of na- 
 ture's manifestations, the change, variety, and 
 generally pleasing and attractive face of nature. 
 There is, even among little children, a native 
 powerful impulse to g*et into the fresh air, the 
 sunshine, and out-door contact with nature. 
 
 2. The speculative interest works down into 
 causal relations, gets beneath the surface of 
 phenomena, and reaches out over broad areas in 
 search of more or less g-eneral laws. The causal 
 
A Road to the Aim. 49 
 
 idea is an all-powerful impulse alike for children 
 and mature scientists in science study. 
 
 3. The esthetic phases of nature's handiwork, 
 the beauty of form, color, and proportion in the 
 flower, bird, insect, cloud, mountain, etc., furnish 
 limitless and constant opportunities for esthetic 
 appreciation and culture. Many think this the 
 choicest part of nature study 
 
50 Special Method in Science. 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 HE METHOD of teaching- natural science is 
 difficult to describe or explain. The teach- 
 er's duty in this case is somewhat different 
 from what it is in other studies. The book of na- 
 ture lies open before the children and the teacher 
 is to lead them to read and appreciate it. For 
 most persons this is more difficult than to learn 
 to read books. To gain insight into nature chil- 
 dren must learn to look beneath the surface and 
 detect the working forces or the hidden law. Na- 
 ture's secrets lie hidden under the surface of phe- 
 nomena and children must learn to uncover the 
 facts and look at the inner workings. 
 
 As in other studies, one of the first things pre- 
 liminary is the selection of important type topics 
 which are to be fully treated. On the supposi- 
 tion that a series of such careful selections has 
 been made, we approach the question of method 
 in treatment. 
 
 We will suppose the subject chosen is the red 
 squirrel or fox squirrel. Let us first see clearly 
 the aim. We are to make a study of the squirrel 
 in its whole life history, its biography; not simply 
 a description of a few points of external appear- 
 ance, but the home of the squirrel in the woods. 
 
Method. 51 
 
 its family life, its food and how obtained, its or- 
 j^ans as adapted to its peculiar surroundinfi^s, its 
 intellig'ence and instincts, its care of the youngf, 
 how winter is spent, where the food is stored, its 
 nest, the enemies that threaten it and its means 
 of escape, its structure and organs, feet, teeth, 
 fur, eyes, stomach, and other internal organs. 
 Also its uses to man. The comparison of the red 
 squirrel with other squirrels and with the rabbit, 
 beaver, mouse, and other rodents, will follow this 
 full description. This comparison will bring out 
 the type character and throw light upon a whole 
 group of animals. Such a full study of the red 
 squirrel may require two or three weeks or even 
 longer, but in every lesson we are turning up new 
 soil, getting real instruction, enlarging our knowl- 
 edge of animal life. So long as new and instruc- 
 tive facts are being unearthed, the subject will 
 not prove irksome to children. The concrete de- 
 tails, the minutiae of life and habit and structure 
 are just the kind of thought material that appeals 
 to children, because it is fresh, real, concrete, 
 biographical. All the facts brought to light in- 
 terpret the life of the squirrel. It becomes a per- 
 son with needs and difficulties, struggling for food 
 and home and safety, and endowed with organs 
 for these special purposes. 
 
 The study of a squirrel in its life history is 
 really an examination into a biography , it isa study 
 of animal life as related to trees, grasses, climate, 
 
52 Special Method in Science. 
 
 other animals, birds and insects. It fits into its 
 place in nature as well as a leaf fits in its place 
 on the tree. Now, would it prove equally or 
 more valuable to spend the same amount of time 
 not upon the squirrel alone, but upon half a dozen 
 of the rodents, as the rat, beaver, mouse, musk- 
 rat, rabbit, ground squirrel, etc.? The study of 
 a sing"le kind allows an inquiry into details and 
 causes that a study of many would exclude. Not 
 only are the details attractive and concrete, but 
 they show how to look into a subject, how to in- 
 vestig-ate, how to trace out habit and structure 
 and their effects. A sing-le topic treated in this 
 particularized fashion gives us the key to the 
 method of observation. By studying" one prop- 
 erly, we learn how to observe and trace relations 
 in others. Such a method of exhaustive treat- 
 ment destroys at the start the natural tendency 
 toward superficial description of external appear- 
 ances. We g"rasp at first the sig"nificant problem 
 of this animal's life. If we are studying" a water 
 bird, we desire to discover how it is adapted to 
 g"et its food in lakes and streams and to make 
 long" flig"hts. We follow it in its migrations and 
 realize its conditions. If a squirrel is studied, we 
 may first ask, where does a squirrel choose his home 
 and build his nest? If a catfish is the subject of 
 investig"ation, we desire to interpret his life in the 
 water and his means of living and flourishing there. 
 Every new plant or animal presents a new 
 
Method. 53 
 
 problem, not simply a repetition of old questions. 
 Much of the skill and success of teaching de- 
 pends upon the ability to approach the topics 
 from the standpoint of significant aims. The set- 
 ting" up of problems and aims that will cause the 
 children to think and investigate, to collect and 
 interpret facts, is one of the chief demands upon 
 the teacher. 
 
 We have now reached the point where we must 
 outline a method of treating* important topics. 
 From the previous discussion it is clear that one 
 of the underlying" purposes of science instruction 
 is to lead up, through particular concrete studies, 
 to the understanding of general principles and 
 laws, and to the ability to recognize them in their 
 usual operations. Stated briefly, children should 
 learn to understand and to apply general truths. 
 How shall children be taught through their own 
 self-activity and thought power to approach, mas- 
 ter, and recognize about them the general laws of 
 nature? 
 
 1 They must have a topic under consideration 
 which involves or typifies a general truth. 
 
 2. An aim needs to be set up which points 
 clearly towards this general truth, and while it 
 iavolves difficulties still presents an interesting 
 problem for solution. The setting up of such 
 significant aims pointing toward important dis- 
 coveries and truths is a strong demand for skill 
 and insight in teaching. It points out clearly 
 
64 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the road to be traveled in the search for truth, 
 and calls out the self-activity and thought power 
 of students. In an oral or experimental plan of 
 study, the setting- up of such guiding aims, both 
 stimulates the children and points toward the 
 most important truths to be mastered. In an oral 
 method, such as science teaching demands, it is 
 possible to throw children upon their own re- 
 sources in the effort to reach the aims set up. A 
 text-book, on the other hand, with its didactic 
 method, works out the problems, giving the solu- 
 tion for the children to learn In science work 
 children observe, collect facts, trace causes and 
 relations, compare and draw inferences, for the 
 sake of conclusions which are to be worked out by 
 their own thinking and tested by facts of their 
 own seeing. The aim set up should be particular, 
 definite, and interesting, rather than indefinite, 
 general, or abstract. The truth aimed at is first 
 worked out in some concrete setting and after- 
 wards seen in its more g-eneral application. 
 
 3. While any important topic is up for discus- 
 sion, the first thing to do is to study it so as to 
 determine the facts. Observe it as a whole and 
 in its parts and the relation of the parts to each 
 other and to the whole (analysis and synthesis). 
 This process of observation or study presents all 
 the facts clearly to the mind in their concrete set- 
 ting. For example, in the study of the wild duck 
 as a type of bird-life, we would gather the facts 
 
Method. . 55 
 
 relating" to structure, orj^^ans, mode of life, food, 
 habits, migrations, nesting, leng-th of life, etc. 
 This is the opportunity for children to be self- 
 active, to observe, to gather facts, to investigate. 
 It is the teacher's chance to g^uide wisely, to ques- 
 tion, to stimulate and not to be over-hasty in 
 forcing- conclusions. This is the place, also, for 
 the teacher to give facts which are beyond the 
 experience or reach of the children, and to sug- 
 gest reference books for their study. If diagrams 
 or pictures, or other illustrative devices are 
 needed to bring out the scientific facts, this is 
 their fitting place. The children need also to 
 verify their observations, to render them into some 
 definite form of expression, in word-description 
 or drawings. At the close of each important topic, 
 a careful and adequate reproduction of the knowl- 
 edge g-ained should be obtained from the children. 
 4. The typical or general character always in- 
 volved in such a particular study is never seen 
 or realized from the study of a single specimen. 
 We have to look abroad and compare the struc- 
 ture, habits, and life of other wild ducks, and of 
 still other wild birds, and, perhaps, of other 
 animals, before we can draw general conclusions 
 which apply to large classes. In order to reach 
 g-eneral truths in natural science it is necessary 
 to make comparisons of. many similar and con- 
 trasted objects. 
 
56 Special Method in Science. 
 
 5. A g-en^ral truth or law may properly spring 
 from an observation and comparison of a number 
 of different specimens of the same general class. 
 If, for example, the stomachs of a large number 
 of blackbirds are examined by the scientist at 
 different seasons, and while showing variety of 
 food still point to certain foods as common to 
 all, a general conclusion can be drawn in regard 
 to the food eaten by these birds. It is import- 
 ant that these general conclusions or laws, which 
 are the results of observation and study, should 
 be definitely stated in accurate form and fixed in 
 mind. This gives us our law, principle, or rule 
 in logical or scientific form so far as the pro- 
 gress of the study admits completeness. 
 
 6. A general law or truth is not sufficiently 
 understood and mastered by working it out induc- 
 tively and by bringing it to definite and accurate 
 statement for memorizing. For example, we may 
 illustrate and work out a rule in grammar for the 
 agreement of subject and predicate, but to con- 
 vert such a rule into habit so that the correct form 
 is easily used when needed, calls for frequent and 
 varied application of the rule. We may under- 
 stand a rule in arithmetic but many varied and 
 more or less complex applications are necessary 
 to make it a ready guide in arithmetical work. In 
 natural science, also, the applications of truth and 
 law are infinite in variation and complexity. Every 
 animal is adapted to its environment, with struc- 
 
Method. 57 
 
 ture and organs suited to its needs, but we must 
 notice how totally different these adaptations are 
 in fish, fowl, and quadruped before we understand 
 the scope of this law, and are ready to detect 
 easily its variety of applications. 
 
 Nature study calls forth two kinds of observa- 
 tion which, though opposite, should be cultivated 
 side by side. First, the close analytic study of 
 one important topic and absorption in this object 
 to the exclusion of the many. It may lead on to 
 a succession of observations following- up the 
 early history, development, and relations of a 
 single organism. Other topics are shut out so as 
 to concentrate the more effectually upon this one. 
 Secondly, nature study should teach us to ob- 
 serve many things, to have our eyes wide open, 
 and our attention receptive to a variety of ob- 
 jects, perhaps to all the important things that 
 move before our vision. We need, therefore, not 
 only to concentrate but to spread our observa- 
 tions. Children go out upon science excursions. 
 The purpose of the excursion should be centered 
 upon some particular kind of tree, as a hickory, 
 or other object. Careful, analytic study of its 
 parts and their functions is necessary, and the 
 close relation to other plants, insects, and ani- 
 mals should be noted. But, in concentrating at- 
 tention upon this one object, should they close 
 their eyes to other equally valuable things in their 
 environment? It seems really advisable to kill 
 
58 Special Method in Science. 
 
 two birds with one stone. Make the excursion 
 count for both kinds of development in observation . 
 
 It is necessary in any well-planned excursion, 
 which partakes of the character of real instruc- 
 tion, to have some central and controlling object 
 for study, something" which supplies the aim of 
 the excursion and determines its plan and move- 
 ment. But, as we go on our way toward this Ob- 
 ject, or in search of it, let our eyes be open and 
 watchful for the multitude of interesting* objects 
 and phenomena that may meet us by the way. In 
 this manner, incidentally, we shall gather up a 
 larg-e variety of the most valuable experience and 
 not be turned aside seriously in our hunt for the 
 principal g"ame. 
 
 If, however, w^e should g-o out upon an excur- 
 sion with no particular aim in \iew% no particlar 
 result would follow. It might serve well enough 
 for recreation, but not for the more serious work 
 of instruction. 
 
 Among the devices for giving clearness and 
 point to science instruction are pictures, dia- 
 grams, illustrative blackboard sketches, the use 
 of instruments, experiments, and what may be 
 summed up as the originality, versatility, and in- 
 dustry of the teacher in inventing graphic meth- 
 ods of homely illustration. It is a disadvantage 
 to both teachers and pupils to have too much ap- 
 paratus and manufactured illustrative material, 
 though some things are indispensable. In spite 
 
Method. 59 
 
 of the fundamental realism and direct contact 
 with objects in science study, there are still a 
 jjood man}^ devices necessary to objectify and 
 make ^tangible the teachings of science. Many 
 things can not be seen, but must be reasoned out. 
 The shape and movements of the earth, for ex- 
 ample, must be typically illustrated. The atomic 
 theory has to be thought rather than seen; the 
 circulation of the blood (in spite of the frog's foot 
 and microscope) must be explained by diagram or 
 manikin. At almost every step our thought goes 
 farther than our sight, and yet needs constantly 
 to be checked up and verified by the actual. 
 
 At this point an interesting question comes 
 up as to the value of the imagination in science 
 studies. The tendency to exercise the imagina 
 tion in science is strong in all grades, from the 
 primary school up through the university. Pri- 
 mary teachers, especially, are full of imaginative 
 suggestion to the children, and the children them- 
 selves take to the imaginative forms of thought as 
 a duck to water. The baby seed in its cradle is 
 waiting for the warm sunlight to call it up above 
 the ground. The pajm and mamma bird take care 
 of their little children. The pussy-willow has its 
 warm fur coat in the chill of early springtime. 
 The snow is a blanket that covers up the flowers 
 in winter. A child thought the half moon was 
 only half buttoned into the sky. Such fanciful 
 suggestions are innumerable in the instruction of 
 
60 Special Method in Science. 
 
 children. Some of the strict-construction scien- 
 tists are very much opposed to this imaginative 
 tendency in science work. The notion is that sci- 
 ence is, first of all, valuable for its adherence to 
 the real, for its exclusion of the fancy. Supersti- 
 tion, j^-uessing", hearsay, careless inference, fairy 
 tale, are all shut out, and we are kept close to 
 the unadorned, incontestable facts— the things 
 admitting of no equivocation. Natural science is, 
 of all studies, the one to free us from superstition 
 and convince us of the all-prevalence of law. 
 
 It is a curious fact that children, primary 
 teachers, and poets refuse to be bound down to 
 the plain realities. In order to understand nature 
 they fall back upon the aid of the imagination. 
 In the fall they think of the tree as wrapping r,p 
 its tender buds in scales; a caterpiller was de- 
 scribed by a three-year-old girl as a worm with a 
 fur coat on. Teachers who have to deal with 
 children very easily fall into such forms of de- 
 scription as are easily understood by the children. 
 But our poets also, who know how to give dis 
 tinctness and point to truth, are full of such 
 imaginative touches. 
 
 "Every clod feels a stir of mig"ht, 
 
 An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
 And groping- blindly above it for light, 
 
 Climbs to a soul in the grass and the flowers." 
 
Method. 61 
 
 "Laufjhed the brook for my delight, 
 Through the day and through the night, 
 Whispering at the garden wall, 
 Talked with me from fall to fall." 
 
 "The little brook heard it and built a roof, 
 'Neath which he housed him winter proof, 
 All night by the white stars' frosty gleams, 
 He groined his arches and matched his beams." 
 
 It would be impossible to quote ten lines of the 
 best poetry of nature without just such beautiful 
 imaginative touches. 
 
 One of the professors of natural science in a 
 larj^e university, in lecturing before a body of 
 1.000 teachers, asserted "that parents, teachers, 
 writers, and educators had combined of late into 
 a syndicate for teaching children lies." This re- 
 fers directly to the use of the imagination in nature 
 studies so prevalent, especially among primary 
 teachers. The question is whether the imagina- 
 tion can be dispensed with in nature study, either 
 by the child or bythe trained scientist. The same 
 lecturer spent an hour with his students describing 
 the different theories of heredity. The question 
 may be pertinently asked, What is such a theory? 
 And the necessary reply is that a theory is not a 
 fact nor a collection of facts of observation, but 
 an effort of the scientist, through his reason and 
 imagination, to give meaning and unity to the 
 facts. Theories are often found to be false, but 
 the effort to test them and to prove their falsity 
 
62 Special Method in Sciaicc. 
 
 leads closer to the truth. It is by setting- up and 
 testing- hypotheses that the scientist makes dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 To shut out the use of imagination in nature 
 study is doing violence to a child's nature, for all 
 his thoughts naturally assume imaginative forms 
 in early years. But how flat and insipid would 
 any nature study be which tries to bind down -a 
 child's thought to what is manifest to the senses! 
 He can't see the plant g-row. He only sees that 
 changes have taken place and reason and imagi- 
 nation must help him to the rest. It is on the 
 poetic and esthetic side that nature makes its 
 strongest appeal to children. Many of the great- 
 est poets have been the closest and most faitliful 
 observers of nature. Goethe, the Shakespeare of 
 the Germans, ranked among- the greatest scien- 
 tists. Emerson, Burroughs, Thoreau, and Bryant 
 are poets of nature, and observers also in the sense 
 in which we wish to see children trained to ob- 
 serve. 
 
 It is certainly the business of nature study to 
 teach children to observe accurately and to have 
 an honest respect for the facts, but in reaching 
 forward to the laws and unities, in interpreting 
 the phenomena of organic and of inorganic mat- 
 ter, the imagination is indispensable. Facts and 
 observations are often only stepping- stones to the 
 child's thoughts, the scaffolding by which it con- 
 structs the higher forms. Figures of speech and 
 
Method. 63 
 
 poetic analogies, which both teachers and pupils 
 use so often are the very soul of good instruction 
 in natural science as well as in other studies. As 
 Burroughs studies the birds, his imagination puts 
 a human sympathy into their lives which is better 
 for children tlian the facts and skins delivered to 
 us by the dissecting knife and the taxidermist's 
 skill. Science study is something more than a 
 collection of lifeless memoranda. 
 
 Some primary teachers seem to outdo the 
 children in finding sentimental and fanciful re- 
 semblances in nature. They deal in baby-talk 
 and strain after impersonations and fanciful 
 analogies. This is only a good thing carried to a 
 ludicrous extreme. But any one who walks with 
 children among birds and trees and butterflies 
 will be taught to appreciate their impersonations 
 and fanciful descriptions, for these are based 
 upon the apperceiving experiences of the chil- 
 dren. The exact technical terms of science are 
 unknown to the children and should not be 
 forced too soon upon them. They describe with 
 much originality and acuteness and nearly 
 always in figurative phrases. 
 
 Professor Tyndall, in his essay on the Scien- 
 tific use of the Imagination, treats this subject 
 as follows: "How, then, are those hidden things 
 to be revealed? How, for exami)le, are we to lay 
 hold of the physical basis of light, since, like 
 that of life itself, it lies entirely without the 
 
64 Special Method in Science. 
 
 domaiu of the senses? Now, philosophers may 
 be ri^ht in affirming that we cannot transcend 
 experience. But we can, at all events, carry it a 
 long way from its origin. We can also magnify, 
 diminish, qualify, and combine experiences, so as 
 to render them fit for services entirely new. We 
 are gifted with the power of imagination, com- 
 bining what the Germans call Arischauungsgabe 
 and Einbildungskraft, and by this power, w^e can 
 lighten the darkness which surrounds the world 
 of the senses. 
 
 ''There are tories even in science who regard 
 imagination as a faculty to be feared and avoided 
 rather than employed. They had observed its 
 action in weak vessels, and were unduly im- 
 pressed by its disasters. But they might with 
 equal justice point to exploded boilers as an 
 argument against the use of steam. Bounded 
 and conditioned by co-operant reason, imagina- 
 tion becomes the mightiest instrument of the 
 physical discoverer. Newton's passage 'From a 
 Falling Apple to a Falling Moon,' was a leap of 
 the imagination. When William Thomson tries 
 to place the ultimate particles of matter between 
 his compass points and to apply to them a scale 
 of millimeters, it is an exercise of the imagina- 
 tion. And in much that has been recently said 
 about protoplasm and life we have the out- 
 goings of the imagination, guided and controlled 
 by the known analogies of science. In fact, 
 
Method. 65 
 
 without this power our knowledge of nature would 
 be a mere tabulation of coexistences and se- 
 quences. We should still believe in the succession 
 of day and night, of summer and winter; but the 
 soul of force would be dislodged from our uni- 
 verse; causal relations would disappear, and with 
 them that science which is now binding the parts 
 of nature to an organic whole" (Half Hours with 
 Modern Scientists, p. 250). 
 
Special Method in Science. 
 
 BOOKS 7\S AN AID TO SCIENCE TEACHING. 
 
 fERHAPS the chief difficulty in the way of 
 good science work in the grades is the 
 poverty of science knowledge on the part 
 of teachers. It is not a fault with which teachers 
 are to be upbraided so much as a natural result of 
 our usual course of study in the past. Even what 
 science knowledge teachers have acquired in high 
 schools and other advanced courses of study is 
 not only inadequate but often unsuitable to the 
 instruction of children. In all the higher schools 
 there is, or has been, a strong tendency to system 
 and classification, and not sufficient detailed study 
 of particular forms and life histories, such as 
 arouse the interest and observation of children. 
 The usual text-books in natural science are ex- 
 tremely inadequate to prepare teachers for the in- 
 struction of children. They do not contain the 
 right sort of material to serve as topics in the 
 grades, even if the work is experimental or in 
 field excursions. 
 
 Books of science are very important in the 
 training and preparation of teachers for their 
 work in classes. They do not take the place of 
 personal observation, experiment, excursion, use 
 of instruments, collections, in short, direct con- 
 
Books as An Aid to Science Teaching. 67 
 
 tact with nature in a multitude of ways; but books 
 are a great help to teachers in guiding their ob. 
 servations and in suggesting important centers 
 and ways of observation. From books the teach- 
 ers get direct stimulus and suggestion w^here to 
 look and what to look for, and then they have 
 sufficient start in the right direction to be left to 
 their own resources. 
 
 The different books heljjful to teachers' work 
 may be classilied as follows: 
 
 1. Text-books and classified books of science. 
 
 2. The masterpieces of scientific literature, as 
 works of Darwin, Huxley, etc. 
 
 8. Monographs on science topics which give 
 much fuller treatment to important type studies 
 than text-books, e. (/., Scudder's Butterfly. 
 
 4. Books of inspiration for nature study, as for 
 example, Burroughs's works. 
 
 5. Books of professional character discussing 
 the principles and methods of science teaching, 
 as for example, Jackman's Nature Study. 
 
 6. Science readers for the grades, primarily 
 designed for children, but containing often mate- 
 rials helpful to teachers. 
 
 These six classes of books are helpful to 
 teachers in different ways, somewhat as follows: 
 
 1. The text-books give the scientific or class- 
 ified form in its general outlines. Through his 
 previous studies they are familiar to the teacher 
 and serve as a basis for his own systematic grasp 
 
68 Special Method in Science. 
 
 of his subject. These are excellent reference 
 books and serve as a standard for a final group- 
 ing" of observations. 
 
 2. By means of the masterpieces of scientific 
 literature we are able to keep abreast of scientific 
 thought. The schoolmaster must not fall far 
 behind the more recent developments of scientific 
 knowledge. Otherwise he will be teaching what 
 scientists regard as exploded theories. Moreover, 
 the great writers like Darwin, Agassiz, Gray, 
 Tyndall, Haeckel, Lyell, and their like are the 
 most stimulating and broad-minded in their influ- 
 ence. It is of very great advantage to come in 
 contact with the masters of any science. 
 
 3. Perhaps the most helpful books to teach- 
 ers are the monographs on particular topics. 
 They alone make it possible for the teacher to 
 equip himself thoroughly for the teaching of par- 
 ticular topics. 
 
 We have by far too few good monographs. 
 Such are: 
 
 "The Oak," by H. Marshall Ward. D. Appleton & Co., 
 New York. 
 
 "Spiders, Their Structures and Habits," by J. H. Emer- 
 ton. S. E. Cassino, Boston. 
 
 "Sunshine," by Amy Johnson. Macmillan & Co. 
 
 "The Cray Fish," by Huxley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Ants, Bees, and Wasps," by Sir John Lubbock. D. Ap- 
 pleton & Co. 
 
 "On Forms of Water," by John Tyndall. D. Appleton 
 &Co, 
 
BooJcs as An Aid to Science Teaching. 60 
 
 "The Story of the Hills," by H. H. Hutchinson. Mac- 
 millan & Co. 
 
 "Romance of the Insect World," by L. N. Badenoch. 
 Macmillan & Co. 
 
 Boys and Girls in Biology.*' Stevenson. D. Appleton 
 &Co. 
 
 "Home Studies in Nature." Treat. American Book Co. 
 
 "A Year with the Trees." Flag"g". Educational Pub- 
 lishing Co. 
 
 "The Great World's Farm." Gaye. Seeley & Co., Lon- 
 don and Boston. 
 
 "Simple Experiments for the School Room." WoodhuU. 
 E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 
 
 "Starland," by Robert S. Ball. Ginn & Co., Boston. 
 
 "The Oyster, Clam, and Other Common Molusks." Hy- 
 att. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "Worms and Crustacea." Hyatt. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "The Builders of the Sea." Dodd, Mead & Co., New 
 York. 
 
 "Seaside Studies in Natural History." Agassiz. Jas. R. 
 Osgood & Co., Boston. 
 
 "Moths and Butterflies." Ballard. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 
 New York. 
 
 "Our Common Insects." Packard. Estes & Laureat, 
 Boston. 
 
 "Insecta." Hyatt. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "Life and Her Children." Buckley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Jelly Fishes, Star Fishes, and Sea Urchins." Romanes. 
 D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Vegetable Mould and Earthworm." Darwin. D. Apple- 
 ton & Co. 
 
 "Fermentation of Vegetable Mould." D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "The Sun." Young. D. Appleton & Co. 
 ' "The Fairy Land of Science." A. B. Buckley. D. Ap- 
 pleton & Co. 
 
 "Our Native Ferns and their Allies." Underwood. 
 
70 Special Method in Science. 
 
 "Treesof the Northern United States." Apgar. Ameri- 
 can Book Co. 
 
 "Wonders of Plant Life." Herrick. G. P. Putnam's 
 Sons. 
 
 "Chapters in Modern Botany." P. Geddes. Chas. Scrib- 
 ner's Sons. 
 
 "Climbing- Plants." Darwin. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Butterflies." Scudder. Henry Holt & Co., New York. 
 
 "Science for All." Five volumes. Cassell. Petter, Gal- 
 pire & Co., New York. 
 
 Science For All is a cyclopaedia of natural science, in 
 five volumes, containing- many excellent chapters or mono- 
 g-raphs on special topics. 
 
 "A Naturalist's Rambles About Home." Abbott. D. Ap- 
 pleton &, Co. 
 
 "Homes Without hands." Wood. Longmans & Co. 
 
 "The Weather." Abercromby. D. Appleton & Co., New 
 York. 
 
 "The Horse." Flower. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
 
 "Wild Beasts." Porter. Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
 York. 
 
 "Volcanoes." Judd. D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 "The Jack Rabbits of the U. S.," U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Washing-ton, D.C. 
 
 "Dust and Its Dangers." Prudden. G. P. Putnam's Sons. 
 
 "The Geological Story Briefly Told." Dana. Ivison, 
 Blakeman & Co., Chicago. 
 
 "Agassiz's Geological Sketches." James R. Osgood & 
 Co., Boston. 
 
 "A Song of Life." Morley. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chi- 
 cago 
 
 "Science Sketches." Jordan. A. C. McClurg & Co., 
 Chicago. 
 
 It is this kind of detailed information which 
 may stimulate the teacher to the most careful ob- 
 
Books as An Aid to Science Teaching. 71 
 
 servations on his own part, and furnish him with 
 a rich fund of accurate scientific knowledge. With 
 children especially, this fullness of concrete detail 
 is indispensable to insight and interest. It is ex- 
 ceedingly desirable that good, cheap monographs 
 be multiplied upon all the important topics of 
 natural science, and then teachers will be able 
 in large measure to help themselves. They do not 
 take the place of observation, but greatly as- 
 sist it. 
 
 4. Among the best books for both teachers and 
 pupils are those of such writers as Burroughs and 
 Thoreau, who create a great love for nature in 
 plant, animal, insect, etc., and at the same time 
 suggest the closest methods of observation. Bur- 
 roughs's "Birds and Bees" is now quite commonly 
 used as a reader in many schools. The classic 
 form of these writers adds much to the charm of 
 their studies. But it need not be supposed that 
 classic form is any substitute for the true scientific 
 spirit, but only the best channel through which 
 the scientific spirit may flow. We have a large 
 number of charming books, which breathe the 
 spirit of the most sympathetic and appreciative 
 study of birds and insects and plants in the open 
 air. Such is 
 
 Burroughs's "Wake Robin." Houghton, MiflQin & Co. 
 Thoreau's "Succession of Forest Trees," and "Wild Ap- 
 ples." Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 Burroughs's "Sharp Eyes." Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
72 Special Method in Science. 
 
 "Birds Through an Opera Glass," by Florence Merriam. 
 Houg-hton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "Madam How and Lady Why." Kingsley. Macmillan. 
 
 King-sley's "Water^Babies." Ginn & Co. 
 
 "Up and Down the Brooks," by Mary Bamford. Hough- 
 ton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "Inmates of My House and Garden," by Mrs. Brightwen. 
 Macmillan, 
 
 "The Stories of the Trees," by Mrs. Dyson. Thos. Nel- 
 son & Sons, N. Y. 
 
 Winchell's "Geological Excursions." S. C. Griggs, Chi- 
 cago. 
 
 "InBirdland"and"Birddom." Keyser. A. C. McClurg. 
 
 "The Foot-Path Way." Bradford Torrey. Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "Little Brothers of the Air." Olive Thorne Miller. 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "The Bird Lover in the West." Olive Thorne Miller. 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 These books are good companions for those 
 who wish to study nature in the open air. They 
 are especially valuable for the moral and esthetic 
 attitude of mind that they cultivate, for the hu- 
 manizing" and protecting" g"entleness with which 
 they observe animal and plant life. This coun- 
 teracts the naturally thoug"htless, wasteful, and 
 destructive habits of children. The tree or a 
 flowering" plant has a life not to be wantonly 
 destroyed. The robins and sparrows have anxieties 
 and rights which the school-boy should respect. 
 The esthetic sense, the appreciation of delicacy 
 and beauty of form and color and motion in the 
 things of nature, the whole esthetic taste and 
 
Books as An Aid to Science Teaching. 73 
 
 appreciation, are matters of slow development 
 and some of the classic writers just mentioned are 
 well able to open our eyes to these best influences 
 of nature study. 
 
 5. Teachers also need professional books 
 which deal wisely with the problems and diffi- 
 culties of science instruction. So rapid has been 
 the development of science teaching- in late years 
 that we have but few manuals of science teach in fj 
 that are abreast of the times. 
 
 It is to be hoped that we shall soon have a 
 number of good hand-books of this sort for 
 teachers: 
 
 Jactman's "Nature Study." Henry Holt & Co., New 
 York. 
 
 "An Outline of Nature Study," by Charles B. Scott, Os- 
 weg^o, N. Y. 
 
 "Directions for Teaching- Geology," by Shaler. 
 
 "Systematic Science Teaching." Howe. D. Appleton 
 &Co. 
 
 "Number Work and Nature Study." Jackman. Pub- 
 lished by the author. 
 
 "Moral Teaching- of Science." Buckley. D. Appleton 
 &Co. 
 
 "A Short History of Natural Science." A. B. Buckley. 
 D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "The Advance of Science in the Last Half Century." 
 Huxley. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Science Teaching in the Schools." W. N. Rice. D. C. 
 Heath & Co. 
 
 "One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study." Payne. E. 
 L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 
 
 "Elementary Biology." Boyer. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
74 Special Method in Science. 
 
 "First Steps in Scientific Knowledg-e.'' Paul Bert. J. 
 B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. 
 
 "Twenty-five Years of Scientific Prog-ress." W. N. Pace. 
 J. Y. Crowell&Co., N. Y. 
 
 "Scientific Culture and Other Essays." J. P. Cooke. 
 D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Recreations in Botany." Caroline Creevey. Harper 
 Brothers. 
 
 Ag-assiz's "Methods of Study in Natural History." James 
 R. Osg-ood & Co., Boston. 
 
 "Microscopy for Beginners." A. C. Stokes. Harper & 
 Brothers, N. Y. 
 
 "Birds Nesting-." Ernest Ingersoll. George A. Bates, 
 Salem. 
 
 "The Naturalist's Assistant." J. S. Kingsley. S.E. Cas- 
 sino, Boston. 
 
 "The Naturalist's Guide." C. J. Maynard. S. E. Cassino 
 Boston. 
 
 The above illustrate what is needed. Courses 
 of nature study must spring out of these discussions 
 of the aim, selection of topics, and method of treat- 
 ment of the same in different g^rades. The vast ex- 
 tent of the scientific field, the close relation of 
 science topics to other studies, and the scientific 
 and pedag-og"ical method of treatment, are all 
 deeply involved in this discussion, and the next 
 few years will doubtless see very great progress 
 in this field of pedagogic study and experiment. 
 
 6. In the last few years a large number of sci- 
 ence readers for use in the grades for supplemen- 
 tary reading has been offered to the schools by 
 different publishers, such as: 
 
Books as An Aid to Science Teaching. 75 
 
 "Seaside and Wayside," Nos. 1 to 4. D. C. Heath & Co* 
 
 "The Child's Book of Nature," in three parts. Hooker. 
 Harper & Brothers. 
 
 "A Botany Reader," two parts. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "My Saturday with a Bird Class." D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "Nature Stories for Young- Readers," two parts. D. C. 
 Heath & Co. 
 
 "Chapters on Plant Life." American Book Co. 
 
 "Brooks and Brook Basins." D. C. Heath «fe Co. 
 
 "Little People and their Homes." Charles Scribner's 
 Sons. 
 
 "Natural History Readers." Wood. Boston School Sup- 
 ply Co. 
 
 "Wing's and Fins," "Feathers and Fur." American Book 
 Co. 
 
 "Boys and Girls in Biology." D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Little Nature Studies for Little People." 
 
 "Animal Memoirs," in two parts. Ivison, Blakeman Co. 
 
 "The Story of our Continent." Shaler. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "Glimpses of the Animate World." Johonnot. Ameri- 
 can Book Co. 
 
 And many others may be added. 
 
 It is a serious question to determine just what 
 is the value of these science readers. It should 
 first of all be clearly understood that they do not 
 take the place of observation and real nature 
 study. They should follow rather than precede 
 the oral lessons, excursions, collections, and class 
 study. After children have been introduced by 
 observation and class instruction to important 
 topics it may prove valuable to use the sui)j)le- 
 mentary readers to enlarj^e and define more 
 closely their scientific knowledge. Science read- 
 
76 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ers, however, are to be regarded as books of in- 
 struction for purely supplementary and private 
 reading-, rather than as text books for regular 
 reading" exercises. The regular reading lessons 
 should be devoted to the appreciative study and 
 rendering of American and English classics. 
 Books of information, whether from science, his- 
 tory, or geography, are not good enough to serve 
 for the purpose of the standard reading exercises. 
 Many of the science readers, however, will prove 
 quite helpful to teachers in supplying them with 
 a part, at least, of the necessary scientific knowl- 
 edge. Larger, more complete scientific treatises, 
 are, of course, better; but most teachers have 
 neither the time nor the money to spend upon the 
 larger, complete books of science. 
 
The Selection of Topics. 77 
 
 THE SELECTION OE TOPICS. 
 
 IN SELECTING and arranging- the science top- 
 ics for the first four grades the guiding ideas 
 kept in mind are as follows: 
 
 1. Living animals and plants are observed. 
 Not only the appearance, habits, and organs, but 
 the whole life history is, at least, drawn upon. 
 
 2. Objects taken from the home neighborhood 
 are deemed the best. 
 
 3. The season of the year will determine the 
 time and opportunity for treating many topics. 
 
 4. Science topics prominently suggested by 
 the stories, myths, reading, or geography lessons 
 may be found well suited to the requirements of 
 the science work. 
 
 5. The best types should be chosen, not for the 
 purpose of premature classification, but because 
 they furnish just as good concrete material for 
 observation, and they also serve later as a basis 
 for good comparison and simple grouping into 
 classes. 
 
 6. There is no intent to limit the observations 
 of children to this list of objects, but to suggest 
 a series of important illustrative topics which may 
 give definite j)lan and purpose to regular observa- 
 tion. Upon excursions and in discussions many 
 
78 Special Method in Science. 
 
 other science objects may be brought iii and 
 treated more or less fully. Such a course of study 
 can be only suggestive, for no two neighborhoods 
 are the same, and probably the same teacher in 
 one locality would be inclined to vary his topics 
 from year to year. 
 
Outline of Topics for First Grade. 
 
 OUTLINE or TOPICS TOR riRST GRADE. 
 
 FALL TERM. 
 
 f REPARATION of familiar trees bearing 
 large buds, for winter rest, e. g. hickory, 
 buckeye, cotton wood, and balm of Gilead. 
 This study is associated with gathering of autumn 
 leaves. 
 
 Life histories of dog and cow. 
 
 Sheep — compare with cow. 
 
 Fox or gray squirrel — its home life. 
 
 Rabbit and mouse — compare with fox squirrel. 
 
 WINTER TERM. 
 
 Winter study of Austrian pine- — a type of ever- 
 green trees. 
 
 Scotch pine, hemlock, and Norway spruce — 
 compare with Austrian pine. 
 
 Life histories of horse and chicken. The 
 chicken studied as type of birds. 
 
 English sparrow and chickadee — Compare with 
 chicken. 
 
 Life of the cat. 
 
 SPRING TERM. 
 
 Plant lima beans, sweet peas, and nasturtium 
 seeds. Watch development. 
 
 Spring study of evergreen trees studied in the 
 winter. 
 
80 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Robin and red-headed woodpecker. 
 
 Buds, blossoms, and fruit of apple, cherry, and 
 plum trees. 
 
 Duck — type of water birds. 
 
 Goose. Compare with duck. 
 
 (The children draw the objects studied.) 
 
 References. — For study of quadrupeds see Dr. 
 Lockwood's "Animal Memoirs," Part I. 
 
 For special study of gnawers see Standard 
 Natural History, pp. 68-133; Seaside and Way- 
 side IV; Johonnot's "Feathers and Fur, " Johon- 
 not's "Claws and Hoofs," Wood's "Homes Without 
 Hands," "A Naturalist's Rambles About Home," 
 Mammals of North America (Baird). 
 
 For study of trees see Mrs. Dyson's "Stories 
 of the Trees," Apgar's "Trees of Northern United 
 States," Gray's "Structural Botany," and Gray's 
 "Physiological Botany." 
 
 For study of chicken see Dr. Lockwood's "Ani- 
 mal Memoirs," Part II. 
 
 For study of English sparrow see Olive Thorne 
 Millers "A Bird Lover in the West';' John Bur- 
 roughs's "Locusts and Wild Honey," "Pepacton," 
 "Riverby," and "Signs and Seasons;" Leander 
 Keyser's "Birddom;" Parkhurst's "Birds' Calen- 
 dar;" and "The English Sparrow," U.S. Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
 For study of robin see Dr. Lockwood's "Ani- 
 mal Memoirs" II; Parkhurst's "Birds' Calendar;" 
 Torrey's "Footpath Way" and "Birds in the Bush;" 
 
Outline of Topics for First Grade. 81 
 
 Miller's "Little Brothers of the Air" and "A Bird 
 Lover in the West;" Burroug-hs's "Wake Robin," 
 "Riverby," "Pepacton;" Keyser's Birddom" and 
 "In Bird Land;" "The Youths' Companion Sup- 
 plementary Reading" Book, " No. 7. 
 
 For study of chickadee see Burroughs's "Wake 
 Robin," "Riverby," and "Sig-ns and Seasons;" 
 Keyser's "Birddom" and "In Bird Land;" Torrey's 
 "Birds in the Bush" and "Footpath Way;" and 
 "Birds' Calendar." 
 
 For study of red-headed woodpecker, see "Lit- 
 tle Brothers of the Air;" "A Bird Lover in the 
 West;" "Birddom;" "In Bird Land;" "Birds in 
 the Bush;" "Wake Robin;" "Animal Memoirs," 
 Part II; Bulletin 7 U. S. Department of Agricul- 
 ture; "Farmer's Bulletin," 54 U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture; and Youth's Companion Supplemen- 
 tary Reader No. 7. 
 
 For study of duck see Johonnot's "Feathers 
 and Fur." 
 
 For study of seeds and flowers see Jane New- 
 ell's Botany; Goodale's "Concerning a Few Com- 
 mon Plants;" and Margaret Morley's Seed Babies, - 
 *Flowers and their Friends, " and "A Few Famil" 
 iar Flowers." 
 
82 Special Method in Science, 
 
 OUTLINE or TOPICS TOR SECOND GRSDE. 
 
 PALL TERn. 
 
 Continue study of llma bean, sweet pea, and 
 nasturtium. 
 
 Finish study of apples and plums begun 
 the previous spring*. 
 
 Metamorphosis of cabbage butterfly. If taken 
 at the very beginning of the term the eggs may 
 be found and all changes watched until the but- 
 terfly comes out. 
 
 Metamorphosis of milk-weed caterpillars and 
 other caterpillars which the children may find. 
 
 Grapes and raisins (study of the ripening grapes 
 on the vine). 
 
 Pumpkins, squash, and melons studied from 
 flower to fruit. 
 
 The turtle. 
 
 Preparation of plants and animals for winter. 
 
 WINTER TERn. 
 
 Parrot (if the bird can be seen by the children). 
 
 Crow and owl. Compare with the parrot. 
 
 History of snow crystals. 
 
 Salt and sulphur crystals. 
 
 Quartz crystals. 
 
 Kinds and formation of pebbles and stones. 
 
Outline of Topics for Second Grade. 83 
 
 Watch for and note time of return of spring 
 birds. 
 
 Watch for pussies on the willow. Notice the 
 first chang"es in the buds of this tree, and of its 
 mate which bears the seeds. Notice all succeed- 
 ing changes in both trees. 
 
 Watch for changes in buds of linden, larch, and 
 birch. 
 
 Goat. Compare with the sheep. 
 
 Simple process of butter and cheese making. 
 
 SPRING TERH. 
 
 CoQtinue study of willow, linden, larch, and 
 birch until end of term or until seeds have ripened. 
 
 Plant pumi^kin, squash, melon, and morning 
 glory seeds. Watch growth and changes. 
 
 Grapes — buds, blossoms, and green fruit. 
 
 Bluebird and brown thrush. 
 
 Violet and wild rose. 
 
 Frogs and toads. Watch development from 
 eggs. 
 
 (The order in which these objects are studied 
 is determined largely by the time of their appear- 
 ance.) 
 
 B00K5 FOR REFERENCE. 
 
 For study of trees and Uowers see books al- 
 ready referred to under First Grade work. 
 
 For study of squash, see "How a Squash Plant 
 Gets Out of the Seed," "Teachers' Leaflets on 
 Nature Study," Cornell University. 
 
 For study of parrot, see ''Cyclopaedia of Com- 
 
84 Special Method in Science. 
 
 mon Things," pp. 444 and 445; Anderson-Maskel's 
 "Children with the Birds, p. 265; Johonnot's 
 "Wing-s and Fins," p. 221; "Standard Natural 
 History," vol. 4, p. 319; "Johnson's Natural His- 
 tory, " vol. 2 ; "Museum of Natural History, " vol. 2. 
 
 For study of moths and butterflies see Ballard's 
 "Moths and Butterflies," Scudder's "Butterflies," 
 and Mrs. Tenney's "Pictures and Stories of Ani- 
 mals," vol 4. 
 
 For study of birds, in addition to the books men- 
 tioned for reference in First Grade, see also "The 
 Common Crow," "Some Common Birds in their 
 Relation to Ag-riculture, " "Hawks and Owls from 
 the Standpoint of the Farmer," U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 For study of crystals and pebbles, see Shaler's 
 "First Book in Geology" and "Cyclopsedia of 
 Common Things," pp. 497, 518, and 572. 
 
 For study of toads' and frogs' eggs, see "The 
 Life History of the Toad," "Teachers' Leaflets on 
 Nature Study," College of Agriculture, Cornell 
 University; Margaret Morley's "Song of Life" and 
 "Seed Babies;" Jane Andrews' "Stories Mother 
 Nature Told Her Children," and Mrs. Tenney's 
 "Pictures and Stories of Animals," No. 3. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 85 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS TOR PRIMARY 
 GRADES. 
 
 This series of nature lessons for prlmarj-^ grades was worked 
 out by Mrs. Lida B. McMurry and used in those grades. 
 
 THE SHEPHERD DOQ. 
 
 (Suggested by the story of "The Old Woman and Her Pig.") 
 
 To what did the old woman first go for help 
 when her pig- would not go? (To a dog.) Why 
 should she g"o to a dog-? (Dog-s help to drive 
 pigs.) Did you ever see one driving pigs, cows, 
 or sheep? How did it drive them? (Trotted 
 along behind them; if one lagged or went out of 
 the w^ay, the dog barked at it or jumped at it, 
 snapping his teeth; if the animal paid no atten- 
 tion to this, the dog did what the old woman 
 wanted the one in the story to do.) What was 
 that? (Bite.) These dogs do not bite hard, 
 usually. 
 
 How^ many have ever seen a dog driving sheep? 
 What do we call a dog that cares for sheep? We 
 shall talk about shepherd dogs and see how use- 
 ful they are. 
 
 Who in the class has or knows a shepherd dog? 
 Does it know much? How do you know? (Chil- 
 dren relate what they know of this species of dogs, 
 the teacher telling stories from her own experi- 
 
86 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ence. or such as she has read, illustrating their 
 sagacity.) 
 
 When I was a little girl my father owned a 
 shepherd dog, named Prince. We were all very 
 fond of him. Our home was a long, long way 
 from any neighbor, and in the daytime our sheep 
 grazed on a great pasture which was as large as 
 this whole town. This was a queer pasture, you 
 will think, when I tell you that there was no 
 fence at all around it, and when we spoke of it 
 we called it a prairie. Every morning Prince 
 would help my father drive the sheep to this 
 prairie. A place was found where the grass was 
 good, and here the sheep would spend the day. 
 One of their number wore a bell, and through the 
 day we could hear the distant tinkle of the bell. 
 If for any length of time we failed to hear it, some 
 one went with Prince to the prairie to see what 
 was the matter. 
 
 At night my father would call Prince and say, 
 "Prince, bring up the sheep," and away he would 
 trot, alone, the very instant he was told to go. 
 He gathered his flock together, and drove them 
 home. If any sheep was hurt or sick so it could 
 not go. Prince, after trying to get it along, would 
 leave it and drive home the others. He knew just 
 how fast the sheep could go without becoming 
 tired out, and no matter how many rabbits ran 
 across his path, he never left the sheep to chase 
 the rabbits, though he enjoyed nothing better 
 
lllusiratwe Lessons for Primary Grades. 87 
 
 when by himself. On reaching home, had a sheep 
 been left behind, Prince would go to my father, 
 look up into his face, bark, and start toward the 
 prairie. We always knew from this that some- 
 thing" was wrong, so father would follow Prince 
 and get the poor sheep home. 
 
 Our cattle were kept in a fenced pasture. One 
 Sunday, on returning from church, we saw that 
 some strange cattle had broken into this pasture 
 and were grazing with our own. The gate of the 
 pasture was opened and Prince told to "drive 
 them out." He knew our own cattle well, and we 
 all watched him as he went into the herd, picked 
 out one by one the strange cattle, and drove them 
 to the gate. 
 
 How do you think Prince could tell which cat- 
 tle were not our own? (He had sharp eyes.) Have 
 the shepherd dogs that you know sharp eyes? 
 Why do you think so? Of what color are their 
 eyes? Do all the dogs which you know have eyes 
 of this color? Do the little puppies have brown 
 eyes? Are the shepherd dog's eyes larger or 
 smaller than your own? Of the same shape? Are 
 they in the same part of the face as your own? 
 Tell me what you have learned about the shep- 
 herd dog's eyes. 
 
 But when Prince started out for the sheep, 
 was it his eyes that told him where they were? 
 (No, he could not see them.) How did he know 
 where they were? (He might have heard the 
 
88 Special Method in Science. 
 
 bell.) Could he hear well, do you think? Do 
 your dogs hear well? (Children relate their ex: 
 periences.) What does your dog" do first when 
 you call him? (Pricks up his ears.) Why? (So 
 that he may catch all of the sound that he 
 can.) Can you prick up your ears? (Our ears 
 stand out so that we can catch the sound 
 easily without moving them.) Where does the 
 sound which he catches go? (Through the 
 openings in the side of his head.) Did you ever 
 look into these openings? Do flies, bugs, dust, 
 etc., go through these openings? What is to 
 hinder? (Shepherd dogs' ears droop over this 
 opening, and hair covers it largely.) How is it 
 with your ears? What keeps insects out? Where 
 on the dog's head do you find his ears? Are they 
 higher up or lower down than our own? How 
 many ears has he? Why does he need two? 
 
 Tell me now all you can about a shepherd dog's 
 ears. 
 
 But Prince sometimes could neither see nor 
 hear the sheep, yet he started olf in the right di- 
 rection. How did he know where to go? He 
 might have remembered. But if he had not re- 
 membered, quite likely he could have found them. 
 Have you ever seen a dog that was lost from liis 
 master? What did he do? (Put his nose down 
 close to the ground.) Why? (To scent the tracks 
 of his master.) Can your shepherd dog smell 
 well, Archie? Does his nose look as if he could? 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Pnmary Grades. 89 
 
 (Yes, it is long-, and pointed, and has large holes.) 
 We call these holes nostrils. 
 
 Now, tell me how a shepherd dog" might find 
 the sheep when he could neither see nor hear them. 
 
 Prince had to go for the sheep in rainy as 
 well as in pleasant weather. He had no rubber 
 coat or umbrella. How did he keep off the rain? 
 (He had a good hair coat.) Was it a good one? 
 (Yes, shepherd dogs have thick hair all over the 
 body.) What did he do with his coat in pleasant 
 weather? Of what use was it to him then? (Kept 
 him warm.) Did he wear such a coat in summer? 
 Why? (To help keep bug's, flies, etc., from biting 
 him.) Is not the winter coat too thick for sum- 
 mer? What is done about it? How do you know? 
 (We do not like to handle the dog or have him in 
 the house in the spring" and summer when he is 
 shedding his coat.) Is the hair next the body like 
 that on the outside? Do you think this is well for 
 the dog? 
 
 Is a shepherd dog's hair the same leng"th all 
 over his body? Why shorter on the legs? Why 
 on the face? Are there any bare places on his 
 face? Do the flies ever bother him here? How 
 does he get them off? (Shakes his head or 
 brushes them off with his paw. Sometimes he 
 sleeps with his paw over the end of his nose.) 
 
 No matter liow fast Prince ran, his coat never 
 looked wet with sweat. Did you ever think of it 
 — that your dogs do not sweat as do horses, or as 
 
90 Special Method in Science. 
 
 you do? How do you think Prince showed that 
 he was very warm? (He hung* out his tongue: 
 something" that looked like water ran off from it.) 
 Do you supjjose that this cooled him off? Put 
 your finger in your mouth, then hold it up in the 
 air a minute. What happens? (It gets cold.) 
 What happens when the wind blows on the dog's 
 wet tongue? (It cools him.) 
 
 What is the color of the coat of a shepherd 
 dog? Prince's coat was black, with a w^hite col- 
 lar, a white star in his forehead, and white toes. 
 
 You may tell me, now, all you can about a 
 shepherd dog's coat. 
 
 The road over which Prince went w^as a rough 
 one; quite stony, too, in one place. Should you 
 think his feet would become sore? Do the bot- 
 toms of his feet touch the ground as do yours 
 when you walk? [Have a shepherd dog in the 
 class if possible; if not, another dog will do.] 
 What part touches the ground? (Only his toes 
 and the ball of his foot. He walks all the time as 
 we do when going on tip-toe.) On how many toes 
 does he walk? Look at the dog's foot. Picture 
 one of the front feet, also one of the hind feet. 
 Has the dog a toe answering to your thumb? 
 Point to it. One answering to your big toe? Point 
 to it. Where are his heels? Feel of them. Some 
 child, quite likely, may have on low shoes. Call 
 attention to the great tendon of Achilles which 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Pr-imary Grades. 91 
 
 lifts the heel. Where do we find this in the dog's 
 hind legs? Where is his heel? 
 
 Look at these toes on which the dog walks. 
 Feel of the part that touches the ground. (It is al- 
 most as tough as leather Each toe and the ball of 
 the foot has a cushion with a very thick cover.) 
 Do you think that the stones hurt Prince? 
 
 Does the dog make much noise in running? 
 Why not? Listen as he runs over the floor. What 
 do you hear? Now you may tell me all you can 
 about a shepherd dog's feet. 
 
 When Prince came home at night we used to 
 pet him. In what way, do you think? Do you 
 think he liked to be petted? How would he show 
 that he liked it? What was he telling us? 
 
 In what other way do you think we showed 
 that we cared for him? (Gave him a good din- 
 ner.) What do dogs like best to eat? How do 
 they eat the meat? (Swallow^ large pieces with- 
 out chewing. They sometimes hold the meat 
 down with their front feet, or hands, while they 
 pull off pieces of it.) What part do they eat that 
 we never eat? (Bones.) 
 
 [Bring a gentle dog to the class and examine 
 its teeth, if the jaw of a dog cannot be procured.] 
 What are these long, sharp teeth for? Have you 
 such teeth? Show me that you have. Are they 
 longer or shorter than those of the dog? What 
 are these smaller front teeth of the dog for? How 
 many? Have you such teeth? Where? With 
 
02 Special Method in Science. 
 
 what teeth does it chew the bones? Are they 
 g-ood teeth for that? 
 
 What do dogs do with bones left from a meal? 
 (Bury them.) Where? How do they make the 
 hole in which to bury them? Which claws do 
 they use? What kind of claws does a dog need 
 to dig with? (Strong claws.) Why? (So they 
 will not break.) What shape must they be? 
 Look at the Shepherd dog's claws and find if they 
 are strong and slightly curved. How does he 
 cover the hole? Notice carefully. 
 
 We also set a pan of water where Prince could 
 get it. How^ did he drink it? Watch your dogs 
 drink water and tell me just how they do it. Do 
 dogs drink much water? How much at a time? 
 Sometimes they suffer because their masters for- 
 get that they need water. 
 
 Not long after Prince had had his dinner he 
 went to bed. What kind of a bed does a dog like? 
 Did you ever watch a dog lie down in his bed? 
 What does it do? Children report later, if not 
 ready now. 
 
 Did you ever hear a dog talk? Prince was a 
 good talker, after his fashion, and we could un- 
 derstand what he meant, usually. In what ways 
 do you think he talked? id) He growled when he 
 did not like what he saw or heard. (&) He barked 
 hard and long when he wished to drive animals 
 away, (c) He barked short happy barks when he 
 was glad to see us. {d) He whined when not al- 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Prima)^ Grades. 93 
 
 lowed to follow us into the house, (e) He snarled 
 at any one who tried to get his food away from 
 him, or at a tramp. (/) He howled when left at 
 home alone, ig) He yelped when he was hurt. 
 
 He had a way of talking, also, without making 
 a sound. How was that? (By his tail.) What 
 did his tail tell? (When he wagged his tail it 
 told us that he was pleased, or that he thought 
 we were going to give him something that he 
 liked. Dogs wag their tails just before they 
 * 'speak." When he was frightened, or ashamed, 
 he carried his tail down between his legs.) 
 
 The children might review the whole subject 
 of shepherd dogs by going w^ith Prince after the 
 sheep. 
 
 Do you think shepherd dogs are useful? What 
 have we found that they can do? What other 
 helpful things have you seen them do? 
 
 Other species of dogs familiar to the children 
 may be studied by comparison with the above, 
 thus: 
 
 What other kind of dogs do you know? Ralph 
 has a rat- terrier. How many have seen one? 
 (Probably all.) How does a rat-terrier help us? 
 (Catches rats.) How is it that he can catch rats 
 better than a shepherd dog can? (r/) He is much 
 smaller. How does this help him? He can go 
 under piles of rubbish and into holes where a shep- 
 herd dog could not go. ib) He is quicker in his 
 movements. How does this help? (A rat runs 
 
94 Special Method in Science. 
 
 fast. A dog" must be very quick to catch it.) (c) 
 His teeth are smaller, and so, sharper than those 
 of a shepherd dog", (d) His hair is straight, short, 
 and stiff, and lies down close to his body, so he 
 can g-et into holes more easily than the shepherd 
 dog with long, thick, curly hair. 
 
 Children make a drawing of the shepherd dog. 
 
 AUTUriN LEAVES AND BUDS. 
 
 As soon as the leaves begin to fall, encourage 
 the children to bring" beautiful ones to school, 
 the teacher pressing some of them for the decora- 
 tion of.the school room. Ask the children to name 
 the trees from which the leaves come. Notice 
 what tree first puts on gay colors, and have the 
 children note carefully the succession. 
 
 The trees that wear yellow dresses may be 
 grouped together, also those that wear dresses of 
 red, purple, spotted red and yellow, etc. Do all 
 trees that send off their leaves, dress them beau- 
 tifully before they g"o? What trees have leaves 
 that shrivel up when the frosts come? 
 
 You have had a story about a little leaf that 
 worried a great deal — The Anxious Leaf. About 
 what did it worry? (For fear the wind would pull 
 it off and throw it down on the ground to die.) 
 Is the wind doing that with any leaves now? Do 
 they fall easily? Could the wind always pull the 
 leaves off so easily? (No, not in the spring" and 
 summer.) You may shake the little branch that 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primai-y Grades. 95 
 
 I brought in. (The leaves come whirling down.) 
 Let us see if we can find out why the leaves fall 
 so easily now. Why is it, do you think? (''They 
 forget to hang on." "They are loose." "Some- 
 thing is growing up between the leaf and the 
 branch and the leaf can't reach around it.") Look 
 closely at that something. What is it? (A tiny 
 bud.) Will it fall off? Why do you think it will 
 not? (It holds on so tightly.) Do you think it 
 liked to have the leaf by it? (Yes, the leaf put 
 its arms around it and kept it warm, and dry, and 
 out of the sight of bugs which might eat such a 
 little thing.) It is true that the buds need the 
 leaves when they are so tiny, but they do not push 
 the leaves off. Notice carefully these leaves on 
 the branch. Here is a little fence which has 
 been slowly built up between the leaf and the 
 branch. When the fence is done the leaf drops. 
 But this fence is never built up too fast. The 
 leaves, all through the summer, are working away, 
 for they prepare all the food which the tree needs. 
 When the little fence is begun the tree ceases to 
 eat much and so stops growing. Instead of using 
 the food prepared by the leaves, it packs it away 
 in its trunk and branches, for it will need it in the 
 spring, and when the leaves have furnisheid the 
 tree all the food it needs their work is done and 
 they are ready to go, and just at that time the 
 fence is finished. 
 
 [This is probably as deep as we shall care to 
 
96 Special Method in IScience. 
 
 go into the subject with the little children who 
 have just entered school.] 
 
 You have spoken of the leaf caring- for the 
 bud. Why should it care for it so tenderly? Of 
 what use is a bud? Let us see what is in this 
 little Cottonwood bud. (The outside is sticky.) 
 Why is that? (To protect it from the rain and 
 snow and to keep bugs from eating it.) We will 
 take off this waterproof coat very carefully. 
 What do you see here? What do these coats do? 
 (There must be something very fine inside which 
 these coats are keeping safe.) And inside these 
 soft wrappings what do we find? (Some tiny 
 leaves.) What are they doing here? (They are 
 lying in their warm bed, cuddled closely together, 
 waiting for spring. When the weather begins to 
 get warm in the spring the wax on the outside 
 will melt and the buds will throw off their cov- 
 ers and come out.) Why not come out now? 
 (They would freeze in the winter, so the tree gives 
 them very little food — just enough to keep them 
 alive but not enough to make them grow.) 
 
 Open other buds, some will be found to contain 
 flowers. Notice the difference in the shapes of 
 the leaf buds and flower buds. [The flower buds 
 on many trees are short and round, while the leaf 
 buds are long and pointed.] 
 
 Was it not too bad for the leaf to leave the 
 little bud? (No; the bud does not need it longer, 
 it is covered up so well. The leaf stayed with it 
 
Illustrative Lessons fm' Primary Grades. 97 
 
 until it had on all its covers, so the little buds do 
 not need the leayes, and the tree does not need 
 them to prepare its food. But would it do any 
 harm for them to stay? (Yes, the snow mig-ht 
 gather on the leaves and break the branches off 
 with its weight.) 
 
 Do you think you would find buds on all these 
 trees that are losing their leaves? Look and see, 
 and find if all the leaves and flowers are wrapped 
 up in the same way that those on the Cottonwood 
 are wrapped. 
 
 See Jane Ne well's "Reader in Botany," I, for help; also 
 Gray's "How Plants Grow."' 
 
 It is advisable to center observation chiefly 
 upon one or two kinds of trees, as hickory and 
 Cottonwood. 
 
 THE COW. 
 
 To what animal did the old woman (in the 
 story of "The Old Woman and Her Pig") go last 
 for help? (To the cow\) What did she want the 
 cow to do for her? (Give her some milk.) But 
 before the cow would give her any milk, she must 
 do something for the cow. What was that? (Give 
 her some hay.) How much did she give her? (An 
 armful.) Is an armful of hay enough to last a cow 
 all day? How many of my armfuls do you think 
 it would take? Why does a cow need so much to 
 eat? (She is large.) As large as a shepherd dog? 
 (Much larger. A shepherd dog could walk right 
 under a good-sized cow.) 
 
98 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Where do the farmers get this hay that the cow 
 likes? Do the cows ever get it from the fields 
 themselves? When? Did you ever watch a cow 
 eating- grass? What did she do first? (Put her 
 head down to the ground.) Could you do that? 
 (Yes, if I could stand as a cow stands.) Do you 
 think so? How does the cow stand? On what? 
 Its toes, as the dog does? (No, it stands on the 
 nails of its third and fourth fingers and toes.) 
 What do we call these nails of the cow? (Hoofs.) 
 Where are the nails on our fingers? (On the back 
 of the ends of our fingers.) Where are the nails 
 of the cow? (Her nails or hoofs go all the way 
 around.) Feel of them. (They are very hard and 
 thick.) Does she need such hoofs? Why? Notice 
 the shape. (They look like one hoof cut in two.) 
 Because they look this way, we say the cow has 
 a cloven hoof. Cloven means cut in two, but we 
 know that she has two nails or hoofs on each foot. 
 
 Now you know how the cow stands while -she 
 eats. How is it? Would any like to try standing 
 as she does? (Can not do it.) Why not? (Our 
 nails are not strong enough to bear our weight.) 
 Does the cow have any trouble to stand? Can 
 she reach the grass on the ground with ease? How 
 does she gather the grass? (She reaches out with 
 her tongue and draws a wisp into her mouth, and 
 nips it off with her teeth.) What kind of a tongue 
 has she, that can be used in this way? (A long, 
 limber, rough one.) Why need to be long? Why 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 99 
 
 limber? Why roug-h? What else does she use in 
 gathering the grass? (Her thick, broad lips.) 
 [These answers should be the result of the child's 
 careful observations.] How does she bite off the 
 grass? (With her front teeth.) Have you noticed 
 anything strange about these front teeth? (The 
 cow has no front teeth in her upper jaw.) How 
 then can she bite off the grass? (The upper front 
 jaw is very hard, almost as hard as a bone.) 
 
 Does she eat rapidly? How long does she chew 
 on a mouthful of grass? Does she keep on eating 
 all day at this rate? (No, after a while she lies 
 down, or stands and rests.) Did you ever notice 
 how a cow lies down? Does she lie down as the 
 dog does? What does she do first? Then what? 
 If you watch her mouth while she is lying down 
 or resting standing, what will you find her doing? 
 (Chewing her cud.) What is this cud, and where 
 does it come from? I will tell you. Where does 
 your food go after you swallow it? (Into the 
 stomach.) Now, a cow has a very large stomach. 
 The grass which she bites off she chews but a lit- 
 tle, if any. She swallows it, and it goes into a 
 room in this big stomach, where it soaks for a 
 while. Watch a cow's throat a little while after 
 she lies down, and tell me what you see. (Some- 
 thing going up her throat toward her mouth.) 
 This is a little of the soaked grass going up to be 
 well chewed. We now call it a cud. What be- 
 comes of this cud? (After it is chewed up fine, the 
 
100 Special Method in Science. 
 
 COW swallows it and it g-oes into another part of 
 this big stomach.) Then what? (Another cud 
 goes up to be chewed in the same way, and so on.) 
 Do the cow's jaws move as yours do when chew- 
 ing? How do yours move? (The upper jaw does 
 not move. The lower jaw moves chiefly up and 
 down.) Do the cow's move in that way? (Her 
 upper jaw does not move,but her lower jaw moves 
 from one side to the other.) What does this side- 
 wise motion of the lower teeth on the upper teeth 
 do for the grass? (Grinds it up. It is her mill in 
 motion.) Which teeth do the grinding? (The 
 back teeth.) Let us see if they are good grinders. 
 [Have jaw of cow if possible.] (They are broad, 
 flat, and hard.) 
 
 Is it a good thing that the Cow can pack away 
 her food, and chew it when at rest? (Yes. She 
 can gather grass in the cool of the day, then lie 
 down in the shade when the sun is hot, and eat it. 
 She does not have to stand as much as she other- 
 wise would, but can rest while eating.) 
 
 In the winter time, what does the cow eat in- 
 stead of grass? (Hay, straw, and fodder.) She 
 eats these as she does the grass, i. e., chews them 
 slightly, swallows, then re-chews as a cud. 
 
 What beside grass, hay, and straw does the 
 cow like to eat? (Corn.) How does she get hold 
 of the ears of corn? How does she eat corn? 
 What becomes of the cob? 
 
 What else does the cow like? (Oats, meal, and 
 
Illustrative Lessons for THmary Otades'. • • ioi 
 
 bran.) How does she eat them? What is bran? 
 
 Can you think of anything" else we feed the 
 cow? (Carrot, turnips, beets.) How does she eat 
 them? 
 
 Anything else? (Salt.) Do we salt the cow 
 often? How does she eat it? 
 
 Can you think of something- else she would 
 want? (Water.) How often should a cow be 
 watered? Does she lap up the water as the dog- 
 does? How, then, does she drink? 
 
 [All these answers made by the children should 
 be the result of their own observations, j 
 
 Now, is there anything we can do for the cow 
 in the summer, besides feeding her well? (Give 
 her a pasture in which there are trees or a shed 
 to protect her from the hot sun.) And in the win- 
 ter, what? (Give her good shelter from the cold 
 and snow, and a g-ood straw bed at nig-ht.) But 
 has she not a hair coat to keep off the cold and 
 snow? (This coat helps, but it is not thick 
 enough to keep her warm in bad weather.) Is it 
 as thick as the shepherd dog-'s coat? Are the 
 hairs of the same leng-th as his? Are they as fine? 
 Does she wear the same coat in summer and win- 
 ter, or has she a lighter coat in the summer, as 
 the dog- has? How do you know? Is her coat 
 the same color as that of the shepherd dog? We 
 do not often see the cow's coat wet from sweating. 
 When she g-ets warm, she opens her mouth, lolls 
 out her tongue, and pants, much as the dog does. 
 
102 Special Method in Science. 
 
 In the winter you can see the steam coming" from her 
 great nostrils. Have you noticed these nostrils? 
 
 Where is the hair longest on the cow? (On 
 end of tail.) What use does she make of this long 
 brush? But she cannot keep the flies off her neck 
 and shoulders, even with so long a brush. (She 
 drives them off by tossing her head around.) How 
 does she keep them off her feet and forelegs? 
 (Stamps her feet ) Children speak of the trouble 
 of milking- cows in summer on account of flies. 
 
 Can you think of any other way she has of 
 driving away things that bother her? Does she 
 bark or bite, as the dog does? (She has horns to 
 hook with.) [Have a horn in the class if possi- 
 ble.] Can she hurt with such horns? (Yes, the 
 outside is very hard, and they are strong and 
 sharp pointed.) From what part of the head do 
 they grow? Is that a good place for them? Why 
 do you think so? How does she use them? When? 
 (Not so often to defend herself as to protect her 
 calf. She is very fond of it.) Did you ever see 
 her drive away dogs? How else does she show 
 that she is fond of her calf? (She cries for it 
 if it is taken away. She licks it with her tongue. 
 That is the only way she has of kissing it. She 
 stands still for it to get its dinner. Do you think 
 the little calf pretty? What do you like about 
 its looks? (It has pretty eyes for one thing; so 
 has its mother.) 
 
 Children draw pictures of cow and dog side by 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 103 
 
 side. Draw from objects if possible. The teacher 
 will lead the children to correct their own draw 
 ings by reference to the objects. Before drawing 
 notice the form of each closely and compare so as 
 to be able to draw them correctly. 
 
 We have found many things that we can do 
 or the cow, now we shall see what she does for 
 us. What does she give us night and morning? 
 How do we get the milk? Which gives the more, 
 the cow kindly cared for, or the cow poorly housed 
 and fed? For what do we use milk? Do we get 
 cream from the cow? Do you see it when she is 
 being milked? (No, we only see the milk.) Where 
 do we get the cream? (It rises on the milk.) 
 What is made from cream? (Butter.) Tell me 
 how butter is made. [If possible watch the pro- 
 cess.] What is made from cream and milk? 
 (Cheese and cottage cheese.) What else is cream 
 used for? (Ice cream, etc.) 
 
 What other food do we get from the cow? 
 What is the flesh of the cow called? (Beef.) Do 
 we eat much beef? What do we call the beef w) 
 use? (Steak, roast, soup-bones, dried beef, etc. 
 Beef is also used in mince pies. 
 
 The flesh of the calf is called veal. 
 
 The fat of the cow gives us suet for puddings 
 and mince pies. We also get tallow from the fat. 
 Prom tallow, candles and wagon-grease are made. 
 It is also used in making soap. Oleomargarine, 
 
104 Special Method in Science. 
 
 which takes the place of butter, is made from 
 tallow. 
 
 Is the hair coat of any use to us? (Men put 
 hair in plaster to hold it together.) 
 
 Does the thick undercoat keep us warm? (Yes, 
 it is made into leather.) From the leather, boots, 
 shoes, and shoe-soles are made. From the calf's 
 coat, fine shoes are made. 
 
 What do the cow's horns g"ive us? (Combs and 
 knife handles.) Have these in the class for the 
 children to look at. 
 
 The hoofs, too, are useful to us, for what? 
 (They are made into glue.) (Have glue in class.) 
 Show pieces of furniture glued together. 
 
 Even the bones of a cow are of use to us. For 
 what? (Buttons and knife handles.) 
 
 You may tell me all the things the cow gives 
 us. 
 
 Which now do you think is the more useful to 
 us, the dog or the cow? (The cow.) But they are 
 both our good friends. 
 
 A large product chart or collection of products 
 can ^be made by the teacher and pupils; it adds 
 greatly to the interest in the subject. Milk,cream, 
 etc., can be sealed up in small bottles. 
 
 THE SHEEP. 
 
 (By comparison with the cow.) 
 
 What other animals, besides cows and calves 
 have you seen grazing in pasture? (Horses and 
 sheep.) Have all seen sheep? [If any are unfa- 
 
Illustrative Lessoi\s for Primary Grades. 105 
 
 miliar with them a visit should be made to one; 
 or, better, to a flock. Perhaps some chi^d may 
 have a pet lamb, which, like Mary's in the poem, 
 might follow him "to school one day." This 
 would afford an excellent opportunity for close 
 study.] 
 
 Watch the sheep as it eats g-rass. What does 
 it do? How does it bite off the grass? (With its 
 front teeth.) Look at these front teeth. [The 
 children might do this at home and report the fol- 
 lowing day. They discover that the sheep has 
 no teeth in the front part of its upper jaw.] What 
 other animal have you found lacking teeth here? 
 (The cow.) 
 
 See how long the sheep chews the grass before 
 swallowing. What are these sheep over here do- 
 ing? (Lying down and chewing their cuds.) What 
 will these sheep that are eating so rapidly now, 
 do by and by? What other animal eats grass in 
 the same way? (The cow.) From what you know 
 of the cow's cud, tell me how you think the sheep 
 gets its cud? [Children review process of rumin- 
 ation in the cow. If this study is taken up in the 
 wintertime the children observe the sheep eating 
 hay instead of grass.] 
 
 Which eats the grass off the shorter, the cow 
 or the sheep? Why can the sheep do this? 
 
 Does the sheep eat corn in the same way that 
 a cow eats it? [Children name any differences 
 that they may have observed.] (A sheep nibbles 
 
106 Special Method in Science. 
 
 off the kernels.) Watch it and see how it does 
 this. What else does it eat? Does it eat carrots, 
 turnips, and beets, as a cow eats them? What 
 difference? Does it hold the food down with its 
 foot, as the dog- sometimes does, when eating- its 
 food? How do sheep eat salt? How drink water? 
 
 Notice how lig-htly the sheep step around. Let 
 us look at their little feet. What do you find? 
 (They, like the cow, walk on their toe-nails — two 
 on each foot.) 
 
 Did you ever think how much the cow and the 
 sheep are alike? They surely must be cousins. 
 Name those points in which they are alike. 
 
 (a) Both have cloven hoofs (walk on toe-nails). 
 
 (&) Both lack teeth in front part of the upper 
 jaw. 
 
 (c) Both chew the cud. 
 
 Are they unlike in any ways? Look at the 
 two as they g-raze side by side. How can you tell 
 them apart? (The cow is much larger than the 
 sheep. The sheep could run under the cow. The 
 sheep is nearer the size of the shepherd dog-.) 
 
 If both were of the same size could you tell 
 them apart by their looks? (The sheep has a wool 
 coat, the cow, a hair coat.) Is there any other 
 difference in these coats, except that one is wool 
 and the other hair? (The sheep's coat is usually 
 white — occasionally brown — the cow's coat may 
 be white, red, black, or spotted.) Is there not still 
 another difference between the sheep's coat and 
 
Illustrative Lessons for PHman^ Grades. 107 
 
 that of the cow? (The sheep's wool coat is much 
 thicker than the cowl's hair coat.) 
 
 Let us look closely at this wool coat. Have 
 wool in the class. Each child may pick some to 
 pieces and see if it is at all like the cow's hair 
 coat. (It is hair, only the hairs are much finer 
 than those of the cow, and they are wavy and 
 seem to be fastened together, so that it is hard to 
 pull them apart.) Stretch one of these fine hairs. 
 What about its length, now? (It is much longer 
 than it looks to be when on the sheep.) Does the 
 wool lie down on the sheep's body in the same 
 way that the hair lies down on the cow's body? 
 
 You have told me that the sheep and cow are 
 unlike in size, and wear different kinds of coats. 
 
 If the sheep were the same size as the cow 
 and wore the same kind of a coat, could you tel 
 them apart? (Not many sheep have horns.) Do 
 all cows have horns? (Many have none.) Could 
 you tell them apart by the looks of their horns? 
 Look at the sheep with horns and the cow with 
 horns and see. (The cow's horns are round, quite 
 smooth, and pointed. They usually start out 
 from the head in opposite directions, then curve 
 inward and forward so it can hook with them.) 
 [Children show^ by drawing at the board.] The 
 sheep's horns grow backward and downward,) 
 often forming a curl. They are not round, and 
 are rough. [Children draw a sheep's head to 
 show how its horns look.] Can you think why it 
 
108 Special Method in Science. 
 
 is well that the sheep's horns do not stand out in 
 front of its head? (Sheep crowd close together 
 in the fold at night, or when frightened, and sharp 
 pointed horns such as the cow has would be apt 
 to injure other sheep.) 
 
 How can sheep keep away their enemies with 
 such horns, or no horns at all, as in most cases? 
 [Children relate any experience of their own, or 
 such as they have heard, of the terrible blow given 
 by a sheep with its head, butting. The large 
 horned sheep are usually willing to do the fighting 
 for a flock. They are no cowards. The teacher 
 might relate instances showing the bravery of the 
 rams in defending a flock.] Have you ever noticed 
 a mother sheep when a dog came near her lamb? 
 What did she do to show her anger? (Stamped 
 her foot.) And if the dog came nearer what did 
 she do? 
 
 Then she can fight to save her baby from harm, 
 even though she has no horns. 
 
 You may tell me again some difference between 
 the sheep's horns and those of the cow. 
 
 In how many points have we found the sheep 
 different in looks from the cow? 
 
 Now, if the sheep were like the cow in size, 
 wore the same kind of a coat, and had the same 
 kind of horns, could you still tell them apart? 
 Look closely at the animals and see. (The end of 
 a cow's nose is wide and bare.) Its nostrils are 
 far apart. The sheep's nose is more pointed. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 109 
 
 There is hair on the end of its nose, and its nos- 
 trils are quite close together 
 
 Let us name the difference in looks between 
 the sheep and the cow. (a) The sheep is smaller 
 than the cow. {h) It wears a wool coat, while the 
 cow wears a hair coat, (c) The sheep's horns are 
 different from those of the cow. [Children ex- 
 plain.] {d) Their noses are different. [Children 
 explain.] 
 
 But I mig-ht be able to tell a sheep from a cow 
 without looking- at one. How? (By its cry. A 
 sheep says, "Baa." A cow says, "Moo." We call 
 a sheep's cry a bleat, and the cow's a low. 
 When do we hear the sheep bleating a great 
 deal? (In the spring when the lambs are little.) 
 And how do the lambs answer their mothers' 
 calls? The sheep bleat also when they are hun- 
 gry or thirsty. So we can tell sheep and cows 
 apart both by seeing and by hearing them. The 
 scent of the sheep is also peculiar. 
 
 We found that the cow does a great deal for 
 us. Is the sheep also our good friend? What 
 does it do for us? (Its wool is made into blan- 
 kets for our beds, warm shawls, cloaks, coats, 
 etc.) (Children show garments made of wool.) 
 How do we get it from the sheep? (Men cut it off 
 with great sheep-shears.) How often? But is it 
 not very dirty after being worn without change 
 for a whole year? [Children tell about sheep 
 washing which occurs a few days before the 
 
110 special Method in Science. 
 
 shearing. If none have seen the process the 
 teacher explains and shows pictures. J Then when 
 their wool becomes dry, what is done? [Children 
 who have seen sheep sheared explain how the 
 coat is taken off, and how packed away. The 
 teacher shows good pictures to those who have 
 never seen this done. Show sheep-shears, ex- 
 plaining how they are worked.] An explanation 
 of the making of wool into cloth is given later. 
 
 Did we use the outside coat of the cow? For 
 clothing? For what, then? Which outer coat, 
 that of the sheep or that of the cow, is of the 
 more use to us? Do we use the under coat of the 
 sheep— the hide? Is it of the same thickness as 
 that of the cow? [Compare some pieces of pelts 
 of each.] 
 
 Does the sheep need as thick an undercoat as 
 the cow? Why not? (Its wool coat is so much 
 thicker than the hair coat of the cow.) What is 
 made from this thin undercoat of the sheep? 
 (Leather out of w^hich gloves are made and in 
 which books are bound.) [Show articles made from 
 sheep skin. ] Do you think that it is as useful as 
 the cow's undercoat? 
 
 What else does the sheep give us? (Its flesh 
 to eat.) What do we call it? (Mutton.) Do we 
 use its fat? What do we call it? (Mutton tallow.) 
 For what is it used? (Candles, soap, and healing 
 ointments and salves.) 
 
 Which does the most for us, the sheep, the cow. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. Ill 
 
 or the shepherd do^? Which one do you like best 
 for a pet? 
 
 Children draw a picture of cow and sheep side 
 by side, if possible from objects. Lead them to 
 correct their own mistakes in representation by 
 reference to the real object. 
 
 A chart showing the products of the sheep 
 might also be made. 
 
 THE RABBIT. (COnnON HARB.) 
 
 The purpose of the first recitation is to find 
 out what the children know about the subject. 
 
 "Did you see some little tracks in the snow 
 this morning as you came to school? What made 
 them? (Dogs or cats.) Did you see any others 
 smaller than these? What had made them? (Rab- 
 bits.) "Show me on the board just how these 
 tracks looked. If the children can not do this, 
 ask them to notice closely and draw a picture of 
 them on paper and bring to class next day. When 
 do you think the rabbit made them? (At night.) 
 Why was he running around at night? (To get 
 food.) Why not get his food in the day time? (He 
 is afraid something will see him and catch him.) 
 Then the rabbit has enemies, has he? Name some 
 of the enemies that you know. (Men, dogs, cats, 
 snakes, hawks, owls.) To-morrow we shall see 
 how these tracks of Bunny's help some of his ene- 
 mies to catch him. 
 
 At the next recitation the teacher brings in a 
 
112 Special Method in Science. 
 
 tame rabbit, introducing- it as gray Bunny's cousin 
 who hops just as gray Bunny does, and has ears 
 and eyes much like his, except the color of the 
 eyes. The teacher takes the pictures called for 
 the day before. Explanations are made of how 
 the rabbit makes the three tracks instead of four. 
 The two front feet strike together, and the two 
 hind feet come up on the sides, striking a little 
 in front of the two front feet. 
 
 Which feet go first, the fore or the hind feet? 
 Which pair of legs help him the more in hopping? 
 (Hind legs.) How are they fitted for helping- him 
 so much? (They are long and strong.) What 
 about the front legs? (They are shorter and 
 weaker.) How is it that the rabbit can get around 
 so quietly? I will hold him so that you may see if 
 you can find out. (The soles of his feet are cush- 
 ioned and covered with hair.) Why does Bunny 
 need to get around so quietly? (So his enemies 
 will not hear him.) But we have found out that 
 when he hops he leaves what? (Tracks.) And we 
 said yesterday that some of his enemies were 
 helped by these tracks to catch him. What ene- 
 mies? (Men. They see the tracks and follow 
 them.) What other enemies are guided by the 
 tracks? (Dogs.) How do the tracks help them? 
 Did you ever see dogs hunting rabbits? What did 
 they do? (Kept noses down to ground.) What do- 
 ing? (Smelling the tracks — "getting the scent.") 
 Do they need to see the tracks? (No.) Now what 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 113 
 
 will Bunny do to get away from the dogs? How 
 will he know that they are coming"? (See them.) 
 Has he good eyes for seeing them? Look at them, 
 where are they? (On sides of head.) How does 
 that help? (He can see all around without turn- 
 ing his head.) What does he turn? (His eyes; so 
 that when he is running he can see the dogs back 
 of him.) What else tells Bunny that the dogs are 
 coming? (His ears.) Are they good ears? Give 
 a low bark in the next room, Earl. What did 
 Bunny do? (Stuck up his ears.) Why? (To catch 
 the sounds.) What else do you notice about his 
 ears? (He can turn them in any direction.) How 
 will this help him? (Even if he cannot see the dog 
 be can tell from what direction he is coming with- 
 out turning his head.) 
 
 Now that Bunny sees or hears the dog, what 
 will he do? (Run.) Can he go fast? How do you 
 know? (Have seen him.) (Those long, strong hind 
 legs help him.) How does he hold his ears when 
 running? (Down and back.) Why? ( (a) So that 
 they will be out of his way when running under 
 fences and brush, ib) So that the air pressing 
 against them will not hinder him. (c) So that he 
 can hear his pursuers.) 
 
 In what other way can he get away from the 
 dogs? ( (a) He may glide into a hole or hollow 
 log. (6) Turn suddenly when the dog gets up to 
 him. The dog cannot turn so quickly, and not 
 expecting this turn in affairs, loses some time, the 
 
114 Special Method in Science. 
 
 rabbit improving- it in getting- away, (c) Crouch 
 down on a log" or in the bushes. His color being- 
 very similar to that of the log or bushes, the dog- 
 will sometimes give up the search after sniffing 
 around for a short time within a short distance 
 of him.) 
 
 If Bunny escapes from the dogs he goes where? 
 (To his home.) Where is it? (Near some log-, under 
 bushes, at foot of tree, or in the weeds.) What 
 kind of a house? (A hollow in the grass or weeds. ) 
 Is there no roof to his house? (No.) Sometimes- 
 there is. What kind of a roof do you think it is? 
 There is sometimes such a roof on your house, over 
 the other roof. (Snow.) How did Bunny get such 
 a roof? (Remained in his house, or /orm, during a 
 snow storm and let the snow cover him.) Does 
 snow make a good roof for him? Why do you have 
 warm covers on your bed at night? (To keep us 
 warm.) How does it keep you warm? Is not the 
 cold air all around your bed? (The covers keep 
 it out and keep the warmth in.) What does the 
 snow do for Bunny? (Keeps cold air out and 
 warmth within) How can he breathe in there? 
 Did you ever breathe on the ice, covering the 
 window, some cold morning? What did your warm 
 breath do to the ice? (Melted it.) What does 
 Bunny's breath do to the snow? (Bunny's breath 
 melts the snow a little, so he can get fresh air.) 
 How long will Bunny stay in his snow-covered 
 home? (Till he gets hungry.) Is he safe from 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 115 
 
 his enemies now that the dogs haven't his tracks 
 to scent? (No, he is not. The hunters are out.) 
 Could they tell where Bunny is? How? Can you 
 see your breath on a cold morning? What does the 
 hunter see as he looks off over the snow? (Steam, 
 coming from Bunny's home — his breath.) Why 
 does the hunter want to kill Bunny? ( {a) For 
 food, ib) For his fur. (c) For fun. [What do you 
 think of this? I id) Because he eats the vegeta- 
 bles in summer, (e) He girdles the farmer's trees 
 in winter. 
 
 Does it not seem that with so many enemies 
 there would be no rabbits left? This would be 
 true were there not so many young rabbits every 
 year, enough to take the place of those killed. 
 
 We have learned something about Bunny's 
 enemies. Why do gardeners and fruit raisers 
 often kill rabbits? (Because they eat their vege- 
 tables in the summer and gnaw their fruit trees 
 in the winter.) Why do they gnaw the fruit trees 
 in the winter? (Food is scarce then and they like 
 the bark of trees.) Would they gnaw young or 
 old trees? (Young trees, because they have ten- 
 der bark.) What kind of teeth must the rabbit 
 have to gnaw this bark? (Sharp teeth.) Must 
 all the teeth be sharp? (The front ones, at least, 
 must be so.) What else should be true of the 
 front teeth that they may nibble off the bark? 
 (They should be long.) Why? (So his gums will 
 not be injured by the wood of the tree.) Some- 
 
116 Special Method in Science. 
 
 thing" else must be true of his teeth, also. Think 
 of the kind of food he is getting and how he is 
 getting- it. (They must be strong-.) (Let us open 
 Bunny's mouth — for tame Bunny has teeth like 
 those of wild Bunny — and see if his front teeth 
 are sharp, long-, and strong-. What do you see? 
 (Two long-, sharp, strong- teeth in each jaw.) Here 
 are some of Bunny's teeth (taken from a skull) 
 and here are some knives. Let us see if the front 
 and back part of the teeth are equally hard. (The 
 front is the harder.) As he nibbles the hard bark 
 what will become of the softer back of the tooth? 
 (It will wear off faster than the front part.) What 
 will that do for the tooth? (Sharpen it.) Will 
 not the teeth finally be worn down to the g-um? 
 (They would, did they not keep growing- out from 
 the g-um.) What would happen to Bunny did he 
 not wear off his teeth? (They would keep on 
 g-rowing and become great tusks.) (The teacher 
 might cite examples of deformity caused by one 
 tooth being broken off.) Do you blame Bunny, 
 then, for nibbling something hard? 
 
 Look at Bunny's mouth. Do you see anything 
 about it that helps him in nibbling the trees? 
 (The upper lip has a deep cut. How does this 
 help? (The lip is out of his way when nibbling, 
 and so does not get hurt by rubbing against the 
 tree.) 
 
 After Bunny nibbles off the food what does he 
 do with it before swallowing it? (Chews it.) With 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 117 
 
 his sharp front teeth? (No, with chewing- teeth 
 such as we have.) Let us see if Bunny has such 
 teeth? (He has.) 
 
 Now Bunny has finished his breakfast or sup- 
 per off the bark of the tree. Has he harmed th e 
 tree much? (Killed it if he has gnawed all the 
 way around.) How is that? (The roads through 
 which the sap passes from roots to leaves, and 
 from the leaves back to the roots, are spoiled.) 
 [This presupposes a study of the tree.] And so 
 the fruit g-row^er would like Bunny to stay away 
 from his orchard, and when the weather is warm 
 and there is plenty of clover and vegetables, 
 Bunny is wil ling- to do so. 
 
 Has he ever been to your garden? Did you see 
 him? How did you know, then, that he had been 
 there? The parsley, lettuce, beets, etc., told the 
 story. Does he like flowers, too? Yes, and he has 
 good taste — a great liking- for carnations and other 
 pinks. Now this tame rabbit eats as does the wild 
 one, so we will ask him to show how the g-ray 
 rabbit eats, since we cannot catch g"ray Bunny 
 eating-. We will feed him parsley and carrot and 
 apple. Children try many different kinds of food 
 
 What have we found Bunny using his front 
 teeth for? (Gnawing.) Now watch him. What 
 does he do with the parsley? (Bites off a mouth- 
 ful, then chews it.) And with the tender leaves 
 of the beet? (The same.) And what does he do 
 with the apple? (Gnaws off a little at a time.) 
 
118 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Then he uses his front teeth for what? (Gnawing- 
 and biting.) And his back teeth for what. (Chew- 
 
 What do you like about gray Bunny's looks? 
 For help in study of rabbit, see Dr. Lockwood's "Animal 
 Memoirs," I. 
 
 Children picture the rabbit. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 We have been learning many things about some 
 of our animal friends. What ones? (The dog, the 
 cow, and the sheep.) Can you think of any other 
 animal that does very much for us? (The horse.) 
 How many of you have horses at home? Tell me 
 some of the things your horses do for you. Tell 
 of some of the heavy loads you have seen them 
 draw. Could men draw such loads? How is it, 
 then, that horses can pull so much? They are very 
 strong, much stronger than men. Do they often 
 appear unwilling to do such heavy work? Do 
 they work very long at a time? (Nearly all day, 
 often.) After you have worked a little while you 
 become tired and stop to rest. Do horses ever 
 need to rest? Can they stop whenever they wish? 
 Why not? Do masters think about their horses 
 becoming tired? (Kind masters do.) The children 
 have probably noticed horses with heavy loads 
 being stopped on the road that they might rest. 
 Is there any danger of putting on too heavy loads? 
 Children have no doubt noticed that sometimes 
 horses have more than they can well draw. How 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Frimai-y Grades. 119 
 
 do the horses show that the load is too heavy? 
 (By trying very hard to pull it.) Must they draw 
 the too heavy load? (Yes, unless the master is 
 kind enough to take some of it off.) Why does 
 not the horse refuse to draw such a load? His mas- 
 ter would whip him and make him do it. What do 
 you think of treating- horses this way? Sometimes 
 horses refuse to try hard to pull a load. Have you 
 ever seen horses refusing to go? What do we call 
 this? (Balking.) Have you noticed the size of the 
 horses that are kept for heavy work? They are 
 very large and have strong, heavy legs.) What 
 other things do these horses do for us? (Draw 
 plows, harrows, reapers, etc.) What else do horses 
 do for us besides drawing heavy loads? (They 
 draw us in buggies, carts, and sleighs.) Why do 
 you not drive cows? (They go too slowly.) In 
 some places they work cows. Here is a picture 
 of some oxen taking a load of children to a picnic. 
 Where oxen are used, it is usually to draw heavy 
 loads, not to take people out for the pleasure of a 
 ride. When you are out riding do you like to go 
 fast or slowly? Do the horses that people drive 
 fast look just like those they use for heavy work? 
 (No, they have lighter bodies and their legs are 
 more slender.) Why is this better for driving? 
 
 Compare movements of the heavy Newfound- 
 land dog with those of the light rat-terrier or 
 greyhound to show that heavy animals are slower 
 in their movements than the lighter ones. Does 
 
120 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the horse seem to enjoy g'oing- out for a drive? 
 How does he show that he enjoys it? How do 
 horses know which way you wish them to turn? 
 (If the driver wishes the horse to turn to the right 
 he pulls the right line. If he wishes him to turn 
 to the left he pulls the left line. When he wishes 
 him to stop he pulls both lines and says "whoa.") 
 How can the lines tell the horse where and when 
 to turn? (The lines are fastened to a bit in the 
 horse's mouth.) Of what are bits made? How do 
 they look? (Children show by a drawing.) After- 
 ward, if any child has never seen a bit, the teacher 
 shows one, explaining how and where the lines 
 are fastened. In what part of the mouth is the 
 bit held? [Children observe that the horse has 
 front teeth and back teeth, and that between the 
 two groups of teeth there is quite a long vacant 
 place. Into this the bit goes. Children show 
 place for bit by diagram on the board. The 
 teacher has a bridle in the class.] What is this I 
 have here? (A bridle.) What are these pieces of 
 leather for? (To hold the bit in place.) Notice 
 what is fastened to the sides of the bridle. (Two 
 square or oblong leather pieces.) Why are they 
 there? (To keep the horse from seeing many 
 things. They might become frightened at some 
 of these things.) Without these blinders, as these 
 pieces are called, could the horse see things at 
 either side without turning his head? How is that? 
 His eyes are so placed in his head that he can see 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 121 
 
 to the front and to the sides also. The eyes are 
 far apart and are large. Would you like to have 
 to look straight ahead all of the time? Can you 
 see thing's to the right and left without turning 
 your head? Not well. Why not? Do you suppose 
 the horse likes to have his view of the sides of the 
 road cut off? Some masters have their bridles 
 made without blinders. What do you think of that? 
 
 But horses with blinders, and horses wholly 
 blind, sometimes become frightened. What could 
 frigiiten a blind horse? (Sounds of cannon, fire- 
 crackers, barking of dogs, etc.) How does the 
 blind horse know of these? (His ears hear them.) 
 Has the horse good ears? Tell me how you know. 
 On what part of his head does he carry his ears? 
 What shape are they? Did you ever see him move 
 his ears? How? When? Why? Do the horse's 
 ears ever lie down? When? You may draw the 
 horse's head showing where his eyes and ears are. 
 Where shall we draw the ears? (Standing up side 
 Dy side from the top of his head. Look closely at 
 their shape.) 
 
 We all know how to r/uide the horse; let us see 
 how he pulls a buggy or sleigh. Is it in the same 
 way that you pull your hand sleds and express 
 wagons? (No, we pull them with our hands. The 
 horse has no hands.) No, the horse's arms are his 
 fore legs, and it cannot take hold of the buggy 
 with them, but I have seen children draw sleds 
 very much as your horse draws your sleigh or 
 
122 Special Method in Science. 
 
 buggy. How is the horse fastened to the sleigh? 
 [Children explain from observation.] The pur- 
 pose is to show how the pulling* is mostly done 
 by the breast and shoulders. In the same way 
 children sometimes in drawing- a loaded hand 
 sled, have double ropes fastened to the two sides 
 of the r.ound in front, which they put over their 
 shoulders so that the weight rests there. Any 
 who have never drawn sleds in this way are shown 
 how. Do horses get tired traveling all day when 
 the load is light? (Yes, if driven fast.) How do 
 they show that they are tired? (Go slowly.) Then 
 what does the driver often do? (Whip them to 
 make them go faster.) And what do the horses 
 do? (Go faster. They have to do as the driver 
 wishes, and if he does not care for his team they 
 will often have a hard time.) How do horses show 
 that they have been driven too rapidly? (They 
 are covered with sweat, even in cold weather, 
 and they breathe fast, the breath coming from 
 their great nostrils in clouds.) What care should 
 they receive at the end of their journey when 
 they have been so overdriven? (They should be 
 wiped dry with a cloth, then covered with a 
 blanket. They should not be given much water 
 to drink at once, although they are thirsty, but 
 should wait until they are cooled off.) 
 
 How else are horses used beside to draw heavy 
 loads and take you out riding? (People often ride 
 on their backs.) Did you ever ride horseback? 
 
lUusiniive Letioiis for Primary Grades. 123 
 
 Did the horse walk when you were on its back? 
 In what other ways do horses sometimes move 
 along? (Sometimes trot, or pace, or gallop. ) How 
 do the horses' feet move in trotting? Children 
 observe that the right fore foot and the left hind 
 foot move forward together. How do the horse's 
 feet move in pacing? Children see that the two 
 right feet are raised at the same time, then the 
 two left feet. 
 
 How do horses gallop? Children notice that 
 the fore feet are lifted together, then the hind 
 feet. 
 
 Can you tell whether a horse is walking, trot- 
 ting, pacing, or galloping, without seeing it at 
 all? (Yes, sometimes, by hearing the sound of 
 its feet as they come down on the ground.) What 
 is it about the foot that makes this noise? (Its 
 hard hoof or its shoe.) What is this hoof? (The 
 horse's toe-nail.) How is it different from the 
 cow's hoof? (The cow has two on each foot. Its 
 shape is different.) Of what shape is the horse's 
 hoof? Does it go all the way around the toe? 
 Picture its shape on the board. Where is the 
 hoof the broadest? Where narrowest? If this hoof 
 is the horse's nail, on what does a horse stand? 
 (On one toe-nail.) What kind of toe-nails must 
 these be that can hold up the heavy body of the 
 horse and can stand being brought against the 
 hard ground or pavement? (They must be strong 
 and hard.) Should you not think that they would 
 
124 Special Method in Science. 
 
 wear off? Look at some horse's hoofs. (The 
 lower part looks ragg-ed.) Do you ever lose part 
 of your nails? (Yes, mamma cuts the ends off.) 
 Then do they stay short? (No, they grow out 
 again.) So the horse's hoofs or nails wear off and 
 grow out again as your nails do. It is better for 
 the horse to have his nails trimmed, as you have 
 yours, but sometimes they are allowed to grow 
 rough like those we have noticed. 
 
 How do horses keep from slipping on ice? 
 (They wear iron or steel shoes usually.) [Teacher 
 has a shoe in the class.] How are these shoes put 
 on to the horse? [Visit a blacksmith shop if pos- 
 sible.] Does it hurt the horse to have the shoes 
 nailed to his hoofs? Does it hurt you to have 
 your finger nails cut? Neither does it hurt the 
 horse to have nails driven into his hoofs. How 
 many nails are put in? How are they driven 
 through the shoes? [Children notice the holes 
 for nails, in the shoe.] What are these three 
 sharp pieces — two at the heel and one at the toe 
 — extending downward? (Calks.) What are they 
 for? (The horse is so heavy that as it comes down 
 with its weight on its shoes, these pieces cut 
 deeply into the ice, keeping the horse from slip- 
 ping.) When a horse is shod with such sharp 
 shoes, we say he is rough shod. Look at the 
 tracks of horses on the ice. What do you see? 
 
 In the summer or during time of good roads, 
 some horses wear smooth shoes, like this — show- 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 125 
 
 ing- one. Feel of it. If, before, we said the horse 
 was roug-h shod we might now say he is how shod? 
 (Smooth shod.) 
 
 What else does a horse use his feet for beside 
 walking-, running, etc. V (He strikes with them to 
 knock off flies. He kicks his enemies.) Children 
 give examples. How else does he protect himself? 
 (He bites.) 
 
 We have found that horses can be driven in 
 winter without danger of falling. But do they 
 not get very cold without overcoats? (They have 
 a hair coat.) Shall we call the skin an under coat? 
 This is thick and warm. These coats keep the 
 horse warm enough when traveling. What shall 
 be done for horses when standing waiting for us? 
 (They should be covered with blankets.) What 
 protection do they need in cold weather, when not 
 working or travelings? (A good warm stable, with 
 a straw bed to lie on.) 
 
 Do the horses wear the same coat winter and 
 summer? (In the spring- they shed their old coat 
 and keep only the new one that began to g"row 
 out the summer before. So they are not dressed 
 as warm in summer as in winter.) Children relate 
 what they know of the horse shedding his coat. 
 There is other hair on the horse which protects 
 him in summer. What is that? (His tail.) How 
 does he use it? (To brush flies off.) Does it look 
 like the cow's brush? (No, the long hair is at the 
 end of the cow's tail, but all the hairs of the horse's 
 
]26 Special Method in /Science, 
 
 tail are long". Children show difference by draw- 
 ing's on the board. Where else is the hair long" on 
 the horse? (On the neck.) What do we call the 
 long hair there? (A mane.) How would you like 
 the looks of a horse without a mane? 
 
 We have found that the horse does a great deal 
 for us. What makes him strong and able to work? 
 (Good food.) What does the horse like to get in 
 the Summer time? (Green grass, and he likes to 
 be out in the pasture and get it for himself.) How 
 does he get the grass into his mouth? (By the aid 
 of his thick lips.) And how does he bite it off? 
 Has he or has he not teeth in his upper jaw? 
 Children observe that he has. After he has the 
 grass bitten off what does he do? (Chews it.) 
 Does he chew hay and grass as much as the cow 
 does? (More.) Children observe. Does he chew 
 a cud as the cow does? Watch your horses and 
 see. (They do not.) When this question is set- 
 tled they will see that since the horse does not 
 re-chew his grass or hay as a cud, it is well that 
 he chews it more at first. Notice how his jaws 
 move in chewing. Up and down or sidewise? 
 Have jaws of horse in class, if possible, that the 
 children may see how well adapted their large 
 back teeth are for grinding wp the food. 
 
 What else do horses eat besides grass and hay? 
 (Straw, fodder, oats, wheat, corn, and carrots.) 
 Observe and compare his manner of eating these 
 with that of the cow. How does the horse eat 
 
Illustrative Lessons fur Primai'y Grades. 127 
 
 salt? How drink water? What other animals 
 drink in the same way? What one drinks differ- 
 ently? Does the horse drink much? How much? 
 How often should he be watered? (Best to have 
 water in the pasture so the horse can g"et it when- 
 ever he wishes.) 
 
 How does the horse let us know when he wants 
 to be fed or watered? (He whinnies or neighs.) 
 Tell of some other times when he whinnies. (If 
 his mate is taken from the field or stable he whin- 
 nies for it. That is the way, too, the mother calls 
 her little colt. Horses sometimes whinny for 
 their masters, too.) 
 
 The teacher should insist on the children mak- 
 ing* the observations for themselves. 
 
 Frequent reproductions by topic should be re- 
 quired. Thus: **Tell how the horses are kept 
 from slipping on the ice." "How are they pro- 
 tected from the cold?" 
 
 Make a drawing of the horse. Draw cow, 
 horse, and dog. 
 
 THE CHICKEN. 
 
 (Type of birds.) 
 
 In the story of "The Four Musicians," which 
 musician first saw the light in the robbers' hut? 
 (The rooster.) How did he hapx)en to see it? (He 
 was up in the top of a high tree.) How did he get 
 up so high? (He flew to one of the lower limbs of 
 the tree, and from there to a higher one, and so 
 on.) How do you know? (I have seen chickens 
 
128 Special Method in Science. 
 
 fly up into trees and that is the way they always 
 did.) "Why doesn't it fly directly to the top of the 
 tree from the ground? (Its wings are not strong- 
 enough to carry its heavy body so far without 
 stopping to rest.) Does a chicken have much fly- 
 ing to do? When does it fly? (To and from its 
 roost.) Where does it roost? Where did the rooster 
 roost after his good supper in the robbers' hut? 
 Have you seen chickens fly at other times than 
 those just spoken of? (Sometimes, when they can 
 not get through a crack, they will fly over a fence.) 
 How? [Childrenrepeat their observations.] They 
 usually fly to the top of the fence, light there, then 
 fly down on the other side. Why do they make 
 so much noise with their wings? (It is such hard 
 work.) 
 
 Do you know what is sometimes done to chick- 
 ens to keep them from flying over fences? (Their 
 wing feathers are clipped on one wing.) How 
 does this hinder them from flying so high? (They 
 cannot balance themselves.) How does a chicken 
 fly? (By beating its wings against the air.) You 
 can raise your heavy body a little way from the 
 ground by pushing down on two posts driven into 
 the ground. A bird has no posts to push against, 
 but it can press against the air. That is always 
 handy, too. [By the use of a light fan, fanning 
 downward and outward rapidly, the children be- 
 come conscious that there is a resistance of the 
 
lllustratice Lessons for FHmai-y Grades. 129 
 
 We do not wish to g"o deeply into this subject. 
 Perhaps it would be wise not to touch upon it at 
 all, but usually the interested children bring up 
 the question and force some explanation of Jioiv 
 birds fly. The motions of the wings made by the 
 chicken in flying" — are they slow or rapid? In 
 raising its wing why does not the air above push 
 the bird back? The chicken does not raise its 
 wing straight up, it cuts through the air with the 
 front of the wing, so, showing with the fan. 
 
 You have seen the wing of a chicken on the 
 dinner table and it looks much smaller than when 
 on the chicken. Why is that? (It has the feathers 
 off.) [If possible, the teacher should have a gen- 
 tle hen in the class, also the wing of a dressed 
 chicken, and a wing with feathers upon it. Com- 
 pare in size the two wings.] Is this hen going to 
 fly now? How do you know she is not? (Her 
 wings are not spread.) The teacher extends and 
 contracts gently the wing of the hen a few times. 
 Does that make you think of anything you some- 
 times see? (A fan.) When does the chicken close 
 its fans? When it does not wish to use them in 
 flying? Why does it not keep them stretched out 
 all of the time? (They would be in its way.) 
 When? Can you show with your arms how the 
 hen closes her wings or arms? What does she do 
 when she wishes to fly? [Children relate their 
 observations.] Show how, starting with your 
 arms in the position of the closed wings. This 
 
130 Special Method in Science. 
 
 will require close observation. Call attention to 
 the position of the thumb or forefinger in the 
 dressed wing-.] Do your arms now look like the 
 chicken's spread wing"? (No, the skin that holds 
 the two parts of the hen's arm, or wing, together, 
 is wanting in our arm.) What, then, can you do 
 with your arms that the hen cannot do with hers? 
 (Stretch them out straight.) Picture on the board 
 John's arm stretched out. Beside it picture the 
 dressed wing stretched out. What is this wing 
 mostly made of? (Skin and bones.) Can you 
 think of any reason why it may be well that there 
 is no more meat on it? (The meat would make 
 the wing heavy. She would tire holding out a 
 heavy wing in flying.) 
 
 But the hen has besides the skin and bones, 
 what? (Feathers.) Do these help or hinder her 
 flying? (She spreads out these feathers and strikes 
 against much more air than the naked wing could 
 press against. She could not rise at all with the 
 naked wing.) Let us look at one of these large 
 wing feathers and see if we think it is the kind 
 the chicken needs for flying. Lift it. (It is so 
 light that I cannot feel its weight.) Does the 
 chicken need light feathers? Why? Is this feather 
 straight? (No, it curves downward a little.) Is 
 this well? The feathers hold the air under better 
 than they would if they were flat. [They will notice 
 the difference in pressure of a concave and a flat 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 131 
 
 fan.] How many of these long" feathers? Does it 
 need so many? 
 
 Pull a feather from this wing, Elta. [The 
 feather comes only after hard pulling".] Is it well 
 that they are fastened so tightly? Why? We will 
 look closely at these feathers. This middle part 
 is called the shaft. Each side is called a web. 
 Is the web of the same width on both sides? (No- 
 tice how the feathers are arranged on the wing.) 
 The narrow web of one covers the wide web of its 
 neighbor. Only one side needs to be long and the 
 chicken wishes to have as light wings as possible, 
 as we have said before. Can you think of any 
 reason for having the narrow web over the wide 
 one? Examine the wing. Would it do just as well 
 to have the wide web over the narrow? 
 
 Notice one little piece of the web. That is 
 called a barb. Separate carefully these barbs. 
 (They cling closely together.) After you have 
 separated them, smooth them down. What do you 
 notice? (They cling as before.) Hold the feather 
 up to the light as you slowly separate these barbs. 
 What do you see? (Each barb has little teeth on 
 both sides. These teeth fit into those of the barb 
 next to it.) Is that well for the chicken? (Yes, 
 if the feathers let the air right through, it would 
 leave nothing to press against and the chicken 
 would not rise.) What do you notice above these 
 long feathers? Of what use are these feathers? 
 Above these, 'What? Can you think how else the 
 
132 Special Method in Science. 
 
 chicken is helped by having- feathers that shut 
 out the air? (Its body is kept warmer.) How are 
 the little chickens helped by such feathers? (The 
 wings cover the little chicks at night and at other 
 times, and so keep them warm.) 
 
 Are all the barbs on the hen's feathers hooked 
 together? [Examine one of the small feathers.] 
 On which part of the feather are the barbs hooked 
 together? (On the part that is on the outside of 
 the chicken. The part that is covered is softer — 
 more like down.) How are the small feathers 
 arranged on the hen? They all point backward 
 from the head, and grow one over another like 
 the shingles on a house, only closer together. 
 The barbed part is on the outside.) Is this well 
 for the hen? Why? (It makes a very thick cover, 
 keeping out the cold, and also sheds the rain quite 
 well, the rain running off the end of one feather 
 onto the next, and so on until it drops to the 
 ground.) Have all the feathers barbs? Where do 
 you find feathers without barbs? Notice how a 
 hen stands in the rain. (With her tail drooping, 
 as if to let the rain have a chance to run off by 
 the way of her tail feathers.) In what other way 
 is the chicken helped to keep dry in rainy weather? 
 Have you noticed what a hen sometimes does dur- 
 ing a rain? (She oils her feathers so they will 
 shed the rain.) Will oil shed w^ater? How do you 
 know? Have oiled paper in the class. Pour water 
 on it and see what happens. Where does the 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Pmnary Grades. 133 
 
 chicken g-et the oil? (From a little sack just 
 above the tail.) [Show on dressed chicken.] Where 
 does the oil come out? How does the hen get it 
 out? (With her bill.) How can she reach away 
 around there with her bill? (Her neck is long" and 
 limber, and she can twist it around easily.) How 
 does she get the oil out? (Presses down on the 
 sack with her bill, and it comes out as does the 
 juice when you press on an orange in which you 
 have made a hole.) How does she carry the oil to 
 the feathers? With her bill? How put it on the 
 feathers? (She passes each feather which she 
 wishes to oil between her two mandibles.) 
 
 Her bill is the finest comb the hen has. But 
 her hair combing is no queerer than her bath. 
 Did you ever see a hen bathing? No? Did you ever 
 see a hen in an ash pile or in a pile of dust flutter- 
 ing around? Just what did she do? [Children 
 find out if they cannot tell.] This is her bath. 
 Does she seem to enjoy it? What does she do 
 when she is through her dust bath? Change her 
 clothes? No, but she shakes out the dust and 
 preens her feathers. (Smooths her old dress.) 
 How? Does the hen never change her dress? Have 
 you not seen many feathers lying around the hen 
 house? Did something pull them out? Do they 
 usually come out easily? How does this happen 
 then? (Little by little she is changing her dress. 
 An old feather falls out and a new one grows in 
 to take its place. Sometimes a hen loses the whole 
 
134 Special Method in Science. 
 
 of her tail at one time.) When does this chang-ing 
 of dress happen? (Late In the summer.) Is this a 
 g-ood time? Why? How do the little new feathers 
 look when they first come in? What do we call 
 them? (Pin feathers.) Examine these carefully 
 if they can be found when this is studied. Why 
 does the hen need to change her dress at all? (The 
 feathers wear out and become much mussed.) Is 
 there any order in shedding her coat? [When one 
 wing* feather comes out, its mate on the opposite 
 side is said to fall out also. Watch and see if this 
 is so.] Are the dresses of the little chickens like 
 their mother's? (No, they are covered with down.) 
 How is the down different from feathers? Chil- 
 dren see. (Down has no shaft and web.) Before 
 going farther the children tell what they have 
 learned about chickens flying, their wings, and 
 the feathers. 
 
 Have any of the other animals that we have 
 studied feather coats? What kind of coats did 
 they have? The shepherd dog", cow, and horse 
 have hair coats, the sheep a wool coat. 
 
 Where did we find the rooster in our story, 
 roosting- at first? Where later? Where do the 
 chickens that you know roost? Why should they 
 leave the ground? (Sometimes the ground is cold 
 and damp. When on a high roost the chickens are 
 not so apt to be disturbed or killed by rats, skunks, 
 dogs, etc.) How do they hold onto the roost? [If 
 no one in the class can tell, the children may be 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primai-y Grades. 135 
 
 given time to find out for themselves by -watching 
 the chickens at home. J (Its three front toes curve 
 around the roost in front — this ivay — (showing- with 
 the fing-ers) while its hind toe reaches around be- 
 hind and steadies it.) But when the hen is asleep 
 will she not stop holding on and fall off? Notice 
 a hen as she raises her foot in w^alking slow^ly. 
 How do the toes look? They curl up very much 
 as if holding to a perch. When do her toes spread 
 out? (Only when her feet come down on the flat 
 ground. At other times her feet are in a position 
 to hold onto a perch. And the weight of her body 
 only tightens her hold.) Whei^ on the perch do the 
 hens stand up all the time or do they sit? Find 
 out. Do they close their eyes? As you do? They 
 have three lids to each eye. What is the color of 
 this third lid? Notice Jioiu it closes over the eye. 
 At what time of day do chickens go to their 
 high beds? (About as soon as the sun goes down.) 
 Do we hear from them at all during the night? 
 (The old rooster crows occasionally.) How early 
 in the morning do chickens get up? (In the sum- 
 mer time, as soon as it begins to be light. In the 
 winter, they, like ourselves, hate to get up into 
 the cold, so they stay on their beds sometimes 
 until after sunrise.) Can you think of any other 
 reason why they do not get up, (or get down, 
 rather,)earlier in the winter? They have not so 
 much work to do. There are no bugs, or worms, 
 or vegetables to which they may help themselves. 
 
136 Special Method in Science, 
 
 What do they eat, in the winter time? Where do 
 they get it? Did you ever notice how the hen eats 
 the corn? [The teacher can feed the one she has 
 at school.] What did she do? (Picked up the 
 kernels very fast, with her bill.) What kind of a 
 bill has she? (It is hard.) Is that well? Why? 
 (It is strong-.) Why does she need a strong bill? 
 (It is pointed.) Why is this a good thing? The 
 upper mandible is curved. Is it better so? Why? 
 Notice how the forefinger is curved in picking up 
 a pin from the floor. Notice the shape of the 
 lower mandible. What do you think of that? The 
 bill has sharp edges. Is this well? (Yes, the 
 chicken can cut off pieces of leaves, grass, etc., 
 very easily with such sharp knives. She can cut 
 them off as fast as she can swallow them.) What 
 other animals did we find swallowing food very 
 rapidly? (Cow and sheep.) But was this the last 
 we heard of this poorly chewed food? (No, they 
 re-chewed their grass, hay, etc., as a cud,) Have 
 you ever seen chickens chewing a cud? (They do 
 not.) 
 
 Let us see if we can find why a chicken does 
 not chew its food. With what do we chew our 
 food? (Teeth.) What kind of teeth has the 
 chicken? Very carefully open the hen's mouth 
 and the children will see that she has no teeth. 
 Then why does the chicken not chew its food? 
 What becomes of the corn that it takes into its 
 mouth? (It swallows it.) How many have ever 
 
lllustralive Lessons for Primary Grades. 137 
 
 watched the dressing of a chicken? Did you see 
 its croj)? Feel right here on our hen. That is its 
 crop that you feel. The food that it swallows 
 goes first into that. I have here the crop of a 
 chicken. We will open it and see what we find. 
 [There is nothing- repulsive about this to the chil- 
 dren, as all have seen dressed chickens, and many 
 have watched the process of preparing them for 
 the table.] Now the corn, grass, etc., stay in the 
 crop until they are very well soaked, then they 
 pass on to the gizzard. Do you know the gizzard? 
 It is the chicken's stomach. Here is one. Feel 
 of it. It is very thick and tough. We will open 
 it carefully. [Peel so as to leave the inner sack 
 intact.] What kind of a coat is this outer coat? 
 (Strong and thick.) We will open the inner coat. 
 What do you see? (The food ground fine, and 
 some pebbles.) Take hold of this inner sack. (It 
 is tough and elastic.) Where is the door through 
 which the soaked corn comes into the stomach? 
 When it gets inside of this mill it is tossed back 
 and forth with the stones and becomes very fine, 
 as you see. From this food the chicken's blood, 
 flesh, fat and feathers are made, and its muscles 
 and bones are repaired. 
 
 Name other things that the chicken eats in the 
 winter. And in the summer time what? Where 
 do they find the bugs, spiders, etc.? How catch 
 them? [Children watch chickens and see.] Where 
 do the chickens find the worms? (In the ground.) 
 
138 Special Method in Science, 
 
 How get them out? (With their sharp toes.) Did 
 you ever see a chicken scratch for worms or seeds? 
 How did it do the scratching, with one or both 
 feet? Find out Then when it found something- 
 good to eat what did it do? (Picked it up quickly 
 with its bill and swallow^ed it.) What if a mamma 
 with her little chickens finds something good? 
 (She calls her little chickens with some quick 
 clucks and lets them have what she has found. 
 When tJiey get over being hungry she feeds her- 
 self.) How can she see the little seeds and bugs? 
 (She has bright eyes.) Where are they? Is this 
 well for her? Why? What shape are these eyes? 
 Of the same color in all hens? 
 
 We have spoken of the hen's food, but not of 
 her drink. What does she drink? How? (Puts 
 her bill into the water and then raises her head.) 
 Does her bill move when in the water? What is 
 she doing? (Pilling it.) Why does she raise it? 
 (To let the water run down her throat.) 
 
 How do you think the rooster that belonged 
 to the band traveled? (Walked.) As we said be- 
 fore, chickens fly but little. On what do they 
 walk? (Their toes.) About what other animal 
 that walks on his toes have we talked? (The 
 shepherd dog.) Does the rooster walk as the shep- 
 herd dog does? (No, it walks on the toes of two 
 feet, the dog on the toes of four feet.) On how 
 many toes does the chicken step. (Examine tracks 
 in snow or mud.) Does the hind toe help any in 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 139 
 
 walking-? Of what use is it? Are the front toes 
 all of the same length? Which is the longest? 
 Why is it well that the chicken has long toes? (If 
 his toes were very short his body would more 
 easily tip over.) Are their long nails in the way 
 when walking? Why not? Look at the base of the 
 front toes. (A little web is there.) Why? What 
 keeps their toes from being hurt by stones, rough 
 dirt, stubble, etc. ? (They are covered by tough, 
 hard rings.) This long part from the toes up to 
 the joint is the chicken's heel. Is the heel naked? 
 No, covered by plates of tough, hard skin. Have 
 you ever seen any chickens with feathers on the 
 heel and toes? Notice how tiny are the little 
 chicken's toes? Can they get around well? 
 
 Did you ever call the chickens to feed them? 
 Did they hear you? Then what did they do? How 
 can the chickens hear when we call? Have they 
 ears? Did you ever see them? [Very likely the 
 children may never have thought of a chicken's 
 ears.] The teacher calls attention to the ears on 
 the tame hen, or better, the children find them. 
 Why is it well that her ears are so small? Why do 
 the ears need to be thus protected? 
 
 It is said that hen's scent is g^ood, as well as 
 her hearing. How can we find out if this is so? 
 Where is this hen's nose. (The children will find 
 its nostrils, quite likely.) Are they protected? 
 
 Now look at this hen and tell me what you like 
 about her looks. (Her feathers are pretty.) What 
 
140 Special Method in Science. 
 
 is it that you admire about her feathers? What 
 else do you think is pretty about the hen? (She 
 wears a pretty red comb on top of her head.) How 
 do you like the looks of the little chicks? (They 
 are cunning-.) How are they dressed? (In fluffy 
 down.) With their round bodies and heads, and 
 tiny wing's and bill, and bright little eyes they 
 make a beautiful sight. 
 
 Where did these little chicks come from? (From 
 eggs.) How do you know? (Before the chickens are 
 hatched, the mother hen must sit on the eg-gs three 
 weeks, keeping- them warm all the time, or they are 
 kept warm in an incubator.) How does the hen get 
 food and drink? (She leaves the nest just long 
 enough to get food and water.) Would you know 
 a sitting hen were you to meet one? How? When 
 the little chicks are ready to leave the shell who 
 opens their shell door for them? (They do.) How? 
 (Notice the little drill on the bill.) Do you see it 
 on the bills of the older chickens? At what time 
 of the year do these little chicks come into the 
 world? (In warm weather, usually, in spring or 
 summer.) Why not in cold weather? How do 
 they get a living when young? How many little 
 chicks has the mother often to scratch for? Does 
 she complain about her hard work? (No, she likes 
 it.) How does she call her little chicks when she 
 finds a nice worm? Does she talk with them as 
 she walks out? What does she say? And how 
 do the little chicks answer her? (By a happy 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades, 141 
 
 little "peep, peep.") But when one gets out of 
 sight of its mother or gets into trouble? (Then it 
 cries a loud, long, lonesome wail, until its mamma 
 hears it and runs to it, or some person comes to 
 help it. It is a good thing a chicken can let us 
 know when it is in trouble.) 
 
 What kind of a sound does the mother make 
 when she sees a hawk in the sky or a snake in the 
 grass? What does this sound tell the little chick- 
 ens to do? (To hide in the grass.) Does the 
 mother hide, too? (No, she is ready to fight for 
 her babies if there is need of it.) How can she 
 fight? (With her bill, wings, and feet.) Did you 
 ever see her fight an enemy? Tell about it. 
 Teacher also relates instances. 
 
 How old are the little chickens when the feath- 
 ers begin to grow? Where do you first notice 
 these new feathers growing? How big are the 
 little roosters when they begin to crow? How 
 well do they crow? Tell how they look when 
 trying to crow. 
 
 Review the life of the little chick from the time 
 the hen goes on to the nest to begin her sitting, 
 up to the time when the feathers begin to grow. 
 
 How else are eggs used besides for sitting? 
 Children tell of the many uses of eggs. How do we 
 know that a hen has laid an egg? (She cackles.) 
 
 Various drawings are made from time to time. 
 The old hen and a little chick are represented 
 side by side, showing the difference in size. 
 
142 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Frequent reproductions are given by the chil- 
 dren on topics assigned by the teacher as: "Tell 
 how the mother hen protects her babies." "Tell 
 how the hen cares for her feathers." 
 
 THE ROBIN. 
 
 (By comparison with the chicken.) 
 
 We have been studying" about a large bird that 
 sings but little, and whose song is not very sweet. 
 What bird is that? (The chicken.) Now we shall 
 find out all we can about one of our sweeter sing- 
 ers, a much smaller bird, but one that we see 
 almost as often these warm days. What one do 
 you think it is? (The robin.) [Each child should 
 be encouraged to watch one pair of robins all 
 through the season. The study in school will 
 give them an understanding of what they are to 
 look for, and a desire to continue the observations 
 there inaugurated. The study of one pair of birds 
 will be likely to lead to a liking for the work, 
 which at least w^ill add much to the child's enjoy- 
 ment of nature.] What kind of looking bird is a 
 robin? - Can you tell the papa bird, or male, from 
 the mamma bird, or female? (The female appears 
 to be the larger, plumper, of the two, and is 
 lighter in color than the male.) [By a little prac- 
 tice, when out with the teacher, the children will 
 learn to tell the two apart quite readily.] 
 
 What have you seen the robin doing? (Sing- 
 ing, eating, building its nest, etc.) Where was it 
 when it sang? How could it hold onto the branch? 
 
Illustrative Lessons ^or Primary Grades. 143 
 
 I Study of its toes and comparison with those of 
 the chicken.] How did it stand as it sang-? What 
 was its song? Has it more than one? [Encourage 
 children to imitate its songs.] What time during 
 the day do robins sing? Find out. Do both the 
 male and female sing? Notice. 
 
 What have you seen it eating? Name all of 
 the thing's that you know robins to eat. (Bugs 
 and other insects, spiders, grubs, worms, berries, 
 early cherries, crumbs.) Where does it find bugs? 
 (On trees, the ground, fences, etc.) How can it 
 tell where they are? (Its large, round eyes are 
 very sharp.) How does it pick them up? (With its 
 sharp, pointed bill.) Have you ever seen it doing 
 this? Tell what it did. [If the children have not 
 noticed much about it, set them at work observing 
 and have them relate their observations in class 
 often.] On what trees have you seen the robin? 
 Have you seen caterpillers or insects on fruit trees 
 or berry bushes? [The children have quite likely 
 noticed "worms' nests" on trees.] What harm do 
 these do to the fruit and bushes? Have you seen 
 wormy apples, cherries, or plums? The insects 
 and grubs on the trees make the fruit wormy. 
 [It might be well to explain how. J Have you ever 
 noticed any other harm they do to trees? Some- 
 times they eat leaves of trees and bushes. How, 
 then, do you like to have caterinllars, grubs, and 
 insects on the trees? What will help us to get 
 rid of them? Do the robins eat many? [Watch a 
 
144 Special Method in Science. 
 
 robin a half hour.] (They eat and feed their young 
 every day many more insects, etc., than you can 
 count, even though you can count to one hundred.) 
 What do the}^ do with the worms? (Beat them on 
 the ground with their bills sometimes, until they 
 are dead.) 
 
 While robins like best of all, insects and grubs, 
 they do eat fruit, as you have said. What fruit 
 do they seem to like best of all? (Early cherries.) 
 Did you ever think that they earn the cherries 
 they eat? How? What would become of our cher- 
 ries if the robins and other birds were to stay out 
 of the trees all the spring. (The cherries would 
 be so wormy w^e could not eat them.) Do you 
 think they earn a share of the cherries? How do 
 people treat them when they go among the ripe 
 cherries? What do you think of that treatment? 
 When let alone do the birds seem to enjoy the 
 ripe cherries? What do they say? "Sweet! 
 sweet!" in high tones. Hoiv do they eat the cher- 
 ries? How do you know? (The United States 
 Department of Agriculture suggests that the Rus- 
 sian mulberry be planted near the cherry trees. 
 It fruits at the same time as the early cherry and 
 the birds prefer its fruit.) 
 
 When getting spiders or bugs from the ground, 
 how do they get around? 
 
 Did you ever see them gathering berries? What 
 did they do? [The teacher must be careful that 
 the points—every one — left over for study, are 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primai-y Grades. 145 
 
 called up many times in the class. In so far as 
 these questions result in close observations on 
 the part of the children, is the teacher's work a 
 success.] 
 
 Much of the food that the robin g-athers is not 
 for itself. How do you know? Where are its ba- 
 bies? (In a nest.) Where is the robin's nest built? 
 (Sometimes in an apple tree; it builds in other 
 trees, also.) In what part of the tree? (In the 
 crotch or in the angle formed by two branches.) 
 Can you think of any reason why they may like to 
 build in apple trees? (Some of their food is handy 
 there.) Of what shape is the robin's nest? Of what 
 built? [The teacher should have several robins' 
 nests gathered in the fall, after the robins have 
 flown.] The typical robin's nest is made up of 
 three parts; the outside of weeds, roots, straw, 
 and small sticks, woven together; the middle of 
 mud, held together by some fine material; the in- 
 side of g'rass, with sometimes a few hen feathers 
 and moss. There are many variations from this 
 type as to material, occasionally one being found 
 with no mud wall; and the shape is not always 
 round. Which made the nest? (The mother bird, 
 or both.) What did the male do when the female 
 built alone? (He watched the nest and sang", and 
 sometimes went to meet the female, when return- 
 ing- with straw, etc.) How much did she bring at a 
 time. (A mouthful.) Then her mate watched her 
 closely while she wove the material into the nest.) 
 
146 Special Method in Science. 
 
 [This should not be told the children. We have 
 ho rig"ht to destroy their pleasure derived from 
 finding these thing's out for themselves.] How 
 could the mother give the mud this shape? (She 
 sat down on her nest and pressed her breast 
 against it, now here, now there. You could see 
 her tail moving round and round as she molded 
 her nest.) How did she get the coarse material 
 in shape for the outside? (With her bill and claws.) 
 Her claws and toes are her hands.) [Study of 
 these as adapted to grasping and holding if the 
 teacher has a live robin. If not, it is enough to 
 know that she does use her toes for fingers.] 
 How long does it take to build the nest? (Three 
 or four days; sometimes less.) When her nest is 
 all done, what happens? (She lays some eggs.) 
 How many? (One on each day until from two to 
 six are laid.) Are these eggs as large as hen's 
 eggs? (They are about the size of the little candy 
 Easter eggs.) Of what color.? (Bluish green.) 
 Is that a good color for them? Why? Color re- 
 sembles that of the leaves of the tree, so the eggs 
 are not readily noticed. [Have some candy Eas- 
 ter eggs of the same color and size as the robin's 
 eggs. Children should be discouraged from tak- 
 ing eggs from a bird's nest. During the drawing 
 recitation the children might mold robins' nests 
 from clay, and put a few little clay eggs into the 
 nest.] 
 
lllus rative Lessoiis for Pnmary Grades. 147 
 
 Does anything- ever disturb these eggs? (Some- 
 times bluejays, crows, blackbirds, or owls go to 
 the robin's nest and steal all of the eggs.) What 
 if the robins should see one of these birds near the 
 nest? (They would raise a terrible cry, call their 
 neighbors, and flutter about until the bird might 
 be g"lad to leave.) 
 
 Are the robins ever disturbed while on their 
 nests? (Sometimes at night an ow^l will go to the 
 nest, snatch off the mother with its bill, then eat 
 up the eg"gs, or even the baby birds.) Sometimes 
 in the daytime a blacksnake will climb the tree, 
 scare off the mother bird, then steal the eggs or 
 baby birds. What do the parents do about this? 
 (They fly all around the snake and try to peck it 
 and drive it away, but it is not afraid of the old 
 birds, and sometimes catches them, too.) 
 
 Do you know of anything" else that steals 
 robins' eg-gs? (Sometimes thoughtless or cruel 
 boys take them. They have not the excuse that 
 the owl, crow, and snake have, for boys do not 
 need the eggs at all. The robins cannot hurt the 
 boys — defend their nests against them. The boys 
 know this, so they' take the eggs.) What do you 
 think of that? 
 
 What does the mother do with the eggs if they 
 are spared to her? (She sits on them.) How long? 
 (About eleven days.) Does she never leave the 
 nest? (Only to get food and bathe. While she is 
 gone, her mate sits on the nest.) Did you ever see 
 
148 Special Method in Science. 
 
 a robin bathing? Did it use ashes or dust as the 
 hen does? (A robin bathes every day in water.) 
 How does it bathe? Where? [Watch and see.] 
 
 After the robin has been sitting" about eleven 
 days, what happens? How do the young robins 
 look? Like little chickens? (Not at all.) They 
 are naked and blind, and seem to be nearly all 
 mouth. When a little over a week old, for the 
 first time they see their parents, ^ and brothers 
 aud sisters. They never know quite how ugly 
 they look at first, for when they open their eyes 
 their feathers have begun to grow.) What be- 
 comes of the egg-shells after the birds are out? 
 (The papa robin pushes them out of the nest with 
 his bill, and he now cleans out the nest whenever 
 it needs it.) 
 
 How do the baby robins spend their time? 
 (Eating and sleeping.) What do they eat? How 
 get their food? (The papa and mamma feed them.) 
 Do they eat much? (They keep their parents hunt- 
 ing food all the time.) How do the parents give 
 the food to their children? 
 
 Since these birds eat so much, they must grow 
 very fast. Does their home grow, too? (No. So 
 the house is soon too small for so many big birds.) 
 What will be done about it? (The birdies will 
 have to leave. When about three weeks old they 
 bid good-by to their home.) How large are they 
 now? How are they dressed? (Very much as their 
 parents are dressed, only their vests are spotted 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 149 
 
 instead of plain orang-e.) How will they get out 
 into the world? (They must learn to fly.) Did 
 you ever watch any young robins learning to fly? 
 Tell what they did. How did the parents act? 
 Watch for young robins learning to fly this sum- 
 mer and tell what they do. Do they learn to fly 
 well? Can robins fly any better than hens? Why? 
 Their bodies are light, and their wings spread out 
 wide. 
 
 After the young robins have left the nest do 
 they go back at night? (They never go back. 
 But they are not old enough to feed themselves. 
 The papa bird takes all the care of them after 
 they leave the nest. It is hard work for him to 
 get enough food for three or four such big fellows, 
 but little by little they learn to hunt for them- 
 selves.) 
 
 What is the mamma bird doing while the papa 
 bird cares for the young? (If this was her first 
 brood of the summer, she goes to work immedi- 
 ately to build another nest and lay some more 
 eggs. She usually builds this nest near the first 
 one. Sometimes a mamma robin makes three 
 nests in one summer and raises three families. 
 She has little time for rest, aside from that spent 
 on her nest.) 
 
 What enemies have the little birds? (The cat 
 is one of its worst enemies.) How can kitty catch 
 the birds? What other enemies? (Squirrels and 
 owls carry off the helpless little birds.) 
 
150 Special Method in Science. 
 
 We have found out that the robins are great 
 eaters. In the winter time do we see bugs, cater- 
 pillars, and fruit? What do the poor robins do 
 for a living then? (They cannot stay here, so 
 they go South where it is warm, so that there is 
 plenty of food.) The mamma bird and the chil- 
 dren g"o South several days before the papa birds 
 go. It may be that the young go so slowly that 
 the papa birds, although starting several days 
 later, g"et there as soon. Let us ask some one 
 from the South if they all arrive at the same time. 
 When do the robins come back to us? (As soon 
 as the weather begins to get warm in the spring.) 
 Why then? Do they all come together? (No, the 
 males come several days before the females.) 
 Where do the robins stay before they begin to 
 build their nests? (In thick trees or bushes, where 
 they can keep warm.) Have you ever seen robins 
 here when there was snow on the ground? Do 
 you suppose they were hungry? What could you 
 have done to help them? Picture the robins — the 
 male, female, and baby. 
 
 For study of robins, see Dr. Lockwood's "Animal Me- 
 moir," Part II, and books by John Burroug-hs, Leander 
 Keyser, Bradford Torrey, and Olive Thorne Miller. 
 
 THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. 
 
 At the beginning of the spring term the chil- 
 dren are asked to watch for red-headed woodpeck- 
 ers and report the first one seen, as last term they 
 notified us of the first appearance of the robin. To 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 151 
 
 make sure that the children know what bird they 
 are to look for, the teacher asks: "How many know 
 this bird?" "Tell how it looks." (It wears a red 
 cap, a bluish black coat, with white skirts when 
 at rest, and a white vest.) The female dresses 
 like the male only her colors are not so bright, 
 and she is a smaller bird. Show a stuffed speci- 
 men or colored picture if possible. 
 
 What bird have we been talking about? (The 
 robin-redbreast.) And what other bird have we 
 been looking for? (The red-headed woodpecker.) 
 How many have seen one? What was it doing? 
 (Knocking on tiee trunks, running up trees, or fly- 
 ing.) Why were the woodpeckers knocking on the 
 trees? (They were making holes through the 
 bark.) Why? (To get at the grubs or insects 
 under the bark.) How can a woodpecker make 
 this hole? (A stuffed specimen would be of use 
 in studying the bill as adapted to its work; if this 
 can not be had a good picture could be used to ad- 
 vantage for the children can not get close enough 
 to the bird to examine its bill. There is a good 
 picture in Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, part H, 
 and in "Birds" there is an excellent colored pic- 
 ture.) (Its bill is long, straight, pointed.) Does 
 he make much noise knocking? How does it sound? 
 When he has the hole made how does he get the 
 grub? (He thrusts out his long, narrow, pointed 
 tongue. The end of his tongue is hard and has lit- 
 tle teeth pointing backward in this way — showing 
 
152 Special Method in Science. 
 
 by diagram on the board. He can run this tongue 
 out far beyond the end of his bill and do it very 
 quickly. When a grub is once pierced by this 
 hook it cannot get away for the barbs hold it on. 
 But sometimes an insect is too small to be pierced 
 in this way; such are caught by a sort of glue that 
 is on the end of the tongue. They get stuck fast 
 in it.) (If there is any danger that the children 
 may not understand the latter statement a child 
 might take a little glue on his finger and notice 
 how all small particles that he touches with his 
 finger cling to it.) 
 
 Can you tell now why this bird is called a 
 woodpecker? " 
 
 Does it harm the trees to be bored into in this 
 way? (They do not often bore into a tree unless they 
 hear a grub or bug under the bark.) What if these 
 grubs were left in the tree? (They might kill it.) 
 Do trees that are very well and strong have insects 
 under the bark? (No.) What kind of trees, then, 
 does a red-headed woodpecker peck? (Only those 
 that need the woodpecker to cure them — to take 
 away the things that injure them.) Did you ever 
 see them peck at the bark of dead trees? Do you 
 think they were there for insects? Strip off the 
 bark from a dead tree and see if you can find in- 
 sects there. 
 
 Upon what does the woodpecker sit while 
 breaking into the grub's house? (It does not sit 
 at all, it stands up.) How can it do this? (Have 
 
Illustrative Lissoiis for Primary Grades. 153 
 
 stuffed specimen or a good picture in the class to 
 show how the toes hold him. If neither is to be 
 had, put a diagram on the board.) (He has four 
 toes, two in front and two behind. They have 
 strong, sharp curved claws. These claws catch 
 into the wood before and behind and hold him 
 firmly.) Does he use anything but his claws? Chil- 
 dren find out for themselves. (He has a long and 
 very stiff tail. The ends of the feathers are 
 pointed, and these are pressed into the wood and 
 prop him up, just as this brace — showing one — 
 holds this board up.) Do they seem afraid of falling 
 when running up a tree? (No, they go with as 
 much ease as you run on the sidewalk.) 
 
 Do the red-heads get insects in any other places 
 except under the bark of trees? (They find them 
 on the outside of the bark and on the leaves of 
 trees, on the ground also.) How do you know? 
 Where else do you find insects? (In the air.) Do 
 the red-heads ever, catch them while in the air? 
 Watch and see. They catch beetles and wasps 
 while on the wing. 
 
 Do they eat anything except grubs and insects? 
 What? (Cherries, berries, apples, and pears.) How 
 do they eat them? Children observe. Leander 
 Keyser says that they sometimes dig out holes in 
 the top of posts, in dead tree trunks, or in stumps, 
 and hide fruit. He saw a red-head press a berry 
 into one of these holes, then suck out its juice. 
 
154 Special Method in ISciencc. 
 
 Sometimes these birds catch a cherry or a berry 
 on the fly, but usually they alight near enoug-h to 
 it to reach it with their bills. Do they swallow a 
 berry whole? Children find out. 
 
 Do you know of anything- else that they feed 
 upon? (Once in awhile but not often, you will 
 find a red-head boring holes into good trees for 
 the sap.) Have you noticed these holes? How 
 did they look? (They often extend around the tree 
 in a circle.) It is another wookpecker that does 
 most of the sucking. They suck the -sap out of 
 these little wells. After a while the wells fill up 
 again, when the woodpeckers suck them dry as 
 before. Do you know of any little insects that 
 like sweets? Where might they go for them? (To 
 these wells.) What might happen to them here? 
 The red-heads might make a dinner off of them. 
 (Dr. Lockwood thinks this is one of the purposes 
 of these wells.) 
 
 Do you think he is a pretty good bird to have 
 around? Why? (Review.) 
 
 What is the only harm we have found them 
 doing thus far? Ought we to welcome them when 
 they come back in the spring? Why? Do they 
 come at the same time as the robin? When did 
 we hear the first robin? When the first red- 
 headed woodpecker? Could you tell that he was 
 here without seeing him? (The male comes more 
 than a week before the female.) (Yes, by his 
 drumming.) How did it sound? "Tap! tap! tap!" 
 
Illustnitive Lessons for Primanj Grades. 155 
 
 very fast, then "tap! tap!" very loud, with a 
 pause between the two taps. What did he use 
 for his drum? (A dry limb or sometimes a shingle 
 on the house.) What did he use to beat the drum 
 with? (His bill.) Does he never sing? (No, and 
 he is too happy to keep still, so he beats a drum 
 to make music.) Does he have but one drum? 
 (Each woodpecker has a favorite place where he 
 goes to drum. One spring one wakened me very 
 early every morning" by drumming on a shingle in 
 the roof just above my head. They drum in other 
 places, too, as they fly around getting their food.) 
 Find out whether they do most of their drumming 
 in the morning or in the afternoon. How early 
 do they begin? When you hear one, run and ask 
 your mamma w^hat time it is. Do they drum very 
 long at a time? Do they drum constantly, or stop 
 to rest a little once in a while? What do they 
 do when resting? The drumming seems to be a 
 call to the mate. See if the children arrive at 
 this conclusion by noticing that the bird acts as 
 if he were listening, and later is sometimes joined 
 by the female, Does he drum at all when his 
 mate is with him? (Yes, and she seems to think 
 him a fine musician.) Is this the only sound you 
 hear a woodpecker make? (He makes a shrill, 
 lively sound, in which there is no music.) You 
 may tell all you know about the music of a red- 
 headed woodpecker. (Review.) 
 
156 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Where do they sleep at the end of their long, 
 busy day? Leave the children to find this out for 
 themselves if they can. Let them watch near a 
 nest if there be one near their home. (They some- 
 times, early in the season, sleep in holes in trees, 
 but Leander Keyser says that they usually sleep 
 on an uprig-ht or oblique perch, cling-ing- with 
 their stout claws, with their heads pillowed in the 
 feathers on their backs.) 
 
 After he has called his mate they two g"o to 
 work building- a nest. Where? (In the trunk of 
 a dead tree that is not too soft, or in a limb, a 
 fence post, or a teleg-raph pole. When made in a 
 limb it is usually on the under side.) How do they 
 make it? They cut out a round, smooth, straig*ht 
 hole rig-ht in front of them, with their bills. They 
 make it large enough around so that the bird can 
 go in. When the woodpecker has gone in five 
 inches or so — show distance by a mark on the 
 board — he begins to work downward, making the 
 hole larger and larger as he goes down ten or 
 twenty inches — show by line. If not possible for 
 the children to see a nest, the teacher should give 
 them a clear idea of it by a diagram on the board. 
 You have learned that the mamma robin builds 
 the nest. Which is the harder to make, the 
 robin's nest or the red-headed woodpecker's. (The 
 red-head's.) Will the mamma have help, do you 
 think? (Yes, the papa bird does half of the work.) 
 Can they work together? Why not? (The mamma 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 157 
 
 bird works just about as long- as the time you 
 spend in this class — twenty minutes — then she 
 flies to an upper limb and calls her mate in her 
 shrill voice. When he comes she seems to tell 
 him how much she has done, and they talk over 
 their plans together. Then the papa bird flies to 
 the nest and works about as long- as the mamma 
 worked, while she flies away for food and rest. 
 Then the papa bird calls the mamma bird and 
 tells her about his work, etc.) How do they get 
 the chips out of the nest? (Carry them out with 
 their bills.) How is the nest lined? (It is not 
 lined.) The fine wood or sawdust falls to the bot- 
 tom of the nest, and this forms a soft bed for the 
 eg-gs.) Is this a good kind of nest for a bird to 
 have? Why do you think so? (It is protected from 
 the storms, and from the birds and animals that 
 trouble the robin's nest.) What ones? But there 
 is one animal that troubled the robin's nest which 
 can easily get into this nest. What is that? (The 
 blacksnake.) Quite often it steals the wood- 
 pecker's eggs or birdies 
 
 Do the birds go to all this work to make a nest 
 every year, or do they use the same nest year 
 after year? They always make a new nest and 
 they do not use a hole which they find already in 
 a. tree. Can you see the egg-s in the nest, or the 
 tiny woodpeckers? Why not? How many eggs? 
 (Six.) How do they look? (They are more nearly 
 round than are the robin's eg-gs and are larger 
 
158 Special Method in Science. 
 
 than her's. They are pure white and very smooth. 
 Can you tell when there are little woodpeckers 
 in the nest if you cannot see them? (If you 
 are near the tree you can hear the babies cry. 
 They are big- eaters and nearly all the time they 
 are teasing for food.) Who feeds them? (The 
 mamma and papa.) What do they feed them? 
 (Bug's, moths, grasshoppers, etc.) When they are 
 big enough to fly about how can you tell them 
 from their parents? (The first summer their heads 
 are not red, but instead a very dark gray, and 
 their wings are spotted black and white. The 
 white on their breasts is not pure white, but dirty 
 looking.) 
 
 Do these brothers and sisters have good times 
 playing? (Yes, and the father and mother play, 
 too.) Children watch them and tell what games 
 they play. And, if you have a chance, watch one 
 during a shower and see what it does. The 
 teacher should call for their observations and re- 
 late her own, throughout the summer term, and 
 again in the fall. 
 
 The children should be taught to be very wary 
 in watching birds, try to keep out of their sight 
 as much as possible, and keep quiet. 
 
 Picture the red-headed woodpecker. 
 
 CABBAQE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 Have you seen butterflies in a "cabbage 
 patch?" Of what color? What were they doing 
 there? Watch them closely and see if you can 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primai-y Grades. 159 
 
 find out. (They were laying eggs.) Where did 
 they lay the eggs? What was their color? Was 
 the color any protection? How many were there 
 together? 
 
 The teacher ijiight well bring a head of cab- 
 bage to the class on which are some of these 
 eggs. Keep in a shady, cool place where the 
 leaves will not wilt, and allow the children to 
 look at these eggs every day. 
 
 Encourage them also to watch those on one 
 head in their gardens at home. In about ten 
 days from the time the eggs were laid they will 
 hatch out into tiny green caterpillars. Is it well 
 for them that their color is green? Why? What 
 do they do as soon as they come from the egg? 
 (Go to eating the leaves.) Can you see why the 
 mother laid the eggs just where she did? 
 
 A few of these caterpillars may be put in a 
 jelly glass and supplied with fresh leaves every 
 day. The top might be covered with paper in 
 which there are holes for the air to pass through, 
 but not large enough to allow the caterpillar to 
 get out. The children will feed them and watch 
 their growth. They grow to their full length, 
 one and one-half inches or less, in about three 
 weeks. 
 
 What happens when they are fully grown? 
 (They hang themselves up.) How? Where does 
 the silk come from? (From the mouth.) In the 
 body of the caterpillar are two long- bags which 
 
160 Special Method in Science. 
 
 hold a sticky fluid. This fluid flows through a 
 tube which ends in the middle of the lower lip. 
 The fluid hardens as soon as it comes to the air. 
 
 Does it hang- with its head up, or is it down? 
 Then w^hat happens? It throws pff its caterpillar 
 skin. Make a picture of it as it hangs now. 
 
 The children note the day when it goes into 
 its chrysalid state and watch for it to come out. 
 They will need to watch about eleven days, and 
 it will be a joyful moment for them if they are so 
 fortunate as to see it leave its home. How does 
 it go to work to get out? It begins to move about, 
 a slit comes on its back, and it puts its head out, 
 then the rest of its body comes out, and the little 
 green house is left empty. 
 
 The children now have the whole life of the 
 cabbage butterfly learned from their own obser- 
 vation, and they will never forget it. It helps 
 them to interpret the life of all caterpillars. 
 
 They will gather, feed, and watch other cater- 
 pillars. Not all of them will change into butter- 
 flies. Some will become moths, and by comparison 
 they will find these differences. 
 
 (a) A butterfly flies in the daytime, a moth by 
 night. 
 
 (&) A butterfly holds its wings erect when at 
 rest. The wings of a moth lie flat or slant like 
 the roof of a house. 
 
 (c) A butterfly has knobbed feelers. A moth's 
 feelers are not knobbed. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary G^'ades. 161 
 
 CATERPILLARS. 
 
 The children will enjoy studying" caterpillars 
 at home, if they are initiated at school. The best 
 time to study many of them is during- the summer 
 vacation. 
 
 When a child finds a caterpillar he might pick 
 the plant or twig on which it rests and put both 
 into a box. After reaching home or school, it is 
 well to transfer the caterpillar to a glass cup or 
 jar where its movements may be watched. This 
 may be covered with netting or perforated paper. 
 Once or twice a day fresh leaves of the kind on 
 which it was feeding" when found, should be fur- 
 nished it, and the glass cleaned. The little cap- 
 tive seems quite happy so long as it has plenty of 
 fresh food and a g"ood appetite. 
 
 Often we find caterpillars on the walks or in 
 the road; these must be tested with a variety of 
 food until leaves are found which they will eat. 
 The hairy caterpillars which I found this summer 
 contented themselves with the leaves of the 
 smartweed or a closely allied plant. The plantain 
 was, also, accepted by several. But whenever 
 possible to know its choice, the caterpillar has 
 been fed from its own particular kind of plant. 
 
 Some of the caterpillars may begin spinning 
 or otherwise changing", the day on which they are 
 captured. When you find one spinning at school, 
 pass the glass to the children for their inspec- 
 tion, taking care not to disturb the little worker. 
 
162 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Some lesson may suffer for this interruption, but 
 the children have a bit of experience all their 
 own, which they would not care to part with, and 
 school is made pleasanter for this little break in 
 the routine. Long" after most of the other lessons 
 are forgotten, the children will look back upon 
 these happy moments of discovery in the school 
 room with real pleasure. 
 
 It has been my good fortune twice this fall to 
 see a hairy caterpillar divesting itself of its hairs 
 that it might weave them into its coverlet. It 
 seemed to require no effort. Did it pull them out 
 or bite them off? I am not sure. It did not ap- 
 pear to carry them in its mouth. How, then, did 
 it carry them? This question must be solved by 
 further observation. 
 
 How deftly it wove those hairs into its cocoon, 
 spreading- them very evenly over its surface. How 
 could that clumsy-looking body, with the still 
 clumsier fleshy feet, move over that web with 
 never a trip, or a break of the dainty silk? In 
 what a business-like way the weaving is done, the 
 thread coming from its mouth as needed, and 
 placed in position by movements of its head and 
 front legs. When the top of the cocoon is to be 
 thickened, it, lying within, turns upon its back 
 and weaves away as if this were its natural posi- 
 tion; It really never seems awkward when making 
 its house, yet this is the first one it ever built, and it 
 will never have an opportunity to build another. 
 
llhcstrative Lessons for Pnmary Grades. 163 
 
 Several of the caterpillars use leaves as a par- 
 tial or a complete outside cover. These are woven 
 firmly together and lined with silk. 
 
 Once, in a very close little home, in which there 
 seemed not room enough to stir, the caterpillar 
 turned completely around, end for end. It moved 
 with dignity and grace. I cannot tell exactly 
 how, for I did not understand its intentions at 
 first. 
 
 One of the caterpillars which I watched snipped 
 off small portions of the leaves in the glass and 
 wove these into its outer cover. They made the 
 cocoon look very pretty, scattered regularly over 
 its surface. Why did it do this? Has a caterpil 
 lar an eye for beauty? 
 
 I have named but few of the many queer things 
 which we have noticed while the hairy caterpillars 
 made ready for their sleep. 
 
 The glasses which held the cocoons were placed 
 in a dry cellar late in the fall, where they were 
 kept until early spring, when they were again 
 watched by the children for the house-breaking. 
 
 In the fall work on the caterpillars the chil- 
 dred note the changes and give orally the history 
 of each caterpillar so far as they have observed 
 it. They may also write portions of this history. 
 They also make drawings of the caterpillar and 
 its chrysalis, or the cocoon. The chrysalis and 
 caterpillar are moulded in clay and placed bide by 
 side on a plaque. 
 
164 Special Method in Science. 
 
 The older children can do more. They can keep 
 a book, which they might name "Life Histories of 
 Caterpillars." They number the glass in which 
 each little prisoner is confined, and write on the 
 first pag-e a few facts about Caterpillar No. 1, viz. : 
 
 (a) Hairy or smooth. 
 
 (&) Length, color, and any striking character- 
 istic in appearance; number and position of legs. 
 
 (c) When and where found, and food on which 
 it is fed. 
 
 id) Any peculiarities in its actions. 
 
 The next page is devoted to The cocoon or chrys- 
 alis of No. 1. 
 
 (a) Length and shape of the cocoon and man- 
 ner in w^hich it was made; also time of making. 
 
 Or description of the chrysalis with account 
 of the gradual change and date of its consumma. 
 tion. 
 
 The third page is devoted to The Moth, {or But- 
 terfly) of No. 1. 
 
 (a) When did it come out? Description of the 
 method of releasing itself. 
 
 (&) Description of the moth (or butterfly). 
 
 (c) From what flowers does it get its nectar? 
 Color of these flowers? 
 
 {d) Difference in coloring of male and female. 
 
 On the fourth page is given a record of The eggs 
 and growth of No. 1. 
 
 (a) Where were the eggs laid? How many in 
 a place? Color? Form? Size? 
 
4 Illustrative Lessons for Pnmary Grades. 165 
 
 (&) How long- did it take the eggs to hatch? 
 
 (c) How long did it take the caterpillars to ma- 
 ture? How many moultings? What became of 
 the cast-off skin? 
 
 It may be some time before page four is filled 
 out, but watchfulness will reward the patient 
 seeker. 
 
 Quite likely more than one page may be needed 
 for some of the descriptions. 
 
 Many cocoons are found' in the fall. What 
 caterpillar made them is a mystery, so our first 
 entry in the book will be on page two, perhaps — 
 the record of the cocoon or chrysalis. 
 
 This book may be used season after season, 
 until every caterpillar in one's locality is known 
 throug-h its whole series of changes. 
 
 It is a wonder that more of our farmer boys and 
 g"irls do not make a study of caterpillars and learn 
 to disting-uish the harmful from the harmless. 
 Throug"h knowledg-e of the habits of those injuri- 
 ous to trees, vegetables, etc., the eggs of many 
 might be found and destroyed. 
 
 THE COnnON BLUE VIOLET. 
 
 At the beginning of the Spring term or at the 
 close of the Winter term the children are asked 
 to look for violets and see who will be first to find 
 one. 
 
 As soon as they become plentiful the children 
 are asked to notice carefully what kind of a home 
 
166 Special Method in Science. 
 
 they live in. Is it moist ground or dry? Is it in 
 the shade or in the sun? In the woods or out? 
 
 *'Did any of you know exactly where to g"o to 
 look for violets this year? How did you know?" 
 (They grew there last year.) "Did they grow all 
 winter? When the snow was off the ground could 
 you see them? (No, the frost killed the leaves in 
 the fall.) Did it kill all of the plant? (No, the 
 root lived through the winter.) Was it protected 
 at all from the cold? (It was covered with soil; 
 above that were dead leaves, and over all, the 
 snow.) Is snow warm? How could it keep the 
 violet warm? (It shut out the cold air and kept 
 in the warmth.) Do you remember an animal 
 about which we have studied, that is sometimes 
 kept warm by a covering of snow? (The rabbit.) 
 
 Did you look for violets at all before they 
 came, this year? Were there any promises of vio- 
 lets? (The leaves.) Can you think of any reason 
 why the leaves should come first? (They make a 
 pretty home for the flower. They stand around 
 it like little soldiers, ready to protect it.) But 
 that is not all. The leaves are the plants' kitch- 
 ens, in which all the food is prepared for the 
 flowers and the whole plant, as well. The little 
 flowers must have something to eat or they could 
 not grow, so the leaves come first and the leaf 
 fairies get the food ready for the flowers. Can 
 you see the fairies at work in the leaves? (No, 
 they work very quietly and orderly, yet they 
 
lilustrative Lessons for Frimai^ Grades. 167 
 
 must be very busy to get food enough ready for 
 all the roots and leaves and flowers.) 
 
 Where does the food which is prepared in the 
 leaves come from? (The roots get it from the 
 ground.) Have you ever noticed the roots of the 
 violet? I have a plant here with its roots washed 
 so that you can see them plainly. Which are the 
 working roots? (The very small ones.) What 
 must these roots have through which to take in 
 their food? (Mouths.) Where are its mouths? 
 (All over its tiny roots.) Can you see them? What 
 kind of food can it take through such little 
 mouths? (Water.) If you put a little salt or soda 
 into w^ater what becomes of it? (It dissolves so we 
 cannot see it.) Could the plant take anything but 
 water through its tiny root mouths? (It could take 
 other things if they were dissolved in water.) It 
 does this and we do not know all of the things 
 that it takes in this way. 
 
 How does this food reach the leaves? It first 
 passes along to "the large root," then up the stem 
 to the stalks of the leaves, on, through the large 
 veins in the leaves, into the smaller ones, and so on 
 to all parts of the leaf where it is prepared as food 
 and then sent to all parts of the plant to feed it. 
 
 What furnishes the heat for cooking? (The 
 sun.) Yes, the leaf fairies cannot get the food 
 ready unless the sun helps, and so when the sun 
 goes down the food stops cooking and the little 
 fairy cooks rest. 
 
168 Special Method in Science. 
 
 You have noticed that when your mother is 
 cooking-, steam arises from the kettles or sauce- 
 pans. Is the same thing- true here? You may 
 place several fresh violet leaves under this g-lass, 
 look at them occasionally and tell us tomorrow 
 what you saw. On the inside of the glass will be 
 moisture. From what did this come? Can you 
 see the windows through which it came? No, they 
 are too small to be seen. 
 
 Through these tiny windows air goes into the 
 leaf and mixes with the food from the roots before 
 it is fit for the plant to eat. 
 
 When the food is all ready what becomes of it? 
 (Some of it goes to all parts of the leaf, some to 
 the roots and some to the pretty blue blossoms.) 
 
 You said that there were no leaves in the win- 
 ter. When did these leaves come? How could 
 they grow when there were no leaves in which to 
 prepare the food for them? (Last autumn, before 
 Jack Frost killed the working leaves, this "large 
 root," as you call it, packed up enough prepared 
 food to feed the roots and leaves this spring, un- 
 til they got well started at their work and could 
 feed themselves. 
 
 Let us look at this trunk in which the food was 
 packed last autumn. Why do you call it a root? 
 (It looks like one. It grows under ground.) What 
 do we find growing from it here? (Leaves.) (The 
 teacher should have a number of different plants 
 in the class.) From what do the leaves on this 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 16^ 
 
 plant grow? (A stem.) On this? (A stem,) etc. 
 What do we call this part from which the leaves 
 and flowers grow? (A stem.) What shall we call 
 this, then, from which the violet's leaves and 
 flowers grow? (pointing- to the root-stock). (A 
 stem.) Since it grows under the ground what 
 name shall we give it? (An underground stem.) 
 
 How did the little leaves look when they 
 started up from this stem to get a peep into the 
 great world, where they were to make ready a 
 home for the flowers? Here are some on this 
 plant which I took up. (The stalk sticks its back 
 up through the ground first as if to make way for 
 the little leaf blade. Then it comes through with 
 the blade bent over so as to lie close to the upper 
 part of the stalk.) Look closely at the little 
 leaves. (They are rolled tightly from both edges 
 toward the mid-rib so as to get through the 
 ground without being torn or broken.) And does 
 it unroll suddenly? Notice the bases of the half- 
 grown leaves. 
 
 What shape is the leaf? Draw it on the board. 
 Does the shape of the leaf help it any after it is 
 grown? [Sprinkle some water on a leaf of a 
 growing plant. It is well to have some growing 
 in boxes in the house.] What do you see? (The 
 water gathers in the center of the leaf and runs 
 down the little trough in its stalk.) Is that well or 
 not? (It carries the water directly to the root 
 where it is needed.) What does the water do? 
 
170 Special Method in Science. 
 
 (Dissolves solid food which it finds in the earth, 
 then is taken in by the little roots, g"oes to the 
 leaf, is mixed with air and moisture coming 
 through the windows, etc.) 
 
 And while the roots are working away and the 
 leaves are so busy, what is the little flower doing? 
 (Growing.) How does it look when you first see 
 it above ground? Picture on the board. What 
 changes as it grows older? (The stem lengthens, 
 lifting the bud higher and higher into the air and 
 sunlight. The bud grows fuller and longer. At 
 last the green blanket that covers little Violet is 
 pushed aside, and we see her blue dress. (Notice 
 how her dress was folded while she was wrapped 
 in the blanket.) Did it get wrinkled? Do you 
 think you could fold a dress and pack it so tightly 
 and have it come out without a wrinkle? 
 
 What becomes of the green blanket? Can you 
 see it on your flowers? (It still protects Violet. 
 Her dress is very delicate.) 
 
 Do all violets wear dresses of the same tint of 
 blue? Some are dark and some are light. Do 
 they ever wear any other color? (Some violets are 
 white, some are yellow, and some are purple.) Is 
 the dress in one piece? What are the pieces 
 called? (Petals.) Are they all of the same size 
 and shape? (The lowest petal is a little larger 
 than the others, and it has a little pocket behind.) 
 Let us see if we can find anything in this pocket. 
 [This can better be shown with a large pansy.] 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 171 
 
 We will cut the pocket off. Now pinch it. Taste. 
 What is it? (Honey.) We will call it nectar. 
 Can you think of any reason why the nectar 
 should be there? Can you think of anything" that 
 would like it? (Bees and other insects.) Have 
 you ever seen any insects about the violets? 
 Watch closely and tell all that the bees or other 
 insects do. 
 
 Later the children will very likely have dis- 
 covered that the bee alights on the lower petal, 
 then thrusts in his "long mouth" — proboscis — and 
 drinks in the nectar. After that what does he do? 
 You have not noticed closely. I wish you to see 
 whether it goes to another violet or to some other 
 flower. The children will discover that the bee 
 that visits the blue violets, will pass by other 
 flowers and choose only blue violets to visit. Do 
 you know why this is? (It may be that it likes 
 the color of the violet best, or it may be that it 
 likes its nectar better than that of the other 
 flowers.) 
 
 Notice carefully the i)ath which the proboscis 
 of the bee takes in going to the nectar. (There 
 seems to be a path on purpose for it right through 
 the middle of the lower petal, and there is a hedge 
 along both sides of this road. What is this hedge? 
 (A thick beard of short hairs running down the 
 two petals on each side of the flower.) I will take 
 this fine stalk of grass and let it follow the road 
 which the proboscis of the bee follows. Then I 
 
172 , Special Method in Science. 
 
 wish you to look closely at the grass and tell me 
 what you see. (There is pollen on it.) Where 
 did it come from? What is it good for? (To feed 
 the tiny seeds so they will grow.) Let us look 
 closely at the home of these seeds. Where shall 
 we find them? Each child has a flower and finds 
 the pistil. Where are the little seeds? How is 
 the pollen to reach them? (It must fall on the 
 sticky top of the pistil and pass down through 
 that tube, to the seeds.) The sticky top is the 
 stigma and the tube is the style. 
 
 Look closely at these new flowers which I have 
 given you and see if you can tell how the pollen 
 is to fall on the stigma. (It cannot reach it unless 
 the bee touches it with some pollen as he comes 
 from the flower.) [Show that this can not be, for 
 just beneath the stigma is a shelf. When the bee 
 comes out his head bumps against this shelf and 
 the stigma is pushed up so that he can not touch 
 it.] Must the poor little seeds starve, then? Can 
 you think of any way in which the pollen might 
 reach them? Notice the bee or other insect as it 
 goes into the violet and tell me as soon as you 
 find out whether or not it touches the stigma in 
 going in. They will find that it does, and as it 
 goes into the flower it leaves some pollen taken 
 from some other violet, on the stigma, for the lit. 
 tie seeds. 
 
 Will you each watch one clump of violets at or 
 n^ar your home, this spring? See if there will be 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Pnmary Grades. 173 
 
 as many, seed pods as there are flowers. Have you 
 ever noticed these seed pods? Here are some 
 which I gathered last shmmer. Let us see who 
 will be the first to find one on his clump. What 
 must be done to all the seeds before they will 
 grow? (Review.) 
 
 If you see a bee visiting a violet, of what do 
 you feel quite sure? Mark that violet by tying a 
 small string around the stalk, using care that you 
 do not pinch it. What will you expect from it? 
 
 Look far down among the violet leaves for 
 something that grows up from the underground 
 stem, about which we have not spoken. Tell me 
 about it tomorrow. 
 
 The next day the children are questioned in 
 regard to their discoveries. They will tell of queer 
 little three-sided buds, of roundish, hard balls, 
 something that looked like the flowers but had 
 no petals, etc. The teacher should have some of 
 these apetalous flowers in the class room, showing 
 different degrees of development. It will be 
 easy to find other seed pods also. 
 
 What are these? Queer little flowers with no 
 petals. Why do they not come up where we can 
 see them? (They have no pretty petals to show.) 
 Have they nectar? (No, they have no pocket in 
 which to carry it.) How did we say the blue vio- 
 lets call the bees? (By their color and their 
 nectar.) Will the bees come to these odd flowers? 
 Why not? But we see that some of these flowers 
 
174 iSpecial Method in Science, 
 
 have borne seeds. How can that be? [If possi- 
 ble have the children see, but if not, tell them 
 that they have no need of the bees, for the sta- 
 mens of each flower shed its pollen on the stigma 
 of its own flower.] 
 
 Here is something* still stranger about these 
 queer flowers. (The teacher has a plant in the 
 class with soil on its roots.) Look as I open the 
 soil. (There are some of those queer flowers be- 
 low the ground, and some have gone to seed here 
 without ever seeing the light.) 
 
 When the pod is ripe, what happens? (It 
 divides into three parts and opens.) What will 
 become of the seeds? (From them will grow new 
 plants.) We will plant some in this box and see 
 if they will grow for us. Mamie may care for the 
 box this week. 
 
 If the underground roots were all to die, might 
 we still have violets? How? 
 
 What two things were we to find out about 
 the flowers? (1. Whether all bear seeds. 2. If 
 not, whether those which we know the bees have 
 visited bear seeds.) 
 
 Review the life of the violet, starting this 
 time with the seed. 
 
 THE nORNlNQ-GLORY. 
 
 Have you planted any flower seeds this spring? 
 What ones? Among others quite likely the morn- 
 ing-glory may be mentioned. Have you any morn- 
 ing-glory seeds? Would you like to bring some to 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 175 
 
 school to plant that we may have their pretty 
 leaves and blossoms in our windows? [If the 
 children have not the seeds the teacher will fur- 
 nish them.] 
 
 On the following day a number of seeds are 
 placed in a dish where all can see them well. 
 Notice their colors. (Some are very dark — nearly 
 black — while some are a lig"ht yellow — nearly 
 white, perhaps.) You may sort them out, putting 
 the dark ones in one dish and the light ones in 
 another. 
 
 Notice their shape. What gave them this 
 queer shape? If they have not noticed the seed 
 pod they will be told that we shall find out later. 
 Ask the children to bring some pods in the fall. 
 
 The teacher has in the class two wooden starch 
 boxes, or other boxes, filled with rich soil. The 
 girls plant the white seeds in one box and the boys 
 the dark seeds in another box. Each is labeled. 
 
 What do you expect from these seeds? (Morn- 
 ing-glory vines.) What care must the seeds have? 
 (They must be kept warm and must have water.) 
 How much water? 
 
 Appoint one careful girl to care for the box 
 of light colored seeds, and a thoughtful boy to 
 care for the other box. 
 
 Will there be any difference between the colors 
 of the flowers in the two boxes? Let us find out 
 when they blossom. The boxes are now set away. 
 Where shall we set them? 
 
176 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Now each child is supplied with a morning- 
 glory seed and a pin. Would you like to find 
 what is inside this seed? You may take off its 
 outside coat. (We can not, it is fastened on so 
 very tightly.) I will take the seeds and soak them 
 over night in warm water and see if that will 
 loosen their coats. Is it well that its coat can 
 not be easily removed? Why? 
 
 On the following day the soaked seeds are 
 taken to the class. Each child is provided with 
 one and with a pin. You may see now if you can 
 remove the seed's coat. Be very careful not to 
 injure what is inside. What do you find? (Under- 
 neath the coat is a layer which looks like light- 
 colored jelly.) And what is inside the jelly? (Two 
 tiny white leaves all crumpled up and between 
 the two and protected by them is a little white 
 stem.) Spread out the leaves. Why, do you 
 think, were they so crumpled? (If they had been 
 spread out as they are now they would have taken 
 up much more room. They were packed in as 
 closely as possible. Did you notice any jelly in 
 the first seed you opened? Scratch a little of the 
 coat off these dry seeds. (It is not jelly here, it is 
 a hard substance.) What is this hard lining of the 
 coat which turns into jelly when soaked? What do 
 you expect these little stems and leaves to do? (To 
 grow.) And what must they have to make them 
 grow? (Food.) Where will they get the food? (The 
 roots will gather it for them from the ground.) 
 
Illustraiive Lessons for Primary Grades. 177 
 
 Where are the roots of this little plant? (It has 
 none, yet.) What will feed it until its roots grow? 
 (This jelly which is all around it.) Why did not the 
 little plant begin to grow in the winter, in the 
 paper in which we found it? (It can not eat hard 
 food. Its food must be dissolved for it before it 
 can take it.) Then what must happen to the seed 
 before the tiny plant can begin growing? (It 
 must be wet.) You may make a picture in the 
 left hand corner of your drawing paper, of this 
 little plant as it looks when it first comes from 
 the seed, then we shall remember how the morn- 
 ing-glory began life. 
 
 At the same time that the children planted their 
 seeds the teacher planted a quantity in a box by 
 themselves. 
 
 As soon as the plants in her box begin to break 
 through the ground, a few are taken up and changes 
 noticed by the children. Where is the jelly? (The 
 plant has little roots now and they have gone to 
 work.) Drawings are made at each stage of the 
 plant's development. 
 
 As soon as the leaves are above ground they 
 are compared in color, size, and shape with the 
 same when in the seed. Look closely between the 
 two leaves. What do you see? (A little green 
 dot.) We will watch and see what becomes of it. 
 They will find later that this "green dot" changes 
 into a leaf. Only one? Is its shape the same as 
 
178 Special Method in Science. 
 
 that of the two? Draw the two leaves side by side 
 on the board. 
 
 But this was not all that the "little dot" con- 
 tained, for they see a small bud pushing- right 
 past the leaf, and what has it? (Another leaf 
 and a bud.) On which side of the stem does this 
 leaf g"row? On the side opposite to the other. 
 Later the children find that the leaves all grow 
 out in this way — first one on one side, then one on 
 the other. They admire the beauty of the shape 
 of the leaf and its delicate texture. They notice 
 the veining- and illustrate at the board. Why 
 does it have these veins? (They are the troughs 
 through which the sap passes to all parts of the 
 leaf. They also hold the leaf out, g'iving- it its 
 shape, and allowing the sun, air, and moisture to 
 reach all parts of it.) But why are the vines 
 stretching out their arms to us so pleadingly? 
 (They wish us to help them to stand.) What shall 
 we do for them? (Give them strings for support.) 
 
 After awhile the children notice something 
 growing in the axils of the leaves. What is it? 
 We will watch it and see. Some of these turn out 
 to be branches, others flower buds. 
 
 The flower buds are watched carefully from the 
 time they are big enough to be seen until they 
 open and close and drawings are made of them 
 showing how they look at different stages of 
 their growth. How long do they remain in blos- 
 som? Mark certain flowers and find out. (Prom 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 179 
 
 mornin": until afternoon.) Will this same blossom 
 open again to-morrow morning? Look and see. 
 Can you tell by the looks of a closed flower 
 whether it has blossomed or not? How? Picture 
 side by side, a bud that will open in the morning 
 and one that has opened and closed. 
 
 What do you notice about the flowers upon the 
 plants raised from light colored seeds? Those 
 raised from the dark colored seeds? 
 
 What becomes of the flower that is through 
 blossoming"? How long does its pretty dress — 
 the corolla — remain on the vine after it is through 
 blossoming? Watch and see. Why does it fall 
 off? (It is of no more use.) What was its work? 
 
 Let us look at this fresh dress. (It is all in 
 one piece, but you can see where five pieces were 
 put together to make it. The seams show.) Let 
 us open it and look at the inside. (The stamens 
 are fastened to the lower part of this dress. There 
 are five of them, one on each piece of its dress.) 
 And do they fall off with the dress? (Yes.) Are 
 they not leaving before their w^ork is done? What 
 is their work? They bear the pollen that makes 
 the seeds grow. Where are the seeds? Did the 
 stamens shed their pollen before falling? Notice 
 the open flower and see if they do. How does the 
 pollen reach the seeds? (It falls on the stigma 
 and passes down the tube to the seeds, or the bees 
 leave pollen which they have gathered from some 
 other morning-glory on the stigma when they go 
 
180 Special Method in Science. 
 
 into the flower for the nectar, which is at its base; 
 or the wind blowing- carries the pollen from one 
 flower to another.) Did the sepals fall with the 
 corolla? (No, they stay to protect the seed-pod.) 
 
 The children watch the growth of the seed-pod 
 on several flowers which they may select. They 
 see that finally the style dries up, only a small 
 portion of it remaining. Is its w^ork done? What 
 did it have to do? Notice how long a time elapses 
 after the blossom opens before the seeds are 
 ripened. "What happens when they are ripe? 
 Three doors open into three little rooms, in each 
 of which dwells snugly two three-sided seeds. 
 These seeds drop out when the plant is disturbed. 
 
 Now we have found out how the seeds happen 
 to have such a queer shape — six of them were 
 packed closely in a little round three-roomed 
 house, and what other shape would have packed 
 so well? 
 
 See Margaret Morley's "Flowers and their Friends" for 
 additional help. 
 
 THE AUSTRIAN PINE. 
 
 (A Winter Study.) 
 
 Did the Christmas tree surprise you on Christ- 
 mas eve? What did it bring you that you did 
 not expect? When the presents were all off and 
 the decorations removed, had it any more sur- 
 prises for you? You did not care for the bare 
 tree, then? This bare Christmas tree has greater 
 surprises for you than the presents gave. It is 
 
• lUustraiice Lessons for Primary Grades. 181 
 
 full of secrets which few people find out. Would 
 you like to find some of them out, all by your- 
 selves? 
 
 But we must become better acquainted with 
 the tree before we expect it to tell us any secrets, 
 and we will visit one that has not been cut down. 
 What kind of a tree was the Christmas tree? Why 
 was an evergreen chosen? What was its name? 
 Do you think all evergreen trees are alike? The 
 children find out by examining" the foliage of 
 different evergreen trees that they differ greatly. 
 The other differences will be discovered later. 
 
 We will visit the tree with the long, stiff 
 needles. I will introduce you to it. Austrian 
 Pine, these are my little boys and girls who wish 
 to visit you often. 
 
 On this first day the children learn to distin- 
 guish the Austrian pine from other evergreen 
 trees by its general appearance. They know it 
 by the shade of green of its dress; its straight, 
 pointed trunk; its arms or branches which extend 
 out nearly straight from the trunk, then curve up- 
 wards; its number of branches starting out from 
 the same circle and reaching out in different di- 
 rections; the gradual shortening of the branches 
 from below upward. After learning to recognize 
 the tree readily, the children make drawings, 
 showing its general shai:)e. This is the picture of 
 the naked tree as it looked after it had lost its 
 leaves in the story of "The Unhappy Pine Tree." 
 
182 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Is it pretty? What gives beauty to the tree? Its 
 dress. And this is a wonderful dress. Let us 
 see of what it is made. (Each child has a small 
 twig.) It is made of needles. And the needles 
 are put up in bundles, only two in a bundle. The 
 wrapper which holds them together is around only 
 one end. 
 
 Let us look at one needle. The children meas- 
 ure it. It is longer than a darning needle and of 
 different shape, being round on the outside and 
 nearly flat on the inside. It is very strong. We 
 can hardly pull it in two. Is it well that the pine 
 tree has such needles? Refer to the story. Not 
 only goats but caterpillars and insects usually 
 pass the leaves of this tree by. Hail, snow, and 
 sleet cannot injure them much. Why not? Refer 
 to the home of the pine tree. This (Normal, 111.) 
 is not their home. 
 
 Pull out one of these pairs of needles. The 
 children find that it is set very deeply and firmly 
 into the twig. Why is this well? The children 
 discover that the needles in a package so fit to- 
 gether as to resemble in shape a darning needle. 
 Where on the twig are they set? Do you like 
 that arrangement? Why? Does the Austrian 
 pine ever lose its leaves, as do the maples and 
 oaks?' How do you know? When do they fall? 
 Do they fall singly or in pairs? What color are 
 they w^hen they fall? Do you see any such on the 
 tree now? If so, where? How old are the needles 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades, 183 
 
 when they fall? You can not tell now. Austrian 
 Pine thinks you do not know it well enough yet to 
 find out all its secrets. 
 
 Now tell all the secrets you do know about the 
 package of needles. Make a drawing" of them. 
 What secret has the tree failed to tell you? 
 
 We have been talking about the Austrian Pine's 
 dress. Does it wear any ornaments? The cones. 
 Where does it wear them? Notice this carefully. 
 Are they all alike? (Have twigs in the class with 
 cones of last summer's growth, and others a year 
 older.) Notice color and size of each set, the num- 
 ber in a cluster (if you are so fortunate as to find 
 two or three together). Notice cones under the 
 trees and compare them with those on the twig. 
 They are like the older cones on the twig. Do you 
 find on the ground any of the little cones? Why 
 not? Their work is not done. The little leaves on 
 the elms and maples did not leave the tree until 
 their work was done, neither will the little cones. 
 
 Let us see if we can find out what the work of 
 the cones is. These cones that have seen two 
 summers are chosen. Where on the twig did we 
 find them? Draw the cone when first brought 
 into the room. Draw also the twig with the cone 
 upon it, fixing its place on the twig. The chil- 
 dren notice the queer shapes of the doors with 
 their conical little knobs; also how each door is 
 braced in front by two doors at its side and one 
 before it. The doors are very many, and are 
 
184 Special Method in Science. 
 
 closed so tig-htly that it is with great trouble that 
 we get them open. Will the cone not tell us what 
 she is guarding- so carefully? We will not break 
 into her houses. We will lay these cones where 
 we can watch them. They may change their 
 minds about shutting us out. If possible the chil- 
 dren should hear and see the doors pop open. This 
 will happen after they have been in the warm 
 room a few hours. 
 
 Now that the cone has opened her doors we 
 will go in and see if we can find what secret she 
 was keeping. 
 
 The children discover two little fairies behind 
 each door, each with a large wing. How cozily 
 they lie in the little room. They are well worth 
 guarding. Why? Why were they shut in so 
 tightly? What will open the doors of the cones 
 on the trees? Warm weather. When will they 
 open? What will the seed fairies do then? How 
 will the wing help them? The tiny cones are 
 placed also in the warm room and left there for 
 some time? Why do they not open? 
 
 Some old cones may be found with their doors 
 open. Inside are no good seeds. Why is that so? 
 The fairies flew away last spring when the warm 
 sun opened the doors. The children now make a 
 drawing of the twig with cones of two sizes. They 
 tell the secrets of the cones. They draw a single 
 door with the two seeds, and one seed by itself, and 
 tell the secret of the seed fairies. A number of 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primai-y Grades. 185 
 
 seeds are kept for planting when spring shall 
 come? 
 
 What else do we tind on the branch besides 
 leaves and cones? Buds. On what part of the 
 twig" do you find these buds? Are all of the same 
 shape? The children find that some are large and 
 pointed, others are round and flat, while others 
 are made up of a cluster of little buds? Why this 
 difference? Let us see if we can find out. A 
 pointed bud is first examined. The children no- 
 tice how the lower scales curve downward. (If 
 kept in a warm room more of the scales will turn 
 down.) They also notice the great number of 
 coverings. 
 
 Are they thick or thin? Soft or harsh? How 
 arranged? All of same length? How held to- 
 gether? (The pitch shows itself after being kept 
 in a warm room some time.) The covers being 
 carefully removed by each child from his own 
 bud, they are delighted to find what they think 
 is a cone. But where on the twig did we find the 
 cones? On the sides, but this is directly at the 
 end. What does grow at the end of a twig? 
 Leaves on a stem. What then should you expect 
 to find in this bud? We will put this little bare 
 bud, with a covered one, into this bottle of alco- 
 hol. It will keep them fresh, and how shall we 
 label it? We will say we do not kvtw what this is. 
 But what do you think it ought to be? Another 
 secret which the tree is not willing to tell us until 
 
186 Special Method in Science. 
 
 we know her better. What was the first secret 
 she kept from us? When may we surely know the 
 secret of the bud? Tell the secrets which you 
 know of the pointed buds, and the one which the 
 tree is keeping" from you, but which you think you 
 can g-uess. 
 
 Now, let us see if we can find out the secret of 
 the round, flat buds. The children find that the 
 outside covers are much like those of the pointed 
 buds, but inside of a few covers they find from five 
 to ten tiny buds crowded all the way around a 
 small pointed bud. The inside covers are soft 
 and transparent. When uncovered, the children 
 are apt to think they have ag-ain found cones. 
 But where do we find these buds? Do you find 
 such clusters of cones on the tree? The children 
 notice the resemblance between the pointed bud 
 in the center here, and the pointed bud we exam- 
 ined before. They tell what they think this bud 
 contains, and what they think: may spring from 
 the center bud. The naked, tiny buds are placed 
 in alcohol with a bud as we found it on the tree. 
 What shall we label it. 
 
 There is still another kind of bud, a clustered 
 bud, not covered to appear like a single bud as 
 was the preceding. Does it contain a pointed 
 bud? Where on the twig was it found? On what 
 kind of a twig? These buds are also preserved. 
 Are there any other kinds of buds? The bottles 
 of buds are numbered, and the children from now 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 187 
 
 till spring- frequently review their knowledge of 
 these buds, and their suppositions in regard to 
 them. 
 
 Now, this branch on which the needles and 
 buds and cones grew may have something to tell 
 us. Notice carefully the curled-back covers of 
 this pointed bud. Do you find anything like this 
 on the twig? Where? How do you suppose those 
 came there? The children are quick to catch the 
 idea that the bud left them when it began to 
 grow. What did it grow into? A little twig. 
 How long? The children usually suggest that 
 that is exactly what this pointed bud will grow 
 into. If so, what must that be in the pointed bud? 
 A little twig packed away in a very small trunk. 
 And what was the green you saw in the bud? The 
 leaves. How long did it take this three or four 
 inches of twig to grow? A year. 
 
 The children see that it must have taken many 
 years for the tree to become so large at that rate 
 of growth. Look back and see if you can find 
 where another bud started. How old is that part 
 of the twig? Find another year's growth. An- 
 other. Still another. Are there leaves on last 
 year's growth? On the second? On the third? 
 On the fourth? On the fifth? Sometimes they 
 will find the leaves mostly or wholly gone from 
 the five years' growth, and sometimes there are 
 -leaves on the six-year old twig. Where did the 
 brown leaves go? How old when they fell? What 
 
188 Speciai Method in Science. 
 
 did they leave behind to show that they had been 
 here? A queer little three-cornered card, often 
 turned down at the top. 
 
 Notice the twigs with the round, flat buds, or 
 the lar«-e clustered ones. The children find the 
 year's g'rowth there to measure only from three- 
 fourths of an inch to an inch. Why so much 
 shorter than on twig's with long- pointed buds? 
 Its food had to be divided with those little stran- 
 ger buds that clustered around it, so it could not 
 g-row so much. 
 
 Did you ever try to break a twig" or a branch 
 from an Austrian pine? Was it easily done? 
 
 After a snow storm the teacher takes occasion 
 to call the attention of the children to the sad 
 appearance of the tree. Its branches no more 
 reach up toward the sky, but droop to the earth. 
 It seems as if the tree could never hold itself up as 
 it did before the storm. The children make a draw- 
 ing- of it now and compare this picture with the 
 first one drawn. Why does not the heavy snow 
 break off the branches? Show sections of the 
 tree, where branches have g-rown, that the chil- 
 dren may see how well it guards ag-ainst such 
 accidents. 
 
 What secrets have you found out about the 
 twig- and branch? You may draw a branch of 
 seven years' g-rowth. If they have observed care- 
 fully they will put no needles on the oldest g-rowth, 
 and perhaps none on the sixth or fifth. But here 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 189 
 
 are side shoots. From what did they come? No- 
 tice where they start out. From what buds do 
 they come? Can you tell? Then we must also 
 find this out next spring". Can you tell yet from 
 what the cones will come? We shall have to 
 watch the tree closely next spring, else it will 
 keep this secret from us. Now what are all the 
 secrets which the Austrian pine is keeping" from 
 us this winter? 
 
 Do you like this tree? What do you like about 
 it? It is a useful tree, too. For what is it used? 
 For lumber. Children name articles made from 
 pine. The birds come to its shelter when they 
 return early in the spring. The^ winter birds — 
 crows, owls, etc., spend much time in its branches, 
 which shelter them from the cold winds. 
 
 As a summing up of many facts discovered in 
 regard to the Austrian pine, and a reminder of 
 their pleasant acquaintance with it, a collection 
 of the following may be mounted on stiff card- 
 board: A pair of green leaves, a pointed bud, a 
 round flat bud, an open clustered bud; cones of 
 one, two, and three seasons' growth. (The cone 
 of two seasons will need to be varnished to keep 
 it from opening.) A cone scale, two seeds, a bare 
 twig, a twig with leaves, cross and vertical sec- 
 tions of the wood. 
 
190 Special Method in Science. 
 
 THE SCOTCH PINE. 
 
 About what evergreen tree have we studied? 
 
 Are all evergreen trees alike? The children 
 discover by examination of the foliage, and ob- 
 servation of the g*eneral appearance of the trees, 
 that there are many different varieties. Some 
 have two, three, or five needles inclosed at their 
 base in a sheath, some have short needles all 
 around the twig, others have needles along the 
 sides and in front but not on the back of the twig, 
 while others have flat, fan-shaped foliage. 
 
 We wish to become better acquainted with the 
 tree that bears these needles — two in a sheath, not 
 more than two and a half or three inches long. 
 
 The children visit a number of trees and learn 
 to recognize them by their outline, the color of 
 their branches — a bronze or yellowish brown, — the 
 irregularity of many of the lower branches, and 
 the mode of branching — in whorls. 
 
 What does each whorl of branches tell us? 
 That a year has been added to the life of the tree. 
 How old is this tree? We cannot go to the top, 
 but we can count the whorls of branches up some 
 distance on the trunk, then count the number of 
 sections marking a year's growth on a branch. 
 
 From what did this tree grow? (A seed.) Did 
 you ever see one of its seeds? Where shall we 
 look for them? In a cone. Where do we find the 
 cones? Do you see any on the trees now? Let 
 the teacher lead the children to some tree where 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 191 
 
 they can make the discovery that there are cones 
 of two sizes on the tree. Let this be done at 
 once (early in April, before the new growth has 
 started.) The children will need to look closely 
 to discover the small cones of only a year's growth. 
 They are at the sides of the eiids of some twigs. 
 From one to three inches back from the end of 
 the twig are larger cones. These have lived 
 through two summers. Let the children gather 
 several cones of each size and take to the school 
 room. Supply each child with one of the large 
 cones. How many little doors? (The children 
 may try to count them.) Let us see if the cone 
 will let us open some of the doors and look 
 into the rooms. (The children try to raise the 
 scales, but they cannot do it.) Why are these 
 doors fastened so tightly? What precious thing 
 inside is the cone guarding so carefully? We will 
 not force open the doors, but lay these cones back 
 with the others. 
 
 After the cones have been in the school room 
 some time — perhaps for two or three days or less 
 — the large cones will begin to pop open. Happy 
 are the children if they see and hear this burst- 
 ing of prison doors. 
 
 The smaller cones dry up without opening. 
 
 After the large cones have opened, each child 
 is again provided with a cone. Let us peep into 
 the little rooms. What do you find? Inside of 
 each door (scale) snugly lie two plump seeds, each 
 
192 Special Method in Science. 
 
 with a large, light wing-. Children show by draw- 
 ings how nicely they fit into their close quarters. 
 
 They may now examine the door more closely. 
 They notice how one door is braced at the bottom 
 by two others and it in turn helps to brace an- 
 other door. The queer shapes of the doors, and 
 use of such a shape, and the curious knobs and 
 their position on the door are all items of interest 
 to the children. The doors are rough and harsh 
 on the outside. Is it so on the inside? Any rea- 
 son for the difference? 
 
 What caused these cones to open in the house? 
 The warm atmosphere. Would they never have 
 opened on the tree? Yes, the warm spring sun 
 would have caused them to open their doors. 
 When the sun has opened the cones on the trees 
 what will become of the seeds? There is nothing 
 to hold them in, they must fall out. As each 
 starts away from its home, the fairy-like wing, by 
 the aid of the wind, carries it away. After a 
 while perhaps it will reach the ground, and were 
 it in its own country it might spring up and make 
 a new tree, but our soil and climate do not suit 
 the seeds and they die, usually. 
 
 The children, however, may sow their seeds in 
 a box in the school room and watch their devel- 
 opment. Why do not the tiny cones open? They 
 are not old enough. The children will find that 
 the warm sun this summer will not open their 
 doors, it will only make the cones grow. 
 
llliLstrative Lessons for PHmary Grades. 193 
 
 There is quite a marked difference in the ap- 
 pearance of some Scotch pines. While one tree 
 has the whorls of leaves separated by a bare stem 
 for one and one-half or two inches, others have 
 not this peculiarity. 
 
 Let the children watch the growth of the buds 
 on these two differing- trees. How delighted they 
 will be to find what causes that bare space on the 
 stem, and who will be the first to find the little 
 new cones that come from the new growth. 
 
 This is merely a beginning to a most enjoyable 
 study. 
 
 THE COMMON CROW. 
 
 How do you keep warm this cold weather? 
 How do we protect horses, cows, and sheep from 
 the cold winds, and the snows and sleet storms? 
 What do we do for the chickens, geese, ducks, and 
 turkeys? 
 
 But there are some birds for which we do not 
 think of providing shelter, even on the coldest 
 days, or in the most severe storms. What are 
 they? Let us see if we can find how one of these 
 birds — the crow — lives through the winter. Do 
 you all know the crow? How can you tell it from 
 other birds? It is large and has a glossy black 
 coat. Its bill, legs, arul toes are also black. In- 
 stead of singing or chirping it says, "Caw." 
 
 What keeps this queer bird from freezing? 
 Study its feather coat, comparing it with that of 
 the chicken, previously studied. How adapted 
 
194 Special Method in Science. 
 
 for keeping out the cold and snow and shedding 
 the rain. How are the legs and toes protected 
 when roosting"? 
 
 Where does it make its home in the winter? 
 Usually in evergreen trees. Is this a good place? 
 Why? The thick foliage protects it from the cold 
 winds and it is hidden from the view of those who 
 might wish to shoot it. 
 
 Does it need anything beside a good coat and 
 a sheltered home to keep it alive in the winter? 
 It must have food. What does it eat? Let us 
 watch this winter and see If we can find out for 
 ourselves. The teacher should frequently ask for 
 the results of the children's observations and give 
 them her own, then they will think her questions 
 are not idle ones. The children may find that it 
 eats mice, carrion, hens' eggs, corn, acorns, nuts, 
 frozen apples from the boughs of trees, and the 
 fruits of poison ivy, poison sumac, and other su- 
 macs, sand and gravel. They may discover also 
 that it drinks a great deal of water. 
 
 Careful observations made by the children will 
 arouse in them a more than transient interest in 
 the object studied. This, the teacher should work 
 for constantly, and feel quite sure that her work 
 amounts to but little if the children are not inter- 
 ested enough to watch, outside of school, the 
 movements of the animals studied. 
 
 Let the children tell what they have observed 
 in regard to the manner in which the crow catches 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Pnmary Grades. 195 
 
 and kills the mice. What does it do with the hens' 
 eggs? Where and how does it get the fruits of 
 ivies and sumacs? Why eat sand and pebbles? 
 Recall what they discovered in the chicken's giz- 
 zard. How is the bill fitted for getting this kind 
 of food? It is long, pointed, hard, and strong. 
 Does it find plenty of food? Did you ever hear 
 this expression, "As poor as a crow?" Many times 
 crows have a hard time in the winter to find 
 enough food. They become very poor and some- 
 times they even starve to death. 
 
 Can you get close enough to crows, usually, to 
 tell how fast they eat? Why are they so afraid? 
 Why do men and boys shoot them? Are they any 
 more afraid of a man who carries a gun than of 
 one without? How can crows get a chance to eat 
 if they are watching for men all the time? They 
 have sentinels out watching. These w^rn the 
 flock of any approach of danger. What kind of 
 warning do they give? How^ is this warning re- 
 ceived by the crows? What follows? 
 
 What takes the crow away from danger? Its 
 strong large wings carry it away. Does it fly high? 
 How do you know? Does flying seem to tire it? 
 Study the adaptability of its wings to flight. 
 
 Do crows fly singly or in flocks? Children no- 
 tice. Is this so at all times of the year? We will 
 notice how they go next spring. 
 
 Have they no other way of getting around than 
 by flying? They walk on the ground. Have you 
 
196 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ever seen them walk? Were their steps long or 
 short? How did they hold their bodies? Do they 
 ever run? Do they hop? What were they doing 
 on the ground? Children, picture one as you saw 
 \t there. 
 
 Did you ever see its tracks in the mud or in 
 the snow? How many tracks did each foot leave? 
 Picture on the board. How did it differ from a 
 chicken's tracks? 
 
 What is the crow's work in the winter? Is 
 this all it does the whole year through? No; in 
 spring it builds its nest. Did you ever see it 
 building its nest? IJave you ever seen a crow's 
 nest? 
 
 Why do we so seldom see one? They are built 
 high up in a tree — very often an evergreen tree. 
 
 Have a nest in the class if possible. This nest 
 was taken from a tree after all the little crows 
 were grown up. The crows never use the same 
 nest for two seasons, so we knew they would not 
 need their old home any more. 
 
 Of what is it built? The outside is made of 
 twigs and sticks, the inner wall of grasses, leaves, 
 and bark from cedar trees or grape vines. Some 
 of their nests are lined with hair. 
 
 Early next spring we will begin watching the 
 crows to see if we can find in what trees they 
 build their nests, and how they get the sticks, 
 etc., to the trees. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. l97 
 
 How do you know sometimes that the crows 
 are about when you cannot see them? They flap 
 their wing's noisily and cry "Caw! caw!" 
 
 Abbott says that crows have twenty-seven 
 distinct cries, each of which is accompanied b}^ a 
 different act. It would be interesting" for teacher 
 and pupils to observe closely and see if they 
 notice any connection between the movements of 
 the crows and their different notes. 
 
 THE SCREECH-OWL. 
 
 What birds have been with us all winter? 
 Some of these birds are more often heard than 
 seen, which are these? The owls. Why do we 
 see them so seldom? Have you ever heard them? 
 What sound did they make? Some cry, "Hoo! 
 hoo!" others make a sound variously likened to 
 **the coo of a dove with the sweetness left out," 
 "the whining" of a puppy," *'the grating of ma- 
 chinery," *'the wailing- of a little child." 
 
 We shall talk of the latter. On account of the 
 unpleasant music which they make they have been 
 given a name of which they cannot be very proud. 
 What is it? The screech-owls. 
 
 Have you ever seen a screech-owl? What was 
 it doing? What kind of looking bird was it? 
 Perhaps of a grayish color,or it may be of a fusty 
 red color, with lighter and darker mctrking-s. It 
 is from eight and a half to ten inches lon^. The 
 children show this by placing the hands so far 
 
198 Special Method in Science. 
 
 apart. It has a round head, with two bright yel- 
 low eyes in front, each surrounded by a disc of 
 short, stiff feathers. Its head is surmounted by 
 what looks to be two pointed ears. The head 
 makes us think of a cat. Its bill is short and 
 curved. 
 
 Where were the screech-owls which you saw? 
 Peeping- out from the hollow of a tree or among 
 the thick foliage. Very likely you nearly passed 
 an owl without seeing it, for they keep very quiet 
 and do not cry out if they see a person coming. 
 Its color helps the owl to escape notice, being 
 that of the branches of the tree in which it sits, 
 and its bright eyes, which might attract atten^ 
 tion, are nearly closed. 
 
 Would you like to find out all you can about 
 how the owl makes a living? 
 
 At what time of day was it when you heard 
 the screech-owl? Was it talking in its sleep? 
 No, the night is the busy time of day for the 
 screech-owl. About what is it so busy? Getting 
 its dinner and breakfast. These are such hearty 
 meals that it needs no luncheon in the middle of 
 the day. 
 
 What do they find to eat? Mice, English spar- 
 rows and other small birds, eggs of birds, frogs, 
 small snakes, fish, grasshoppers, crickets, beet- 
 les, moths, the cock-chafer so injurious to fruit 
 trees, cut-worms which, like the owl, turn their 
 night into day. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 199 
 
 They are very fond of mice. Let us see how 
 they catch and eat them. Where do they find 
 them? In shocks of corn, in their field nests, 
 around barns and corn cribs, running- over the 
 snow. How do they catch them? Swoop down 
 upon them and grasp them with their long, sharp 
 claws. Study the very sharp, long", strong-, curved 
 claws on the strong, flexible toes, as to their 
 adaptability to catch and hold prey. Notice the 
 reversible outer toe. How does the owl use it? 
 We are very glad that the owl kills the little 
 mouse almost instantly, so it does not suffer. 
 
 How does it eat the mouse? Often tosses it 
 up with its bill in such a way that the head comes 
 down into the owl's mouth, then it makes one big 
 gulp, but often a second is needed before the 
 mouse is down tail and all. Are you surprised 
 that it eats the whole mouse? What parts should 
 you think it might better have left out? The 
 hair, teeth, and bones. Examine these little balls 
 found at the foot of a tree in which an owl had a 
 nest. The children find here hair, teeth, bones, 
 feathers, etc. Where could these have come from? 
 The owl, a few hours after eating a mouse or a 
 bird, throws up one of these balls. If a caged 
 owl is a possibility, let the children verify this 
 from their own experience. 
 
 Why do not the mice get out of the owl's way? 
 The owl makes almost no noise when flying, on 
 account of the soft feathers which line the wings 
 
200 Special Method in Science. 
 
 and cover the body. Study the wing's with refer- 
 ence to their fitness for noiseless flight. 
 
 At what time did you say the screech-owl 
 catches the mice? At nig-ht. Both like to hunt 
 after dark. How can the owl see the little mouse? 
 It has large, brig-ht eyes. These are in front of 
 its head so that it can fix both upon one object. 
 Study the eye. How large the pupil is! Why? 
 The pupil is a hole through which the light 
 passes into the eye. Liken to a window, This 
 window is very large in the owl's eye and admits 
 much light. Notice the yellow curtain — iris — 
 which surrounds this pupil. Only a little of it 
 shows at night. Let the teacher explain the use 
 of the iris. 
 
 Owls often know when a mouse is near even 
 though that mouse be out of sight. How is that? 
 It hears it? Where are its ears? The children 
 will call the tufts of feathers on the top of its 
 head the ears. Let them discover that there are 
 no ears there. They will find large ears, covered 
 by feathers, just outside the disc of feathers sur- 
 rounding the eye. This is the only bird that has 
 an outer ear. Notice how the feathers are ar- 
 ranged just outside the ear. How does this help 
 its hearing? Why is it well that the ears are cov- 
 ered with feathers? 
 
 What else does the owl eat? Small birds. 
 These, too, it kills almost immediately. How does 
 it catch them? Swallow them whole? No. Tears 
 
llluslrative Lesswxs for Primary Grades. 201 
 
 them in pieces. Do the birds know that the owl 
 is their enemy? How do they treat it? If they 
 find an owl in the day time they make a terrible 
 commotion. All the birds gather tog-ether and 
 scream at it, flying- as close to it as they dare. 
 When it flies away they follow it and keep calling- 
 it hard names. 
 
 How does it catch its other food? How much 
 of this food can it get in the winter. Does it go 
 out hunting on the coldest nights? In the warm 
 weather it often stores up enough food to last it 
 a week or more, and mature owls often go a week 
 without any food, not seeming to mind it. Give 
 instances of the storing, showing what they lay in 
 store. 
 
 What, besides food, does it need? Water. It 
 is a great drinker. Owls are sometimes caught 
 by cutting holes in the ice. They come here to 
 drink and are captured. 
 
 Is the screech-owl's coat well fitted for a bird 
 which must make a living in the winter as well 
 as in the cold, damp nights in warmer weather? 
 Study carefully the plumage of the owl as adapted 
 to its protection from cold and damp. Unlike 
 many other birds, the legs are covered their whole 
 length, and the feathers even run down each toe. 
 What care does it take of this thick, soft, light 
 coat? It bathes very frequently and enjoys its 
 bath greatly. 
 
202 Special Method in Science. 
 
 We have learned how the owl makes a living" 
 for itself. Does it never care for others? There 
 must be little owls sometimes. When do you 
 think the little owls come? In warm weather, in 
 May or June. Have you ever seen an owlet? 
 Where was it? Perhaps in a rotten hole in an 
 apple tree? How far from the ground was the 
 hole? Not higher than this room, ten feet. How 
 is the nest made? The owls choose a hole in a 
 tree, they do not make one, as does the wood- 
 pecker. This hole is often not lined at all. There 
 is rotten wood in the bottom, and often dry leaves 
 which have been blown into it; but .sometimes 
 the mother adds a few feathers from her breast, 
 and sometimes the parents line the nest roughly 
 with dry g-rass. 
 
 What kind of eggs are laid in this nest? Four 
 or more round, white eggs. Which bird sits on 
 the eggs? The female; and during- the day the 
 male, too, sits there if the nest is roomy enough; 
 if not, he chooses a hollow tree near by. How 
 long- does it take the eggs to hatch? About one 
 month after the first egg is laid the little owls 
 are out of the shell. 
 
 How do they look when first hatched? JDid 
 you ever see one? If possible, the children should 
 see one before the season is over. It is a sight 
 they will never forget. The owlets are at first 
 covered with a yellowish-white, downy coat. 
 They look like fluffy balls. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 203 
 
 How long- do they stay in the nest? About a 
 month. Then they scramble out on the branches. 
 They can climb like cats. Did you ever try to 
 catch one? What did it do? Sna^iped its bill 
 viciously. 
 
 How are they cared for all this time while 
 growing" up? Both father and mother are kept 
 very busy providing" these hearty children with 
 food. They must work early and late. It would 
 be a sad thing" for the babies if one of their pa- 
 rents should be killed ere they were old enough 
 to provide for themselves. We hope for their 
 sake that this may never happen. Before cold 
 weather comes, every owlet is g"rown and able to 
 care for himself. 
 
 Frequent reviews should be made by topic, as, 
 "Tell how the eyes fit the screech-owl for work at 
 nig'ht,"or, "In what respect does the owl resemble 
 the cat?" (Its head looks like the cat's, it hunts 
 at nig"ht, it likes mice and birds to eat, it can 
 climb, etc.) 
 
 THE WILD ROSE. 
 
 The wild rose is in full bloom in June, before 
 our schools are closed, and is a very simple flower 
 for study. The following" are some of the points 
 in which the children will be interested: 
 
 It presents no loud color, but passes from pure 
 white, which is somewhat rare, to intense pink, 
 throug^h all the intermediate tints. Not unfre- 
 
204 Special Method in Science. 
 
 quently we find in a single flower exquisite mark- 
 ings and shadings. Its fragrance, too, is as 
 delightful as its coloring. 
 
 When the sun is shining the mature rose spreads 
 wide its petals, catching every ray which comes 
 its way, but when darkness reigns it closes, and 
 says to the world, "Good night." Does it close, 
 also, before and during a storm? Watch and see. 
 The closed flower is as beautiful as the open one. 
 When you have seen one you have not seen all, 
 for there are many different arrangements of the 
 petals in closing, but in each the adaptation is so 
 perfect that one wonders that any other plan 
 could have answered so well. Do the petals 
 close at night? Why should the rose close at 
 night? If we notice the texture of one of the pe- 
 tals we find its two sides quite unlike. The soft, 
 velvety upper side might easily be marred by the 
 dew, while the coarser under side seems better 
 fitted to cope with it. This suggests what may 
 be one reason for closing. Later we may find a 
 better one. 
 
 Any child can find out how long the petals re- 
 main after the flower opens by watching carefully 
 the unfolding of certain buds which he has 
 marked, but he must bear in mind that storms of 
 wind or rain often cut the tender lives short. 
 
 Although each petal usually performs its part 
 in closing, occasionally we find one, like a willful 
 child, standing off by itself, rolled up to resemble 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 205 
 
 a bud. Sometimes, too, one little petal will creep 
 out of the bud many hours before the others are 
 ready. It looks too dismal to be enjoying" its 
 joke. 
 
 If there is room in the school-house yard, wild 
 roses might be planted there. Here the children 
 will discover many interesting- facts about their 
 appearance and growth. 
 
 About the time that the petals fall, the sta- 
 mens change their bright color for a dark brown, 
 and later this color gives place to black. Their 
 work is done, although they do not pass out of 
 si^ht. The only part of the rose now especially 
 noticeable is the g"reen seed cup with the sepals 
 fastened to its rim, and falling back over its sides. 
 We had noticed this cup but little when the petals 
 stood about and above it, but it has been growing 
 quite rapidly all of the time. Why should this 
 cup remain while the petals fall and the stamens 
 fade? There is not much more beauty to it than 
 to a little g"reen apple which it much resembles. 
 We will open one of these cups — a larg*e one. In- 
 side we lind a number of shining yellow seeds. 
 They form a circle around the inside of the cup. 
 All are closely packed tog^ether. The outer seeds 
 are rounded on the outside. There is no definite 
 number of sides to each seed, they differ consid- 
 erably in shape, and we find, too, some seeds that 
 seem to be dried up. Why is this? 
 
206 Special Method in Science. 
 
 We will g-o back a little. The children have 
 noticed that when they touched the stamens, a 
 yellowish powder, the pollen, covered the tip of 
 the fing-er. The little pollen sacks have burst and 
 the pollen is free. Much of it falls on the little 
 green cushion in the center of the flower. By 
 opening- one of the smaller cups it will be seen 
 that this cushion is the feathery top of many 
 small tubes which reach down to the seeds. The 
 pollen touches a little seed and says, "Wake up 
 and grow," and the seed obeys. The ovules that 
 did not develop into seeds failed to receive the 
 message so they did not grow. The petals need 
 to guard the pollen that its seed children may 
 thrive. Does the closing- of the rose at night help 
 to do this? Is it well the petals are so delicate 
 on the upper side? Why? 
 
 For how long a time the seeds g-row before 
 they are ripened can be learned by the children 
 by recording the time of the falling of the petals 
 on a few marked roses. 
 
 As the seeds g-row the little cup which holds 
 them grows. At last when they are ripened, the 
 cup proclaims it to the world by its changed 
 color, now a bright red. But this is a covered 
 cup. How are the seeds to get out into the world? 
 Has the plant been working so hard for nothing? 
 
 "That red cup looks very attractive," says a 
 birdie, and down it pounces upon it, breaking" the 
 cup and scattering some of the seeds, while it 
 
Illustrative Lessotis for rrimai-y Grades. 207 
 
 eats what are left. So the rose feeds the birds 
 and the birds free the seeds. Nature's children 
 are everywhere helping" one another. 
 
 A WINTER STUDY OP THE FOX SQUIRREL. 
 
 It is supposed that this study will be carried 
 on with classes of children only who are ac- 
 quainted with this squirrel, and to some extent^ 
 with its habits. A live squirrel, if possible, will 
 be brought into the class whenever facts in regard 
 to structure need proof. 
 
 The following questions may be asked for the 
 purpose of finding out how much the children al- 
 ready know about the animal: , Where have you 
 seen fox squirrels? How could you tell them from 
 other squirrels? Their color was orange (or red) 
 and gray. What have you seen them doing? Did 
 you ever visit at one of their homes? Where was 
 it? How did you reach it? How was it furnished? 
 
 We will see if we cannot become better ac- 
 quainted with this lively little fellow. 
 
 Have you seen any this winter? Was it on a 
 very cold or a mild day? At what time of day? 
 What was it doing? Watch closely and see if you 
 can find out. Can you ever tell that a squirrel has 
 been out, even though no one has seen it? How? 
 What kind of tracks does it leave in the snow? 
 Notice them so carefully that you can draw them 
 on the board. How do they differ from the rabbit's 
 tracks that you have been noticing? If you were 
 
208 Special Method in Science. 
 
 to follow these tracks, what mig-ht you find? The 
 squirrel's home. We will not disturb him, but 
 sometime when the house is empty we will climb 
 up and peep in and see if he has a comfortable 
 home. The children, quite likely, may find the 
 nest in a hollow of a tree. It is lined with leaves 
 and moss, perhaps. How many rooms? Only one 
 — a bedroom. Does one squirrel live here alone? 
 There is a whole family of them, quite likely — 
 father, mother, and two or three children. Per- 
 haps you can find out how they pack themselves 
 away in this snug" home. 
 
 Did the squirrels dig- out this hole in the tree? 
 Why do you think they did not? Why should they 
 choose such a place as this? Did you ever see 
 squirrels out house hunting-? Did you ever see 
 them fitting up their home? How did they carry 
 the leaves and moss? How many of the family 
 worked? At what time of year was it? Do they 
 have a door to their house? How, then, do they 
 keep out the wind and the snow? Is there a 
 furnace or a stove in this house? How, then, can 
 they keep warm? They wear very warm fur coats. 
 Without a squirrel, the study of this covering- can 
 be made from a dried pelt. Is there more than 
 one coat? Notice the inner coat. It is very soft 
 and compact, a dark drab next to the skin, re- 
 sembling cotton batting-. What does this coat do 
 for the squirrel? Notice the outer coat. This coat 
 is coarser and not so compact. Do the hairs stand 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 209 
 
 straight out from the body, or do they lie down? 
 What is the use of this coat? Which coat gives 
 the color to the animal? Notice these long hairs 
 in which the dark and light alternate. Which 
 color is at the tip of the hairs? 
 
 These are not the squirrel's only protection 
 from the cold. What beside? He carries with 
 him a beautiful fur cloak — his tail or brush — which 
 he wraps about him when he lies down to sleep. 
 Call attention to the richness of coloring in this 
 cloak. The upper part in this specimen before 
 me is a beautiful combination of black and orange, 
 the orange tipping every hair — while the under 
 part (which is the upper part most of the time) is 
 a light orange. 
 
 We have found that the squirrels are very 
 comfortable even in cold weather. But are a good 
 home and warm clothes all that are necessary to 
 keep them alive? They need food. What do 
 squirrels eat? How can they get these after the 
 fruit and corn are gathered and the nuts which 
 remain on the ground in the woods are covered 
 with snow? They stored up food in a pantry in 
 another hole in a tree, not far from their sleeping 
 room. Did you ever see them gather nuts for the 
 winter? How did they carry them to their pantry? 
 How many worked at this? Did you ever come 
 across their store of nuts? Did you examine it? 
 H?tcl they m^4^ a good ^^l^ctjpn? Were there any 
 
210 Special Method in Science. 
 
 wormy ones among- them? How do you think 
 they discover that a nut is not sound? 
 
 How do the squirrels spend most of the time 
 in the winter? Why do you think so? When they 
 waken a-nd are hungry, how do they get their 
 meals? Scamper off to the pantry. Do they eat 
 at the pantry, or bring the nuts back to the bed- 
 room? How do they hold the nuts when eating? 
 How get at the meat? What kind of teeth must 
 they have to take off the shell in this way? Are 
 they like the teeth of any other animal that you 
 have studied? Much like the rabbit's. Do they 
 chew their food? With what teeth? (If possible, 
 examine these teeth. The skull of the squirrel 
 would be of much service here.) What is the 
 movement of the jaw? Is it well for the squirrel's 
 teeth that he does not sleep all winter? What 
 would be the harm if he were to do so? His teeth 
 keep growing. He needs to keep them worn off 
 at the tip that they may not become too long. 
 
 We know a little about the winter life of this 
 pretty squirrel. Its summer life is even more in- 
 teresting. Let us find out all that we can about 
 that next term. Let us see how early in the spring 
 it begins its work and play. We will find out, if 
 we can, what its summer work is, and what games 
 it plays. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for- Pnmary Grades. 211 
 
 THE FIRST THREE MONTHS IN THE LIFE OF A GRAY SQUIRREL. 
 
 Our school children had the rare opportunity 
 in the spring of '97 of observing" three gray squir- 
 rels from the time of their birth. 
 
 We had had the mother of these babies for 
 about six weeks, when, on Monday morning, 
 March 15, our janitor found in the cage five little 
 squirrels. Two died shortly after birth. The 
 little squirrels were perfectly naked, not a hair 
 on the whole body. The bodies of the two largest 
 were two inches long, tail one and one-fourth 
 inches, and the legs three-fourths of an inch. 
 They were very dark red, with the heads darker 
 than the body. The ears were no larger than 
 radish or flax seeds. Their eyes were as large as 
 sweet peas, but were closed tight. Their toe nails 
 were black, with a white tip, and were well de- 
 veloped. The mother purred to them harshly. 
 The babies mewed — a single mew at a time; their 
 voices sounded like that of kittens. We saw two 
 of them getting their dinner the second morning. 
 Their front feet moved in a happy way while 
 nursing. We made them a nest of cotton in a box 
 when they first came. Their mother tore up much 
 paper and added to this nest. 
 
 When they were a week old their bodies had 
 become plumper, and they had begun to bleach 
 out. We took one of the little ones from the cage. 
 It squealed like a little pig, such big voice for 
 such a tiny creature. The mother, Fanny was very 
 
212 Special Method in Science. 
 
 tame. We patted her and handled her considera- 
 bly when the squirrels were a week old without 
 any disposition on her part to bite. 
 
 When a week and a half old the little ones be- 
 gan to squeak like mice whenever things did not 
 go to suit them in their home. Their little ears 
 began to stand out. The mother, when she feared 
 some one was going to h.urt one of her babies, 
 planted her front feet firmly on its body. 
 
 When three weeks old the lids to the eye had 
 become plainly differentiated. The body had 
 changed in color to a dark gray, and gray hairs 
 began to show. They were thickest on the head. 
 The head looked very large in proportion to the 
 rest of the body. The ears were now standing 
 out stiffly. Ten days previous to this the squir- 
 rels had been taken to the home of one of our 
 teachers to spend the vacation. Fanny was fright- 
 ened at being moved, and when her cage was set 
 down in the new quarters, and the box containing 
 her little ones was put in, she grabbed up one lit- 
 tle one at a time and lapped it. She seemed to 
 be examining them to see if any harm had come 
 to them. At the close of the vacation they were 
 three times as large, at least, as at the beginning. 
 
 When three and one-half weeks old the little 
 squirrels had become very active. Hair covered 
 all of the body excepting the under part, and the 
 inner side of the legs. These parts were still per- 
 fectly bare. The t^il had grown to be quite large. 
 
Ilhistrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 213 
 
 The order in which the hair appeared was this — 
 on head, on body, on outer part of thigh, on outer 
 part of leg". The mother's call sounded like a 
 buzz-saw. 
 
 When four and one-half weeks old the eye-lids 
 were much swollen and looked to be about ready 
 to open. The head of the squirrel still seemed 
 out of all proportion to the size of the body. For 
 several days previous to this, rusty hairs had been 
 noticeable on their heads, mixed with the gray, 
 and now a rusty line showed low down on each 
 side of their bodies. While the outside of the 
 mother's ear is white, theirs was gray. Their 
 tails were now becoming very hairy. They still 
 continued to do nothing but sleep, eat, and squirm. 
 They were never quiet. For two days previous to 
 this time Fanny had seemed very uneasy. She 
 jumped out of the nest and called her young, but 
 they made no move to follow her. On this day 
 she had many times taken up one of the babies 
 in her mouth and lapped and handled it, especially 
 the latter. We put much cotton into the cage so 
 they might not suffer were she to take them from 
 the box. When lifting one, she usually grasped 
 it by a leg, or the skin on the back of its body — 
 far back. 
 
 When five weeks old the under part of the 
 body and inner part of the leg were thickly cov- 
 ered with white hairs. 
 
214 Special Method in Science. 
 
 When five weeks and one-half old we found 
 each little squirrel with one eye partly open. With 
 the two larg-er squirrels it was the left eye, with 
 the smaller one it was the rig"ht eye. The smallest 
 squirrel was of a much lig"hter g"ray than the other 
 two, and had no rusty hairs in its coat. 
 
 On the morning" following" that of the above 
 record we looked with expectancy for wide open 
 eyes, but only the little gray had an eye open, its 
 right eye, as before, but this was hardly as wide 
 open as on the previous day. Fanny, about this 
 time, began to lie flat on her back to suckle her 
 little ones. For several days previous to this she 
 had been burying her food in the nest. On this 
 day she took a piece of cotton from her bed, and 
 with her mouth and front paws gave it a good 
 shaking, then put it back into the nest. 
 
 On the day following the above record, one of 
 the large squirrels opened neither eye all day as 
 on the previous day. The other large one had 
 both eyes open, not wide, but about half way. 
 The little one had its right eye open but no far- 
 ther than on the previous day. The squirrel with 
 both eyes open drew itself up so as to peep over 
 the top of the box. Fanny, seeing it, drew it 
 back into the nest. By this time we were in the 
 habit of handling the little ones, and taking them 
 out of the cage. Neither Fanny nor the little ones 
 objected. 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 215 
 
 When the little squirrels were six weeks old, 
 for the first time, all three had both eyes open. 
 They did not move about much on this great day, 
 slept as usual, but were more restless. Fanny 
 now began sunning herself, stretching out flat on 
 the bottom of the cage. 
 
 Two days later than the above record the little 
 squirrels took up cracked nuts in their paws and 
 nibbled them. The smallest squirrel at this time 
 was the most active. On the evening of this day 
 one of the little squirrels kept getting out of the 
 box. Fanny was displeased. Every time it got 
 out she would run after it and, grasping it by the 
 hind leg, lift it into the box. At one time the 
 little fellow ran around on the floor of the cage, 
 in a very animated manner. 
 
 Five days later the little ones had begun to 
 walk and run about the cage a great deal, and on 
 this day, for the first time they climbed up the 
 sides of the wire cage. When walking or running 
 they still seemed unsteady on their feet, and when 
 holding up a nut in the paws, as they did on rare 
 occasions, their hind legs wabbled. On this day 
 and once previously, one little fellow worked at 
 its mother's mouth — seemed to be biting her teeth. 
 We examined its teeth and found them just 
 through. We think it was using its mother's 
 teeth as a baby, when teething, uses an ivory 
 ring. The mother was very patient and seemed 
 to regard the operation as perfectly proper. The 
 
216 Special Method in Science. 
 
 little teeth were very tiny and very white. The 
 little squirrels had very sharp nails. We could 
 hardly get them off our clothing when they had 
 been running over us. 
 
 One day after the above record all three little 
 squirrels lay down in the bottom of the cage to- 
 gether to sleep. 
 
 When eight weeks old their tails were beauti- 
 ful and they curled them gracefully over their 
 backs. They had by this time become very nim- 
 ble. They would take away Fanny's nuts when 
 she was nibbling them. Fanny stored away in the 
 box large quantities of nuts, never putting two in 
 the same spot. She covered them by scratching 
 anything over them that happened to be handy, 
 even though it were one of the little squirrels. 
 
 Two days later one squirrel would lie on its 
 back, kick up its legs, and grab another squirrel, 
 when a skirmish would follow. They continued 
 to steal the nuts from Fanny's mouth. They were 
 now beginning to eat nuts, kernels of corn, and 
 clover. One lay down and gnawed a kernel of 
 corn as a dog gnaws a bone. 
 
 When nine and a half weeks old the little ones 
 teased Fanny when eating so much that she hung 
 by her toes from the side of the cage near the top, 
 to crack nuts. The tails of the babies were now 
 longer than their bodies and very beautiful. The 
 little ones were becoming hearty eaters, their fa- 
 vorite food being hickory nuts. On this day I 
 
Illustrative Lessoiis for Primary Grades. 217 
 
 wore a snowball. Fanny came to the side of the 
 cag-e and nibbled at the snowball. When I took 
 it off and gave to her she ate more than half of it. 
 
 One day later than the above Fanny and her 
 babies quarreled. She was tired of having them 
 boss her about, and refused to submit. 
 
 When ten and a half weeks old Fanny still 
 washed her babies, lapping them with her tong-ue. 
 She still suckled them, though a few times she 
 had resisted their demands for food. They now 
 looked to be almost as larg-e as the mother. The 
 smallest one was a downright wicked tease. It 
 made a practice of skipping" up behind one of the 
 others and biting^ it, stealing- the food of the 
 others, biting- them when they wished to eat, and 
 the like. Finally we had to take the little hector 
 out of the cage and give him a cage to himself. 
 
 About a week after we took the little squirrel 
 from the cage one of those remaining in the cage 
 died. We knew no cause for its death. We took 
 the other little squirrel from the mother, as she 
 had been taking its choice morsels of food from 
 it. We kept it out only three days as it grieved 
 greatly for its mother. The evening after we put it 
 back it had a hard spasm. Fearing that the room 
 was too warm and sunny we sent all to the base- 
 ment in another building. Here they were given 
 much freedom and thrived well. This was near 
 the end of the term. The children had watched 
 closely and noted with the greatest interest ail 
 
218 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the changes here recorded, and they loved the 
 little squirrels and Fanny very much. They re- 
 lated to the teacher in their Nature Study class 
 what they had observed. If any difference of 
 opinion existed it was settled by further investi- 
 gation. 
 
 OUR HOUSE, JIM. 
 
 The children learn a great deal by watching- 
 an animal or plant kept in the school room. The 
 following are some observations made of our 
 mouse, Jim. 
 
 Jim was not a handsome mouse. He was gray 
 with the under parts somewhat lighter. Our jani- 
 tor caught him for us in a trap — one of the kind 
 that preserves the specimen alive and unmuti- 
 lated. Before he arrived we had made ready for 
 him a cage. It was made of woven wire, and was 
 about a foot square. It had a wooden bottom, 
 which the mouse never saw fit to gnaw through. 
 There was a wire handle at the top, and a wire 
 door in one side, near the bottom. This door was 
 of such a size that the top of a glass fruit jar ex- 
 actly fitted into it. Its cost was fifty cents. A 
 tinner made it for us. 
 
 As often as the cage needed cleaning, Jim was 
 tempted by some dainty, to go into a two-quart 
 jar whose mouth had been put into the door of 
 the cage. Once in there, the top of the jar was 
 put on lightly, and the cage was cleaned. Jim, 
 almost without fail, gave himself a thorough 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 219 
 
 cleaning while in this jar. Standing- on his hind 
 paws he lapped his little pink hands, and then 
 proceeded much as a cat does, to clean very care- 
 fully all parts of his body, his hands returning" to 
 his mouth frequently for a fresh supply of cleans- 
 ing fluid. 
 
 In the meantime the cage had been washed out 
 thoroughly and dried, and a double piece of paper 
 a foot wide but several inches longer was put into 
 the cage, so that one side folded over, forming a 
 roof for a retiring room. Jim had asked for this 
 room in this way: At first we cut the paper a 
 foot square. Jim would invariably push up one 
 side of the paper and go under it when he wished 
 to sleep or meditate. By lengthening the paper 
 we saved him this trouble. He had not ceased to 
 be wary although he knew us well, for he invari- 
 ably cut out a little window in this private office 
 of his, and slept with his head in such a position 
 that he could look out of this window should he 
 be disturbed. 
 
 How happy he was to get back into his clean 
 cage. He would run up one side, throw his head 
 far back, and turn a somersault landing on his 
 feet at the bottom of the cage. This was his fa- 
 vorite pastime. His movements were so rapid, 
 when he was fairly started that it was impossible 
 to tell how he moved. 
 
 The children at school were glad to furnish 
 food to the little fellow for the pleasure of seeing 
 
220 Special Method in Science. 
 
 him eat. His mouth was hid from sight. If a 
 grain of field corn was given him, he picked it up 
 in his front paws, standing on his hind legs, ex- 
 actly as does a squirrel when eating a nut. He 
 first pulled off with his teeth the thin husk on the 
 outside of the grain, dropped it, and beginning at 
 the crown ate downward toward the heart for 
 some distance, then he turned it and ate toward 
 the heart from the opposite side, until one part 
 dropped. The remaining part he ate from the 
 outside inward, nibbling little bites, or sometimes 
 taking larger bites and chewing them. When the 
 one part was eaten, he scurried around, hunting 
 the other portion, which he ate in the same way. 
 If he had an abundance of corn he would eat the 
 crown out of several kernels, instead of eating an 
 entire one. When a kernel of rice popcorn was 
 given him, instead of beginning at the crown to 
 nibble, (the crown is very hard) he began at the 
 softer base. 
 
 We expected him to go into raptures over his 
 first bit of cheese, this being considered a mouse's 
 great luxury, but he disappointed us. He nibbled 
 a little from it occasionally, but in a half-hearted 
 way. 
 
 He was very fond of cake. One could almost 
 hear him smack his jaws in satisfaction when he 
 got hold of a piece. He would hold it up in his 
 paws, if not too heavy, and eat it in much the 
 same way that he ate the corn. If the piece were 
 
Illustrative Lessons for Primary Grades. 221 
 
 too large he put his head down to it, using his 
 paws in turning it. His hands seemed as neces- 
 sary to him, for feeding himself, as do ours. We 
 never saw him eat anything without bringing 
 them into use to hold the food in a good position 
 for nibbling. 
 
 We watered Jim in a little glass salt-cellar. 
 He cared for water at least once a day. Sometimes 
 he would drink oftener. When the water w^as put 
 into the cage he would run to it, put his two front 
 feet on the side of the dish and lap up rapidly 
 from the center. Occasionally we gave him milk. 
 This he would sometimes lap from the center, at 
 other times from the edge of the dish only 
 
 His hand was very delicate. There were four 
 slender fingers on a level, and a thumb higher up, 
 as in our own hand. The foot had but four toes, 
 the use of the toes being less varied than that of 
 the fingers. 
 
 While we do not doubt that that prominent 
 nose served a good purpose, we were not able to 
 demonstrate, to our satisfaction, that he has the 
 keen scent accorded him by some. 
 
 His little black eyes seemed to see in every 
 direction at once, and his thin papery ears caught 
 the slightest sound. His whole attitude was one 
 of alertness. A cat that could surprise one such 
 little fellow must be very quick-witted as well as 
 quick-motioned, 
 
222 Special Method in Science. 
 
 So far as we could discover his tail was a use- 
 less appendage — not even ornamental we should 
 say, but Jim seemed very proud of it. He washed 
 it with great care, and laid it out in a graceful 
 curve, when resting. We think he would look 
 quite inartistic, however, without this three inch 
 measure, and were it covered with hair, forming 
 a beautiful brush like that of the squirrel, proba- 
 bly not a mouse would be making history to-day. 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 223 
 
 TOPICS rOR THIRD GRADE. 
 
 The topics selected for third grade have con 
 siderable variety and cannot be arrang"ed in any 
 close scientific sequence. We are careful to select 
 home topics which offer abundant opportunity for 
 close examination. In some cases the observations 
 should be continuous during several weeks. It 
 may be well to observe and collect specimens for 
 some time before regular class work in a topic be- 
 g"ins. Outdoor observations and excursions to the 
 campus, neig"hboring" fields and groves, and the 
 collecting" of specimens by the children in their 
 still wider range of home experiences, will help 
 to render the work interesting and experimental. 
 
 The topics chosen are typical, and simple groups 
 observed in this grade, in connection with the 
 studies in still earlier years, will expand and be- 
 come more definite in later studies. In this grade 
 we are still absorbed in the study of particular 
 objects in nature with all their concrete detail 
 and interesting discovery. We are collecting 
 much material for later classification and scientific 
 ordering. It is necessary to make constant use of 
 their previous experiences and at the same time 
 
224 Special Method in Science. 
 
 to clarify and enlarge them with new and ample 
 material. Every important topic should be deeply 
 rooted in the child's home environment and should 
 be brought into close relation to his other lessons 
 in geography and story, for such associations are 
 natural and appropriate. The type study in each 
 case is more fully treated than those other plants 
 and animals with which it is compared for pur- 
 poses of grouping or classification. The formal, 
 superficial description of objects is not our pur- 
 pose, but such an inquiry into the habits, needs, 
 organs, and surroundings as will bring out the life 
 processes, and aid in the detection of causes and 
 adaptations in nature. 
 
 The books and references given in connection 
 with each topic are designed to be of help to 
 teachers. They furnish a good deal of sugges- 
 tion and knowledge of the facts. But the 
 teacher must not rely upon book knowledge as 
 the chief aid. The knowledge gained from books 
 will help the teacher to become much more 
 acute in hunting out the problems involved in the 
 object of study. If the teacher can only learn to 
 be an investigator and thinker, the problems will 
 spring up in his own mind as fast as he collects 
 knowledge by reading and observation. But na- 
 ture study requires much thoughtfulness, inge- 
 nuity, and a certain amount of originality on the 
 part of the teacher. Some of the most desirable 
 books ?ire too expensive for most te^c^b^r? to buy, 
 
Topics for Third Grade. . 225 
 
 A few of the less expensive and best books for 
 this and the following" grade are given in a spe- 
 cial list, With the names of the publishers, as 
 follows: 
 
 "A Few Familiar Flowers,'' by Miss Merely. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "Elementary Lessons in Zoology." Needham. Ameri- 
 can Book Co. 
 
 ''Outdoor Studies." Needham. American Book Co 
 
 "Nature Study." Payne. E. L. Kellog-g- & Co. 
 
 "A First Book in Geolog-y." Shaler. D. C. Heath & Co 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. The Macmil- 
 lan Co. 
 
 "The Story of the Solar System. " Chambers. D. Apple 
 ton & Co. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. American Book Co. 
 
 "Botany For Young People." Gray. American Book Co. 
 
 "A Reader in Botany," Part I. Newell. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "Longmans' Object Lessons." Salmon. Longmans, 
 Green & Co. 
 
 "The Plant World." Vincent. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "School Zoology." Burnet. American Book Co 
 
 "Applied Physiology for Intermediate Grade." Over- 
 ton. American Book Co. 
 
 "How to Keep Well." Blaisdell. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "The Story of a Piece of Coal." Martin. D. Appleton 
 &Co. 
 
 "Town Geology." Kingsley. The Macmillan Co. 
 
 "Coal and Coal Mines." Green. Houghton, Mifflin 
 &Co. 
 
 "Trees of the Northern U. S." Apgar. American Book 
 Co. 
 
 "Guides for Science Teaching." Numbers I, IL HI, 
 VIII D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "Our Friends the Birds." Parker. A. Flanagan. 
 
226 Special Method in Science. 
 
 ''Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Mrs. L. L. 
 Wilson. The Macmillan Co. 
 
 "Familiar Talks on Astronomy," by Wm. H. Parker. 
 A C. McClurg- & Co. 
 
 "Starland," by Robert S. Ball. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "The World of Matter." H. H. Ballard. D. C. Heath 
 «&Co. 
 
 "The Earth and Its Story." A. Heilprin. Silver, Bur- 
 dett & Co. 
 
 FALL TERn. 
 THE CORN PLANT. 
 
 In the fall (September) study of the full-grown 
 plant, stalk, leaves, ears, tassel, roots, g-rowth 
 during- the season. 
 
 Study also the broom-corn, sorghum, g-rasses 
 such as timothy, blue grass; the grains, wheat, 
 rye, barley, oats, rice, and millet. 
 
 References. See full treatment below. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 271-280. 
 
 "How Plants Grow." Gray. pp. 20-21. 
 
 "Grasses, The Plant World." Vincent, pp. 95-102. 
 
 "Lessons in Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 69-73. 
 
 "Nature Study Reader, Harold's Rambles." pp. 51-61. 
 Also "Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children." An- 
 drews, pp. 35-41. 
 
 THE SUNFLOWER. 
 
 September is a good month for its study. It is 
 found abundantly in the gardens not far from the 
 school house, allowing short excursions to exam- 
 ine its blossoms, seeds, growth of stalk, scatter- 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 227 
 
 ing" of seeds. Compare it in size and growth with 
 the corn plant. Examine also and compare with 
 the sunflower the wild sunflower, the dandelion, the 
 thistle, the asters, the golden rod. 
 
 Reference. See full treatment below. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 143-147. 
 
 "How Plants Grow." Gray. pp. 164-166. 
 
 See the fuller treatment of this plant given below. 
 
 Also "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 50-57. 
 
 "Plants and Their Children." Dana. pp. 248-255. 
 
 THE CATALPA AND HONEY LOCUST, 
 
 Visit the trees on the roadside and campus. 
 Examine and compare the pods. Notice also the 
 leaves, trunk, and structure of the bark. The com- 
 mon locust tree also should be examined and com- 
 pared with the honey locust. Compare the pods 
 and seeds of the locust and catalpa. 
 
 Consult, for catalpa: 
 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." pp. 185-187; for 
 the locust, pp. 213-218. 
 
 "Apg"ar's Trees of the Northern United States." pp. 
 93-95; also pp. 127-128. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 121-123. 
 
 THE ORASSHOPPER OR LOCUST. 
 
 The fall, especially September, is a g-ood time 
 to study the g-rasshopper. The children will 
 readily bring in specimens, putting green leaves 
 and grasses in the can or box with the live speci- 
 mens. An excursion to the campus to watch them 
 leap and fly, to notice their mouths, feet, legs, and 
 
228 Special Method in Science, 
 
 wings in action should precede. What do they 
 eat? How do tbey escape their enemies? Watch 
 them in the process of moulting. Do they grow 
 in size? What is the difference between young 
 and old? The story of how the eggs are deposited 
 may be told the children. Tell the story of the 
 Rocky Mountain Locust and its ravages. 
 
 Consult "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 
 213-216. 
 
 "Elementary Lessons in Zoolog-y.'' Needham. pp. 48-57. 
 
 "Nature Study." Payne, pp. 68-70. 
 
 Hyatt & Arms. "Insecta." pp. 108-109. 
 
 "Elementary Biology." pp. 34-41. Boyer. 
 
 "Insect Life," by Comstock, pp 9-21, This has an ex- 
 cellent study of the locust or short-horned grasshopper. 
 
 THE APPLE. 
 
 Examination of the fruit. Bring in several 
 kinds of apples. How many parts in the seed pod 
 or core of the apple? 
 
 What did the apple grow from? Can you see 
 any traces of the blossom? Get the crab-apple, 
 Siberian crab. Have they the same arrangement 
 of seeds, pods, etc. ? 
 
 What apples are kept late into the winter and 
 why? Plant some of the seeds and raise the 
 plants. When at the nursery (near the school) in 
 winter notice the process of grafting. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 107-112. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 4-8. 
 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. pp. 168-172, 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 2^d 
 
 "One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study." Payne, pp. 
 14-15. 
 
 "One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study." Payne, pp. 
 20-22. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 241-243. 
 
 THE NASTURTIUM. 
 
 See Miss Margaret Morley's treatment of "The 
 Nasturtium," in "A Few Familiar Flowers," pp. 
 107-151. A very full and helpful study for teach- 
 ers. Children should g-o out for study of the 
 growing: plant and flowers. 
 
 "Botany Reader." Newell. Part I, pp. 115-133. 
 
 THE SQUIRREL. 
 
 The red or gray squirrel may be studied in a 
 cage or at freedom, if' tame enough. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 171-174. 
 "Animal Life in Sea and on Land." Cooper, pp. 390-394. 
 "Inmates of My House and Garden." Brightwen. pp. 
 53-56. 
 
 FOODS AND TEETH. 
 
 Kinds of foods and what they are made from. 
 Milk, bread, butter, fruits, sweets, cheese, meat, 
 fish, game. How to eat and drink in moderation. 
 Ice water, chewing the food, use and care of the 
 teeth. 
 
 See "Applied Physiologry" Overton, pp. 26-34. 
 "How to Keep Well." Blaisdell. pp. 46-55. 
 "Physiology for Young People." pp. 1-12. 
 
230 Special Method in Science. 
 
 THE 5UN AND MOON. 
 
 Notice the time of rising" and setting" of the 
 sun, the length of the day and nig"ht, the chang^es 
 from week to week. The sun as the source of 
 heat. Trace the moon throug"h its changes from 
 new moon to new moon. Think out its movements. 
 The sun's heat at different times of the day and 
 at different seasons. Keep a record of the moon's 
 changes for a month. Explain the reflected light 
 of the moon. 
 
 See "Starland." Ball. Chapters I and II. 
 "Familiar Talks on Astronomy." Parker. Talks II, 
 III, and IV. 
 
 "Sunshine." Johnson. Chapters I and II. 
 
 COLD AND FROST. 
 
 Notice the changes from fall to winter. Use 
 the registrations of the thermometer from day to 
 day. Notice the effect of frost on different vege- 
 tables and trees, weeds, etc. Examine the frost 
 itself and its crystals. Report how ice is formed 
 in a pail when set out in the cold. How do dogs, 
 cats, sheep, and other animals prepare for winter? 
 Change of clothing with change of season. Wet 
 clothing, wet stockings, catching cold, etc. The 
 warmth of woolens. 
 
 "World of Matter. ^' Ballard, Chapters I, II, and III. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 154-156. 
 
Topics for Third Grade. " 231 
 
 WINTER TERn. 
 THE HOUSE CAT. 
 
 A good type of the wild animals of the cat 
 family. Padded feet and claws. Stealthy pur- 
 suit of prey. Eyes and nocturnal habits. Teeth 
 and food. Fur and whiskers. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 97-100. 
 'Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 54-55. 
 pp. 232-233. 
 
 THE WHITE PINE. 
 
 How can the white pine be disting-uished from 
 other pines, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, etc? No- 
 tice the arrangement of the limbs on the trunk, 
 the smooth bark, the cones, and how old they are. 
 Compare the foliage with that of other pines and 
 evergreens. How can you tell the age of the white 
 pine? Notice the rings of wood in a branch or 
 trunk that has been cut. Where does the pine 
 grow? Tell of the northern forests. Examine 
 the white pine wood. Notice the effect of snow 
 and sleet on the white pine in winter. Do the 
 branches break off easily or not and why? Lo- 
 cate the white pines in the neighborhood. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 214-218. 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Langre. pp. 252-261. 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." Matthews, pp. 
 256-272. 
 
 RATS AND MICE. 
 
 CJse live specimens, feeding them and watch- 
 ing their actions, use of feet, teeth, eyes, ears. 
 
232 Special Method in Science. 
 
 If nests can be had bring them in and furnish ma- 
 terial for nests. 
 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." pp. 65-66. 
 "Guides for Science Teaching-." No. XI. Hyatt's Mam- 
 mals. 
 
 BATHING 
 
 Keeping- the skin clean. Effects upon health. 
 Swimming". 
 
 "Applied Physiolog-y." Overton, pp. 104-113. 
 
 THE GERANIUM AND BEGONIA. 
 
 . Care of house plants in winter. Visit a hot- 
 house and notice modes of propagation. Kind of 
 soil, water, temperature, sunlight. Examine the 
 blossoms and watch their development. Let chil- 
 dren take care of a few plants. A visit to a hot- 
 house is also helpful. A very full and excellent 
 treatment of the scarlet geranium for teachers is 
 found in Margaret Morley's "A Few Familiar 
 Flowers," pp. 181-215. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 85-89 
 
 THE ENGLISH SPARROW. 
 
 •Notice its flight, noises, habits, food, treatment 
 of other birds. Where is it chiefly found? Where 
 are its nests? 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange pp. 73-76. 
 'Elementary Lessons in Zoolog"y." Needham. pp. 211- 
 237. 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 233 
 
 THE NORTH STAR AND BIG DIPPER AND PLANbTS. 
 
 Notice the movement of the dipper. Compare 
 it with movements of the sun, and moon, and 
 stars. Observe the planets. 
 
 "Nature Study for Elementary Grades." Wilson, pp. 
 103-105. 
 
 "The Story of the Solar System." Chambers, pp. 57-143. 
 
 Review their knowledge of the sun and moon 
 from observation and previous study. Locate 
 also any of the familiar constellations, as Orion. 
 
 THE ORANGE, LEMON. AND BANANA. 
 
 Examine the fruits. Where do they grow? 
 Why not found here? Where can we find the 
 plants near home? In hot-houses. Describe the 
 home climate and surroundings of each. 
 
 "Nature Study." Payne, p. 15. 
 
 The Banana.— See "The Plant World." Vincent, pp 
 74-76. 
 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 77-78 
 
 THE PIGEON. 
 
 Pigeons may be kept in a large cage, or even 
 in a basement or pigeon house near the school 
 Watch their flight. Feed them. It possible no 
 tice how they care for the young. Observe their 
 perching, feet, eyes, feathers, and wings, noise 
 in flight, cooing. Compare them later with the 
 turtle dove. Tell of the carrier pigeon. Describe 
 the flocks of wild pigeons. How are the tame 
 
234 Special Method in Science. 
 
 pigeons best housed and fed? Of what use are 
 they? 
 
 "Living- Creatures in Water, Land, and Air" Comstock. 
 pp. 185-187. 
 
 "Animal Life in Sea and on Land." Cooper., pp. 291-4. 
 
 "Bird Life." Chapman, pp. 112-114. 
 
 "Elementary Biolog-y." Boyer. pp. 98-107. 
 
 'Inmates of My House and Garden." Brightwen. pp. 
 93-101. 
 
 LEAD AS A HETAL. 
 
 Bending-, pounding", hammering- of lead. Lead 
 pipes. Melt lead and mold into bullets. Where 
 does lead come from? What is it used for? Sol- 
 der. Compare its weight with wood, water, and 
 other things. 
 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 86-88. 
 "The Earth and Its Story." Heilprin. pp. 212-213. 
 
 SPRING TERH. 
 PLANTING OF SEEDS TO WATCH GERMINATION. 
 
 First in the school house in boxes and later in 
 the school garden. Beans, corn, peas, bulbs, rad- 
 ishes, potato, apple seeds, cherry, plum. Later 
 in the season transplant the violets, spring beau- 
 ties, blood root, and other wild plants, from wood 
 and meadow to the school garden. Transplant 
 the house plants to the garden. Plant, also, the 
 garden flowers, sweet pea, nasturtium, morning 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 235 
 
 g"lories, tulips, poppies, pansies, touch-me-nots, 
 petunias, and watch the growth. 
 
 "Plants and Their Children." pp. 9-69. Also pp. 80-89. 
 "Guides for Science Teaching-." 
 "Concerning- a Few Common Plants." Goodale. 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 133-143. 
 
 PLANTAIN. DOCK. WILD PARSNIP. AND DANDELION. 
 
 Study of the roots of the earliest spring plants 
 and weeds, especially the perennials. Notice 
 their leng-th and food store. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 143-7. 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. Chapter vi., 
 pp. 58-69. 
 
 Contrast the long" sturdy roots of the peren- 
 nials with the roots of plants raised from seeds 
 early in the spring". 
 
 See the treatment of spring plants below. 
 
 THE SEEDLINGS OF COnWON TREES. 
 
 The seedlings of one, two, and three years will 
 be found in early spring. 
 
 The tirst year seedlings still attached to the 
 winged seed may be found in abundance. Watch 
 the seedlings till they can be determined as ma 
 pies, boxelders, elms, wild cherry, ash, tulip, etc. 
 
 How are trees planted in the forest? What 
 trees in our neighborhood are raised in the nur- 
 
^36 Special Method in Science. 
 
 series? What trees grow wild and scatter their 
 own seed? 
 
 References. » 
 
 "Guides for Science Teaching-," No. II, Concerning- 
 a few Common Plants. Goodale. pp. 11-19. 
 "Plants and Their Children." pp. 85-91. 
 
 Compare with germinating" seeds and with the 
 roots of plantain, dandelion and wild parsnip. 
 
 THE RETURN OF THE SPRING BIRDS. 
 
 Make a bird calendar. 
 
 Let each child make a regular note of birds 
 seen first by him. Robin, blue-bird, black-birds. 
 Or even earlier than these winter birds, as wrens, 
 brown creepers, shrikes, hawks, and owls. Later, 
 snipes, doves, meadow-lark, etc. The main pur- 
 pose is to be on the watch and to become familiar 
 with the more common of our native birds. 
 
 See "Bird Life." Chapman, pp. 48-61. 
 
 UNDERGROUND STEHS. 
 
 . Raspberry, blackberry, milk weed. Dig up the 
 roots so as to show the under-ground stems. Com- 
 pare the different under- ground stems among 
 themselves and with the running stem of the 
 strawberry. 
 
 Later in the season study the radish, beet, 
 onion, and compare with the wild roots of dande- 
 lion, etc. 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 237 
 
 The g"arden vegetables can be easily obtained 
 for class-room use. They may also be seen grow- 
 ing in the school garden and in neighboring gar- 
 dens. 
 
 THE APPLE TREE IN SPRING. 
 
 Buds and blossoms. Watch the first develop- 
 ment of the little apples. Do insects visit the 
 blossoms? Notice the colors and perfume. Com- 
 pare the apple blossoms with the roses. Notice 
 both wild and cultivated roses and compare. 
 
 "Plants and their Children." Dana. pp. 9-30. 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 107-112. 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang"e. pp. 4-8. 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. pp. 168-172. 
 "One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study." Payne, pp 
 14-15 and 20-22. 
 
 THE GRAPEVINE. 
 
 Budding and blossoming. The tendrils and 
 climbing of vines. Early buds and blossoms. 
 Forming of the young fruit. How the vines are 
 propagated. Compare it with the climbing vines. 
 Will it grow from the sjeeds? Notice leaves, stem, 
 bark, and compare with trees. Bring in speci- 
 mens of wild grapevine. 
 
 THE HOLE. 
 
 Its work in yards. It^ , peculiar home, food, 
 and organs. Study a live specimen if possible. 
 Let him bury himself in the loose dirt in a pail. 
 
238 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Feed him worms, grubs, etc. Notice his fore leg's, 
 teeth, eyes, etc. 
 
 "Curious Homes and Their Tenants." Beard, pp. 21-27. 
 
 See description below. 
 
 THE MAPLES AND THE BIRCHES. 
 
 The growth of the buds, leaves, and fruit 
 through the spring season. 
 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." Matthews, pp. 
 81-98. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 188-192. 
 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." Matthews, pp. 
 192-208. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 199-229. 
 
 Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 136-153. 
 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. pp. 186-220. 
 
 The sugar maple offers a good specimen upon 
 which to study the sap — its character, circulation, 
 functions, etc., as explained in the botanies. 
 
 See Gray's "How Plants Grow," chapter III, pp. 85-90, 
 and other botanies. 
 
 THE POTATO PLANT. 
 
 Seed potatoes. Growth of vine during the 
 spring months. The blossom, little potatoes. 
 The underground stems. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 187-191. 
 
 See the full treatment below. 
 
 THE POTATO BEETLE. 
 
 Notice them feeding upon the leaves, all sizes, 
 from the egg to maturity. Observe changes in 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 239 
 
 growth and compare with other insects already 
 studied. Tell the story of the potato beetle. 
 See "Handbook of Nature Study. Lang-e. pp. 212-213. 
 
 PLANT-FOODS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 Starch, sugar. 
 
 Com, potato, wheat, celery. 
 
 Tea and coffee. 
 
 Water as a food. 
 
 Effect of cooking upon some foods. 
 
 References: 
 
 "How to Keep Well." Blaisdell. pp. 46-55. 
 "Applied Physiology." Overton, pp. 27-34. 
 
 CORN PLANT. 
 
 The corn plant is one which is most familiar 
 and yet its points of interest are almost unknown 
 to the children. 
 
 Where do we find corn growing in the neigh- 
 borhood of the school? Before going to see it, 
 (or before bringing a full stalk with the ear into 
 the class), such questions as these may be asked: 
 
 Can you draw from memory a correct picture 
 of the full-grown corn plant? How do the leaves 
 or blades stand out on the stalk? Where are they 
 fastened and how? Are the leaves opposite or 
 otherwise? Where is the ear of corn attached and 
 how? How many feet tall is a full grown stalk 
 of field corn? What have you noticed as to the 
 roots and where they grow out? Describe the 
 tassel. 
 
240 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Now bring in the full stalk, leaves, corn, and 
 all, or visit the corn as it stands in the field. An- 
 swer the questions definitely that we have previ 
 ously asked, e. g. The leaves grow alternately, 
 first on one side, then on the opposite, above, etc. 
 The lower part of the leaf is a sheath encircling 
 the staik and fastened at the joint. The ear grows 
 up between the stalk and the sheath or lower part 
 of the leaf. The stem of the ear of corn is thus 
 in the axil of the leaf. The roots also spring out 
 from the joints, as do the leaves, and from two or 
 three of the joints. By measuring with a yard 
 stick we find that the whole plant is eight and a 
 half feet tall. The tassel growing at the top 
 branches out in several parts and has a dust or 
 pollen in little sacks. 
 
 ^A second set of questions as follows may lead 
 to a closer examination of the parts: Where the 
 large ear lies between the leaf and stalk what is 
 noticeable in the shape of the stalk? A large 
 groove, or hollow place. Is this the only ear on 
 the stalk? Examine the sheath just below on the 
 other side of the stalk, and by unwrapping and^^ 
 loosening it a second smaller ear, (often a very 
 small one only two or three inches long), is found ' 
 snugly wrapped in the axil of the leaf. Has this' 
 little ear rows of grain, silk, and leaf-covering? 
 Now go to the next lower joint and unwrap the 
 sheath! A still smaller ear and its wrappings are 
 found. What is observed as to the groove in each 
 
Topics for Third Grade. , 241 
 
 case? It is smaller. Examine all the joints and 
 see if an ear or rudiment of one is found under the 
 sheath at each joint. Now what do we find as to 
 the size of the ears and grooves in which they lie 
 as we g"0 downwards? How many ears are thus 
 found on a single stalk? Where is the largest? 
 How many ears of corn on a single stalk are found 
 to be valuable? Are any ears found on the stalk 
 above the large ear? Any grooves? 
 
 Now break off a large ear with its husks and 
 stem. Strip off one husk at a time from the ear 
 and notice the stem. A series of joints is found 
 on this stem. What does this remind us of? How 
 many joints are found on this short stem to which 
 the ear is attached? As many as there are sepa- 
 rate husks? How many husks are there? About 
 as many as there are leaves on a whole stalk of 
 corn. Are the husks arranged on alternate sides 
 of the stem? 
 
 Go into a com field when the pollen from the 
 tassel is being scattered. Examine the silks also 
 and see the condition of the ear of corn. Explain 
 how the pollen falls upon these delicate silks and 
 causes the grains of corn to grow. 
 
 Notice in the corn field how the pollen is scat- 
 tered over everything. Examine the tassels more 
 closely. How many large ears are found (in dif- 
 ferent stalks) on a single stem? Are grains or 
 nubbins ever noticed growing on the tassel? This 
 will be of interest in comparison with other plants 
 later. 
 
242 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Let the children try to pull up a corn stalk as 
 it stands in the ground. They will not have suf- 
 ficient streng"th. Let them bend and twist it to 
 see how strong" its hold, by means of the roots, is. 
 To how many joints are the roots attached. 
 
 Cut through the stalk and examine the fibres 
 and pith. What gives strength to the stalk? No- 
 tice how thick and firm the fibres are in the hard 
 rim of the stalk. Of what value and use are the 
 joints? Show the marked difference between a 
 cornstalk and the woody fibre of a tree or bush. 
 How long is the com plant in growing? Does it 
 live longer than one season? Does this large 
 plant, perhaps twelve or more feet tall, come from 
 a single grain of corn in a single season? How 
 many grains of corn does this stalk produce? 
 What sort of soil does the corn grow best in? Re- 
 call your experiments in the spring in watching 
 the germination of seeds in boxes, and in the 
 school garden. What becomes of the seed corn 
 that is planted in the ground? Call to mind the 
 different kinds of corn, as field corn, pop corn, 
 sugar corn. What are the differences in size and 
 appearance of different sorts? 
 
 Did you observe whether the corn plant has 
 any enemies, as bugs or worms or grubs. In the 
 ends of the young ears we often found a grub 
 which was nested there and eating the grains. 
 How did it come to be there? Have you known of 
 cornfields being damaged by insects? When does 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 243 
 
 corn ^row most rapidly and why? What is the 
 effect of very dry or very wet weather? What is 
 com mostly useful for? (A brief account of its use 
 for food for animals and man.) 
 
 The class should make quick sketches of the 
 corn plant on the blackboard, not so much for 
 the drawing- exercise as for purposes of expres- 
 sion and clearer g-rasp of ideas and facts. The 
 regular drawing- lesson of the class might also 
 take up the corn plant as a careful drawing- les- 
 son. 
 
 If it is convenient, bring into the class a full- 
 sized specimen of the broomcorn plant. Examine 
 the plants closely and compare them step by step 
 with the corn plant. In many points they will be 
 found strikingly similar, but in the production of 
 seed a strong difference is noted. The same sort 
 of study and comparison with the sorghum plant 
 may be found practicable. 
 
 The grasses may also be collected, especially 
 the more common, as timothy grass, blue grass, fox 
 tail, etc. Oats, wheat, and rye will also offer inter- 
 esting facts of structure and comparison. Reeds 
 and wild rice or tall slough grass give children 
 still further opportunity to observe the jointed 
 stems of which the corn is a good type. 
 
 The fall (September) is the best time of the 
 school year for the study of the corn as the plants 
 are then full grown though still green and devel- 
 oping. In the springtime, however, the germina- 
 
244 Special Method in Science. 
 
 tion of corn and other seeds should have been 
 studied previously. 
 
 It may be well also to call attention to the 
 corn plant as a peculiarly American plant, used 
 by the Indians, and known to the children, per- 
 haps, in the story of Hiawatha. Later on the 
 children will find that it has played a very im 
 portant role, not only among- the Indians, but 
 among the pioneers of most of the states. 
 
 It is well to have two or three full specimens 
 of the object studied in the class and to encour- 
 age the children in observing the corn and other 
 plants in the fields, to collect and bring in speci- 
 mens, to ask questions. 
 
 THE SUNFLOWER. 
 
 Visit a full-sized sunflower in the garden. 
 Measure the height, size, and number of the bios 
 soms. Examine the sunflower. What is the dif- 
 ference between the flowers which have gone to 
 seed and those which are in full blossom? Ex- 
 amine the seeds. What is the number of seeds 
 found in one head? Quarter a head and count. 
 Then estimate the number of seeds in the blossom. 
 This plant has forty heads or sunflower blossoms 
 containing altogether about 1,200 seeds. If these 
 were all planted in the field the next season how 
 many sunflowers could be raised? How do the 
 heads of the sunflower hang? As the seeds ripen 
 where do they fall? Examine the ground and see 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 245 
 
 if any seeds can be found. How long" has this 
 sunflower been growing" upon this spot? Does it 
 grow from year to year or does it spring^ up 
 from the seed in the early spring" time? How 
 many months has this plant been g"rowing? Do 
 you think that this large plant, eig"ht or ten feet 
 hig"h, has grown in a single season? How^ large 
 is the stalk at the bottom? Is it well rooted in 
 the ground? Can you mention any other plants 
 that grow to the size of the sunflower in a single 
 season? Examine more closely the fresh blossoms 
 of the sunflower. Does it consist of a separate 
 flower for each seed? How many flowers, there- 
 fore, are found upon a single head? Notice the 
 difference between the seeds on the edges of the 
 head and in the center. What other plants have 
 you noticed producing many seeds in a single 
 head? As for example, the dandelion, thistle, 
 aster? Where have you noticed sunflowers spring- 
 ing up in the early springtime? Are they planted 
 like corn and the grains, or do they spring up 
 without planting like weeds? Notice also, as the 
 season advances and as winter comes on, whether 
 the sunflower is killed by the frosts and what be- 
 comes of the seeds, w^hether they remain on the 
 heads or are scattered on the ground. If these 
 seeds lie in the ground in the winter time will 
 they be killed by the frosts? Of what use are 
 these seeds? Taste them and see if they are good 
 to eat. Do you know any animals or birds that 
 
246 Special Method in Science. 
 
 use them for food? Feed some of them to the 
 chickens, and pigeons, and turkeys, and ducks. 
 Possibly squirrels would eat them. Cut through 
 the stalk and examine the inner parts of the 
 stalk. Can you notice how the sunflower stalk 
 grows? How does it differ from the trees and 
 woody shrubs? Save up some of the sunflower 
 seeds and plant them in boxes and see if they will 
 grow. Examine a number of sunflower plants and 
 see what number of blossoms is upon different 
 ones, size of blossoms and number of seeds. Where 
 does the sunflower grow largest and best? Ex- 
 amine some of the wild flowers which resemble 
 the sunflower, and see if they are similar and in 
 what points they resemble the sunflower. It .will 
 be well, also, for the children to draw the full 
 sunflower plant on the blackboard or on paper 
 representing the branches and drooping heads. 
 Why do the heads droop so much in the latter 
 part of the season? 
 
 THE COnnON POTATO. 
 
 Secure a potato plant in June, about the time 
 when it flowers out and when the little potatoes 
 are setting. Dig up the plant with roots and 
 young potatoes and present it in the school as a 
 complete specimen. Before presenting the plant 
 to the children it may be well to ask them to de- 
 scribe it from memory and then later bring in the 
 plant with its blossoms, stem, and roots for more 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 247 
 
 accurate examination. When were the potatoes 
 planted in the g-round? Were they raised from the 
 seed or from something" else? Describe the plant- 
 ing". Describe, also, the growth of the young- 
 plants until they blossom out. In examining roots 
 and young potatoes notice whether they are alike, 
 whether the stems upon which the young pota- 
 toes grow are roots. Take off all the dirt and 
 examine the stems very closely and note carefully 
 the difference between the roots and the under- 
 ground stem. Will these little potatoes grow in 
 the ground if they are separated from the root? 
 Where does the little potato get its food by which 
 it grows larger? What is the business of the stem 
 and leaves of the potato vine during the summer 
 time? Where does the plant obtain food with 
 which it supplies the growing potatoes? What 
 sort of soil is best for their growth? What care 
 needs to be taken of the plant? What if weeds 
 and grass grow up in the potato hill? Examine 
 more closely the stem of the potato vine and 
 leaves. Notice shape and color. As soon as the 
 potatoes grow up to full size what becomes of the 
 vine? It may be said that the potato plant, in- 
 cluding roots, stem, and leaves, spends the whole 
 summer in collecting food and storing it away in 
 the potatoes, and when this work is done the vine 
 dies and the potatoes remain in the earth. If 
 these potatoes are left in the ground during the 
 winter, will they be destroyed or will they send 
 
248 Special Method in Science. 
 
 up new vines in the spring-? Examine the potato 
 blossom more closely and see if it has the same 
 parts as other blossoms— sepals, petals, pistil, 
 stamens. Do any of the blossoms develop into 
 seeds so that they may be planted in the spring- 
 and new potatoes raised from them? Examine 
 the larg-e potato and describe the eyes and tell 
 what they are for. 
 
 Do you know of any other plants that produce 
 fruit like the potato g-rowing- under g-round? Do 
 you find also that they have eyes from which new 
 plants g-row? What kind of food do the potatoes 
 contain that makes them valuable to man? Ex- 
 amine the sweet potato and compare it somewhat 
 closely with the common potato. 
 
 Does the potato vine have any enemies that 
 destroy it or prevent its g-rowth? Call to mind 
 the potato bug-s and how they destroy the plants. 
 Give a short account of the history of the potato 
 plant. How far north will it g-row? 
 
 THE HOUSE CAT. 
 
 Why is it that the house cat can see in the 
 nig-ht or in dark places? What have you noticed 
 as peculiar in the eyes of the cat? Is there any 
 difference in the cat's eyes at noon time or in 
 bright weather and in the dark or dark places? 
 Examine the cat's eyes at the window where there 
 Is plenty of lig-ht and after she has been in a dark 
 place, in the closet, for awhile. What difference 
 
Topics for Third Grade. 249 
 
 is noted? Is it possible to explain from this why 
 a cat can see better at night than we can? Can 
 the cat see in a place where there is no light, 
 where it is perfectly dark? Why does the cat re- 
 main so quiet and sleep so much in the day time? 
 Why are they so active and so wide awake at 
 night? 
 
 If a cat is pursued by a dog how does she es- 
 cape? How is she able to climb so quickly up 
 a tree? Examine her feet and claws. Why can 
 she climb so easily? Notice the cat and her feet. 
 What advantage have they? What difference be 
 tween the claws on the feet of a dog and those of 
 the cat? What kind of prey does the cat seek for? 
 Explain how the claws and the pads on her feet 
 are helpful to her in catching her prey. How does 
 the cat sharpen her claws? Of what advantage 
 are the whiskers to the cat as she moves about? 
 Do they help her in any way, and how? Why has 
 she such soft fur and of what advantage is it? As 
 the cat moves rapidly does she run or leap, and 
 why? As she tries to get away from the dog does 
 she run like the dog or does she spring? Examine 
 her muscles and her bones and see if you can tell 
 why she springs rather than runs. If a cat were 
 wild in the woods where would she live and make 
 her home? And what advantage would she hav^e 
 for catching her prey? How does the cat watch 
 and catch her prey and what sort of animals does 
 she watch for? Examine her teeth. What sort 
 
250 Special Method in Science. 
 
 of teeth has she and of what advantage are they? 
 If the cat were as large as a Newfoundland dog- 
 would it be safe to have her about? Have you 
 seen cats catching birds? If you have a pet bird 
 in the house is it safe to keep a cat? What effect 
 will the cats have upon the birds in the neighbor- 
 hood? Study the pictures and life of the wild- 
 cat, panther, and leopard. The study of the cat 
 is indispensable as a preparation for the study of 
 wild animals of the cat tribe. 
 
 SPRING PLANTS. 
 
 In the early springtime, when the first green 
 of plants begins to show itself, the children will 
 be interested in digging down into the ground 
 by the roadside or in pastures to find the root- 
 stalks from which the earliest plants spring; as, 
 for example, the plantain, dandelion, wild par- 
 snip, dock, rhubarb, etc. They will be surprised 
 to find what a strong root, well supplied with food 
 for the little plant, lies there in the ground sup- 
 porting the growth of the earliest spring shoots. 
 It will be worth the while to take the trouble to 
 dig down into the ground a foot or more to find 
 the full length of some of these root-stalks like the 
 dandelion and wild parsnip. What effect has the 
 cold and frost of winter upon these food-stalks? 
 Why do they come up first among the spring 
 plants? Can you tell how old they are, or how 
 many years they have been growing in the ground? 
 
Tcypics for Third Grade. 251 
 
 Let the children bring- in different specimens and 
 compare them together in the class. An excursion 
 should be made with the children for half an hour 
 or more with trowels or with spades. It will be 
 easy to collect half a dozen specimens upon one 
 of these short excursions which will serve for 
 another lesson in the school house. A second ex- 
 cursion along the same line will be a first trip to 
 the woods in spring-time to dig- up spring- beauties, 
 blood root, Solomon's seal, and other plants which 
 show an underground stem. Contrast with these 
 perennial plants those which come from seeds like 
 the corn, bean, pea, and many of our garden plants. 
 
 THE MOLE. 
 
 One of the common animals for study in the 
 third grade is the common mole which spoils our 
 lawns. How can it manage to live under ground 
 and be comfortable? Why should it prefer the 
 dark, damp earth to the freshness and light of 
 the upper world? Catch a ground mole and, tak- 
 ing him into the yard, see how quickly, when set 
 free, he works his way into the earth. How does 
 he do this? What organs does he use? Observe 
 his use of his snout and fore feet. How difficult 
 it is to pull him out of the ground when once he 
 has gotten firm hold. Examine his legs. How 
 does he manage to dig so rapidly? Note the dif- 
 ference between his front and hind legs and feet. 
 Why this difference? Do his front legs and feet 
 
252 Special Method in Science. 
 
 stand out in the same way from his body as the 
 squirrel's and cat's? Why are they different? No- 
 tice his claws and itiuscles. Why are his front 
 legs so short? 
 
 How does he manage to live under ground? 
 What does he eat? Examine the teeth. Put him 
 in a box with earth and see if he will eat vegeta- 
 bles or fish worms and grubs. Can he see dis- 
 tinctly? Examine his eyes. Why are his eyes so 
 small and scarcely noticeable? Describe his house 
 underground. Good accounts of these with dia- 
 grams, may be found in several of the books and 
 encyclopedias. He has several entrances to his 
 house which offer means of escape. What does 
 he do in the winter time when the ground is frozen? 
 Where does he raise his young? Do you think 
 that the ground mole is of much service to the 
 gardener or is he rather a hurtful animal doing 
 more damage than good? How can he get away 
 from his enemies? Who are his enemies, and how 
 can they capture him? Sometimes at night he 
 comes above the surface and is captured by owls 
 that pounce down upon him. Compare the ground 
 mole with the ground squirrel or gopher. Notice 
 the difference in their teeth, in their food, and in 
 their manner of life. Compare him also with the 
 rat and squirrel. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 253 
 
 TOPICS rOR rOURTH GRADE. 
 
 FALLTERn. 
 POND LIFE IN THE FALL. 
 
 Drag"on flies. Giant water bug-s. Mosquitoes. 
 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. Chap. IV on "Pond Life" is 
 exactU' the kind of a treatment desired for the teacher. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 17-37. 
 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. 131-136. 
 
 "School Zoology." Burnet. 95-98. 
 
 Bramford's "Up and Down the Brooks." 
 
 Consult the Appendix to Lang-e's "Handbook of Nature 
 Study'* for sugrgestions in regard to field work. 
 
 The study of a topic like pond life should ex- 
 tend throug-h the season. It furnishes great va- 
 riety of material, as water, insects, water birds, 
 water plants, trees, and fishes. It is a simple il- 
 lustration of a life group changing" from season to 
 season and yet having certain strong character- 
 istics, different from other g"roups. 
 
 See also "Recreations in Botany." Creevey. 
 Chapter IX. "Aquatic Plants." Published by Harper 
 Brothers. 
 
 THE BUTrERPRINT, COCKLE-BURR, MILK-WEED. AND OTHER 
 PALL WEEDS. 
 
 Study of pods and scattering of seeds. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang^e. pp. 195-199 and 
 58-69. 
 
 The number and variety of seed-pods found 
 among the fall weeds are of much interest. Let 
 
254 Special Method in Science. 
 
 the children bring" in specimens. On excursions 
 with the class to near places notice the abund- 
 ance of seeds with which the above plants are 
 supplied and how they scatter them. 
 
 * 'Recreations in Botany." Creevey. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. "Seeds and Fruits." 
 
 FALL OBSERVATION OF PLANTS AND TREES STUDIED IN THE 
 SPRING. 
 
 Wild flowers, maples, and birches, g"rape vine, 
 apple tree, seedlings. Continue also the bird 
 calendar. Notice the changes of growth in trees 
 and large plants and vines that have taken place 
 during the summer months. 
 
 For the summer months consult 
 Lang-e's "Handbook of Nature Study." Chapters IV 
 V, and VI. pp 44-71. 
 
 THE FERNS. 
 
 "Glimpses of the Plant W^orld." Berg-en. pp. 58-66. 
 "Elementary Biology."' Boyer. p. 140, 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 239-244. 
 "Little Flower People." Hale, pp. 66-78. 
 "Recreations in Botany." Creevey. Chapter XII. 
 
 Children should collect and replant specimens 
 obtained from their excursions to woods. Study 
 stems and leaves and compare with the tree-ferns 
 of the hot-house and of tropical lands. Observe 
 modes of prox^agation. Compare with the com- 
 pound leaves of locust, sumac, and others. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 25 > 
 
 THE MORNING GLORY. 
 
 This is for full and prolonged examination. 
 Compare, also, with other climbing plants. 
 
 ••How Plants Grow." Gray. pp. 10-17. 
 
 "A Few Familiar Flowers.'' Morley. pp. 1-104. 
 
 ''How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 182-188. 
 
 Mrs. Morley's book contains half a dozen top- 
 ics on plants completely worked out and will be 
 of great aid to intermediate teachers. Take the 
 children to see the vines and flowers and supply 
 plenty of material for observation. It is easily 
 obtained. Notice the insects that frequent the 
 blossoms. 
 
 THE GOLDENROD. 
 
 Stem, root, and flowers. A forest of golden- 
 Tod. Insect visitors. Bees, moths, butterflies, 
 and beetles. Tenants in and upon the goldenrod. 
 
 See 'Outdoor Studies." Needham. pp. 29-46. An ex- 
 cellent study. 
 
 Review in this study the compound flowers of 
 the previous fall. 
 
 "Recreations Ib Botany." Creevey. Chapter VII. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, p. 28. 
 
 THE FOREST IN THE PALL. 
 
 The oak 
 
 The hickory. 
 
 The walnut. 
 
 The maple. 
 
 "Trees of the Northern U. S." Apgrar. Chaps. I to IV. 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." Matthews, pp. 
 143-171; also, pp. 219-237. 
 
256 Special Method in Science. 
 
 "A Reader in Botany." Newell, pp. 72-83. 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. 127-137. 
 Review the blossoming of trees in spring*. 
 "Stories of tiie Trees." Mrs. Dyson. 
 
 THE OWL, THE HAWK, AND THE EAQLE. 
 
 "Birds of Village and Field." Florence A. Merriam. 
 pp. 287-294. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. pp. 268-273. 
 
 "Bird Life." Chapman, pp. 116-132. 
 
 "Inmates of My House and Garden." Brightwen. pp. 
 75-82. 
 
 "In Birdland." Keyser. pp. 135-140. 
 
 Apg-ar's "Birds of the U. S." for general reference and 
 a manual for identification. 
 
 The birds of prey are striking- examples of 
 adaptation of org-ans to use, as the beak, talons, 
 eyes, muscles, structure, and feathers. Even the 
 stuffed specimens help g^reatly to appreciate these 
 points. Recall in pioneer histories the contact of 
 the settlers with wild birds. 
 
 ' 'A Naturalist's Rambles About Home. " Abbott. "Owls, '* 
 chapter XXV. 
 
 THE OX. AND BUFFALO, AND DEER. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 101-109; 278- 
 285. 
 
 "Animal Life in Sea and on Land." Cooper, pp. 358-367. 
 
 The fuller study of the ox, its food, teeth, cud, 
 stomach, and habits in the field should be made 
 the basis of a grouping- of all the ruminants. The 
 study of the buffalo and deer must be mostly from 
 pictures, descriptions, and stories of their life in 
 
Topics fur Fourth Grade. 257 
 
 nature. But with a g"ood basis of experience in 
 the cow and sheep and by contrast with other 
 animals this may be made profitable and scien- 
 tific. 
 
 THE BAT. 
 
 "Longman's Object Lessons." pp. 199-201. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 76-78. 
 
 "Zoolog"ical Sketches." Oswald. Chapter V, p. 114. 
 Specimens may be secured for study in almost 
 any locality. The striking features of elongated 
 and webbed wing^s are of special interest. The 
 combination of bird and mouse is at once noticed 
 and the peculiar adaptation of wings, teeth, claws, 
 and the folding of the parts should be closely ob- 
 served. Compare, also, with the webbed feet of 
 birds, the wings of flying squirrels, the wings of 
 chickens and birds. Notice the teeth and food. 
 
 THE BLACKBIRD.- (Continued.) 
 
 The collection, migrations of blackbirds in 
 the fall, in flocks. Their roosting places; their 
 flight into the fields for food at daybreak and re- 
 turn at evening. Their final departure for the 
 south. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 29-32. 
 
 "In Birdland." Keyser. pp. 64-86. 
 
 "Bird Life." Chapman, pp. 48-61, and 170-172. 
 
 "Nature Study for Elementary Grades." Wilson, pp. 
 190-193. 
 
 "News from the Birds." Keyser. pp. 138-149. 
 
 "A Naturalist's Rambles About Home." Abbott. Chap- 
 ter XIII. 
 
 "Bird Ways." Miller, pp. 93-109. 
 
258 Special Method in Science. 
 
 THE COTTON PLANT. 
 
 Show specimens of the cotton boll, seeds and 
 fibre. Cotton clothing, its kinds and uses. Com- 
 pare it with woolen clothing*. 
 
 See "A Reader in Botany." Newell, pp. 12-23. 
 
 "The Plant World." Vincent, pp. 198-200. 
 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 113-llt 
 
 WINTER TERM. 
 HARDWOOD TREES IN WINTER. 
 
 "Trees of the Northern U. S." Apg-ar. pp. 29-34. 
 
 "A Reader in Botany." Newell, pp. 72-83. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lan^e. pp. 127-137. 
 
 "Stories of the Trees." Mrs. Dyson. Chapters I, II, III, 
 X, and XIII. 
 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." Mathews, pp. 219- 
 237. 
 
 "The Oak." Ward. 
 
 Notice the condition of trees in winter. Prep- 
 arations for the next year. Make an excursion 
 to the woods in winter to identify trees by bark^ 
 trunk, branching, twigs, and location. 
 
 COAL AND ITS FORMATION. 
 
 "Coal and Coal Mines." Homer Green. 
 "The Story of a Piece of Coal." Martin. 
 "First Book in Geolog-y." Shaler. pp. 46-55. 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 136-138. 
 "The Fairy Land of Science." Buckley. Lecture VIIL 
 pp. 171-192. 
 
 "Town Geolog-y." King-sley. Chap. 4. pp. 117-160. 
 The Earth and Its Story." Heilprin. pp. 226-230. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 259 
 
 Bring" in specimens of fossil leaves and plants 
 embedded in the coal. Locate the place of the 
 coal measures in g"eological history. Describe the 
 process of coal formation. Connect with the les- 
 sons on the coal mine in g-eography. 
 
 FRESH AIR AND VENTILATION. 
 
 Let this be treated as a house topic. Use the 
 ventilation of the scliool room as an illustration 
 The constituents of the air, oxyg^en, nitrogen, and 
 carbonic acid. 
 
 "Lessons on Elementarj' Science " Salmon. 138-140. 
 "Applied rhysiolog-y."' Overton, pp. 92-103. 
 
 The hyg-iene of fresh air. 
 
 The lungs and fresh air. Changes in the lungs 
 in breathing. 
 
 See Blaisdell's "How to Keep Well." Chapter VIII. 
 
 THE EVERGREEN FOREST. 
 
 Scotch pine, hemlock, arbor vitae, southern 
 pine, red wood, forests of the north and south. 
 
 See "Stories of the Trees.* Mrs. Dyson. Chapters 
 XX-XXI. 
 
 "The White Pine." Pindert & Graves. A small book 
 published by the Century Co. 
 
 "Recreations in Botany." Creevey. Chapter X. 
 
 Examine the clusters of evergreens in the 
 neighborhood. Notice the withering of the lower 
 limbs. 
 
 The rookeries for crows and winter birds. 
 
 Describe the northern pineries and contrast 
 with hard wood forests. 
 
260 Special Method in Science. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Evaporation. 
 Water as a solvent. Vapor, steam. Life in water. 
 Springs and under-ground water. 
 
 "One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study." Payne, pp. 
 106-8. 
 
 "The Fairy Land of Science." Buckley. Lecture IV. 
 pp. 72-98. 
 
 "The Great World's Farm." Gaye. Chapter VIII. pp. 
 90-104. Seeley & Co. 
 
 "The World of Matter." Ballard. Chapters I-IV. D. C. 
 Heath & Co. 
 
 Pure water for drinking. Surface contamina- 
 tions. How pure water is obtained. Filtering. 
 Distilling. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Ore. Qualities of pure iron. Kinds of iron. 
 Steel. Qualities of steel. Collect specimens. 
 
 "Nature Study." Payne, pp. 126-7. 
 "The World of Matter." Ballard. Chapter XVIIL pp. 
 165-170. 
 
 "The Earth and its Story." Heilprin. pp. 215-220. 
 
 Heat iron and show its qualities. 
 
 Compare with lead already studied-. 
 
 Rusting of iron. 
 
 Various uses of iron. 
 
 Call to mind the blast furnace from the geog- 
 raphy studies and the manner of making pig iron, 
 its uses, etc. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 261 
 
 KIN05 OF ROCKS. 
 
 Pebbles, fossils, shells. 
 
 "Guides for Science Teaching^." Hyatt. No. XII. and 
 No. I. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 177-183. 
 
 Bring in specimens of lime stone, sand stone, 
 pebbles, flint, granite, marble, slate, and tell 
 where they come from. 
 
 Notice the action of the weather upon lime 
 stones, marbles, and other building stone. 
 
 See, also, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wil- 
 son, pp. 254-256. 
 
 THE BLUE JAY. 
 
 The blue jay is one of the most common and 
 interesting of our winter birds and can be watched, 
 or at least occasionally observed in winter. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 265-6. 
 "Inmates of my House and Garden," by Brightwen. pp. 
 105-113. 
 
 "Birds Throug-h an Opera Glass." Merriam. pp. 69-75 
 
 THERMOMETER AND BAROMETER. 
 
 Work upon thermometers and barometers* 
 should be illustrated by experiment. Children 
 should learn to read understandingly these in- 
 struments. This topic is closely connected with 
 the topic of temperature, heat, and cold. 
 
 "Elementary Meteorology." Waldo, pp. 31-42. 
 
 "Longman's Object Lessons." Salmon, pp. 174-178. 
 
262 Special Method in Science. 
 
 HYACINTH. LATE WINTER. 
 
 See Marg-aret Morley's "A Few Familiar 
 Flowers. " This is a very suitable study for late 
 winter. Get the bulb's. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 96-98. 
 
 Compare with the onion and tulip. 
 Keep specimens g-rowing- in the school windows 
 and later in spring transplant to school p^arden. 
 
 SPONGES. 
 
 Specimens of different kinds of spong-es should 
 be examined in the class, and pictures, descrip- 
 tions of sponge fisheries should be examined. 
 
 "Guide for Science Teaching-." Hyatt, No. III. 
 ''Animal Life in Sea and on Land." Cooper, pp. 1-11, 
 "Living Creatures of Water, Land, and Air." Monteith. 
 pp. 11-17. 
 
 THE MUSKRAT AND BEAVER. 
 
 Muskrat houses. Examine the muskrat to see 
 if he is fitted for life in the water. Notice feet 
 and fur, teeth and food. How is he caught by 
 trappers? Feel of the pelt and see if it is valu- 
 able as fur. 
 
 Describe the home and habits of the beaver. 
 Notice also the teeth and their use as compared 
 with the squirrel, rabbit, rat, mouse. 
 
 "Animal Life in Sea and on Land." Cooper, pp. 387-390 
 "Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 104-107. 
 "A Naturalist's Rambles About Home." Abbott. Chap- 
 ter X 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 263 
 
 SPRING TERH. 
 WILD DUCK AND WILD GOOSE. 
 
 The study of the wild duck and the wild ^oose 
 as types of water birds is one of the best chances 
 for noticing the adaptation of organs to a peculiar 
 mode of lite. The use of the feathers and down, 
 the webbed feet, flat bill, the shape of the body, 
 the muscles, and bony structures at every point 
 show marvelous adaptation. The contrast with 
 other kinds of birds, as the perchers and warblers, 
 will bring out more plainly this peculiar fitness 
 for water life. 
 
 "Bird Life." Chapman, pp. 92-94. 
 
 WOOD-FLOWERS IN SPRING. 
 THE SPRING BEAUTY. 
 
 "How to Study Plants." Wood. pp. 39-44, 60-64, 229-232, 
 246-249. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lang-e. p. 153. 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." pp. 229-235. 
 
 Excursions to the woods for specimens of 
 spring- beauty, jack-in-the-pulpit, bloodroot, he- 
 patica, violets, Solomon's seal, etc., should be 
 made. If taken up with the dirt, the roots and 
 tubers can be observed or they may be trans- 
 planted into the school garden. 
 
 5PRING BIRDS. 
 
 Catbird, brown thrush, the meadow-lark and 
 the quail, and the bobolink. 
 
264 Special Method in Science. 
 
 Observe the birds along- the hedg-es and in the 
 meadows, their song", colors, nests. 
 
 "Birds Throug-h an Opera Glass." Merriam. pp. 40-42. 
 "Birds of Villag-e and Field." Merriam. p. 37. 
 
 INSECT LIFE IN THE ORCHARD. 
 
 The orchard furnishes a g-ood life g^roup for 
 study in the spring-time. Notice the insects upon 
 grass and trees. Also the birds. The insects 
 visiting- the blossoms. 
 
 Observe the eg-g-s and larvae of one of the ap- 
 ple tree moths as it develops. Compare it with 
 the butterfly. 
 
 An excellent series of studies upon orchard 
 insects is given in: 
 
 "Insect Life," by Comstock. Chapter VI. pp. 166-185. 
 
 The following chapter treats of forest life in 
 a similar way. 
 
 nusHROons. 
 
 "Glimpses of the Plant World." Bergen. Chapter IV. 
 "Hand Book of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 248-250. 
 
 Collect specimens and notice their structure. 
 Observe where they grow and when they spring 
 up. Have they roots? Do they come from seeds? 
 Observe also the colors, sizes, and length of life. 
 Learn to distinguish between the poisonous and 
 edible mushrooms. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 265 
 
 THE BUTTERFLY. 
 
 "Frail Children of the Air." Samuel Hubbard Scudder. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. pp. 199-204. 
 
 "Elementary Lessons in Zoology." Needham. pp. 36- 
 42 and 86-93. 
 
 "Insect Life." Comstock. pp. 245-254. , 
 
 "Living Creatures in Water, Land, and Air. Monteith. 
 pp. 108-112. 
 
 "Boys and Girls in Biology." Stevenson, pp. lo4-186. 
 
 "School Zoology." Burnet, pp. 101-106. 
 
 Scudder's "The Milkweed Butterfly." Henry Holt & 
 Co. Whole book. 
 
 Study the life history of one or two butterflieg. 
 Make collections. Work out the chief stages of 
 the metamorphosis. Compare with grasshopper, 
 mosquito, dragonfly, and other insects previously 
 studied. 
 
 CLOUDS AND RAIN. 
 
 "Elementary Meteorology." Wald6. pp. 118-124 and 
 142-146. 
 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 153-155. 
 
 ^'Lessons on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 141-142- 
 
 "Elementary Lessons in Physical Geog^raphy." Geikie. 
 Chapter II. pp. 38-83. 
 
 "The Story of the Atmosphere." Douglas Archibald. 
 Chapters VII and VIII. pp. 108-24. 
 
 "The Ocean of Air." Giberne. Part III. pp. 155-208. 
 
 Study causes of dew, clouds, rain, evaporation, 
 and condensation. 
 
 See also "Elementary Lessoi^s in Physical Geography." 
 Geikie. Lesson X. pp. 64-102. 
 
266 Special Method in Science. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 The tobacco plant. 
 
 The use of tobacco and its evil effects, espe- 
 cially upon the young*. Nicotine. 
 
 History of the use of tobacco. 
 "Applied Physiolog-y." Overton, pp. 44-48. 
 "Lesson on Elementary Science." Salmon, pp. 124-125. 
 
 Connect with the g^eography lessons on tobacco. 
 
 AN AQUARIUM AND FISHE5— SUN FISH, PERCH, BASS, ETC. 
 
 How to keep an aquarium. 
 
 "Nature Studies for Elementary Schools." Wilson, pp. 
 116-121. 
 
 Let the children observe and find out how to 
 take care of fishes, food, kind of water, organs, 
 as fins, g'ills, and eyes. Movements of the fish in 
 water. Their egg's and young. 
 
 "Elementary Biolog-y." Boyer. p. 53-68. 
 
 "Long-man's "Object Lessons," pp. 204-5. 
 
 "Handbook of Nature Study." Lange. 295-298. 
 
 "Elementary Lessons in Zoolog-y." Needham. pp. 160- 
 178. 
 
 "School Zoology." Burnet. 136-144. 
 
 "Nature Study." Payne, pp. 81-85. 
 
 The following- list for third and fourth grades 
 consists of larger and more expensive books than 
 those given in the introduction to the third grade: 
 but they are excellent books for the teacher and 
 for teachers' libraries. 
 
 "Insect Life." An introduction to nature study, by John 
 Henry Comstock. D. Appleton &, Co. 
 
Topics for Fourth Grade. 2G7 
 
 "Birds of Villagfe and Field." A book for beginners, by 
 Florence A. Merriam. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "In Birdland." Keyser. A. C. McClurg & Co. 
 
 "Bird Life." A guide to the study of our common birds, 
 by Frank M. Chapman. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Familiar Trees and Their Leaves." F. Schuyler Mat- 
 thews. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "The Ocean of Air." Agnes Giberne. Educational 
 Publishing Co. 
 
 "Frail Children of the Air." Samuel Hubbard Scudder. 
 Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
 
 "Butterflies." Their structure, changes, and life his- 
 tories, by Samuel H. Scudder. Henry Holt & Co. 
 
 "Inmates of My House & Garden." Mrs. Brightwen. 
 The Macmillan Co. 
 
 "Romance of the Insect World," L. N. Badenoch. The 
 Macmillan Co. 
 
 "News From the Birds." Keyser. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 "Animal life in the Sea and on the Land." Cooper. 
 American Book Co. 
 
 "Recreations in Botany." C.Creevey. Harper Brothers. 
 
 "The Stories of the Trees." Mrs. Dyson. Thomas Nel- 
 son & Sons. 
 
 "The Oak." Ward. D. Appleton «& Co. 
 
 "The Fairy-Land of Science." Buckley. D. Appleton 
 &Co. 
 
 "A Naturalist's Rambles About Home." Abbott. D. Ap- 
 pleton & Co. 
 
 "Elementary Biology." Boyer. D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Most of the publishing companies have offices in Chi- 
 cago, except Thomas • Nelson & Sons, N. Y.; Harper 
 Brothers, N. Y.: Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y. Any of 
 these books can be ordered from The Public School Pub- 
 lishing Company, Bloomiogton, 111. 
 
flDcflDurr^'s BooF^s for tTeacbers. 
 
 ¥¥¥ 
 McMurry*s General flethod. 
 
 Is a book of 224 pages, neatly bound in cloth. It discusses, In a clear and 
 Interesting manner, the general principles of education and instruction. Dr. 
 Charles A. McMurry should be classed among the American students of Her- 
 bart; he studied the system of that great educator in Germany, after an ex^ 
 perience in the schools of America that made him familiar with their needs, 
 and with the characteristics of American thought. The price of the new edi- 
 tion is 75 cents. 
 
 The Method of the Recitation. 
 
 By Dr. Chas. A. McMurry and Dr. Frank M. McMurry. 
 
 This follows the General Method as a sequel. It is planned to show the 
 working out in the class recitation of the principles discussed in the General 
 Method. After a short introduction, a series of class lessons in different studies 
 is given in full as a basis for a practical discussion of recitation work. 
 
 It is a volume of 319 pages, bound in full cloth. Price, $i.oo. 
 
 Special Method in Reading:. 
 
 This book of 137 pages, by Dr. Charles A. McMurry, treats of the subject 
 of Reading in all the grades below the High School. 
 In full cloth, price, 40 cents. 
 
 Special Method in Literature and History. 
 
 In this little book of 114 pages. Dr. McMurry proceeds to the application of 
 the principles developed in the General Method, to the teaching of Literature 
 and History in the eight grades of the grammar school course. For the 
 three lower grades, he treats of the Fairy Stories, Myths, Robinson Crusoe, and 
 similar literature. For fourth and fifth grades, he develops the method of 
 using Pioneer History Stories; and then he treats of the teaching of history in 
 each of the three higher grades. Bound in cloth, price, 35 cents. 
 
 Special Method in Geography. 
 
 Dr. McMurry's theory of the teaching of Geography is that pupils must 
 first become thoroughly acquainted with some geographical topics which mav 
 stand as "type-studies," to be a key for subsequent acquisitions. Hence, he ex- 
 plains pretty fully the study of home geography, plans of excursions, etc. 
 The closing chapter presents the method of class-room work. 
 
 Revised edition, 202 pages, full cloth, 50 cents 
 
 Special Method in Science in the Lower Grades. 
 
 By Dr. Chas. A. McMurry. 
 
 This is a book of 267 pages, bound in full cloth. The first sixty- five pages 
 are devoted to a presentation of the aims of science teaching in the grades, and 
 the method to be pursued. Following this are full instructions to teachers how 
 to prepare themselves for teaching science, and a list of the books that will be 
 most helpful to them. Then follow 124 pages of Illustrative Lessons in which 
 the method of teaching several of the domestic animals and some trees, plants, 
 insects, birds, and animals, is carefully worked out for the first four grades, 
 by Mrs. Lida B. McMurry, who has great skill in teaching these subjects to 
 children. 
 
 Price, 50 cents, in full cloth binding. 
 
 Course of Study in the Ei^ht Grades. 
 
 In this book of 153 pages. Dr. Charles A. McMurry presents an outline for 
 each of the eight grades, based upon what is actually done in the Training 
 Schools of the Illinois Normal University. This is a course of study arranged 
 80 as to realize in the actual work of the school the theory of the correlation of 
 the common school branches as set forth in the educational writings of Herbart. 
 
 In flexible covers, 40 cents; price, in full cloth, 50 cents. 
 
 Liberal discounts to the trade and on orders for teacaers' classes for all 
 books. Send for catalog of other books for teachers, and books for children. 
 
 PUBLIC-SCHEOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY,- 
 
 Blooxnington, Illinois. 
 
YB 3528 
 
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