-NRLF J 7 tflartin |UlI0gg. LIBRARY OF THE ^University of California. IRCULATIHG BRANCH. S 6 ! ft* u Return in two weeks ; or a week before the end of the term, \ THE INSTITUTES ENGLISH GRAMMAR, METHODICALLY ARRANGED; WITH EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, FALSE SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, A KEY TO THE OEAL EXERCISES: TO WHICH ARE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES, DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATB LEARNERS. BY GOOLD BROWN, PRINCIPAL OF AN ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL ACADEMY, NEW YORK. Nc quls igitur tanquam parva fastidiat Grammatioes olementa. QUINTILIA STEREOTYPE EDITION, REVISED BY THE AUTHOR. NEW YORK: SAMUEL S. & WILLIAM WOOD, 261 PEARL STREET. 1855. ,8** Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1351, BY GOOLD BROWN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. PREFACE. enim aut aliena vituperare, nut noatrajactantiugpr&dicare, animus cst. ); i LANGUAGE is the principal vehicle of thought ; and so numerous and important ai'e the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner the affairs ojChuman society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will ever entitle it to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and to au important place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation to its origin whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry a natural endowment, or an artificial invention, certain -it is, thai, in tho present state of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entire- ly, on the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities atlbrd- ed us. One may indeed acquire, by mure imitation, such a knowledge of words, trs to enjoy the ordinary advantages of speech ; and he who is satisfied with the dialect he has so obtained, will find no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is Jesirous either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or of expressing his sentiments with propriety and ease, must make the principles of language his study. 2. It is not the business of the grammarian to give law to language, but to tench it agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed and with which his instructions must always accord, is that species of custom which critics denominate GOOD USE ; that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, which is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to the quaint peculiarities of ancient usage, Is the only proper standard of grammatical purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority may be called the Institutes of Grammar. 3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language , to express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth ; to illustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises; and to give to the whole all possible advantage from method in the arrangement ; are the objects of the following work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most ap- proved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design 10 introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial : Dut to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect ; and amendment may be desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known ; and has contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of incul- cating them. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines anew; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to oiler, o.'i that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical know!c(ij:\ The errors of former grammarians he has been more studious to a void than to evpo-r and of their deficiencies the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they arts here supplied. 5. This treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to all classes of learners, was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of Engrish Grammar, disencumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the sub- 'Pri. Little regard has therefore been paid togainsaycrs. Grammarian^ haw: everdis- omed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt most in phuological controversy, rune well illustrated the couplet of Denham: "The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 282644 IV PREFACE. 6. They who set aside the authority of custom, and jurige every thing to be ungram maticnl which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the no- tions ot" this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which lonf use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is mani- festly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to in- vent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovators. 7. While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing that the learning of nges won Id give place to their whimsical theories; others, with more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by- abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compendsthus introdu- ced into our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more extensive and more permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord Bacon oil- serves, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious. 8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in works of this sort; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned and popular of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and write for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language. ( J. All science is (aid in the nature of things ; and he only who seeks it there, can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his pre- decessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had eyes to see them ! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsupport- ed by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship which has produced so many grammars without originality'? Shall he who cannot write for himself, improve upon him who can 1 It is not deference to merit, but im pudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance ! Commonness alone exempt* it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worthlessnfss! To read and be informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learn- ing; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criti- cisms, is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man. 10. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professed- v --is me subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seen, that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and neatnt'-s of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unwor- thy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. B*U these, ior an obvious reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of success : and even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced a-n ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to further la hour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate fora reward ; and to those who were best qualified to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive tor diligence. 11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with aiost of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the ob- jects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements here offered, are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to depreciate the labours, or to detract from the merits of those who have gone before him and taught with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. For his own information, he has carefully perused more than fifty English grammars, and has glanced over many others that were not worth reading. With this publication in view, he has also resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has seen and heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some dili- gence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. 12. His progress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with la- bour and difficulty, Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the varioui treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complica ted a subject, he has after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explana- PREFACE. V lions which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate object the production of a practical school gtainmar. 13 Ambitious of making not a large but an acceptable book, he has compressed Into this volume the most essential p:irts of a mass of materials from which he could as easily have formed a folio. Whether the toil ho compensated or not, is a matter of little consequence; he has neither written for bread, nor built castles iu the air. He is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge any confident anticipations of success ; yet he will not deny that his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of the following p:iges. A grammar should speak for itself, lo a work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performan:e to the understanding and taste of the skilful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it Yet if some small errors have escaped detection, let it be recollected that It is -timoar impossible to print with perfect accuracy a work of this size, in which so man, little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. T'tere i* 110 human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes balile, and mini.'ienes* sometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject; biU there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason al la- ring. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome, and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar ; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever imi- tate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. 14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several parts, with notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned them. The examples of false syntax placed under the rules, are to be corrected oral- ly ; tiie four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subject, are to be written out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author has been studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those only which were very short. He has, in general, reduced each example to a single line. And, in this manner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a series of exercises, more various than are given in any other grammar, arid nearly equal in Dumber to all that are contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed that agmw eadily applied.) Oral instruction may smoothe the way, labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. lS T or will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult ; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory, and strength- en all the faculties of the mind. 16. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- ample, rule and praxis ; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. The book itself will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise what it teaches; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest and most efficient method of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, however learn ed, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 17. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or tvrite a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember that graimnnr is the art of speaking and " 'iMng well ; an art which can no more be acquired without practise than that of da..< - \g or swimming. And each should be careful to perform his part handsomely w.nout drawling, omitting, stopping, hesita- ting, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquo- ting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand iaults which render utterance disagree- able and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and tho system will be found well calculated to effect that object; because it demands of hu.i, not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical appli- cation of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable reader*, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much ; and. hi general, he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend tueir rehearsals ; give r ?J PREFACE. the word to the next, when any one errs ; and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually correct the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 13. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of Kymol- ogy, and is carried on progressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are applica- ble to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are utter- ing ; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a schoolboy's conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation; and is therefore an exercise \rcll calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary speech a species of elocution as valuable as any other. 19. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill in practice ; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil which the most effectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering ignorance. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument ; nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of disci- pline. There is so much to be done, in order to elfect what is desirable in the man- agement of these things; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympa- thize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us th*t he had "always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of .earning were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy." Pref. to Minerva. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral ; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Chris tian poet : "Sacred Interpreter of human thought, How few respect or use thee as they ought!" Cowper. 20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the un thinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meanin? of words, raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skilfully managed, where teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may be effected by means of a better book, if a better can be introduced. And what with- stands ? Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this, as well as to ninny a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, Muha non sunt sicut mult.is videntur Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal them- selves from the common mind ; and the appeal to reason and just f -Minority is often frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficul- ties : multiplicity perplexes choice ; inconvenience attends change; improvement re- quires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles of the science are unpro itably disputed ; the end is often divorced from the means; and much that belies the title, has been published under the name. 21. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the im nortant exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written, or so M'-jrliuently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little ehe than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used with his grammar ; but he made the examples iu ;he former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar with- out them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also misplaced ; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly igno- rant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we can- not think it a Ugnt objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, are badly writ- ten cNor does the objection lie against this writer only: Jib uno disco omneg. But the reader mtw demand some illustrations. PREFACE. Vll 22. First Irom his etymological parsing : " O Virtue ! how amiable thou art !" Here his form for the word Virtue is " Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- der, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case." It should have been " Virtue is a common noun, personified proper, of the second person, sin- gular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." And, then the definitions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becomes an Individual ; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct contradiction to what he says of the word, in his section on gender ; he gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou ; he repeats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless prepositions, making them dif- ferent where the relation is precisely the same : and all this, in a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties of the noun Virtue! But, in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to be regularly and rapidly re hearsed by the pupil, till all of them are perfectly familiar, and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what is true or false in the description of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits ; arid, on account of this omis- sion, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably deficient. 23. Secondly from his syntactical parking : " Vice degrades us." Here his form for the word Vice is " Vice is a common substantive, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case." Now, when the learner is told that this is the syn- tactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely to omit the gcndei this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological ? Never. Rut Murray, and all who admire, and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves making a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the ex- ercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said " Vice is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case : and is the subject of degrades ; according to the rule which says. ' A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case. Because the meaning is vice degrades." This is the whole description of the word, with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 24. Thirdly from his "mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences: 'The man is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence is incorrect ; because which is a pro- noun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antecedent man, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, &.c. accord- ing to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should therefore be who, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man; and the sentence should stand thus : 'The man is prudent who speaks little.' " Again: " ' After I visited Europe, I returned to Ameri- ca.' This sentence is not correct ; because the verb visited is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense visited should therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of visiting, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of returning. The sentence corrected would stand thus : * After I had visit- ed Europe, I returned to America.' " These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, In his improved, recopy-righted edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false ! In the former, truly, which should be who ; but not because which is of the neuter gender ; but because the application of that relative to persons, is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or fe male, we commonly use which, and never who? But if which must needs be neuter, the world is wrong in this. As for the latter example, it i* right as it stands : and the correction is, in some sort, tautological. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the other, and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. " After 1 visited Europe," is equivalent to " Whsn \ had visited Europe." The whole argument is therefore void. 2,'i. These few brief illustrations, out-of thousands that might be adduced in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treat ed with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be sup- posed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such hooka as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And whil, in resj>ect to grammar, the evidence* of failure are constantly inducing changes from one system to an other, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to rnd in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an experien ced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require. 26. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of da tails to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may *xprss them with neatness and perspicuity their importance alone can commend TIU PREFACE. them to notice. Yet, in drawin-g his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment, or relieve the dulness of minute instruction. Such examples have beeu taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following 1 pages. 27. The moral elfect of early lessons being u point of the utmost importance, it is es- pecially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intel- lectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation ol any principle which may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they in- struct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader: and, of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages with a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what is copied and what is original. All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily similar. The doctrines of the work are, for the mo.st part, expressed in his own Ian guage, and illustrated by that of others. Where authority was requisite, names have been inserted ; and in general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, are marked with guillemots, to distinguish them from the main text ; while, to al- most every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or refer- ence is added. In the exercises for correction, "few references have been given ; be- cause it Is no credit to any author to have written bad English. But the intelligent reader will recognize as quotations* a large portion of the examples, and know from what works they are taken. To the schoolboy this knowledge is neither important nor interesting. 29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, and have been printed under so many names, that it is diiricult, if not Impossible, to know to whom they originally belonged. Of these the author has freely availed him- self, though seldom without some amendment; while he has carefully abstained froni^ every thin" on which he supposed there could now be any individual claim. He has therefore ifewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are re- puted to have written with sufficient originality on the subject. 30. In truth, not a line has here been copied with any view to save the labour of com- position ; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which the writer pro|K)sed to himself. And though the theme is not one upon which a man may hope to write well with little reflection, it is true, that the parts of this treatise which have cost him the most labour, are those which " consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the ancient gramma rians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much Lave the makers of our modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their, readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many Shrase^s and sentences either original or anonymous will therefore be found among the lustrations of the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would de- mand for every thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous exam pies are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them ; and elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 31. The author is well aware that no writer on grammar has any right to propose himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common prop erty of ail who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defi- nitions and rules. " Since the matter of which we are treating,'' says the philologist of Salamanca, " is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none oufjht to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of greatmen ; for, with what- ever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, ' Grammarians are the guardians, not the au- thors, of language.' " Minerva, Lib. i. Cap. il. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar ne-ed nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay. it would seem an inju- rious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what can- not but be evident to all who speak the language. 32. Among men of the same profession, there js an unavoidable rivalry, so far as they become competitors for the same prize ; but .in competition there is nothing dis honourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who nas the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology ; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of havir.g " done all that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science ot Knglimi grammar, must claim to icnow more of tho nrmtt&r than the generality of Kng PREFACE. U lish grammarians ; and he who begins with saving that "little can be expected" from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respecta- bly on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man Will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be accept- ed and honoured under the name. 33. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical authorship has been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a serv- ing-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, even fur an Indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excel- lence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a professed compiler ; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, that, under tne wing of such authority, many writers have sprung up to improve upon thismo^t happy design ; while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempt- ing any thing like a complete grammar of our language 1 What moiive shall excite a man to long continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bnng his " most useful mutter" before the world under better auspices ? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself red nce-d to an "humble drudge" *>r, like Peiizo- nius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar 1 34. The first edition of this work was published in 1823 ; since which time, (within the space of nine years,) thirty or forty new compends, mostly professing to be ab- stracts of Murray with improvements, have been added to our list of English gram- mars. The author has examined twenty-seven of them, and seen advertisements of perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be variously estimated ; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of little 01 no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion For which reason he would have been inclined entirely* to disregard the petty depre- dations which the writers of several of them have committed upon the following di- gest, were it not possible that by such a frittering-awayof his work he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the production of these Institutes far mo*e has been done for the grammar of our language, than any single hand had before achieved within the limits of a school-book, and that with perfect fairness to- wards other writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whatever else may befall ; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish ua der his name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern ; but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitudo to complete a work of pub- lic utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nordis- Jutable, it Is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to now what is, or is not, original. Dates must bo accurately observed. Many things must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is per- sonally interested 1 Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up fot them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are ade- quate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth ; and, even of some things within their reach, the majority seem content to take their opin- ions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will be every where preferred ; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appre ciated. But common sense might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 36. The real history of grammar is little known; and many erroneous Impressions are entertained concerning it: because the story of the systems most generally receiv- ed, has never been fully told; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying : *' Unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance ; but from him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into the account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity. 37. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than Lily and Murray A la\v p k I PREFACE. was made in England by Henry the Eighth, commanding Lily's grammar " only everywhere to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt in changing of schoolo maisters." Pref. to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by means of a special in quiry directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, (" because," says one of the patentees, "he had so considerable a hand in the composition,") was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. (See Ward's Preface to the book, 1793) Ana o' tne other half, history inci dentally tells, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Gram- mar, London, 177, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says: "The Italians in a short lime brought it to th*rt perfection, that in the beginning of the year H74, they east a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age ; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th. cf January, 1474 ; from tekom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his grammar, and transcribed ned them ! 39. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempt- ed no broad innovation on what had been previously taught ; for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he f Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital ; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicu- ity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair; and it requires no ereat critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling Are the same as Walker's: the third one, how- ever, is a gross blunder ; and the fourth, a needless repetition. Were this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miiier, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, Greene, Woodworth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill ? It is civrious to ob- serve, how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or souie one of his predecessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. 41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the reviews, and made common stock in trade being published, both in England and in America, by booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended evk,i by those who were most interested in the sale of them have been eminently successful with the public ; and In the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have writ- ten in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist compute, that "at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed ;'' par- ticularly commends him for his " candour and liberality towards rival authors ;" av'ers that " he went on, examining and correcting his grammar, through all its forty editions till he brought it to a degree of perfection which will render it as permanent as the English language itself;" censures (and not without reason) the " presumption" of those " superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honours ; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but as a mark of " his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds (in very bad English,) " Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unexpected by himself, than Lindley Murray." The Friend, Vol. iii. p. 33. 42. In a New- York edition of Murray's grammar, printed in 1812, there was inserted a " caution to the public," by Collins &. Co., his American correspondents and publish- ers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, "as it came in purity from the pen of the/author ;" with an earnest remonstrance against the several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, " that the whole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they have met with his decided disapprobation. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, 'the rights of living authors, and the interests of science ana literature, demand the abolition of this ungenerous practice.' " Hore, then, we have the opinion and feeling of Murray himself upon this tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judging it " scarcely necessa- ry to apologize for the use which they have made of their predecessors' labours." 43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to Murray any thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply ; except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfection as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent al- terations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions ; and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it seems necessary first to convince them that it is possible, to compose a better grammar than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project : and if it is, the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the scope lire essentially the same; the tracing and the colouring are more original; and (if the reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid. 44. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, tftiless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purjx)se ; and no- Ihhig for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his owu Ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader even to him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, '.hat the true princip'cs of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by Xll PREFACE. time, will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may substitute. In the republic of letters, there will alwny* be some who can distinguish merit ; and it is impossible that these should eve-r be converted to any whimsical the- ory of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will al- ways be some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and inno- vation in doctrine between a due re.gard to the opinions of others, and an JK'tuul usur- pation of their text ; and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or be- trays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that "an English grammar must necessarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, u a compilation ;" nay, on such a theme, and in " the grammatical part 1 ' of the work, all compilation, beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all, most unavoidably implies not conscious "ability," generously doing hon- our to rival merit nor "exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own but inade- quate skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seek- ing precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical ex- cellence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning m^y not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly preface, " that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient.'' Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts anil confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands, we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar? The author of this treatise will not pretend that it is perfect; though he has bestowed upon it no inconsiderable pains, tnat the narrow limits to which it must needs be confined, might be filled up to the utmost advantage of the learner, as well as to the- best direction mid greatest relief of the teacher. 4G. A KEY to the Oral Exercises in False Syntax, is inserted in the Grammar, that the pupil may i e enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class recitations. Being acquainted with the rule, and having seen the correction, he may be expected to state the error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. A separate KE, to the Exercises for Writing, is published for the convenience of teachers and private learners. For an obvious reason this Key should not be put into the hands of the schoolboy. Being a distinct volume, it may be had, bound by itself, or with the Grammar. 47. From the first edition of the following treatise, there was made by the author, for the use of young learners, a brief abstract- entitled, " The Viral JAt-c.a of English Grammar;" in which are embraced all the leading doctrines of the original work, with a new series of examples for their application iii parsing. Much that is important in the grammar of the language, was necessarily excluded from this epitome; nor was it designed for those who can learn a larger book without wearing it out. But economy, as well as convenience, demands small and cheap treatises for children ; and those teachers who approve of this system of grammatical instruction, will find many reasons for preierring the First Lints to any other compend, as an introduction to the study of these Institutes. , 48. Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hope of facilitating the study of the English Language, and thus promoting the improvement of the young, the author now presents his finished labours to the candour and discernment of those to whom ts committed the important business of instruction. How far he has suc- ceeded in the execution of his design, is willingly left to the just decision of those wno are q ualified to judge. GOOLD BROWN. JWw York, ]832. CONTENTS, Page I 1 Definition and Division of the Subject 15 | Rule XI. Of the Verb and joint nomi- PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Of Letters Rules for the use of Capitals Of Syllables and Words Of Spel'.ing Rules for Spelling Questions on Orthography Exercises in Orthography PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Of the Parts of Speech Examples for Parsing, Chapter I. Of the Article Of the Noun - Persons Numbers Genders Cases - - Examples for Parsing, Chapter II. Of the Adjective Examples for Parsing, Chapter III. - Of the Pronoun Examples for Parsing, Chapter IV. - Of the Verb - Moods Tenses Persons and Numbers - Conjugation of Verbs Passive Verbs Irregular Verbs - Defective Verbs - Of the Participle Examples for Parsing, Chapter V. Of the Adverb Of the Conjunction Of the Preposition Of the Interjection Examples for Parsing, Chapter VI. Questions on Etymology Exercises in Etymology PART III. SYNTAX. Introductory Definitions Rules of Syntax Examples for Parsing, Chapter VII. - Rules of Syntax, with Exam , Excep., Notes, Obs., and False Syntax Rule I. Of Articles Rule II. Of the Nominative to a Verb 126 Rule III. Of words in Apposition Rule IV. Of Adjectives - . Rule V. Of the Pronoun and antece dent Rule VI. Of the Pronoun and collective noun Rule VII. Of the Pronoun and joint an- tecedents Rule VIII. Of the Pronoun and dis- junct antecedents Rule IX. Of the Verb and nominative 148 Rule X. Of tbn Verb and collective noun T 11 natives - - 153 K . JD 15 Rnle XII Of the Verb and dlrjonct i (\ nominatives - * - 157 il) 17 Rule XIII. Of Verbs connected - 159 19 Rule XIV. Of Participles - - 161 20 Rule XV. Of Adverbs - - 165 01 Rule XVI. Of Conjunctions - - 169 3U Rule XVII. Of Prepositions - - 172 27 Rule XVIII. Of Interjections - 175 - 27 Rule XIX. Of the Possessive Case - 176 - 28 Rule XX. Of the Objective Case after a - 30 Verb or Participle - - - 180 - 31 Rule XXI. Of the Same Case after a - 32 Verb as before it - - - 182 - 33 Rule XXII. Of the Objective Case after - 35 u Preposition - - - 184 - 30 Rule XX II I. Of the Infinitive Mood 186 - 38 Rule XXIV. Of the Infinitive after bid, - 40 dare, feel, &c. 188 - 43 Rule X'XV. Of the Nominative Case - 45 Absolute - - - - 188 - 50 Rule XXVI. Of the Subjunctive Mood 19C - 51 Promiscuous Examples of False Syn- - 53 tax - f 192 - 54 General Rule of Syntax - - 196 - 55 - 59 Examples for Parsing, Chapter VIII. 199 Questions on Syntax - 203 - ^ 72 Exercises in Syntax - - 205 - 75 PART IV.-PROSODY. 218 - 80 Of PUNCTUATION - - 218 84 Of the Comma - - - 218 87 Of the Semicolon - -223 Of the Colon - - - 223 Qfl Of the Period, and the Dash - - 224 yu 91 Of the Note of Interrogation, and the 91 Note of Exclamation - - 225 95 Of the Parenthesis - - - 226 - 100 Of the Other Marks - - - 227 Of UTTERANCE - -228 104 Of Pronunciation - - -228 - 104 Of Elocution - 2i>8 - 105 Of FIGURES - - - 229 - 107 Of Figures of Etymology - - 229 jp., Of Figures of Syntax 230 - 121 Of Figures of Rhetoric 232 - 122 Of VERSIFICATION - 235 ;rb 126 Of Iambic Verse - - - 236 - 128 Of Trochaic Verse - - -237 - 130 Of Anapjpsiic Verse - - -239 ;e Of Dactylic Verse - - - 239 - 136 Examples for Parsing, Chapter IX. - 239 ve Questions on Prosody - - 246 - 145 Exercises in Prosody - - - 248 m- A KEY to the Oral Exercises in False 140 Syntax - - 2t52 is- APPENDIX I. Of the Sounds of the - 147 Letters - - - 285 ve 148 APPENDIX 11. Of DerlvMtion - 21*4 ve APPENDIX III. Of SivlJ - 305 - i52 APPENDIX IV Of Poetic Dlotiwi 33H THB INSTITUTES ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly. It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Ety- mology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling. OF LETTERS. A Letter is a character used in printing or writing, to represent an articulate sound. An articulate sound, is a sound of the human voice, used m speaking. The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six ; Aa,Bb, C c,Dd,Ee,Ff, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L /, Mm,Nn, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T 't, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy } Zz? 9 For the names and powers of the letters, see Appendix L 16 C/,A33ES OF LETTERS. y The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels and consonants. A. vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone. A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. All the other letters are consonants. W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, whine, ye, yet, youth : in all other cases, they are vowels ; as in newly } dewy, eyebrow. CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. A mute is a consonant which' cannot be sounded at all with out a vowel. The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sound- ed without a vowel. The semivowels are /, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v t x, z, and c and g soft. Four of the semivowels, I, m, n, and r, are termed liquids, on account of the uency of their sounds. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. In the English language, the Roman characters are gen- erally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, the Itr (Knglisl). The letters have severally two forms, by which they are distinguished as capitals and small letters. Small letters constitute the body of every work ; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. RULE I. TITLES OF BOOKS. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should be printed in capitals. When books are merely men- tioned, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man " RULE II. FIRST WORDS. The first word of every distinct sentence, sbould begin with a capital. RULE III. NAMES OF DEITY. All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God. Jehovoh* the Almighty, the. Supreme Being. ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITALS. 17 RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. Titles of office or honour, and proper names oi every de- scription, should begin with capitals ; as, Chisf Justice. Hale t William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the Thames. RULE V. OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 1 " Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." RULE VI. WORDS DERIVED. Words derived from proper names of persons or places, should begin with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman. RULE VII. 1 AND O. The words / and O, should always be capitals. RULE VIII. IN POETRY. Every line in poetry should begin with a capital. RULE IX. EXAMPLES. The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital ; as, " Remem ber this maxim : c Know thyself " " Virgil says, c Labour conquers all things.' " RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. Proper names frequently have capitals throughout. OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea. In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a poly syllable. ' DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable ; as, ea in beat, on in sound. 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; as eau in beau, lew in view. A proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. An i?nproper triphthong, is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. SPECIES AND FIGURE OP WORDS. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their species ; the latter, their Jigure. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any sim- plex word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim- pler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, con- nected. A simple word is one that is not compounded ; as, ivatch, man. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, bookseller, schoolmaster : others are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass- house, negro-merchant. SYLLABICATION. In dividing words into syllables, we are chiefly to be directed by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe the following rules. I. The consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal. II. Derivative and grammatical terminations should gener- ally be separated from the radical word ; as, harm-less, grcat-ly, wtinect-cd. III. Compounds should be divided into the simple words which compose them ; as, watch-man, never-the-less. IV. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessa- ry ; but a syllable must never be broken. OF SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. ORTHOGRAPHY.- SPELLING. 19 One This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spell- ing-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much un- certainty and perplexity : many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to trie analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of ser- vice to the learner. RULES FOR SPELLING. RULE I. FINAL F, L, OR S. Monosyllables ending inf, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : except if, of, \ as, gas, lias, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus. RULE II. OTHER FINALS. Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not double the final letter : except add, odd, ebb, egg, i?in, err, burr f purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. RULE III. DOUBLING. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; permit, permitting. Exc. X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. RULE IV. NO DOUBLING. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vow- el, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable : as, toil, tolling ; visit, vis- ited ; general, generalize. Exc. But I and s final are usually ioubled, (though per- haps improperly,) when the last syllable is not accented : as, travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. RULE V. FINAL LL. Primitive words ending in II, generally reject one I, before S fid, less, ly, and ?iess : as, skill, skilful, skilless ; full, fully, fulness. OBS. Words ending in any other double letter preserve it double before these terminations ; as, blissful, oddly, stiffness, carelessness. RULE VI. FINAL E. The final e of a primitive word, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving. Exc. Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able 01 ous, to preserve the sott sound of c and g : as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAIL RULE VII FINAL E. The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, 1 paleness ; lodge, lodggpient. Exc. When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as, true, truly; awe, awful: and sometimes retained; as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless. RULE VIII. FINAL Y. The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- nant, is changed into i before an additional termination : as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. Exc. Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i ; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by llule 6th, change i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. OBS. When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed : as, day, days; valley, valleys; money, moneys; monkey, monkeys. RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, re- call, uphill, shellfish. -f Exc. In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop one I ; as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they re- tain both ; as, full-eyed, all-wise, save-all. OBS. Other words ending in II, sometimes improperly drop one I, when taken into composition ; as, miscal, downtiU. This excision is reprehensi- ble, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. Where is the consistency of writing, recall, miscal intkrall, bethral wind- fall, downfal laystall, thumbstal waterfall, overfal molehill, dunghU windmill, twibil clodpoll, enrol? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first Amer- QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. LESSON I. GENERAL DIVISION. What is English Grammar 1 How is it divided 1 Of what does Orthography treat 1 Of what does Etymology treat 1 Of what does Syntax treat 1 Of what does Prosody treat 7 QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. LESSON II. LETTERS. Of what does Orthography treat 1 ORTHOGRAPHY. QUESTIONS. 21 What is a Letter? What is an articulate sound 1 How many letters are there in English'? Repeat them. How are the letters divided 1 What is a vowel 1 What is a consonant 1 What letters are vowels'? and what, consonants 7 When are w and y consonants 7 and when, vowels 7 How arc the consonants divided 1 W r hat is a mute 1 what consonants are mutes 7 What is a semivowel! what consonants are semivowels 1 What letters are called liquids 7 and why 7 LESSON III. CAPITALS. What characters are employed in English 7 What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters! What is said o. omall letters 7 and why are capitals used 7 How many rules for capitals are there 7 and what are their heads 7 What says Rule 1st of titles of books? Rule 2d of first words? Rule 3d of names of Deity? Rule 4th of proper names? Rule 5th of objects person- ified?Ru\c 6th of words derived? Rule 7th of I and O? Rub 8th of poetry? Rule 9th of examples? Rule 10th of chief icords? LESSON IV. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. What is a Syllable ? What is a Word ? Can the syllables of a word he perceived hy the ear 7 What 4s a word of one syllable called 7 What is a word of two syllables called 7 What is a word of three syllables called 7 What is a word of four or more syllables called 7 What is a diphthong? What is a proper diphthong 7 an improper diphthong t What is a tripJithong ? W T hat is a proper triphthong 7 an improper triphthong! How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure? What is a primitive word 7 What is a derivative word 7 What is a simple word 7 What is a compound word 7 How do permanent compounds differ from others! What guide have we for dividing words into syllables! What are the special rules of syllabication 7 LESSON V. SPELLING. ~ What is Spelling? How is this art to be acquired 7 How many rules for spelling are there 7 and what are their heads! What *ays Rule 1st of final /, I, or s? Rule 2d of other finals ? Rule 3d of the doubling of consonants 7 Rule 4th against the doubling cf conso- nants? Rule 5th of final U? Rule Gth of final tl Rule "7th offina* e? Rule 8th of final y? Rule 9th of compounds? EXERCISES Iflf ORTHOGRAPHY. Jtjr [Spelling is to be taught by example, rather than by rule. For oral exercises in this branch of learning, a spelling-book or vocabulary should 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. be employed. The following examples of false orthography are inserted, that they may be corrected by the pupil in writing. They are selected with direct reference to the rules ; which are at first indicated by figures. For it is evident, that exercises of this kind, without express rules for their cor- rection, would rather perplex than instruct the learner ; and that his ability to correct them without reference to the rules, must presuppose such know- ledge as would render them useless.] EXERCISE I CAPITALS. 1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's english synonymes, Walker's key to the pronunciation of pro- per names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions of purley. 2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at once performs its duty and endears itself to others. 3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! Shall mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not fear the omnipotent? shall he not reverence the everlasting one ? i The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, persians, bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcamans, and many other nations, in an expedition against greece. 5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, before habit had time to enchain them. 6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the ery- manthian boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian birds. The Christian religion has brought all mythologic stories and milesian fables into disrepute. 7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; but all these are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or love as i do. o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa ! 8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth, and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle." EXERCISE II. CAPITALS. 'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. 'thus, said diogenes, i do i trample on the pride of plato.' i true,' re- plied plato ; < but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes ?' the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following words: c o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrous youth !' ORTHOGHAPHY. EXEHOISE3. 23 epammondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his love of truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. and pharaoh said to Joseph, " say to thy brethren, ' do this lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan.' " who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips over yonder plain ? her name is health ; she is the daughter of exercise and temperance. to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of the immediate family of adam, after his fall. on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, how just his hopes, let sweedish charles decide. in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, i hear the voice of god among the trees. EXERCISE III. SPELLING. 1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. To er is human ; to forgive, divine. A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 4. duarrels are more easily begun than endded. Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. Of all tame animals the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 5. Q,uacks are generally more venturesome than skillful. He that willfully injures others, is a bad citizen. Odity may excite attention, but it cannot gain esteem. 6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. Encouragment increases with success. 8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request 9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, EXERCISE IV.^SPELLINO, 1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. Repetition makes smal transgressions great. Religion regulates the wil and affections. 2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. A bad begining is unfavourable to success. Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossippmg. Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. They had all been closetted together a long time. 5. Let every one be fullly persuaded in his own mind. Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and the end We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. He who is truely a fireman is above mean compliances. 8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery. Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. EXERCISE V. SPELLING. 1. He that scjfs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices. 2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. ^ Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish. To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. The gods of this world have many worshippers. ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES. 25 5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. Fearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer, 6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. By self-examination, we discover the lodgments of sin;Q % LI Tho passions often mislead the judgment. 8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. And, all within, were walks and allies wide. Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. Without fire chimnies are useless. 9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. All mispent time will one day be regretted. EXERCISE VI SPELLING. Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud. A covettous person is always in want. Fashion is compareable to an igni-fatuus. Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. Medicines should be administerred with caution. We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. We are caught as silyly as the bird in the net. By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. A true friend is a most valueable acquisition It is not a bad memory that forgets injury es. Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly. Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment. Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 3 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISE VII SPELLING. A downhil road may be travelled with ease. Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. A knave can often undersel his honest neighbours. Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men, Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. All virtues are in agrement ; all vices at varyance. Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. The birds frame to thy song, their chearfull cherupping. There figgs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. Years following years, steal sumthing every day. The soul of the slothfull, does but drowse in his body. What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres 1 Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. The huming-burd is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be The muskittoes will make you as spoted as samon-trout. Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. Be who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. These are villanous creatures,' says a blokheded boy. The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest ; And children sacred held a martin's nest ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OP SPEECH. 27 PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pro- noun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 1. THE ARTICLE. An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their signification : the articles are the, and an or a. 2. THE NOUN. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, George, York, man^ apple, truth. 3. THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are diligent. 4. THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them well. 5. THE VERB. A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled ; I love, thou lovest, he loves. 6. THE PARTICIPLE. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb and an adjective ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound ; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 7. THE ADVERB. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here, studying very diligently. 8. THE CONJUNCTION. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sen- tences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected : as, Thou and he are happy, because you are good. 9. THE PREPOSITION. A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is gener- ally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The paper lies before me on the desk. 10. THE INTERJECTION. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indi- cate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind : as, Oh ! alas ! PARSING. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence ac- cording to the definitions and rules of grammar. A perfect definition of any thing or class of things is such a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every thing else in nature. A ride of grammar is some law, more or less general, by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of Ian guage. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. CHAPTER I. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the First Chapter, it is required of the pupil merely to distin guish arid define the different parts of speech. The definitions to be given in the First Chapter, are one, and only one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. " The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." T7u ...... is an article. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their signification. ETYMOLOGY, PARSING. 29 Patient . Ox \9 an adjective. is a noun. Submits To . . is a verb, is a preposition. The . Yoke And is an article. . is a noun. is a conjunction. Meekly is an adverb. Performs The . . Labour Required . is a verb, is an article. . is a noun. . is a participle. ia a preposition. fltm is a pronoun. An adjective is a word added to a noun or prcnoun, and generally expresses quality. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. A verb is a word that signifies to be } to act, or to be acted upon. A preposition is a word used to ex- press some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their signification. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. A conjunction is a word used to con- nect words or sentences in con- struction, and to show the depend- ence of the terms so connected. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally ex- presses time, place, degree, or man- ner. A verb is a word that signifies to be t to act, or to be acted upon. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their signification. A noun is the name of any p^mon, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb and an adjective; and is generally formed by adding ing, d } or ed to the verb. A preposition is a word used to ex- press some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. LESSON I. The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange, is delicious. A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. Man is the noblest work of creation. The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft feathers. 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the western sky. LESSON II. Candour, sincerity, and truth, are amiable qualities. Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and flourishing manhood. Blair. Injuries retaliated in anger, excite resentment in return. All that is great and good in the universe, is on the side of clemency and mercy. Blair. Industry is needful in every condition of life : the price of all improvement is labour. Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers, It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us a del- uge of crimes and evils. Blair. LESSON III. An idle, mischievous, and disobedient pupil disgraces him- self, dishonours his parents, and displeases his teacher. Alas ! that such examples are sometimes found ! O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy rewards I Pleasure's call attention wins, Hear it often as we may ; New as ever seem our sins, Though committed every day. O ! then, ere the turf or tomb Cover us from every eye, Spirit of instruction ! come, Make us learn that we must die. Cowpcr OF THE ARTICLE. An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their jrignification : the articles are the, and an or a. An and a are one and the same article. An is used when- ever the following word begins with a vmvel sound ; as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. A is used whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound ; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when ex- pressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. CLASSES. The articles are distinguished as the definite and the indefinite* ^ BTTYMOLOGY. -NOUNS. 31 I. The definite article is the, which denotes some par- iular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy an orange. OBS. 1. The English articles have no grammatical modifications: they are not varied by numbers, genders, and cases, as are those of some other languages. In respect to class, each is sui generis. OB^. 2. A common noun without an article or other word to limit its signification, is generally taken in its widest sense; as, Man is endowed with reason. OF THE NOUN. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned : as, George, YorAr, man, apple, truth. OBS. 1. All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are nouns; or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns; as, " Us is & personal pronoun." Mur- ray. " Th has two sounds." Id. " Control is probably contracted from counter-roll." Crabb. " Without one if. or but." Cowper. " A is some- times a noun; as, a great A." Todd's Johnson. "Formerly sp was cast in a piece, as s?s are now." Hist. Printing, 1770. OBS. 2. In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each word, and class it accordingly : many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns, and must be parsed as such; as, 1. "The Ancient of days." Bible. "Of the ancients." Swift. "For such impertinents." Steele. " He is an ignorant in it." Id. " To the nines." Burns. 2. " Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." Shak. "I am the happiest she in Kent." Steele. " The shea of Italy." Shak. " The hes in bims." Bacon. 3. " Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric !" Cowper. " A may-be of mercy is insufficient. 1 ' Bridge. 4. " For the pro- ducing of real happiness." Crabb. "Reading, writing, and ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man." 5. " An hereafter ." Addison. "The dread of a hereafter." F idler. "The deep amen" Scott. " The while." Mil- ton. 6. "With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo." Scott. " Will cuts him hort with a ' What thcnT "Addison. CLASSES. Nouns are divided into two general classes ; proper and common. I. A proper noun is the name of some particular individ- ual or people ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Romans. II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of tilings ; as, Beast, bird, fish, instct. The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal, are usu- ally included among- common nouns. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, committee, flock. An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality con- sidered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, hardness, pride, frailty. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action or state of being ; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun : as, " The triumphing of the wicked is short." Job, xx. 5. tnat is, Vie orator. "Many a nery Alp, that is, mountain: except when a common noun is understood; as, The [river] Hudson The [ship] Amity The treacherous [man] Judas. OBS. 2. A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, some- times becomes proper; as, The Park The Strand. OSB. 3. The common name of a thing or quality personified often be- comes proper; as, "'My power/ said Reason, 'is to advise, not to com- pel.' " Johnson. MODIFICATIONS. Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Per* sons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. PERSONS. Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely spoken of. OBS. The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse itself. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the prin- ciples of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. There are three persons ; the first, the second, and the third. The first person is that which denotes the speaker ; as, " / Paid have written it." The second person is that which denotes the hearer ; as, " Robert, who did this?" The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of ; as, " James loves hi.9 book." OBS. 1. In 'written language, the first person denotes the writer or au- thor; and the second, the reader or person addressed: except when the writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the words which he records. OBS. 2. The speaker seldom refers to himself byname, as the Bpeaker; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person; and when they ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 33 are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians deny the first person to nouns altogether ; others ascribe it ; and many are silent on the subject. Analogy clearly requires it ; as may be seen by the follow- ing examples: " Adsum Troius ^Eneas." Virg. " Callopius recensui" Ter. Com. apudjinem. " Paul, an apostle, &c. unto Timothy, my own son in the faith." 1 Tim. i. 1. OBS. 3. When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in thejlrst person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses diet, and Caesar records the achievements of Ccesar. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph : " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord." Gen. xliv. 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God : " Oh ! let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." Gen. xviii. 30. OBS. 4. When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified; and their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the objects are supposed to be capable of hearing. NUMBERS. Numbers are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality. OBS. The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antece- dents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number. There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. The singular number is that which denotes but one ; as, The boy learns. The plural number is that which denotes more than one ; as, The boys learn. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by add- ing 5 or es to the singular : as, book, books ; box, boxes. RULE I. When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen, pens ; grape, grapes. RULE II. But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page, pages ; fox, foxes. OBS. 1. English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but do not increase their syllables: as, wo, woes; hero, heroes; negro, negroes; potato, potatoes; muskitto, muskittoes; octavo, octavoes. The exceptions to this rule appear to be in such nouns as are not properly and fully anglicised thus many write cantos, juntos, solos, &c. Other nouns in o add s only ; as, folio, folios; bamboo, bamboos. So also, two, twos. OBS. 2. Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i, and add es, without increase of syllables: as, jtfy, fics; duty, duties. Other nouns in y add 5 only: as, day, days; valley, valleys: so likewise proper names ; as, Henry, the Henry*. 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, OBS. 3. The following nouns in /, change / into v, and add es, for the plural ; sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, wharf: as, sheaves, leaves, &c. Life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives; are similar Staff' makes staves : though the compounds of staff" are regular ; as, fagstaff^ flagstaffs. The greater number of nouns in /and fe, are regular ; as,Jifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, &c. OBS. 4. The following are still more irregular: man, men; woman, wo- men; child, children; brother, brethren [or brothers ;\ foot, feet; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; -mouse, mice; die, dice; penny, pence. Dies, stamps, and pennies, coins, ar$ regular. OBS. 5. Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, arcanum, arcana; datum, data; erratum, errata; effluvium, effluvia; medium, me- dia [or mediums;] minutia, minutice ; stratum, strata; stamen, stamina; genus, genera; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit;] magus, magi; radius, radii; appendix, appendices [or appendixes;] calx, calces; index, indices [or indexes ;] vortex, vortices; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; thesis, theses; antithesis, antitheses; diuresis, diaereses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, meta- morphoses; automaton, automata; criterion, criteria [or criterion^;] phe- nomenon, phenomena ; cherub, cherubim ; seraph, seraphim ; beau, beaux [or beaus.] OBS. 6. Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no plu- ral ; as, gold, pride, mcelmess. OBS. 7. Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes in some degree common, and admits the plural form and an article; as, The Stuarts The Ccesars : so likewise when such nouns are used to denote character ; as, " The Aristotles, the Tuttys, and the Livys." Burgh. OBS. 8. The proper names of nations and societies are generally plural ; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite article: as, The Greeks The Jesuits. OBS. 9. When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form a sort <>f compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ;^ as. The Miss Howards The two Mr. darks. But a title not regarded as a part of one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to more than one; as, Messrs. Lambert and Son The Lords Calthorpe and Erskine The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's llie Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. OBS. 10. Some nouns have no singular ; as, embers, ides, oats, scissors, tongs, vespers, literati. OBS. 11. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermin, swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The following are sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently, and more properly, as plural: alms, amends, pains, ricJies ; ethics, mathematics : metaphysics, optics, polities, pneumatics, and other similar names of sciences. Bellows and gal- loirs are properly alike in both numbers ; (as, " Let a gallows be made." EstJier, v. 14. " The bellows are burned." Jer. vi. 20 ;) but they have a regular plural in vulgar use. Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, and rebus, admit the regular plural. OBS. 12. Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the possessive case ; as, Sing, fatlier-in-law, Plur. fathers-in-law, Poss. father-in-law's Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. court-martiats. The Posses- sive plural of such nouns, is never used. Ofivs. 13. Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the prince pal word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other noune* ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 35 85, handful* , spoonfuls, nwuthfuls, fellow-servants, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings, doicnsittings. OBS. 14. Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally ad- mit the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings : hut when taken aistributivcly, they have a plural signification, without the form; as, "The jury were di- vided." OBS. 15. When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want the plural, or form it regularly, like common nouns of the same endings; as, " His affairs went on at sixes and sevens" Arbuthnot. " Some math- ematicians have proposed to compute by ticos ; others, by fours; others, by twelves" Churchill. " Three fourths, nine tenths" Id. " Time's takings and leavings" Barton. " The yeas and nays" Newspaper. " The ays and noes." Ibid. "The ins and the outs." Ibid. "His ands and his ors" Mott. "One of the buts." Fowle. "In raising the mirth of stu- pids." Steele. GENDERS. Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in re- gard to sex. OBS. The different genders are founded on the natural distinction of sex in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they be- long only to nouns and pronouns; and to these they are usually applied agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand. There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine^ and the neuter. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male kind ; as, man. ^father, king. The feminine gender is that which denotes animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, queen. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female ; as, pe?i, ink, paper. OBS. 1. Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually determined by the context. To such words, some grammarians have ap- plied the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly observes, " There is no such gender belonging to the language. The bu- siness of parsing, can be effectually performed without navmg recourse to a common gender." The tenn is more useful, and less liable to objec- tion, as applied to the learned languages; but with us it is plainly a sole- cism. OBS. 2. Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually include both sexes ; as, " Hast thou given the horse strength! hast thou clothed his neck with thunder 1 ?" "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south'?" Job. These are called epicene nouns. OBS. 3. Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and w generally employed when both sexes are included under one common 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OBS. 4. The sexes are distinguished in three ways : I. By the use of different names: as, bachelor, maid; boy, girl; brother sister; buck, doe; bull, cow ; cock, hen; drake, duck; carl, countess ; father, mother ; friar, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; Iwrse, mare ; husband, wife , king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady ; man, woman; master, mistress; milter, spawner; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch. II. By the use of different terminations: as, abbot, abbess; adminis- trator, administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom,, bride ; cater- er, cateress ; duke, duchess ; emperor, emperess cr empress ; executor, executrix ; governor, governess; hero, heroine; landgrave, lanagravine margrave, margravine ; marquis, marchioness ; sorcerer, sorceress ; sultan, sultaness or sultana; testator, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or tutress ; w'dower widow. The following nouns become feminine by merely adding ess ; baron, dea* con, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, prophet, shep- herd, viscount. The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel, and adding ess; actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, conductor, doctor^ elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, idolater, inventor, prince, protector, song- ster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen-spar- row ; man-servant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat; male relations, female relations. OBS. 5. The names of things without life, used literally, are always of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented figu- ratively, as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sub- limity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, the moon, earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace. OBS. 6. Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals that compose the assemblage. OBS. 7. Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regard- ed, are generally spoken of as neuter ; as, "He fired at the deer, and Wound- ,ed it." "If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or sell it;" &c. Ex. xxii. 1. CASES. Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. OBS. The cases are founded on the different relations under which things are represented in discourse, and from which the words acquire correspondent relations, or a dependence on each other according to the sense. In English, these modifications, or relations, belong only to nouns and pionouns. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents, in case. There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive* and the objective. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb: as, The boy runs ; 7 run. ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 37 OBS. The subject of a verb is that which answers to who or what before it; as, "The boy runs" Who runs? The boy. Boy is therefore here in the nominative case. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the relation of property : as, The boy^s hat ; my hat. OBS. 1. The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, sing. boy's; plural, boys'. OBS. 2. Plural nouns that do not end in s, usually form the possessive case in the same manner as the singular ; as, man's, men's. OBS. 3. When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, the apostrophe, which (as Dr. Johnson has shown) is merely a sign of the case, and not of elision, ought to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish it from the singular ; as, sheep s, sheeps*. OBS. 4. The apostrophic s adds a syllable to the noun, when it will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends ; as, torch's, pronounced torchiz. OBS. 5. The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, Two a's three b's four 9's. In the following example they are used to give the sound of a ver- bal termination to words that are not properly verbs : " When a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs all his de- signs," &c. Congreve. The objective- case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition : as, I know the boy ; he knows me. OES. 1. The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which an- swers to whom or what after it; as, "I know the boy" I know whom? The boy. Boy is therefore here in the objective case. OBS. 2. The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or their simple dependence according to the sense. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Thus : EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. Sing. Norn. friend, Plur. Nom. friends, Poss. friend's, Poss. friends 1 Obj. friend; Obj. friends. EXAMPLE n. MAN. Sing. Nom. man, Plur. Nom. men, Poss. man's, Poss. men's, Obj> man ; Obj men. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXAMPLE in. FOX. Sing. Norn. fox, ' Plur Nom. foxes, Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes', Obj. fox; Obj. foxes. EXAMPLE IV. FLY. Sing. Nom. fly, Plur. Nom. flies, Poss. fly's, Poss. flies 1 , Obj. fly; Obj. flies. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. CHAPTER II. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Second Chapter, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modi- fications of the articles and nouns. The definitions to be given in the Second Chapter, are two for an article, six for a noun and one for an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition^ or an interjection. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. " James is a lad of uncommon talents." James is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual or people. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken OL 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. /s is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. A is the indefinite article. 1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- tion. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one. Lad is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. 39 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun. Uncommon is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. Talents is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gen- der, and objective case. 1 . A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes tilings that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. LESSON I. Science strengthens and enlarges the mind. Murray. A large ship, traversing the ocean by the force of the wind, is a noble proof of the power and ingenuity of man. When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and the plants and flowers display their beauty. I John saw these things and heard them. Bible. And the king spake and said to Daniel, ' Daniel ! servant of the living God, is thy God, whom thou servest continually, able to deliver thee from the lions ?' Ib. LESSON II. And all the king's servants, that were in the king's gate, bowed and reverenced Haman ; but Mordecai bowed not, nor did him reverence. Bible. Esther put on her royal apparel, and stood in the inner court of the king's house. Ib. A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts fof man's advantage. Murray. Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend His actions', passions', being's use and end. Pope. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OP THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. You two are diligent. CLASSES. Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely. common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound. I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or ad- jective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good, bad, peaceful, warlike eastern, western, outer, inner. II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- per name; as, American, English, Platonic. III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, (fee. IV. A pronominal adjective is a definite word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it under- stood ; as, " All join to guard what each desires to gain.' Pope. That is, All men join to guard what each man desires to gain. V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time ; as, An amusing story. VI. A compound .adjective, is one that consists of two or more words joined by a hyphen ; as Nut-brown^ laugh- ter-loving, four-footed. OBS. 1. Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely, 1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c. 2. Ordinal ; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, &c. 3. Multiplicative ; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or three- fold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septu- ple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. OBS. 2. Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numer- ous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series- as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved, &c. MODIFICATIONS. Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but com- parison. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express quality in different degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 1 ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. 41 The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. The comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive ; as, harder, softer, better. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded ; as, hardest, softest, best. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of , different degrees, cannot be compared ; as, two, second, all, right, immortal, infinite. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, skilful, more skilful, most skilful skilful, less skilful, least skilful. REGULAR COMPARISON. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative de- gree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by adding est to them ; as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative. great, greater, greatest. *wide, wider, widest. hot, . hotter, hottest. The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. The different degrees of a qua-lity may also be expressed,' with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more wise, most wise ; fa- mous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, most amiable. The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least : as, wise, less wise, least wise ; famous, less famous, least famous ; amiable, hss amiable, least amiable. OBS. 1. Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissylables end- ing in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather com- pared by means of the adverbs : thus we say, virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous ; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. OBS. 2 The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation of the adjective; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the dte, ree being ascribed to the adverb. (IBS. 3. The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinite- ly various; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to ex* press. Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, they properly be- See Rules for Spelling EL and VI. 4* 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. long to it; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. If an adverb is employed for this purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly its own ; as, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees may be otherwise expressed ; as, worthy, in a higher degree worthy, in thy highest degree worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually com- pared as before; but only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most, less and least, as parts of the adjective. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. The following adjectives are compared irregularly : good, better, best ; bad or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; many, more, most. OBS. 1. In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote place or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either re- dundant or defective in comparison. Thus : I. The following nine have more than one superlative: far, farther, far- thest, farmost, or farthermost ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; fore, former, foremost or Jirst ; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost ; in, inner, inmost or innermost ; out, outer, or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost ; up, upper, upmost or uppermost; low, lower, lowest or lowermost ; late, later, or latter, latest or last. II. The following five want the positive: [aft, adv.] after \ aftmost, or af- termost; [forth, adv.] further, furthest, or furthermost; hither, hither most ; nether, nethermost ; under, undermost. III. The following want the comparative : front, front-most ; rear, rear- most; head, headmost; end, endmost ; top, topmost; down, downmost; 'mid or middle, midst, midmost, or middlemost ; north, northmost ; south, south- most; northern, northernmost; southern, soutliemmost ; eastern, eastern- most; western, westernmost. OBS. 2. Many of these irregular adjectives are also in common use, as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions; the sense in which they are employed will show to what class they belong. OBS. 3. The words fore and hind, front and rear, head and end, right and left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, mid and after, are often joined in composition with other words; and some of them, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their nouns ; as, tn-land, mid-sea, after-ages, &c. OBS. 4. It maybe remarked of the comparatives, /ormer and latter or hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and hith- er ; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, inte- rior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor ; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than, introducing the latter term of comparison; for we never say, one thing is former, superior, fyc. THAN an other. OBS. 5. Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are more nu- merous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few that are pronominal, may be varied by comparison ; and some participial ad- jectives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no way susceptible of comparison. OBS. 6. Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, An iron bar An even- ing school A maliogany chair A South-Sea dream. These also are inca- pable of comparison. OBS 7. The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such, are regu- ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. 43 larly declined; as, Such a one One's own self The little ones By ten* For twenty's sake By fifties Two millions. OBS. 8. Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also employed as nouns, and have the regular declension; as, Our superiors His betters The elder's advice An* other's wo Let others do as they will. But, as ad- jectives, these words are invariable. OBS. 9. Pronominal adjectives, -when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and Mutt, which form the plural tiiese and those; and miLch, many, and a few others, which are compared. OBS. 10. Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns arc not expressed, may be parsed as representing them in person, number, gender, and case ; but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective sim- ply as an adjective. OBS. 11. The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: All, any, both, each, either, every, few, former, Jirst, latter, last, little, much, many, neither, no or nonej one, other, same, some, such, this, that, which, what. OBS. 12. Which and wliat, when they are not prefixed to nouns, are, for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. CHAPTER III. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Third Chapter, it is required of the pupil to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modi- fications of the articles, nouns, and adjectives. The definitions to be given in the Third Chapter, are two for an article, six for a noun, three, for an adjective and one for a pro- noun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition^ or an interjection. Thus : EXAMPLE PARSED. " I prefer the shortest course, though some other may be less intricate." / is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. Prefer is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. The is the definite article. * There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other. An here ex- cludes any other article ; and analogy and consistency require that the words be s''p:ir;ii'il. Their union has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article ; as, ' Another such a man,' for, ' An other such man.' t No and none, seem to be only different forms of the same adjective ; the former being used before, a noun expressed, and the latter wlien the noun ia understood, or not placed after the adjective ; as, " For none of us liYeth to himself, and no man dielh to lumself." Romans, xiv 7 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- tion. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things. Shortest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree ; compared, short t sJiorter, shortest. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded. Course is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned, 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. Though is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so con- nected. Some is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accom- pany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different de- grees, cannot be compared. Other is a pronominal adjective, representing course understood, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See Obs. 10th, page 43.] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally ex- presses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accom- pany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb. May be is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to bt acted upon. Less is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. Intricate is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 45 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjectivB denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may he varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs. LESSON I. There is an easier and better way than this. Earthly joys are few and transitory. Heavenly rewards are complete and eternal. The best and wisest men are sometimes in fault. Demosthenes was a famous Grecian orator. This plain old man has more wit than all his opponents. The three rooms on the second floor, are smaller and less convenient than the others. The largest and most glorious machines contrived and erect- ed by human skill, are not worthy of a comparison with the magnificent productions of nature. LESSON II. The first years of man must make provision for the last. External things are naturally variable, but truth and reason are always the same. Johnson. 1 To him that lives well,' answered the hermit, { every form of life is good ; nor can I give any other rule for choice, than to remove from all apparent evil.' Id. Come, calm Content, serene and sweet ! O gently guide my pilgrim feet To find thy hermit cell ; Where, in some pure are equal sky, Beneath thy soft indulgent eye, The modest virtues dwell. Barbauld. OF THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them welL OBS. 1. The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term vntecederit, to the word represented by a relative. OBS. 2. The pronouns 7 and than in their different modifications, stand tnmediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without be- ing named; (/ meaning the speaker, and thou the hearer;) their antecedents ire therefore generally understood. OBS. 3. The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general r absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned ; as, *He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." OBS. 4. A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some per- son or thing unknown to the speaker; the noun, therefore, cannot occur before it, but may be used after it v r in stead of it. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OBS. 5. The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the antecedents to other pronouns; as, He tliat arms hia intent with virtue is invincible." " Wlio that has any moral sense, dares tell lies?" CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, re*- ative, and interrogative. I. A personal pronoun^ is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. The simple personal pronouns are five : na mely, JT o f the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and it, of the third person. The compound personal pronouns are also five : name- ly, myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second per- Bon ; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that ; and the compounds whoever or whosoever, which- ever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that or those which ; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and then as relative. III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked. The interrogative pronouns are who, which* and what ; being the same in form as relatives. OBS. 1. Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though formerly applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate things r what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : that is applied indifferent!} to persons, animals, or things. OBS. 2. The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that which or the thing which. In this double relation, what represents two cases at the same time : as, "He is ashamed of what he has done;" that is. of tliat [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural ; as, " I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to me." Byron. " All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what raise aversion in stead of pleasure." Steele. OBS. 3. What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents: as, " What money we had was taken away ;" that is, All the money that we had, &c. " What man but enters, dies ;" that is, Any man 10/10, &c. " What god but enters yon forbidden field." Pope. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound ichatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction ; as, ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 47 11 We will certainly do whatsoever thing gocth forth out of our own mouth." Jer. xliv. 17. OBS. 4. Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are aU commonly followed by two verbs: as, " Whoever attends, will improve;* that is, Any person wlio attends, will improve. In parsing, supply the ante- cedent. OBS. 5. Whidi and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive or in- terrogative adjectives ; and, as such, may be applied to persons as well as to things: as, " What man V ' " Which boy V OBS. 6. The word that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who, whom, or which; as, "The days that [which] are past, are gone for- ever." It is a definitive or pronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it; as, " That book is new." In other cases, it is a conjunction; as, "Live well, that you may die well." OBS. 7. The relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow the word on which its case depends: thus, it is said, [John, xiii. 29.] "Buy those things that we have need of;" but we cannot say, "Buy those things of that we have need." OBS. 8. The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun ; as, " The Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." Acts, ii. 47. OBS. 9. Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, refer- ring to one of two things; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the templet* Matt, xxiii. 17. OBS. 10. Interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this ; that, as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not relate to a preceding noun, but to something which is to be expressed in the answer to the question. Their person, number, and gender, therefore, are not regulated by an antecedent noun ; but by what the speaker supposes of a subject which may, or may not, agree with them in these respects : as, " What lies there T' Ans. "Two men asleep." MODIFICATIONS. Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; namely, Persons : Numbers, Genders, and Cases. OB. 1. In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distin- guished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the interrogative pro- nouns, they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and the verb. OBS. 2. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally applicable to both sexes; and should be considered masculine or feminine according to the known application of them. [See Levizac's French Gram. p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course know the sex to which they respectively belong; and, whenever they appear in narrative, we are told who they are. In Latin, an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with Ihem in number, gender, and case; as, Mistrce. hoc tamen unum Exequere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus ; Sola viri molles aditus et tempora n6ras. Virgil. OBS. 3. Many grammarians deny the first person of nouns, and the gender of pronouns of the first and second persons ; and at the same time 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. teach, thatj " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." Murray'* Gram. 2d Ed. 1796. Now, no two words can agree in any property which belongs not to both ! DECLENSION OP PRONOUNS. The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. SIMPLE PERSONALS. The simple personal pronouns are thus declined : I, of the FIRST PERSON, any* gender. Sing Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, Obj. me j Obj. us. THOU, of the SECOND PERSON, any gender. Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye,f or you, Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, Obj. thee ; Obj. you. HE, of the THIRD PERSON, masculine gender. Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. him; Obj. them. SHE, of the THIRD PERSONJ feminine gender. Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. her ; Obj. them. IT, of the THIRD PERSON, neuter gender. Siing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. its,J Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. it; Obj. them. * That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes mascu- line and sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain ; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they are only applied figuratively ; and the question is, whether the figure al- ways necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun. Pronouns aro of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand ; and if, in the follow- ing example, gold and diamond are neuter, so is the pronoun me. And, if not neuter, of what gender are they ? " Where thy true treasure ? Gold says, ' Not in me ;' And, ' Not in me,' the diamond. Gold is poor." Young. t The use of the pronoun ye is confined to the solemn style, and to the bur- lesque. In the latter, it is sometimes improperly used for the objective case, | In ancient times, he, his, and him, were applied to things neuter, In our translation of the Bible, the pronoun it is employed in the nominative and tho ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 49 OBS. 1. Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the pos^essire case, in each number: as, my or mine, our or ours: thy or thine, your or yours; her or hers, their or tkeira. The former is used before a noun ex- pressed; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or so placed as not immediately to follow the pronoun; as, "My powers are thint.'' Montgomery. OBS. 2. Mine and thine were formerly used before all words beginning with a vowel sound; my and thy, before others: as, "It was thou, a man, mine eqi^il, ray guide, and mine acquaintance." Psalm. But this usage in now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, u Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow." Byron. COMPOUND PERSONALS. The word self* added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing, myself, plur. our- selves; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves; sing, himself*] plur. them- selves; sing, lierself, plur. themselves; sing, itself, plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nomi- native and objective. RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVE*. The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus de- clined : WHO, applied only to persons. Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Poss. whose, Obj. whom; Obj. wtom. WHICH, applied to animals a?id things. Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, Poss. J Poss. Obj. which Obj. which WHAT, generally applied to things. Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, Poss. Poss. Obj. what; Obj. what. objective, but his is retained in the possessive, neuter; as, " Look not thou upon the wine, when it is red, xvhen it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright." Prov. xi^i. 31. Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint. * The word self was originally an adjective; but when used alone, it i> now generally a noun. This may have occasioned the diversity in the forma- tion of the compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson calls self a pron >un ; but ke explains it as being both adjective and substantive. t Hissclf, itsself, and theirselvcs, are more analogical than himself itself, themselves; but custom has rejected the former, and established the lat'er. When an adjective is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written separately iii the possessive case ; as, My single "self My own self His own self Their own selves. t Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, " A religion whose origin is divine." Blair. 5 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THAT, applied to persons, animals, arid things. Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, Poss. Poss. Obj. that; Obj. that. COMPOUND RELATIVES. The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever -, ever or whichsoever , and whatever or whatsoever, are declined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. CHAPTER IV. ETYMOLOGICAL. In the Fourth Chapter, it is required of the pupil to distin- guish and define the, different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the articles, nouns, adjectives, and pro- nouns. The definitions to be given in the Fourth Chapter are, two for an article, six for a noun, three, for an adjective, six for a pronoun - SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I were, 1. If we were, 2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 3. If he were ; 3. If they were. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be ; Plural. 2. Be [ye or youj or Do you be. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Pluperfect. Being. Been. Having been. OBS. In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usual' Iy formed thus : IND. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been, Thou will be, Thou will have been. POT. Thou may be, Thou might be, Thou may have been, Thou might have been. SUBJ. If thou be, If thou were. IMP. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. II. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTBR. Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by ad- ding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes ; as, I am writing He is sitting. This form of the verb denotes a continuance* of the ac- tion or the state of being, and is, on many occasions, pref- erable to the simple form of the verb. OBS. Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; as, "The books are now selling" Allen's Gram. p. 82. " It requires no motion in the organs whilst it is forming" Murray's Gram. p. 8. " While the work of the temple was carrying on." Dr. J. Owen. " The designs of Provi- dence are carrying on." Dp. Butler. " We are permitted to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us." Dr. Blair. Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics; but the usage is unquestiona- bly of far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far bettei taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt i-n its stead ; as, " The books are now being sold" * Those, verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not ad- mit the compound form ; thus we say, " I respect him ;" but not, " I am respect tw/T lilm " TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. FOURTH EXAMPLE. Tht irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively in the Compound Form. Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. Present. Preterit. Imp. Participk. Perf. Participle. Read. Read. Reading. Read. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To be reading. Perfect Tense. To have been reading. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 3. He has been reading ; 3. They have been reading. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading, First-future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. Second-future Tense. Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 3. He will have been reading ; ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 11 Plura*. 1. We shall have been reading, 2. You will have been reading, 3. They will have been reading. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 3. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. Perfect Tense. Singular* I. I may have been reading, 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 3. He may have been reading ; Plural. 1. We may have been reading, 2. You may have been reading, 3. They may have been reading. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 3. He might have been reading ; Plural. 1. We might have been reading, 2. You might have been reading, 3. They might have been reading. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. be reading, 1. If we be reading, 2. If you be reading, 3. If they be reading, Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, S. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. Pfar. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, &r Do you be reading. 1. If I 2. If thou be reading, 3. If he be reading ; 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Pluperfect. Being reading. Having been reading. OBS. In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb. IB usually formed thus : Ixn. Thou art reading Thou was reading, Thou hast been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou will be reading, Thou will have been re ing, Thou may h If thou be read in; thou be reading. III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes : thus, from the active-transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved. OBS. 1. A few active-intransitive verbs, that merely imply motion, or change of condition, may be put into this form, with a neuter signification; making not passive but neuter verbs, which express nothing more than the state which results from the change : as, I am come ; He is risen ; They are fallen. Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequent- ly employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense; but, with a few ex- ceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference to 6e, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive ; as, They have arrived not, They are arrived. OBS. 2. Passive verbs may be distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument ; which frequently is, and always may be expressed after passive verbs ; but which never is, and never can be, expressed after neuter verbs : as, " The thief has been caught by the officer." " Pens are made with a knife." FIFTH EXAMPLE. The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively. Principal Parts of the Active Verb. Present. Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Tense. To be loved. Perfect Tense. To have been loved. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 2, Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 3 He is loved ; 3. They are loved, ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 78 Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. He had been loved ; 3, They had been loved. First-future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved, Second-future Tense. Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 3. He will have been loved ; Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. They will have been loved. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may he loved, 1. We may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. Imperfect Tense, Singular. Plural 1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 3. He may have been loved j Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 3. He might have been loved ; Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. They might have been loved, SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Singular. 1. If I beloved, 2. If thou be loved, 3. If he be loved ; Present Tense. Plural. 1. If we be lov