J?:? YOUTH'S BOOKS FOR BOYS PUBLISHED BY W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED. YOUNG DENYS : a Story of the Days of Napoleon. By ELEANOR C. PRICE, author of In tlie Lion's Mouth, &c. With Six Illustrations by G. NICOLET 3/6 THE WHITE KAID OF THE ATLAS. By J. MACLAREN COBBAN. With Six Illustrations by W. S. Stacey \ 3/ TWO BOY TRAMPS. By J. MACDONALD OXLEY, author of Bert Lloyd's Boy fiood, &c. With Six Illustrations by H. Sand ham 3/6 THE ROMANCE OF COMMERCE. By J. MACDONALD OXLEY, LL.B., B.A. With Fifteen Illustrations. 2/6 THROUGH THICK AND THIN : the Story of a School Campaign. By ANDREW HOME, author of From Fag to Monitor, &c. With Four Illustrations by W. Rainey 2/ HUGH MELVILLE'S QUEST : a Boy's Adventures in the Days of the Armada. By F. M. HOLMES. With Four Illustrations by W. Boucher.2/ THE LOST TRADER; or, the Mystery of the Lombardy. By HENRY FRITH. With Four Illustrations by W. Boucher 2/6 THE YOUNG RANCHMEN ; or, Perils of Pioneering in the Wild West. By CHARLES R. KENYON. With Four original Illustrations by W. S. Stacey 2/6 TALES OF THE GREAT AND BRAVE. By MARGARET FRASER TVTLER 2/ THROUGH STORM AND STRESS. By J. S. FLETCHER. With Frontispiece by W. S. Stacey 1/6 THE REMARKABLE ADVENTURES OF WALTER TRE- LAWNEY, Parish 'Prentice of Plymouth, in the year of the Great Armada. Re-told by J. S. FLETCHER. With Frontispiece by W. S. Stacey t/6 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION T AND BY W. CHAMBERS. LLD. NEW EDITION. W. &. R. CHAMBERS. Ll MITED. LONDON AND EDINBURGH. YOUTH'S COMPANION AND COUNSELLOR BY W. CHAMBERS, LL.D. NEW EDITION W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED LONDON AND EDINBURGH Edinburgh : Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited. PREFACE. THE present work was first issued in 1857, and met with a gratifying degree of approval. It was so largely purchased as a gift-book from parents to their sons, and as a prize for distribution at schools, that it passed through numerous editions. Encouraged by this success, the author, with extended experience, has made some additions and other improvements, and now issues the work in a size uniform with his miscellaneous writings. The general design of the book is obvious. It is to offer friendly counsel to the young on a variety of topics that practically concern their welfare, and which are not usually embraced in an educational routine. An endeavour is made to strengthen good resolutions in those who are quitting home to enter on the business of life, to point out errors to be shunned, and, if possible, to inspire hopes which can only be realised by high aims along with frugality, patient endurance, and industry. With the exception of appropriate quota- tions, the whole of the hints, advices, and suggestions offered are a result of observation and experience during a busy life drawn out beyond the ordinary span, and conformable to generally accepted obligations. EDINBURGH, May 1880. 20172CB CONTENTS. PAGE A WORD PRELIMINARY 9 THE PERSON 12 EXERCISE 29 SLEEP DREAMING 36 EARLY RISING. 40 THE TOILET 45 SCHOOL-DAYS 53 MENTAL CULTURE 60 FRANKLIN'S METHOD OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT 72 THE ART OF REASONING 79 MEMORY 92 PUBLIC SPEAKING 101 AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES 107 MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN 117 ON FORMING OPINIONS 128 DUTIES AS SUBJECTS OR CITIZENS 135 CONDUCT AT PUBLIC MEETINGS 142 SOME PECULIAR PUBLIC DUTIES 14? 8 CONTENTS. PAGE PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE 151 HINTS ON MATRIMONY 163 RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS 177 HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 187 CHOICE OF A PROFESSION 206 BUSINESS MAXIMS 216 ECONOMISING 229 A COURSE OF READING 250 VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH 268 PHONOGRAPHY REPORTING 276 PASTIMES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS 285 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. A WORD PRELIMINARY. HHHE period of youth is usually pictured by poets as -* one of thoughtless glee. Cares are said to come only with manhood. The young are no doubt for the most part exempted from serious anxieties, but life even at an early period is by no means free from troubles, in which may be included the consciousness that we are subject to the performance of certain duties that are not always agreeable. Without in any way depressing the proper buoyancy of early years, but, as will be seen, rather recommending the exercise of a joyous spirit, happy in the sports and recreations suitable to the period of life, we desire in a friendly manner to call attention to those obligations which more or less are the concern of every human being ; also to offer such hints for youthful guidance and instruction as may help to remove difficulties, and open up, so far as circumstances to THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. will allow, a course of usefulness, and its attendant satisfaction. Directly addressing the young, as a parent might be supposed to do within the family circle, we would say that among the earliest things with which you require to be made acquainted, are these important truths That the present life, with all its allurements, is but a period of trial and preparation for something better : That on each of us is laid a heavy responsibility, which cannot be shifted to another : And that according as we act our part amidst the distractions and temptations of the world, so shall we be here and hereafter happy or miserable. From the outset in our career, as you will readily learn, we are beset by two opposite and rival tendencies one towards evil, and producing undue self- esteem, bad temper, disregard of the rights of others, cunning, meanness, dishonesty, malice, falsehood, intem- perance, and other contemptible vices ; the other towards good, and, under God's blessing, productive of purity of thought, uprightness, truth, respect for the feelings and rights of our fellow-creatures, and, in all likelihood, mental tranquillity and comfort till the end of our days. Life may be described as a constant war between these rival tendencies, and young as you are, you must make your choice of the part you desire to take. To commence, you are called on to be obedient to parents, guardians, teachers ; tractable in learning what well- disposed persons, more experienced than yourself, place before you ; resolute in overcoming petty obstacles ; and prompt to deny yourself indulgences inappropriate to your position, if not absolutely sinful. We should recommend you to do all this, for the reward is great even if it amounted to no more than the approval of A WORD PRELIMINARY. II your own conscience. You will understand, however, that a course of this kind cannot be followed without resisting every evil inclination, and that you cannot do so without incurring some degree of present pain or mortification. Are you, in short, craving God's assistance, desirous to put on the whole armour of good resolution, and battle manfully against the paltry temp- tations to err, which stand in your way, and so achieve a glorious triumph ? or are you content to yield shame- fully to base inclinations, to follow the advice of bad companions, and so sacrifice your good name and immortal hopes, for the sake of merely momentary gratifications ? You may probably have read that pleasing allegory, by John Bunyan, the Pilgrim's Progress, in which are symbolised the difficulties which beset a Christian in his journey through life. We will recall a passage to your remembrance. It is that in which the Interpreter is described as shewing Christian a ' stately palace, beauti- ful to behold,' into which, however, no one could effect an entrance without performing certain feats of valour. ' Then the Interpreter took him and led him up toward the door of the palace ; and behold, at the door stood a great company of men, as desirous to go in, but durst not. There also sat a man at a little distance from the door, at a table-side, with a book and his ink-horn before him, to take the name of him that should enter therein ; he saw, also, that in the doorway stood many men in armour to keep it, being resolved to do to the men that would enter what hurt and mischief they could. Now was Christian somewhat in amaze. At last, when every man started back for fear of the armed men, Christian saw a man of a very stout countenance come up to the 12 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. man that sat there to write, saying : " Set down my name, sir ; " the which, when he had done, he saw the man draw his sword, and put a helmet upon his head, and rush toward the door upon the armed men, who laid upon him with deadly force j but the man, not at all discouraged, fell to cutting and hacking most fiercely. So, after he had received and given many wounds to those that attempted to keep him out, he cut his way through them all, and pressed forward into the palace ; at which there was a pleasant voice heard from those that were within, saying : " Come in, come in ; Eternal glory thou shall win." So he went in, and was clothed with such garments as they.' In this allegorical incident is figured the heroic ardour which must be necessarily exerted in the good work set before you. To conquer, you must valiantly push on, in patience and amidst tribulation, trampling difficulties under foot. Let us hear you courageously say : ' SET DOWN MY NAME, SIR ! ' THE PERSON. "C*VERY human being consists of two things a "-^ perishable body or person, and an imperishable soul. In this last, we include the mind, or moral and intellectual faculties. It is proper that both these things should engage your attention. To begin with, we shall here say something of the person. For your THE PERSON. 13 own interest and comfort, you should know how to so manage your person as to preserve your bodily health, and give satisfaction to parents and friends. Remember that in this and some other matters you are not entitled to do as you like. As a member of civilised society, you are under an obligation to be neat and clean, to do nothing that will be offensive, to avoid everything like slovenliness. We have no doubt that such have been the advices given to you by parents and teachers. A machine may be observed to work smoothly, and to last according as its various parts are well adjusted and kept in proper order. A human being, in his physical organisation, is a kind of machine. He con- sists of a fine adjustment of parts, each adapted and designed to perform a particular function, and to last a certain length of time. But, as in the case ef the machine, much depends on the way that the parts are kept in order. If any particular part is overloaded with work, a derangement ensues throughout the whole system, which either languishes or stands still. The standing still of the human machine, is Death. Every one of course knows that he must die some time or other. Death may come in youth, middle life, or in old age : but come it must, sooner or later. The parts of which the body is formed wear out and decay, or are damaged by casualties : a part more weakened than the rest gives way, and then the general movement stops. Life is at an end. Nature appears to have assigned about seventy years as the length of a man's life. As a general principle, the machine has been constructed to last that time. Some persons, indeed, live to eighty, and even ninety years of age ; a few reach a hundred : but all these are 14 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. exceptions to a common rule. With ordinary health and care, a man may hope to enjoy a life of sixty, sixty- five, .Or seventy years; but at the end of the last- mentioned period he must calculate on being required to bid good-bye to mortal existence, and enter the great eternity beyond. Life is a kind of journey. It has been compared to a pilgrimage. We travel, as it were, over a certain space of time, in the course of which we are exposed to a variety of seen and unseen dangers. Some of these dangers infer bad health and decay in the animal economy ; others, more prompt and extreme, lead to almost immediate dissolution. From weakness of con- stitution inherited from parents, imperfect management, or other causes not easily to be explained, many children die before their fourth year. Having got over the troubles and diseases of infancy, among which are included teething, whooping-cough, measles, small-pox, and scarlet fever the child at length reaches the period of puberty, when there is a change in the constitution, preparatory to manhood or womanhood. This is a critical period of life, extending from twelve to sixteen years of age ; and many die in coming through it. Next comes the period of manhood, in which the growth of the person is completed. The common law makes distinctions according to these stages of progress. From birth to the age of seven years, the human being is called an infant ; from seven to fourteen years, he is a pupil; and from four- teen to twenty-one years, he is a minor. At twenty-one, he is said to reach majority, or to come of age ; and he is then allowed to take charge of his own affairs. Up to the age of thirty, one is still considered to be THE PERSON. 15 a young man. From thirty to fifty is the period of middle life ; a man at forty-five being in his prime. At fifty to fifty-five, he begins to feel the approaches of- age; his physical powers become languid, though in mind he is still perhaps vigorous. Certain indications remind him that he is on the downhill of life. He loses his teeth ; his eyesight fails, and he requires, to use spectacles ; he feels a certain stiffening in the joints ; and his hair either drops off or becomes gray. At sixty-three, he reaches the grand climacteric, or ordinary limit of health and strength. After this period, there is usually a visible decay, and, as already mentioned, from seventy to eighty, life comes to a close. Circumstances, for the most part under cognisance and control, greatly influence the conditions which have just been alluded to. Some persons are prematurely old ; a vast number die young and in middle life, long before the period which they ought to have reached. You may observe men at thirty and thirty-five to have already a haggard look ; and in London and other large cities, you hear of men being cut off suddenly about forty-five. On the whole, comparatively few enjoy what is called ' a green old age.' When one considers the remarkable complexity and delicacy of the interior mechanism of the human body, the wonder is that people live so long as they do. But nature is full of wise provisions to sustain the animal economy; and what we desire to call your special attention to, is the fact, that health, strength, and length of days are really, in a great measure, dependent, under Providence, on the will and conduct of the individual. It is of course important that you commence with a good constitution, inherited from healthy parents. 1 6 THE Yourrrs COMPANION. Unfortunately, many children have not this advantage ; and being essentially weak or diseased in some parts of their system, their whole life is a struggle with bad health, and they die prematurely. The diseases most frequently inherited are pulmonary consumption and scrofula kindred diseases arising from imprudences of some sort. Assuming that you possess the inestimable advantage of a naturally good constitution sound both in body and mind and that you have reached the age of reflection, it behoves you to do nothing that will sap the foundations of a healthy system. We wish you to have a distinct consciousness, that health and long life will depend greatly on your own conduct. By intem- perance, vicious indulgences, and irregularities of one kind or other, you may so weaken the constitution as to bring on a painful and premature old age. On the other hand, by shunning every pernicious practice, by temperance and regularity of habits, and by the placidity of mind which good conduct insures, you may preserve a vigorous state of health, which will greatly contribute to length of days. In youth, you wander among pitfalls, and to avoid falling into them requires the utmost circumspection. The allurements of passion can only be withstood by bold efforts of the understanding, along with a sincere and deep-seated piety. Do not, on any account, engage in conversations or read any book calculated to pollute the imagination, and seduce you into practices alike sinful and detrimental to health. Consider that youi constitution is a sacred and valuable trust a link in a series of generations between past and future times and that, consequently, any voluntary outrage upon it is a positive offence against nature. THE PERSON. 17 One can speak only with the deepest sorrow of the reckless manner in which many young persons ruin their constitutions by various forms of intemperance ; of these, we need only allude to the smoking of tobacco and the drinking of intoxicating liquors both pernicious in a high degree to youth. Never allow a pipe or a cigar to enter your mouth hold tobacco in utter detestation ; and let the drinking of intoxicating liquors be held in equal abhorrence. ' Every act of intoxica- tion,' says a respectable medical authority, ' puts nature to the expense of a fever, in order to discharge the poisonous draught. When this is repeated almost every day, it is easy to foresee the consequences fevers occasioned by drinking fevers which frequently end in an inflammation of the breast, liver, or brain, and pro- duce fatal effects.' Smoking causes expectoration, which in itself is injurious ; for the saliva is required for diges- tion, and habitual spitting, besides being most offensive, is weakening to the system. In short, we earnestly recommend you to be an adherent of temperance, by abstaining alike from intoxicating liquors and tobacco. In the human system, there are three leading functions which require to work harmoniously. These are the nutritive, the excretory, and the respiratory functions, each having a distinct apparatus. If any of these be put out of order, illness is the conse- quence. The body, you can easily perceive, requires a certain quantity of food and drink. It needs to be nourished, in order to supply material for the continued exhaustion. Nature is not very nice as to the kind of food to be Jaken. Good health is best secured by exceedingly plain fare. Delicacies are not at all B 18 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. necessary; on the contrary, they are calculated to derange the stomach, and to produce discomfort. Some young persons, through ignorance and per- verted tastes, consume large quantities of sweetmeats, such as sugar-candy and various kinds of comfits. The results of these practices are derangement of the stomach and injury to the teeth. You are advised to beware of sweetmeats and over-sweetened dishes. They may be pleasant to the palate, but are injurious to health. One of the most important rules connected with the nutritive process is to take food only at certain periods in the day, leaving a proper interval between. Young persons may eat four times in the day; but those in advanced life should not eat oftener than three times. The intervals between ought not to be less than four hours. Comparatively few people know how to eat properly. We should eat slowly, so as to masticate or reduce the food to a soft pulpy mass. Instead of this, many bolt their food before it is half chewed. In chewing, saliva exudes from glands in the mouth, and mingles with the food ; and this intermixture is indispensable to diges- tion. By eating too quickly, the food is swallowed in a half-chewed state, and being also deprived of its salivary liquid, it does not readily dissolve in the stomach. Eating quickly is, therefore, one of the worst habits you could acquire. Take time to your meals ; not, indeed, to dawdle over them, but to perform the act of eating properly. Dinner cannot with propriety be taken in less than half-an-hour. It is an old observation, that ' every one should find out the trim of his own constitution, and know what THE PERSON. 19 it wants.' Certain kinds of diet may be beneficial to some, but injurious to others. Persons having a tendency to grow fat should eat less copiously than those of a spare habit of body. In some, there is a tendency to acidity in the stomach, which causes head- ache and other unpleasant consequences; in such cases, sugar should be avoided in any article of diet. On this account, tea would, for the most part, be better without than with sugar. While chewing such as a piece of bread, meat, or any other substance do not sip or drink any kind of liquid ; because by doing so, you improperly dilute the saliva. Swallow what you are masticating before taking liquid into the mouth. For want of early instruc- tion on this point, many persons fill the mouth with tea while eating at breakfast, so as to aid the process of moistening the food. No doubt, this is an agreeable method of simplifying mastication, for by adopting it, bread and butter or other viands can be swallowed rapidly : but it is injurious to health, and should be avoided. Chew and swallow without hurry, and drink deliberately afterwards. Special care must be taken not to drink tea, coffee, or any other liquid while it is hot ; for anything too hot is hurtful to the stomach. If the liquid be very hot when poured out, let it stand a little to cool. Very generally, people take too much liquid at their meals. A safer plan is to drink only a small quantity, whether it be milk or water, tea or any other beverage. We have known instances of persons with weak diges- tive powers greatly to improve their health, by reducing the quantity of liquid at meals, and only drinking an hour or two afterwards. As a general rule, it is 20 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. always safer to drink in the interval between, than at meals ; for by that means we allow the digestive process to go on undisturbed. This will appear evident when we consider the nature of digestion. As soon as the food, in a properly masticated state, descends into the stomach, it is submitted to the action of the gastric juice, a liquid secreted by the vessels of the stomach, and which acts as a solvent on the mass presented to it. If the food arrives in an imper- fectly masticated state, the gastric juice has great difficulty in dissolving it ; and indigestion and uncom- fortable sensations are the consequence. Headache is very commonly a result of weak digestion. In ordinary circumstances, the stomach requires from three to four hours to digest and transfer the food to the next stage of assimilation ; and as the process should go on uninterruptedly, it is evidently improper to send a fresh meal into the stomach before the pre- ceding one has been got fairly rid of. By doing so, the stomach is hampered in its operations ; the fresh and undigested mass is mingled with that which is already in a partially finished state, and unpleasant sensations are experienced. Hence the necessity for timing meals, and the impropriety of eating morsels now and morsels then, at irregular intervals. Lunch- ing, or taking a kind of half-meal between breakfast and dinner, is not to be commended. When a sense of hunger is felt during this interval, the best thing to eat is a dry biscuit. Abernethy biscuits are generally recommended and used for this purpose. Before eating a regular meal, there should be a short period of repose. Any excitement from walking or running, or from hard labour, should have time to THE PERSON. 21 cease. In the same manner, there ought to be a cessation from active exertion after a meal, in order to allow the first stages of digestion to proceed unin- terruptedly. The practice of rising abruptly from a meal rushing off to business as soon as the food is swallowed is most reprehensible, and is always indica- tive of a low tone of breeding. Meals, however, should not be eaten with gravity or gloom, as if you were performing an unpleasant duty. Physiologists tell us that cheerfulness, and even laughter, powerfully help digestion. The play of the feelings stimulates the action of the stomach, and pro- motes the secretions which assist the digestive process. In former times, kings and nobles employed buffoons and jesters to utter droll sayings during meals, so as to excite merriment at table. In modern times, jocu- larity needs no such aid, as it flows spontaneously in small and well-assorted dinner-parties. The meals taken during a day should resemble a pyramid a broad basis in the morning with the point drawn off towards night. The proper plan is to com- mence with a good breakfast, and to eat dinner early in the afternoon. After this, little should be taken. The custom of eating supper is now very properly abandoned ; for few things are more injurious than going to bed with a full stomach. The old saying ' After dinner sit a while, after supper walk a mile,' is founded on ages of sound experience. As a safe rule, from four to five hours should elapse after a full meal before going to bed. There have been numerous discussions respecting the kinds of food to be taken ; some have insisted strongly on the necessity of confining ourselves exclu- 22 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. sively to a vegetable diet, while others have recom- mended greater variety. Going to nature for our guide, we find that, in the construction of our system, there is a clear indication that we may live on a mixture of a'nimal and vegetable food, according to circumstances. Animal food is mainly a conden- sation of the properties of vegetable food. Climate is an essential regulator of diet In warm and enervating regions, people live healthily on small quantities of farinaceous food the Hindus, for example, living almost habitually on rice ; but in colder regions, where a keen air and active exercise make a demand on the system, animal food is required in lesser or greater quantities. A portion of animal and a portion of vegetable food seem, therefore, desirable in such countries as Great Britain ; and, in practice, we may be said to have arrived at what is reasonable and proper on the subject. Delicacy in diet, as has been already hinted at, is not desirable. We cannot live properly on condiments, jellies, and other trifles. Nature demands a due propor- tion of the coarser elements in diet. The stomach requires to have something substantial to operate upon. After the essential properties of the food are absorbed in the course of transmission through the system, there needs to be a due amount of refuse. Very fine bread, therefore, is not so well adapted to our wants, as that which retains a portion of the husks or bran. So well is this now understood, that many persons eat brown bread in preference to that which is of a white and fine quality. The excretory functions may be touched on very lightly. In the economy of all animals, there are THE PERSON. 23 processes for expelling impurities. A certain proportion of the daily food, robbed of its nutritive properties, finally passes oft" through the lower intestines or bowels ; while for the expulsion of the liquid refuse in the system, nature has provided other means as beneficent as they are ingenious. Let every youth understand this important truth that on the due, the regular, and the daily liberation of excretions, depends the enjoyment of good health. Carelessness in this respect produces serious derange- ment. As formerly stated, the human system is to be viewed as a creature of habit. Whatever we accustom it to, that it demands. There is a principle of periodicity in nature, which is on no account to be neglected. The bowels, therefore, being accustomed to relieve themselves at a certain time daily every morning, after breakfast, if possible seem to reckon upon it ; and all suitable arrangements to that end are consequently desirable. Everything like a hesi- tancy or stoppage in the action of the lower intestines, should act like an admonition. To keep the ' bowels open, the feet dry and warm, and the head clear,' is one of the most sage recommendations which medical experience has to offer. It need hardly be said, that an undue retention of urine is equally dangerous. The most deplorable consequences have ensued from neglecting what common-sense points out in this respect Unfortunately, it seems to be little understood that the whole surface of the body is composed of exceedingly small outlets, which ought constantly to be exuding a portion of refuse from the system. These outlets are the pores in the skin, too minute to be seen with the 24 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. naked eye, but of vast importance in liberating from the person what, if retained, would produce a bad state of health. What passes off through the pores, is usually called the insensible perspiration an exhalation of invisible matters, accompanied with a visible perspiration in the case of excessive heat or violent exercise. In ordinary circumstances, from two to six pounds of perspired matter are expelled in twenty-four hours ; this being, in point of fact, the chief waste of the system, the remainder passing off by the channels already referred to, or by expirations from the lungs. Perspiration ought on no account to be checked. The pores should be continually open, and free to execute their function. Frequent ablution or washing is the best means for attaining this end. Sea-bathing will have little effect, for salt water is not a detergent. The warm or tepid bath, or at least a sponge with pure water and soap, are the most available methods. Sponging every morning during summer, and at rarer intervals at other seasons, employing merely a wide shallow vessel to stand in, is a plan for securing cleanli- ness of person, to which even the most humble can have little difficulty in resorting. Frequent changing of clothing next to the skin is a great aid to cleanliness as will be more particularly alluded to when we come to speak of the Toilet. In the upper part of the body, usually called the chest, are situated the lungs two vascular substances, one on each side ; that on the right consisting of three sec- tions or lobes ; that on the left being smaller in bulk, and consisting of only two lobes. The lungs are composed of an immense number of cells, adapted to receive the air, and they are filled at each inspiration. THE PERSON. 25 The act of breathing is a process to inspire and expire air, and so alternately fill and exhaust the lungs. The trachea or windpipe, communicating from the mouth to the lungs, facilitates the process. Breathing is an involuntary action ; it goes on uninterruptedly while sleeping or waking ; nature having evidently taken pains to provide for its operation every instant of our existence. The reason for this excessive care is of easy explanation. The blood, in circulating through the system, requires to be presented to the air in order to absorb from it a certain vital property oxygen, and to part with a certain vitiated property carbonic acid gas ; this latter being liberated each time we send forth the breath. In filling the cells of the lungs, the air has between it and the blood only a thin membrane, which does not prevent the absorption and exhalation here spoken of. The common atmosphere being bounteously provided with oxygen for our use, and our organisation having insured constancy in breathing, any derangement in the respiratory functions, and consequent bad health, could scarcely have been expected. But in this as in many other cases, carelessness leads to results not contemplated in the economy of nature. All the parts concerned in inhaling and exhaling air the trachea and bronchial tubes, and cells in the lungs are delicate, and suscep- tible of injury from cold and humidity. Undue expo- sure of the person to cold and wet, sitting with damp feet, or neglecting to shift damp clothes, has often a fatal effect. Inflammation in the lungs or parts con- nected with them ensues; the first demonstration of which is usually catarrh, or what is called a cold. The symptoms are coughing, pain in the throat, c., which 26 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION 7 . are significant of danger, and require to be promptly remedied. You are particularly warned against treating a cold lightly. If disregarded, it may lead to ulceration and wasting of the lungs, or pulmonary consumption one of the most fatal diseases among young persons in England ; and which, in many instances, is traceable to some apparently insignificant act of neglect years previous to the period at which it assumes a threatening aspect. Disease in the respiratory organs, fevers, and other fatal maladies, arise, likewise, from imbibing air ren- dered foul by living in confined apartments. The air coming from the lungs loaded with impurities, is unfit for being again inhaled ; it is, in point of fact, poisoned, and so being unsuitable for animal life, ought to escape into the general atmosphere, where there is provision for its purification. The open air, during the day, when it is mild in temperature, and happens to be not too humid, is therefore best adapted for respiration. During the night, it is less wholesome, as well as less pleasant. The nearer the condition of air in our houses is to that of the atmosphere in an agreeable summer day in the country, the better is it adapted for health. Ordinarily, no special provision is made for supplying pure air to houses ; and none is admitted except by the casual opening of doors and windows, or by crevices in different places. The greater number of dwellings are consequently much too close, and the air in them is considerably vitiated. This is particu- larly the case in sleeping-apartments, theatres, assembly and work rooms, churches and schools. It is in bed- rooms that most harm is usually done. These are THE PERSON. 27 smaller than other rooms, and they are usually kept close during the night ; when several persons sleep in one room, the result is most injurious. In large, and also in some small towns, the air is rendered noxious, not only by the closeness of the streets and alleys, but by smoke and other impurities ; among which are included exhalations from ill-managed drains and collections of decaying substances. Con- stant residence in these spots, along with a disregard of cleanliness, is known to produce disorders of various kinds; for the lungs are habitually charged with an unwholesome, at least not a perfectly pure air. Atten- tion to ventilation is therefore one of the things which no one can disregard with impunity. It is now well known that, as regards health, there is much virtue in sunlight, more particularly in the direct rays of the sun. Your apartments, therefore, should, if possible, face the sun, besides being open to the free action of the air. A person in good health feels no pain anywhere, and he has a pleasure in existence. As soon as any derangement takes place, unpleasant sensations are experienced perhaps internal pains, sickness, or head- ache. A notion of what is wrong is obtained by an examination of the tongue and the pulse. These two points you should understand. The tongue is always looked at by medical men who are called in to give advice in the case of illness. The reason for their doing so is to learn the condition of the stomach. If the digestive functions are in good order, the tongue is clean and reddish in appearance ; but if they be deranged from over eating or drinking, or from having taken some improper substance or liquid 28 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. into the stomach, it becomes white and furred the upper surface of the tongue being in reality a continua- tion of the inner surface of the stomach. At a single glance, therefore, a medical attendant can tell whether the illness is connected with the functions of the stomach ; and there is no reason why you should not be able to detect digestive derangement from the same symptoms. It might be ridiculous for you to be fre- quently looking at the state of the tongue ; but totally to neglect this kind of examination would be equally improper. Take a look now and then at your tongue, to see whether you are pursuing a right method of living. In the ordinary circumstances of life in towns, the tongue is seldom perfectly clean ; and a slight foulness is accordingly of little moment. But if you observe, from time to time, that the tongue is thickly studded with a whitish roughness up the centre, you may be certain that the stomach is seriously out of order ; and you are by such symptoms admonished to be more temperate, or in some other way to alter your system of living. The morning, at rising, is the best time to examine the tongue. The pulse is the throbbing of an artery ; that which is commonly felt by medical men being situated at the wrist. They feel it with the forefingers, and reckon the number of beats by the second-hand of a watch. The rate of pulsation in a person in the prime of life, is from sixty-five to seventy-five beats in a minute. In child- hood, the pulse is much quicker from a hundred to a hundred and forty-five beats ; and in old age it again becomes slower than the medium standard. The circulation of the blood through the system is one of the leading features in the animal economy. THE PERSON. 29 From the heart, the centre of the circulation, the blood is conveyed through the body by vessels called arteries, and is brought back to the same part by veins. The purpose of its thus making the circuit of the whole body, is to supply the necessary waste which takes place by perspiration and the perpetual operation of the excretory organs. The blood is supported and restored to its nutritious state by the chyle a juice formed in the stomach and intestines from the digested food. The lungs and the heart are organs intimately connecter; with the circulation ; and it may be generally explained that it is by its passage through the lungs that the blood, on exposure to the air-cells, receives its bright- red colour ; and that it is the action of the heart which impels the circulation to the extremities. The beating of the pulse, therefore, is merely a symptom of the heart's continued action ; and hence the value of feeling and reckoning the number of throbs per minute. As long as the beats amount to about seventy in the minute, in a well-grown person, the circulation is going on properly ; but when they rise much beyond that number as to eighty or ninety, feverishness is indicated, and a remedy ought to be applied. EXERCISE. "\1 7"E observe that the lower animals are fond of exercise, according to their instincts and the necessities of their nature. Beasts of prey, browsing quadrupeds, dogs, birds, fishes, and other animals, respectively move about, not only in quest of food, but apparently for the gratification of rambling and exer- 30 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. cising their muscular energy ; such being essential for the preservation of their health. Children are, in the same manner, fond of active exertion ; they run about, play, and indulge in boisterous vociferation all which forms a useful exercise of their system. A love of exercise is natural in man. We have not been created with a view to passing our lives in torpidity or idleness. Exercise is of two kinds muscular and mental : the body requires to be exercised in its various muscles; the mental faculties need to be kept in a proper degree of activity. Bodily Exercise. With regard to this kind of exercise, it is observable that in proportion as any muscle or limb is exercised in its appropriate functions, it improves in strength and development. Physiologists explain this phenomenon by saying that whenever one of the organs is put in motion, a greater flow of blood and nervous energy is sent to the part, so as to supply the waste that is caused. When one state of action follows close upon another, the renovating part of the process exceeds the waste, and an increase of new substance, as well as an addition of fresh power, takes place. On the contrary, when an organ is little exercised, the process of renova- tion goes on languidly, and to a less extent than that of the waste, and the parts consequently become flabby, shrunken, and weak. The bones are subject to the same laws, and they increase or diminish in dimensions and solidity according as they are exercised. Applying these principles, it is seen that much depends on the proper exercise of the limbs and other parts of our system. By habitually sitting still or reclining, we may shrivel up the lower limbs, and so weaken the muscles of the back, as to be at length EXERCISE. 31 unable to stand. On the contrary, by duly exercising these parts, great strength of limb and power of walking and standing may be produced. So also by exercising the hand or arm, these become strong and energetic. What arm, for example, is so muscular and strong as that of a blacksmith ? what leg so firm and alert as that of a dancing-master ? These facts are well understood by men who go into training for feats of walking, rowing, and other varieties of exercise. Bodily exercise, to be most efficacious, requires to be performed in a sufficiently sound state of health, and at proper intervals ; it is also of importance that the exercise should be of a nature to give pleasure that is, in harmony with the mental operations. In short, a certain buoyancy of mind is required to give due effect to the muscular action ; and without this, any species of exertion will be of comparatively inferior value. Hence, the necessity for taking regular daily exercise in the open air ; walking, if possible, for some object as, for instance, to and from a place of professional employment. A walk of two miles three times a day is, in usual circumstances, not too much. If the walk be partly uphill, so much the better, for the exertion will in this case exercise and expand the lungs. Any kind of recreation that at the same time exercises the arms and muscles in the upper part of the body, is also to be commended. The rule, in degree, applies to young females as well as young men. Walking out daily, except when the weather is intolerable, is a per- emptory duty incumbent on all in every class of society. Persons who neglect taking regular exercise in the open air, or who, from various engagements, are pre- vented from doing so, become pale and sickly in 32 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. appearance ; and usually lose their health and strength. Arriving at this condition, they, are probably roused to the necessity of altering their course of life ; they hurry to the country; and then, without due consideration, commence long walking-excursions, which they soon feel to be too much for their weakened physical frame. We desire to caution young persons against these abrupt and excessive feats of pedestrianism. We offer the same caution against boisterous exercises, such as foot- ball, by which serious injuries are often sustained. Let all consider their previous habits and muscular powers, and never carry their exercise to the point at which the waste in the system is greater than the nutri- tion or power of endurance. We have known growing, and not very strong lads, to be seriously injured by suddenly beginning long walks, or indulging in some other kinds of hard exercise. Long walks, or any other kind of severe bodily exercise, ought not to be taken before breakfast, when the system is exhausted ; neither ought it to be taken immediately after a full meal. In a word, exercise, like everything else, should be in moderation, and indulged in not by fits and starts, but as a regular pleasure and duty ; so as to maintain, if not robust health, at least a condition free from complaint Swimming. We recommend all young persons, whether boys or girls, to learn to swim, not only as an agreeable exercise, but as an accomplishment which may be the means of saving life in case of accidents with boats or ships at sea. The art of swimming, which may be learned in a few lessons, is beginning to be recognised as a necessary part of education. EXERCISE. 33 Mental Exercise is subject to the same rules as those applicable to the muscular system. As, by disuse, muscle becomes emaciated, bone softens, blood-vessels are obliterated, and nerves lose their natural structure, so by disuse does the mind fall out of its proper state, and become weak, torpid, or diseased ; and as, by over-exertion, the waste of the animal system exceeds the supply, and debility and unsoundness are produced, so by over-exertion are the mental functions liable to be deranged and destroyed. The processes are in every respect similar, and the effects bear an exact relation to each other. As with the bodily powers, the mental are to be increased in magnitude and energy by a degree of exercise measured with a just regard to their ordinary health. What we have to attend to, is to keep the mind, like the body, in moderate exercise; engaging the mental faculties in proper, not undue activity ; and always keeping in remembrance that each faculty may be sharpened and strengthened in proportion as we employ it on suitable objects of thought Narrowly examining society, you will perceive that a number of persons, those in large cities particularly, live in direct violation of the laws which nature has established for the regulation of health. Many suffer themselves to be absorbed in professional pursuits, to the exclusion of almost any other object. The whole day, with insignificant intervals for hurried meals, is devoted to business, leaving no time for relaxation, outdoor exercise, or even for thought. Only one thing is ever in view, the acquisition of wealth, as if money were the supreme good. Another numerous class, including lawyers and those engaged in literary occupa- c 34 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. tions, are to the same extent engrossed in studies which make an unduly severe and protracted demand on the thinking faculties. Instances are not unusual of the powers of the mind being kept on the stretch for fifteen or sixteen hours a day over a period of years the persons guilty of these excesses being probably aware that they are doing wrong, and that their conduct must have a fatal termination. And fatal are the con- sequences of such outrages. Wealth, high station, reputation, are perhaps gained ; but at what a sacri- fice ! The nervous system shattered, paralysis, madness, diseased appetite, sleeplessness, disorder of the brain leading to deprivation of sight, premature old age, and sudden death, are among the ordinary effects; at the very least, health is so impaired, that life, instead of being a pleasure, is felt to be a burden. ' Vanity of vanities, all is vanity,' is the retributory exclamation. The proper aims of existence have been sacrificed for a shadow. In order in some measure to invigorate the flagging spirits, recourse is perhaps had to intoxicating liquors, which, though stimulating for the time, give no real strength. Yet, as serving a temporary and apparently essential purpose, stimulants assume the character of a necessary of life, and accordingly take their place in the economy of every household, or are offered for sale in tempting superfluity. If in this manner intemperance makes its insidious approaches, if drunkenness be a national vice, where lies the blame but in that depres- sion of spirits and that physical prostration which are incidental to a continued violation of great natural obligations? No small part of the error, indeed, is found in that imperfect social system, which, exalting EXERCISE. 35 wealth and extravagance, views moderate means and moderation in living with indifference, if not contempt, and neglects, by precept and example, to intermingle rational relaxation with the ordinary drudgeries of existence. Perhaps it is not too much to say that bad health and bad habits of various kinds, may also in part be traceable to inconsiderate though well-meant attempts to cultivate the highest moral attainments. Any absorption of mind in this respect, which causes the human frame to fall into disorder, is undoubtedly as inconsistent with true religion as with sound policy. In Man are comprehended two things in intimate and harmonious adaptation to the laws of the Creator ; and a neglect of either can only be followed by disaster. While cultivating, therefore, the most noble sentiments, in seeking to be indued with the highest spiritual graces, we need constantly to keep in mind that we are, after all, frail creatures, bearing about with us an animal economy which demands not only nourishment and raiment, but that measure of exercise and amusement which, imparting buoyancy to the feelings, will invigorate the system, and indispose us to seek relief in artificial and clandestine indulgences. In other words, health is best secured by moderation in all our pursuits, along with a happy exercise of all the faculties and feelings ; the body as well as the mind, in youth and age, enjoying its appropriate exercise, irrespective of the fashions and follies which factitiously influence society. It is impossible to offer too strong a warning to the young on these points. Let them, while entering on the active duties of life, be aware that an excessive tasking of the mental faculties, and an excessive appli- cation to business, are almost sure to be ruinous to 36 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. health, and that the danger will not be lessened because the aims in view are commendable. We may as surely kill ourselves in overstraining after a good as after a bad object. Admonished by growing feebleness and demonstra- tions of disease, as well as by the persuasions of friends, some stop short in time to prevent fatal consequences ; though rarely until considerable injury has been done to the constitution. Medicine, as is found, can do little to restore vigour to the wasted powers. Restora- tion to health is sought in the discipline of hydropathic establishments, where, by regulated exercise, bathing, and plainness of diet, an attempt is sometimes success- fully made to undo a course of error. Would it not be preferable to avoid, as far as possible, the necessity for resorting to these expedients ? With the hints here offered, you can, under Providence, make your choice health, peace of mind, length of days, on the one hand ; the risk of a broken constitution, mental dis- quietude, and shortened existence, on the other. S L E E P D REAMING. OLEEP is a condition of repose in the nervous v system, along with the loss of sensation and every form of consciousness, and is as necessary as a restora- tive as daily food. Night, of course, is the proper season for sleep ; but how long the sleep should con- tinue, is not so certain. Some, persons will remain in good health with but six hours' sleep in the twenty-four hours, while others need seven, eight, or nine. Seven SLEEP DREAMING. 37 to eight hours is considered a fair allowance, and, unless in particular circumstances, you should not exceed that amount. Although sleep is a natural and involuntary state, it may be greatly promoted by maintaining a good state of health ; by daily open-air exercise, or by riding or sailing with the face exposed to the air ; by having the stomach free from a heavy meal, or any indigestible substance ; and by the mind being undisturbed with cares. Over-fatigue, indulgence in food or drink beyond what nature requires, want of proper exercise, and mental disquietude, are all causes of sleeplessness. Breathing in a confined or overheated apartment is also a not unusual cause of broken slumber. The tempera- ture most suitable for sleep is about sixty degrees, which gives the sensation of neither heat nor cold, and admits of few bed-clothes being used. The best posture for sleep is to lie on the right or left side, with the arms crossed over the breast in front, and the head well up on the pillow. The mouth should be shut, so that the breathing may be carried on exclu- sively through the nose. Some persons acquire a habit of sleeping with the mouth open, which causes the grotesque and offensive action of snoring. Going to sleep while lying on the back should be avoided, as, besides inducing the sleeper to snore, it is apt to cause disturbing dreams. It is very injurious to sleep with the head under the bed-clothes ; for in that case the sleeper continually inhales impure air. It is, for a similar reason, im- proper to "draw curtains close round the bed. When the air of the room is agreeable, the better plan is to sleep in a bed without curtains. Should the apart- 38 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. merit be ill ventilated, you may let the door stand partly open ; but opening the window is not commend- able, for it may let in a draught of cold air. It is likewise improper to sleep in the shirt which is used during the day. Every one ought to have a suitable night-shirt of cotton, to be put on when going to bed, and taken off in the morning. On rising, the bed-clothes should be thrown down, and the room cooled and ventilated. When lying down to sleep, the mind should be as composed as possible. Thinking ought to be guarded against, as productive of wakefulness. Those who, from nervous irritability, are habitually bad sleepers, resort to various expedients to secure the blessing of repose. One of the most successful plans consists in mentally repeating a familiar poem or psalm, so as to alter the train of thought, and lull the consciousness. It is a well-ascertained fact that sleep begins at the extremities; the feet sleep first, and then the rest of the person. On this account, in order to fall asleep, we require not only to compose the thinking faculties, but to keep the feet still. The feet must also have an agreeable warmth. With a consciousness of this fact, the North American Indians, when on distant expedi- tions, sleep with their feet towaids a fire which they kindle for the purpose. Certain drugs act as an opiate and produce sleep, when ordinary means fail ; but these should never be taken unless by medical sanction. The practice of using opiates is most detrimental to health ; and if persevered in, is ruinous to the constitution. Coffee and other beverages act variously on different indivi- duals. They exhilarate some, and others they send to SLEEP DREAMING. 39 sleep. Tea usually acts as an exhilarant, by stimu- lating the nervous system, and should not be taken less than four hours before going to bed. Dreaming is an exceedingly curious mental pheno- menon, and was at one time so little understood as to be viewed with superstitious respect; even in the present day, among the uninstructed classes, dreams are supposed to be a supernatural foreshadowing of events. Let every one disabuse his mind of these fancies. Dreams are an invariable indication of imper- fect sleep ; they never occur when the sleeper is in a state of thorough repose. The explanation of dreams is this : The memory, imagination, and some other mental manifestations are awake ; while the judgment and senses are asleep. The regulating principle being thus dormant or absent from its post, the wildest vagaries pass through the mind unchecked, and without a consciousness of their absurdity. Whatever disturbs us during sleep tends to arouse the imaginative faculties and to cause a dream that is, properly speaking, an imperfect train of thought When the mind in its waking state has been over- strained by the deep consideration of a particular subject, or strongly affected by some passing scene or circumstance, a certain train of imperfect recollec- tions intrudes on the sleeper as a dream. The extravagant nature of dreams is aggravated by conditions which occur during sleep. If we are greatly heated, or suffer from indigestion, the dreams assume a somewhat corresponding character. Indi- gestion arising from a heavy supper produces a horrible kind of dreaming called nightmare. The sleeper perhaps imagines that demons sit oppress- 40 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. ingly on his breast, mocking at his tortures ; or he probably dreams that he is tossed about on a troubled sea, and is every instant exposed to shipwreck ; there is, indeed, no limit to the variety of his sufferings. EARLY RISING. "C* ARLY rising is universally recommended to youth, -* " and volumes have been written to point out its advantages. Eight hours of sleep are stated to be sufficient, and more than this for young persons is not only useless but injurious. Supposing, therefore, you go to bed at ten o'clock, and that, from the effects of exercise and temperance, you almost immediately fall asleep, the time for rising in the morning should be six o'clock ; or, if you require to be at work earlier than this hour, go to bed at nine, and be astir by five o'clock. Every minute spent in bed after eight hours of sound and refreshing sleep, is a sheer waste of existence. The old rhyme about early rising is not unworthy of being remembered : ' Early to bed, and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.' Self-indulgent lads, with ill-regulated minds, occasion- ally fall into the practice of reading in bed, which besides tending to promote habits of indolence, is far from being beneficial to health. Reading in bed at night is particularly objectionable ; for it over-excites the brain at the time it should be allowed to repose and as sleep may steal on unconsciously before the EARL Y RISING. 41 light can be extinguished, there is no small danger of fire. For this latter reason, the keepers of lodging- houses very properly refuse to accommodate with apart- ments young men who are known to read in bed. Common-sense points out that the bed is not a place for study or the recreation of reading ; neither is it to be devoted to hours of half-waking slumber. Having had your due quantity of sleep, at once get up do not think a moment about it. If it be dark ; no matter. Light your candle, and begin the duties of the day. The writer of this, when at fifteen and sixteen years of age, made a practice of going to bed regularly at ten, and of rising at five o'clock ; by which means he was able to devote two hours every morning to a useful branch of study ; and to his acquisitions during these early hours he is inclined to trace not a little of his success in life. People are heard to complain that life is short, and yet, perhaps, those who say so are in the habit of spending several hours needlessly and indolently in bed. It may be shewn that the difference between rising every morning at six and at eight o'clock, supposing we go to bed at ten o'clock in each case, amounts in forty years to twenty-nine thousand hours, or three years, a hundred and twenty-one days, sixteen hours. This quantity of time will afford eight hours a day for ten years ; so that it is about equal to what a gift of ten years of additional life would be. It is at least matter of observation and certainty, that the hours spent lazily in bed could be devoted to a variety of useful purposes, which in effect is to make life more valuable and agreeable. What the young have to contend with in this, as in 42 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. other practices, is the ordinary usage of society. Vast numbers of people, from heedlessness or love of gaiety, sit up late at night, and consequently are late in rising. Others, who are at ease in their circumstances, are indifferent as to what hour they rise ; for they imagine they have nothing to do when they get up. The example of misspending time in bed is thus almost universal; and what is common is believed by the young to be right. Our recommendation, however, is to have no regard whatever to the numerous instances of people lying long in bed in the morning. Let every youth act for himself on the principle of doing what he believes to be right, and care for no one. The eminent judge, Lord Mansfield, when in court, made a practice of inquiring at aged witnesses to what they ascribed their long life ; and he almost invariably found, that, however differing in other matters, they had all been early risers. The celebrated Dr Cheyne, in his Essay on Health and Long Life, gives it as his opinion, that 'nothing can be more prejudicial to tender constitutions, studious and contemplative persons, than lying long in bed, after one is awake, or has slept a due and reasonable time. It necessarily,' he says, ' thickens the juices, enervates the solids, and weakens the consti- tution. A free open air is a kind of cold bath, especially after rising out of a warm bed, and consequently makes the circulation brisker and more complete, and braces up the solids, when lying in bed dissolves and soaks them in moisture. This is evident from the appetite and hunger which those that rise early feel beyond that which they get by lying long in bed.' John Wesley, the founder of the Methodists, who had studied the EARLY RISING. 43 art of healing, wrote a sermon on the advantages of early rising. He observes in it : ' One common effect of either sleeping too long or lying too long in bed, is weakness of sight, particularly that weakness which is of a nervous kind. When I was young, my sight was remarkably weak. Why is it stronger now than it was forty years ago ? I impute this principally to the blessing of God, who fits us to whatever He calls us to ; but undoubtedly the outward means which He has been pleased to bless was the rising early every morning.' Dr Wilson Philip, in his Treatise on Indi- gestion, says : ' Although it is of consequence to the debilitated to go early to bed, there are few things more hurtful to them than remaining in it too long. Getting up an hour or two earlier often gives a degree of vigour which nothing else can procure. For those who are not much debilitated, and sleep well, the best rule is to get out of bed soon after awaking in the morning. This at first may appear too early, for the debilitated require more sleep than the healthy; but rising early will gradually prolong the sleep on the succeeding night, till the quantity the patient enjoys is equal to his demand for it Lying late is not only hurtful by the relaxation it occasions, but also by occupying that part of the day at which exercise is most beneficial.' The Lord Chancellor More rose at four in the morning. Milton left his bed about the same hour ; so did Bishop Burnet the historian. Sir Matthew Hale, when a student, devoted sixteen out of twenty- four hours to study. Dr Parkhurst rose at five o'clock all the year round ; and Archdeacon Paley, and Drs Franklin and Priestley, all recommended and adopted the practice during the greatest portion of their lives. 44 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Sir Walter Scott wrote a large part of his novels early in the morning before breakfast. Early rising implies early going to bed. Late hours are a ruin to health and good looks. A good hour for retiring is ten o'clock, or a little later, so as to be fully asleep before eleven. The practice of early retiring to rest and early rising, at least helps materially not only to insure health, but to improve the worldly circumstances, and afford means for increasing in general knowledge. Lolling long in bed, in a wakeful state, may be pleasant, but unless the weather be particularly cold, better rise and set either to work or study, than nourish so odious a habit. Here is what Ebenezer Elliott has said in verse on the subject: ' Idler, why lie down to die ? Better rub than rust. Hark ! the lark sings in the sky, Die when die you must ! Day is waking, leaves are shaking ; Better rub than rust. In the grave there 's sleep enough ; Better rub than rust : Death, perhaps, is hunger-proof, Die when die you must ; Men are mowing, breezes blowing ; Better rub than rust. He who will not work, shall want ; Nought for nought is just Won't do must do when he can't ; Better rub than rust. Bees are flying, sloth is dying ; Better rub than rust,' 45 ) THE TOILET. T7 VERY one requires to clean and dress himself, and to do so is the proper business of the toilet. How far the decoration of the person may be carried, depends on taste and other circumstances ; but it may be assumed as a correct principle, that whatever renders the external appearance of an individual more agree- able than it would otherwise be, is allowable. Some persons may have a fancy to be slovens, and to despise ordinary customs, but all such crotchets are unworthy of imitation. Every fashion in attire may be safely followed that is not positively ridiculous or injurious to health. Cleanliness is the first duty of the toilet. All acknow- ledge this as a truth; but there are differences of opinion as to the degree to which cleanliness may bt carried. In proportion as we ascend in the scale of society, a regard for cleanliness is more conspicuous. A well-bred man is punctiliously clean and neat in his person. He has frequent ablutions in the cold or hot bath probably he uses the sponge-bath every morning; he is particular in washing his face, teeth, and hands, every morning on rising. Nothing could induce him to breakfast before performing these important offices of the toilet; for a neglect of them would render him exceedingly uncomfortable, and he would suffer in his own esteem. Then, he perhaps washes his hands again before going out ; once more he washes his face and hands when dressing for dinner ; 46 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. and last of all, he repeats the washing of face, teeth, and hands before going to bed. In short, among the higher classes of society, there is a continual round of duties tending to personal cleanliness, which, though perhaps carried to an extravagant length, is at least preferable to what is not uncommon, a total disregard for what is proper in this respect. Addressing ourselves more particularly to young men of the middle classes, we begin with rules for washing and dressing. For the sake of general health and invigoration, the cold bath has been already recommended. Sea-bathing, though not acting as a detergent to any great extent, is preferable to bathing in fresh water, on account of its exhilarating properties. Yet, moderation in the indulgence is necessary. You should never bathe more than once a day, nor when the stomach is loaded with food; it is also injurious to go into the water when hot and fatigued with walking. The best time for bathing is in the morning after rising, and before performing the final duties of the toilet. If sea-bathing drives the blood from the extremities, so as to whiten and benumb the fingers, you should desist from it In washing the face, some persons sputter and make other unpleasant noises all marks of underbreeding. Wash quietly and unobtrusively, and make as little slop as possible. Washing the teeth and mouth is an essential duty of the toilet, and is performed after washing the face. A small brush and glass of pure water are needed for the process. Tepid is preferable to cold water. The teeth should be brushed outside and inside, up and down, THE TOILET. 47 and every way, so as to remove all impurities what- soever. The duty of cleaning the teeth is, unfortunately, too much neglected. It may be said to be almost unknown among the humbler classes ; while, among others, there is also not a little carelessness in this respect The consequences do not need to be particularised. After cleaning the teeth and mouth, comes the duty of cleaning and trimming the nails. Every particle of dirt should be removed from beneath the nails by means of a nail-brush or pair of scissors ; if necessary, the points should then be trimmed neatly round, leaving them not too short or too long. By any neglect of this duty, the nails become coarse and offensive in appearance. Dirty untrimmed nails are a certain sign of low-breeding, and any neglect on this score is very much to be deprecated. Persons not properly instructed in matters of the toilet, and regardless of the feelings of others, may be observed, when the fancy strikes them, to cleanse and pair their nails with a penknife before company. They do not seem to be aware that they are introducing a duty of the toilet into the parlour, and committing a grievous offence against good manners. Trim your nails at your toilet-table never on any account else- where. The same peremptory injunction applies to the cleaning of the ears, any meddling with which, except at the toilet, is not to be tolerated. Agnails should be cut off with a pair of fine scissors, not torn off. The combing and brushing of the hair are ordinarily among the final duties of the toilet. The hair ought to be thoroughly brushed, so as to leave no scurf on the head to fall off afterwards on the collar of the coat 48 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. If this scurf be troublesome, let it be removed with a comb. The best for the purpose is a small-toothed comb made of box-wood. We prefer a good combing to the use of any liquid wash, which, applied profusely to the head, might be injurious. After combing as much as seems necessary, go over the hair in different directions with a hard brush, and this thorough brush- ing will be found in every respect to give a better gloss and finish than any kind of oils or ointments, the use of which is not to be recommended. The duties of the toilet are closed by dressing. Every man is presumed to dress himself according to his taste or circumstances ; and therefore any special directions on the subject are here undesirable. We need only offer a few general suggestions. In the first place, everything like puppyism or oddity in dress is to be avoided. In using simple, neat attire, of subdued colours, you are always safe. Gaudy neckcloths, striped fancy shirts, brilliant waistcoats, dazzling buttons, and all other eccentricities, always convey an idea of frivolousness of character in the wearer. The wearing of any species of jewellery by young persons is to be discommended. All parade in this respect may be left to jugglers, quack-doctors, and those who need to dazzle and astonish by external appearance. Those who wish to make their way by good conduct and abilities, and aim at acquiring the respect of the more estimable portion of mankind, avoid such trivialities. It is usual to have clothes adapted for different purposes. A person sitting in the house, and no company present, does not use his best coat. He has a dress for work, a dress for ordinary occasions within doors, a dress for dinner, or for Sundays. No one THE TOILET. 49 need be in the least ashamed of appearing in his working-dress. An operative in his jacket is quite in costume, and may appear anywhere without losing respect At the same time, everything is proper only in its own place. A jacket on Sundays, or on holiday occasions, is necessarily offensive ; its use at such times is disrespectful. A change of clothing in the evening, after work-hours, besides contributing to health, is always a pleasing mark of an intelligent and well-doing artisan. In Scotland, every man with a regard for decorum owns a suit of black clothes for funerals. We greatly admire the spirit of self-respect that maintains this ancient practice. The possession of a stock of extra and somewhat costly clothing is always indicative of economising, self-respecting habits. In consequence of the cheapness of all kinds of clothing in the present day, and considering that the prudent and industrious need never be out of employ- ment and the means of comfortable subsistence, the want of a reasonable variety of garments shirts, coats, trousers, boots or shoes, and other articles is inexcus- able. The best shirts are of linen ; but good shirts made of cotton, with linen collars and breasts, are now common. For the climate of the British Islands, under-shirts of flannel or hosiery are now recommended, and very generally used. How frequently the day-shirt should be changed, depends on the taste and rank of the wearer. Among the higher classes in England, a fresh shirt is put on every morning, and another is put on in dressing for dinner or evening parties making in all fourteen shirts in the week. This is, however, the excess of fashion. More frequently one shirt in the day is used ; and by D 50 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. many among the respectable classes three shirts in the week are considered to be sufficient for every purpose of cleanliness and decency. In these matters, you will be guided to a certain extent by what is customary in the class to which you belong ; only understand, that a clean shirt is always respectable, and that, as regards changes of attire, it is best to err on the safe side. You cannot be too clean ; you may easily fall into the mistake of being slovenly. All woollen garments should be hung up not laid in drawers ; for folding leaves marks in them. Let them, if possible, be hung on pegs in a clothes-press or ward- robe. To keep them free of moths, shake and brush them occasionally, and let them be kept from dust or damp. Boots and shoes when wet, on being taken off, should be laid on their sides to dry with the soles exposed to the air. Learn the art of folding and packing clothes for travelling. If not folded neatly, they will be full of creases, and look ill when put on. The chief art con- sists in folding up a coat. Lay it out flat, with the outside uppermost; then fold back the two sleeves, doubling them ; then fold up the two skirts ; then fold back the two breasts; lastly, lay the whole double. Such is an outline of the plan usually followed to keep a dress-coat free of creases. Considerable skill is required to perform the operation properly. In packing a portmanteau or trunk with clothes, lay the shirts, stockings, and other compact articles at the bottom ; and place the coats and things which are most easily spoiled by pressure, at the top. Gloves and pocket-handkerchiefs are among the THE TOILET. 51 minor articles of dress ; yet they are indispensable, on however narrow a scale. The French are exemplary in the use of both. The odious practice of blowing the nose with the fingers is, among a cultivated people, seldom seen out of England or Scotland. The humbler orders of society in France use a pocket-handkerchief. A brief hint on the subject is enough. If gloves are worn at all, they should be clean. Better walk with bare hands than with shabby dirty gloves. Young men, from the influence of example, and for the sake of affecting an air of superiority, are apt to fall into small oddities as respects the management of their toilet and costume. Wearing long hair is one of these affectations. Instead of having the hair cut to a moderate length every month or thereabouts, it is allowed to grow into long locks, which hang over the cheeks and neck, imparting an air of slovenliness. That the practice produces dirt and discomfort, there can be no doubt ; and as it is only a stupid singularity, it can excite nothing but derision. The wearing of long nails on the fingers is another absurdity which is affected by some people. The nails, as already said, ought to be trimmed frequently, and kept of a length which is neither inconvenient nor offensive to the sight. Yet some persons permit their nails to grow to an extravagant length, like the talons of a bird, from a notion that long nails are genteel and elegant. Avoid this among other idle singularities. A brush for the nails, and one or two small brushes for the teeth, a comb and hair-brush, are indispensable articles. Tooth-brushes are seldom good; they are either too hard or too soft When too hard, they injure the gums. Select brushes of moderate hardness, and 52 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. full in the bristle. After using, take care to wash and dry the brush. If laid aside wet, the bristles will break or come out The nail-brush should be treated with equal care. Brushes for the hair require to be cleaned by washing after short intervals. A small flat file is a useful article for the toilet. With it, the rough points of the nails can be smoothed, and it may be of considerable use in filing down any sharp angle of a tooth that is felt to injure the tongue. A pair of tweezers, wherewith to pull stray hairs from the ears or nose, is also an article found in well- appointed toilets. The management of a watch may be included in the business of the toilet The best watches are made in England. Those of France and Switzerland are more showy, but usually less durable. Whatever be the kind of watch, it needs to be treated with care. It should be wound up regularly every night ; kept as nearly as possible in a uniform temperature, and in the same position ; and not be exposed to any sudden jerking motion. A watch is injured by being kept in the pocket while dancing, or when riding roughly. Hung in the pocket during the day, it should be hung in the same attitude during the night; the best place for it being a pocket at the head of the bed. Every watch should be cleaned once every two years. In consequence of overcrowding, teeth sometimes stand awry, and give an unseemly appearance to the mouth. This also is a defect traceable to the careless- ness of parents. The development of teeth should be watched, and when there is a prospect of overcrowding, the mouth should be submitted to the inspection of a dentist, who will draw the supernumerary teeth, and THE TOILET. 53 adopt such other means as will insure the growth of the teeth in an even line. In all cases in which any complaint or decay in the teeth is observable, we would recommend immediate recourse to a dentist Formerly, in the case of toothache, extraction was the ordinary remedy. Skill in dentistry has nearly abolished the practice of tooth-drawing. When decay makes its appearance, the part is stuffed with a metallic substance, so as to exclude the air and prevent the irritation of the nerve, which is known as toothache. The best, though the most expensive substance employed by dentists for this purpose, is a species of leaf-gold. We recommend you by all means to try stuffing on the slightest appearance of decay. If you wait till the decay reaches to the root of the tooth, stuffing will be injurious, and your only relief will consist in extraction. SCHOOL-DAYS. A TTENDING school for the sake of education is a ;** duty you must not escape. What you learn at school and the discipline you undergo will influence your whole life. On this account, it is important that you use all reasonable diligence in learning, and so preparing yourself for the business of life. But remem- ber that you are not in any branch of study to overtask the mind. Let your studies be blended with agreeable bodily recreation in the open air. While at school, go to bed early not later than nine o'clock. Do not on any account sit up to read ', 54 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. nor, still worse, attempt to read in bed. The bed is made for sleep, and you should accustom yourself to fall asleep immediately on lying down. Rise early. The mental energy is always strongest in the morning, particularly after breakfast. It slackens towards evening, and then needs to be restored by refreshing sleep. Physiologists recommend young persons to cultivate periodicity. This is a curious principle in nature. If you accustom yourself to eat, drink, sleep, and perform all other actions proper to the physical system, at certain periods, the body acquires a fixed habit of demanding that these acts shall be done at such periods, and no other. Thus, you may educate the physical functions in such excellent habits of periodicity, that they will go on spontaneously according to what is required, and you are afterwards spared the trouble of thinking about them. From these remarks, it appears proper to fall into the habit of performing the duties of the day, as nearly as is practicable, according to a methodical routine. You will rise, punctually, without being called ; dress and go through all the duties of the toilet, no matter in how humble a style ; perform your devotional exercises ; breakfast ; go to school or to work as the case may be ; study ; and do all other acts which, by personal or social considerations, are incumbent upon you, at stated hours, giving a certain length of time to each. Lessons may be conned over in the evening; but, as already stated, the best time for study is the morning, when the mind is alert. By cultivating a habit of close attention, while you are engaged in lessons and studies, you will be able to do much in a short space of time. It is only the dawdling, neglectful boy, with his mind SCHOOL-DA YS. 55 distracted by insignificant matters, who requires long laborious hours gSf study. But is there to be a time for outdoor sports? Certainly. It is by suitable outdoor recreations that the physical qualities are reared. It is hardly necessary to point out which are the sports in the open air that are most agreeable and advantageous. Every place has amusements of this kind peculiar to itself. Cricket is, perhaps, the best of all. It cultivates accuracy of eye, promptitude, skill in running and in using the arms, and strengthens the muscular and visceral systems generally. Golf teaches calculation of distances, and strengthens the arms and muscles of the back. Even the juvenile game of marbles, which is of great antiquity, teaches something; it is a kind of billiards on a small scale, and sharpens the wits, besides giving gentle exercise and amusement. Ball, battledoor and shuttlecock, nine- pins, bowls, archery, quoits (the ancient Roman discus), skating, are all useful and pleasant recreations. Latterly, certain exercises embraced under the general names gymnastics and calisthetiics, have come into vogue, in connection with schools. If conducted without violence or unnatural distortion, these formal exercises are of value, where simple and spontaneous recreations are habitually neglected. A young lady, for example, who, as a piece of fashionable training, is taught never to remove her arms from her sides, never to walk except at a snail's pace, requires the factitious exercise of calisthenics, othenvise she would stiffen into an artificial being, and be reduced to a feeble state of health. For young men, with opportunities for outdoor recreations according to their own fancy, we can see no use for gymnastics of the strictly formal kind. 56 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. Walking, running, leaping over palings and ditches, climbing trees, independently of the above-mentioned sports, will usually be found sufficient as gymnastic exercises. Dancing, however, which may be called the poetry of animal motion, requires to be learned from a master ; and every youth whose parents can afford the expense, should be taught to dance, as part of his ordinary education. The object of these various exercises is not only to impart robust health to the constitution, but graceful- ness to the movements of the person. Whatever be a person's station in life, he ought at least to walk well. Yet, how few people in any rank of society, not thoroughly drilled on the subject, walk in a perfectly satisfactory manner. You may see well-dressed persons walking with a slouching gait, shambling with their feet, ridiculously swinging then- arms, or committing some other extravagance in their locomotion ; no bad habit of this kind, however, being so common as that of looking close downwards, as if examining the shoe- ties, or looking for something on the ground. Try to avoid these easily acquired and ungainly habits. Walk unconstrainedly, with the head, neck, and shoulders upright, with the face directed forwards ; and if you do turn your eyes towards the ground, let them, as a general rule, strike a point not nearer than fifteen or twenty feet In walking about, and more particularly in lengthened rambles, learn to obsen'e, and think on what you observe. Note down in your mind all that seems interesting, and if you accustom yourself to write an account of what appears remarkable, so much the better. This will be an agreeable means of cultivating your observing and SCHOOL-DA YS. 57 reflecting powers. The technical instructions received at school may be applied in various ways out of doors. Having learned mensuration and its allied branches, you can apply your knowledge to the measurement of obj ects. You see a log of timber, and by a measure- ment with a foot-rule and cord, you can tell how many square feet of wood are in it You see an apartment, and by similar measurement, you can say what are its cubical contents, or what are the superficies of its walls. You see a piece of land, and in the same manner can tell accurately what are its dimensions. By such calculations, considerable skill will be acquired in determining sizes, heights, and distances, without having recourse to formal measurement. A ready method of measuring pieces of land is to pace their length and breadth. You ascertain what is the length of your pace ; and keeping this in mind, you can always, without a foot-rule, tell pretty nearly the extent of any piece of ground you traverse. The ordinary length of a man's marching-step is thirty inches, but this is modified by stature and length of limb. From the want of this species of practical knowledge, people are continually blundering in their conversational descriptions of sizes of fields, heights of buildings, and the dimensions of large objects generally. They may be heard saying that a certain house is a hundred feet high, when it is no more than sixty ; that a field is ten acres, when it is only five; that a river is six feet deep, when it is but three and a half; and so on. All great military commanders, in ancient and modern times, have demonstrated in an extraordinary manner this power of judging of distances, heights, breadths, and depths, also numbers, by the eye; and without 58 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. this power they would probably not have become great. A knowledge of common things is now believed to form an essential part of the education of all classes. A deficiency in this respect was painfully manifested by the greater number of English officers and soldiers in the war in the Crimea, They had been instructed at school, but not at home and in the fields, and suffered severely in consequence, during a winter exposure in camp. It is not the purport of this little book to impart this desirable instruction ; and, indeed, no book can do so. You must educate your own head and hands, at every seasonable opportunity, and all that can here be done is to indicate a few things on which your skill may be exercised. Learn how to kindle a fire, and to maintain it with the smallest quantity of fuel. To saw, chop, and split wood. To tie up a package or parcel. To nail and unnail the lid of a box ; and even to make a box with saw, hammer, and nails. To handle a paint and paste brush. To trim a lamp with oil and wick. To build a hut or tent, with common materials. To screw and unscrew a nail. To make porridge, tea, and coffee. To broil a chop or steak. To cut and fold paper, and cut the leaves of a book. To draw a cork with a common corkscrew, and when the cork breaks, to extract it without breaking the bottle. To brush your shoes and clothes, and at a pinch, to sew on a button. To deliver a message in the exact words it is communicated to you. To write notes and letters of friendship and business. To give a receipt for money. To carve a fowl and joint, neatly. To bridle and saddle a horse, and to hold a horse by the head. To row and steer a boat, and hold a boat's SCHOOL-DA YS. 59 head, when necessary, to the wind and waves. To make a raft. To climb a ladder. To tie various kinds of knots, according to the strength required. To take proper measures when a chimney is on fire, or when other serious emergencies occur. To recognise the north-star, and the principal constellations, by sight. You should likewise be able to make a simple off-hand sketch of the elevation and ground-plan of a house, with pen or pencil ; for you will find this accomplish- ment of great use in many situations in life. A country education, as is well known, is in many respects preferable to that of large cities. By living, at least for a time, in the country, you will have an opportunity- of acquiring a knowledge of natural phe- nomena, besides some personal accomplishments, which do not fall so much within the scope of town-life. Among the things you may learn in rural situations are the following : To cultivate a small garden, and become acquainted with the proper seasons for sowing and planting. To familiarise yourself with the names of flowers, trees, and plants generally. To distinguish poisonous plants. To search out edible wild berries and roots. To become acquainted with the names and habits of wild and tame animals. To become familiar with bees, and the construction of hives. To angle for trout or other fish ; to make fishing-lines from hair, and to dress hooks. To reap corn, and secure it from the weather. To roast nuts and apples. To drive a gig, and ride a horse. To swim a most important quali- fication, on no account to be neglected. Besides improving health and conferring a stock of knowledge of a useful kind, the outdoor education we speak of is extremely valuable on other accounts. It 60 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. tends to cultivate habits of activity, enterprise, and presence of mind. The very difficulties and dangers incurred in such exercises as riding, swimming, boating, and climbing, are serviceable. We learn from them caution and courage, which no species of book-study could impart MENTAL CULTURE. "\ ^ WHATEVER may be the extent of school education, * * it does not supersede the necessity for self-im- provement. Even the most liberal academic instruc- tion leaves many gaps to be filled up, much to be done for moral and intellectual advancement. Assuming that the amount of your education while at school was com- paratively small and that is more likely to have been the case than otherwise and that you are now entered on some industrial career, the consideration is, How are you to commence and carry on a process of mental culture by your own unassisted efforts ? The first thing clearly desirable, is the conquest of your own will; that is to say, you must acquire so effectual a command over the passions and inclinations, as will enable you to compel the judgment to pursue a line which, according to all reasonable expectation, will lead to an improvement of the knowing and reflecting powers, as well as the moral sentiments. This, in fact, is, so to speak, the battle of life the struggle between passion and reason, in which myriads sink and perish. Habits of intemperance, for instance, not to speak of other indulgences, are easily acquired and what hosts MENTAL CULTURE. 61 of young men become their victims ! But, as already mentioned, all such allurements must be remorselessly trampled under foot all difficulties, which for the most part are so only in appearance, must give way if you would, with any chance of success, enter on a path of improvement : ' The wise and active conquer difficulties By daring to attempt them : sloth and folly Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard, And make the impossibility they fear.' ROWE. Few difficulties are insuperable to the prudent and brave. There are, however, even negative advantages in intellectual exertion. It is cheering to know that when the mind is occupied with lofty aspirations, there is no room for thoughts of a grovelling tendency, and therefore, except at the outset, little or no trouble is incurred. Vacancy of mind is a phrase without meaning; for when the mind is not filled with something better and nobler, it is an arena for the struggle of the brute instincts; and the real business before you is to give yourself such work as will keep your mental faculties in healthful exercise. The cultivation of the mind, then, is to be pursued not less as a duty than as a pleasure, irrespective of all chance of social advancement 'There is,' says an authoress, 'no situation in life so high that must not, after all, owe its highest enjoyments to feelings with which mind is connected ; there is none so low which may not be cheered and refined from the same source. Independent of all worldly considerations, mental pur- suits invariably bestow a rich reward on their votary, in the delight attendant on their cultivation, and the 62 THE YOUTH'S. COMPANION. temporary oblivion at least of all anxious cares in the abstraction they require.'* The special line of study is of no consequence, provided it be prudently con- sidered, and entered on with sufficient earnestness. You will hear much of genius a natural tact or aptitude, not to be acquired by art No doubt, there are peculiar natural gifts which overleap every difficulty; but the world is not composed of paragons, but of people with average mental endowments. The race is on the whole fair. That which we have to look to as the prime element of success is Perseverance. To that, all men of eminence have been less or more indebted, and with- out it their aims must necessarily have failed. Most of them at first pursued their diligent career in obscurity. While others were indulging in inglorious ease, or following some frivolous amusement, they were closely adhering to a prescribed line of study up early and down late pondering at every odd hour on the means of improvement never discouraged by neglect, perhaps rather glad to be unobserved and let alone always hopeful, trustful doing their duty, and leaving the issues in the hands of God. In ordinary circumstances, young men embarrassed by onerous, and perhaps exhausting labours, have little time for mental culture. Borne down by professional drudgery, where are' those hours they can spare for useful study ? Every one will answer this question for himself. We can fully understand that innumerable difficulties lie in the pursuit of knowledge ; yet, can it be forgotten that a vast amount of valuable time is systematically misspent worse than wasted which * Mrs Strutt's Triumph of Genius and Perseverance. MENTAL CULTURE. 63 might be devoted to a good purpose. How many hours in the morning are thrown away in bed ! How many are wasted listlessly in the streets ! What a misexpenditure of time, means, and health, in coarse convivialities ! And what might not society be, were these things properly considered ! Assuming that you have at command only two out of each twenty-four hours, much may be done with that brief period during successive years, if, as Johnson says, you set to work 'doggedly.' It might be possible, with no greater opportunities, to learn Latin and one or two living languages, to acquire a good knowledge of English composition, and to be acquainted with 'the writings of some of the best authors. All this has been repeatedly done, and there is no reason why it should not be done again. The perusal of the biographies of distinguished men, will shew some remarkable instances of triumph over early difficulties. Could there be anything more dis- couraging than the early helplessness of Gifford, the late distinguished editor of the Quarterly Review. He was left an orphan at thirteen ; was put to sea as a cabin- boy ; was afterwards bound apprentice to a shoemaker ; and in this condition was so poor that he could not buy paper, but used to work algebraical questions with a blunted awl on fragments of leather. Through the kindness of a gentleman who noticed his abilities, he was rescued and educated, and he afterwards manfully fought his way into public notice. But were not many of the distinguished men of modern times originally shoemakers, gardeners, carpenters, printers, masons, or connected with other employments equally humble? And is it not seen that their mental improvement was 64 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. due in a great measure to their own resolute determina- tion ? Telford, whg became an eminent civil engineer, was originally a stone-mason, and spent his leisure hours in poring over such volumes as fell within his reach, with no better light than that afforded by the fire, or ' ingle ' as he calls it, of his mother's cottage. In a little poem in the Scottish dialect, addressed to Robert Burns, he sketched his own character, and hinted at his own ultimate fate : ' Nor pass the tentie curious lad, Who o'er the ingle hangs his head, And begs of neighbours books to read ; For hence arise Thy country's sons, who far are spread Baith bold and wise.' A more recent instance of self-culture in a stone- mason, is that of the late lamented Hugh Miller, who became eminent as a geologist and man of letters. How, while a boy, he took a fancy to geological inquiry, and, unaided, made some remarkable discoveries among the rocks on the sea-coast at Cromarty ; how, when working for a livelihood with chisel and mallet as a stone-hewer, he devoted his spare hours to his favourite study, and lived untainted amidst dissolute companions ; and how, in the course of events, he very naturally arrived at literary eminence are all facts well known. In looking over his autobiography, entitled My Schools and Schoolmasters, we have a glimpse of that species of mental culture which is so desirable in the young. One day, he was working on a gravestone in the churchyard of Cromarty, when the minister of the parish entered into conversation with him, and was so pleased that he invited him to his house. 'I accordingly waited MENTAL CULTURE. 65 upon him in the evening ; and we had a long conver- sation together. He was, I saw, curiously sounding me, and taking my measure in all directions. He inquired regarding my reading, and found that in the belles- lettres, especially in English literature, it was about as extensive as his own. He next inquired respecting my acquaintance with the metaphysicians. " Had I read Reid?" "Yes." "Brown?" "Yes." "Hume?" "Yes." " Ah, ha, Hume ! By the way, has he not something very ingenious about miracles ? Do you remember his argument?"' Miller remembered the argument, and also referred to Campbell's refutation. That which is here worthy of remark, is the circumstance of an operative stone-hewer, whose school education had been of a very meagre kind, having made himself acquainted with works of a profound "metaphysical nature, and been able to reason upon them. Is this not an instructive example of an obscure operative preparing himself by self-culture for whatever Providence might have in store for him? Had he not read to some advantage, of what avail would have been the most favourable opportunity for bringing himself into notice? However, had he never emerged from his original condition, his was still the gain the happiness of a cultivated understanding. Miller's autobiography overlooking the egotism incidental to this class of works is one of the most inspiriting which can be read by youth. His life bore a double moral an example to be followed, and a beacon to be shunned ; for with all Hugh Miller's wonderful abilities, he seemed to be ignorant, or at least neglectful, of the principles which regulate health, and fell a victim to excessive tasking of the mental powers. 66 THE YOU TITS COMPANION. It is gathered as a general fact from the lives of men who attained eminence through their own exertions, that they owed their mental improvement to a methodical line of study. They did not study by fits and starts ; neither did they addict themselves to a habit of desultory reading. It is remarked by Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his Discourses on the Fine Arts, that ' a student is not always advancing because he is employed;' in other words, much precious time is often frittered away in vaguely formed, or imperfectly executed plans, instead of being employed on some prudently considered line of operation, with a determinate object in view. With these observations, we may offer the following hints for your guidance : 1 . Lay down a method of study, as time and circum- stances admifr; and endeavour not to be diverted from it by contemptuous sneers or by casual trifles. Having formed your plan, follow it Avoid desultory and unpro- fitable reading. Keep the mind pure and braced, by abstaining from the perusal of books of a mischievous tendency, and by refraining from vain thoughts. One of the weaknesses of youth is what is termed ' building castles in the air ' forming idle expectations which end in disappointment, and which at all events absorb time that ought to be usefully occupied. Ambition within proper limits is laudable ; but nothing is to be gained without self-sacrifice. It is not an uncommon error among young persons to be always looking about for some one to patronise and bring them forward. Their proper course is to use means for self-improvement, and give themselves little concern about consequences. In good time, worth usually makes its way. 2. Avoiding, as has been said, desultory reading. MENTAL CULTURE. 67 select and attach yourself to a subject in science or literature say a department of civil history and proceed methodically, till you have mastered it. One instructive book, well read and studied, is of more value than a hundred read indifferently. Your object is to read in order to think, not to read to kill time. Among the vast number of readers, few think of what they have read, and after perusing whole libraries, they are not wiser than they were at the beginning. ' Those,' says Locke, ' who have read of everything, are thought to understand everything too ; but it is not always so. Reading furnishes the mind only with the materials of knowledge; it is thinking that makes what we read ours.' 3. In so learning to think on subjects of study, you will be assisted by a practice of taking notes of the more remarkable facts and conclusions. For this purpose, procure a blank-paper book, to be used as you proceed. When your notes are completed, enter your remarks on the subject and the manner of its treatment. 4. Having analysed one work, take up the work of another writer on the same subject. Make notes as before, and finally compare the two different methods in which the subject has been treated. 5. When you meet with an obscurity in thought or language, try if possible to discover its meaning. Do not pass over difficult terms, as if they were of little consequence. Apply to a Dictionary, where at all necessary. 6. In studying any branch of science, write down every fact of any consequence in your note-book; so that on looking back you will see the whole process of building up the theory. Compare the facts advanced 68 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. by authors with what falls within the range of your own observation. 7. If you begin the study of languages, make it a rule to commit to memory a certain amount every day, although it be no more than one or two lines. Think over those rules of construction which seem difficult, and do not quit them till you learn their true intent 8. Keep a journal for entering observations on daily occurrences. Let each day bear a record of what you have learned ; and do not scruple to write the truth. The consciousness of having spent a day usefully is one of the pleasures of life, and will be rewarded with peaceful slumbers. 'Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, Onward through life he goes : Each morning sees some task begun, Each evening sees its close ; Something attempted, something done, Has earned a night's repose.' LONGFELLOW. 9. In walking for exercise, you can, without appearing intrusive, exercise your powers of observation. If you observe anything remarkable in nature or art, make a note of it in your journal. When you attend lectures, try to write a neatly condensed account of what you have heard. In the same way, be prepared to explain the subject of such sermons as you hear in church. 10. The writing of essays for mutual criticism by a party of young men, who meet at each other's houses, is a well-known method of improving the thinking powers, and it possesses the advantage of creating a wholesome emulation. If you fail in your literary experiments, try again; and if you still fail, try again. MENTAL CULTURE. 69 Try, and try, till you succeed to your own satisfaction and that of your friends. Never mind trouble. There is no hurry. Spare no pains to do everything well. 11. Acquire a habit of investigating alleged facts, and reasoning accordingly. You will remark that much of what passes for argument rests on a species of hearsay evidence, which comes to nothing when it is sifted. Facts, not notions, are the proper basis of reasoning : but let it be also remarked that many things must be taken on a reasonable probability of their truth. It is Walter Scott, we think, who says : ' If there is a vulgar credulity, there is also a vulgar incredulity.' Certain truths not being within the reach of mathematical demonstration, we must accept them under moral guarantees of their accuracy ; and on this account, the highest intellects are usually the least presuming. Newton, one of the brightest ornaments of philosophy, left behind him the celebrated saying, ' that he appeared to himself as only a child picking up pebbles from the shore, while the great ocean of truth lay unexplored before him.' 12. It is necessary to offer these cautions, for the young, in pursuing their investigations, and while still only 'smatterers' in knowledge, are apt to assume extraordinary airs of wisdom. Offensively cavilling at generally accepted truths, or dogmatising on particular subjects, they seem to insist that they are right, and all the rest of mankind wrong. In all modesty, learn before you attempt to teach. Be in no hurry to make known your opinions ; for in a few years hence, and by more extended experience, you will probably think quite differently. 13. You will recollect what has already been said 70 THE YOUTWS COMPANION. about the necessity for religious and moral training being carried on along with intellectual culture. I may, here, only add that you ought to make a rule of reading and considering at least one chapter of the Bible daily. You will not, for various reasons, fail to experience the benefit of doing so ; and in travelling to a distance, let a small Bible form part of your equipment. Although Sunday is specially set apart as a Sabbath for religious observances and meditation, you cannot be too forcibly reminded that Christianity must form a pervading prin- ciple every day at all times shedding a divine sunshine through the soul, and affording that tranquillising enjoy- ment which springs from a sense of being in communion with God. A careful perusal and reperusal of the book of Job, Psalms of David, and Prophets generally, will in particular inspire lofty feelings ; and in every page of the New Testament are found themes for improving study. 14. The proper division of your time, so far as you possess the means of dividing it, is well worth consider- ation. It is an old classic saying, ' that the bow of Apollo is not always bent' The danger of excessive mental exertion has already been pointed out. Your studies must be intermitted with sleep, labour, outdoor exercise, and social converse. The ancient rule is, eight hours to sleep, eight to labour, and eight divided into a time for meals, exercise, conversation, study. 15. Usually ten hours are devoted to labour, and adding to these eight for sleep, six will remain for miscellaneous purposes. Leaving the adjustment of claims on your time to your own sense of propriety, we would only suggest that besides a time for physical exercise, some time should be given to society. If you MENTAL CULTURE. 71 compromise no principle, avoid eccentricity. Some young men, in their eagerness for mental improvement, neglect to cultivate the amenities of life become shy, solitary, morose, and disagreeable to all connected with them. It need hardly be said that this is paying too dearly for the object of their pursuit Besides, it is well known to all men of studious habits, that they invariably increase their power of correct thinking by coming at intervals into contact with their fellows, and so inter- changing thoughts on subjects of daily concern. The outer world is the best of all schools for curing conceit. An hour of social converse it may be even a walk along a busy street will banish the crotchets which cluster about the mind in solitude. On these grounds, daily associated labour, when not oppressive, is alike beneficial to mind and body not that unmitigated evil which it has been sometimes inconsiderately repre- sented. 1 6. Latterly, great advances have been made in the establishment of mechanics' institutes, libraries, reading- rooms, courses of lectures, and other means for popular improvement These you should avail yourself of, so far as circumstances permit. There are, also, now so many cheap editions of standard works, that you can have little difficulty in purchasing a small and well- selected library for private use. FRANKLIN'S METHOD OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT. T PRESUME you have read the memoirs of Benjamin -* Franklin ; if not, you should do so, for they contain an amusing and instructive account of what a partially educated youth may do in moral and intellectual culture, and for advancing himself in life by persevering and honest industry. Some of Franklin's plans for self- improvement deserve our notice. While he was a young man just entered into business as a bookseller and printer in Philadelphia, about 1730, he endeavoured to spread a taste for literature among his acquaintances, and established a kind of club for the purpose of reading essays on subjects of importance. In this scheme, as well as in his efforts to encourage habits of professional diligence in the young, he was eminently successful. In his own person, he set a remarkable example of scrupulous attention to business and to his family. He mentions, in the papers he left behind him, that at this period of his life he avoided all frivolous amusements ; his only relaxation being a game at chess, of which he was very fond. He methodised the expenditure of his time throughout the twenty-four hours of the day, devoting so many hours to sleep, so many to work, and the remainder to self-examination and improvement. One of his rules imposed an obligation to rise every morning at five o'clock, by which means he enjoyed an opportunity of self-instruction, which was and is com- monly lost by young men. This is a point in the habits FRANKLIN ON SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 73 of Franklin exceedingly worthy of imitation ; for there can be little doubt that early rising was one of the chief causes of his success in life. Among other studies to which he directed his attention at this period was that of languages, to which his capacity seems to have been adapted. He mentions that he thus gained a competent knowledge of the French, Italian, and Spanish languages, and also made himself acquainted in some degree with Latin, of which he had acquired only a limited know- ledge at school. It appears from the autobiographic sketch of Frank- lin, that his opinions and conduct were not in all respects commendable that he committed some errors, of which he afterwards repented. One of these, natural to the self-sufficiency of a half-instructed mind, had been a habit of cavilling at religious expositions ; but on such matters he now thought more correctly, and his candour in owning his early faults cannot but be received as a proof of that mental improvement to which he earnestly addressed himself. Looking back to the period when he commenced his career in Philadelphia, at which time his better views had acquired an ascendency, he presents the following statement : ' It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wished to live without committing any fault at any time, and to conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or company, might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my attention was taken up and care employed in guarding against 74 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. one fault, I was often surprised by another ; habit took the advantage of inattention ; inclination was sometimes too strong for reason. I concluded at length that the mere speculative conviction, that it was our interest to be completely virtuous, was not sufficient to prevent our slipping, and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any dependence on a steady uniform rectitude of conduct' For this purpose, he selected thirteen virtues, generally annexing to them explanatory precepts, which ought to be rigorously attended to. These virtues were i. TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness : drink not to elevation. [The precept, drink nothing at all which is intoxicating, might have been preferable.] 2. SILENCE. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself : avoid trifling conversation. 3. ORDER. Let all your things have their places : let each part of your business have its time. 4. RESOLUTION. Resolve to perform what you ought ; perform without fail what you resolve. 5. FRUGALITY. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; that is, waste nothing. 6. INDUSTRY. Lose no time ; be always employed in something useful ; cut off all unnecessary actions. 7. SINCERITY. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly; and if you speak, speak accordingly. 8. JUSTICE. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty. 9. MODERATION. Avoid extremes : forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve. 10. CLEANLINESS. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation, n. TRANQUILLITY. Be not dis- turbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable. 12. CHASTITY; and 13. HUMILITY.' In this last, Franklin speaks of making Christ an example for imitation. FRANKLIN ON SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 75 Proceeding on the plan of acquiring ' the habitude of all these virtues,' he considered it necessary to establish a system of daily self-examination. For this purpose, he says, ' I made a little book, in which I allotted a page for each of the virtues. I ruled each page with red ink, so as to have seven columns, one for each day of the week, marking each column with a letter for the day. I crossed these columns with thirteen red lines, marking the beginning of each line with the first syllable of one of the virtues, on which line, and in its proper column, I might mark, by a little black spot, every fault I found, upon examination, to have been committed respecting that virtue upon that day. ' I determined to give a week's strict attention to each of the virtues successively. Thus, in the first week, my great guard was to avoid every the least offence against Temperance, leaving the other virtues to their ordinary chance, only marking every evening the faults of the day. Thus if in the first week I could keep my first line, marked Tern., clear of spots, I supposed the habit of that virtue so much strengthened, and its opposite weakened, that I might venture extending my attention to include the next, and for the following week keep both lines clear of spots. Pro- ceeding thus to the last, I could get through a course complete in thirteen weeks, and four courses in a year. And like him who, having a garden to weed, does not attempt to eradicate all the bad herbs at once which would exceed his reach and his strength but works on one of the beds at a time, and having accomplished the first, proceeds to a second ; so I should have, I hoped, the encouraging pleasure of seeing on my pages the progress made in virtue, by clearing successively my 76 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. lines of their spots ; till in the end, by a number of courses, I should be happy in viewing a clean book, after a thirteen weeks' daily examination.' The following is his specimen of this curious table : TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness : drink not to elevation. Sun. M. T. W. Th, F. S. Tern. * Sil. * * * Ord. * * * * Res. * * Fru. * * Ind. * Sine. Jus. Mod. Clea. Tran. Chas. Hum. To this little book, Franklin attached as a motto some lines from Addison, and inscribed, as a pious FRANKLIN ON SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 77 aspiration or prayer, the passage from Thomson's Poems : ' Father of light and life, thou God supreme ! O teach me what is good ; teach me thyself! Save me from folly, vanity, and vice, From every low pursuit ; and fill my soul With knowledge, conscious peace, and virtue pure ; Sacred, substantial, never-fading bliss ! ' As the precept of Order required that every part of the day should have its allotted duties, he appended to his book a scheme of employment and self-questioning, at the various hours respectively. This we condense as follows : MORNING. Hours, 5, 6, 7. Rise, wash, devotional exercise; contrive day's business, and take the resolu- tion of the day; prosecute the present study, and breakfast. Question. What good shall I do this day ? MORNING CONTINUED. Hours, 8, 9, 10, n. Work. NOON. Hours, 12, i. Read and look over any accounts, and dine. AFTERNOON. Hours, 2, 3, 4, 5. Work. EVENING. Hours, 6, 7, 8, 9. Put things in their places. Supper. Music or diversion, or conversation. Examination of the day. Question. What good have I done to-day? NIGHT. Hours, 10, u, 12, i, 2, 3, 4. Sleep. ' I entered,' says Franklin, ' upon the execution ot this plan for self-examination, and continued it with occasional intermissions for some time. I was surprised to find myself so much fuller of faults than I had imagined; but I had the satisfaction of seeing them diminish. 1 Order gave liim most trouble, in con- 78 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. sequence of not being early accustomed to method ; and till the end of his days, he confesses to being incorrigible on this point ' But on the whole,' he says, in concluding this remarkable record, ' though I never arrived at the perfection I had been so ambitious of obtaining, but fell far short of it, yet I was, by the endeavour, a better and a happier man than I otherwise should have been, if I had not attempted it ; as those who aim at perfect writing by imitating the engraved copies, though they never reach the wished-for excel- lence of those copies, their hand is mended by the endeavour, and is tolerable while it continues fair and legible. It may be well my posterity should be informed that to this little artifice, with the blessing of God, their ancestor owed the constant felicity of his life down to his seventy-ninth year, in which this is written. What reverses may attend the remainder, are in the hand of Providence; but if they arrive, the reflection on past happiness enjoyed, ought to help his bearing them with more resignation. To Temperance he ascribes his long-continued health, and what is still left to him of a good constitution : to Industry and Frugality, the early easiness of his circumstances, and acquisition of his fortune, with all that knowledge that enabled him to be a useful citizen, and obtained for him some degree of reputation among the learned : to Sincerity and Justice, the confidence of his country, and the honourable employs it conferred upon him : and to the joint influence of the whole mass of the virtues, even in the imperfect state he was able to acquire them, all that evenness of temper and that cheerfulness in conversation which makes his company still sought for, and agreeable even to his young acquaintance. I hope, FRANKLIN ON SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 79 therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit' We need hardly say that posterity has largely benefited by Franklin's example; and that if you follow his method of self-improvement, adding growth in religious sentiment to his catalogue of obligations, you will scarcely fail to participate in the satisfaction which attends a well-regulated conduct THE ART OF REASONING. T T may seem strange to say so, but it is well known that few persons reason correctly. Some scarcely reason at all, but go through life with a dependence on general notions gathered from those about them. The most prevalent error is that of reasoning from what is a mere supposition or a mistake. A circumstance is related, no matter how improbable, and being accepted as true, it is forthwith reasoned upon as if it were really so, whereas it may be an entire fancy. Much of the reasoning we hear every day has little better foundation than the ludicrous story of the three black crows. A person was condoled with on the fact of his having vomited three black crows ; for such was said to be the rumour. Amazed at such a ridiculous report, he traces it to its source, and finds it had been magnified at every stage. The last who spoke of it had said three black crows ; he who told the story to him had said only two black crows ; he who reported it to him had said only one black crow ; and last of all, he who set the story afloat, had said only something as black as a crow. 80 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. This story affords a humorous exemplification of the universal tendency to exaggerate in relating incidents. Each person who repeats an account of any particular circumstance, enhances its character, with the view to excite an emotion of wonder. This may be done unconsciously, or without any deliberate intention to tell a falsehood, but the effect is the same. Few incidents, however trifling, are related with an exact attention to truth. The mass of hearsay evidence is generally corrupt We can hardly remonstrate too severely on this practice of loose reporting from hearsay. You are, in the outset of life, particularly required to guard against it Avoid random or loose talking talking to make a sensation without a rigid regard to truth. Much incorrect reasoning arises from prejudice. We are bred up with particular notions, and it is only by a strong exercise of the judgment that we examine can- didly into their truth. Children are usually reared in an' atmosphere of prejudice. Nurses and domestics fill their minds with notions, often of an injurious kind, of which they cannot without great difficulty rid them- selves in after-life. False opinions of personal character are among the more common of these errors. Some- times, it will be observed, that a man's character is thus judged of from no better grounds than the shape of his hat, his mode of walking, his relationships, or the colour of his skin. ' I don't like that man ; he is a very disagreeable-looking person; there must be something bad about him.' Such is the silly and inconsiderate way people talk of each other; and by such means is society set by the ears. In small country towns, where every one is watching his neighbour, this mischievous THE ART OF REASONING. 81 kind of reasoning is often carried to an extreme length. We call on you to free your minds as far as possible from early prejudices. Nations which you may have been taught to hate, are perhaps worthy of your esteem. Men whom you were inclined to dislike, are probably deserving of marked respect. Judge not rashly from appearances. Acquire a habit of reasoning only on what you know to be true, or what has the strongest probability of being true. In short, the basis of all proper reasoning is Fact ; and if we depart from this, in however small a degree, our conclusions are probably erroneous. When you are, therefore, called on to consider some particular line of reasoning, your first duty is to ascertain that the thing to be reasoned on is a fact not a mere delusion suggested by prejudice. The human mind instinctively seeks to account to itself, in some way or other, for everything it sees ; and in the case of persons of limited information, this propensity is apt to lead to the most erroneous suppo- sitions. They see something remarkable in the works of nature, and forthwith form a complete theory as to how it has been produced ; but the causes they assign are often, without their being conscious of it, mere figments of their own imaginations, and have no existence in nature. On such unsubstantial grounds are formed the mythic legends and histories of a simple people. A myth is a story framed to explain a seem- ingly mysterious fact. People see a large green mound, shaped somewhat like a grave. Probably, the mound is only a natural formation, for which geology can satisfactorily account; but those who see it know nothing of geology, and they invent a history for the F 82 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. mound. It is the grave of a huge and wicked giant who once lived in these parts, and was killed and buried here ; and as a proof that such was the case, has not the mound for hundreds of years been called the 'giant's grave?' This is an example of the kind of myths or fables which pass current as truths among uninstructed people. With such legends, the early history of almost every country is largely tainted. The heathen gods and goddesses of Greece were mythic heroes and heroines. The story of Romulus and Remus, two infants said to have been suckled by a wolf, and to whom the Romans traced their descent, is now known to have been a myth. The legend of St George and the Dragon is a myth. The nursery story of Whittington and his Cat is at length discovered to be a myth. It originated in this wise. Sir Richard Whittington, lord-mayor of London, was known to have made large sums of money as a merchant by means of one of his vessels called The Cat, a ship which traded from the Thames to foreign countries. On this slender foundation, a pretty fable was reared : the running away of Whittington when a boy, his returning on hearing the bells invite him to come back, his getting a present of a cat, by which he made his fortune, and then his rise to be lord-mayor, are all believed to be inventions to complete the myth. Having made sure of the foundation, we may then proceed to build upon it Reasoning properly consists in drawing inferences : we reason, when, from one or more truths or facts already known, we arrive at a new truth, which we did not know, or were not sure of before. Reasoning is chiefly of two kinds. One kind consists in proceeding from a number of single facts THE ART OF REASONING. 83 which we have either observed or learned from others, to some general truth respecting all such facts; as when from observing, that whenever we have seen a stone, a book, a feather, an animal's body, unsupported, it has fallen to the earth, we draw the general truth or law that all bodies whatever fall to the earth when unsupported, and will always continue to do so. This process is called reasoning by induction. The other way is called the deductive method. In it we proceed from a general truth to a particular, as when, from the universal law, that all men die, we infer that a particular king will die too, since he is a man. This is the form of reasoning styled by logicians the syllogism. The investigation of nature must always begin with induction, or a careful observation and generalisation of the actual appearances. It was by establishing the importance of this that Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) merited the name of the Father of modern science. But neither method is sufficient alone ; it is the judicious combination of the two that makes the perfect instrument for opening up the secrets of nature. Regarding the objects and benefits of such inquiries, Bacon tells us : ' i. That the ultimate aim of philosophical investiga- tion is to bring the course of events, 'as much as possible, under our own control, in order that we may turn it to our own advantage. ' 2. That as each event depends upon a certain com- bination of circumstances which precede it and consti- tute its cause, it is evident we shall be able to com- mand the event, whenever we have it in our power to produce that combination of circumstances out of the means which nature has placed within our reach. 84 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. 1 3. That the means of producing many events which we little dream of, are actually placed within our reach ; and that nothing prevents us from using those means, but our inability to select them from the crowd of other circumstances by which they are disguised and surrounded. ' 4. That therefore we should endeavour, by diligent observation, to find out what circumstances are essential, and what extraneous, to the production of each event ; and its real cause being stripped free from all the per- plexing concomitants which occur in nature, we shall perceive at once whether we can command the circum- stances that compose it or not. This, in short, is to generalise ; and having done so, we shall sometimes discover that objects, which of all others appeared the most useless, remote, and inapplicable to our purpose, possess the very properties we are in search of. Nature stands ready to minister to our designs, if we have only the sagacity to disentangle its operations from one another, to refer each event to its real source, and to trace the powers and qualities of objects into their most abstract form. 'In pursuing the dictates of this noble philosophy, man is no longer impotent and ridiculous. He calmly vanquishes the barriers which oppose his wishes he eludes the causes of pain he widens the range of enjoyments, and at the same time feels the dignity of intellect, which, like a magician's talisman, has made all things bow before his feet.' In reasoning, whether by induction or deduction, we are very apt to draw wrong conclusions, or to think we have proved a thing when we have not ; and the art which teaches what sufficient proof is how we may THE ART OF REASONING. 85 know when an argument is fit to establish the point in question, or if it is otherwise, where it fails is called Logic, or the science of correct reasoning. Not uncommonly, when a person in debating has a weak line of argument, he tries to fortify himself by getting his antagonist to make certain admissions, and so gains his point. This is what is known as the Socratic method of arguing, in which one of the speakers in the dialogue endeavours to secure an improper advantage. Argument, however, ought to be conducted for the sake of truth, not of victory. The circumstance is mentioned here, in order to put you on your guard. No error, perhaps, is more common than that of reasoning without any basis of proved facts, but on mere fancies or suspicions. Influenced by prejudice, by party spirit, or by some other cause, people may be seen making statements and drawing inferences which are wholly fallacious. Try to avoid being a victim to this weakness. See that you reason from absolute and incontrovertible facts. On no account reason from suspicions, or merely what you think likely to be true. Where you have doubts, you should remain silent. This is particularly desirable in dis- cussing matters connected with the private character of individuals. If possible, avoid taking up any erroneous impression regarding any one. It is always safest to. think well or charitably of individuals. In a vast number of cases, silence is best Allied to reasoning from suspicions, is the practice of forming a judgment from hearing only one side of a case. It is an old saying, that ' one man's story is good till another is told.' When, therefore, you are called 86 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. on to form an opinion of an incident in which personal considerations are involved, you will exercise a prudent discretion in not coming to a conclusion, until you have heard what the party implicated has to say. In other words, take care to have all the circumstances of the case before you, before raising your structure of reasoning. Such is the rule in courts of justice ; and how much bad feeling would be spared were society to hear both sides of a defamatory story before coming to a decision. The exceeding liability to err in forming conclusions respecting human conduct, teaches the necessity for mingling charity and mercy with considera- tions of justice. One-sided reasoning is that form of error which ordinarily produces frivolous and vexatious litigation. A person thinks he has a well-founded claim on another, by whom, however, the claim is for good reasons entirely repudiated. In this case, the prosecutor sees only one small illusory circumstance which he imagines to be in his favour, and overlooking all other circum- stances which are against him, is surprised and mortified when he finally loses his suit. Still, he does not perceive that he was in the wrong, but accuses the court of partiality, and thinks that mankind are leagued against him. We are not to suppose that litigants of this unhappy class act with dishonest intent. They are for the most part only chargeable with a defective judg- ment, and fall into error from taking a too narrow and biassed view of some matter in which they are interested. When a person endeavours to force his own opinions on his hearers, right or wrong, he is said to dogmatise he gives no other proof of his assertions or dogmas than THE ART OF REASONING. 87 that he thinks so. This unreasoning mode of arguing is resorted to by persons with a prejudiced or weak understanding. Either incapable of sustaining a clear line of reasoning, or having some purpose to serve, they will listen to no opposition, and uncharitably set down all who differ from them as ill-disposed persons. Dogmatism in argument becomes fanaticism in action. Pondering long on a one-sided view of a subject, persons are seen to idolise an idea, and constituting themselves judges of opinion, remorselessly trample on the rights of others. History presents many lamentable examples of this propensity ruling powers oppressing consciences, and actually burning the best of men at the stake (such as Huss, Latimer, and Ridley), because they dared to entertain opinions contrary to those which were enjoined by authority. Robespierre, and some other leaders of the first French revolution, belonged to this class of dogmatic fanatics. Worshippers of a single idea, they imagined that the only cure for certain social evils lay in the destruction of all opponents, and in their wild fanaticism they deluged France with the blood of thousands of harmless citizens. In political, scientific, and other varieties of public controversy, there is still a spirit of dogmatism, which, however, assumes no more offensive form than the pouring out of vulgar sarcasm or abuse. In the intercourse of polite society, dogmatism is rigorously excluded and condemned. Fallacious reasoning becomes sophistry when it is employed designedly a sophism being the term ordi- narily employed to denote a specious semblance of truth. Sophistry appears in a great variety of forms. A common resource of the dishonest reasoner is to 88 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. substitute for the matter at issue something else, on which the mind fastens. Thus, when a public func- tionary is truthfully accused of fraudulent transactions, the charge is not met by a flat contradiction, but by some statements about the defaulter being a good hus- band and father, and an agreeable neighbour matters with which the argument has nothing to do ; but such statements well plied throw up a mist in which the bulk of people's minds become confused, and probably the main charge is lost sight of. Political opponents know this trick, and constantly practise it in personal debates and newspaper discussions. In doing so, they reckon truly on the general proneness to reason on an imperfect basis of facts, as well as the common error of allowing the feelings to usurp the place of the judgment. Pleaders in addressing juries, and occasionally public speakers, may be heard using sophistical arguments, with the deliberate design of mystifying those whom they address. They skilfully give the ' go-by ' to the real matter in dispute, and descant on some circumstance having little or no connection with it This being done adroitly, easy-minded people are overwhelmed with the beauty of the speech. Clever parliamentary orators sometimes resort to this practice with effect An unscrupulous reasoner, in narrating a train of events which he wishes to appear favourable to his side of the question, though he may take care that all the circumstances he mentions are separately true, will yet leave out some material circumstance, which if known would altogether alter the bearing of the whole on the matter at issue. By this suppressio veri, as it is called, he avoids, no doubt, a direct lie, but he produces almost the effect of one on the minds of his hearers, THE APT OF REASONING. 89 and thus transgresses the laws of morality rather than of logic. Accidental coincidence is often assumed as sufficient to establish efficient connection. Two events happen nearly at the same time ; therefore one is supposed the cause, and the other the effect. Hence, many popular supersti- tions. A dog was heard to howl shortly before a death : the dog, by some strange faculty, knows when a death is about to take place. Such is a common instance of weak reasoning on a merely accidental coincidence. There is a similar fallacy in assuming a hypothetical cause. ' All the heavenly bodies,' says Aristotle in his Physics, ( must move in circles, because a circle is the most perfect of all figures.' The reason here assigned for a position now known to be at variance with existing phenomena, is a mere figment. It is tolerably evident that as regards matters of common conversation, few persons take the trouble of reasoning at all. You will hear people say, ' That is very pretty, that is horrid, that is shocking,' and so on, with a variety of exclamations, which, for the most part, are little better than words of course. The power of reasoning has not been called into operation. In the same manner, the invectives of orators in treating of public affairs are sometimes uttered in a very rash manner perhaps to damage an opposite party, and advance some personal interests perhaps merely for the pleasure of fault-finding. We wish you particularly to remark, that reasoning under a grave sense of responsibility is a very different thing from reasoning as an amusement. Thus, a platform orator may be heard angrily to challenge the acts of the government as regards certain measures ; but let 90 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. him be installed in office, and he expresses himself in a very different manner. In the first instance, he spoke without responsibility, and was inconsiderate, if not imperfectly informed ; in the second, he knows the difficulties of practical statesmanship, and is cautious to condemn what perhaps he feels to be irremediable. When you hear a person arguing bitterly against some alleged abuse, consider for a moment whether he is speaking with knowledge, and under a sense of respon- sibility. So well are the English aware of the practice of making rash assertions, that as a test of sincerity they offer to bet that the speaker is in the wrong. We advise you to be so careful in your processes of reason- ing as not to afford an opportunity for exercising this clumsy and objectionable kind of test. The following rules for reasoning are recommended to the young, by Watt : ' Accustom yourselves to clear and distinct ideas, to evident propositions, to strong and convincing argu- ments. Converse much with those friends, and those books, and those parts of learning where you meet with the greatest clearness of thought. The mathematical sciences, and particularly arithmetic, geometry, and mechanics, abound with these advantages ; and if there were nothing valuable in them for the uses of human life, yet the very speculative parts of this sort of learning are well worth our study; for by perpetual examples they teach us to conceive with clearness, to connect our ideas and propositions in train of dependence, to reason with strength and demonstration, and to dis- tinguish between truth and falsehood. Something of these sciences should be studied by every man who pretends to learning, and that (as Mr Locke expresses THE ART OF REASONING. 91 it) not so much to make us mathematicians, as to make us reasonable creatures. ' We should gain such a familiarity with evidence of perception and force of reasoning, and get such a habit of discerning truth, that the mind may be soon offended with obscurity and confusion : then we shall, as it were, naturally seize and embrace every truth that is proposed with just evidence. ' The habit of conceiving clearly, of judging justly, and of reasoning well, is not to be attained merely by the happiness of constitution, the brightness of genius, the best natural parts, or the best collection of logical precepts. It is custom and practice that must form and establish this habit. We must apply ourselves to it till we perform all this readily, and without reflecting on rules. A coherent thinker or a strict reasoner is not to be made at once by a set of rules, any more than a good painter or musician may be formed extempore by an excellent lecture on music or painting. It is of infinite importance, therefore, in our younger years, to be taught both the value and the practice of conceiving clearly and reasoning right ; for when we are grown to the middle of life, or past it, it is no wonder that we should not learn good reasoning, any more than an ignorant clown should not be able to learn fine language, dancing, or a courtly behaviour, when his rustic airs have grown up with him till past the age of forty. ' For want of this care, some persons of rank and education dwell all their days among obscure ideas ; they conceive and judge always in confusion, they take weak arguments for demonstration, they are led away with the disguises and shadows of truth. Now, if such 92 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. persons happen to have a bright imagination, a volu- bility of speech, and a copiousness of language, they not only impose many errors upon their own under- standings, but they stamp the image of their own mistakes upon their neighbours also, and spread their errors abroad." Desirable as it is to attain clear con- ceptions, ' yet,' continues our authority, ' it must still be confessed that there are some mysteries in religion, both natural and revealed, as well as some abstruse points of philosophy, wherein the wise as well as the unwise must be content with obscure ideas. There are several things, especially referring to the invisible world [or to go no further, the mystery of life itself], which are unsearchable in our present state, and, therefore, we must believe what revelation plainly dictates, though the ideas may be obscure. Reason demands this of us ; but we should seek for the brightest evidence both of ideas and of the connection of them, wheresoever it is attainable.' MEMORY. TV /T EMORY is one of the most remarkable attributes *** of the mind. In some persons, it appears to be intuitive, a perfect gift from Nature, for which no artificial cultivation is needed. Numerous instances are on record, in ancient and modern times, of the most astonishing natural memories ; but usually in each case in relation to a distinct subject, as languages, dates, arithmetic, and so forth ; those having a powerful memory for one class of circumstances, possessing but MEMORY. 93 a moderate capacity for recollecting those of another class. We are told of ancient orators who recollected every word of every speech they had ever delivered; of generals who remembered the name of every soldier in their armies ; of Mithridates, who gave laws to twenty- two kingdoms in as many languages, of which he was master ; and of poets who could recite thousands of verses without committing a single error. On this subject we find the following scrap, by an unknown writer : 'Bishop Jewel had a most wonderful memory. He could exactly repeat whatever he had written, after one reading. During the ringing of the bell, he committed to memory a repetition sermon, and pronounced it without hesitation. His custom was to write the heads of his discourses, and imprint them so firmly upon his mind, that he used to say : " If ten thousand people were quarrelling or fighting all the while he was preaching, yet they could not put him out" In order to try him, Dr Parkhurst having proposed to him some of the most difficult and barbarous words out of a calendar, and John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, forty Welsh, Irish, and foreign words, he, after once or twice reading, and a little recollection, repeated them all by heart, backward and forward. In the year 1563, Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, having read to him, out of Erasmus's Paraphrase, the last clauses of ten lines confused, and imperfect on purpose, he, sitting silent a while, and covering his face with his hand, immediately rehearsed all those broken parcels of sentences, the right way and the contrary, without hesitation. He professed to teach others this 94 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. art, and taught it his tutor, Dr Parkhurst, at Zurich, who in the space of twenty-eight days, and only by spending an hour a day, learned all the twenty-eight chapters of St Matthew's Gospel, so perfectly that he could repeat any verse, knowing at the same time what went before and what followed. He died in 1571.' In recent times, there have been some remarkable examples of powers of arithmetical calculation ; those of the boy Zerah Colburn being among the number. This American youth, who was exhibited in London in 1812, when under eight years of age, astonished the scientific world ; and the manner in which he resolved the most difficult numerical questions was, indeed, a thing to excite surprise. His feats, whether we consider the rapidity of execution, or the number of figures (if we may use this term in speaking of a mental process) in many of his calculations, were a novelty to the world. On one occasion, he undertook and succeeded in raising the number eight to the sixteenth power, and gave the answer correctly in the last result namely, 281,474,976,710,656. He was then tried as to other numbers, consisting of one figure, all of which he raised as high as the tenth power, with so much facility and despatch, that the person appointed to take down the results was obliged to enjoin him not to be so rapid. He was asked the square root of 106,929, and before the number could be written down, he immediately answered, 327. He was then requested to name the cube root of 268,336,125, and with equal promptness and facility, he replied, 645. One person proposed that he should name the factors which produce the number 171,395, and he named the following factors as the only ones: 34,279 multiplied by 5; 24,485 MEMORY. 95 multiplied by 7 ; 2905 multiplied by 59 ; 2065 multi- plied by 83; 4897 multiplied by 35; 581 multiplied by 295 ; 415 multiplied by 413. He was then asked to give the factors of 36,083, but he immediately replied that it had none ; which, in fact, was the case, it being a prime number. By a mental calculation, this wonder- ful boy discovered an error of the French mathemati- cians, which the celebrated Euler detected only after long and profound study. The only explanation that can be given of Colburn's memory, amounts to an enormous facility of combining numbers ; his numerical faculties being so much larger than usual that he* could feel his way to a proportionate extent ; so that he would have the same instantaneous conviction, that 13 times 13 make 169, which others have that 3 times 3 make 9. The reader might study Mr Colburn's long explanatory pages of figures for months, without diving further into the mystery than this. These explanations will not teach an ordinary man to calculate one whit faster than formerly. Memory alone, however ' enormous ' its strength, seems quite insufficient to account for Colburn's powers. How many men, with what may be termed a first-rate general memory, direct their faculties in vain to the attainment of arithmetical excellence ! Besides, on any other than numerical subjects, Zerah shewed no better memory than common. This youth returned to America, and entered the clerical profession. Of the recent instances of an extraordinary memory, bordering on the marvellous, none is more worthy of notice than that of the late Cardinal Mezzofanti, an Italian. This person appeared to have the aptitude for learning a language and committing it to memory after 96 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. a single reading of its grammar and looking over a dictionary. At a glance, any number of words was fully remembered, and with the smallest trouble, the slightest variations in dialect and differences in style of speech were fixed indelibly on the memory. At the age of fifty, he was thoroughly versed in fifty languages ; and before his death, the number he knew must have amounted to seventy or eighty. Of these, it must be added, he was even acquainted with all the varieties of dialect and provincialisms ; he would detect the partic- ular county of England or the province of France from which a person came a nicety of ear and memory exceedingly remarkable ; and the more surprising from the circumstance that he had never been out of Italy. The cardinal said that he never forgot a single thing he ever heard or read. These extraordinary powers of memory are not to be acquired by any process of study. They are singular gifts of nature, of which no explanation can be given by those who possess them. Nor is it necessary for the ordinary purposes of life that we should have such marvellous powers. It is sufficient that the memory should be retentive of the leading facts brought under observation, leaving much that is frivolous to be for- gotten. To this moderate and useful extent, nearly all memories may be cultivated, by care, in the manner that other qualities of the mind may be made subjects of education. A vigorous memory, then, is a proper object of train- ing, to which you are recommended to give a degree of attention corresponding to what you feel to be your deficiencies. To remember a fact communicated to us through the senses, it is absolutely necessary that the MEMORY. 97 fact should make an impression on the mind, and this can be done only by giving earnest attention. That the fact may fix itself, we need to concentrate the mind distinctly upon it, so as to allow no wander- ing of the thoughts at the moment the impression is to be made. The plain reason why things are usually forgot is, that they make but a slight impression, which is easily obliterated. A power of Concentrating the thoughts on that which is immediately before us, is therefore of the highest consequence in cultivating memory. Sir Henry Marsh, in an address on this sub- ject, says : 'Attention presents itself to our view under two very distinct forms : one, instinctive and necessary, which takes place whether we will or not; the other constrained, or the result of mental effort So likewise memory, or the recalling of past impressions, is either necessary and spontaneous, or it is the result of a mental effort The first is termed simple memory ; the second, recollection. The more vigorous and active each mental faculty, the more excited is the attention to con- genial objects, the more forcible the impression made, and consequently the more tenacious and permanent the memory of such impressions. The order of the sequence then is active faculties, strong impressions, vigorous memory.' The same writer adds the obser- vation, ' that young persons who feel deficient in memory, may rest assured that the defect is caused less by inferior mental capacity, than want of application at right times and on right objects. The avoidance of trifling pursuits and undue gratification of the senses, at the same time directing the mind to subjects of a useful and ennobling tendency, will strengthen the reflective faculties, and that is the cultivation of the memory.' G 98 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. By following the methodic line of study which has been already recommended, you will greatly improve the powers of memory ; and it may almost be said that a bad memory is synonymous with a want of collected- ness of mind. Rigorous attention and concentration of thought, are thus the means by which we strengthen the memory on any special subjects deserving of notice ; and so being exercised, the powers of remembrance are invigorated for general objects. It is sometimes seen that persons with good memories, and who retain a perfect recollection of circumstances, become at times so discomposed that they forget for a short period the most cherished remembrances. This is very observable in attempts at public speaking, by persons not accustomed to concentrate and deliver their thoughts before a large audience. For a moment they forget what they wished to say, and, being unable to proceed, they sit down with a distressing conscious- ness of their imperfections ; yet, no sooner do they recover their equanimity, than the whole of their vagrant recollections rush back on the mind, unfortunately too late for any good purpose. Deficiencies of this kind may arise from bashfulness, weakness of impressions, or irregularity of thought. Memory has been compared to a storehouse, in which recollections are to be brought out and used as occasion requires ; and therefore the more orderly the manner in which the recollections are put away, the more easily will they be found when wanted. A power of promptly recalling dates, events, names, sayings, anecdotes, at the exact moment they are of use in public speaking, writing, or conversation, is one of those rare qualities which distinguish men of happily constituted minds. MEMORY. 99 Of this remarkable quality, few men possessed so large a share as Sir Walter Scott, who in the course of conversation was never at a loss for a joke, anecdote, or a few poetical lines, appropriate to any interesting circumstance that happened to be mentioned. For the purpose of recalling remembrances, many persons resort to a plan of associating a recollection with a tangible object or particular circumstance. In this way, we may remember the date of a marriage or a death, by some circumstance which occurred at the time ; or the date of a battle, by associating it in the mind with a great general, or with the king in whose reign it took place. Much of the memory in daily use is thus associative. Scarcely a single circumstance is recollected unless in connection with some other circumstance; each fortifying the other. Artifices of this kind are called Mnemonics, or the Art of Memory, and may be variously exemplified. A person, for instance, wishes to recollect a house where he has some business, and for that purpose he notices that it is the third door, or fourth door, from some well-known corner : by this mark he will not fail to retrace it. The name of a stranger is recollected when seen in company with one of our acquaintance, though we could not tell who he was by a simple effort of memory exercised upon himself alone. Many schemes of artificial memory have been framed, but they depend merely on a systematic application of the principles we have mentioned, and differ from one another only in the ingenuity with which these are applied. In passing along a road which we have formerly too THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. travelled with a friend, the sight of-tfee different objects, as they come in view, often recalls the subjects of conversation which occurred at the same points in our first journey. We recollect every topic with the utmost freshness ; and if there were any new ideas or remarkable expressions, the sight of the tree, ford, or narrow lane, where they were started, seldom fails to recall them. It is plain, therefore, that if we wished to imprint the contents of a book on our memory, we may be greatly assisted by reading it in the same way, as we pass along some favourite walk, associating each of its topics with remarkable points in the scenery. If every subject be thus, as it were, tied to some conspicuous point in regular succession, the facility of recollection which will be gained will be found of the greatest advantage ; and long lists of facts may be exactly committed to memory, which otherwise we would hardly have thought of attempting to remember. In a town, let any one take, in regular succession, the streets which branch off from some principal line of thoroughfare, and if their names and order be familiar to him, he may use them in this way as resting-places for his memory, where he may have arranged great numbers of circum- stances which the mind could not otherwise have retained. Lists of the kings of England have in this way been taught to children effectually in two lessons, merely by connecting the successive names with some series of familiar streets, or well-known objects on a public road. Such are some of the means adopted to assist the memory, and various others have been suggested. On the whole, we would prefer a closeness of observation as more advantageous. Want of memory is often MEMORY. ioi nothing more than want of close attention to what is heard or read. In other words, learn to concentrate your ideas on what you have to remember, and the probability is you will thereby improve your memory. PUBLIC SPEAKING. A S you advance in life, you will have occasion to x remark that many men, with no distinguished abilities, rise to high public consideration by their skill in addressing audiences on questions of local or general importance. And you will likewise observe that many persons possessed of no small literary qualifications in fact, good writers and good reasoners make a poor appearance when they attempt to speak in public. Now, without being an orator of a high class, it may be of some importance to yourself, at least, that you should be able to speak with a degree of fluency and good taste in public assemblages. Assuming that you possess a sufficient knowledge of grammar, with a proper command of words, the next requisite, indispensable in a public speaker, is perfect self-possession. Inexperienced speakers are usually bashful and easily discomposed. They may have arranged beforehand the nature of their speech, and be master of all they have to say, yet on rising before their audience, they feel abashed, and becoming con- fused, they perhaps break down in their well-considered harangue, much to their own distress and that of their hearers. On this account, it is customary for young men intended for the legislature, the bar, and pulpit, to 102 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. form themselves into societies for the purpose of mutual exercise in the art of public speaking. Those who do not enjoy this kind of training, find it advantageous to take every opportunity of accustoming themselves to speak at meetings on matters of public concern ; and so gradually acquire the proper degree of confidence for addressing large assemblages. To speak, however, with effect, one needs to possess that power of persuasive eloquence which arises from a happy combination of knowledge and good taste, along with a due amount of vehemence. ' The business of oratory,' says Lord Chesterfield to his son, ' is to per- suade people ; and you easily feel, that to please people is a great step towards persuading them. You must, then, consequently, be sensible how advantageous it is for a man who speaks in public, whether it be in parliament, in the pulpit, or at the bar, to please his hearers so much as to gain their attention ; which he can never do without the help of oratory. It is not enough to speak the language in its utmost purity, and according to the rules of grammar ; but he must speak it elegantly that is, he must choose the best and most expressive words, and put them in the best order. He should likewise adorn what he says by proper metaphors, similes, and other figures of rhetoric; and he should enliven it, if he can, by quick and sprightly turns of wit." When a subject is assigned to you on which to speak, you will proceed to consider how it is to be treated whether gravely or jocularly. If gravely, it would be most incongruous to introduce jocularities ; and, on the other hand, if the speech is to be of a light nature, it would be out of place to be serious or sententious. PUBLIC SPEAKING. 103 Cicero summed up the rules for public speaking in a single sentence. He says the speaker should well consider ' what he has to say, in what order, and how.' In other words, he must arrange his ideas, and have a pretty good notion of the manner in which he has to deliver them. A common fault with unpractised and ambitious speakers is ' to attempt to say too much. Suppose they are to make a neat little speech on the drama, they begin as far back in history as the Greeks and Romans, and weary out every one before they come to matters of interest in our own times; the result probably being that they are ' coughed down ' by their impatient auditory. Another too common error is that of assuming too lofty a strain, which, if not having the effect of bombast, may degenerate into useless abstractions, valueless either for amusing or con- vincing a large assembly. It may be observed, that though some men have a reputation of being tolerable speakers, they really possess no eloquence. Their harangues sound well, as regards the collocation of words, but their sentiments are mere platitudes, and exert no influence over the understanding or feelings. The matter as well as the manner of a public address will depend in some measure on the dimensions of the apartment in which the speech is delivered. A person can say in a small room to a moderate number of auditors, what he could not do to a vast assembly in a large hall. For example, you cannot properly utter a jocular remark, or a pathetic sentiment, at the pitch of the voice. For want of attention to this point, speakers often make signal failures. What they design to say would answer admirably for a small party, but is lost on a crowd. io 4 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. Until you have become a practised speaker, I should recommend you to refrain from addressing large audiences. Acquire, in the first place, the habit of speaking at committee meetings of from twenty to thirty persons, when you may advantageously pitch both voice and sentiment in what may be called a moderate key. Some men, by offering plain common- sense views of a subject, and raising their voice but a little above an unaffected conversational tone, command greater attention and respect than speakers of a more brilliant quality. In fact, good sense, clothed in the simple oratory of nature, rarely fails in effect even in the highest assemblies. In oratory, as in reading, nature is a safe guide, and by a person of good taste may be followed without descending to vulgarity or coarseness. On the various methods of handling a subject, the best advice I can give you is to study the speeches of Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and other great parliamentary orators such being found in most public libraries. The newspapers of the day also offer many good examples of oratory in both branches of the legislature. In looking over reports of these speeches, you will note the delicate allusions to characters and events, the tact with which the speaker glides from one branch of his subject to another, and the manner in which he piles fact upon fact, in order to finish with a force of argu- ment which calls forth loud expressions of admiration. A good and ready memory is, of course, one of the requisites of effective public speaking; for unless a speaker remembers what he has to say in a distinct consecutive strain, he probably wanders from his subject ; and becoming incoherent, feels that his better PUBLIC SPEAKING. 105 plan is to close abruptly with as good a grace as possible. Those who are not favoured with a retentive memory seldom become pleasing speakers, whatever be their power of self-possession. To remedy their deficiencies in this respect, some speakers make notes of the heads of their subject, and with these on a small slip of paper before them, they usually succeed' pretty well, though only in addressing miscellaneous meetings not disposed to be critical. In parliamentary speaking, notes are not tolerated ; nor would they in general be of much service; for in political debates, the speaker must be able to reply, in an off-hand manner, to the arguments of opponents his ability to do so being that by which he chiefly attains distinction as an orator. In addressing large miscellaneous assemblages, we need to bear in mind that a sympathetic feeling per- vades the auditory. \Yhat might please each individual when alone, will not please a crowd ; for every member of the crowd is acted on by those about him, and he frequently applauds or condemns on trust. Whately, in his work on Rhetoric, alludes as follows to this remarkable infectiousness of emotion : 'The very same sentiments expressed in the very same manner, will often have a far more powerful effect on a large audience than they would have on one or two of these very persons separately. That is, in a great degree, true of all men, which was said of the Athenians, that they were like sheep, of which a flock is more easily driven than a single one. The solution will be found by attention to a very curious and complex play of sympathies which takes place in a large assembly ; and within certain limits the more in proportion to its numbers. First, it is to be 106 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. observed, that we are disposed to sympathise with any emotion which we believe to exist in the mind of any one present, and hence, if we are at the same time otherwise disposed to feel that emotion, such disposi- tion is in consequence heightened. In the next place, we not only ourselves feel this tendency, but we are sensibly that others do the same ; and thus, we sym- pathise not only with the other emotions of the rest, but also with their sympathy towards us. Any emotion, accordingly, which we feel is still further heightened by the knowledge that there are others present who not only feel the same, but feel it the more strongly in consequence of their sympathy with ourselves. Lastly, we are sensible that those around us sympathise not only with ourselves, but with each other also ; and as we enter into this heightened feeling of theirs likewise, the stimulus to our own minds is thereby still further increased. Almost every one,' adds this writer, ' is aware of the infectious nature of any emotion excited in a large assembly. It may be compared to the increase of sound by a number of echoes, or of light by a number of mirrors; or to the blaze of a heap of fire- brands, each of which would speedily have gone out if kindled separately, but which, when thrown together, help to kindle each other. The passions of a multitude inflame each other by mutual sympathy, and mutual consciousness of it And hence it is that a bolder kind of language is suitable to such an audience : a passage which, in the closet, might just at the first glance tend to excite awe, compassion, indignation, or any other such emotion, but which would, on a moment's cool reflection, appear extravagant, may be very suitable for the agonistic style ; because before that moment's PUBLIC SPEAKING. 107 reflection could take place in each hearer's mind, he would be aware that every one around him sympathised in that first emotion ; which would thus become so much heightened as to preclude, in a great degree, the ingress of any counteracting sentiment.' AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. T N the case of all ailments which are likely to prove * serious, ask medical assistance, and follow the rules which are prescribed. When you send for a medical attendant, do so in writing, and say what is the nature of the illness for which he is required : this will save time, which may be of some importance. If there be a preference as to what medical man should be employed, select the person who does not look for remuneration through the administration of drugs, but in the payment of fees. All respectable practitioners now employ few medicines ; the constant administration of drugs is an exploded folly. When done with the services of your medical attendant, honourably discharge your obligations. Some persons greatly injure their constitution by the frequent use of quack medicines. Pills, in particular, are purchased and taken in inordinate quantities, under a belief that they will remove real or fancied diseases. You are earnestly cautioned against this error. By being moderate in diet, and otherwise temperate and careful, the stomach and bowels will seldom be out of order ; and in general circumstances, medicines of any kind should be very sparingly employed. The only io8 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. thing you can safely venture on taking without propet advice, is a slight aperient when it is absolutely necessary. There are several ailments, mostly of a petty kind, which every person should learn to treat as a matter of ordinary education. A man is not expected to send for a doctor for every cut, bruise, or other petty casualty. A few general instructions may therefore be useful for his guidance. If a cut in shaving is very slight, the blood will dry on the wound, and nothing need be done. Should the bleeding be troublesome, it may be stopped with a little felt from a beaver hat, or a small piece of plaster. We have known cases in which bleeding from very serious wounds has been stopped by the application of hat-stuff, or fine floss, when all other means failed. An ordinary cut or chop with a knife, chisel, axe, and the like, even if it severs a finger or a toe, is only dangerous to the irritable or intemperate. Do not be in a hurry ; carefully clean the wound from all dirt or other extraneous matter, and dab with a sponge, dipped in cold water, till all bleeding stops. If the wound be extensive, you may leave it open for half an hour, then bring the corresponding edges together as perfectly as possible, and while thus held, some strips of plaster are to be laid across the wound, with small spaces between every two, so as to allow the escape of an oozing fluid, which often continues for some hours. The edges of the wound should not be dragged tightly together, but merely kept in place by the plaster ; and if the wound be in the finger, arm, toe, or leg, it is better that the ends of the plaster should not overlap. If common sticking-plaster be not at hand, court- AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. 109 plaster will do ; or thin bands of tow may be wrapped round the part, and smeared with gum-water. Or if nothing else is at hand, a bit of linen rag, by absorbing the blood, constitutes itself a plaster as the moisture dries. In other cases, the parts may be sewn together with a strong needle and silk ; as few stitches being employed as will answer the purpose. The stitches may be taken out in about twenty-four hours, by carefully cutting the thread on one side of the knot, and gently pulling the other end. The dressing is to be left on for several days, unless the wound grow painful and throb ; in which case it is to be taken off by the aid of warm water or a soft poultice. If the discharge is inodorous, straw-coloured, and creamy-looking, you may apply the plaster again ; if otherwise, the wound must be poulticed till these wholesome signs appear. A bruised cut must be poulticed with bread and water, to moderate the inflammation, and then with linseed-meal, till new flesh grows instead of that which has been killed by the blow. The latter comes away in appearance like a piece of wetted buff-leather. Scratches are often fatal, in consequence of soap, pearl-ash, or filth of any kind getting into them, and should therefore be kept covered. Pricks with a thorn, &c., are likewise dangerous, occasionally producing locked-jaw. Poulticing, leeching, lotions, &c., must be had recourse to, if serious appearances present themselves. Should you bruise your finger, hand, foot, or any other part, bathe it with hot water as soon as possible, in order to allay the inflammation. If the bruise be serious, the application of leeches may be necessary. The action on the skin of a hot fluid as boiling no THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. water or melted grease is called a scald ; that of a solid body, as red hot iron, a burn. The effects of burns are threefold either simple redness and pain, blisters, or the total destruction of the parts. For redness, Mr Smee recommends protection from the air by wet lint or linen covered with oiled silk ; or, if oiled silk is not at hand, to cover with several layers of linen, slightly wetted with common water, or Goulard water. The part may also be covered with raw cotton, if it can be procured. If blisters arise, leave them alone, if not very tense ; and if they be very tense, puncture with a fine needle, and keep on the lint and oiled skin. Absence of pain over the injured part is a bad sign, and shews that it is destroyed. Apply linen and oiled silk as before, or a bread-and-water poultice. ' The object in treating scalds and burns,' says Mr South, ' is to keep up for a time the great heat or high temperature to which the injured part has been raised by the scald- ing or burning, and to lower this by degrees to the natural heat of the body. The best and readiest dry materials to be applied are flour, or cotton, or cotton- wadding ; the wet are spirits of turpentine, spirits of wine or good brandy, lime-water and oil, lime-water and milk, milk alone, or bread-and-milk poultice ; and all these wet applications must be made of sufficient warmth to feel comfortable to the finger, but not hot' When the blisters become uneasy, after the lapse of perhaps from thirty to fifty hours (for the pain moderates in a few hours after the accident, unless it has been very severe), they must be carefully cut open and dressed. When the clothes catlh fire, the person should be rolled in the carpet or hearth-rug as quickly as possible, in order to stifle the flames. Firmness and presence of AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. in mind are essentially requisite in accidents of this nature ; and for want of these, numerous lives are sacrificed. The clothes, if any, over the parts injured should be cut away, but only so far as they will come easily. The patient, if severely injured, must be kept moderately warm ; and if he continues to shudder or shiver, a little hot wine and water, or spirits and water, should be administered. If excessive sleepiness or stupor, or difficulty of breathing sets in, or great pain ensues about the stomach, danger exists. The surgeon should be consulted in the case even of the slightest scalds or burns," if large in size ; for then, especially in children, there is ground for alarm. Chilblains and frost-bites are the familiar names given to the effects of excessive cold on the surface of the body. In its action on the skin, extreme cold some- what resembles burning, producing redness, pain, blisters, or destruction of the parts. In restoring a frozen person, or a frost-bitten part, the object is directly the reverse that is, to keep the cold, which, by its exposure, the body has acquired, and to withdraw it by slow degrees, till the body has recovered its natural heat. If the person or part be brought sud- denly into a hot room, or put in a warm bath, he or it will be killed outright. ' The frozen person,' says Chelius, ' should be brought into a cold room, and after having been undressed, covered up with snow, or with clothes dipped in ice-cold water, or he may be laid in cold water so deeply that his mouth and nose only are free. When the body is somewhat thawed, there is com- monly a sort of icy crust formed around it ; the patient must then be removed, and the body washed with cold water mixed with a little wine or brandy ; when the 112 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. limbs lose their stiffness, and the frozen person shews signs of life, he should be carefully dried, and put into a cold bed in a cold room : scents, and remedies which excite sneezing, are to be put to his nose ; air is to be carefully blown into the lungs, if natural breathing do not come on : clysters of warm water with camphorated vinegar thrown up ; the throat tickled with a feather ; and cold water dashed upon the pit of the stomach. He must be brought by degrees into rather warmer air, and mild perspirants, as elder and balm tea (or weak common tea), with Minderer's spirit, warm wine, and the like, may be given to promote gentle perspiration.' Frost-bitten parts should be bathed or rubbed with cold water or snow. A sudden application of heat instantly and irrecoverably destroys the vitality of the parts. For chilblains, employ friction with soap lini- ment. Sprains are sudden strainings of the tendons and ligaments, and always require time for their com- plete recovery. For injuries of this kind, warm moist flannels applied to the part, and a bread-and-water poultice on going to bed, are recommended ; but this, in our humble and unprofessional opinion, is only adapted to cases in which the patient thinks proper to look forward to weeks of such coddling. We have before now cured ourselves in a few hours of a severe sprain of the ankle-joint, attended with swelling, by fomentations of water as hot as we could bear them. Dislocations of the joints are common accidents among an active and mechanically employed population. Severe injuries and sprains are sometimes apt to be mistaken for dislocations ; but in the latter case, the joint cannot be moved, while its form is manifestly AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. 113 altered. When such an accident occurs, make no attempt at reduction or setting of the joint till the surgeon arrives, or you may make the patient worse. When the bone of a limb is fractured, especial care should be taken not to move the patient roughly, otherwise the ends of the bone may be thrust through the flesh. Procure a door or a hurdle, and place the patient upon it, and let him be carried carefully, and not in a cart or other carriage. If the patient has to be moved far, it would be a good plan to strap the limb, and apply an apparatus made by rolling a bunch of twigs, the length of the limb, in each end of a piece of thick sheeting tied round, after being applied, by three or four pieces of broad tape. By these means, the limb would be kept better in situation. If a surgeon is within an hour's journey, and the day is not cold, it is better to wait and allow him to superintend the removal. For further information as regards broken limbs, you are referred to surgical authorities. Poison is the name for that which, when taken into the human body, or applied externally, uniformly effects such a derangement in the animal economy as to produce disease or death. It is usual to divide poisons according to the source from which they are obtained as mineral, vegetable, and animal ; or according to their effects as irritant, narcotic, or narcotic-acrid. Whatever their nature or effects, those most frequently met with in practice are arsenic, certain salts of lead, oxalic acid, prussic acid, opium, laudanum, nux-vomica, poisonous fish and poisonous vegetables eaten through ignorance. In every case where there exists the least suspicion of poisoning, instantly send for medical aid, and meanwhile excite vomiting, either by one of the H H4 THE YOUTH 1 S COMPANION. emetics formerly mentioned, or by tickling the throat with a feather. Most poisons have antidotes or correc- tives that is, substances which neutralise or modify their effects. In the case of arsenic, for example, olive-oil, milk, white of egg, or flour and water should be repeatedly taken, and repeatedly vomited, till the surgeon arrives ; in oxalic acid, chalk and water, with emetics, are found to be useful ; and in the case of acetate of lead, an active emetic with sulphate of soda, or hydro-sulphuret of potash or ammonia, is likely to prove beneficial. In the case of opium or its extracts, excite to vomiting ; dash cold water over the face ; administer the strongest coffee after vomiting ; make the patient walk between two persons ; pull the hair, or otherwise inflict pain to prevent sleep. This treatment must be pursued for many hours. For prussic acid, it is recommended to ' give half a tea-spoonful of harts- horn in brandy and water immediately, and repeat every ten minutes till the fourth time. Dash cold water upon the spine and face, to rouse, but not to chill the patient.' In vegetable poisons, emetics are generally adopted. Under Poisoned Wounds may be classed the bites and stings of insects, serpent-bites, the bites of mad dogs, or wounds poisoned by the absorption of dead animal matter. For stings, two or three drops of hartshorn are quite effectual ; and for the after-irritation of bites or stings, a little spirits and water, or Eau de Cologne, is said to be efficacious. As to dog-bites, ' not one in ten thousand comes from an animal which is mad. Where any one is bitten by a dog which is unquestionably mad, take a carving-fork, and break off one prong, and heat the other in the hottest part of a AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. 115 common fire. Apply this thoroughly to the whole of the bite, so as to destroy the surrounding parts. If a surgeon be within half-an-hour's journey, tie a string tightly immediately above the part, and use all possible despatch to secure his aid. In all suspected cases of madness, keep the dog chained up, for perhaps it may be a false alarm, and the continuance of the dog in health will be a great satisfaction to the party bitten. Wounds which are suspected to be poisoned by absorption, should instantly be washed and fomented with warm water, and sucked with a small tube, with a view to remove the poison. When swelling and inflammation ensue, trust everything to the surgeon.' External inflammation is characterised by a feeling of heat and pain, redness, swelling and throbbing, or forma- tion of matter. For the first thirty hours or so, use cold applications ; after which, hot-water fomentations and poultices are best adapted. When taken in time, inflammation resulting from external injury, may in general be subdued before assuming the ultimate stages of suppuration. In the case of a fainting-fit, lay the patient down, flat, and remove the neckcloth. Apply strong scent to the nostrils, and sprinkle a little cold water on the face. These attentions will usually restore animation. If apoplexy is feared, keep the head up ; besides removing the neckcloth, loosen the shirt and clothes, and send for a surgeon. To restore suspended animation in the case of drown- ing, the following rules are prescribed : i. Carry the body carefully with the face upwards, and the head and shoulders a little raised, to the nearest house. If to a distance, especially in summer, previously remove any Ii6 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. wet clothes, rub the body dry, and wrap it in a blanket, or the garments of the by-standers. A covering such as a dry coat over even wet clothes will check further chilling from evaporation. 2. The body being removed to a warm room, instantly strip and rub it dry; and then cover it with warm blankets, carpets, or the like. Increase the warmth by hot bottles, sand-bags, bricks, or other substances placed in contact with all parts of the body. A hot bath will also be found of great value. 3. Have several assistants to rub the body with their hands. Clear the mucus from the mouth, hold the nose, and then suck out the foul air with a tube, and blow in fresh air in the same manner. When breathing begins to shew itself, assist by gentle compression and friction of the ribs and abdomen ; and occasionally apply some pungent scent or other irritant to the nostrils. 4. Nothing should be given inwardly by the mouth, unless the power of swallowing exists ; and then only small quantities of warm ginger-tea, spiced negus or ale, or weak spirit and water occasionally. 5. Means of recovery should be persisted in for several hours : restoration has been known to follow after eight hours' perseverance. When recovery seems established, rest and quiet should be enjoined ; but a strict watch must be kept for some hours, as sinking is apt to happen from subsequent neglect Such are a few general rules and advices connected with ailments and accidents within the sphere of ordinary experience. Acquire, if possible, a knowledge of what to do in these matters, not alone on your own account, but for the sake of neighbours and those who may look to you for assistance. The ability to succour misfortune can never come amiss, nor can it be deemed AILMENTS AND APPLIANCES. 117 undignified, though perhaps scarcely accordant with notions in fashionable life. The late Louis Philippe, king of the French, had himself taught, while a young man, how to bleed and bind up wounds and fractures, and this knowledge was more than once of use in saving life. What a king thinks fit to do as an act of humanity, can be thought neither low nor unbe- coming. MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. A COURSE of reading in History, and also in f^ Political and Social Economy, is indispensable to the young, not only to awaken thought, but to explain the circumstances which have produced the present aspect and condition of civil society. By this species of instruction, we learn that the good order, prosperity, and happiness of the general community, are but a con- sequence of a lengthened series of struggles between right and wrong, truth and error, ignorance and intel- ligence. Legends, indeed, tell us that there was once a Golden Age, when all mankind were peace-loving, prosperous, and happy. A poetic fancy. There never was such an age. The further back we pursue our researches, we find that society was the more rude. Among the most enlightened nations of antiquity, there were terrible oppressions and sufferings. Life was nowhere safe. The rule of the sword was almost uni- versal. Slavery, or its modification serfdom, was enforced or submitted to for the sake of protection. All this is taught by History. Ii8 THE YOU TITS COMPANION. Civilisation has been of slow growth, and it is still growing. Contending with barbaric power, it has been again and again retarded now advancing, now checked and almost destroyed. At this day, it has made con- siderable progress only in a few favoured spots. The larger portion of the earth's surface is still inhabited by people, little, if at all removed from a condition of savagery. What immense efforts must be made over countless ages before the world at large resembles our own comparatively happy country ! What superstitions to be got rid of! What ignorance to be removed ! We have to rejoice in the fact, however, that the course of civilisation is, on the whole, onward. Things are always getting a little better. Where there is intelli- gence along with a power of self-defence, there is neces- sarily progress. Where there is a pure Christianity, there is necessarily moral and religious advancement. And on these grounds, what hopes of man's improve- ment may not be indulged ! Various notions have been entertained respecting the constitution of a right kind of society. The social system which has sprung up through a course of ages, is based on the family compact, along with independent individual exertion. A husband, wife, and children, constitute a family, which is a little sovereignty in itself. An aggregation of families constitutes a community. Thus, the matrimonial engagement lies at the very foundation of our social fabric, and must ever do so. It must also ever lie at the foundation of sound morals. Out of the family relationship springs individual action independent thought, independent exertion. Without this independence, there can be no substantial improvement ; for, as already said, it is only by exercise MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. 119 that the faculties are developed and strengthened. In other words, when a young man becomes able to think, he must think ; otherwise, he remains childlike in his understanding outwardly resembling a man, mentally a baby. The desire and the power to think are most surely promoted by self-reliance the obligation to act an independent part It is not meant that every man should be altogether independent of his fellow-creatures : that is impracticable. What is required is that, within* the sphere of duties, each should be left to depend on the exertion of his own head and hands. No doubt, this doctrine has an air of selfishness; but selfishness may be productive of good as well as bad ends, and is acknowledgedly allied to enterprise, perseverance, and other useful qualities. Some speculative writers have alleged that society should consist of groups of families, united in one establishment ; the whole members of which are to throw their individual earnings into a common fund, from which all expenses are to be paid. In support of this visionary project, known as Communism, it is urged that, by leaving society to spontaneous arrange- ment, there comes a time when each nation is dis- tracted by internal disorders. The clever, the in- dustrious, the fortunate, become wealthy, and attain high rank ; while vast numbers, either from lack of capacity or opportunity, sink into a state of indigence or become criminals, and prey on the others. There is truth in this rigorous statement of facts ; for in every nation there are high and low, rich and poor, good and bad. Nevertheless, such a mingled tissue is referable to human nature, not to the structure of society. If there be anything wrong, we must seek a remedy in the 120 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. improvement of man's moral nature, not in subverting the whole social organisation, and in attempting to reunite its shattered parts on new and fantastic prin- ciples. For example, allusion has been made to that insane deification of wealth and that extravagance in living which produce so many disastrous results. But we must view this folly as a temporary fashion, which will be cured by better education, as well as a more thorough diffusion of moral and religious principle. That, however, there will always be indiscretions to lament, is to be expected ; for human perfection is unattainable, and charity needs ever to be associated with considerations of justice. Nor are present excesses worse than the errors of a past age. In spite of every obstacle, things on the whole are undergoing a change for the better. Within the recollection of the present writer, there have been considerable advances ; and every year adds to the number of physical and social meliorations. Civil society, then, as a result of ages of experience, depends for the spring of its life and activity on the interests and efforts of the individuals composing it. Each person, free by law and usage, is expected to act an independent part, controlled only by social and statutory arrangements. While every one is free, therefore, he is at the same time bound to give obedience to all existing laws, and respect to all constituted authorities. In consequence of the general freedom which prevails, and in contradistinction to grouping families on a communal plan, society is said to be founded on the competitive principle. No one being interfered with, all are left to compete with each other in industrial enterprise. This, as has just been MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. 121 alluded to, produces considerable disparity in condition ; but, all things considered, it is the best arrangement yet devised, and, looking to human nature, it is the only one practicable. Certainly, every attempt to recon- struct society on different principles has come to nought. The organisation of civil society, though possessing everywhere the same general character, differs in a few particulars in every country. The chief difference consists in the diffusion of privileges. To understand fully distinctions of this nature, we must have recourse to history, ancient and modern. Little can be learned from looking at the present aspect of things. We require to search the records of human progress for the origin as well as for the philosophy of almost every institution. Throughout Europe, society has generally arisen from similar circumstances. The rudimental germ of every state was a handful of adventurers, who, by military prowess, made themselves masters of the country. The leading men in such enterprises were chiefs with retainers. The principal chief became king ; the rest assumed the character of an aristocracy ; and the retainers, with the inhabitants whom they helped to subdue, from being at first serfs, finally attained the rank of a free democracy. It was long, however, before this latter result was achieved. For many ages, the chiefs or nobles holding lands by a military tenure from the sovereign, formed a feudal aristocracy, by whom in reality the whole system of government was conducted. The idea of imparting privileges to the common people was long in dawning on the mind not only because the nobles needed 122 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. vassals to execute their will, but because the humbler classes had really no means of an independent exist- ence. The true origin of general freedom in Great Britain is the crown. From having been companions and assistants of the sovereign, the principal barons were constantly encroaching on his prerogatives. Some- times the concessions of the crown, as those of Magna Charta, made by King John, were necessary and desirable ; but more frequently the nobles were inclined to exact so much power in the state as would have rendered the king's authority a nonentity. The danger of these encroachments caused the monarch to seek aid from the commons. With the view, therefore, of raising up a means of protection in this quarter, he encouraged the building of cities, to whose inhabitants he gave certain important privileges. The civic corporations, therefore, must be viewed as the cradle of freedom. From them sprung much of the present constitution ot society. Relying on their privileges, and surrounded by walls, these burgher communities defied the nobles, and sided with the king. From this time, therefore, the feudal principle declined, serfs were gradually emancipated, and ultimately every man was declared to be equal in the eye of the law. It is necessary to be thus particular, for a notion prevails among the humbler classes that they have been deprived of rights enjoyed by their ancestors. History most explicitly shews that, in early times, the peasantry and operative bodies possessed no privileges whatever. Magna Charta does not so much as mention them. Society, in fact, has been quite a progressive develop- ment. Little by little, privileges have been widened in MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. 123 their sphere, and are still widening as circumstances render it desirable. Sacred and profane history concur in shewing that science, art, laws, literature, freedom, and indeed all that mankind most prize, originated in cities ; and till the present day, it is only in populous places that great alertness and independence of mind is usually found. In other words, it is only by close association, and a free interchange of thought, that the wits of men are sharpened, and that they are able to act in combination. Beginning with the patriarchal and clanship systems of government ; passing through monarchical and aristo- cratic despotisms ; society, consolidating and rising in power and intelligence, arrives at that advanced method of government in which large numbers take a part Yet the stages of this advancement are ill-defined, and are reached only according to circumstances. Although there is nothing of which mankind has had so extensive or so varied a knowledge as government, it is till this hour undetermined whether there be such a thing possible as a perfect government. Much has been written on the subject; but the result of all inquiry seems to be, that nothing is absolutely determined except a few general principles. Those, therefore, who contend for any particular model of government, with- out a due regard to circumstances, only pursue a delusive fancy. No species of government that could be devised will apply universally. Schemes, the most brilliant on paper, come to nought when tried by the rude shocks of daily events. Forms of government, in short, are as yet arbitrary and unsettled ; and the only practical principle of any value which we know is, that every nation should possess a government in harmony 124 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. with its state of civilisation, and the tastes and habits of the more enlightened portions of the community. You may occasionally hear men extolling a political dogma, as if it were an everlasting and universal truth ; whereas it is probably true only in the very restricted sense of being applicable to a handful of people, and a comparatively small spot on the earth's surface. Affecting to be scandalised at the spectacle of differ- ences in rank and degrees of wealth, certain persons, with views more benevolent than profound, have projected the notion that all men are equal, and ought to be placed on the same social level. It is scarcely necessary to refute opinions of this kind. Men are not even born equal. Nature endows them with different mental capacities and physical powers, in adaptation to different fields of exertion and different positions. Were it possible to place all on an exact level, a disparity of condition would immediately ensue. The able and ambitious would rise to places of trust The slothful and unskilful would sink to inferiority. All would gravitate into positions coincident with their feelings and faculties. Forms of government are, then, for the most part, an exponent of the ways of thinking and feeling, and of the peculiar circumstances of a people, as individuals. Where the people are unable or unwilling to take any part in the government, or at least prefer to be taken care of, there a despotism is not only preferable but indispensable. Where, on the contrary as in Great Britain and the United States of America the people are able, and desirous to make their voices heard through a system of representation, there constitutional forms will to all appearance sooner or later prevail. One MA TTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. 125 thing, in any view of the question, needs to be remem- bered. Government is only a means to an end ; the end being the welfare of the whole people; and without judicious aid and forbearance, no government, however well devised, can possibly realise the expectations which may be formed respecting it Previous to the revolution of 1688, England and Scotland were governed by a monarch whose rule was arbitrary at least there was but an imperfect restraint on either his public or private career. The notion entertained by the sovereign was, that he governed by an inherent and divine right, and was not responsible for his actions. We are not rashly to condemn the Tudors and Stuarts for entertaining opinions of this kind. They acted according to the traditional doctrines in which they were reared ; and, looking to the aggres- siveness of the higher aristocracy, perhaps they con- sidered that they were sent by Heaven to act as fathers and protectors of the unenfranchised classes; for, as already mentioned, the crown, with all its occasional tyrannies, was the great initiator of public liberty. By the revolution settlement, the monarch resigned all arbitrary power, and ruled only through his ministers. Nominally, all public acts were done in his name and by his authority; practically, the ministers whom he appointed were the parties responsible for every trans- action purporting to emanate from the crown. As now adjusted by long usage, though the ministry are nominees of the sovereign, and his responsible advisers, they hold their places only in virtue of possessing a majority in the House of Commons. When their measures are censured or repudiated by a majority of votes in that great assembly of representatives, the 126 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. prime-minister and his associates must relinquish office. In a sense, therefore, the people are the real rulers, through the individuals who represent them the ministry are only agents in carrying out popular wishes. The general subordination of the crown, however, is not universally conceded. Opinions differ on the subject, and hence that diversity of political parties demonstrated in the deliberations of parliament. The Tories, although under the newer name of Conservatives their opinions are a good deal softened, are said to be the ' adherents of the ancient constitution of the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the Church of England;' but in point of fact, they look back rather theoretically than practically, intrenching themselves in the present state of things, and debating every inch of ground with the advancing party, the Whigs or Liberals. As regards general principles, they seem to place the king before the aristocracy, and the aristocracy before the people, and would contract rather than extend the suffrage, so as to give the popular element as little power as possible. As a means of giving a preponderance to party, much depends on the method of constituting a House of Commons, and therein lies a ground for the keenest contests. The question at issue is, which party shall gain the ascendency in parliament, along with the high privilege of advising the crown and distributing offices to adherents. Odious in some respects as is this struggle for power and place, it serves some wholesome ends. In old times, the people benefited by the rivalries of dynasties; now, the laws are improved by one party outbidding another. The very weakness of the executive as regards the keeping its place, and its obligation to act in a spirit of conciliation, is highly MA TTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN. 127 favourable to popular freedom. Nor does it appear that the sentiment of loyalty diminishes in the progress of events. While in effect deprived of absolute power, the person and status of the sovereign are perhaps more highly esteemed than ever. For an explanation of this seeming anomaly, we look to the traditional feelings of Englishmen. They behold in the sovereign the fountain of honour, rank, title the central object of regard in that essentially aristocratic social system, round which all in their respective spheres circulate ; for we have to note that even among those furthest removed from the court, there is ordinarily a real or affected admiration of men of high rank, on account of the titles which they bear. This remarkable idiosyn- crasy in the Anglo-Saxon mind, is marked not more in Englishmen than in Americans, many of whom, it is observed, on visiting the mother-country, make extra- ordinary, and sometimes ludicrous efforts to be patron- ised by people of title. Independently of the sentiment of loyalty, a rational regard for the crown is only another form of respect for the state. We support the crown, because the crown is the symbol of public authority. The crown, there- fore, as now regulated by the action of parliament, becomes a protector of public interests not for the sake of the sovereign, for the sovereign is a stipendiary with well-defined duties, but for the sake of the public at large. Thus the crown has become a representative idea ; it represents the whole people, and protects the many against the aggressions of the few. Justifiably admiring these good features in our state policy, it is only necessary to avoid falling into the error of imagining that matters of government and legislation 128 THE YOUTJTS COMPANION. are so perfect as to admit of no improvement In public as in private affairs, there is no standing still. There is an equal danger in too rigorous an adherence to traditional maxims, as in abrupt and rash attempts at reform. You must be prepared to see endless contentions on this score one party prognosticating national ruin on the occasion of every reform of old usages, and another resolute in carrying out changes for the better which it would be unsafe any longer to neglect One of our primary duties is to be patriotic that is, to have a love and regard for our native country. But this love and regard must be exercised with discretion. We are not to be blind to the faults of our country, nor to be offensively . boastful of it above all other nation- alities. The people of some countries carry their patriotism to a ridiculous excess, by insolent boastful- ness, which has been sarcastically termed Chauvinism, from Chauvin, the name of a braggart in a French comedy. ON FORMING OPINIONS. HPHE difficulties which beset all attempts at correct -^ reasoning have already engaged our notice. It has been seen that opinions ordinarily expressed take their tone greatly from time, circumstances, and bodily temperament. The people of every country entertain opinions favourable to their own fashions, customs, laws, and religion, and unfavourable to those of other nations. A love of one's own country, as said above, is a com- mendable feeling, but it should be a love arising from ON FORMING OPINIONS. 129 examination and conviction, not from prejudice. The Hindu worships the river Ganges. We know that this is superstitious folly. The conscientious Turk declares that Mohammed was a true prophet. We know that he was an impostor, though doubtless a man of transcendent abilities. The people who lived in our own country a hundred years ago, were of belief that certain old women, whom they termed witches, could, by super- natural powers, raise tempests by sea and land, and malevolently interrupt the course of human affairs. The people who possessed this belief were conscientious in holding this opinion ; yet we know that this opinion was an absurdity. We know that our ancestors believed in an impossibility. Opinion is therefore, as we see, a thing of time and place. The opinion that is supposed to be right in one century, is wrong in the next. What is considered to be a right opinion in Asia, is thought wrong in Europe. What is deemed a correct and praiseworthy belief in Britain, is reckoned an absurdity in France. Indeed the opinion which is held good in one district of a country, is looked on with contempt in other districts so that the whole world is found to be covered, as it were, with a variety of opinions and shades of opinions, like the diversified colours by which countries are depicted in a map. Opinion, we have said, is also dependent on temperament of the body. A fat man, of easy disposition, does not think in exactly the same way as a lean and excitable person. A man who enjoys all the comforts which opulence can purchase, has a tendency to think differently in some things from a man who is suffering under misfortunes or poverty. What does all this wonderful contrariety of opinion I 130 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. teach us ? Since we see that opinion is dependent on the locality of our birth, on the age in which we live, on the condition in which we may chance to be placed, and on the physical qualities of our bodies, have we therefore no power over opinion ? Must we be its slave ? These are questions of a solemn char- acter, and we must answer them accordingly. The contrariety of opinion existing in times and places, teaches us, in the first place, humility, which is the foundation of many heavenly virtues. It shews us that the opinions we may form, particularly on abstract sub- jects, may possibly neither be the most correct, nor the most enduring. Perhaps what we have taken up and cherished as truth, may after all be a delusion. In learning a lesson of humility and distrust of our own way of thinking, we are impressed with a tender regard for the opinions of others opinions which most likely have been taken up on grounds equally conscientious with our own. Although opinion is commonly dependent on those contingent circumstances which we have noticed, it cannot be allowed that we have no power over it. We have a power over the formation of opinion to a certain extent ; and it is our present object to shew how this power can be exerted in order to enable us the better to fulfil the duties of life. The reason why opinion is so illusory in its nature is, that mankind have ever been excessively careless in the adoption of their opinions. They allow the chance notions of things that first present themselves to take possession of their minds without question ; and when these ill-assorted ideas have once cohered into a habitual train, they fancy they have made up their minds, and will listen to no explana- ON FORMING OPINIONS. 131 tion of the opinions of others. Their obstinacy, their self-conceit, their self-interest, their wish to please the party to which they have attached themselves, induce them to hold fast to their original opinion, until time or experience in all likelihood wear it down, and its absurdity is secretly pressed upon their notice. But even after its absurdity is disclosed, they are some- times ashamed to say they have altered it ; and so perhaps they have one opinion which they keep locked up in their bosom, and another which they bring into daily use and exhibit before company. It is certainly our duty to be cautious in the forma- tion, and, most of all, in the display of our opinions. Many excellent men, on arriving at middle life, have deeply regretted that they should have heedlessly published their early and hastily formed notions. They had reasoned, as they thought, soundly, but it was without a knowledge of the world or its history. Speaking to the young, we advisedly say while yet under the training of parents, guardians, and teachers, it is your duty to receive with confidence the instructions by which it is attempted to enlighten your minds, and to put you in the way of welldoing. But these friends of your youth will probably tell you that when you pass from under their guardianship into the active scenes of life, you become a responsible being responsible alike to human and divine laws and that you must now think for yourself. At this critical period of your existence, you have every chance of coming in contact with the idle, the dissipated, the frivolous, who will try to make you embrace erroneous opinions, and who will possibly put the most mischievous books into your hands for perusal. Do not be led away by such 132 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. machinations; neither be dismayed by the number of wits or profane jesters who may assail you. Your proper object is the discovery of correct views on all subjects of importance ; and for that, a course of private study is necessary. 'For the capability of receiving truth, there must always be certain preparations. I do not reckon freedom from error one of these, for then truth would be absolutely unattainable ; no man being without false opinions who has not already imbibed true ones. But I mean certain qualities, moral and intellectual, which bestow a fitness to be acted upon by argument One of the most essential of these is the fair honest desire of discovering the truth, and following whithersoever it may lead. But how large a portion of mankind is precluded from this state by previously determined interests and penalties ! How few, even among the pretended inquirers after truth, can say with an old English writer : " For this, I have forsaken all hopes, all friends, all desires, which might bias me, and hinder me from driving right at what I aimed." On the contrary, are we not very sure, that when persons of certain descriptions engage in what they call an investigation of truth, they have beforehand decided what conclusions to establish, and without such a decision, would never have undertaken the task. Further, how much diligence, how much study, what freedom from distinctions, what renunciation of common pleasures and pursuits, are necessary for the successful search after truth ! Truth in science is only arrived at by laborious experiment and patient deduc- tion. Historical truth requires for its investigation perfect impartiality, and an acquaintance with every possible inlet to fraud and mistake. Moral truth ON FORMING OPINIONS. 133 demands a heart capable of feeling it. Religious truth is not attained without a union of the requisites for all the other species of truth.' * In these remarks of an intelligent writer is conveyed the sound admonition that a correct opinion on great debatable subjects is not to "be obtained without laborious investigation, along with a close attention to grounds of evidence and a heart open to conviction. The more you learn, the more will you see cause to entertain a liberal view of the opinions of others. It is the exercise of this liberality of mind which forms a distinguishing trait in the manners of our country. By the British constitution, every one is allowed perfect freedom of opinion, a gift above all price, which it is our duty not to prostitute or abuse. Let us form our opinions on solid grounds of conviction let us cherish these opinions and act on all occasions consistently with them and let us, at the same time, so maintain a due regard for justice that we allow to others the same freedom of opinion which we are entitled to claim. It is further necessary, in consequence of the entangled state of many questions, to avoid those extreme views which would number us in the ranks of the crotchety and impracticable. Safety, as repeatedly said, lies in moderation. Without sacrifice of principle, you can at least exercise discretion. These observations apply indifferently to various subjects upon which opinions may be formed; and we would, in conclusion, beg to say a few words in particular on opinions of a political nature, a correct choice of which is a matter of extreme difficulty, and * Aikin's Letters from a Father to his Son. 134 THE YOU TITS COMPANION 1 . should be made only with great circumspection. There is much dishonest and degrading as well as highly honourable partisanship. Nothing is more common than to see political subserviency, for mean selfish purposes. Among partisans there stand out many instances of single-mindedness and honest independ- ence ; but also what numberless cases of hollow pretension and hypocrisy persons affecting opinions for evidently no other object than place and pay. Judging cautiously, you will take care at the outset not to be misled by names. High-sounding phraseology about liberty and popular rights may issue from the mouths of the merest time-servers. On this account, you will find it the safest course to think lightly on the subject till you have gained a reasonable degree of experience. Exercise, then, the utmost discretion in committing yourself to any political opinion or party ; and let it not be forgot that we are more liable to the error of wasting much precious time on political dis- quisition, than of falling into apathy upon public affairs. He is a wise man who knows how so to guide his steps as to preserve himself from falling into either extreme. Every one who for a long series of years has been politically busy, will acknowledge, that though he thinks he was right in the main in which opinion he may be right or wrong yet that he has spent many busy hours and anxious thoughts on subjects which, looked back upon, are seen to have been profitless and insignificant. Eschewing political partisanship, you will, however, as already said, take a decisive course in forwarding every proper means for social advancement the estab- lishment and support of public libraries, benefit societies, ON FORMING OPINIONS. 135 temperance associations, and all else that seems cal- culated to quell ignorance and vice, and promote improved tastes and habits. DUTIES AS SUBJECTS OR CITIZENS. HATEVER be our precise opinions on political * * subjects, there can be no doubt that we are bound to yield obedience to the supreme power in the state. In a monarchy, the supreme power is the reign- ing sovereign, all under whom are designated subjects. In a republic, this supreme power is lodged in an elective president, those whom he governs being called citizens. In a sense, it is immaterial whether an individual member of the community be called a sub- ject or a citizen. In both cases there must be a due allegiance to the supreme authority, and to inferior and properly appointed authorities. In every well-ordered community, all persons whatsoever find themselves subject to laws, appointed for the general protection, and to these laws we are bound to yield a cheerful obedience. This implies no sacrifice, for in return for obedience we have protection. A cheerful obedience to the laws is therefore a chief public duty. Possibly some of our laws, from having been framed for a former state of society, or in order to meet particular exigencies, may not now be very judicious in their provisions ; yet that forms no solid reason why we should break through them. It is always safer to obey a bad law than to oppose it by 136 THE YOUTH" 'S COMPANION. violence. Unhappily for some nations, they seem to have no accurate idea of the value of obedience to the laws. When they find themselves aggrieved by oppres- sive state measures, they are exceedingly apt to break into tumults, and take up arms against the officers of their governments. This is a very short-sighted policy, as the history of all nations proves; for the people are always sure to suffer far more by the coercive measures adopted to restrain them, than they would have done by submitting to the evil they originally complained of. It is the boast and glory of Britain and long may it be so that its people know how to respect the laws, even while they consider them to be injurious, and how to correct them by quiet and orderly procedure. In this lies the important secret of their national greatness, their wealth, their public liberty. The advantages arising out of a scrupulous obedience to the laws, consist, in the first place, of social order and quietude, by which the rights of property are respected, commerce and trade permitted to nourish, and the sacred inviolability of the person preserved. The results of turbulence and civil com- motion are poverty, ruin to property, insecurity of the person, destruction of commerce and trade, and at length military oppression and barbarism. Every intelligent man, therefore, in this country yields not only a bare submission, but a becoming respect to the laws, as well as to the various institutions established by their authority. Perfect obedience both to the letter and the spirit of the laws does not, however, imply that we should not examine whether they are in every respect answerable to the present condition of society, nor keep us from DUTIES AS SUBJECTS OK CITIZENS. 137 resorting to legal means to have them corrected, or altogether rescinded. The constitution points out how this is to be done. It is illegal to conspire to over- throw the law ; and to assume an attitude hostile to government is always dangerous in the extreme treasonable if defeated, and perhaps productive of unspeakable horrors if successful. Judging from the Cromwellian and the French Revolution, besides some successful revolts of lesser note, it would appear that a revolution in general circumstances runs a certain specific course. First, the old government is over- thrown, and one thought to be more liberal is estab- lished. Second, the new government, being composed of men who acted from a conscientious conviction of evils to be redressed, is soon found not to go far enough in its measures ; it is accused of being too moderate, and is overthrown. Third, a violent set of men, animated by feelings of vengeance, and professing boundless liberality, construct a fresh government Fourth, anarchy sooner or later ensues, the nation is in universal disorder, and life and property are no longer secure. Fifth, out of the convulsion arises an indi- vidual, who, by his military genius, conquers inferior demagogues, and brings back a degree of tranquillity, at which every one rejoices. Sixth, this tranquillity is speedily found to be a military despotism : a Cromwell or a Napoleon is at the head of affairs. And, brought to this condition, a long course of suffering is endured before the nation returns to the constitutional point whence it set out Varied according to circumstances, such is likely to be the progress of every revolution occurring from heedless, though well-intentioned, demo- cratic invasion. An expectation that the original 138 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. movers of a revolution will be suffered to conduct it to a conclusion, is pretty nearly hopeless. The agitation brings all sorts of wild schemers into play, and one party after another is remorselessly trampled down in the contest. It is now a settled political principle, that for revolu- tions to be attended with the good results anticipated by their promoters, they must, independently of other favouring circumstances, refer to a people who are qualified not only for self-government, but possessed of the nerve to unite and defend themselves against the forces which may be brought against them. A usual cause of failure in the revolutions of continental Europe has been the political incapacity of the people an incapacity amounting in some instances to an ignorance even of the forms necessary for regulating public assemblages of citizens. The revolution which gave independence to the United States was successful, because, among other favourable circumstances, it was promoted by an intelligent people, accustomed to freedom through a preliminary training under a consti- tutional monarchy. Of what priceless value are such lessons in history ! Warned by these lessons, as well as guided by every proper feeling, you will fully comprehend that all measures designed to correct abuses, and to improve our social condition, must be conducted openly according to regular forms. The means put into our hands by the constitution for improving the law are very ample, if wielded with discretion. The people have the appointment of the men who constitute the most influential branch of the legislature ; if they do not appoint individuals who will meet their views with DUTIES AS SUBJECTS OR CITIZENS. 139 regard to correcting or abolishing laws, they have them- selves to blame : the constitution confers upon them a liberty of choice. It, besides, gives them the right to present petitions to the legislature, either individually or in bodies, praying in respectful terms for the amend- ment or abolition of any law which is deemed oppres- sive or antiquated. This right gives a vast addition to the power of the people. It is of much greater value than one would at first be inclined to suppose, and is infinitely preferable to the use of violence. The right of petition implies the right of meeting publicly to discuss the propriety of petitioning. This practice of meeting together excites the public mind to renewed efforts in the cause it undertakes. The speeches of the orators are circulated and commented upon by the news- papers all over the country. One meeting gives rise to others, men's minds are enlightened and warmed, and the public opinion acquires by degrees an amount of moral force, any resistance to which would be useless. It is not without reason, therefore, that the people of this country set so high a value on the right to assemble for the discussion of public affairs, and place it in the first rank of their constitutional prerogatives. Besides yielding obedience to the existing laws, we are under a collateral obligation to be loyal to the sovereign who rules over us. Loyalty is hence another of our chief public duties, for, as already defined, loyalty is only another form of respect for the state, with which our public and private welfare is intimately associated. Whether designated subjects or citizens, we are to recognise ourselves individually as fractional parts of a great nation, whose honour we are called on to sustain through good and bad report. Let us remember that 140 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. individual virtue can alone promote social happiness, and that social happiness and peace form the basis of political independence. No man can be a good and respectable subject or citizen who is a bad son, a bad husband, a bad father, or a bad master. The nation is but a composition of a great many families, knit together by kindred sentiments and mutual wants ; and how can it be great, or worthy of esteem, if its com- ponent parts exhibit in their constitution the worst of vices ? Loyalty to the supreme power leads to a subordinate, but important duty. It leads us to respect inferior con- stituted authorities. All judges, magistrates, or other civil functionaries, stand in the light of representatives of the highest authority. To shew contempt for any court of justice, or for any magistrate, is therefore equi- valent to shewing contempt for the sovereignty as well as for the laws, and is justly punishable. Nevertheless, it is in every one's power, when they feel themselves aggrieved by these decisions, to appeal to higher authorities for redress ; such being the only means allowable by the constitution in opposing the legal power of the established courts of civil and criminal jurisprudence. A becoming obedience to the laws, and a gene- rous respect for the supreme and inferior constituted authorities, are naturally productive of good order and peace in society. Every one is not acquainted with the different ramifications of the common and statute law ; indeed, it would be impossible for us to acquire a correct knowledge of these things, unless we devoted a lifetime to the study. This difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the laws has sometimes given rise to a DUTIES AS SUBJECTS OR CITIZENS. 141 low jeering at our constitution, and it has been repre- sented as cruel to compel an obedience to laws which few can have an opportunity of learning. But this is a fallacy into which we hope our young readers will not fall. The administration of the common law, such as that which applies to inheritance, debtor and creditor, and civil rights generally, rests with a body of educated men, or lawyers, whose services may at all times be commanded. Besides, we may, if we please, purchase digests of these laws for our private amusement and instruction. The other description of law which is made applicable to the preservation of the peace of society, any one can understand, if he have the ability to know right from wrong. We surely all know that it is illegal and criminal to steal, to rob, to murder, to break into our neighbour's houses, or to attack their persons by violence. It can require no reading of acts of parliament to understand this. Common sense here serves us instead of legal knowledge. Our duty in this matter is very easily denned. We must ever bear in mind that one of the principal acts of duty which the constitution enforces, is the abstaining from meddling violently with the persons and property of our fellow- men. In our well-regulated realm, the person of every man, woman, and child is inviolable from private attack. It is a crime punishable with almost the highest penalty of the law to strike any one, either from an idea that they have injured us, or through the influence of passion and prejudice. If we consider that we have been injured, we must apply to the law or the magis- terial authorities for redress. We are only permitted to use physical force when in absolute danger of losing our lives or property by violence, there being then no 142 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. time to apply to the law for protection. It would be gratifying if these regulations were more generally attended to than they seem to be. There are many young men who, from what they are pleased to term a love of fun, but which can be no other sentiment than a love of mischief, or from gross ignorance, assail the persons of individuals of both sexes, to their great dis- comfort, and sometimes serious injury. Now, it is clearly illegal to do so, and is generally punished by the infliction of penalties by the civil magistrate, though seldom marked with that ignominy which it deserves. Inasmuch as it is held that ignorance of the law does not excuse its infraction, so is it reckoned an invalid apology for the commission of crime to say that you were under the influence of intoxication at the time. Drunkenness is very properly esteemed an aggrava- tion, not a palliation of the offence. CONDUCT AT PUBLIC MEETINGS. HPHE right of meeting together publicly to discuss ^ matters connected with our social condition, being so invaluable a prerogative, it is right and fitting that all young men entering into the busy scenes of life should make themselves well acquainted with the rules which have been established by general consent for the proper conducting of such assemblages. According to usage, a public meeting is not consti- tuted until a person be appointed to preside, or to ' take the chair.' Without this ceremony, the meeting is a tumultuary assembly, or a mob. The first move- COND UCT AT PUBLIC MEE TINGS. 143 ment is therefore the appointment of a chairman. This functionary, on taking his seat, is for the time supreme in the meeting. His chief duty is the preservation of order. He allows only one to speak at a time, giving the preference to him who has first caught his eye in the act of rising, and giving every speaker a fair hearing. Another of his chief duties is the preventing of speakers from wandering from the subject under discussion ; and if they do, he must remind them to keep to the point. In the execution of these and other duties he claims the support of the meeting, and all are bound to yield to his reasonable dictates, and help to maintain his authority. In proportion to the firmness, yet mildness of manner, of the chairman, so is the meeting likely to be well or ill conducted. At some public meetings there is no set plan of opera- tions, and a general discussion on the subjects which are brought forward takes place ; but at all meetings for specific important objects, there is a previous arrangement among a certain number of individuals to bring forward particular points to be spoken upon. In this case, speakers are prepared, and the business assumes the form of the proposal and carrying of a set of resolutions and motions. The following is the routine of procedure : The chairman having stated the object for which the meeting has been called, an individual steps forward and proposes a resolution for the adoption of the meeting. Whether he enforces the propriety of carrying such a resolution by a speech on its merits, or simply propounds the matter, he must be seconded by another individual (with or without a speech), otherwise the meeting cannot entertain his resolution for a moment If duly seconded, then 144 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. the motion is fairly tabled. It is before the meeting. After a resolution is proposed and seconded, it is the duty of the chairman to ask the meeting if it be carried or not ; if agreed to by a general acclamation, or by an obvious majority, he pronounces the word ' carried,' which settles the point, and the business proceeds by the bringing forward of the other resolutions in the same manner. It is unusual for any member of a meeting to oppose the passing of a resolution, unless he have a better to offer in its stead. If he have, and if he wishes ' to take the sense of the meeting ' on the subject, he has a right to be heard. Yet this can only be permitted, provided the meeting has been called in general terms. For instance, if the inhabitants of a town or district generally be called, in order to consider the propriety of such and such measures ; in that case every one is entitled to give his opinion, and to oppose the formal resolutions brought forward. But if the meeting be described by advertisement to consist of those inhabitants or others only who agree in the propriety of such and such measures, then no one is entitled to intrude himself on the deliberations who professes opinions contrary to the spirit and end of the meeting. An inattention to this exceedingly delicate point often creates serious heart-burnings and disturb- ances ; and on that account, committees who call public meetings ought to be very particular in the terms of their announcements. As much regularity is necessary in respect of opposi- tion to motions as in their proposal and carrying. The counter-motion of an opponent is called an amendment, which, to be available, must also be seconded. If not seconded, it drops ; but the opposer may place his CONDUCT A T PUBLfC MEETINGS. 145 protest on record ; that is to say, if the discussion be in a corporation, or other meeting where books of the minutes or transactions are kept On being seconded, and discussed by those who wish to speak upon the subject, the matter is brought to the vote by the chair- man, but not until both the mover and amender have replied, if they please to do so. After they have spoken, not another word can be uttered, and the vote is taken, a majority carrying. If the votes be equal in number, the casting-vote of the chairman carries. There is another way of suppressing a resolution, which is by 'moving the previous question.' This signifies, to return to the point at which the business of the meeting stood previous to the tabling of the motion ; or means, in other words, to do nothing on the subject. But this must also be seconded, and put to the vote in opposition either to the motion or amendment, or to both. The routine is generally to place it in opposition to both : if carried, the matter is settled ; if not carried, the order is next to place the motion and amendment against each other, and to take the vote. Such is an outline of the mode of procedure at public meetings ; and it is particularly desirable that attention should be shewn to the preservation of regularity. At all public meetings there is a strong tendency ' to go out of order.' By this expression it is meant that speakers are under a constant liability to wander from the point under discussion. They are apt to digress into other subjects, and confuse their auditors; and these, getting impatient, are equally apt to interrupt them, so that a single irrelevant observation may frequently lead to hours of idle debate or colloquy, or J 146 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. 'speaking to order,' as it is termed, and thus the harmony of the assembly be destroyed. Those who attend such meetings should therefore have a regard for the following regulations : If they speak, they should keep closely to the subject in hand. If they be listeners, they should preserve a strict silence. It is ungentlemanly, not to say disorderly, to utter any sound, or make any observation on what a speaker is saying. The speaker must on no account be inter- rupted, so long as he keeps to order ; and if not in order, it is the chairman's duty to check him. It is likewise disorderly to speak more than once, except in replying before the vote is put, or except it be the rule of the assembly to permit it. Sometimes persons who have spoken rise again to speak as to 'a matter of form.' This is allowable ; but in speaking as to form, the merits of the case should not be introduced. On this, however, as on every other point, there is a per- petual tendency to go out of order ; hence the absolute necessity for appointing a chairman well acquainted with the forms of public deliberation, courteous, yet impartial, and who has the strength of mind to insist on order being preserved. At all our public assemblages a certain degree of courtesy is used both among speakers and listeners. On an individual rising to speak, he addresses himself politely to the chairman, and the chairman in return politely mentions the name of the speaker, by which means the audience is made acquainted with the gentleman who is about to address them. When the discussions of the meeting are over, the chairman closes the business with a few observations, and then dissolves the assembly by leaving the chair. When any dispute COND UCT AT PUBLIC MEE TINGS. 147 arises in the course of the business of the meeting upon points of form, it is customary to appeal to the usages of the House of Commons for an example to be followed. SOME PECULIAR PUBLIC DUTIES. T N our character of citizens we may be called upon to perform certain duties as electors, either in choosing representatives for parliament, or for our municipal institutions. If invested with this high and solemn trust, we are bound to divest ourselves of all factious or personal considerations. We have certainly to consult our own good in making a choice of a representative, but it is only as flowing from the good of the whole community. We must hence act entirely without passion, or prejudice. Let us examine the previous habits of life, public conduct, and avowed sentiments of candidates, and calmly consider whether they are such as we can approve of, or as are consistent with the general welfare of the people. We should also recollect that we exercise the trust of electors for many who do not possess that privilege. A large proportion of the community consists of women and children, persons in a humble condition, the sick, and the helpless. These look to us for protection from wrong, and it is our duty to afford it to them. If we therefore act with levity and imprudence in appointing men who, from their conduct and character, are unfitted to exercise the important function of public represen- tatives, we in more ways than one commit a crime 148 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. against society, and prove ourselves unworthy of possessing the valuable prerogatives with which we have been invested by the constitution. The most frequently recurring duty of an electoral kind, is the choosing of representatives in different municipal bodies ; such as civic managers of the city in which we reside, managers of local trusts general, political, and religious. There is often much heat at such elections ; a petty factious spirit frequently governs the choice which is made : sometimes the meanest passions of our nature are exhibited during the contest. The observations we have made on our duties as electors generally, apply here with peculiar force. As those who present themselves as candidates live amongst us, we can never find any difficulty in estimating their character and qualifications. But we must take care not to be borne away by private feelings ; we must not give our vote simply because the candidate is an acquaintance. A consideration of what is best for the public interest should in every case govern us ; and we should not be afraid to let these our sentiments be known, for they can give no honourable man offence. But even after we have made choice of the individual whom we intend to support, from a conscientious conviction that his election would prove beneficial to the whole community, we ought not unduly to influence the suffrages of others. They may be convinced that another candidate possesses higher qualifications for, and a superior claim to, the office ; and it should never be lost sight of that their opinion is entitled to equal respect with our own. We ought not, therefore, by intimidation, or by the exercise of any undue influence, which, from our position in society, we may possess SOME PECULIAR PUBLIC DUTIES. 149 over others, to coerce them into the support of an individual to whom they may be conscientiously opposed. Were this rule to be universally adopted, there would be an end of those disgusting exhibitions by which too many election contests are disgraced. We may, indeed, legitimately endeavour to convince our fellow-electors of the erroneousness of their opinion, but we have no right to ask them to act in opposition to it In all cases of election of members of civic cor- porations, and such-like bodies, the chief merit in candidates, after that of good and respectable character, is soundness of judgment, and after that, activity of habits. The power of fine speaking, or eloquence, is not required in such a functionary, and should be esteemed very lightly. That which is required is a power of thinking coolly, an integrity of purpose, and a willingness and ability in taking a share of the burden- some duties to be performed. Our qualifications as electors perhaps render us liable to be ourselves elected. In the event, therefore, of being called forward by our fellow-citizens to fill the honourable situation of their representative, it is our duty to sacrifice perhaps our own feelings and a portion of our time in the public service, provided we conscientiously consider ourselves qualified for the task, and that our health and private circumstances permit it. The principal question we have to put to ourselves, when we are so brought forward, is : ' Have we sufficient time to spare to attend the various meetings to sit and deliberate in the numerous committees to have our minds frequently occupied with public affairs?' The laws under which we live give us the invaluable ISO 7^7? YOUTH'S COMPANION. privilege of trial by jury ; in other words, we are tried for the commission of offences by a body of men chosen indiscriminately, as nearly as convenient, from the class of society in which we have moved. By such a considerate regulation there can be little risk of individual oppression, provided those who compose juries do their duty. It is therefore incumbent on citizens who are liable to serve in juries, to make them- selves acquainted with what is understood to be their duty when so called upon. It requires no learning to fulfil the character of a juror. It requires no more than a coolness of thinking, and a mind above being carried away by prejudices or feelings. The juror is to remember that it is the jury that is the real judge in the case, not the judges who sit on the bench. Keeping this in view, it is one of the chief qualities requisite in a jury to maintain its proper dignity and honour inviolate, nevertheless with all courtesy, and to act with firmness in the execution of its important function. Besides deliberating dispassionately on the evidence presented, it is the duty of the juror to be totally regardless of every consideration but that of justice. He is neither to regard the rank of the culprit nor of the injured party. In a court of justice, all men sink to an equality. It is also the duty of the juror, after forming his conscientious opinion, not to be coerced, or flattered, or counselled to adopt a different opinion. He is invested with a solemn trust, and that trust he must preserve with scrupulous care, as it concerns the best interests of society. PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE TT is tolerably evident that no one can live entirely * for himself. On all of us are imposed certain well- known duties, not only as regards public, but private relations. It is not enough that we be dutiful as subjects or citizens, but that we act under a conscious- ness of moral and social obligation. Can we call in question that we have duties to perform as members of a family circle, as neighbours, as parents and children, as masters and servants ? Besides, towards all we are bound to exercise that degree of politeness which tends to promote harmony in social intercourse. Usually, the private duties most difficult to be performed with satisfaction, are those of family relation- ship. Familiarity breeds contempt, says the proverb ; and how frequently do we see that the liberties which relations take with each other, engender petty misunder- standings and hostilities of a most unpleasant nature. Whether these misunderstandings are part of an ordina- tion of nature to promote the dispersion of mankind, might form a curious question in speculative philosophy. The hostilities of relations are at all events odious and unchristian, and can no more afford satisfaction to the parties concerned, than they can command public approbation. Where there appears a tendency to contentions, we would recommend separation and removal to distant places, as a means of soothing irritation, and arousing the better feelings of our nature. 152 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. As regards general intercourse with the world, the rule of good-manners not to say the injunction of morality is so to act and speak as not to give offence. Obedience to this rule would appear to be simple ; yet it is not unattended with difficulties. We can give pain in so many ways by being boisterous, noisy, talkative, saucy, pert, vain, self-conceited, and opinionative by speaking on subjects disagreeable to the listener, by speaking too much of one's self, by staring rudely, by helping ourselves to things at table without any regard to the rights or wants of others by, in short, thinking of no one's comfort but our own that we require to be continually on our guard, lest we give offence, and so be hated and despised. Thus, in order to render yourself agreeable, you need to give up a little of your natural independence, and conform to the arrangements prescribed by good- breeding. One of the most observable features in the conduct of a well-bred person is the doing and saying everything with ease, quietness, and decorum. He allows nothing to ruffle his temper, or to discompose the quietude of his behaviour. He enters a room quietly, though by no means stealthily. He sits down quietly, rises up quietly, speaks with suavity and gentle- ness, and conducts himself in every other particular in a manner calculated to please. These traits of breeding are remarkable in good society in England, in which the acquisition of repose of manner seems to be a result of the most careful study. Among those who have not attained this finish of manner, and who are perhaps ignorant of it as an ingredient in social intercourse, you may remark a flutter and boisterousness, with a want of self-possession. PRIVA TE D UTIES MANNERS E TIQ UETTE. 153 Look at the conduct of an ill-bred man. He enters the apartment with noise, sits down and rises up with noise; he seems unable or unwilling to do anything quietly or unobtrusively. When he sets down a chair, he knocks it against the floor ; when he sits at table, he makes a noise with his knife and fork : the blowing of his nose, his sneezing, and his coughing, are all offen- sively noisy. He rings the bell with violence, slams doors with violence, and in walking across a room or along a passage, he seems to be regardless of what noises he makes. In some hotels this is particularly observ- able among underbred people. They seem to be quite regardless how they inconvenience neighbours by loud talking, slamming doors, throwing their boots on the floor, or trampling along the passages. Perhaps no ill is actually meant by this boisterous behaviour ; but can heedlessness be deemed a proper excuse for giving so much annoyance ? * Besides being noisy, the ill-bred man is for the most * A writer in a New York newspaper (1857) refers as follows to the noisy habits of some persons in American hotels : ' Every male or female inhabitant of a room seems to consider it as a duty toward himself, toward his neighbour, toward those occupying a room below him, and toward society in general, to make as much noise as possible. Every one handles as roughly as he can every- thing within his reach ; doors, keys, locks, blinds, windows, sashes, stools, tables, and his trunks. Neither travellers nor waiters refuse themselves the pleasure of treading on the floor as rudely and as heavily as possible, far outdoing shod elephants if elephants can be shod. Slippers are out of use, and the traveller retiring to his room enjoys the luxury of tramping as long as possible with his heavy boots over the head of the victim trying to sleep in the room below. In one of the great first-class hotels, I counted once, during a sleepless night, 140 explosions of slammed doors,' r54 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. part easily discomposed. A little thing will put him about. Loud exclamations of surprise, angry bursts of passion, and perhaps harsh imprecations, testify the irritability of his badly regulated mind. Another pecu- liarity of an ill-bred man is the uncouthness of many of his movements. Feeling abashed, without any good reason, he blushes, shuffles, and altogether seems to be in a pitiable condition. Spitting is utterly repugnant to good-manners, and is accordingly never practised by well-bred persons. The handkerchief is always employed. Be careful on this point It is improper to read books or letters in company unless with permission to do so. By taking up a book when a person calls, you convey the impression of being uncivil to your visitor. Hastening to take the best seat at table, or the seat nearest the fire ; engrossing a newspaper, to the exclu- sion of every one else ; rising abruptly, and hurrying out of the room; looking at your watch, as if hinting to visitors that it was time to depart ; blowing on food to cool it ; leaning your hands or elbows on the table at meals; staring fixedly at any one; contradicting and affecting to set people right in conversation, or other- wise interfering with ill-timed remarks are all acts of vulgarity and rudeness. In endeavouring to avoid giving offence to those about you, learn to listen with consideration and patience to the person who is addressing you, particularly if the speaker be a woman. Let your answers be couched in civil obliging language ; and, although you have reason to disbelieve that which you hear, do not contradict the speaker abruptly or warmly. Merely observe, that what PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE. 155 is said ' is remarkable ; ' ' that it may be so, but you heard otherwise;' or 'there may be some mistake in the common report ; ' and so forth. Never, at any- rate, flatly contradict, for that would give offence to one who most likely means no harm, and who might be con- vinced of his error by your politely explaining your reasons for thinking differently from him. Speak with ease and without affectation ; do not hum and haw and stammer, or appear to be seeking for fine words where- with to embellish your discourse. A simple, straight- forward form of speech, using the words you are best acquainted with, and without any desire to shew off, is always the most commendable, and will be the most pleasing. Avoid, also, the use of those vulgar expres- sions, which you hear continually in the mouths of under-bred persons; such as 'says she,' 'says he,' 'you understand,' and 'you know.' It is true that all have not the same ability to speak elegantly or well; but all have it in their power to please by simplicity of manner and purity of language. It is quite possible to render your conversation accept- able, although you use very common words. One of the principal means of pleasing in discourse, consists in not using any terms that can raise disagreeable ideas or recollections in the minds of those whom you are addressing, and this requires the exercise of good taste, as well as a perception of the degree of refinement of the party listening. Moreover, the ideas which it may be legitimate for you to raise in matters of business or in a particular description of society, must not be brought forward amidst circles or in places entirely inappropriate for their development Persons in the humbler orders of society are generally too much inclined to sneer at 156 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. all conventional arrangements of this nature. They say that these ceremonious rules, however much they may be suited to the habits of ' fine people,' are not for them. We regret that any one should look upon good- breeding in this erroneous light. We regret that any class of persons should think so meanly of themselves, as to say that they are unworthy of enjoying every possible amenity of cultivated society. If there be anything agreeable in good-manners, why may not the poor as well as the rich partake of the blessing? Civility and politeness one to another, do not cost any- thing. They are the cheapest luxuries which can be purchased ; and why not, therefore, let them give dignity and delight to the dwelling of the labourer and artisan, as well as to the drawing-rooms of the titled and wealthy? The truth is, the poor have it in their power to soften greatly the asperities of their situation, by establishing and enforcing rules of civility and politeness among themselves. To what but to the absence of simple unexpensive courtesies have we to attribute many of the miseries of the humbler orders ? Are we not told on high authority, that a ' soft word turneth away wrath?" Why, then, should any one persist in indulging in opprobrious epithets, impure expressions, and all kinds of offensive actions, by which ill-will, tumults, and fights are produced, while by so little trouble he could mollify resentment, and make friends instead of bitter, irreconcilable enemies. The kind of complaisance which we are called on to exercise in our general intercourse with the world, is particularly requisite in the case of our mingling in the society of the female sex. A becoming attention to the feelings and the wants of women is the true mark of a PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE. 157 noble mind the best criterion whereby to judge of good-manners. Rudeness towards them at once stamps a man as of the lowest breeding, and, what is worse, testifies to the badness of his heart, the cowardice of his disposition. That such is the case, is very obvious. Women are not endowed with the power of defending themselves, like men. They must not resort to violence either in word or deed. They are compelled to use a certain delicacy of manner, which is often incompatible with a supply of their own wants. Being thus in some measure dependent beings, thrown on the generosity and claiming the protection of the stronger sex, any act of unkindness towards them is mean and unworthy, while any act of rudeness is accepted as a testimony of cowardice, and is justly visited with universal repro- bation. We do not here speak only of ladies, whom you may chance to meet in what are called the higher classes of society, but of all women, of whatever age and condition they happen to be. Such being the rule of behaviour regarding women, it is incumbent on you to shew them every attention in your power, according to the circumstances of the occasion. For instance, when a woman enters a room, or when she appears not to have a seat, it behoves you to hasten to find a chair for her convenience, which you politely ask her to make use of. When one sits near or beside you at table, it is then still more incumbent on you to be attentive to her among other civilities, taking pains to assist her to what she may be pleased to eat or drink. It is undoubtedly the case, that politeness in this, as in every other department of social intercourse, may be overdone like a part which is overacted, so as to become ridiculous and really offensive ; but good sense 158 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. will dictate how far you ought to proceed in respect of consistency and propriety of demeanour, and enable you, while avoiding the actions of a clown on the one hand, to shun that of a grimacier or buffoon on the other. In refined society, there are a variety of rules for conducting social intercourse, usually comprehended in the term etiquette. By the rules of etiquette are enjoined certain conventional formalities, which, though originating in considerations of politeness, are in some instances carried so far as to be repugnant to genial and friendly feeling. To distinguish between the reasonable and somewhat ridiculous rules prescribed by etiquette, you would need some knowledge of the world a tact acquired by experience to know what to do, and what to leave undone. We may notice a few miscellaneous rules in this social code. When you meet a lady of your acquaintance, you lift your hat and make a bow not a profound and obsequious bow, but a suitable inclination of the head. It was formerly a rule to give ladies the inside of the pavement, and to go out of your way accordingly ; but this arose from a notion that the inside was the safest. Now that streets are well paved and passengers orderly, it does not seem desirable to follow this rule, except in particular cases. It was likewise at one time customary in walking with a lady to let her walk inside the pavement, and in crossing to shift accordingly ; but a rigorous attention to this practice is also undesirable. Be careful whom you personally introduce to each other. Be sure that the person you wish to introduce will be acceptable as a friend or acquaintance. Some persons commit serious blunders on this score. Equal PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE. 159 care is necessary in giving letters of introduction. Indiscreet persons are profuse in their offers of letters of introduction to parties with whom they have but a slight acquaintanceship. Be not less careful in accepting letters of this kind. Do not allow a good-natured friend to thrust you upon parties who can take no interest in your movements. In calling with or without introductory letters on persons in London, country people are apt to forget that time is of great value, and in business-hours it ought not to be consumed in idle tattle. The civility with which you may be received by a party to whom you are properly introduced, may therefore depend on the hour at which you call. In seeking to be favourably known, select a period of comparative leisure ; you should not, at anyrate, call during the heat of business, nor during dinner. If the party to whom you are to be introduced be a person of importance, the proper plan is to inclose and send in an envelope your letter of introduction, along with a card of your address ; for by this means the party is left at liberty to notice you or not, as he may find convenient In making visits, leave a card, if the party is not at home at least tell your name. It is impolite to neglect or to refuse letting it be known who you are. Formalists who are terrified for doing anything in viola- tion of strict etiquette, leave two cards when calling at a house where there are a master and mistress one being intended for each. And as a semblance of this redundancy, some persons fold down the corner of a card the part folded indicating a second card. These are paltry conventionalisms. Answer notes of invitation immediately. By delaying, 160 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. you lead it to be inferred that you are waiting to receive a better invitation for the same day. When you accept an invitation, be careful to keep it ; bad weather forms no excuse. According to strict etiquette, every call is to be returned at a convenient and not distant period ; so that the number of calls on one side shall balance those on the other. The same rule applies to giving and receiving dinners one dinner being duly repaid by another. Among friends and intimate acquaintances these punctilious rules are not attended to ; nor can there be any pleasant social intercourse where such strictness is maintained. Casual acquaintanceships formed at watering-places, in railway-carriages, or on board steam-boats, are not expected to be kept up afterwards, unless cards have been interchanged, as a mutual expression of respect. Propriety suggests that you should not present your card without being tolerably certain that a card will be given in return. Were there less presumptuous for- wardness in this and some other respects, there would be less of that cold reserve for which the English as a nation are said to be noted. New-comers in a neighbourhood are visited by those who desire to cultivate their acquaintance ; and calls on these occasions are returned as a matter of polite- ness. Yet, it may happen that there are reasons why the returning of calls of this kind might be inconve- nient. If a person were bound to return the call of every one who chose to visit him, or thrust their cards on him, he would get acquainted with hundreds of people whom he knew nothing at all about, or for whom he could entertain no regard. On this, as on many PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE. 161 other points, mifch must be left to a sense of what is proper. When you accept an invitation to dinner, be punctual to the hour at most, not more than five minutes late. A modern dinner of ceremony lasts exactly four hours. If you go at six, you leave at ten. In evening-parties, there is a latitude in arriving and departing. At dinner and evening parties, you appear in full dress ; any neglect on this point being disrespectful to the host and hostess. On receiving a present, send a note of thanks without a moment's delay. Answer all letters promptly. Never take it for granted that your correspondent will think you have got his letter. A disregard of this rule is common among underbred people. When you invite people to your house, take care to be more plainly dressed than any of your guests. Overdressing in a host or hostess shews a low tone of manners. Address every guest by his proper name not by any familiar designation. This is also to be attended to in asking after the health of friends. Never say, ' How is your wife?' 'How is your brother ?' &c. Ask for Mrs , Mr . Conversation is most pleasant when it is on general topics as matters in literature, science, and art, or his- torical and recent events, and public characters. Cen- sorious and sarcastic remarks on friends and acquaint- ances are particularly odious, and, like observations on servants, articles of furniture, and dress, indicate an inferior order of mind. Uneducated and underbred persons who have suddenly acquired wealth, and who affect a high style of society and living, are apt to speak K 162 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. much about themselves and their possessions. They talk of ' my carriage,' ' my carpets,' ' my pictures,' ' my dinner-service,' ' my invitation from Lord ,' and ' his lordship said so-and-so,' and ' I have just had a call from her ladyship ' together with much of the same sort. Conduct of this kind is the height of vulgarity, and always marks the snob. In a small volume under the title of The Laws of Etiquette, we find the following sensible remarks on conversation : ' The great business in company is con- versation. It should be studied as an art. Style in conversation is as important, and as capable of culti- vation, as style in writing. The manner of saying things is what gives them their value. The most important requisite for succeeding here is constant and unfaltering attention. That which Churchill has noted as the greatest virtue on the stage, is also the most necessary in company to be "always attentive to the business of the scene." Your understanding should, like your person, be armed at all points. Never go into society with your mind en deshabille. It is fatal to success to be at all absent or distrait. The secret of conversation has been said to consist in building upon the remark of your companion. Men of the strongest minds, who have solitary habits and bookish disposi- tions, rarely excel in sprightly colloquy, because they seize upon the thing itself the subject abstractly instead of attending to the language of other speakers, and do not cultivate verbal pleasantries and refinements. He who does otherwise, gains a reputation for quickness, and pleases by shewing that he has regarded the obser- vation of others. It is an error to suppose that conver- sation consists in talking. A more important thing is to PRIVATE DUTIES MANNERS ETIQUETTE. 163 listen discreetly. Mirabeau said, that to succeed in the world, it is necessary to submit to be taught many things which you understand, by persons who know nothing about them. The most refined and gratifying compli- ment you can pay, is to listen. " The wit of conversa- tion consists more in finding it in others," says La Bruyere, " than in shewing a great deal yourself : he who goes from your conversation pleased with himself and his own wit, is perfectly well pleased with you. Most men had rather please than admire you, and seek less to be instructed nay, delighted than to be approved and applauded. The most delicate pleasure is to please another." ' HINTS ON MATRIMONY. A S youths advance to maturity, they naturally think of matrimony. The marriage state, honourable in all, is, as you are doubtless aware, agreeable to Scriptural ordinance. According to the law of some countries, marriage is simply a civil contract, but generally it is recognised as a Christian institution, entered into under the sanctions of the church. In any form, it is an obligation of a binding and solemn character, not to be undertaken lightly or from reprehensible motives. The choice of a wife is at best a kind of lottery. The object of regard may be all that can satisfy the eye faultless in form and deportment, educated, and pos- sessed of the usual accomplishments, and yet devoid of I6 4 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. those qualities which should be expected in a partner for life. The really essential things are that she be good-tempered, obliging, healthy, frugal, tasteful in domestic arrangements, capable of being a good help- mate, a good mother ; and besides all this, belonging to a family whose character and circumstances are respectable. Considering the life-long misery that may be produced by the single false step of making an improper choice, the recklessness with which this hazard is undertaken is truly astonishing welldoing young men united to extravagant slatterns, the industrious yoked to the idle, the kind and beneficent-minded inextricably allied to the shrewish, the mean, or the vicious. Nor are the chances of making a mistake confined to one side ; for, unfortunately, women are deceived by appear- ances as well as men, and pay equally heavy penalties for their indiscretion. To make an alliance for merely mercenary motives, is the height of folly, for it may amount to the bartering of every comfort for some fleeting advantage, which no man of independent feelings ought for a moment to think of. Still more reprehensible than marriages for money, is the intermarrying of cousins and persons affected with hereditary disease. Can we speak too strongly on this point ? The dispersion of mankind may be said to be a Scriptural ordination. When they cluster in a spot, and intermarriages over a series of generations are confined to the members of a small community, deterioration of race is a well-known conse- quence. The natural, as well as the divine law, forbids intermarriage where there is too near propinquity of blood the penalty being first physical, and, if persisted in, mental deterioration. Repeated intermarriages HINTS ON MATRIMONY. 165 among certain royal families in Europe, have, for example, filled several thrones with persons of weak mind ; the highest social position affording no exemp- tion from the course of punishment which ordinarily attends a violation of the law of God. Although cousins are not reckoned among those degrees of relationship that are forbidden by Scripture to inter- marry, experience shews that alliances of this kind are objectionable, and therefore to be avoided. 'Where there is a liability to hereditary disease, it becomes a duty both to others and one's self to abstain from the marriage tie. It may be very true that such is only an inherited misfortune, and that it is a hard- ship for such a person to be debarred from an associa- tion which others enter into for the promotion of their happiness ; but these are only smaller evils, which it is proper to submit to in order to avoid greater. By for- bearing from matrimony, the evil is kept at its original amount ; by marrying, the risk is incurred of widely enlarging it. A person who takes a hereditary disease into the marriage connection, may be said to be laying the foundation of a life of trial and misery. Like all other selfish wrong acts, it is severely punished. An offspring probably arises, only to be sources of anxiety and affliction to their parents, or to wring their hearts by what reason may afterwards acknowledge as a com- parative mercy premature death. It often happens that such a family begin, one after another, at a certain age, to pine, then sicken, and drop into the grave. Imagine the feelings of a parent who sees these never- theless endeared objects going on to their almost certain doom, conscious that all earthly aid is unavailing to counteract the decrees of nature. Or suppose the more 1 66 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. agonising feelings with which the first symptoms of a hereditary mental taint are observed arising. The heart even of those in no way connected melts with compas- sion at the mention of such distresses ; yet there cannot be a doubt that the parties are only reaping the harvest of the herb of bitterness which they have sowed. Experience tells that certain malignant ailments go from parents to children. Reason therefore infers that persons so affected ought not to marry. This is a counsel which they are bound to obey. Do they disregard the injunction, they have only themselves to blame for the consequences. The most sympathising by-stander must see and acknowledge this truth. It is unfortunate that many have but obscure notions of the government of these matters by invariable natural laws. In perfect ignorance, or in some vain hope of escape, they rush into circumstances which may be said to secure their ruin. Were they fully aware of the truth, they would avoid such circumstances sedulously. Conscientiousness to the other party in the matrimonial contract, demands their doing so. Nay, it is demanded by more than this conscientiousness towards the possible offspring of the alliance. To usher into existence beings who are only to be a burden to themselves, and condemned from the first to early death, is an act as evil in its consequences as to inflict injury upon a healthy person ; and, where this is known, the act is not less strongly forbidden by a right morality. The views of society upon these points are as yet very imperfect ; but we do not despair that the time will arrive when either to marry with disease, or to marry a diseased person, will be shrunk from as one of the most flagitious of acts, and visited, where it occurs, with the same reproba- HINTS ON MA TRIMONY. 167 tion which is now bestowed on fraudulency and gross outrages of all kinds.' * That she to whom you propose to ally yourself should be one on whom the eye of affection may rest with pleasure, is on all hands admitted ; and it is so far for- tunate that tastes and feelings differ as respects personal charms, so that few females can be said to be without some admirers. What, however, is of more consequence than beauty of face and figure, is the quality which forms a good companion and helpmate. A writer already quoted sets this matter in its true light. His counsels to his son are as follows : ' Were you engaged to make a voyage round the world on the condition of sharing a cabin with an unknown messmate, how solicitous would you be to discover his character and disposition before you set sail ! If, on inquiry, he should prove to be a person of good sense and cultivated manners, and especially of a temper inclined to please and be pleased, how fortunate would you think yourself ! But if, in addition to this, his tastes, studies, and opinions should be found conformable to yours, your satisfaction would be com- plete. You could not doubt that the circumstance which brought you together, would lay the foundation of an intimate and delightful friendship. On the other hand, if he were represented by those who thoroughly knew him as weak, ignorant, obstinate, and quarrel- some, of manners and dispositions totally opposite to your own, you would probably rather give up your project than submit to live so many months confined with such an associate. * Article in Chamlcrs's Journal, April 30, 1842. 168 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. 'Apply this comparison to the domestic companion of the voyage of life the intimate of all hours the partaker of all fortunes the sharer in pain and pleasure the mother and instructress of your offspring. Are you not struck with a sense of the infinite consequence it must be of to you, what are the qualities of the heart and understanding of one who stands in this relation ; and of the comparative insignificance of external charms and ornamental accomplishments ? But as it is scarcely probable that all you would wish in these particulars can be obtained, it is of importance to ascertain which qualities are the most essential, that you may make the best compromise in your power. Now, tastes, manners, and opinions, being things not original but acquired, cannot be of so much consequence as the fundamental properties of good sense and good temper. Possessed of these, a wife who loves her husband will fashion her- self in the others according to what she perceives to be his inclination ; and if, after all, a considerable diversity remain between them in such points, this is not incom- patible with domestic comfort. But sense and temper can never be dispensed with in the companion for life : they form the basis on which the whole edifice of happiness is to be raised. As both are absolutely essential, it is needless to inquire which is so in the highest degree. Fortunately, they are oftener met with together than separate ; for the just and reasonable estimation of things which true good sense inspires, almost necessarily produces that equanimity and modera- tion of spirit in which good temper properly consists. There is, indeed, a kind of thoughtless good-nature which is not unfrequently coupled with weakness of understanding ; but having no power of self-direction, HINTS ON MATRIMONY, 169 its operations are capricious, and no reliance can be placed on it in promoting solid felicity. When, how- ever, this easy humour appears with the attractions of youth and beauty, there is some danger lest even men of sense should overlook the defects of a shallow capacity, especially if they have entertained the too common notion that women are no better than play- things, designed rather for the amusement of their lords and masters, than for the more serious purposes of life. But no man ever married a fool without severely repenting it; for though the pretty trifler may have served well enough for the hour of dalliance and gaiety, yet when folly assumes the reins of domestic, and especially of parental control, she will give a perpetual heart-ache to a considerate partner. ' On the other hand, there are to be met with instances of considerable powers of the understanding, combined with waywardness of temper, sufficient to destroy all the comfort of life. Malignity is sometimes joined with wit, haughtiness and caprice with talents, sourness and suspicion with sagacity, and cold reserve with judgment. But all these being in themselves unamiable qualities, it is less necessary to guard against the possessors of them. They generally render even beauty unattractive ; and no charm but that of fortune is able to overcome the repugnance they excite. How much more fatal than even folly they are to all domestic felicity, you have probably already seen enough of the matrimonial state to judge. ' Many of the qualities which fit a woman for a companion, also adapt her for the office of a helper ; but many additional ones are requisite. The original purpose for which this sex was created, is said, you 170 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. know, to have been, providing man with a helpmate ; yet it is perhaps that notion of a wife which least occupies the imagination in the season of courtship. Be assured, however, that as an office for life, its importance stands extremely high to one whose situa- tion does not place him above the want of such aid ; and fitness for it should make a leading consideration in his choice. Romantic ideas of domestic felicity will infallibly in time give way to that true state of things which will shew that a large part of it must arise from well-ordered affairs, and an accumulation of petty com- forts and conveniences. A clean and quiet fireside, regular and agreeable meals, decent apparel, a house managed with order and economy, ready for the recep- tion of a friend or the accommodation of a stranger, a skilful as well as affectionate nurse in time of sickness all these things compose a very considerable part of what the nuptial state was intended to afford us ; and without them, no charms of person or understanding will long continue to bestow delight. The arts of house- wifery should be regarded as professional to the woman who intends to become a wife ; and to select one for that station who is destitute of them, or disinclined to exercise them, however otherwise accomplished, is as absurd as it would be to choose for your lawyer or physician a man who excelled in everything rather than in law or physic. ' Let me remark, too, that knowledge and good-will are not the only requisites for the office of a helper. It demands a certain energy both of body and mind, which is less frequently met with among the females of the present age than might be wished. How much soever infirm and delicate health may interest the HINTS ON MATRIMONY. 171 feelings, it is certainly an undesirable attendant on a connection for life. Nothing can be more contrary to the qualification of a helpmate, than a condition which constantly requires that assistance which it never can impart. It is, I am sure, the furthest thing from my intention to harden your heart against impressions of pity, or slacken those services of affectionate kindness by which you may soften the calamitous lot of the most amiable and deserving of the species. But a matri- monial choice is a choice for your own benefit, by which you are to obtain additional sources of happi- ness ; and it would be mere folly in their stead volun- tarily to take upon you new encumbrances and distresses. Akin to an unnerved frame of body, is that shrinking timidity of mind, and excessive nicety of feeling, which is too much encouraged under the notion of female delicacy. That this is carried beyond all reasonable bounds in modern education, can scarcely be doubted by one who considers what exertions of fortitude and self-command are continually required in the course of female duty. One who views society closely, in its interior as well as its exterior, will know that occasions of alarm, suffering, and disgust come much more frequently in the way of women than of men. To them belong all offices about the weak, the sick, and the dying. When the house becomes a scene of wretchedness from any cause, the man often runs abroad, the woman must stay at home and face the worst All this takes place in cultivated society, and in classes of life raised above the common level. In a savage state, and in the lower conditions, women are compelled to undergo even the most laborious, as well as the most disagreeable tasks. If nature, then, has 172 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. made them so weak in temper and constitution as many suppose, she has not suited means to ends with the foresight we generally discover in her plans. ' I confess myself decidedly of the opinion of those who would rather form the two sexes to a resemblance of character, than contrast them. Virtue, wisdom, presence of mind, patience, vigour, capacity, applica- tion, are not sexual qualities ; they belong to mankind to all who have duties to perform and evils to endure. It is surely a most degrading idea of the female sex, that they must owe their influence to trick and finesse, to counterfeit or real weakness. They are too essential to our happiness to need such arts ; too much of the pleasure and of the business of the world depends upon them, to give reason for apprehension that we shall cease to join partnership with them. Let them aim at excelling in the qualities peculiarly adapted to the parts they have to act, and they may be excused from affected languor and coquetry. We shall not think them less amiable for being our best helpers. ' Having thus endeavoured to give you just ideas of the principal requisites in a wife especially in a wife for one in your condition I have done all that lies within the compass of an adviser. From the influence of passion, I cannot guard you ; I can only deprecate its power. It may be more to the purpose to dissuade you from hasty engagements, because in making them, a person of any resolution is not to be regarded as merely passive. Though the head has lost its rule over the heart, it may retain its command of the hand. And surely if we are to pause before any action, it should be before one on which " all the colour of remaining life " depends. Your reason must be convinced, that to HINTS ON MATRIMONY. 173 form a solid judgment of so many qualities as are requisite in the conjugal union, is no affair of days and weeks, of casual visits or public exhibitions. Study your object at home see her tried in her proper depart- ment. Let the progress be, liking, approving, loving, and, lastly, declaring ; and may you, after the experience of as many years as I have had, be as happily convinced, that a choice so formed is not likely to deceive ! ' * A question difficult to be answered is at what age should marriage be entered into ? According to ordinary notions, no young man in the middle ranks in England can venture to marry before thirty years of age ; for it is thought that the whole of the early part of life after leaving school should be occupied in attaining such an independent position as will enable him to marry with propriety. Notions of this kind are no doubt fruitful of many social evils, which we dare hardly touch upon ; not the least of them being the large pro- portion of marriageable young women left single, and exposed wholly or partially to destitution. Unquestion- ably, every young man proposing to marry ought to foresee that he can maintain a wife and encounter the ordinary expenses of a domestic establishment. All, of course, depends on the style in which the youthful pair are to commence housekeeping. There, indeed, lies the true pinch which fixes young men as bachelors. Unable to enter on a certain style of living, which they believe to be indispensable, they postpone marriage long beyond the period it ought properly to be entered on. For this error, society ought justly to bear its due share of blame. The idea that a high and expensive style of * Aikin's Letters to his Son. 174 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. living is a necessary ingredient in social respectability, is much .to be deplored. No one ought to look down upon a young man because he begins a married life on a scale inferior to that of his father, who has already made his way in the world ; nor should any young man postpone marriage solely on this account. The real or presumed difficulty of forming a suitable domestic establishment, is often the cause of much distress to young women, who have entered into engage- ments which their suitor finds it inconvenient or impos- sible to fulfil. On this account, long engagements are much to be deprecated. Let no youth, in the ardour of his passion, tie up a confiding woman by an engage- ment, while there is no immediate prospect of his being able to make her his wife. In doing so, he commits a cruel injustice ; for he leaves one to pine with blighted expectations who, left untrammelled, might have met with a match in all respects desirable. Other forms of this indiscretion are equally open to censure. We allude to the silly practice of dangling after young ladies, without any definite purpose of ever making a proposal. With an indistinct fancy that he is in love, whereas, perhaps, he wishes only for a little amusement during his vacant hours, the frivolous genteel young man haunts the object of his imaginary affections wherever she goes, gets recognised by every- body as her accepted suitor, flirts about her it may be several long years insinuates himself so far into her good graces by his looks and actions, that he knows he could get her at any time for the asking ; then, behold, when he can secure another with a better fortune, or in some way more desirable in his eyes, he is off, and the long assiduously courted young lady is left to mourn HINTS ON MA TRIMONY. 175 over her misusage. How many hundreds of amiable young women have cause to rue that they ever gave encouragement to these contemptible danglers nuis- ances whom it is a duty to expel from every domestic circle ! There may be disadvantages attending early mar- riages ; but, all things considered, they are insignificant in comparison with the benefits arising from a proper regulation of the affections. ' It is not to be doubted,' says William Sullivan, an American moralist, ' that a young, well-educated, industrious couple, who are sin- cerely and affectionately attached, on a sober examina- tion and conviction of each other's worth and suitability to each other, may be happy with means far short of the fashionable standard. Presuming that such a couple are wise enough to take life for the real and substantial good that it can produce and, as a whole, it would do them great injustice to suppose that they could not find that good in a small, simple, cheerful tranquil mansion it would be doing the friends of such a couple the like injustice to suppose that they could not visit them, and be satisfied to see them happy through such means.' From the same authority, we draw the following hints to young husbands : ' i. Always regard your wife as your equal ; treat her with kindness, respect, and attention ; and never address her with the appearance of an air of authority, as if she were, as some misguided husbands appear to regard their wives, a mere housekeeper. ' 2. Never interfere in her domestic concerns, such as hiring servants, and the like. ' 3. Always keep her properly supplied with money 176 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. for furnishing your table in a style proportioned to your means, and for the purchase of dress, and whatever other articles she may require, suitable to her station in life. ' 4. Cheerfully and promptly comply with all her reasonable requests and wishes. ' 5. Never be so unjust as to lose your temper to- wards her, in consequence of indifferent cookery, or irregularity in the hours of meals, or any other misman- agement caused by her servants ; knowing the difficulty of making many of them do their duty. ' 6. If she have prudence and good sense, consult her in all great operations involving the risk of very serious injury in case of failure. Many a man has been rescued from ruin by the wise counsels of his wife ; and many a foolish husband has most seriously injured himself and family by the rejection of the advice of his wife, stupidly fearing, if he followed it, he would be regarded as henpecked ! A husband can surely never consult a counsellor more deeply interested in his welfare than his wife. '7. If distressed or embarrassed in your circum- stances, communicate your situation to her with can- dour, that she may bear your difficulties in mind in her expenditures. Women sometimes, believing their hus- bands' circumstances better than they really are, dis- burse money which cannot be well afforded, and which, if they knew the real situation of their husbands' affairs, they would shrink from expending. ' 8. Never on any account chide or rebuke your wife in company, should she make any mistake in history, geography, grammar, or indeed on any other subject. There are, I am persuaded, many wives of such keen HINTS ON MA TRIMONY. 177 feelings and high spirits and such wives deserve to be treated with the utmost delicacy that they would rather receive a severe and bitter scolding in private, than a rebuke in company, calculated to display ignorance or folly, or to impair them in their own opinion, or in that of others.' RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. ~D ELIGION signifies a system of faith and worship. The religious feeling arises from man's perception of his relation to the system of being of which he is a part. The presence and influence of religion is to be felt and manifested throughout the duration of human life, in all that is thought and done, with a view to a happier and more perfect state of existence after death. Just conceptions of the character and attributes of the Deity are of the utmost importance, especially to the young, whose minds require to be led aright in all that pertains to the great truths of religion. The religion professed in this country is Christianity the most cheering, the most noble of all faiths. The books to which we point for instruction in the religion of Christ are those of the Old and New Testament. Make the Bible, as we have already said, your daily study, and let its doctrines and precepts be laid to heart Unhappily, the presumption of youth sometimes leads to a spirit of cavilling with scriptural truths, which perhaps ends in cold unbelief. Seeking God's assistance through prayer, and approaching the subject in meekness and faith, may you be preserved against this worst of evils. Do not be L 178 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. misled by either the sneers or the sophistry of the enemies of Christianity. Ponder long and deeply on the whole history of Christ his office of a Saviour, his ministrations, his sufferings, his promises ; all as revealed in the Gospel. To aid in this self-instruction, study the works of pious writers, of whom there are abundance. The Evidences of Christianity by Addison, Paley, Chalmers, and others, form a department with which ivery intelligent mind is expected to be familiar. From a large mass of productions peculiarly designed for your perusal, we would single out The Young Christian, by Jacob Abbott, as comprehending a useful summary of the principles of Christian duty. As a means of banishing evil thoughts, and of feeling ourselves spiritually in union with God, the writer just mentioned insists on the regular practice of private prayer prayer with a sincere confession of sins and expression of repentance, a humble hope of forgiveness through Christ, and a wish for the guidance of the Holy Spirit. True, he observes, in bringing all our wants to God, ' we shall often ask for something which it is far better for us not to have. We cannot always judge correctly. But unless we know that what we ask is dangerous, or that it will be injurious, it is proper to ask for it. If we do or might know, to request it would be obviously wrong. David prayed very earnestly that his child might live, but God thought it not best to grant the petition. David did right to pray, for he, probably, did not know but that the request might be safely granted. Let us feel, therefore, when we come with our petitions, that perhaps God will think it best for us that they should be denied. This is peculiarly the case in praying for deliverance from danger. Our hearts RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. 179 may be relieved and lightened by committing ourselves to God's care, but we can never feel, on that account, sure that we are safe. God very often makes sickness, or a storm at sea, or the lightning, or any other source of common danger and alarm, the means of removing a Christian from the world. You do not know but that He will remove you in this way. The next time a thunder-storm arises in the west, it may be God's design to bring one of its terrific bolts upon your head, and you cannot of course avert it, by simply asking God to spare you. He will listen to your prayer, take it into kind consideration, and if you ask in a proper spirit, He will probably give you a calm and happy heart even in the most imminent danger. But you cannot be sure that you will be safe. The ground of your peace must be, that God will do wJiat is best, not that He will certainly do what you wish. Then, you will say, what good does it do to pray to God in danger, if we can have no assurance that we shall be safe ? It does great good. You cannot be sure that you will be certainly preserved from that danger, but you can rest calmly and peacefully in the assurance that God will do what is on the whole for the best. " And will this feeling," you ask, " enable any one to rest in peace, while he is out at sea in a storm, and in danger every moment of sinking ?" Yes, it will, if fully possessed. If we could feel assured that God was our friend, and if we had entire confi- dence in him, no danger would terrify us ; a man would be calm and happy in all situations. Christians have very often been calm and happy when not danger, but certain death, was approaching, so strong has been their confidence in God. A Christian who knows the affec- tion of his Father, and who knows that there is a future 180 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. world of peace and joy, shall he refuse to be calm in danger, unless he can first be sure that he shall certainly be preserved uninjured ? No. When we ask God's protection in danger, we may in all ordinary cases expect protection. He has promised to grant our requests, unless special reasons prevent. Now, as we never can know what these special reasons are, we can never be certain of security, and consequently the foundation of our peace and happiness at such times must be, not the belief that we are certainly safe, but a calm and happy acquiescence in God's will. Not a sparrow falls to the ground without his knowledge ; still sparrows often do fall. All that we can be absolutely certain of is, that whatever happens to us, will come with the knowledge and permission of our best and greatest friend ; and every calamity which comes in this way we ought to be willing to meet' We are next reminded of the peacefulness with which prayer should be conducted, its tranquillising effect on the mind, besides its discipline otherwise on the feelings and conduct The Assurance of Immortality, a State of Future Rewards and Punishments, the declaration ' that Christ Jesus died for our offences, and rose again for our justification,' the means of Redemption and making our peace with God, not through any merit of our own, but by the Righteousness of Christ, and his great propitia- tory Sacrifice made for the Remission of Sins such are among the fundamental tenets of true religion, acknow- ledged by nearly all branches of the church. That there are many differences in lesser points of belief, and also as regards forms of church government and worship, is unfortunately too true. Any discussion on these RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. 181 unhappy differences, and the discords they produce would here be out of place. As a young man desirous of becoming a Christian in profession as well as in practice, you will attach yourself to a communion which holds by the Bible as the great charter of our faith, and without refraining from taking an interest in the tem- poral arrangements which give form and consistency to the church, it is of vital consequence to know that the controversy of sects, is not religion ; that discussions and differences on ecclesiastical government, are not Christianity. Religion is not a matter for vulgar exhi- bition or disputation, but a thing of the heart and feelings, and which, properly cultivated, produces its natural results in a peaceful and irreproachable life. When we see a person who makes a parade of his religion, and yet whom we know to be tricky, design- ing, mean, and sordid, besides being censorious on the usages and the opinions of others, we may assume that he fails to realise the Christian character as set forth in the Gospel perhaps in deceiving his neigh- bours, unhappily a deceiver of himself. ' Lord, who 's the happy man that may To thy blest courts repair ; Not stranger-like to visit them, But to inhabit there ? 'Tis he whose every thought and deed By rules of virtue moves ; Whose gen'rous tongue disdains to speak The thing his heart disproves. Who never did a slander forge His neighbour's fame to wound ; Nor hearken to a false report, By malice whispered round. 182 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Who vice, in all its pomp and power, Can treat with just neglect ; And piety, though clothed in rags, Religiously respect. Who to his plighted vows and trust Has ever firmly stood, And though he promise to his loss, He makes his promise good. Whose soul in usury disdains His treasures to employ ; Whom no rewards can ever bribe The guiltless to destroy. The man, who by this steady course Has happiness insured, When earth's foundation shakes, shall stand By Providence secured.' Psalm xv. Besides inculcating points of belief, the Bible furnishes us with the most perfect system of moral duty ever pro- mulgated. The sum of the earliest delivered moral law is comprehended in the Ten Commandments, which are as follows : ' i. Thou shalt have no other gods before me. 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth : Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them : for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me ; and shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and keep my commandments. 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD thy God in vain ; for the LORD will RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. 183 not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath-day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work : But the seventh day is the Sabbath of the LORD thy God : in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates : For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day : wherefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath-day, and hal- lowed it. [By the practice of Christians, the Sabbath has been transferred to the first day of the week.] 5. Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long upon the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee. 6. Thou shalt not kill. 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neigh- bour. 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife, nor his man- servant, nor his maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy neighbour's.' Such was the sum of the moral law until Christ added to it a number of the most transcendently excellent admonitions, which are found scattered through- out the history of his ministrations in the four Gospels in the New Testament. The chief moral maxim that he inculcated was : ' Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so unto them ; for this is the law and the prophets.' But the whole of his sayings breathe a similar spirit of benevolence and gentleness. He preached, for the first time that it had been done on earth, the doctrine of ' peace and good- will towards men ;' that is, universal love and peace 184 THE YOUTIfS COMPANION. among all mankind. ' Ye have heard,' said he, ' that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy : but I say unto you, love your enemies ; bless them that curse you ; do good to them that hate you ; and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you.' Again : ' Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven : blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted : blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth : blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled : blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy : blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God : blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God : blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven : blessed are ye when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake.' In this manner he taught the great necessity for being humble and lowly in spirit, as the basis of all virtue and social happiness. He likewise inculcated at different times the necessity of putting away everything like ostentation in doing good actions. He tells us not to give our alms before men, but to bestow them in secret ; not to pray ostentatiously in public, but in a private place. No one, until he appeared, ever pointed out that there was no difference betwixt actual transgression and the wish to transgress. He tells that sins of the heart are equally punishable with the commission of an offence. To break ' the least of the commandments ' is to be reckoned equivalent to breaking the whole ; and it is further said, it is impossible that our oblations to God can be accepted of so long as we live at enmity RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. 185 with a brother ; that is, having a quarrel with any one. ' Leave thy gift before the altar, and go thy way ; first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift. Agree with thine adversary quickly whilst thou art in the way with him.' Who amongst us, may we ask, keeps this saying in remembrance ? Do even all who attend the public worship of God most strictly and statedly hold it in mind ? Again, he forcibly warns us against self-righteousness, and the presumption of shewing our neighbours their faults, before we have put away the same or other faults from ourselves. ' Hypocrite, first cast the beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to cast the mote out of thy brother's eye. Judge not, that ye be not judged.' How valuable are these reproofs ! Continuing to admonish us of the danger of hypocrisy, he says that we shall know men by their fruits that is, we shall know them by their actions, not their words. ' A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit : therefore by their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven.' We likewise learn that there must be no limit to the extent of our forgiving of injuries. Being asked if we should forgive an injury for seven times, he said to those about him : ' I say not unto thee, until seven times, but until seventy times seven.' Three things, we are told by St Paul, are essential Faith, Hope, and Charity, but that the greatest of these is Charity, or a disposition to think well of our neigh- bours : ' Charity sufFereth long, and is kind ; charity envieth not ; charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed 1 86 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. up, doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil ; rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth ; beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things.' Throughout the New Testament, charity is inculcated as the first of the Christian virtues. Omitting any consideration of the woful distractions on ecclesiastical polity which retard the free course of Christianity, no error is more lamentable than the substitution of forms and observances on set occasions for that all-pervading spirit of piety, which should influence us in the whole business of life. This true character of Christianity has been happily illustrated in the well-known sermon, Religion in Common Life, preached before her Majesty the Queen (1855), by the Rev. John Caird. Referring to the text, ' Not slothful in business : fervent in spirit, serving the Lord,' the preacher observes, that ' it seems to imply that religion is not so much a duty, as a something that has to do with all duties ; not a tax to be paid periodically, and got rid of at other times, but a ceaseless, all-pervading, inexhaustible tribute to Him who is not only the object of religious worship, but the end of our very life and being. It suggests to us the idea that piety is not for Sundays only, but for all days ; that spirituality of mind is not appropriate to one set of actions, and an im- pertinence and intrusion with reference to others, but, like the act of breathing, like the circulation of the blood, like the silent growth of the stature, a process that may be going on simultaneously with all our actions when we are busiest as when we are idlest; in the church, in the world ; in solitude, in society ; in our grief and in our gladness ; in our toil and in our RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS. 187 rest; sleeping, waking; by day, by night amidst all the engagements and exigencies of life. For you per- ceive that in one breath as duties not only not incom- patible, but necessarily and inseparably blended with each other the text exhorts us to be at once "not slothful in business," and " fervent in spirit, serving the Lord." We have, then, Scripture authority for asserting that it is not impossible to live a life of real piety amidst the most engrossing pursuits and engage- ments of the world that the hardest-wrought man of trade, or commerce, or handicraft, who spends his days " midst dusky lane or wrangling mart," may yet be as truly holy and spiritually minded as the most secluded anchoret. We need not quit the world and abandon its busy pursuits in order to live near to God " We need not bid, for cloistered cell, Our neighbour and our work farewell : The trivial round, the common task, May furnish all we ought to ask Room to deny ourselves, a road To bring us daily nearer God." ' HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. " I "HERE are many diversities of character some ^ bad, many indifferent, but on the whole, the good preponderate and what a world would it be otherwise ? Moulded by circumstances, the character which every one bears depends mainly on himself. As formerly mentioned, you have your choice of adopting a course towards evil or towards good. You may either give i88 THE YOUTIfS COMPANION. license to or restrain the passions. You may by your conduct realise a character for uprightness or the reverse. It has frequently occurred to us that young men, without losing their individuality, might with advantage adopt models for the formation of character from history, and even from the age and neighbourhood in which they live taking for examples the heroism and integrity of one, the kindliness of manner of another, and the resolute perseverance and industry of a third. Do you know any man diligent in his calling, upright and trustworthy, firm, yet genial and courteous, pious without being illiberal in sentiment? if you do, you may set him up as a pattern ; avoiding his faults, imitating his virtues, and so far placing him before you as the hero on whom you are to found your character. Who can be ignorant of the fact, that British biography alone presents numberless examples for this species of hero-worship ! Although in the now settled state of society, life is made up chiefly of small daily duties and drudgeries, each within his sphere is able to distinguish himself in some way or other if only for being honest, obliging, temperate, and steady. Not the least conspicuous deficiency in the age in which we live, is the want of earnestness of purpose. We are apt to look on our own abilities and possible efforts with too much indifference, and so lapping ourselves in self-indulgent complacency, and trusting to fortune, dream away existence. Sir E. B. Lytton, on being installed Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow (1857), took occasion to notice this want of earnestness and its consequences. HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 189 ' And first, 1 said he in addressing the students, * let me impress upon you the value of definite purpose. Having once chosen that calling which then becomes your main object in life, cling to it firmly bring to bear on it all your energies, all the information you are elsewhere variously collecting. All men are not born with genius, but every man can acquire purpose, and purpose is the backbone and marrow of genius nay, I can scarcely distinguish one from the other. For what is genius? Is it not an impassioned predilection for some definite art or study, to which the mind converges all its energies, each thought or image that is suggested by nature or learning, solitude or converse, being habitually and involuntarily added to those ideas which are ever returning to the same central point, so that the mind is not less busily applying when it seems to be the most released from application? That is genius, and that is purpose the one makes the great artist or poet, the other the great man of action. And with pur- pose comes the grand secret of all worldly success, which some men call will, but which I would rather call earnestness. If I were asked, from my experience of life, to say what attribute most impressed the minds of others, or most commanded fortune, I should say " earnestness," in which the great secret of success is. The earnest man wins way for himself, and earnestness and truth go together. Never affect to be other than you are either richer or wiser. Never be ashamed to say, " I do not know." Men will then believe you when you say, " I do know." Never be ashamed to say, whether as applied to time or money, " I cannot afford it " " I cannot afford to waste an hour in the idleness to which you invite me I cannot afford the igo THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. guinea you ask me to throw away." Once establish yourself and your mode of life as what they really are, and your foot is on solid ground, whether for the gradual step onward, or for the sudden spring over a precipice. From these maxims, let me deduce another learn to say " No " with decision ; " Yes " with caution " No " with decision whenever it resists a temptation ; " Yes " with caution whenever it implies a promise. A promise once given is a bond inviolable. A man is already of consequence in the world when it is known that we can implicitly rely upon him. I have frequently seen in life a person preferred to a long list of applicants, for some important charge which lifts him at once into station and fortune, merely because he has this reputation, that when he says he knows a thing, he knows it, and when he says he will do a thing, he will do it.' That a person of inferior character and purpose may by a revolution of circumstances be so roused as to dis- play extraordinary energy, and in a sense become a new man, is exemplified by Foster, in an essay on Decision of Character.* ' I have repeatedly, in conversation, remarked to you the effect of what has been called a ruling passion. When its object is noble, and an enlightened under- standing regulates its movements, it appears to me a great felicity ; but whether its object be noble or not, it infallibly creates, where it exists in great force, that active ardent constancy which I describe as a capital feature of the decisive character. The subject of such a commanding passion wonders, if indeed he were at leisure to wonder, at the persons who pretend to attach * Essays in a Series of Letters, by John Foster. HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 191 importance to an object which they make none but the most languid efforts to secure. The utmost powers of the man are constrained into the service of the favourite cause by this passion, which sweeps away, as it advances, all the trivial objections and little opposing motives, and seems almost to open a way through impossibilities. This spirit comes on him in the morn- ing as soon as he recovers his consciousness, and com- mands and impels him through the day, with a power from which he could not emancipate himself if he would. When the force of habit is added, the deter- mination becomes invincible, and seems to assume rank with the great laws of nature, making it nearly as certain that such a man will persist in his course as that in the morning the sun will rise. 'You may recollect the mention in one of our conversations of a young man who wasted in two or three years a large patrimony, in profligate revels with a number of worthless associates calling themselves his friends, till his last means were exhausted, when they of course treated him with neglect or contempt Reduced to absolute want, he one day went out of the house with an intention to put an end to his life; but wandering a while almost unconsciously, he came to the brow of an eminence which overlooked what were lately his estates. Here he sat down, and remained fixed in thought a number of hours, at the end of which he sprang from the ground with a vehement exulting emotion. He had formed his resolution, which was, that all these estates should be his again; he had formed his plan too, which he instantly began to execute. He walked hastily forward, determined to seize the very first opportunity, of however humble a igz THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. kind, to gain any money, though it were ever so despicable a trifle, and resolved absolutely not to spend, if he could help it, a farthing of whatever he might obtain. The first thing that drew his attention was a heap of coals shot out of carts on the pavement before a house. He offered himself to shovel or wheel them into the place where they were to be laid, and was employed. He received a few pence for the labour; and then, in pursuance of the saving part of his plan, requested some small gratuity of meat and drink, which was given him. He then looked out for the next thing that might chance to offer ; and went with indefatigable industry, through a succession of servile employments, in different places, of longer and shorter duration, still scrupulously avoiding, as far as possible, the expense of a penny. He promptly seized every opportunity which could advance his design, without regarding the mean- ness of occupation or appearance. By this method, he had gained, after a considerable time, money enough to purchase, in order to sell again, a few cattle, of which he had taken pains to understand the value. He speedily but cautiously turned his first gains into second advantages ; retained without a single deviation his extreme parsimony ; and thus advanced by degrees into larger transactions and incipient wealth. I did not hear, or have forgotten the continued course of his life ; but the final result was, that he more than recovered his lost possessions, and died an inveterate miser, worth ;6o,ooo. I have always recollected this as a signal instance, though in an unfortunate and ignoble direction, of decisive character, and of the extraordinary effect which, according to general laws, belongs to the strongest form of such a character.' HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 193 To be successful in life, you will need to secure a character for sincerity and trustworthiness. In so many situations is a trust to be reposed, that a person who cannot be depended on is almost worthless. ' Can he be trusted with money, with articles of value, with the management of confidential matters of business ? ' such are the kind of questions, on the satisfactory answering of which depend the fortunes of the young and aspiring. From principle as well as from habit, the keeping of promises is of primary importance. Even if the promise be to your loss, you must keep it inviolate, unless relieved by the party concerned. Anything else would be dishonourable. You will consequently be careful not to make rash promises, or engage to do what you cannot properly perform. The same may be said of making bargains. If you enter into a contract verbally or by writing, every law, human and divine, will enforce its due performance, unless, indeed, you can shew that you were deceived by fraudulent misrepresentations. That you made a mistake, is no valid excuse. Every one is bound to know what he is doing, and to take the consequences of his actions. When you find that you have suffered an irreparable pecuniary loss through no fault of your own, try to pass it over with indifference. Mourning over losses in business is no part of wisdom. Consider that you are not exempted from the misfortunes which ordinarily befall mankind. All suffer in some way or other. 'There is a skeleton in every house,' says the Italian proverb ; by which we understand that all families, even those most seemingly prosperous and happy, have some secret cause for uneasiness. All having any experience of the world will tell you, M 194 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. that it is not possible to escape detraction. The greatest and best of men have been subjects of mean jealousies, suspicions, and enmities. If you live retiredly and with moderation, you are poor-spirited if in a better style, you are pretentious and extravagant. If accustomed to express your detestation of shams, you are rude. If polite, you are sycophantic. By speaking incorrectly, you are vulgar ; and by aiming at accuracy of expression, you are pompous. Reserve is cunning ; justice is hard-heartedness ; benevolence, softness. By calling in question any neglectfulness of duty, you are a tyrant ; be indulgent, and you are a fool. In a word, there is no pleasing the whole world, and it is no use trying. A large number of worthy people are lament- ably disposed to gossiping, and find fault with everybody and everything. No matter, therefore, how irreproach- able your conduct, lay your account with a less or more share of censure ; and the more prominent you become, you are the more liable to criticism and abuse. If inclined to be serviceable in helping forward public improvements, you may in particular look for accusations of selfishness ; it being ungenerously presumed that all you do is with some concealed object of personal aggrandisement. Remarks of this kind are odious and discouraging, and yet no wise man will take them to heart. There is much idle talk for talking's sake, that does no serious harm. The policy which you ought to pursue through life, is to act correctly, and with a generous regard for your fellow-creatures, altogether irrespective of what this one or that one may say. It is enough that you have the approval of your own conscience, and it may be, the approval of those who are intimately acquainted with HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 195 your character and motives. Good is not to be done for the sake of thanks though it would be but gracious to offer them but because it is a duty. Each is bound to do all the good he can within his own sphere the very humblest member of society not being without opportunities of performing acts of kindness, and illustrating the graces of the Christian character. Vexed by unmerited reproaches, you perhaps think of seeking sympathy from friends, or of appealing to the public for redress. Unless suffering from a gross outrage which falls within the scope of judicial inter- ference, we should counsel you to put up with real or fancied wrongs in silence. A caustic French writer has said, that usually a secret satisfaction is felt in the misfortunes of our acquaintances. Such at least is the perversity of human nature, that there is little general sympathy in the wrongs of individuals. In ordinary circumstances, when a man relates his griev- ances, the person addressed, though politely offering words of sympathy, is disposed to think that the griev- ances are less or more deserved ; and if the suffering party is a habitual grumbler is always speaking of being badly used the greater is the probability that his story is listened to with incredulity. Be this as it may, it is a poor policy to affect to be a martyr. The world, ready enough to find fault, has a peculiar dislike to those who are always complaining of being ill used. Study to escape the reputation of being an ill-used man. Rather suffer petty wrongs in silence than make a fuss about them. You will often find it more advantageous to lose money than to try to recover it The exaction of a rigorous account in all things is impracticable and inexpedient At one 196 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. time, people went to law with each other to vindicate all kinds of petty rights, not worth serious consideration. Now, they know better : a little temperate discussion removes misunderstandings, and the law is for the most part only a last and desperate resource. Between the garrulity which chatters of every matter of private concern, and the studied reserve which makes a mystery of things of no moment, there is a happy medium frank communicativeness being always a more commendable quality than secretiveness. It is proper, however, to be careful what letters you write. You may speak with safety what cannot be written without danger and perhaps serious mischief; for words spoken may soon be forgot, but a letter written and despatched remains a permanent and condemnatory record. It would be churlish to advise you not to write letters of friendship on all proper occasions; yet even when writing what is called confidentially, you need to be on youi guard. The person whom you address may perhaps be trusted with your secret thoughts, but who can tell into what hands your letters may fall? 'Never write a letter, and never burn one,' is an old saying, founded on a bad view of mankind, but not without a certain worldly wisdom. Liberally interpreted, the recom- mendation is, that you do not write indiscreetly, and that you save all letters of any importance which you may receive of course, saving them only for a reason- able length of time ; for if a man were to keep all the letters sent to him, their numbers would prove a serious embarrassment Young persons commit a fatal mistake in imagining that success in life is to be attained through acquaint- ances, or, as they are often miscalled, friends. En- HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 197 deavour on most occasions to trust to yourself. Study to be independent and self-relying. Acquaintances will in many instances do you more harm than good. You get embarrassed by their notions, distracted by their advices. Better to ponder earnestly on those points which demand your consideration ; decide on what line of conduct to pursue, and then steadily follow it out according to your best ability. A little reflection will shew that safety, as a general rule, lies in this self- relying policy. No one knows your own case and feelings so well as you do yourself. None incurs a responsibility equal to that in which you are placed. Advice may accordingly be given without serious concern ; besides, perhaps, being offered through the influence of some remotely selfish object not clear to your apprehension. We repeat, as one of the most important counsels which we can possibly tender Trust to yourself in all that intimately concerns your welfare. On the subject of 'Advancement in Life,' the following general observations, addressed to the young, appeared a number of years ago in Chanibers's Journal, from the pen of R. Chambers : ' First, there is one great maxim that no youth should ever want before his eyes namely, that hardly anything is beyond the attainment of real merit Let a man set up almost any object before him on entering life, and, if his ambition be of that genuine kind which springs from talent, and is not too much for his prudence, there is a strong chance in his favour that a keen and steady pursuit of the object will make him triumph at last It is very common, when the proposal of a young man's entry into life is discussed, to hear complaints as to the pre-occupation of every field of adventure by 198 THE YOUTFTS COMPANION. unemployed multitudes. There may occasionally be some cause for this ; but the general truth is undeni- able, that, in spite of every disadvantage, men are rising daily to distinction in every profession the broadest shoulders, as usual, making their way best through the crowd. It is the slothful and the fearful that generally make such complaints ; and they obviously do so in order to assure themselves that they are not altogether wrong in continuing to misspend their time. When we hear of the overcrowded state of any proposed profes- sion, we are apt to overlook that an immense proportion of those engaged in it are destined, by the weakness of their character, and want of specific qualifications, to make no way for themselves, and must soon be the same, so far as rivalry is concerned, as if they had never entered it. If the entrant, then, has only a well- grounded confidence in his own powers of exertion and perseverance, he need hardly be afraid to enter any profession. With the serious desire of well-doing at heart, and some tolerable share of ability, he is sure very soon to get ahead of a great proportion of those already in the field. Only let him never despair that is, tell himself it is all in vain, in order that he may become idle with a good conscience and there is hardly any fear of him. ' The present writer entertains some different ideas respecting original humility of circumstances from what are generally prevalent. The common notion is, that humble circumstances are a great obstruction at the out- set of life, and that the more difference between a man's origin and his eventual condition, the greater is the wonder, and the greater his merit. Since it appears, however, that so large a proportion of distinguished men HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 199 were poor at the beginning, a question may naturally arise are not men just the more apt, on that account, to become eminent ? Although we are all as familiar as possible with instances of fortunes made from nothing, it will be found, on recollection, that cases are compara- tively rare of men who began with fortunes having ended by greatly increasing them. Many a poor boy has made twenty thousand pounds before he was forty years of age : but few who had ten thousand at the age of majority are found to double it with their years. Here here is a reason for hope. The fact is, large sums are not to be acquired without an appreciation and an understand- ing of the meanest financial details. To make pounds, we must know the value of shillings ; we must have felt before how much good could sometimes be done, how much evil could sometimes be avoided, by the possession of a single penny ! For want of this knowledge, the opulent youth squanders or otherwise loses more, perhaps, than he gains. But he who has risen from the ranks knows the value and powers of every sum, from the lowest upwards, and, as saving is the better part of the art of acquiring money, he never goes back a step his whole march is ONWARD. At the very worst, it is only a question of time. Say one man begins at twenty with a good capital, and another at the same age with none. From want of experience, and through other causes above mentioned, it is not likely that the former person has made much advance within the first ten years. Now, ten years is an immense space to the individual who only commenced with good resolutions. In that time, if he has not accumulated actual money, he may quite well have secured good reputation and credit, which, prudently managed, is just money of 200 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. another kind. And so, while still a young man, he is pretty much upon a par with him who seemed to start with such superior advantages. In fact, fortune, or original good circumstances, appear to the present writer as requisites of a very unimportant character, compared with talent, power of application, self-denial, and honourable intentions. The fortunate to use the erroneous language of common life are selected from those who have possessed the latter indispensable quali- fications in their best combinations ; and as it is obvious that young men of fortune necessarily the smaller class have only a chance, according to their num- bers, of possessing them, it follows, as a clear induc- tion, that the great mass of the prosperous were originally poor. ' TALENT. It is a common cry that those who succeed best in life are the dullest people, and that talent is too fine a quality for common pursuits. There cannot be a greater fallacy than this. It may be true that some decidedly stupid people succeed through the force of a dogged resolution, which hardly any man of superior genius could have submitted to. But I am disposed to dispute, in a great measure, the existence of talent, where I do not find it at once productive of superior address in ordinary affairs, and attended by a magnanimity which elevates the possessor above all paltry and vicious actions. The genius which only misleads its possessor from the paths of prudence, or renders him a ridiculous and intolerable member of society, is too much allied to Bedlam to be taken into account ; and in reality there is nowhere so much of what is called genius as in the madhouses. The imputation of dullness to a man who has prospered in HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 201 life, will be found by impartial inquirers, in nine cases out of ten, to be a mere consolatory appliance to the self-love of one who has neither had the talent nor the morality to prosper in life himself. Let every man, then, who possesses this gift, rejoice in it with all his heart, arid seek by every means to give it proper guidance and direction. ' APPLICATION is another of the indispensable requi- sites. Detached efforts, though they may individually be great, can never tell so well in the aggregate as a regular and constant exertion, where the doings of one day fortify and improve the doings of the preceding, and lead on with certainty to the better doings of the next It is not economical to work by fits and starts ; more exertion is required, by that system, for a certain end, than what is necessary in the case of a continuous effort, and thus the irregular man is apt to fall far behind his rivals. Men of ability are apt to despise application as a mean and grubbing qualification which is only a piece of overweening self-love on their part, and likely to be the very means of frustrating all the proper results of their ability. On the other hand, the industrious man is apt to despair for want of ability not seeing that the clever fellows are liable to the weakness we describe, which causes them to be constantly giving way in the race to mere plodders. Besides, while few faults are more common than an over-estima- tion of one's self, it is equally obvious that many men only discover their abilities by chance, and that all of us possess latent powers, which might be turned to good account, if we only knew and had confidence in them. No man, therefore, should be too easily dashed on the subject of his abilities. He should try, and, with the 202 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. aid of a persevering industry, he may do wonders such as he never dreamed of. ' SELF-DENIAL. Perhaps among all the qualifications which, in a combined form, lead to fortune, none is more absolutely indispensable than this. A man may have talent, may have application, both in abundance ; but if he cannot resist vulgar temptations, all is in vain. The Scotch, as a nation, are characterised immensely by self-denial, and it is the main ground of their prosperity both at home and abroad. It is one of the noblest of the virtues, if not, indeed, the sole virtue which creates all the rest. If we are obliged at every moment to abandon some sacred principle in order to gratify a paltry appetite; if the extensive future is perpetually to be sacrificed for the sake of the momentary present ; if we are to lead a life of Esau-like bargains from the first to the last then we are totally unfit for any purpose above the meanest Self-indulgence makes brutes out of gods : self-denial is the tangent line by which human nature trenches upon the divine. Now, self-indulgence is not inherent except in very few natures ; it is almost invariably the result of " evil communications " in youth, and generally becomes a mere use or habit The most of error arises from the contagion of example. A youth at first debauches him- self because he sees others do it ; he feels, all the time, as if he were sacrificing merely to the glory of bravado ; and there is far more of martyrdom in it than is gene- rally supposed. But though a person at first smokes in order to shew how much disgust he can endure, he soon comes to have a real liking for tobacco. And thus for the paltriest indulgences, which only are so from vicious habit, and perhaps, after all, involve as HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 203 much dissatisfaction as pleasure, we daily see the most glorious and ennobling objects cast, as it were, into the fire. ' We are by no means hostile to all amusement The mass of men require a certain quantity of amusement almost as regularly as their daily food. But amusement may be noxious or innocent, moderate or immoderate. The amusements which can be enjoyed in the domestic circle, or without company at all, are the safest ; there is great danger in all which require an association of individuals to carry them into effect Upon the whole, a multitude of bosom-friends is the most pernicious evil that ever besets a man in the world. Each becomes a slave to the depraved appetites of the rest, and is at last ulcerated all over with their various evil practices. At the very best, he is retarded to the general pace, and never finds it possible to get a single vantage hour, in order to steal a march upon his kind. ' HONOURABLE INTENTIONS are also indispensably necessary. The reverse is simply want of sense and understanding ; for it is obvious to every one who has seen the least of human life, that infinitely more is lost in reputation and means and opportunities of well-doing, by an attempt to gain an undue advantage, than what can in general cases be gained. If we had to live only for a short time certain, trickery might be the most expedient course, so far as this world is concerned ; but if a man contemplates a life above a single twelvemonth, he will endeavour, by the guarded correctness of his actions, to acquire the good character which tends so much to eventual prosperity. The dishonest man, in one sense, may be termed the most monstrous of all self-flatterers : he thinks he can cheat the whole of the 204 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. remaining part of mankind which certainly is no trifling compliment He soon finds, however, that he was seen through all the time by those whom he thought mere children, and his blindness and silly arrogance receive their deserved punishment Even where the depravity may be of a very slight kind, it is alike in vain. In ordinary transactions, the one party deals with the other exactly according to his character ; if the one be in general disposed to overreach, the other is just proportionably on his guard ; so that there is no result but trouble, and a bad name. One thing should be strongly impressed upon such persons : they are far more generally understood and watched than they are aware of; for the world, so long as it can simply take care of itself without much difficulty, is not disposed to adopt the dangerous task of a monitor. The police- officer knows of many rogues whom he passes every day on the street ; he never lays hold of any, unless for some particular offence. 'Such are the principal qualities necessary for advancement in life, though any one of them, without much or any of the other, will, if not counteracted by negative properties, be sure to command a certain degree of success. He who is about to start in the race would do well to ponder upon the difficulties he has to encounter, and make up a manful resolution to meet them with a full exertion of all his powers. To revert to the general question what is it that enables one man to get in advance of his fellows ? The answer is obvious it can only be his doing more than the generality of them, or his enduring more privation than they are generally inclined to do [that is, self-denial], in order that he may acquire increased power of doing. HINTS ON CHARACTER AND CONDUCT. 205 The fault of most unsuccessful persons is their want of an adequate idea of what is to be done, and what is to be endured. They enter business as into a game or a sport, and they are surprised, after a time, to find that there is a principle in the affair they never before took into account namely, the tremendous competition of other men. Without being able to do and suffer as much as the best men of business, \hefirst place is not to be gained ; without being able to do and suffer as much as the second order of men of business, the second place is not to be gained ; and so on. New candidates should therefore endeavour to make an estimate of the duties necessary for attaining a certain point, and not permit themselves to be thrown out in the race for want of a proper performance of those duties. They should either be pretty certain of possessing the requisite powers of exertion and endurance, or aim at a lower point, to which their powers may seem certainly adequate.' We add as follows : TEMPER. Already, in speaking of manners and etiquette, it has been stated that a person of good breeding allows nothing to ruffle his temper. We now refer to this as an absolute duty, to cultivate a placid disposition, for nothing almost is so certain to make friends as good temper. It is our belief that many women are married purely because they are good- tempered, and we know that good temper in conducting business goes a great way in commanding success. We should advise you to cultivate a placid disposition, and on all occasions to encounter troubles of various kinds in a spirit of good humour. Circumstances may occur that are not easily to be borne; but irritability will not cure, but rather aggravate, the evils that arise 206 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. in human life. Do not be ready to take offence. Never allow yourself to feel affronted where no affront is meant. Inquire patiently before coming to a con- clusion on anything likely to breed discord. An angry or ill-natured remark, repented of when too late, has severed many friendships, and also marred many a man's professional career. We repeat, ' A soft word turneth away wrath.' Keep that old and precious observation in remembrance. CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. A YOUTH is governed in the choice of a profession ** by various circumstances : his mental and bodily capacity and education ; the aid he may reckon on from relatives or friends ; his inclinations and desires ; his social position all less or more controlling his destiny. In many cases, the choice is made from very fanciful considerations, as well as particular necessities, and we consequently find men placed in situations not altogether warranted by the nature of their mind or feelings surgeons who would much prefer to be merchants ; sailors who deeply regret ever having gone to sea; lawyers who would have made good soldiers ; officers in the army, whom nature designed to be horse-dealers ; and clergymen who, not possessing any ardour or genius, are mere drones in a profession which demands an enlarged intellect along with high moral qualities. Laying aside personal qualifications, the choice of a profession chiefly depends on the expectation of employ- ment, and that again is influenced by the general CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. 207 condition and wants of society. In a country naturally rich and productive, with a small population eager for improvement, the opportunities of advantageous employ- ment in certain lines of industry are without limit ; nor in such a country is a high degree of cleverness so indispensable for insuring success, as where the com- petition is excessive. Young men, therefore, who would probably be successful in North America, fail in Great Britain, where moderate abilities are placed at a great disadvantage unless fortified by persevering industry, economy, and a disposition to endure hardships over a course of years; or, indeed, unless the absence of these virtues is compensated by overwhelming patronage or some other kind of good-fortune. Were the choice of a profession to depend entirely on the means of earning a livelihood, we could have little difficulty in coming to a decisive conclusion. The selection in a large number of cases, however, is thought to hang on considerations of honour and social dis- tinction; and so far the subject is involved in complications with which no general counsellor can properly deal. All that here can be done, is to offer a few familiar explanations, which may not be without some practical utility. Labour is the foundation of every social structure. All labour some by the intellect, some by the hands, some by a union of both. Intellectual labour, as demanding the highest qualifications, is considered to be the most honourable ; while the humblest kind of labour of all consists in mere muscular exertion, con- ducted under the orders of a superior. The degrees of honour, as well as of remuneration for intellectual labour, are given on no intelligible principle. The 208 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. whole thing is arbitrary, according to certain traditional usages and prejudices, and also casual circumstances, on which no one can properly reckon. The three learned professions, as they are called, are the church, law, and medicine. These require a liberal university education, besides years of patient study, not to speak of natural talent. The followers of these professions respectively assume a high social status are professionally gentle- men. Yet some other professions, with less social distinction, require fully as good an education, and quite as much, if not more, intellectual capacity. We here allude to civil and military engineers, teachers of the higher branches of learning, and authors of works of research and erudition. The tendency of the present age is to elevate persons following these and some other professions, and relatively to lower those belonging to the old privileged orders. The reason for this is obvious. Money is a modern standard of social value. A civil engineer, an architect, an author, or a merchant who clears ^2000 a year by his calling, can live in a much better style than a clergyman, a physician, or a lawyer who does not realise ^500; and you need hardly be told that popular appreciation largely depends on considerations of this kind. Neglect on this score produces no little discomfort. Influenced by traditional notions about the dignity of the church, law, and medicine, parents make an extraordinary effort to put their sons into these honour- able but often ill-paid professions. Nor, in point of investment, are the expenses of preparation for these professions usually well laid out Reckoning the cost of schooling and college instruction, the time spent in studies, and the time lost afterwards until a return is CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. 209 made, the money sunk in preparing to be a medical practitioner cannot be estimated at less than ^1000 equal to a permanent loss of ^50 per annum. The same thing can be said of law, with this additional drawback, that the chances of lucrative employment are still more precarious. As regards the church, unless the youthful aspirant be singularly adapted for his holy calling, and have a good prospect of preferment, the entering of this profession is least of all to be recom- mended. We happen to know clergymen with scholarly and other acquirements, which fit them to move in the highest circles of society, and yet whose livings are not respectively above ^150 per annum. In other words, all their learning, and good qualities generally, have not commanded a higher money -remuneration than that of a third-rate clerk in a merchant's counting-house. Of course, money is not the sole reward to which these persons look forward ; but let us not disguise the fact, that a want of means necessarily implies the abridgment of comforts and an inferior local standing. On this account, a vast number of clergymen with fixed and moderate incomes, must see that the world with its growing wealth is gradually passing them by. At one time enjoying a position equal to that of merchants, and even of many country gentlemen, clerical incumbents cannot now, as a general rule, cope with an ordinary class of tradesmen, and every year adds to the difficulty of doing so. In half a century hence, the ecclesiastical body will, to all appearance, occupy a position relatively lower than that which it has now reached the benefices of thousands not enabling them to live in the society of gentlemen. Demonstrable results of this kind ought not to escape notice, in making choice of a profession. N 210 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. When we reflect on the repinings, the humiliations, the struggles to which a large number of unemployed or but partially employed professional men are subject, and the slight chance of their rising to either wealth or eminence, the wonder is how so many young men of talent throw themselves away. There may be some good prizes, but how numerous the blanks. To take the law for a fresh example what a number of barristers never get a brief, and to what meannesses do many persons of this class stoop to get into office. At the Scottish bar, only a mere handful of men among the general mass attain distinction by regular practice. At the common-law and equity bars of England, out of 4000 qualified individuals, only about 500 are able to live by their profession, a few hundreds are installed in office, and the remainder being, as is believed, only barristers in name. Assuming the unsuccessful at only 1500, consider the anxiety to rise; 'each contending for the next opening to practice that may occur by the promotion, retirement, or death of any senior member. Amidst such a crowd, disappointment of cherished hopes of early life is far more common than success; nor is the competition for the other class of legal prizes namely, legal appointments less keen. Here the candidate has to contend not only with the practising body, but with the whole mass of barristers. Standing and interest are nearly the only qualifications in the struggle, and the contest is carried on with great keenness. Very lately, there were as many as forty candidates for the office of police magistrate to a provincial town, the annual salary being only ^"800; and the numbers would doubtless be much greater, were not the notification of vacancies occurring kept CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. 211 tolerably quiet by the departments in whose hands the appointments lie. Often the first notice of a vacancy is learned simultaneously with the appointment of the minister's friend, not seldom a gentleman unknown to the courts.' * Everything considered, we can counsel no young man to enter what are styled the learned professions, the drawbacks in which greatly outnumber the advan- tages; and as regards the profession of arms, some very considerable reform must take place before the sons of persons in the middle classes can think of betaking themselves to it for a livelihood. Some thou- sands of offices in the Civil Service as the Post-office, Inland Revenue, Customs, and other departments are open to youths properly qualified, and who can go through the effort of being proposed for examination. Presuming that this difficulty is got over, the next thing to consider is qualification. Latterly, the British government has insisted on a rigorous examination of all who are proposed as junior candidates, and, accord- ingly, accomplishment in various branches of learning is now indispensable for entering the Civil Service. For clerkships in the Colonial Office. Preliminary examination : Exercises to test handwriting and ortho- graphy ; Arithmetic ; Geography ; Translation from Greek, Latin, French, German, Spanish, or Italian ; Abstract of official papers; Languages and Literature of Greece and Rome; Languages and Literature of France, Germany, Italy; Modern History, including that of the British colonies ; Exercises in English Com- position ; Elements of Constitutional and International * The Clioice oj a Profession. By H. B. Thomson, London. 1857. 212 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Law ; Elements of Political Economy ; Pure and Mixed Mathematics ; with Accounts and Book-keeping. For the Foreign Office, the routine is similar ; mathe- matics, however, not being required ; but ability to write and speak French is indispensable. As regards the Customs, clerks in the solicitor's office, searchers, landing-waiters, &c., are examined in Writing from dictation ; Arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions ; Orthography ; and English Composition. For the Inland Revenue Office : Reading, Writing from dictation ; Arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions ; Book-keeping by double entry ; Correspondence; Geography; History of the British Empire. For the Civil Service in India, the examinations, which include oriental languages, are particularly tasking, and though aided by preliminary cramming, are allegedly so overstraining as sometimes to be mentally injurious. In this as in other things, success may happen to be purchased too dearly. Cramming, or the factitious teaching of special facts, is a miserable substitute for a sound education in any branch of learning. Situations in banks and government offices afford a certainty as to livelihood. Step by step, the junior clerk rises to higher trust and emolument. But at best, many long years must be sacrificed before acquiring a competence, if even that The case may be thus briefly stated. By attaching yourself to an official career, you will, with proper diligence, be insured regular employ- ment with a regular salary, susceptible of a small increase according to length of service ; but the drawback is that you are fixed down to a gin-horse round of duties, which admits of no exercise of the CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. 213 reflecting faculties, and little improvement in position or circumstances ; besides, all such situations being neces- sarily servile, and calculated to dwarf the understanding, no one who aspires to independent thought and action can feel happy in them. In short, when choosing a profession, you should look not to merely present employment, but to what position you are likely to occupy at an advanced period of your life. On the whole, then, we recommend the young to shun the learned professions, also the army, navy, and what is termed the civil service. With any activity of mind, along with a disposition to push forward, young men would find it preferable to betake themselves to some kind of manufacturing, commercial, or agricultural pursuit, in which ability with perseverance will be almost certain to command success, either at home or abroad. The colonies alone offer a boundless field of useful exer- tion, for nearly every kind of handicraft, the business of agriculture and sheep-husbandry included. Avoid, if possible, sinking professions, or, at least, such as do not address themselves to great and permanent wants of the community. If a business be respectable, and offer a fair chance of success, it would be unwise to be particular about its supposed gentility. Better to be comfortable in a position of no great mark, than live a life of elegant dependence. It matters little the kind of business which may be followed. The main object is to acquire habits of steadiness and diligence ; and for this it is desirable to undergo that amount of initiatory discipline, without which the youth goes into the world like a ship leaving its harbour without a rudder. In concluding these hints on choice of a profession, we take leave to utter a note of warning on a matter of 214 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. serious concern. Within the past twenty years there has been a growing disposition throughout the country to increase the number of holidays and half-holidays, and to shorten the hours of daily labour. Within reasonable bounds, as we have already ' observed, amusement or recreation is healthful and necessary. Unfortunately, there is too often a disregard of any limit in this respect The holiday system is carried to excess. Waste of time for no proper purpose is not deemed objectionable. We protest against notions of this kind. They are subversive of a wholesome social condition. A common practice among certain classes is to spend holidays and half-holidays in idleness and dissipation, such as lounging vacantly in the streets, smoking, and resorting to public-houses; the result not being alone a waste of time, but a waste of means, and waste of health. As a youth entering the world, you are earnestly cautioned against falling into any such course of dissipation. If you happen to have days and hours to spare from ordinary labour, let them be appropriated to some good end that is to say, learning something useful or improving your health by rational exercise. A story is told of a gentleman who learned German during the few minutes daily he had to wait to go out with his wife while she was tying on her bonnet. Making a good use of your spare time at holidays, you might learn a foreign language or acquire a knowledge of some branch of science. We know a youth who in this manner taught himself to play on the violin. This accomplish- ment stood him in good stead on emigrating to one of the colonies. It supported him, by playing in an orchestra, until he procured employment in his own profession. CHOICE OF A PROFESSION. 215 One is pained to observe how many young men grow up with apparently no inclination to work at anything. Either from being badly brought up by parents, and pampered and indulged to excess, or from perversity of feeling along with vicious companionship, they devote themselves to a life of frivolity, if not to utter idleness. This is nothing else than a waste of existence, and merits contempt in whatever class of society it occurs. We counsel you to set your face determinedly against acquiring the low habits that ordinarily ensue from idleness. Choose a profession, and if possible, stick to it with every commendable aspiration. Should it happen, however, that the profession you have selected fails after due experience, your duty will of course be to try something else, and probably to go somewhere else. In Great Britain there is too common a tendency to stick to failing professions, and also to stick to places where there is no chance of bettering circumstances. In the United States there is very much more sali- ency. We recommend you not to cling too tenaciously to your place of birth. If circumstances require it, push off to a fresh and more encouraging scene of enterprise. Man is not a plant to be bound to a spot. His destiny is movement, onward and upward according to his faculties and chances of well-doing. Excelsior ! Higher, higher, will we climb, Up the mount of glory, That our names may live through time In our country's story ; Happy, when her welfare calls, He who conquers, he who falls. Deeper, deeper, let us toil In the mines of knowledge ; 216 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Nature's wealth and learning's spoil Win from school and college ; Delve we there for richer gems Than the stars of diadems. Onward, onward, may we press Through the path of duty ; Virtue is true happiness, Excellence true beauty. Minds are of celestial birth, Make we then a heaven of earth.' JAMES MONTGOMERY. BUSINESS MAXIMS. 'I I WHATEVER be the business to which you attach v * yourself, pursue it earnestly, and endeavour to take a pleasure in doing so. But business is to be con- ducted as business, not as if it were a thing to amuse yourself and others. Exactness in calculations, prudent forethought, un- swerving integrity, liberality in dealings without fear or favour, are leading principles in business. All with whom you have any transactions are to be treated alike the person whom you scarcely know and the oldest friend. In conducting business, feelings are unknown. Be as courteous as you please ; but keep in mind that business resolves itself into pecuniary obligations. You buy with reference to sales, and you sell because you have to pay for what you buy, besides supporting a necessary expenditure. To buy in the cheapest, and sell in the dearest BUSINESS MAXIMS. 217 market, is a well-known maxim in commerce. The necessities of his condition compel a merchant to attend to this important maxim. Pressed on all sides by competition, he is obliged in self-defence to buy as cheaply, and make as good a choice as possible ; yet, with all his efforts to get a high price in return, he may be compelled to sell on terms which yield a bare remuneration for trouble and risk. The general supply and demand regulate wages, prices, and all commercial transactions between country and country. If the supply of an article be greater than is wanted, prices fall, and when demand exceeds supply, prices rise. Every attempt to factitiously force up wages or prices in opposition to this regulating principle, must either fail, or be mischievous if temporarily successful. Freedom of labour, freedom of commerce, and free competition, are now recognised as principles at the basis of national and individual prosperity. The age of monopolies is past. Competition in business has the effect of stimulating one person to outdo another, and is so far advantageous in manufacturing and commercial concerns. Yet, com- petition is injurious when exercised within too narrow a field. A small town, for example, may give employment to two drapers, but for six the business would be so inadequate, that some of the competitors must suffer considerably, and great will be the misexpenditure of time and capital. There is not a little of this mistaken competition, in consequence of an unwillingness to remove to new and wider fields of exertion. You will be on your guard against this folly. Seek out places where business can be conducted to advantage. Do not attach yourself so 218 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. unreservedly to any town or city in particular as to make you blind to its deficiencies. In a large variety of instances, success is secured only by pushing boldly off from the place of birth, and fixing on a spot more suitable for professional enterprise. In business, every transaction is to be judged on its own merits, and without rashness. Be decisive, but cool. When considering the policy of entering upon or refrain- ing from a piece of business, try to attain a clear con- ception of results either way. Vagueness of ideas a loose opinion that things will go right some way or other is the mark of a feeble mind. To this source are we to trace many of those headlong speculations and that ruinous extravagance under which so many men sink. If you have not good and sufficient reasons for entering on a commercial enterprise, let it alone. There is sometimes a virtue in doing nothing. Business is to be conducted with strict honour between man and man. Avoid trickery or attempts at overreaching, usually spoken of as sharp practice. What you undertake, you are scrupulously to perform. In commercial correspondence, private affairs are not men- tioned ; fot, though business is not to be dissociated from humanity, private concerns are not to be mixed up with commercial transactions. Of every letter sent in business, a copy is to be kept for the sake of reference in case of dispute. Accuracy in book-keeping is also of the highest consequence in business. Any one who keeps his books in a slovenly manner, may almost be said to be on the way to ruin ; for without correctness in accounts, there can be no proper balance-sheet ; without which at the end of the year, no man can tell exactly the state of his affairs. BUS7NESS MAXIMS. 219 Although unable to command success, you may at least deserve it, by steadiness, an obliging disposition, an anxiety to please, and an exact attention to orders ; on which points there are unhappily such deficiencies that young men with very ordinary abilities advance in life merely through the failure, in a moral sense, of the cleverest competitors. Keep in view the maxim, duties first, pleasure afterwards; and also that what is proper to be done, should be done quickly. At what- ever expense of comfort, leave nothing till to-morrow that can be done to-day ; and if you wish to make sure that a thing of moment is done well, and in proper time, do it at once yourself. The value of this maxim may be illustrated by the following anecdote : Thomas Hamilton, a sagacious Scottish judge at the beginning of the seventeenth century, attained great wealth, and was created Earl of Haddington by James VI., who in ordinary conversation facetiously called him Tarn o 1 the Cowgate, in consequence of the earl's residence being in the Cowgate of Edinburgh. ' When Jarnes visited Scotland in 1617, he found the old statesman very rich, and was informed that the people believed him to be in pos- session of the philosopher's stone ; there being no other feasible mode of accounting for his immense wealth, which rather seemed the effect of supernatural agency than of worldly prudence and talent. King James, quite tickled with the idea of the philosopher's stone, and of so enviable a talisman having fallen into the hands of a Scottish judge, was not long in letting his friend and gossip know of the story which he had heard respecting him. Whether the Lord President was offended at the imputation, has not been recorded ; but it is probable that he took it in good part, as he immediately invited the king, and the rest of the company present, to come to his house in the Cowgate next day, when he would both do his best to give them a good dinner, and lay open to them the whole mystery of the philosopher's stone. This agreeable invitation was of course accepted ; and the next day accordingly saw his castle thronged with the gay and gorgeous figures of 220 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. England's king and courtiers, all of whom the president feasted to their hearts' content. After dinner, the king reminded him of his philosopher's stone, and expressed the utmost anxiety to be speedily made acquainted with so rare a treasure, when the host addressed his majesty and the company in a short speech, concluding with this information, that his whole secret lay in two simple and familiar maxims : " Never put off till to-morrow what can be done to-day nor ever trust to another's hand what your own can execute." He might have added, " This only is the witchcraft I have used." The guests, who expected to find the earl's talis- man of a more tangible character, were perhaps disappointed that the whole matter turned out to be, like the subject of Hamlet's reading, mere " words ; " but the king, who could appreciate a good saying, took up the affair more blithely, and complimented his host upon the means he had employed in the construction of his fortune ; adding that these admirable apophthegms should henceforth be proverbial, under the appellation of " TAM o' THE COWGATE'S PHILOSOPHER'S STONE." ' In nearly all professions, there are junior and senior departments, through which a young man needs to work his way up. And how is this done ? Beginning, perhaps, as an assistant, he takes pains to be obliging, assiduous, and trustworthy, and so earns a reputation which is favourably remembered by superiors. In some large commercial concerns, air the clerks who regularly come to business before a certain hour in the morning the evidence of which is the inscription of their names in a book as they enter the office are advanced accordingly ; a premium being thus paid on diligence. In a little book, which has accidentally come into our hands, occur the following admonitory remarks : ' A constant activity will be sure to be suitably rewarded eventually. If where you are placed from circum- stances, you can see no chance of this occurring, the BUSINESS MAXIMS. 221 knowledge and confident feeling of your own efficiency will prompt you to seek a wider field for your exertions, where you will find a proper return. But come not too hastily to this conclusion ; I mean, do not jump too quickly to the opinion that you are not appreciated. A man never knows what may be in store for him. People are not promoted in the everyday business of the world to sudden and great elevation ; it is a gradual rising step by step. Those who employ you generally know your value to themselves. A man may flatter him- self that he is more valuable than he really is ; though perhaps a useful man, he may have too high an opinion of his own merit. There are general vacancies for talent ; there are always openings for industry and care- ful perseverance these latter also reward themselves however confined the sphere may be. I was at one time the junior partner in a large concern, where the premises were very extensive. During the busy season, I was frequently engaged in business until very late at night, and found I had more to do than one person could well manage ; at this juncture, finding myself in need of assistance, the senior partner and I looked around our household with the view of finding one on whom we could rely, to relieve me of some portion of it.- In a large establishment, as you may imagine, there were men of various ages and experience some, indeed, who had been in business for themselves. Now, many young men would think I could not have much diffi- culty in finding one who, if he were liberally paid, would execute the simple duties of seeing the gas turned off at the appointed time at night, and the young men and porters at their post in the morning ; but I assure you I had some trouble. One was a good tradesman, 222 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. with excellent parts, but careless and loose, who needed system himself to be kept orderly. But not to go into the various faults of the members of the establishment, we finally fixed on a very young man, receiving ^30 a year, with not very brilliant parts, but who possessed industry united with good sense, who was free from any ridiculous affectation, and who, we felt assured, would not abuse the powers given him to annoy others. The result justified our choice. We made his salary $o, with the understanding, that if he answered our expectations, he should be paid at the rate of ^100 per annum. Some short time after, I relinquished my connection with the firm, and in a few months after that event, the elder and principal partner retired from it also, leaving the capital ; so that in less than three years from the time of the young man in question being elevated to a confidential post, the business was conducted in his name. This, of course, was one of those chances that are to be met with in life ; the young man in question had nothing to recommend him but his steadiness, sobriety, and general good conduct. When the occasion presented itself, he improved upon it ; he did not abuse his position, but ultimately gained a higher one than ever was contemplated, either by himself or others in the outset'* Although, as the world advances in cleverness, the difficulty of attaining distinction becomes greater, it is surprising what may be done by enterprise and inven- tive ingenuity. Consider how, by introducing improve- ments, you may carry your business to much greater lengths than it has hitherto been ; how, in fact, you * The Stepping-stones to Success. By Tdba. London, 1856. BUSINESS MAXIMS. 223 may almost make a new and lucrative profession out of what, if pursued on an antiquated plan, would perhaps yield only a bare subsistence. Besides, although you have to lay your account with considerable competition, you will probably discover that while there is much cleverness, there is also much stupidity and neglectfulness among your rivals. On this account, with fair diligence and tact, you may get in advance of those who began under better auspices. Life is like a line of march, in which many fall aside from want of vigour or inclination to undergo the fatigues, or to encounter the difficulties, which are to be endured. The weak, the self-indulgent, the vicious, the incompetent drop by the way, and others pushing on take their place. The value of an apprenticeship usually consists in implanting habits of order, punc- tuality, and promptitude. These qualities, so indispen- sable in professional pursuits, are rarely acquired without early training, nor can they be sustained without that resoluteness of principle to which I have repeatedly called your attention. Thorough men of business, as if aware that ' There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune,' do not dally with their duties, are not seduced by passing fancies, to attend to their professional labours only by fits and starts. Excepting at seasons of suitable recreation, they make a rule of being at their places of business daily at ten o'clock in the morning, and remaining till four in the afternoon. They answer all letters as they arrive, and, from habit, ordinarily despatch matters of importance with amazing celerity. 224 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. In short, it is the occupied who get through labour with rapidity and ease it is the dawdling, unmethodic, and half-idle who have never time for anything. Do not expect to arrive at success all at once. Endeavour, little by little, to gain a respectable footing ; for, though there are great strokes of fortune, prosperity is in most instances a result of slow and painstaking efforts. A common and reprehensible error among certain classes of business-men in the present day, is an over-eagerness to be rich. They wish to be wealthy without undergoing the patient and laborious industry of their forefathers. They pursue commerce as if it were a gambling transaction, and run heavy risks to grasp at large profits. Instead of gradually accumulat- ing capital, wherewith to carry on their trade on a safe footing, they begin to take credit on an enormous scale, borrow money at interest from banks by means of bills, and resort to other loose practices to keep them afloat Barely considering what they are about, they dash into all kinds of enterprises which hold out a faint prospect of success ; for a time live in the enjoyment of every luxury such enjoyment ! and then on the occurrence of some financial crisis which might have been foreseen, their whole schemes collapse ; they become bankrupt, and involve many well-deserving and unfortunate per- sons in their ruin. Besides inflicting injury on society, these rash traders bring disgrace on commerce, and their conduct cannot be spoken of without loathing and contempt. Your duty is to shun the most distant approach to proceedings of this scandalous nature. Make the best of everything as it occurs ; but be in no hurry to be rich. Labour will be attended with its appropriate blessing. If it please God, wealth will BUSINESS MAXIMS. 225 come in good time ; if it be otherwise ordered, be content Every man, no matter what be his origin, may be said to commence life with a good character ; and a good character being of priceless value, should be carefully cherished. With the best intentions, a good character in business may be lost by indiscretion, and when once gone, it is scarcely redeemable, as regards public con- fidence. You should be aware that in taking or giving credit beyond your means, you put your reputation in jeopardy. Overtrading, that is, going beyond your power of immediate payment, necessitates giving bills, or pro- missory-notes, and this practice, besides being perilous, is always attended by a loss. It may, indeed, happen that the nature of your business obliges you to give (as well as to receive) bills ; but you must be aware that by being able to pay in all cases with ready money, you will effect purchases at a lower rate than by taking credit, and at the same time raise your commercial reputation. To further their overtrading operations, some men grant and receive ' accommodation bills ' promises to pay founded on no trading transaction, and on which banks advance money by discount. You are earnestly entreated to avoid this reprehensible and dangerous practice. Accommodation bills are the plague of commerce ; they cause much care, and are in most instances a preliminary to ruin. One of the many forms of overtrading which frequently leads to disaster, is the attempt to conduct several kinds of business, beyond the capacity and means of a single individual. Not satisfied with the moderate gains of his proper profession, a man dabbles in shares in joint- o 226 THE YOU TITS COMPANION. stock concerns, builds houses on speculation, or other- wise occupies himself with projects which divert his mind from his more legitimate pursuits : to use a common phrase, ' he has too many irons in the fire ; ' and the probability is that by some of them he will suffer. Can we remonstrate too strongly on practices of this nature? Should you succeed in the line of business to which you have at first devoted yourself, adhere to it alone. Enter into no rash, though promising, adven- tures. As far as my observation serves, a person is never in such danger of ruin as when he has realised a little money, and seems by diligence in his calling to be on the high-road to fortune. It is then he becomes giddy with his 'good-luck,' forgets the maxims of prudence which first guided him in his career, begins to think of great enterprises, and to indulge in dreams of fine acquaintances and fine living ; the chances being, that after a short and factitiously brilliant career, he loses all ends poorer than at his entrance into active life. With a knowledge of this failing in human nature, how very properly has the prayer for deliverance ' in all time of our wealth ' been introduced into the English liturgy ! Without discouraging enterprise within the sphere of your profession, let it be understood as a result of all experience, that usually the least remunerative under- takings absorb the most time, and cause the most trouble. Supposing, therefore, that no disaster ensues, you should be prepared to find that your new schemes will at least absorb much time, anxiety, and money ; and it will be for you to consider whether the advan- tages prospectively entertained will be a sufficient com- pensation. We have known men who possessed an excel- BUSINESS MAXIMS. 227 lent business, from which they were realising a hand- some competence, to give themselves enormous trouble and vexation about trifling projects, which, even if successful, could have been of little service. But they could not be at rest couid not go on quietly with a respectable and lucrative concern ; as if under a blind impulse to fill their existence with trouble and vexation to be sleepless, while they might have slept in peace to injure their health and constitution, while they might have enjoyed a robust old age. Truly has it been said, the world is full of unconfined madmen ! When money is realised beyond the actual wants of your profession, let it be deposited in a respectable bank of old standing at a moderate interest, or safely invested in public or heritable securities. Avoid invest- ments in shares of joint-stock concerns which entail unlimited responsibility. On this point, it is further proper to caution you against acting on the advice of parties not intimately concerned in your welfare. As regards investments, often the most sagacious men give advices that prove fallacious ; and such, unhappily, is now the loose morality in certain commercial circles, that you are recommended in this as in most other matters to trust exclusively to your own judgment As you advance in society, and gain a reputation for uprightness and good business habits, it may happen that you will be solicited to allow your name to be intro- duced into lists of directors and patrons of public under- takings. On this, too, we lament to say, there is much laxity of principle, or, at least, heedlessness. Many persons allow themselves to be named as directors of concerns, with which they give themselves no thought nor trouble ; and in this way they help to impart respect- 228 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. ability to undertakings which are unworthy of public confidence. This is a serious wrong. We counsel you to make it an inflexible rule of conduct, never to give your name where you cannot exercise a reasonable degree of scrutiny and give some personal attendance. Having, after due inquiry, become a member in some association commercial or philanthropic it is your duty to see that it is properly conducted. When dis- satisfied with the management of the association, or when it is no longer convenient to be a member, formally withdraw your name. The concluding advice we would offer, is to Cast away all false shame as respects either your origin or your pro- fession. Every honest line of industry is less or more honourable. Do not, therefore, attend to your business daintily, as if you were afraid to acknowledge it; neither, in cultivating integrity and economy along with all proper social duties, feel ashamed to act according to con- scientious and deliberate conviction, although in a manner not quite conformable with the notions of those who alone seek present pleasures and are culpably indifferent to consequences. The things to be really ashamed of are misspent time, vice in all its changeful varieties, extravagance, unkindliness, discourtesy. How noble are the toils of the obscure mechanic and trades- man, in comparison with the life and conduct of the splendid wicked, the unprincipled deceiver, the base perpetrator of fraud and deadly sin ! ECONOMISING. nPHE wealth of the world consists in the accumulated gains of labour. Little by little, the face of a country is improved, comforts are obtained, and pros- perity prevails all a result of saving. Among indi- viduals, as with nations, a condition of comfort and independence is reached only by the process of spending less than is gained. Some, from a concourse of fortunate circumstances, are able to save much more than others ; but there are few situations in which a young man resolute in advancing himself, is unable so to econo- mise means as to save something regularly from his earnings. We are no friend to parsimony, and would advise you to avoid everything like shabbiness. You are not called on to save at the expense of character. There is a time for a little judicious liberality, as well as for extreme carefulness. We happen to know people in good circumstances who bring themselves into contempt by shabby modes of living unbecoming their station. They dress meanly, sponge on acquaintances, and shrink away when there is a chance of being called on for a charitable contribution. It is observed of them that they will accept hospitality, but give none. This is carrying economy to a base extreme. A man may in this manner absolutely sink in public estimation by trying to save a sixpence. We warn you against any such miserly practices. Society is constructed on the 230 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. principle of give and take. Be frugal according to your circumstances, but avoid what is despicable. What all writers on this subject insist upon, is the principle of regulated expenditure according to means and prospects. Whatever be your profession, you are, if possible, to be a degree wealthier at the end of every year, not only because your acquisitions will be per- sonally advantageous, but because a saving of gains is beneficial to the society of which you form a part. You are not to save by fits and starts, but on a systematic plan ; and while this is essential for those who have to make their way in the world, it is in degree to be followed through life. It is inconceivable what an amount of money is thrown away in trifling sums. Much more, indeed, is expended in this small way than in sums of a larger amount ; mostly, too, in a way that tends to no real good, generally on mere superfluities things which might, by the least possible exertion of self-denial, be dispensed with and never missed. This remark applies more especially to that class of youths who, with two or three spare hours per day on their hands, and two or three spare shillings at all times in their pockets, are in a manner beguiled into the practice of spending money by way of pastime. Those who inconsiderately spend money in this manner need to be reminded that there are National Security Savings-banks ready to open accounts for receiving small sums, and which with interest can be drawn out when required for any special purpose. There are now even Penny Banks into which children may lodge their odd or weekly pennies. By a little inquiry any one can learn where these savings- banks are situated. ECONOMISING. 231 With such means for taking care of small savings, there is no excuse for spending money merely because you have it at hand and do not know where to put it. While some spend money uselessly, some spend money from a bad habit of spending, and it is to be feared that some spend as a matter of vanity. In all, however, the effect is the same. The small items spent mount up to large sums, which have vanished, leaving only a painful regret. Thus, many a young man, who is in the habit of receiving his earnings in that pernicious and deceitful way of 'just as he might need them,' finds himself confounded on discovering, at the twelvemonth's end, that he has not only overdrawn his due, but has nothing laid by to answer the obligations which then were to be liquidated. After the first pause of surprise, he begins to comfort himself with the suspicion that there must be an error somewhere in the accounts either pro or con. He examines every item individually with a nervous and irritable impatience ; adds them together, first upwards and then downwards ; but, alas ! his skill in the science of notation avails him nothing ; the quotient still comes out the same, with most unsym- pathising accuracy. His heart sinks within him, and he experiences that, when felt for the first time, per- haps most intolerable and oppressive of all human sensations the consciousness of being in debt. This is a perilous moment in his career. There is nothing so apt to crush the buoyant spirit of a young man of sensitive feelings to the very earth, or drive him into excess, as this first torturing feeling of being at the mercy of another a debtor. The parents, guardians, or other wellwishers of a young man, who has thus, through folly, thoughtlessness, or even a temporary 232 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. lapse into dissipation, placed himself in such a pre- dicament, would do well to get him extricated from it as speedily as possible. Lay what restrictions they will on him afterwards although, even in them, regard must be paid to the temper and disposition to be operated on, and that they be laid on less as a punishment for the past, than a precaution against future errors ; but, as they wish him well, let them draw him back from the edge of the abyss in the meantime. He is far more likely to set about a reformation of any evil habit with resolution and effect, when unoppressed with the harassing consequences of his former indiscre- tion. Besides, his good resolves are quickened and kept alive by the glowing feeling of gratitude he cherishes towards his succourer, whose good opinion he will fear to lose by a second act of folly. In the catalogue of human follies, there is none for which the instructors of youth ought to impress a greater abhorrence on the minds of their pupils, than getting in debt. But if the mischief be already to a certain extent committed, the next object ought decidedly to be how to remedy it There are many young men, naturally of the best dispositions and moral habits, in a manner driven into the broad path by an ill-judged over-severity and illiberality being practised towards them. Let us not be supposed for a moment as trying to palliate the follies of youth ; quite the reverse. But there never was a saying of more practical wisdom than that of the late Dr Gregory, that ' it is impossible to place old heads on young shoulders ; ' and he who thinks, by means of sheer coercion and threats, to instil into sixteen the gravity and solidity of sixty, had needs beware that he does not either altogether extinguish the spirit he ECONOMISING. 233 seeks, but to moderate or excite it into a fiercer blaze. Your spender from vanity, again, is a less hopeful, and altogether less interesting character than the fore- going. His folly is more systematic, more selfish for vanity and selfishness are always concomitant and when once fairly into the stream, his besetting sin will deter him from making any effort to retrieve himself. He will suffer any private inconvenience, and resolutely shut his heart against the importunities of a dun, rather than abate one jot of the showiness of his exterior, or abridge any one of his habitual ostentatious indulgences. Thus do we daily see hundreds of ' genteel young men,' in the principal walks of our city, who, by their air, think themselves the very lords-paramount of creation, and yet are shamefully and senselessly spending money they never gained, and never had the wit to gain ; squander- ing upon momentary and dishonourable gratifications an endless succession of what they consider ' small sums ' that is to say, sowing upon the winds, to be never again reaped, what, if husbanded with moderate economy, might in larger forms have added to their real dignity, and perhaps their prosperity in life. Thousands thus live without ever acquiring the reputation they per- haps aim at that of being thought in high circum- stances ; while others, who spend seldomer, but to better purpose, get a good character for a fifth of the money. To young men entering on a professional career, it should be an object of high ambition to attain as great a proficiency as possible in the business to which they have attached themselves. In general, this proficiency is only to be acquired by leaving the place of their 234 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. birth, or where they have been bred, and going to a town where there is more to be learned. Young artisans should, if possible, always see as much as they can of the way of working at their respective handicrafts. But to travel to a distance, to remove from one place to another, is attended with a certain expense ; and how is this expense to be borne, unless something has been saved? It very often happens, that, for want of a very small sum, a working-man is completely hampered in his designs of bettering his condition, by removal to a better locality, and is likewise totally unable to improve himself by going to see better modes of handicraft These should form strong arguments for young men attempting to save a little money off their salaries. True, their salaries are frequently small ; but if there be a sincere desire to rise in the world, or to main- tain permanently a degree of decent comfort, even although a man should remain a hired assistant the greater part of his life, it is essentially requisite that an effort should be made to store up a trifle from the amount of the weekly, quarterly, or half-yearly revenue. If the great future the whole of an after-period of life is to be for ever sacrificed to the limited present, no good can ever be expected to be done by any one, no matter what be his rank or occupation. How many thousands willingly doom themselves to a life of per- petual struggling with poverty, simply by consuming daily the whole of what they earn daily ! If they would but lay by the merest fraction of their winnings, there would be no fear of the result ; but this they perversely neglect, or are unwilling to do, and lasting hard labour and harassment sometimes having, sometimes wanting is the consequence. ECONOMISING. 235 In early life many years ago, the writer of this had not five shillings in the world, and had not a single friend to help him he was unknown, and steeped in penury. Now that he is surrounded with comforts, nothing strikes him as so remarkable than seeing persons going about who have not advanced one inch during a long period of time, and who, as he remembers, were exactly on a par with him as to poverty, occupation, and resources. There they are, the same forlorn, meagrely provided-for beings; the only difference in the present day being, that they are now much older, and less able to undergo exertion than formerly. The only cause which can be assigned for these persons remaining in their original condition, is, that they have daily consumed what they have daily earned left nothing over, not an atom ; while he who writes, at first entered upon a regular practice, to which he per- tinaciously adhered, of not consuming all that he earned, but, on the contrary, saving a trifle, and so adding to his stock and his resources. The difference in point of enjoyment in the two lines of conduct, is just this that in the one, all ' the good things ' are eaten up by the way in youth, while in the other, a certain quantity are reserved to be eaten up in middle and old age. No man can ' both eat his cake and have it.' If those individuals whom we have mentioned, as having been so imprudent as to consume the whole of their earnings, had been at any time asked why they did not save a little as they went on, the answer in all likelihood would have been : ' What use is it ? What good can the saving of a penny or two do ? If we could lay by a pound now and then, it would be some- thing ; but for poor fellows like us to try to save, is all 236 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. stuff ; let us enjoy life while we have it : we may all be dead to-morrow ; so let us have our comforts, as long as we can get them.' Such is the ridiculous sort of reasoning of thousands of young men, who could easily, by a little self-denial, put themselves in the way of enjoying much future comfort, not to speak of respect- ability of character. It is quite clear that these reasoners are blind to one of the most important objects of attainment in economising means. He who spends all he wins, has never anything to enable him to embrace any favourable opportunity that may arise of bettering himself. It is true that to save a penny or two is of very little use ; but if the habit of saving a penny or two, whether in money or any other kind of property, once becomes fixed, and the thoughts be turned in the direction of advancement, the accumulation will go on, and be ultimately successful. In reciting a few of the advantages which may result from the saving of money, small as the saving may at first be, we have not adverted to one of the main benefits to be obtained. This is the advantage of having money to lay out when a great bargain is to be had. Occasions are perpetually arising in this changeable world, of objects of value being to be had for a small price, but it is necessary that that price be paid in ready money. The necessities and follies of the rash and extravagant part of mankind are continually throwing advantages into the hands of the careful. How often are poor persons heard to say : ' I wish I could but command ten, or, at the utmost, twenty pounds; such a sum would completely set me on my feet.' But as these sums cannot possibly be mastered, the persons so unhappily situated must submit to go on for ever in poverty. ECONOMISING. 237 It is by the possession of such sums that the early steps of rising in the world are planted. The first footsteps once accomplished, and a good character being established, all the rest is a matter of easy acquisition. Writers who recommend a course of industry, perse- verance, and self-denial, to the young, are sometimes accused of laying too exclusive a stress on these points, and of concealing from their readers that much in the way of success or comfort in life depends on chance cir- cumstances. We are willing to allow that circumstances are of immense consequence that many men, with all their industry and saving, would have been drudges all their*days, but for fortunate circumstances. But we must remember, that a great deal depends, first, on a person placing himself in a situation in which circum- stances may be expected to act for his advantage, or, to use a common expression, ' putting himself in the way of fortune ; ' and in the second place, his possessing such skill or abilities, that, when favourable circum- stances do arise, he will be able to make use of them. Of what value are circumstances, or opportunities, if a man has not the ability to take advantage of them? The circumstances longed for slip away from under him, and form the basis of fortune to some more active, skilful, or careful individual. Still, it may be urged that thousands of persons never have it in their power, do what they will, to better their condition. This is, how- ever, urging extreme cases. For example, it may be said, human beings born in slavery, doomed by the most cruel laws to live and die in servitude, and denied all means of mental culture, can never, by any possible means, improve their condition, or take advantage of 238 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. circumstances. Also, that an innumerable body of artisans in this country in which we live, are in a con- dition pretty nearly as hopeless. But the moralist must not remain silent, because all cannot profit by his admonitions. It is enough for us to point out, that there are many individuals scattered throughout society, who have it in their power to improve their condition by the practices which are recommended. Besides, after all, if no actual benefit arise, so far as the means of daily subsistence are concerned, there is a happiness of no ordinary kind in the consciousness of having done one's duty, of having lost none of those opportunities of well-doing, which may have been operating and maturing for our advantage. Although printed hundreds of times, Franklin's ad- vices as to economising means, contained in his Poor Richard's Almanac, are too valuable and too much to the present purpose to be omitted, though in some instances they perhaps carry the principle of economis- ing a little too far. We therefore conclude with this string of proverbial and amusing counsels : ' I have heard that nothing gives an author so great pleasure as to find his works respectfully quoted by other learned authors. This pleasure I have seldom enjoyed ; for though I have been, if I may say it with- out vanity, an eminent author (of almanacs) annually now a full quarter of a century, my brother-authors in the same way for what reason I know not have ever been very sparing in their applauses ; and no other author has taken the least notice of me : so that, did not my writings produce me some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me. ECONOMISING. 239 ' I concluded at length that the people were the best judges of my merit, for they buy my works ; and besides, in my rambles, where I am not personally known, I have frequently heard one or other of my adages repeated, with " As poor Richard says," at the end on 't. This gave me some satisfaction, as it shewed not only that my instructions were regarded, but discovered likewise some respect for my authority ; and I own that, to encourage the practice of remembering and repeating those wise sentences, I have sometimes quoted myself with great gravity. ' Judge, then, how much I have been gratified by an incident which I am going to relate to you. I stopped my horse lately where a great number of people were collected at an auction of merchant's goods. The hour of sale not being come, they were conversing on the badness of the times ; and one of the company called to a plain, clean old man, with white locks : " Pray, Father Abraham, what think ye of the times ? Won't these heavy taxes quite ruin the country ? How shall we be ever able to pay them ? What would you advise us to ?" Father Abraham stood up, and replied : " If you 'd have my advice, I '11 give it to you in short ; ' for a word to the wise is enough ; and many words won't fill a bushel,' as poor Richard says." They joined in desiring him to speak his mind ; and gathering round him, he proceeded as follows : " Friends," says he, " and neighbours, the taxes are indeed very heavy ; and if those laid on by the govern- ment were the only ones we had to pay, we might more easily discharge them ; but we have many others, and much more grievous to some of us. We are taxed twice as much by our idleness, three times as much by 240 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. our pride, and four times as much by our folly; and from these taxes the commissioners cannot ease or deliver us, by allowing an abatement. However, let us hearken to good advice, and something may be done for us ; ' God helps them that help themselves,' as poor Richard says in his almanac. "It would be thought a hard government that should tax its people one-tenth part of their time, to be employed in its service ; but idleness taxes many of us much more, if we reckon all that is spent in absolute sloth, or doing of nothing, with that which is spent in idle employments or amusements that amount to nothing. Sloth, by bringing on diseases, absolutely shortens life. ' Sloth, like rust, consumes faster than labour wears, while the key often used is always bright,' as poor Richard says. ' But dost thou love life ? then do not squander time, for that 's the stuff life is made of/ as poor Richard says. How much more than is necessary do we spend in sleep ! forgetting that ' the sleeping fox catches no poultry, and that there will be sleeping enough in the grave,' as poor Richard says. ' If time be of all things the most precious, wasting time must be,' as poor Richard says, ' the greatest prodigality;' since, as he elsewhere tells us, ' Lost time is never found again ; and what we call time enough, always proves little enough.' Let us, then, up and be doing, and doing to the purpose : so by diligence shall we do more with less perplexity. ' Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy,' as poor Richard says ; and ' He that rises late must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night ; while laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him,' as we read in poor Richard ; who adds : ' Drive thy ECONOMISING. 241 business, let not that drive thee ;' and ' Early to bed, and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.' "So, what signifies wishing and hoping for better times ? We may make these times better if we bestir ourselves. ' Industry needs not wish,' as poor Richard says ; and ' He that lives upon hope will die fasting.' ' There are no gains without pains ; then help hands, for I have no lands ; or if I have, they are smartly taxed ; ' and, as poor Richard likewise observes : ' He that hath a trade, hath an estate ; and he that hath a calling, hath an office of profit and honour;' but then the trade must be worked at, and the calling well followed, or neither the estate nor the office will enable us to pay our taxes. If we are industrious, we shall never starve ; for, as poor Richard says : ' At the working man's house, hunger looks in, but dares not enter.' Nor will the bailiff or the constable enter ; for ' Industry pays debts, but despair increaseth them,' says poor Richard. What though you have found no treasure, nor any rich relation left you a legacy ; ' Diligence is the mother of good-luck,' as poor Richard says ; and ' God gives all things to industry ; then plough deep while sluggards sleep, and you shall have corn to sell and to keep,' says poor Dick. Work while it is called to-day, for you know not how much you may be hindered to-morrow ; which makes poor Richard say : ' One to-day is worth two to-morrows ; ' and further : ' Have you somewhat to do to-morrow, do it to-day.' ' If you were a servant, would you not be ashamed that a good master should catch you idle ? Are you, then, your own master ; be ashamed to catch yourself idle,' as poor Dick says. When there is so much to be done p 242 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. for yourself, your family, your country, and your gracious king, be up by peep of day ; ' Let not the sun look down, and say : Inglorious here he lies !' Handle your tools without mittens ; remember that ' The cat in gloves catches no mice,' as poor Richard says. It is true there is much to be done, and perhaps you are weak-handed ; but stick to it steadily, and you will see great effects ; for ' Continual dropping wears away stones, and by diligence and patience the mouse ate into the cable ; and light strokes fell great oaks,' as poor Richard says in his almanac the year I cannot just now remember. " Methinks, I hear some of you say : ' Must a man afford himself no leisure ? ' I will tell thee, my friend, what poor Richard says : ' Employ thy time well, if thou meanest to gain leisure ; and since thou art not sure of a minute, throw not away an hour.' Leisure is time for doing something useful : this leisure the diligent man will obtain, but the lazy man never ; so that, as poor Richard says : ' A life of leisure and a life of laziness are two things.' Do you imagine that sloth will afford you more comfort than labour? No ; for, as poor Richard says : ' Troubles spring from idleness, and grievous toils from needless ease; many without labour would live by their wits only, but they break for want of stock ; ' whereas industry gives comfort, and plenty, and respect. ' Fly pleasures, and they '11 follow you;' 'The diligent spinner has a large shift; and ' Now I have a sheep and a cow, everybody bids me good-morrow ; ' all which is well said by poor Richard. " But with our industry, we must likewise be steady, and settled, and careful, and oversee our own affairs ECONOMISING. 243 with our own eyes, and not trust too much to others ; for, as poor Richard says : ' I never saw an oft removed tree, Nor yet an oft removed family, That throve so well as those that settled be.' And again : ' Three removes are as bad as a fire;' and again : ' Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee ;' and again : ' If you would have your business done, go ; if not, send.' And again : ' He that by the plough would thrive, Himself must either hold or drive.' And again : ' The eye of a master will do more work than both his hands ;' and again : ' Want of care does us more damage than want of knowledge ;' and again : ' Not to oversee workmen is to leave them your purse open.' Trusting too much to others' care is the ruin of many ; for, as the almanac says : ' In the affairs of the world, men are saved not by faith, but by the want of it ;' but a man's own care is profitable; for, saith poor Dick : ' Learning is to the studious, and riches to the careful, as well as power to the bold, and heaven to the virtuous.' And further : ' If you would have a faithful servant, and one that you like, serve yourself.' And again, he adviseth to circumspection and care, even in the smallest matters, because sometimes 'A little neglect may breed great mischief;' adding : ' For want of a nail, the shoe was lost ; for want of a shoe, the horse was lost ; and for want of a horse, the rider was lost;' being overtaken and slain by the enemy, all for want of a little care about a horseshoe nail. " So much for industry, my friends, and attention to one's own business ; but to these we must add frugality, 244 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. if we would make our industry more certainly success- ful. A man may, if he knows not how to save as he gets, ' keep his nose all his life to the grindstone, and die not worth a groat at last' 'A fat kitchen makes a lean will,' as poor Richard says ; and ' Many estates are spent in the getting ; Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting, And men for punch forsook hewing and splitting.' " ' If you would be wealthy,' says he, in another almanac, 'think of saving as well as of getting: the Indies have not made Spain rich, because her out-goes are greater than her in-comes.' "Away, then, with your expensive follies, and you will not have so much cause to complain of hard times, heavy taxes, and chargeable families ; for ' What main- tains one vice, would bring up two children.' You may think, perhaps, that a little tea, or a little punch now and then, diet a little more costly, clothes a little finer, and a little entertainment now and then, can be no great matter : but remember what poor Richard says : ' Many a little makes a meikle ; ' and further : ' Beware of little expenses ; a small leak will sink a great ship ; ' and again : ' Who dainties love, shall beggars prove ; ' and, moreover : ' Fools* make feasts, and wise men eat them.' " Here you are all got together at this sale of fineries and knickknacks. You call them goods ; but if you do not take care, they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and perhaps they may for less than they cost; but if you have no occasion for them, they must be dear to you. Remem- ber what poor Richard says : ' Buy what thou hast no ECONOMISING. 245 need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries.' And again : ' At a great pennyworth, pause a while.' He means, that perhaps the cheapness is apparent only, and not real ; or the bargain, by straitening thee in thy business, may do thee more harm than good. For in another place he says : ' Many have been ruined by buying good pennyworths.' Again, as poor Richard says : ' It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of repentance ; ' and yet this folly is practised every day at auctions, for want of minding the almanac. Many a one, for the sake of finery on the back, has half- starved his family : ' Silk and satins, scarlet and velvets,' as poor Richard says, ' put out the kitchen fire.' These are not the necessaries of life; they can scarcely be called the conveniences ; and yet only because they look pretty, how many want to have them ! The artificial wants of mankind thus become more numerous than the natural ; and, as poor Dick says : ' For one poor person, there are a hundred indigent.' By these and other extravagances, the genteel are reduced to poverty, and forced to borrow of those whom they formerly despised, but who, through industry and frugality, have maintained their standing; in which case it appears plainly 'A ploughman on his legs is higher than a gentleman on his knees,' as poor Richard says. Perhaps they have had a small estate left them, which they knew not the getting of; they think ' It is day, and will never be night ; ' that a little to be spent out of so much, is not worth minding : ' A child and a fool,' as poor Richard says, ' imagine twenty shillings and twenty years can never be spent; but always by taking out of the meal-tub, and never putting in, soon comes to the bottom ; ' then, as poor Dick says : ' When the 246 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. well is dry, they know the worth of water.' But this they might have known before, if they had taken his advice : ' If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some ; for he that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing ; and, indeed, so does he that lends to such people, when he goes to get it again.' Poor Dick further advises, and says : ' Pride is as loud a beggar as want, and a great deal more saucy.' When you have bought one fine thing, you must buy ten more, that your appearance may be all of a piece ; but poor Dick says : ' It is easier to suppress the first desire, than to satisfy all that follow it.' And it is as truly folly for the poor to ape the rich, as the frog to swell in order to equal the ox. ' Vessels large may venture more, But little boats should keep near shore.' 'Tis, however, a folly soon punished ; for ' Pride that dines on vanity, sups on contempt,' as poor Richard says. And in another place : ' Pride breakfasted with plenty, dined with poverty, and supped with infamy.' And, after all, of what use is this pride of appearance, for which so much is risked, so much is suffered? It cannot promote health, or ease pain ; it makes no increase of merit in the person; it creates envy; it hastens misfortunes. ' What is a butterfly ? at best, He 's but a caterpillar drest ; The gaudy fop 's his picture just' " But what madness must it be to run in debt for these superfluities ! We are offered by the terms of this sale six months' credit ; and that perhaps has ECONOMISING. 247 induced some of us to attend it, because we cannot spare the ready money, and hope now to be fine with- out it. But ah ! think what you do when you run in debt You give to another power over your liberty. If you cannot pay at the time, you will be ashamed to see your creditor : you will be in fear when you speak to him ; you will make poor, pitiful, sneaking excuses, and by degrees come to lose your veracity, and sink into base, downright lying ; for, as poor Richard says : ' The second vice is lying ; the first, is running into debt' And again, to the same purpose : ' Lying rides upon debt's back ; ' whereas a free-born Englishman ought not to be ashamed* or afraid to speak to any man living. But poverty often deprives a man of all spirit and virtue : ' It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright,' as poor Richard truly says. What would you think of that prince, or that government, who would issue an edict, forbidding you to dress like a gentleman or a gentlewoman, on pain of imprisonment or servitude? Would you not say, that you are free, have a right to dress as you please, and that such an edict would be a breach of your privileges, and such a government tyran- nical? And yet you are about to put yourself under that tyranny, when you run in debt for such dress ! Your creditor has authority, at his pleasure, to deprive you of your liberty, by confining you in jail for life, or by selling you for a servant, if you should not be able to pay him. When you have got your bargain, you may perhaps think little of payment; but 'Creditors,' poor Richard tells us, ' have better memories than debtors ; ' and in another place he says : ' Creditors are a super- stitious sect, great observers of set days and times.' The day comes round before you are aware, and the 248 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. demand is made before you are prepared to satisfy it Or if you bear your debt in mind, the term which at first seemed so long, will, as it lessens, appear extremely short. Time will seem to have added wings to his heels as well as his shoulders. ' Those have a short Lent,' saith poor Richard, ' who owe money to be paid at Easter.' Then since, as he says, ' The borrower is a slave to the lender, and the debtor to the creditor,' disdain the chain, preserve your freedom, and maintain your independency : be industrious and free ; be frugal and free. At present, perhaps you may think yourselves in thriving circumstances, and that you can bear a little extravagance without injury ; but ' For age and want save while you may, No morning sun lasts a whole day,' as poor Richard says. Gain may be temporary and uncertain ; but ever, while you live, expense is constant and certain ; and ' It is easier to build two chimneys, than to keep one in fuel,' as poor Richard says. So, 1 Rather go to bed supperless than rise in debt' ' Get what you can, and what you get, hold ; 'Tis the stone that will turn all your lead into gold,' as poor Richard says. And when you have got the philosopher's stone, sure you will no longer complain of bad times or the difficulty of paying taxes ! " This doctrine, my friends, is reason and wisdom ; but, after all, do not depend too much upon your own industry, and frugality, and prudence, though excellent things, for they may be blasted without the blessing of Heaven : and therefore ask that blessing humbly, and be not uncharitable to those that at present seem to ECONOMISING. 249 want it, but comfort and help them. Remember Job suffered, and was afterwards prosperous. " And now, to conclude : ' Experience keeps a dear school ; but fools will learn in no other, and scarce in that ; for it is true, we may give advice, but we cannot give conduct,' as poor Richard says. However, remember this : ' They that will not be counselled, cannot be helped;' and further, that 'If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your knuckles.' " ' Thus the old gentleman ended his harangue. The people heard it, and approved the doctrine, and immedi- ately practised the contrary, just as if it had been a common sermon ; for the auction opened, and they began to buy extravagantly, notwithstanding all his cautions and their own fear of taxes. I found the good man had thoroughly studied my almanacs, and digested all I had dropped on those topics during the course of twenty-five years. The frequent mention he made of me must have tired every one else ; but my vanity was wonderfully delighted with it, though I was conscious that not a tenth part of the wisdom was my own which he ascribed to me, but rather the gleanings that I had made of the sense of all ages and nations. However, I resolved to be the better for the echo of it; and though I had first determined to buy stuff for a new coat, I went away, resolved to wear my old one a little longer. Reader, if thou wilt do the same, thy profit will be as great as mine.' < 25 ) A COURSE OF READING. TT was at one time generally imagined that the pursuit of business wag incompatible with literary tastes and acquirements. Trade was thought to indicate grovelling ideas. Attention to the duties of a profession was believed to chill the finer feelings. With a more enlarged experience of mankind, we now know that elevation of mind is monopolised by no particular rank in society, and that professional labours, even of a humble kind, may be cheered by a habitual cultivation of the higher sentiments. Destined to make your way in the world by your own exertions, you may derive considerable pleasure and advantage from a course of reading and study, over a series of years ; the aim, as a general rule, being to make yourself a well-informed man informed not only on the specialties of your profession, and certain small matters of local concern, but acquainted with the works of the best writers in the English and some other languages. As has been already stated, the mind will derive little benefit from desultory reading snatches of newspapers, periodicals, novels, and the miscellaneous productions which ordinarily invite the notice of the idle and indifferent Persons of scholarly acquirements begin their course of reading by a perusal of ancient historians, including Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, Tacitus, and Caesar ; the works of these and other great writers being studied in the original. The young whom we A COURSE OF READING. 251 address, however, are not expected to possess the high qualification of being able to read Greek and Latin with the fluency of their own tongue, and we shall accordingly exclude any consideration of the ancient classics. Much may be done by a knowledge of English alone, more especially as there are now translations of the best Greek and Roman authors. Wide and comprehensive, English literature extends over several centuries, embracing the works of historians, poets, theologians, philosophical inquirers, writers of fiction, and others ; and you need hardly be told that, without a good knowledge of these various works, procured from actual perusal, the mind is necessarily deprived of a very important source of delight Not to mention many works of lesser note, the following constitute materials for an improving course of reading. In History, it is proper to begin with the records of ancient nations, a popular sketch of which is presented in the well-known work of Rollin. For the history of ancient Greece, the works of Mitford and Gillies, long in common use, are now superseded by the voluminous production of Mr Grote, which is entitled to be called the greatest historical work of modern times, and ought to be read with profound attention. You next proceed to the history of Rome, in the following order : Niebuhr's History of Rome, Fergusson's History of the Roman Republic, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire a great work, with some objectionable opinions against which you will guard, as pointed out in An Apology for Christianity, by Dr Watson, Bishop of Llandaff ; though it might be preferable to peruse the late edition of Gibbon by Milman, who takes care to specify and challenge the writer's errors. By an atten- 252 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. live perusal of Gibbon's animated and perspicuous narrative, you will obtain clear notions on the origin of modern European nations, and some of their more remarkable institutions. After these works, you may take up Hallam's History of the Middle Ages, Russell's History of Modern Europe, and Robertson's History of Charles V. Having so gained a general view of continental history, you will proceed to the history of England and Scotland. Although defaced by some errors, more particularly those springing from party bias, the work of Hume is still the best history of England extant : additions to it have been made by Smollett and others. It will be instruct- ive as well as entertaining to compare Hume with Lingard, a recent writer. Lingard's History of England is generally more impartial than that of Hume ; but, on the other hand, the writer palliates atrocities which ought not to be spoken of without horror. By way of hearing both sides, you should read Lingard. On some particular portions of English history, able works have been produced. We would refer you to Palgrave's or Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons ; Thierry's History of the Norman Conquest ; Bishop Burnett's History of his own Times ; Godwin's History of the Commonwealth ; and Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. Besides these works, you will peruse Mill's History of British India, 'one of those rare works destined to immortality.' You may finish with the History of England, by Macaulay, a work to be studied more for its brilliant style of composition, than for any freshness or accuracy in its facts. In connection with the History of England you are recommended to read Bancroft's History of the United A COURSE OF READING. 253 States; from this work you will obtain a clear and correct idea of that ill-considered and disastrous war, by which England lost the greater part of her old American colonies, and the citizens of the United States achieved their independence. The history of Scotland, though much interwoven with that of England, needs to be studied separately, and for this there are now ample materials. We may specify the well-known works of Robertson, Laing, and Burton. The History of the Reformation in Scotland may be learned from M'Crie's Lives of Knox and Melville ; some startling revelations respecting Queen Mary will be found in Mignet's memoirs of that unfortunate princess ; and for an account of the Rebellion in 1745, under Charles Edward Stuart, you are referred to a volume on the subject by R. Chambers. Last of all, you should read Burton's History of Scot- land, the most recent and complete work of the kind. It would have been easy to swell the foregoing enumeration of works on English and Scottish history, and there might have been added several works of moment on civil, military, and ecclesiastical antiquities, valuable in illustrating the great events of past times. You may, however, imagine that a sufficiently heavy list of historical treatises has been given in the mean- while, and perhaps a number of the works mentioned will be altogether beyond your reach ; yet, with much fewer you should hardly rest satisfied, for, of all subjects in literature, the history of the country to which you belong deserves the most earnest attention, and is not to be learned by abridgments in popular miscellanies. In conjunction with the above-mentioned books, 254 THE YOUTHS COMPANION. there ought, if possible, to be associated a variety of works on modern continental history, more particularly that part of it bearing on the French Revolution. In this department, we place Alison's History of Europe, Thiers's History of the French Revolution and Consulate, with Guizot's History of Civilisation the latter a work of a philosophic character and eminently suggestive. As illustrative of the revival of learning in Europe, there should be added Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de Medici, and Life and Pontificate of Leo X. two works which fill up the blank between Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire and Robert- son's Charles V. As regards works of a religious nature, the following can be recommended as being of a wholesome tone : A'Kempis's Imitation of Christ; Abbott's Young Christian ; Taylor's Holy Living and Dying, which is pre-eminently deserving of study ; D wight's Theology ; the sermons of Tillotson, Massillon, and Blair ; the Thoughts (Penstes) of Pascal; and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. On the kindred subject of Natural Theology, read the well-known work of Paley, and the Bridgewater Treatises. On the subject of Metaphysics, and philosophic investigation generally, there are numerous works of an ancient and modern date. The genuine scholar makes himself acquainted with the writings of Aristotle and Plato, through the original, or at all events by means of translations, before proceeding to modern inquiries. Not to go too profoundly at first into this perplexing subject, you will begin with Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding, and may then proceed to the works of Bacon, Mill's Logic, Smith's Theory of the A COURSE OF READING, 255 Moral Sentiments, and the treatises of Reid, Brown, Stewart, and Hamilton a constellation of Scottish metaphysical writers. Whatever be the extent of these studies, by no means omit Locke, whose writings, as is observed by Sir James Mackintosh, ' have diffused throughout the civilised world the love of civil liberty ; the spirit of toleration and charity in religious differ- ences; the disposition to reject what is obscure, fantastic, or hypothetical in speculation ; to reduce verbal disputes to their proper value ; to abandon problems which admit of no solution ; to distrust whatever cannot be clearly expressed ; to render theory the simple expression of facts ; and to prefer those studies which most directly contribute to human happiness.' Need more be said in recommendation of Locke ? With writers on the human mind and its manifesta- tions, we may connect that brilliant series of essayists, chiefly on subjects of moral concern, which dis- tinguished the literature of the eighteenth century. Among these a leading place is assigned to Addison, Steele, and Johnson, with whom were associated many writers of lesser note. The perusal of the Spectator, Tatler, Guardian, Rambler, Idler, Mirror, &c., com- posing the British essayists, ought therefore to form part of your mental discipline. Every one is at least presumed to be acquainted with the fine writings of Addison, Steele, and Johnson the latter possessing a highly moral tone. The Letters of Junius, though relating to the politics of a past age, should be read for their pointed and nervous composition. Works on Natural Philosophy, Geology, and other scientific subjects, will form part of your course ; nor 256 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. will you omit treatises on Social and Political Economy. As much of the business of the world is now iden- tified with the principles of political economy, it is proper that you should, in particular, make yourself acquainted with the Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith, a work forming the groundwork of the science of which it treats, and so perspicuous and persuasive, that you will not fail to imbibe the great principles of the writer. In Biography, the number of books, alike instructive and entertaining, is incalculable. All that you can do is to make a selection, for the purpose of illustrating historical events and characters, as well as for bringing vividly before you the motives and actions of men who exerted a marked influence over society. You will, of course, read Plutarch a collection of biographies of distinguished personages in ancient times. The lives of great soldiers such as Louis XIV. ; Marlborough ; Clive, the conqueror of India ; Washington, memorable in the wars of American Independence ; Napoleon and Wellington, both marvellous for their varied military and statesmanlike qualities will not fail to be perused with deep interest. Franklin's memoir is one of the most amusing books that will attract your notice ; and along with it, we name the lives of Penn, Goldsmith, and Johnson. The Life of Dr Johnson, by James Boswell, is the most instructive and interest- ing biography ever written. ' We are not sure,' says the Edinburgh Review, ' that there is in the whole history of the human intellect so singular a phenomenon as this book.' Besides delineating the character and personal appearance of Johnson, and retailing his remarkable sayings on a multiplicity of subjects, the A COURSE OF READING. 257 author presents so many anecdotes and sketches, illustrative of literary society in the latter part of the eighteenth century, that, by perusing Boswell, you will be introduced, as it were, to the company of some of the greatest authors, wits, and men of taste of a past age. The best edition of Boswell's Johnson is that edited by Croker, in ten small volumes. Among biographical works of a late date, eminently worthy of perusal are Memoirs of Francis Horner, Lord Camp- bell's Lives of the Lords Chancellors and Chief- Justices, also Lord Brougham's Lives of Statesmen of the Reign of George III. Knowledge, however useful, is not alone sufficient for storing the youthful mind. The imagination and finer feelings equally require culture, and on this account you will need to peruse with attention the works of poets and writers of prose fiction. The British poets form a long series, from Chaucer downwards the greatest being Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Thomson, Goldsmith, Johnson, Cowper, Byron, and Scott ; and we may add Tennyson and Longfellow- the latter an American poet The works of these and others, as opportunity offers, might most agreeably intersperse your more serious reading. With the finer passages of Shakspeare, every person pretending to refined tastes is expected to be familiar. Among the novelists, Defoe, Fielding, Smollett, Scott, Bulwer, Dickens, and Thackeray take the first rank, and their productions will doubtless be perused as a matter of ordinary amusement. We would 'only take leave to put you on your guard against the fatal error of squandering much valuable time in novel-reading, and, above all, in perusing the silly fictions of second Q 258 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. and third rate writers, whose works now inundate every dwelling. In our summary, no notice is taken of works in miscellaneous English literature, neither have we said anything of the works of eminent French, Italian, and German writers ; all of which will naturally, as far as circumstances admit, take their place in your course of reading throughout a series of years. In whatever department of literature prose or poetry, grave or lively composition there can be no harm in attaching yourself to a particular book or author. Such attach- ments have marked the most distinguished individuals, and to a passing and properly directed fancy, you may perhaps have afterwards, like others, to ascribe your love of books.* ' " Heaven lies about us in our infancy ; " and it cannot be denied that the first perusal of Robinson Crusoe makes a part of the sweet illusion. The roar of the waters is in our ears ; we start at the print of the foot in the sand, and hear the parrot repeat the well- known sounds of " Poor Robinson Crusoe ! who are you? where do you come from, and where are you going?" till the tears gush, and in recollection and feeling we become children again. Robinson Crusoe was a favourite book with Marmontel, Rousseau, Blair, Beattie, Dr Johnson, Chalmers, Scott, and Charles Lamb. Marmontel says : " Robinson Crusoe is the first book I ever read with exquisite pleasure, and I believe every boy in Europe will say the same thing." Rousseau says : " Robinson Crusoe is a most excellent *The observations which follow, occur in an article in Chambers' t Journal, 1843. A COURSE OF READING. 259 treatise on natural education. It is .the first book my Emilius shall read ; his whole library shall long consist of this only, which shall preserve an eminent rank to the very last. It shall be the text to which all our conversations on natural science are to serve only as a comment. It shall be a guide during our progress to maturity of judgment; and so long as our taste is not adulterated, the perusal of this book will afford us pleasure." Charles Lamb observes, that "The deep interest and familiar style of Robinson Crusoe render it delightful to all ranks and classes." Sir Walter Scott remarks, that "There exists no work more generally read, or more universally admired, than Robinson Crusoe. It is difficult to say in what the charm consists by which persons of all classes and denominations are thus fascinated ; yet the majority of readers will recol- lect it as among the first works which awakened and interested their youthful attention; and feel, even in advanced life, and in the maturity of their under- standing, that there are still associated with Robinson Crusoe the sentiments peculiar to that period, when ail is new, all glittering in prospect, and when those visions are most bright which the experience of after-life tends only to darken and destroy." 'The Pilgrim's Progress can boast an honourable list of admirers. Even Johnson most pedantic of critics all whose studies were desultory, and who hated, as he said, to read books through, made an exception in favour of the Pilgrim's Progress, one of the very few works which he wished were longer. In the remotest parts of Scotland, the Pilgrim's Progress is the delight of the peasantry. In every nursery it is a greater favourite than Jack the Giant-killer, or 260 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. Every reader knows the "straight and narrow path," as well as he knows a road he has traversed a hundred times. Thus has its author, John Bunyan, the tinker, wrought one of the highest miracles of genius giving a locality and a name to things which exist not, and making his own imaginations become the personal recollections of his reader. There is no other book on which we would so readily stake the fame of the old unpolluted English language no book which shews so well how rich that language is in its own proper wealth, and how little it has been improved by all that it has borrowed. " This wonderful work," Coleridge has justly observed, " is one of the few which may be read over repeatedly at different times, and each time with a new and a different pleasure. I read it once as a theologian and let me assure you, there is great theological acumen in the work once with devotional feeling, and once as a poet. I would not have believed beforehand that Calvinism could be painted in such exquisitely delightful colours. I know of no book the Bible being excepted, as above all comparison which, according to my judgment and experience, I could so safely recommend as teaching and enforcing the whole saving truth, according to the mind that was in Christ Jesus, as the Pilgrim's Progress. I am con- vinced that it is incomparably the best summary of evangelical Christianity ever produced by a writer not miraculously inspired." ' Benjamin Franklin says that Plutarch's Lives, Defoe's Essay on Projects, and a book entitled Essays to do Good, were his three favourite books, and those from which he derived the most advantage. Speaking of the A COURSE OF READING. 261 last, he states : " When I was a boy, I met with this book, which was written, I think, by the father of Dr Mather of Boston. It gave me such a turn of thinking, as to have an influence on my conduct through life ; for I have always set a greater value on the character of a doer of good, than any other kind of reputation ; and if I have been a useful citizen, the public owes the advan- tage of it to that book." Franklin, again, has been the favourite of many young persons, who have had to thank his sagacious pages and his maxims of industry and economy for their future success in life. It is beautiful thus to see wisdom become traditionary. " When at school," writes Dr Alexander Murray, the celebrated orientalist, " I read Paradise Lost, which from that time has influenced and inflamed my imagina- tion. I cannot describe the ardour or various feelings with which I perused, studied, and admired that first- rate work." The Bibliotheca, by Phocius (1653), a valuable collection of extracts from two hundred and eighty ancient authors, the greater number of whose writings have been lost, was a favourite with Gibbon, the historian. Another of his favourites was of much more portly dimensions, the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, comprising fifty quarto volumes. " I cannot forget the joy," he says, " with which I first exchanged a twenty-pound bank-note for the first twenty volumes of these Memoirs ; nor would it have been easy, by any other expenditure of the same sum, to procure so large a fund of rational amusement." Ossian was the favourite of two men who certainly appear very different in all other respects Napoleon and Dr Parr. The latter says : " I read Ossian when a boy, and was enamoured with it When at college, I again read 262 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Ossian with increased delight. I now, although convinced of the imposture, find pleasure in reading Macpherson." Hudibras was a great favourite with Dr Blair, author of the celebrated Sermons. He used to read it through once every year. ' Bossuet's reply to a person who found him preparing one of his famous orations, with the works of Homer open on his table, is finely characteristic of the lofty and magnificent genius of the man : " I always have Homer beside me when I compose my sermons; for I love to light my lamp at the sun." When Mickle, the translator of the Lusiad, was a boy of fifteen at the High School of Edinburgh, Homer and Virgil were the two favourite companions of his leisure hours. The poet Waller died repeating some lines of his favourite, Virgil. This was also the favourite classic poet of Charles James Fox and of David Hume. We are told by Lord Holland, that during Fox's retirement, his fondness for poetry, which neither pleasure nor business had ever extinguished, revived with an extraordinary ardour, which preserved him from ever experiencing the tedium of a vacant day, during the interval between his active attendance in parliament and the undertaking of his history. His letters abound with complaints of interruptions arising from politics, while he speaks with delight and complacency of whole days devoted to Virgil and Euripides. The earliest favourites of Burns were the Life of Sir William Wallace, and a Life of Hannibal. " Hannibal," says he, "gave my young ideas such a turn, that I used to strut in raptures up and down after the recruiting drum and bagpipe, and wish myself tall enough to be a soldier; while the story of Wallace poured a A COURSE OF READING. 263 Scottish prejudice into my veins, which will boil along there till the floodgates of life shut in eternal rest" Shakspeare has been the favourite of far too many to be specified ; but the enthusiasm of one humble admirer, Joseph Blacket, the shoemaker-poet, is too interesting to be passed over. In his twelfth year, Blacket witnessed Kemble's performance of Richard III. Before this, he had neither read nor beheld a play ; but thenceforth Shakspeare was his favourite author. "I robbed the pillow of its due," says he, " and in the summer season, would read till the sun had far retired, then wait with anxious expectation for his earliest gleam, to discover to my enraptured fancy the sublime beauties of that great master." In consequence of this close study of Shakspeare, a dramatic tone, observes his biographer, "pervaded the whole mass of his papers. I have traced it on bills, receipts, backs of letters, shoe-patterns, slips of paper-hangings, grocery wrappers, magazine covers, battalion orders for the volunteer corps of St Pancras, wherein he served, and on various other scraps, on which his ink could scarcely be made to retain the impression of his thoughts ; yet most of them crowded on both sides, and much inter- lined." ' Willoughby's Ornithology was the favourite book of Pennant when a youth, and from its perusal he first derived his propensity for natural history. The Confessions of Rousseau was the favourite book of Hazlitt, who has related the intense delight he derived at an early age from its perusal. The favourite with Dr Shaw, the celebrated traveller, was Maier's Merry Philosopher, or Thoughts on Jesting, which he so highly admired, that, for fear of losing it, he kept more 264 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. than one copy. Swift's Tale of a Tub was the favourite of Cobbett, who gives the following account of his first meeting with it : " When a poor boy of eleven years old, with threepence in my pocket for my whole fortune, I was trudging through Richmond, in my blue smock-frock, and with red garters tied outside under my knees, when I perceived in a bookseller's window a little book labelled, 'Tale of a Tub, price threepence.' Its odd title excited my curiosity. If I spent my threepence on it, I could have no supper. Still, in I went, and bought the little book, which I was so impatient to examine, that I got over into a field at the upper corner of Kew Gardens, and sat down to read on the shady side of a hay-stack. The book was so different from anything I had read before it was something so new to my mind, that though I could not at all understand some of it, it delighted me beyond measure, and it produced what I have always con- sidered a sort of birth of intellect. I read on till it was dark, without any thought of supper or bed. When I could see no longer, I put it into my pocket, and fell asleep by the side of the stack, till the birds in Kew Gardens awaked me in the morning, and then I started off, still reading my little book. The gardener at Kew, where I got employment, lent me some books on gardening; but I could not relish them after the Tale of a Tub, which I carried about with me wherever I went, till, when about twenty years old, I lost it in a box that fell overboard in the Bay of Fundy." 'Robert Bloomfield's favourite was Thomson's Seasons. " I never heard him give so much praise to any book as to that," says his brother George. It was also an early favourite of poor John Clare. He was A COURSE OF READING. 265 thirteen years old when another boy shewed him the Seasons. He was in the fields at the time, and this circumstance must have tended much to his enjoyment of a poem so beautifully descriptive of nature and rusticity. It called forth all the passion of Clare's poetic soul. As soon as he had saved a shilling, he repaired to Stamford to buy a copy of it for himself, but he reached the place at so early an hour, that he had to wait some time till the shops were open. It was a fine spring morning, and after he had made his purchase, he was returning through the beautiful scenery of Burghley Park, when he composed his own first piece of poetry. The Rev. Dr Dibdin, the prince of modern bibliographers, has confessed a strong attach- ment to the works of Thomson, in which, he tells us, he has enjoyed many quiet readings while seated in the deepening glooms of Bagley Wood, or near the magnificent expanse of water at Blenheim. His favourite portion of the Seasons was the description of Spring ; but he loved more than all, Thomson's Castle of Indolence, which he calls one of the most enchanting and instructive poems in our language, although it has not yet acquired that reputation which it deserves. ' Lord Byron's greatest favourites were Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, DTsraeli's Illustrations of the Literary Character, and Scott's novels. The first work, he says, contains more solid information than any twenty other works ever compiled in the English lan- guage; the second, he says, he read perhaps oftener than any, and that it had often been to him a consolation and a pleasure, which we can readily conceive from his lord- ship's notes in one of the late editions of it ; of the last named, Scott's novels, he tells us : "I never travel with- 266 THE YOUTfTS COMPANION. out them ; they are a perfect library in themselves, a perfect literary treasure ; I could read them once a year with new pleasure." ' Young persons are not expected to possess a large number of books. As they grow up with matured judgment they can, according to means, accumulate a small library sufficient for ordinary purposes. The cheapness of books admits of this being done at a comparatively small expense. It is always a good sign of a man that he has a neatly assorted library, and takes pleasure in reading a wholesome class of works. In making up a library, it will be found advantageous to possess a good dictionary of the English language, likewise a small French-and-English dictionary. Next in importance is an Encyclopaedia of general knowledge. The greatest work of this kind is the Encyclopaedia Britannica, but it is voluminous and so costly as to be beyond ordinary means. There might even be a difficulty in giving it accommodation. Next to it, and of a cheap and handy nature, would be Chambers's Encyclopaedia of General Knowledge, in ten volumes. This work, composed with much care with the assist- ance of the best writers, is well known. It has the special advantage of being kept up to time, so that the latest information on scientific and other subjects is always to be obtained. It will be advantageous for you to become acquainted in a general way with the names and characteristics of the English writers, in prose and poetry, from early times till the present, along with specimens of their productions. For this purpose, you may peruse Chambers's Cyclopaedia of English Literature, a work in two volumes. In it is embraced an account of the more eminent Scottish writers. The A COURSE OF READING. 267 information you receive from the work will enable you to make a choice of the best authors. Unless for professional purposes, we could not, how- ever, advise you to encumber yourself with many books. What is wanted is a choice collection. The works of Shakspeare, the fictions of Walter Scott, the poems of Milton, Burns, Wordsworth, Longfellow, and of a few others, would be very appropriate. In every large city and in almost every town of moderate dimensions, there are now public libraries consisting of the best miscellaneous literature. Some of these libraries are free ; in some a small fee is charged by the year or month. In the United States of America, the public libraries are very numerous and well managed. The library of the British Museum in London is of enormous extent, and valued for the opportunities it offers to the free inquiry of literary students. There is no grander institution of the kind in the world. We cannot close our remarks on books and reading without again cautioning you against wasting time in the perusal of frivolous novels, some of which are of an exceedingly objectionable kind. By many young persons of both sexes, novel-reading is a mental dissipation. It becomes a kind of disease. The tendency among some writers of fiction latterly has been to treat everything in a jocular point of view, as if human life were a jest, or a matter of ridicule. Whatever repre- sents vice in pleasing colours is to be avoided. As you advance from youth to manhood, you will find by experience that life is anything but a jest that while not without what is cheerful and agreeable, it is after all a serious concern, not to be grotesquely dealt with as a mere matter of jocularity. VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH. 'T'HE language employed in literary composition is evidently different in some respects from that used in ordinary conversation. In writing, care is taken to select the most appropriate words, and to avoid any inelegant form of expression. In speaking, people are not expected to use such rigorous accuracy ; an attempt to do so would look like pedantry an awkward and vain exhibition of learning which is inconsistent with good taste. Yet, in familiar conversation, nothing can excuse vulgarity, slang, or bad grammar. We may reject high-sounding phrases, but it is our duty, at least, to speak correctly and to the point. Strangely enough, few persons either write or speak the English language correctly ; numerous blunders are discovered in the works of the most popular authors Southey having the reputation of being the most correct. The principal reason assigned for deficiencies of this nature, besides heedlessness, is the want of a sound knowledge of etymology and the rules of construction. It is to be observed, however, that in numerous instances, there exists a doubt as to alleged inaccuracies of expres- sion, and it is not always safe to say a writer is incor- rect when he uses expressions not commonly received. We have an example of this doubtfulness in the using of they before the relative instead of those. Those who is now the ordinary form, but the Bible has they that, and Blair, in his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres, adheres to the same form. William Cobbett, dogmat- VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH. 269 ically, and with his usual causticity, condemns Blair for this seeming fault, copied, as he says, by Lindley Murray. ' It is truly curious that Lindley Murray should, even in the motto in the title-page of his English Grammar, have selected a sentence containing a gram- matical error ; still more curious that he should have found this sentence in Dr Blair's Lectures on Language ; and most curious of all, that this sentence should be intended to inculcate the great utility of correctness in the composing of sentences ! Here, however, are the proofs of this combination of curious circumstances : " They who are learning to compose, and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order.'" Cobbett, in the pride of a self-taught genius, triumphantly points to much more decided errors in the composition of Addison, Johnson, and other learned writers ; adding that 'there are many men, who have been at Latin schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly' an allegation unfor- tunately too true. Though disfigured by some oddities of sentiment, Cobbett's English Grammar offers, in a series of familiar letters, an exceedingly intelligible account of the construction of our language, and I venture to say, that you will learn more by its perusal than could be procured from all the other grammars in existence. Unfortunately, England possesses no authorised standard of literary expression. Grammar has exact rules, yet, from the constant misuse of certain phrases, it would almost seem as if grammars and dictionaries might safely be set at defiance. For example, the word cither, which means one of two, is now, almost 270 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. without an exception, used to signify both ; as, ' The gateway had a pillar on either side ;' the intended meaning being on each side. No doubt, in a short time, dictionaries will sanction this erroneous expres- sion; for thus, by usage, do slang words and new interpretations arbitrarily gain a footing in the language. One or two examples of slang words rising to respectability may be curious. The rabble which attended the partisans of the Earl of Shaftesbury, at the latter end of Charles II.'s reign, are said to have been first called ' mobile vulgus ; ' and the phrase being afterwards contracted into mob, that term was long used in a slang and contemptuous sense for a crowd. The word is now in Johnson. The term bore, signifying an annoying person, has scarcely yet attained the dignity of a legitimate word ; but judging from its frequent use, its elevation is not far distant. Snob, an aspiring and affected person of humble origin, is also working its way towards the dictionary. The deficiencies of our language necessitate the absorption of such casual but expressive terms ; and while con- demning the free use of slang, it must be acknowledged that to this source are traced various words representing ideas which formerly could be expressed only by some kind of circumlocution. Language, like everything in human affairs, being progressive, and liable to improve- ment, we may further observe, that as new terms and modes of expression are pressed into the service of literature, older forms of speech are dropped out of general use, and, like provincial legends, exist only in places remote from the metropolis. We can in this way account for that form of vernacular still prevailing among the humbler classes in the Lowlands of VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH. 271 Scotland, which, uncouth as it may appear in sound and orthography, bears a remarkable resemblance to the English of Chaucer and other early poets being, in fact, the language spoken at court three or four centuries ago. Whether it has been quite judicious to dismiss from general use many of the words in the Scottish, and some of the provincial dialects, admits of doubt ; for they express ideas not represented by any modern term. This, however, is not the place to discuss this philological question. We may more advantageously submit a few corrections of the more obvious blunders of speech and composition in general use, for the purpose of putting every one on his guard. He was amissing Missing. I asked at him I asked him. Almost never Seldom or never. To adduce evidence To bring evidence. The above statement may be relied on The foregoing statement. Above, being an adverb, can never be properly used as an adjective. Better ought not to be used to signify well. He is better, signifies improvement in health, not an entire recovery. He is better, should be, He is well. Quite better is very bad. Better of a. sleep Better for. Beast, only to be applied to a quadruped, and not the lower animals indiscriminately. He ate, not he eat ; as ate is the proper preterite of eat. Sir Walter Scott usually wrote eat for ate an error. Both, whether as a numeral, or as a conjunction, ought to be applied to no more than two objects or sentences. Either. As already stated, the proper meaning of this word is ' one or the other,! and is improperly employed to signify each or both. Whether. A similar remark applies to this word, which in 272 THE YOUTITS COMPANION. reality is a contraction of ' which of the either ' that is, which of two objects. Whether is too frequently applied to three objects. Couple, which simply implies the juncture of two objects, cannot properly be used in reference to separate objects. ' A couple of shillings,' for instance, is an error. The former and latter can only be used properly with respect to two objects. Neither (or not either) is only applicable to two objects. None are None is. None applies to one thing only, being a contraction of no one. Every and each, being singular ideas, ought never to be used as plurals. The error of so using them is very common. Bade is the proper preterite of bid. Bid is often used as the preterite, an error similar to that just alluded to. Lay is the proper preterite of lie. It is also the present of a verb signifying to deposit. Care ought to be taken not to use it as the present of the former verb, which is often done. Bidden, ridden, written, spoken, are the past participles of bid, ride, write, speak. We often hear people say : ' He was spoke to ; ' 'I have wrote to him ; ' ' Eclipse was rode by Jenkins.' Nothing could be more vulgarly erroneous. Drunk is the proper past participle of drink. Fastidious people have lately got into a way of saying, ' His health was drank.' Drank is the preterite, and cannot be thus used with propriety. Don't, won't, and can't, though admitted as colloquial English, are not good contractions. They could be endured, however, if people would avoid using don't in the third person singular. ' He does not ' can never be properly abbreviated into ' He don't.' Had better, had rather. These are vulgar absurdities, arising, perhaps, from the desire of brevity. ' I had rather ' must have originally been, ' I would rather,' VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH. 273 contracted into, ' I 'd rather.' There is a singularly vile Scotticism, '/ had oblige to do so and so.' It should be, I was obliged. Short- lived, long-lived, should be short -lifed, long- lifed. Then, as an adjective. 'The then Earl of Winchelsea.' It is a vicious use of the word. Quantity is often used in reference to objects susceptible of numeration. It is only applicable to an object capable of increase or decrease, not by numeration. Differ with, different to very bad. From is the only correct particle to use with differ and its derivatives. Disagree with is proper, because agree there governs, not the dis. Ignore Not to know, to be ignorant of. The word ' ignore,' which is from the French, has not been recognised as a proper English expression. It should be avoided as inelegant. Supported by subscription, which simply means by under- writing, might be improved into ' Supported by con- tribution.' Animal. It is generally supposed that this word is only applicable to quadrupeds, as beast certainly is. It is, in reality, applicable to any creature having life and breath. Without, in the sense of unless, is certainly a vulgarism. Oftener; more frequently, preferable. Men's minds, the horses' heads. Here the abbreviate of the singular his is used or implied for the plural their. The form is not good English, but usage is beginning to sanction it. Those sort of things ought to be this kind of things. Progress, as a verb an Americanism. What fault can be found with the good old English word advance ? Antiquarian is often used for antiquary. The former is the adjective ; the latter, the noun. Notwithstanding of (Sc.). The of is unnecessary. 274 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. Close the door Shut the door. Give me a drink A draught, or some drink. &>c. This abbreviation should be used sparingly, and never in grave writing. Instead of &c., it is preferable to say, ' and so forth ; ' yet, even this expression may be too frequently repeated. Viz. Not an elegant abbreviate. ' Namely' is preferable. A faint A fainting fit. I feel a smell I smell an odour. I am hopeful that I hope that. Come here Come hither. Still in life Still alive. Married on Married to. On the street In the street is preferable, when applied to a street in a town. Anciently, street was a road, and in this sense on is correct. Pled guilty (Sc.) Pleaded guilty. Than -whom. This is a vicious form of expression, which has been employed even by a respectable writer : ' Pope, than whom few men had more vanity.' Curious revelations Strange revelations. The word curious is often misapplied. It was scarce time to go Scarcely. The improper substi- tution of scarce for scarcely is common. In the works of the late Hugh Miller, the error is frequently repeated ; as, ' Scarce smaller than one's middle finger,' &c. In respect of With respect to. There were who were in expectation of, &c. There were persons who, &c. Elisions of this kind are improper. Nice. The meaning of this word is, exact or accurate in measurement or judgment It is often improperly applied, as a nice man, a nice house, a nice day, instead of a pleasant or agreeable man, &c. Would. you oblige me? The correct expression is : Will you oblige me ? They are tiresome people They are disagreeable people. VICIOUS FORMS OF SPEECH. 275 I mind that very well (6Vr.) I remember that. Just. This word signifies honest, upright, according to the principles of justice. It is frequently misused and introduced where it is not required. ' As I was just sitting down to dinner." Here and in similar examples it is unnecessary and improper. The Scotch are apt to commit this blunder. It is to be regretted that latterly much has been done to pollute the purity of our language by the free use of slang expressions in certain popular fictions. This is mentioned to put you on your guard against words merely because they occur in books. To avoid incor- rect forms of expression, continual carefulness, as well as a good knowledge of grammar, is necessary ; for, as already said, errors and inelegancies are due as much to heedlessness as to ignorance. On this subject, a passage in Boswell's Life of Dr Johnson may be usefully called to remembrance. ' Sir Joshua Reynolds once asked the doctor, by what means he had attained his extraordinary accuracy and flow of language? He told him that he had early laid it down as a fixed rule to do his best on every occasion, and in every company, to impart whatever he knew in the most forcible language he could put it in ; and that by constant practice, and never suffering any careless expressions to escape him, or attempting to deliver his thoughts without arranging them in the clearest manner, it became habitual to him.' 276 PHONOGRAPHY REPORTING. PHONOGRAPHY, or short-hand writing, is an art A with which it may be of importance for you to be acquainted. It is the method of representing spoken sounds by written signs; a whole word, in many cases, being represented by a small mark which is rapidly executed with a pen or pencil. This abbreviated method of writing is chiefly employed in reporting speeches at public meetings or in parliament, for which purpose it is of incalculable value. By experienced reporters, speeches are taken down as quickly as they are delivered, with extra- ordinary accuracy. When finished, the reports are transcribed in the ordinary hand for the press ; the reporter usually taking care to omit redundant expres- sions, and making such other corrections as appear necessary. When a condensed report of a speech is required, it is the business of the reporter to seize the points of interest and to leave out what is unim- portant. Reporting speeches in parliament for the London morning newspapers has become a regular profession, which is followed by a body of men who shew a marvellous degree of skill in furnishing copies of the debates. From the commencement till the close of the nightly sittings of the House of Commons, a staff of reporters is present; a gallery being now specially set apart for their use. While the debates are going on it is customary for one reporter to relieve another ; the one relieved proceeding to transcribe his portion for the compositors, and then hurrying back PHONOGRAPHY REPORTING. 277 to take another 'turn.' In this way the early part of a speech is sometimes in type while the speaker is yet addressing his audience. It is only by this astonishing promptitude that the publishers of the Times and other morning newspapers are able to lay the debates in parliament before their numerous readers. Some of the greatest lawyers and statesmen have been reporters in the early part of their career. Phonography is also sometimes employed by clergy- men for the facility it affords them in writing their discourses; also by barristers, in taking notes of the arguments of opposite counsel, as well as by various persons following literary pursuits. In the railway service a great many short-hand clerks are employed; and so extensive is the utility of phonography that scarcely any lawyer's office or business house of import- ance is now destitute of the services of the 'winged words.' Few there are certainly who attain the dex- terity of the newspaper reporter; but such expertness is not always required, and the various situations in life in which the art is useful point to the advisability of your acquiring it Phonography is also now extensively used in corre- spondence, and thousands of young persons, and some old ones, write to each other in short-hand, and thus save much time and all trouble as to spelling ; because by the system of Phonography conventional forms of spelling are dismissed, and every word is written according to its sound. Thus we write cough, kof; and knew, neu. The inventor of the system was so certain of its clearness, that he expected compositors would be able to set their types from the reporter's notes without transcription and indeed this has been 2 7 8 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. done in a few cases but the existing custom of tran- scription by the reporter is found to be at present convenient, though expensive. As short-hand is not usually taught at school, we give the alphabet along with examples, according to the system employed by many of the best newspaper reporters. ALPHABET. CONSONANTS. LONG VOWELS. SHORT VOWELS. \ \ P b 1 : I ! 1 ; a a ; 2 i 3 i 3 ! 3 .! i 'i l ! i 3 i 2 : 2 ! Si 3 i 3 .! \ t d ah eh ee a Z t as in as in / / ch j palm, pale, peel. pat, pet, pit. kg ~! ~ \ \ ; ~\ : V ^ / * aw oh oo S u do ( ( th th as in as in (as in thin, then) fall, foal, fool. not, nut, foot. ) ) s z The dotted lines All the vowels are J J sh zh have no signification. read before or after They are merely the consonant ac- ^ x m placed to shew the cording as they are * n positions of the placed, thus : vowels. The figures ^ ng ^ shew whether they . eat, . tea, i I (upwards) are first, second, or ^~~- aim, ^7^ may. ^ r (upwards) third place vowels. i r (down) DIPHTHONGS. V . w ei, as in time ; ^ u, as in new ; ^^ i. ^ y mu, as in now ; ay (yes) ; <^ h (up) oi, as in boy ; as in / h (down) 1 V * J L_y time, <^ new, \A voiv, ay, \ boy. PHONOGRAPHY REPORTING. 279 EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE WORDS. balm, - s~\ calm, ~^~~~ came, v_.' na y t keel, ^-V" meal, I talk, N \^" pall, foam, -r^~^ comb, \>{ boom, ^~~\ moor. It will be observed that first and second place vowels, repre- sented by a dot or a dash, are placed after the first consonant, while the third-place vowels are placed before the second consonant. In this way clear writing is insured. We thus write I L took, not L_ N pack, Vi_ peck, > -.pick, \ lock, chuck, \__i book. The rule as to the short vowels is somewhat different. A first- place vowel is (as with the long vowels) placed after the first consonant, but a second or third place vowel is placed before the second consonant, as in the foregoing examples. It should be remarked that in writing a number of consonants the pencil must not be lifted; thus, we write > s bkm (became), -^-> mmk (mimic), ^~\^Jrm (form), &c. On account of their frequent use, j and z are also represented by a circle on the right of perpendicular and downward sloping letters, on the upper side of horizontal and sloping letters, on the inside of curved letters, and on the outside of angles, thus : 6 chs, as in 6. cheese ; ks, as in -7 case; ^ rs, as in /? race. / scA, \ st, \ sp, Q sk, git. \ thl, \ ) fAr, (> tkn. j s, J zn. C/ shl (up), -^J^/(do\vn), J) shr (down), cJ shn (down). 3 z h r , mn, ^_y nn, \*J ngn. c mr, ^_s nr, ^ rn, ~~^ rn (down). Wl may also be written ^", as ^~ wail. EXAMPLES OF WORDS. *\ play, *\pray, \ pen, \able, \ bay, N^ Ben, \tray, J. den, 'P a^//,?, J- done, J chin, J gin, c-y- crow, __, ^, trg- gray, '^- offer, ^\./ree, (^either, "^-throne, k^s honour. S may precede pr, tr, kr, thus : \ spr (instead of \ ), ^ str, a skr. And s may follow the hook n after a straight letter, thus : o (instead of s) kns, \ pns, J ins, J chns. The following signs are used to represent diphthongs such as those in India, alien, &c., and take their places in the same manner as the simple vowels : wah e weh c wee c waw yah wok yeh > yoh > yoo They are written heavy for long vowels, as f* railway, and light for short vowels, as ^~ "j" India. PHONOGRAPHY REPORTING. 281 F or v, -tion and -sion, are added as follows : ^ p,tion, s~$ motion, _ 3 k,tion, &c. .F cannot, however, be added to curved letters; Vo would After the circle s, a back hook is used to express tion, &c., thus : N_ position, ^ transition, I decision. By the system of halving the consonants, t or d is added, thus : Q_ talk, [_ talked, /\ rub, A rubbed, r-j^r melted, '~\ ordered, ^ ^>/, -ja mind. A large circle is written for ss, thus : V masses, 7- dasses, j- causes ; while st and .r/r are written in the following manner : ^ fast, ^^ faster, s-^ must, /V} muster; and the plural may be added to nouns, thus : ,-= crusts, f- 3 - lists, JL~ dusters. By doubling the length of a consonant, thr, tr, or dr is added, thus : \^^ father, ^ p\ mother, f^~ letter, ~~\ ^r^-. With the space at our disposal, however, we cannot enter into a thorough exposition of the art, and we shall therefore merely indicate what remains, and refer the reader to Mr Pitman's Manual of Phonography for a 282 THE YOUTH'S COMPANION. complete exposition of the art, and to his Phonographic Reporter for the abbreviations necessary for reporting a speaker verbatim. To add com or con, a dot is used, thus : I, conduct, \^_ convey, ^s. . completion, \y comply ; while words beginning with inter, intro, &c., are written : ^Vo interview, ^v, enterprising, ^\ ^ introduction. ^ps selfsame, (o thyself, (b themselves ; ^ self-control (con understood) ; N s ^^ x accompany, -s Phrases are also frequently written by joining all the words : \. it is, ^ it is not, ^v may be, e- i| From A NEST OF GIRLS. 6/ W. & R. Chambers, Limited, London and Edinburgh. 2 BOOKS FOR PRIZES AND PRESENTATION. comes teacher of English Literature there. Winifred was wise, if only four-and-twenty, and the love she felt for her work was only equalled by the sense of responsibility she had for the impression- able girls under her charge. How she helped and influenced them for good, although she 'hurt sometimes,' comes out in the story, which is brimful of life and vivacity. The lady principal and the doings of a circle of immensely smart girls keep up the interest of this wholesome picture of girl-life. SEVEN MAIDS. By L. T. MEADE. 6/ With ten Illustrations by Percy Tarrant. ' A sweetly written and graceful story of girl-life.' Scotsman. THE ODDS AND THE EVENS. By Mrs L. T. MEADE. 6/ With ten Illustrations by Percy Tarrant. 'Full of fun and adventure. Told in the manner to interest and amuse children of any age." Birmingham Gazette. Price 55. A VERY NAUGHTY GIRL. By L. T. MEADB. 5/ With eight Illustrations by W. Rainey. All spirited maidens will follow with interest the training and development of the character of Evelyn Wynford, heiress of Castle Wynford, who, when she arrives from Tasmania at her uncle's house, which will afterwards be her own, is extremely self-conscious though clever, and is wilful, selfish, vain, and altogether unladylike. Her maid Jasper is her evil genius. As the story develops, her aunt, her cousin, and others begin to have a wholesome influence over her; then certain misdemeanours, which land her in serious trouble, humble her, and leave her much changed and truly repentant". The 'Naughty Girl' becomes transformed into a wise and comely young woman. COURAGE AND CONFLICT. A Series of Stories by G. A. HKXTY, G. MANVILLE FENN, F. T. BULLEN, FRED WHISHAW, &c. 5/ With eight Illustrations by W. Boucher. The names of the writers here are a guarantee for the sound entertainment provided in this companion volume to Dash '///y DAVID KER. 3/6 With six Illustrations by W. Fnm JERRY DODDS> MlLLIONAIRE . 8. Stacey. ' A singularly good story, calculated to encourage what is noble and manly in boys.' Athencewn. JOSIAH MASON : A BIOGRAPHY. By JOHN With Portrait and Illustrations. THACKRAY BUNCE. 3/6 W. & R. Chambers, Limited, London and Edinburgh. 16 BOOKS FOR PRIZES AND PRESENTATION. FOUR ON AN ISLAND : A Story of Adventure. 3 6 By L. T. MEADE. With six original Illustrations by W. Rainey. 'This is a very bright description of modern Crusoes.' Grap/n'c. IN THE LAND OF THE GOLDEN PLUME : a Tale of Adventure. By D. L. JOHNSTONS. With six Illustrations by W. S. Stacey. 3/6 'Most thrilling, and excellently worked out.' Graphic. THE DINGO BOYS; or, The Squatters of Wallaby Range. 3 6 By GEORGE MANVILLE EENN. With six original Illustrations by W. S. Stacey. THE CHILDREN OF WILTON CHASE. By L. T. MEADE. 3 6 With six Illustrations by Everard Hopkins. 'Both entertaining and instructive.' Spectator. THE PARADISE OF THE NORTH : A Story of Discovery and Adventure around the Pole. By D. LAWSON JOHNSTONS. 3 6 With fifteen Illustrations by W. Boucher. 'Marked by a Verne-like fertility of fancy.' Saturday Revici'-. THE RAJAH OF DAH. By GEORGE MANVILLE FENN. 3/6 With six Illustrations by W. S. Stacey. Price 35. SWEPT OUT TO SEA. By DAVID KEB, 3/ With six Illustrations by J. Ay ton Symington. ' Crowded with adventure and excitement." Black and White. THE WIZARD KING : A Story of the Last Moslem Invasion of Europe. By DAVID KEB. Illustrated by W. S. Stacey. 3/ 'This volume ought to find an army of admiring readers.' Liverpool Mercury. THE WHITE RAID OF THE ATLAS. By J. MACLAREN COBBAN. With six Illustrations by W. S. Stacey. 3/ 'A well-told tale of adventure and daring in Morocco, in which the late and the present Sultan both figure. ... A very pleasant book to read.' Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Rev it n: W.