Js / r^rw* 
 
 University of California— College of Agriculture, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 B. W. HILGARD, Director. 
 
 REPORT 
 
 CONDITION OF OLIVE CULTURE 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 BY 
 
 A. P. HAYNE 
 
 BULLETIN No. 129. 
 
 (May, 1900.) 
 
 SACRAMENTO: 
 a. j. johnston, : : : : : superintendent state printing. 
 
 1900. 
 
EEPOET 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CONDITION OF OLIVE CULTURE 
 
 IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 General Considerations. 
 
 While olives have been grown in California for over a century, it has 
 been but during the past fifteen or twenty years that the industry has 
 assumed any importance. The first plantations were made by the 
 Mission Fathers, but at the secularization of the missions, in the early 
 part of the last century, these trees were abandoned, and but few are 
 now alive. Some of the early settlers planted a few olive trees for orna- 
 mental purposes; little attention, however, was paid to olive culture 
 until about twenty years ago, when it began to assume an important 
 place in California horticulture. It had been demonstrated that the tree 
 would grow and bear fruit, but beyond this little or nothing was known. 
 
 As the ; ' Mission" variety was the only available stock, it was widely 
 planted throughout the State. Because of a doubt as to the true name 
 or value of the " Mission" olive, new varieties were imported from foreign 
 countries, and to-day almost every variety (about seventy in all) of the 
 olive-growing countries of the Old World is represented in the olive 
 groves of California. 
 
 As in the case of all new enterprises undertaken by people totally 
 ignorant of the subject, much had to be learned by experience, and 
 many failures naturally resulted. As the olives came into bearing, mar- 
 kets had to be created, for the olive thus far was a commodity compara- 
 tively unknown and unappreciated by Americans. Nor was it with 
 the olive alone that difficulty was experienced in marketing. Badly 
 organized markets led to general depression in horticulture, and much 
 uneasiness was publicly expressed. This general depression in fruit 
 culture is shown by the following resolution, passed by a unanimous vote 
 by the California Fruit-Growers' Convention, held at Riverside in 1897: 
 
 Resolved, That it is the sense of this Convention that we sound this note of warning 
 to discourage the further planting of any of the above-named [ citrus and deciduous ] 
 fruit trees and vines, until such time as some method can be devised whereby the crops 
 already being produced annually can be marketed with reasonable profit to the fruit- 
 growers of California. 
 
— 3 — 
 
 As soon as the fruit-growers combined and studied the question of 
 marketing and handling of the crops, the natural value of fruit was 
 found, and to-day there is no question as to the success of deciduous or 
 citrus fruit culture. 
 
 While success crowned the efforts of the deciduous and citrus fruit 
 grower, the olive-grower found a growing local market, which in a meas- 
 ure eased the strain. Great distress naturally followed the succession of 
 several extremely dry seasons. Besides this, the market received much 
 oil of poor quality and large quantities of unsound pickles, thereby 
 causing still more suffering. 
 
 Recently the newspapers of the State began to discuss the olive prob- 
 lem, and much interest has been manifested. The discussion was, in 
 many cases, intemperate and far too acrimonious to be of value. Many 
 irresponsible writers also took part in it, the only result being a decided 
 dropping in the market values of olive orchards. This sudden fall in 
 valuation was variously estimated to be from fifteen to fifty per cent; 
 while a grave doubt concerning the commercial value of the olive con- 
 tinued to exist in the minds of many. To such a degree had the indus- 
 try come to be distrusted that the Experiment Station detailed the 
 writer to investigate the condition of olive culture in California and the 
 causes of the depression, and to indicate the possible remedies. 
 
 In the pursuit of this investigation, the merchants of the large cities 
 of the State, as well as the growers of olives and the manufacturers of 
 oil and pickles, were interviewed. The counties of Butte, Placer, Sac- 
 ramento, San Joaquin, Merced, Fresno, Tulare, Santa Clara, Alameda, 
 Contra Costa, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, 
 San Bernardino, and Riverside were visited, and all the reported failures, 
 as well as the successful orchards, were investigated. 
 
 Summarily stated, it has been found that there is nothing in the 
 condition of olive culture in California to justify the sweeping state- 
 ments made that olive culture is a failure. On the contrary, it was 
 found that wherever trees of suitable varieties, planted on suitable soil, 
 had been given proper care, and the crops properly harvested and manu- 
 factured, olive culture was a success — certainly as marked a success as 
 in the case of any other kind of fruit culture now existing in California. 
 
 There is a good and growing demand all over the United States for 
 certain products of the olive, and the supply is at present insufficient 
 to meet the demand. Ripe pickles of standard quality bring in bulk 
 75 cents per gallon f. o. b., while good ripe olives for pickling are 
 sold on the tree at from $20 to $90 per ton. Oil olives vary in price 
 according to variety and location. 
 
 The market was found to be poorly organized, and the feverish, pan- 
 icky feeling prevailing in certain localities renders generalization mis- 
 leading. 
 
The causes of failure were found to be among the following: 
 
 Cultural Conditions. 
 Improper selection of soils. 
 Neglect of tillage and irrigation. 
 Neglect of proper pruning. 
 Neglect in fighting insect pests. 
 
 Commercial Conditions. 
 
 Competition with cottonseed oil and others sold as " olive oil." 
 Poor harvesting and manufacturing methods. 
 Selection of unsuitable varieties. 
 
 As a rule, at least three out of the above mentioned causes were found 
 to be concerned to a greater or less degree in the failures; and it was 
 found, on the other hand, that in every case where well-selected varie- 
 ties had been planted on proper soil and were properly cared for, 
 harvested, and manufactured, no serious difficulty was encountered. 
 
 During his trips among the olive orchards of the State, the writer was 
 so greatly impressed with the frequent neglect of these conditions which 
 affect success or failure in the growing and marketing of the olive, a 
 neglect due either to carelessness or lack of information on the part of 
 the grower, that he proposes in the following pages to briefly review the 
 chief points mentioned above, for the benefit of those growers who have 
 reported failure. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on these points, 
 in view of the cloud that now hangs over the olive industry, caused 
 mainly by improvident and wrong methods of culture, and of handling 
 of the tree and fruit. 
 
 CULTURAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 The Olive Requires Care. 
 
 Perhaps the most important fact brought out by the investigation was 
 that the olive tree requires as much care and attention as any other fruit 
 tree, and when it receives this on suitable land it is always a success. 
 When the industry was in its infancy the country was flooded with 
 articles written by people who knew little or nothing about olive cul- 
 ture, but who had a high appreciation of the beautiful, as well as ready 
 pens. Nurserymen who were anxious to sell trees, or real-estate owners 
 who had land for sale, wrote and distributed broadcast a mass of fiction, 
 which was all accepted as fact by the planters of olive orchards. 
 
 Improper Soils. 
 
 The first and most harmful teaching of these writers was that the 
 olive tree would grow where no other fruit tree would live. This is 
 founded on fact, but they neglected to mention the additional fact that 
 
— 5 — 
 
 while the tree would live in such locations, it would not bear profitable 
 crops. As a result of these teachings large areas that have been planted 
 in olives not only do not pay now, but never will. It is a clear conclu- 
 sion from experience that the olive appreciates a good soil, and its 
 requirements in this respect are like those of other fruit-bearing trees. 
 
 Improper Tillage and Irrigation. 
 
 The supposed immunity of the olive tree from the most common 
 requirements of culture led to the additional erroneous conclusion that 
 the olive needs little or no water, and large areas were planted in locali- 
 ties where water could neither be had from sufficient rains nor from 
 irrigation. From one end of the State to the other not a single excep- 
 tion was found to the rule that to be profitable, the olive requires water, 
 pruning, and care. It is true that an excess of water will kill the tree, 
 but this is also true of other trees. 
 
 By cultivation is meant such a breaking up and loosening or tilling 
 of the hard soil, such smoothing of the surface of a rough soil, and such 
 destruction of weeds and useless growth, that the moisture may be kept 
 in the soil and stored for the use of the plant it is desired to grow. It 
 has been asked if cultivation does not mean the exclusive use of the 
 " cultivator." While a well-cultivated orchard certainly should have the 
 " cultivator " used on it, the plow should not be abandoned — as the 
 writer has found to be the case in certain places. 
 
 Cultivation, or more properly tillage, cannot of course produce or 
 create water that does not already exist in the soil, but it tends to 
 prevent the evaporation of that already present. Hence the necessity 
 for tilling the soil at such times as the nature of the case demands. 
 In this matter common sense and judgment cannot be eliminated. 
 
 In certain parts of the State abundant rains furnish a large amount 
 of moisture that, with proper tillage, is kept in the ground and used by 
 the tree as it needs it. In others, where scanty rains prevail, the moist- 
 ure is furnished by means of irrigation, but cultivation or tillage is as 
 necessary in the one case as in the other. Cultivation cannot be made to 
 take the place of irrigation, nor the latter that of the former; they must 
 go together. As simple as this seems to be to the intelligent farmer, it 
 is nevertheless true that, owing to a misconception or disregard of this 
 truism, thousands of acres in this State are either nonproductive or are 
 rapidly becoming so. Numerous and striking examples of this are found 
 after dry years, such as the two just past. 
 
 Excessive irrigation is as injurious to the plant as under-irrigation. 
 While a certain amount of moisture is required for its existence, an 
 excess of moisture will speedily destroy plant life; moreover, it materially 
 injures the quality of all fruits. Besides, certain soils may lose much 
 of their plant-food by leaching, the water dissolving their nutritive 
 elements and carrying them downward out of reach of the plant. 
 
— 6 — 
 
 In most soils ground water is to be found always at a certain depth — 
 frequently far beyond the reach of the roots of most plants. This moist- 
 ure is drawn up to the surface of the soil by capillarity, and passes off 
 into the air. The rise of the water is greatly favored by the compact- 
 ness of the surface of the soil, as is shown by the rapidity with which 
 hard soils will dry out, while loose, well-tilled soils remain moist. The 
 more compact the soil the more powerfully will it hold and conduct 
 water. By keeping the surface of the soil well tilled we break up the 
 minute capillary tubes and make it extremely difficult for the water to 
 pass to the surface; and under this mulch of loose soil we' find moisture 
 all the year round, though the mulch itself may be very dry. 
 
 Deep plowing loosens the fourteen inches below the surface and gives 
 the first check to the evaporation of subsoil moisture; but this loose 
 layer soon becomes more compact and is then broken up by means of 
 the cultivator, which thus puts a looser layer on the first, in this way 
 imprisoning the moisture in the soil. Much moisture may be lost if the 
 clods be not broken and the ridges leveled by harrowing or dragging; 
 but even a rough surface is preferable to a hard one. Shallow, ill-timed 
 plowing and improper harrowing may give rise to both faults. 
 
 In certain sections it was found that standing water existed all the 
 year at a depth of three and one half feet, and yet two annual irrigations 
 were practiced, with little or no cultivation. In such cases drainage 
 and cultivation of the soil should certainly have taken the place of irri- 
 gation. In other sections there had not been sufficient rain during the 
 winter to furnish a supply of water, so that irrigation became necessary. 
 
 In localities where water was difficult to obtain during the summer, 
 most excellent results have been obtained, on well-drained lands, by win- 
 ter irrigation; i. e., when water was abundant, the land was flooded and 
 thus allowed to absorb as much water as would have been supplied by 
 an abundant rainfall. Wherever this was practiced the results were 
 most striking, as is shown in the accompanying photograph of winter- 
 irrigated trees at the Pomona Experiment Station (Plate I). 
 
 Those who defend their neglect of cultivation on the ground that it is 
 not necessary because the olive grows on hilltops in the Old World, 
 should understand that in " starting " those trees great care was neces- 
 sary, and that the peculiar structure of the substrata enabled them in 
 the course of years to draw a water supply from them. Aside from this, 
 the rainfall in Europe is heavier than in California, and more evenly 
 distributed. 
 
 The olive, more than any other fruit tree, is sensitive to excess of 
 water; but it must have as much as any other tree, if good, well-devel- 
 oped and matured fruit is desired. Striking examples of this were seen 
 throughout the State. Those who doubt this are advised, for economy's 
 sake, to spend a few weeks visiting the olive orchards which are profita- 
 ble, and then some of those which are not. 
 
— 7 — 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 -Effects of Winter Irrigation on Olive Trees- 
 Experiment Station, Near Pomona. 
 
 -Southern California 
 
— 8 — 
 
 Attention is called to the two photographs on this page (Plate II) 
 illustrating the effects of water on the growth of olive trees. These 
 photographs were taken on the place of Rev. J. Loop, of Pomona, and 
 represent two olive trees thirty feet apart in the same row. The trees 
 are of the same age and variety, planted the same day, and given the 
 
 same care, excepting that No. 1 had constantly abundant water, while 
 No. 2 .had not. The difference shown in the size and vigor of the trees 
 is equaled by that of the crops. No. 1 yielded regular, abundant crops, 
 while No. 2 scarcely ever yielded more than a handful of small olives. 
 This example of the effect of water is but one of very many found 
 throughout the State. 
 
— 9 ~ 
 
 One of the striking illustrations of the effects of water is shown in 
 Plate III, which is the photograph of trees at the University Experiment 
 Station near Pomona. The tree shown was almost breaking down with 
 fruit. The same was noted at the McEwen orchard (formerly the How- 
 land orchard), where irrigation has been rationally practiced, together 
 
 PLATE III.— Effects of Proper Irrigation on the Olive— Southern 
 California Experiment Station, Near Pomona. 
 
 with proper cultivation and pruning. On a part of the Southern Cali- 
 fornia Experiment Station, where winter irrigation had not been prac- 
 ticed, there was little or no growth in 1899. 
 
 The best example of the effects of natural irrigation was found on the 
 1200-acre orchard of the California Olive-Growers' Association, at Sari 
 
— 10 — 
 
 Fernando. This is situated in an apparently dry desert land, but is 
 sub-irrigated by drainage from the mountains. The trees in 1899 were 
 not irrigated, yet the growth was in many cases over ten feet. 
 
 In San Diego, Riverside, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Fresno, San Joa- 
 quin, Sacramento, Butte, and other counties the same observation was 
 found to be true; although in many places the effects of irrigation were 
 nullified by improper cultivation, or by disease. 
 
 Need of Proper Pruning. 
 
 Another false idea extensively held and carried into practice is that 
 the olive needs no pruning. There is perhaps no tree known that 
 requires more constant and systematic pruning than the olive. What- 
 ever the form of the tree may be or the system employed, it remains true 
 that pruning must not be neglected. The olive is very generally believed 
 to be a tree that yields but irregularly. This, while but too commonly 
 true in practice, is not as a rule a necessary fault. In all cases observed, 
 not only in California, but in other countries of the world, the tree has 
 been found to be as regular a bearer as any known fruit tree; provided 
 that it has received proper care and attention and is not the victim of 
 accident, such as a hot wind occurring when the tree has a heavy crop 
 of blossoms. 
 
 As the tree does not bear on the young growth of the year, a system 
 of pruning can easily be adopted that will render it seemingly most 
 erratic in its behavior. It is, in a large measure, due to improper prun- 
 ing, or the absence of pruning, that this widespread idea concerning the 
 irregularity of the olive crop has come to be accepted. 
 
 In but a few orchards of the State was proper pruning of the olive tree 
 found; indeed, as a rule the trees were allowed to grow with no guidance 
 whatsoever; wherever rational pruning was practiced, regular crops were 
 found to be the invariable result. The pernicious teaching that " the 
 olive tree requires no pruning/'" is responsible for much of the actual 
 loss both of crop and in useless expense in harvesting. Low-pruned 
 trees with an actual bearing surface equal to that of trees which have 
 been allowed to grow more in the shape of tall oaks than fruit trees, 
 were harvested for a cent or cent and a half less per pound than in the 
 case of the high-pruned trees. In the one case a small stepladder, eight 
 feet high, was used for the top picking; while in the other, ladders forty- 
 five feet high had to be used. Where any considerable quantity of olives 
 are to be picked, the saving made by the use of a system of low-pruned 
 trees is too obvious for further discussion. 
 
 Objects to be Attained by Pruning. — Olive trees are pruned for the 
 following purposes: 
 
 (a) To give proper form to the tree in order to facilitate cultivation 
 and harvesting. 
 
— 11 — 
 
 (b) To get rid oi all useless wood and replace it with wood that pro- 
 duces fruit. Each twig should have its excuse for existing; and if it is 
 useless it should be mercilessly suppressed. 
 
 (c) To insure a regular crop of large and uniform fruit. 
 
 The olive tree, it must be remembered, bears fruit only on wood of the 
 preceding year and never twice in the same place. It will, however, bear 
 on the prolongation of the fruit branch. 
 
 The tendency of the olive tree, with but few exceptions, is to give 
 most of its vigor to tall, vertical wood branches. If left to itself, the 
 greater part of the tree's energy is devoted to producing these. Now, as 
 soon as the branches are deflected from the vertical they become capable 
 of bearing fruit. The more they leave the vertical and the more they 
 hang down, the more feeble they become, but at the same time the greater 
 is their productiveness up to the point of becoming too feeble to make 
 growth or furnish sufficient sap for the nourishment of the fruit; they 
 then become " bark-bound," generally diseased, and slowly perish. 
 
 The problem before the pruner, then, is to so regulate the number and 
 kind of branches on the tree that only a sufficient number of wood 
 branches are left to shape the tree or to subsequently furnish a place for 
 fruit branches. He must keep constantly in mind the fact that nature 
 in its wise regulations of plant life has so ruled that all plants, when 
 they become feeble or when death is imminent, will tend to reproduce their 
 kind by bearing abundant crops of seeds, for nature cares not for the size 
 of the fruit. The seed inclosed by the flesh is what is provided for. It 
 is left for man so to regulate the tree by pruning, bending, and deflecting 
 the branches that the tree becomes slightly weakened; then so to direct 
 and control the sap supply that these seeds may be clothed with abundant 
 flesh. Hence it is that no hard-and-fast rules for pruning can be laid 
 down. The factor of judgment or common sense cannot be eliminated 
 from the problem; the pruner should learn to read the requirements of 
 each tree as though it were a printed page. One tree may need to be 
 severely cut, while another may need but a little pinching-back with 
 the fingers. On one tree all efforts should be bent toward the production 
 of wood branches in order to renew the vigor of the tree, it being kept 
 constantly in mind that the root growth varies directly as the wood and 
 leaf growth, and that a feeble tree can be revived by severe pruning for 
 wood branches, while a too vigorous tree may be checked by cutting out 
 or deflecting the vertical wood branches and converting them into fruit 
 branches. 
 
 Just as in the case of the human body diseased or broken members 
 will affect the entire organism, so it is with trees. All diseased, too 
 feeble, dead or dying branches will uselessly enfeeble the tree; and they 
 are not only worthless of themselves, but they occupy the space that 
 could be occupied by branches that would yield some return. 
 
12 
 
13 — 
 
— 14 - 
 
 When to Prune. — There is a trite saying among the peasants of Europe 
 concerning the time of the year to prune olive trees that may well be 
 taken as a good answer, viz: " Whenever the knife is sharp" Of course, 
 the most convenient time is immediately after the harvest, for at that 
 time none of the crop is lost. With young trees two or more light 
 annual prunings should be resorted to, and even trees with heavy crops 
 can be economically pruned by pinching back the too vigorous shoots 
 and thus saving a great waste of energy. 
 
 Very severe pruning is only in very few cases to be recommended, 
 more especially with young trees. Plate IV illustrates how trees may be 
 stunted when young by irrational pruning. The photograph shows some 
 large and some small trees on the place of George C. Roeding at Fresno, 
 who has probably the best-pruned orchard in the State. These trees are 
 of the same age and same variety, and were planted the same day. 
 The smaller ones were pruned by a new man, who was stopped after 
 having pruned but a few trees. The wisdom of dispensing with the 
 services of such an "expert pruner" is obvious. 
 
 While low-pruning generally gives better results, there are cases where 
 it is distinctly inferior to high-pruning. In low ground where frosts are 
 to be feared, low-pruning is not advisable. 
 
 It is certain that air and light are necessary for the healthy growth of 
 an olive tree. It is also certain that an excess of exposure (especially 
 in hot localities) is not to be recommended. Great care should be 
 taken to shield the trunks of young trees from the hot afternoon sun. 
 
 It must also be borne in mind, when it becomes necessary to cut away 
 a large branch or smaller ones on the main trunk of the tree, that too 
 close cutting is bad practice. No branch should ever be cut away closer 
 to the main stem than the natural " shoulder." Under ordinary circum- 
 stances, but more especially where high winds prevail, the top should be 
 well cut back, which, with the necessity of keeping the center of the tree 
 open to the air and light, will naturally give the tree a vase shape. This 
 will be somewhat concealed by the fruit branches which hang downward 
 and the tree will assume the appearance of a sphere, as is shown in 
 the pruned and unpruned trees in Plate V. Low-pruning also greatly 
 facilitates the operation of pruning, as well as of picking. 
 
 Great care should be exercised in changing one form to another, if 
 that is desired. Too severe cutting-away is very liable either to kill the 
 tree outright, or to stunt and enfeeble it to such an extent as to render 
 it worthless. This is especially true in the case of grafting old trees. 
 The shock is in many cases too much for the tree to withstand. 
 
 Whatever be the system employed, one thing must not be slighted; 
 and that is, that as the olive only bears on one-year-old wood, the pruner 
 must prune regularly so as to have a constant supply of such wood on 
 hand so that he may get a regular crop of blossoms. 
 
— 15 — 
 
 Loss of Crop from Failure to " Set." 
 
 In many cases great loss has resulted from the failure of the fruit to 
 " set." Many very interesting cases of this trouble were found. 
 
 It is claimed by many eminent authorities that the olive should be 
 cross-pollinated. While it is true that there have been many experi- 
 ments reported which would seem to give some color to this apparent 
 lack of self-fertility, yet the writer is not at all prepared to admit that 
 it is a necessity, but only an occasional help, owing to some accident. 
 In the first place, botanically the olive blossom is " perfect," or self- 
 fertilizing. Isolated trees separated by mountain ranges bear regularly 
 and set as much fruit as is good for any vigorous tree to bear. Whole 
 blocks of almost all of the known varieties produce regular crops, though 
 miles away from any other variety. Then again, if there were anything 
 in the theory of cross-pollination it would be noted that where two 
 blocks of varieties touch, the trees nearest each other would set their 
 fruit better than those on the farther sides of the blocks. This, how- 
 ever, is not the case. 
 
 Cross-pOllination is perfectly harmless to experiment with, and in 
 some cases where there is malformation of the blossom, due to excess of 
 vigor or to weakness, etc., it does good. 
 
 Probably the most practical remedy thus far found for failure to "set" 
 is to keep a dozen stands of bees in each twenty acres of trees during the 
 blossoming period. This has been tried in many cases and has proved 
 to be inexpensive as well as effective. 
 
 It is to be noted, however, that when, at blossoming time, there arises 
 one of the dry winds — "northers" — the chances of getting any kind of 
 fruit to "set" are few indeed, for the wind dries up the delicate organs 
 of the blossom and renders fertilization impossible. 
 
 Diseases. 
 
 The diseases of the olive tree can be divided into two classes: those 
 that attack the tree itself, and those that attack the fruit. Among the 
 former, the commonest and most troublesome thus far found in Califor- 
 nia is the Black Scale (Lecanium oleae), with its accompanying fungus 
 the Black Smut (Meliola sp.). It is, however, true that other scale 
 insects are occasionally found on the olive tree. The scale not only 
 sucks the sap of the tree, but when young and migrating, excretes the 
 "honey-dew," which at once becomes the home of the fungus known as 
 the " black smut." In few cases do these diseases cause the death of 
 the tree. Ordinarily they only check its growth and vigor to such an 
 extent that (in severe cases) no crop or wood growth is produced. 
 
 The scale insects and resulting diseases are found most frequently 
 along the coast, in the foggy regions. These diseases, viz: the scale and 
 the smut, can be kept so far in check as to do no practical damage to 
 
— 16 — 
 
 the tree. The means thus far employed are the use of washes and 
 fumigation; in some districts the Australian ladybirds have been found 
 •effectual in checking the disease. There is a decided conflict of opinion 
 among olive-growers as to the relative merits of these remedies for com- 
 bating the above-named diseases. The writer had occasion to see most 
 striking instances of the efficacy of both of these methods, and on the 
 other hand as many, fully as striking, of the failure of each. There 
 would seem to be an intervention of local conditions which render it 
 more difficult in some cases to successfully apply these remedies than in 
 others. Thus the subject is not sufficiently well studied at present to 
 render it advisable for the writer to definitely recommend the exclusive 
 use of either. 
 
 Olive Knot. — The only other disease that would seem to be of any real 
 danger to the tree is the olive knot. This appears as woody tumors on 
 the leaves, branches, and stems (particularly on the small stems) of 
 the olive tree of all ages. It is confined to the warmer localities, and 
 especially to hot, over-moist soils. The size of the tumors on the 
 leaves varies from that of a pinhead to that of a pea. 
 
 This disease is caused by a certain species of bacterium which com- 
 mences to grow just under the bark and leaves in the interior of the 
 tumor it produces. It is carried from tree to tree by pruning instru- 
 ments, also probably by insects. It will only attack trees which are 
 vigorous and full of sap. The varieties which are most valuable for 
 their fruit (that is, those removed from the wild type) are the most 
 subject to attack. This disease has been found in California, but in such 
 isolated localities that it is not to be greatly feared at present. How- 
 ever, great care should be exercised in the introduction of nursery stock 
 from infected districts. The writer believes that the prompt action of 
 the County Horticultural Commissioners and olive-growers in the 
 infected districts has successfully eradicated this disease from the State. 
 This, however, cannot be stated positively at present. 
 
 Diseases of the Fruit. — Aside from the diseases of the olive tree above 
 mentioned, the investigation brought out the fact that certain varieties 
 of olives grown in California are subject to diseases which render them 
 unfit for use. This trouble was first noted in California in 1897, and has 
 since spread all over the State. So far as the writer is able to judge, 
 these diseases are not known in other olive-growing countries of the world; 
 hence the previous recommendation of certain varieties grown in Europe 
 and elsewhere (which was made by the writer and by the most distin- 
 guished oiive experts of the State) will have to be modified, as the pres- 
 ence of these diseases alone in many cases is sufficient to render many 
 of them unprofitable. 
 
 Described in a general way, the trouble is a dry rot of the fruit, which 
 
— 17 — 
 
 attacks it just as the drupe has or is beginning to mature or change 
 color. This decay of the flesh tissues manifests itself in three ways: 
 
 (a) It starts at the blossom end and works toward the stem end of 
 the drupe, finally causing it to fall to the ground or dry out on the tree. 
 
 (b) The decomposition of the flesh cells and the destruction of their 
 contents is first noted at the pit itself, from which point it works out- 
 ward until it reaches the skin. 
 
 (c) The decomposition seems to start at the outer surface of the drupe 
 in small isolated spots, from which it works inward until it reaches the 
 pit. These markings resemble the wound made by a fine needle pierc- 
 ing the olive (generally at an angle)., the decay taking place along the 
 path thus made. There is no trace of the skin having been broken, 
 though in some cases the irregular coloring at the external end of the 
 path is noted. 
 
 It is claimed by some that in some cases large fleshy olives, such as 
 the Sevillano, Picholine, etc., are affected by these diseases. Investiga- 
 tion, however, convinced the writer that the decay referred to was the 
 natural decay observed in the case of all overripe fleshy fruits, which 
 should not be confused with the three " dry rots " above described. 
 
 These diseases seem to be restricted to certain varieties. While no 
 names have thus far been given to the various kinds of dry rot above 
 described, they may be distinguished by the names of the varieties of 
 olives upon which they were first noted and are most commonly found; 
 thus, 
 
 (a) (the one that starts at the blossom end) was first noted on the 
 Nevadillo Blanco, though it also occurs on the Rubra and Pleureur de 
 Grasse. 
 
 (b) This was first noted on the Manzanillo, but it is also found on the 
 Obliza and on some of the large fleshy olives. 
 
 (c) This form is found thus far only on the Columbella. 
 
 During the three months of investigation, the writer never once failed 
 to find these diseases on the varieties above named. From Oroville to 
 the Mexican frontier not a single Nevadillo Blanco, Manzanillo, Pleu- 
 reur de Grasse, Obliza, or Columbella was found that did not show the 
 disease to a greater or less extent. In one orchard over ninety per cent 
 of the crop was destroyed, though the olives had scarcely turned color; 
 the trees were Pleureur de Grasse, which usually has at least two hundred 
 and fifty pounds of fruit to the tree. In certain cases of isolated trees 
 the rot was found. 
 
 The resident agent of the United States Department of Agriculture has 
 taken the matter up and is testing certain washes from which good 
 results are hoped for. 
 
 The Olive Fly (Dacus olese), which is causing such havoc in Italy and 
 southern France, has not thus far reached this country. 
 2— b!29 
 
— 18 - 
 COMMERCIAL CONDITIONS. 
 
 Demand for Olive Oil. — The greatest difficulty seems to be found in 
 disposing of California olive oil at remunerative prices. While there are 
 some oil-makers who, after years of patient and expensive struggle, have 
 created a paying market, the majority seem to lose money on oil-making 
 and are very much discouraged. While they themselves are, in many 
 cases, chiefly to blame for putting on the market rancid or poorly made 
 oil, it is equally true that even some of the best oil is with difficulty sold 
 on account of the competition with cottonseed oil. The cottonseed oil 
 is not sold as such, but when flavored with some genuine oil, either as 
 " Pure California Olive Oil," " Pure Olive Oil," " Pure Lucca Table Oil," 
 " Pure Sweet Oil," " Salad Oil," or some such designation whereby the 
 public is deceived. It is beyond dispute that the public has the inten- 
 tion of purchasing "olive oil" when they are buying "salad oil" or 
 "sweet oil," and it is equally true that shameful deceptions are 
 practiced. The olive-oil maker has absolutely no protection from the 
 unscrupulous seller of cottonseed oil. Olive oil cannot be made profit- 
 able unless the grower can receive 75 cents per quart for his product, for 
 it costs him almost that to manufacture it. On the other hand, cottonseed 
 oil can be sold at a large profit at 10 cents per quart. Aside, then, from 
 the imperfect methods that in many instances prevail, there is at present 
 but a small demand for the high-priced olive oil of even some well-known 
 grower who has earned a reputation for honesty. The peculiar value of 
 olive oil for medicinal and hygienic uses has been established for cen- 
 turies the world over and is daily becoming more esteemed. To say the 
 least, nothing is known concerning the medicinal properties of cottonseed 
 oil. 
 
 In passing, it must be noted that those who would buy olive oil are too 
 often so anxious to save a few cents that they materially assist the fraud- 
 ulent dealers in cottonseed oil, under its various disguises, by attempting 
 to buy for 25 cents what costs 40 cents to manufacture. Those who have 
 created a market for pure high-priced oil, sell it all; but there are unfortu- 
 nately few such. Mr. Ellwood Cooper sold every gallon of his oil last 
 year at his own price; but it took him twenty years and a great deal of 
 money to be able to do so. There are oil-makers in Oroville and Au- 
 burn, and in Contra Costa, Santa Clara, San Diego, and other counties, 
 who have succeeded in making oil profitable in the same way. 
 
 The cost of oil machinery, and the necessity of creating a market in 
 the face of the difficulties just mentioned, should deter those with small 
 capital from going into olive planting with the idea of making oil for 
 profit. 
 
 The danger of competition from cheap foreign olive oils is not consid- 
 erable. The real danger arises from these cheap olive oils losing their 
 identity in eighty or ninety per cent of cottonseed oil, which is either 
 
— 19 — 
 
 mixed with it on arriving in the United States, or in such famous places 
 as Nice, Marseilles, Lucca, Leghorn, etc. The writer in 1893 called atten- 
 tion to the extensive use of cottonseed oil as an adulterant in both 
 export and domestic foreign oils. While the imputation has been very 
 vigorously resented by the Chamber of Commerce of Nice and a few 
 others, it is nevertheless true that this practice has increased and is in- 
 creasing rapidly. The writer has seen it practiced in foreign countries. 
 Those who believe that all foreign oils are pure, are recommended to read 
 the protests of the Nice oil-makers (made in 1889-92 to the Chamber of 
 Deputies at Paris) against the shameful adulteration of olive oil with 
 cottonseed oil. It would seem that in late years the grower has given up 
 protesting and gracefully mixes cotton seed with his olive oil at his oil 
 mill or elsewhere. 
 
 There is no objection on the part of olive-growers to the use of cotton- 
 seed oil, if sold as such, and not labeled " olive oil, " or with some de- 
 ceiving mark whereby the would-be purchaser of olive oil buys chiefly 
 the product of the cotton-gin. 
 
 Until some national law is passed which will protect the olive-grower 
 just as the butter-maker was protected by the " oleomargarin " law, the 
 olive-oil producer cannot be generally successful. 
 
 Demand for Pickled Olives. — There is a large and growing demand for 
 olives in the form of ripe pickles. The merchants all over the State tes- 
 tified to the growing demand for ripe pickled olives and stated that for 
 large ripe olives, if sound, they would pay 75 cents per gallon f. o. b. and 
 lower prices for smaller grades. Some paid as high as $1.50 per gallon 
 for the ripe pickles. The demand from the East is very large, and is 
 growing more and more persistent. Some of the successful growers now 
 dispose of their entire crops in Eastern markets at highly remunerative 
 rates. The only complaint heard from the wholesale and retail mer- 
 chants concerning the pickled-olive industry was that they found it 
 impossible to secure a sufficient quantity of sound, well-keeping olives to 
 supply their customers. 
 
 There is a ready market for standard size green pickles, as well as for 
 ripe pickles. 
 
 Olives should be grown for pickling, and pickles should be relied upon 
 to yield the profit; while the smaller olives (just as valuable for oil- 
 making) can be disposed of to the oil-maker, and thus no inconsiderable 
 sum can be realized from small fruit, which should be regarded as a by- 
 product only, except in cases where the grower has a mill of his own. • 
 
 In all that has preceded it has been assumed that the manufacturer 
 of olive oil, or pickles, knows his business and puts upon the market 
 only a sound, well-manufactured article. Unfortunately this is not 
 generally the case, and because of this much loss has resulted. No man- 
 
— • 20 — 
 
 ufacturer of furniture can hope for success if he uses rotten wood, neither 
 can any one hope to make sound pickles or oil out of bruised or decayed 
 olives; yet such practice was found in almost all parts of the State. 
 
 Unsound olives are not only worthless in themselves, but contaminate 
 and destroy the value of the rest of the crop. 
 
 Self-evident as this may seem, yet it is the most important cause of 
 failure (when failure was noted) among the olive-growers of the State. It 
 would not be so much to be regretted if the harm was done to the indi- 
 vidual maker of unsound oil or pickles; but unfortunately it greatly 
 injures the reputation of all California olive products, and does injury 
 that is more dangerous and far reaching in its effects than the mere 
 bankruptcy of one olive-grower. 
 
 PICKLING THE OLIVE. 
 
 In many cases brought to our attention either by consumers, merchants, 
 or growers, much doubt was expressed concerning the possibility of pre- 
 serving ripe olives so that they would keep sufficiently well to be shipped 
 and consumed at a reasonable time after putting up. Many persons 
 went so far as to maintain that a ripe olive could not be kept sound and 
 edible for more than three months. This is a grave error. Ripe properly 
 pickled olives can be kept for three years without any material deteriora- 
 tion in quality. The writer has had occasion to prove this many times in 
 past years, as well as during the progress of the present investigation. 
 In cases where the olives spoiled within a few months, the blame inva- 
 riably lay with those who picked and pickled the olives, seldom with the 
 merchant or consumer. 
 
 It should be understood once for all that the market will not tolerate 
 unsound pickles. It is idle for any one to claim that he cannot pickle 
 his olives so that they will keep in marketable condition for a year or 
 more. The fact remains that very many do succeed in so doing, and if 
 others do not, they should learn how. Otherwise it is probably best for 
 the industry that they should take up some other line of work. 
 
 The causes of failure are known and avoidable. The only essential in 
 the process is care and exactness. No careless person can ever hope to 
 succeed. Failure simply means that there has been carelessness during 
 the process. 
 
 The process of pickling ripe olives seems so very simple at first glance 
 that the grower frequently works carelessly. The common belief seems 
 to be that there is an invariable rule by which all olives can be treated; 
 that the element of common sense can be eliminated from the problem; 
 and that the slipshod procedure commonly called "more-or-less method" 
 can be practiced with impunity. It is to show the erroneousness of this 
 idea that this article is written. So many complicating circumstances 
 enter into the problem, requiring the exercise of so much close observa- 
 
— 21 — 
 
 tion and judgment, that ali the Experiment Station can do is to indicate 
 the general lines of procedure, and warn the beginner against common 
 errors. No hard-and-fast prescription can be given that will lead to suc- 
 cess in more than a few cases. 
 
 Objects to be Attained in Pickling. — The two great objects to be attained 
 by the process of pickling are: First, to remove (measurably) the 
 ''bitterness," or more properly tartness, of the fruit, and make it agree- 
 able to the taste; second, to preserve it so that it can be used at some 
 future time without the loss of any of its good qualities. 
 
 Bitterness. — The olive contains a considerable amount of vegetable acids 
 and an acrid substance called " olivil." It is a mistake to attribute the 
 "bitterness" of the olive to tannic acid. While there is a considerable 
 quantity of tannin in the fruit, it is not this that causes the trouble. 
 Olivil has been little studied in this connection by chemists; but we know 
 that it is readily soluble in water, and can be neutralized by soda and 
 potash, or dissolved out by pure water. 
 
 The quantity of this acrid principle varies according to the soil and 
 climate, and to the state of maturity and variety of the olive, and even 
 from season to season, other things being equal. It is owing to this fact, 
 i. e., variation of the degree of acridity, that we are unable to make hard- 
 and-fast rules that will fit all cases. It is certain, however, that we 
 must never sacrifice the keeping qualities of the olive to the mere re- 
 moval of the "bitterness." It is better to have a slightly tart pickle 
 than one that is perfectly neutral in taste. It is pretty well established 
 by long experience that "tart" pickles will keep better than the neutral 
 ones. In fact, neutral pickles seldom are fit for food after a few months, 
 and the market for them is extremely limited. 
 
 This naturally brings up the question of the amount of " bitterness " 
 that should be left in the pickle. The public taste is not at all uniform 
 in this regard — some desiring olives to be perfectly neutral in taste, 
 while others will not be satisfied unless there is a very decided tartness 
 remaining. As the taste for pickled olives is to a certain degree a culti- 
 vated one, it would seem wise to set the standard from the first so that 
 all ripe pickled olives shall have a perceptible amount of tartness 
 remaining, as this is not only healthful, but conduces to the keeping 
 qualities of the pickle. 
 
 The acrid principle is in solution in the juice of the olive, which is 
 evenly distributed throughout the flesh cells. It can be removed either 
 by the action of pure water, or by the combined action of lye and water. 
 In either case the water, or the lye and water, act by " diffusion. " The 
 water alone acts upon the uncombined acid and acrid principles very 
 slowly, on account of the compactness of the cells of the skin and flesh, 
 as well as the very slight difference in the specific gravity of the two. 
 
— 22 — 
 
 When lye is used, the potash or soda, or both together, attack the skin 
 as well as the flesh cells, and render them both more porous. They also 
 neutralize the acids and acrid principles and, combining, render diffu- 
 sion more rapid. 
 
 It is owing to the compactness of these skin and flesh cells that in 
 many portions of the State slits are made in the olive so as to render it less 
 difficult for the water to reach the acrid principles. While this slitting 
 certainly hastens the process very considerably, it diminishes to a great 
 extent the attractiveness and keeping qualities of the fruit. Even slit 
 olives generally require soaking in pure water (changed twice daily) for 
 a period of from twenty-one to thirty days, according to the season and 
 variety. 
 
 The great danger in the use of "lye," more especially of soda, is that 
 it is used so strong, or for so long a time, that the tissues of the fruit are 
 unduly softened and disintegrated, thus making it a fertile field for the 
 growth of innumerable micro-organisms, which, in developing, rapidly 
 cause the fruit to become unfit for use. Aside from this softening 
 effect, strong lye will saponify a certain amount of the oil in the olive, 
 thus taking awaj^ a certain proportion of its nourishing value. This loss 
 was found by Mr. Colby, of this Station, to be about three per cent of the 
 entire oil-contents. 
 
 Preservation from Fungous and Bacterial Growths. — A " spoilt " olive 
 is merely one that has been decomposed by bacteria and other micro- 
 organisms, which as a rule are harmless to the human system, yet are 
 none the less fatal to the taste and structure of the olive. It is almost 
 impossible to preserve a soft olive without the use of strong antiseptics — 
 a practice that cannot be recommended. It is for this reason that such 
 great stress is always laid on the importance of never bruising the fruit, 
 either during the picking or handling of the crop, or in the subsequent 
 treatment or handling. 
 
 Frozen olives are practically such as have been thoroughly bruised. 
 The water of the juice, in freezing, expands and thus tears the minute 
 flesh cells (resembling miniature honey-comb cells), rendering the entire 
 olive a mass of wreckage. The presence of a few soft (bruised or frozen) 
 olives, acting as a breeding-place for numberless micro-organisms, in a 
 short time infects the rest with disease, and speedily brings about the 
 ruin of the entire vat or barrel. Moulds or fungi are, as a rule, not as 
 dangerous as the smaller bacteria. These dangerous micro-organisms 
 are, in fact, plants, and the bruising of the fruit in which they grow is 
 equivalent to the plowing and harrowing of moist rich land, which, in a 
 perfectly firm, hard, dry state, would not permit any plant to grow 
 thereon. 
 
 Those who think that too much stress is laid upon this subject, should 
 
— 23 — 
 
 learn that the bruising of olives alone is the cause of an annual loss of 
 hundreds of thousands of dollars to the State. 
 
 Most of the fungi develop at the surface of the liquid in which the olives 
 are being treated or preserved, and there is little danger if the latter be 
 well covered with liquid and the floating cover be kept well cleansed. 
 If the floating mould be allowed to sink to the lower strata of the liquid* 
 the germs do not die; but their attacks are less to be feared than those of 
 the bacteria. The reason is that fungi are, as a rule, dependent upon 
 oxygen of the air for their proper development, while most bacteria are not. 
 Examination of numerous samples of olives that have been badly pickled 
 or that have "gone wrong" during or after the process of curing, showed 
 that the liquid in which the olives were kept was full of all kinds of algae, 
 inactive mycelia of fungi that had been submerged, and more especially 
 a great number of putrid ferments (Bacterium termo, et al.). In some the 
 lactic and butyric ferments predominated, giving the whole a character- 
 istic odor and taste. 
 
 When once a package of olives has become infested with these micro- 
 organisms, it impossible to restore the original flavor. It is then of 
 little use to resort to the use of antiseptics, for the original flavor of the 
 olive will have been changed or destroyed; foreign flavors will have 
 gained such a firm foothold that it would do very little good to resort to 
 the use of agents that are more or less dangerous to the human system 
 and can at best but stop further development of bacteria, etc., without 
 correcting the taste. 
 
 In preserving olives we must, then, bend all our energies to prevent 
 the germination and development of these disease germs. One of the 
 most practical methods is the use of only pure water, and never to allow 
 this to stand long enough to become sufficiently impregnated with the 
 juices that it may nourish the organisms that cause the destruction of 
 the olive if they have time to germinate therein. 
 
 At ordinary temperatures, and in nutritive media, the bacteria will 
 develop in twenty-four hours. Hence by using only pure water and 
 changing this at least twice in twenty-four hours, little danger need 
 be feared, for by the time the water has become charged with nutritive 
 substances and is capable of developing germs so far as to injure the 
 olives, it is drawn off and gives place to a new supply of pure water. 
 The floating cover will measurably protect the vat from accumulat- 
 ing a new crop of germs. Canal water, creek water, water that has 
 passed over decayed vegetable matter, or water that comes from tanks 
 or reservoirs in which it has stood a long time exposed to the sun and 
 air, must not be used. The best water for pickling purposes is distilled 
 water. This can be readily had in the vicinity of steam engines, by 
 merely condensing the waste steam. In the absence of condensed steam 
 or boiled w T ater, any fresh, pure water may be used. 
 
— 24 — 
 
 The scum that forms at the edges of the vats at the water line, or on 
 the floating cover, should be removed, and the sides scrubbed and scalded 
 whenever this scum appears. This is most important. 
 
 It is also highly important that the olives, from the time they are picked 
 to the time they are consumed, should be kept at as low a temperature as 
 possible. It must be remembered that the higher the temperature of the 
 brine or water in which the olives are kept, the smaller the chance of 
 making a sound pickle, or of keeping it. Too many instances were noted 
 where the olives, after picking and pickling, were kept in hot warehouses, 
 or exposed to the direct rays of the sun. Pickles should be exposed to 
 the light as little as possible, and above all, partly cured olives should 
 not be exposed to the action of the air and light for any length of time. 
 
 Many who pickle olives attempt to deepen the color of the olive by 
 exposing it to the action of the air. This is a practice in no case to be 
 recommended. While it is true that the color is affected, yet instead of 
 blackening the olive it browns it, while it is certain to diminish the 
 keeping qualities of the pickle. 
 
 Effects of Salt. — The foregoing remarks apply to the pure water used 
 during the various " soakings " that the olives undergo during their 
 preparation. When salt is added to the water it is to accomplish a two- 
 fold object: First, it causes the pores of the skin and tissues of the flesh 
 to shrink, thus rendering the whole flesh firmer. The various "soakings" 
 in lye or fresh water during the preparatory operations cause the tissues 
 of the olive to relax, and one object of the salt is to harden the flesh. 
 This is a matter of the greatest importance for the subsequent welfare of 
 the pickle. If, however, the salt be applied in large amounts at once, the 
 contraction of the tissue is too. rapid and uneven, causing the olive to 
 " shrivel" or crease. In order to obviate this difficulty the salt is added 
 in small doses, progressively. 
 
 The second object attained by the use of salt in the brine is to prevent 
 the germination and growth of the ever-present bacterial germs, salt 
 being a mild antiseptic. It is not, however, powerful enough to kill 
 either the bacteria or their germs, or, indeed, to prevent growth and 
 germination in all cases. It is merely a very unfavorable medium for 
 these micro-organisms, as is shown by the fact that if a very strong brine 
 be put on olives that are already far gone with bacteria, these latter will, 
 nevertheless, continue to develop and finally spoil the whole. The anti- 
 septic power of salt is, however, sufficient to preserve sound olives for 
 a comparatively long time. 
 
 Besides these two important offices of salt there is another, viz: that 
 of imparting to the flesh a salty or " pickle " taste. Vinegar, spices, etc., 
 are sometimes added to the preserving liquid to give an agreeable flavor. 
 The use of vinegar in salt brine is objectionable on account of the 
 taste it imparts, which is not agreeable to many persons; it also tends to 
 soften the pickle. 
 
— 25 — 
 
 Use of Caustic Solutions. — There is an error frequently committed in 
 the use of lye which should receive mention at the very outset. It is, 
 that even when lye of the proper prescribed strength is used, the amount 
 of the solution employed for a given measure of olives is often exces- 
 sive, and the injury thus done may be as great as if too strong a solution 
 had been used. It should be understood in all cases that the prescrip- 
 tion as to time and strength of solution applies to the use of just enough 
 to cover the fruit and the floating cover that keeps it submerged. On no 
 other basis can any prescription or practice be made sufficiently 
 definite. Simple and obvious as this may seem, it was found to be the 
 cause of failure in many parts of the State. 
 
 Since, in the process of extraction, the solution tends to become of un- 
 equal density and concentration in its different portions, it is customary 
 to pump or draw off the lye from the bottom and put it on the top of 
 the tank or vat repeatedly, in order that the density may be equalized 
 throughout the mass and the effect thus rendered uniform. If this be 
 not carefully attended to it will be found that some of the olives have 
 been too much attacked by the lye, while others remain bitter; moreover, 
 the upper layer of fruit will be found to be spotted, and the keeping 
 qualities injured. In no case should the circulation of the lye solution be 
 brought about by rolling the barrels, as was observed in some places. 
 If a wooden paddle or stick be used, care should be taken not to agitate 
 the lye and olives too violently, for bruising will invariably result. 
 
 Use of Boiled Water. — Another fact worth remembering in the handling 
 of olives is that the boiling of water kills all germs and expels all the air 
 that has been absorbed. Ordinary water will absorb a considerable 
 quantity of air, which is richer in oxygen than the atmospheric air we 
 breathe. This is important, for oxygen is, as a general rule, favorable 
 to the development of most micro-organisms. As the chief problem is 
 to prevent this development in the liquids in which the olives are treated 
 or preserved, this gives us a clew to the value of the use of boiled water. 
 Boiling kills the germs present and expels the oxygen, and thus for a 
 short time renders very difficult the development of any new germs that 
 may fall into the liquid. Too much importance cannot be attached to 
 the use of boiled or pure water. This also accentuates the necessity for 
 changing the water frequently in order to prevent the re-absorption of 
 oxygen, as well as its re-infection by new germs. 
 
 Grading. — It has been found in all branches of fruit culture that it 
 pays well to grade the crop. Those who will consult the consumer will 
 find that the neglect of proper grading is one of the severest counts against 
 California fruit. It has been found that, over and above the cost of 
 grading, far more money can be made by grading a crop than by selling 
 it ungraded. This is now recognized by all successful fruit-growers; 
 
— 26 — 
 
 only those who are unsuccessful oppose grading. The olive requires 
 fully as much grading as any other fruit. Not only is it graded for 
 size, but the most successful picklers grade for color also. At first the 
 writer was of the opinion that grading for color was too expensive for 
 profit. After having studied the question, he has changed his mind, 
 and now recommends to all who pickle ripe olives to grade not only for 
 size but for color also. 
 
 The grading should be done before the olive has been treated in any 
 way; in other words, just as it comes from the tree. There are various 
 kinds of machines adapted for this purpose; but the best the writer has 
 seen is the "cherry grader," placed over vats or buckets partly filled 
 with water. This machine seems less liable to bruise the fruit than 
 some of the others. The machine can only grade for size, however ; for 
 color-grading, women and children are employed. As has been stated, 
 those who have made the best success at pickling are unanimous in 
 recommending grading for color. The reason for this is twofold: 
 
 First — The market pays better prices for olives of a uniform color. 
 
 Second — There is less liability of having unsound fruit resulting from 
 the pickling process. Color is approximately a criterion of ripeness, 
 and hence there is much less danger from spoiling when the fruit is 
 uniformly ripe. 
 
 It is well known that the pickling process must be varied according 
 to the state of maturity of the olive. After the crop has been graded in 
 size all pickling grades are sent to the pickle vat, while the small, 
 undersized, or underripe olives are sold to the oil-maker. It is best to 
 dry those olives destined for sale or shipment to the oil manufacturer. 
 This can be done by exposing them to heat — natural or artificial — in 
 thin layers, never more than an inch and a half in thickness. In the 
 best establishments the drying or evaporation is done in ordinary fruit- 
 driers with artificial heat, care being taken that the temperature never 
 passes 120° F. Any sort of a contrivance for the evaporation of the olive 
 can be made. Those using a current of warm, dry air are the best. 
 
 Olives destined for oil-making, especially if long-distance shipments 
 are necessary, are dried so as to lose fifty per cent of their weight. Care- 
 ful note should be made of this loss of weight by the producer, and 
 prices regulated accordingly. Much dissatisfaction was found in parts 
 of the State because some buyers offered the same price for dried olives 
 as for fresh. For oil-making purposes the dried olives are just as valua- 
 ble as the fresh, and less labor is necessary in handling them. 
 
 Preliminary Handling and Selection. 
 
 State of Maturity. — The first thing, then, is to determine the proper 
 state of maturity for pickles. This is reached as soon as the oil has 
 completely formed in the drupe. If the olive is pickled before it has 
 formed its oil, it will be hard, indigestible, and largely devoid of the 
 
— 27 — 
 
 nourishment and flavor that make the ripe pickled olive so highly 
 esteemed. If, on the other hand, the fruit is allowed to remain on the 
 tree after the oil has completely formed, the flesh becomes soft and the 
 keeping qualities are impaired. Even for oil-making, " overripe" olives 
 are inferior to those gathered at the true state of maturity, for the 
 quality of the oil deteriorates as excessive "ripeness" increases, though 
 the quantity of oil remains the same. Nothing, then, is gained by 
 delaying the harvest after the olive has reached its full " oil richness," 
 which is the chief quality a ripe pickle should possess. In hot climates 
 the color of the olive at this state of maturity will be lighter than in 
 colder climates; hence, the color alone cannot be relied upon to furnish 
 us with a sure guide to the determination of maturity. 
 
 It is true that the market prefers an olive that is perfectly black, 
 notwithstanding the fact that such fruit is not only inferior in taste, 
 but generally unsound or liable to become so much sooner (other things 
 being equal) than an olive picked at an earlier stage of maturity. 
 
 When the drupe changes color and feels slightly soft to the touch, and 
 when, upon pressing the juice and allowing it to stand, some minute 
 globules of oil rise to the surface, it may be said that the olive is ready 
 to be picked for either oil or pickles. At this time the oil is not only of 
 a better chemical composition and possesses a finer flavor than later, but 
 the liability to bruise and to consequent decay is far less. 
 
 Handling the Olives. — In the case of olives destined to be made into 
 oil, bruising is conducive to the growth of fungi that ruin the good 
 qualities of the oil. In the case of pickles fungi not only ruin the taste, 
 but decompose the flesh and render the growth of bacteria a certainty 
 as soon as the olives are put into liquid. Hence, for pickles the great- 
 est care should be taken to avoid bruising the fruit. The neglect of this 
 was found to be the most general cause of all the failures investigated. After 
 careful investigation and personal experience, the writer has no hesita- 
 tion in saying that while there are other causes of failure, yet the bruis- 
 ing of the fruit is by far the most common one in olive pickling. So 
 important is this, that it is the custom with the best operators to pick 
 olives into buckets half filled with water. In pouring them from the 
 buckets or bags, the workmen use barrels, into which they pour the 
 crop as fast as the picking buckets are filled; these barrels are half full 
 of water " to break the fall." Letting an olive fall from the top of an 
 ordinary barrel and allowing it to strike the hard bottom with full force 
 will bruise the soundest, and thus invite disaster, for the chances of 
 making a marketable pickle out of a bruised olive are so slight as to be 
 out of the question. 
 
 Varieties of Olives. — It is to be noted in this connection that some 
 varieties require more care in handling and preserving than others. In- 
 deed, there are some, such as the Sevillano, Ascolano, St. Agostino, Cucco, 
 
— 28 — 
 
 Polymorpha, Macrocarpa, Obliza, and in fact all of the very large fleshy 
 olives, that are so delicate that they are used almost entirely for green 
 pickles only. It is true that when it is possible to properly pickle these 
 large varieties when ripe, a delicious article of food is secured. The 
 writer deems success in this case so remote that no one is advised to 
 attempt its achievement, except on a small scale. These large olives 
 frequently show the "dry rot" as soon as they have changed color. 
 
 It is a mistake to suppose that there is any one variety known as the 
 " Queen " olive. This is a term used to designate any very large olive. 
 It originated with the Sevillano, or olive of Seville, the Ascolano, or olive 
 of Ascoli, and several of the very large olives sold in the market as 
 green pickles. While the value of these varieties for green pickles is 
 great, it is to be observed that they are essentially hot-country olives, 
 and should not be planted in the colder regions. 
 
 The large fleshy olives being fit only for green pickles, let us glance 
 at those fit for ripe pickles. 
 
 First comes the large Mission; due stress is laid upon the adjective, 
 for it must be remembered that there are several kinds of " Missions," 
 some large and some small. Those who have the small-fruited Missions 
 are recommended to graft or bud them over with the larger varieties. 
 The Mission has been used in America for establishing the standard for 
 ripe pickles; hence it is more marketable — whatever be its other quali- 
 ties. Certain it is that the market will have no variety which is smaller 
 than the Mission. Aside from its size, it is to be recommended on account 
 of the firmness of its flesh. It will stand more rough treatment than 
 any other variety known to the writer. 
 
 As the chief difficulty is to put up an olive which is unbruised and 
 firm, the value of the Mission is obvious. Not once, in going over the 
 olive orchards of the State, did the writer see or hear of the Mission 
 being attacked by the dry rot just described, even when in an advanced 
 state of maturity. It bears as regularly as any other variety — Uvaria 
 and Redding Picholine excepted. The chief fault would seem to be that 
 it ripens late, which in localities subject to November frosts is certainly 
 a drawback. With high pruning in such localities most of the danger 
 from this source can be obviated. It seems to be especially well adapted 
 to California soil and climate, aside from its qualities, which make it 
 sought for by the market. 
 
 Some years ago the writer recommended the Manzanillo, Obliza, and 
 Nevadillo Blanco as varieties well adapted for ripe pickles. After care- 
 ful investigation of the orchards of the State it becomes his unpleasant 
 duty to say that he was mistaken. While these varieties do make most 
 delicious pickles, yet the dry rot above described seems to attack them 
 to such a degree that it is impossible to depend on them as a regular 
 source of income. When the recommendation was made nothing was 
 known of the " dry rot," but the past four years have demonstrated that 
 
— 29 — 
 
 these varieties are peculiarly susceptible to this disease, and hence the 
 only recourse now is to bud or graft them over, as they make excellent 
 stocks. The day may come when the vegetable-pathology laboratory 
 will discover some means of controlling the disease; but as nothing 
 has been accomplished in this direction during the past four years, it 
 would seem wise to change them into some variety which is not affected 
 by it. 
 
 The Manzanillo and Obliza are at best much more delicate and softer 
 in flesh than the Mission, thus requiring more care in handling; while 
 the Nevadillo Blanco is somewhat under the standard size required by 
 the market. If these varieties were picked when lemon-yellow or wine- 
 red and used for oil, they could be made valuable, as the disease does 
 not manifest itself, as a rule, at this stage of maturity, and what are 
 generally known as "underripe" olives make a higher grade of oil than 
 if allowed to reach a more advanced state of maturity; it being under- 
 stood that more pressure and grinding are required to express the oil 
 from "underripe" flesh than from "overripe," soft flesh. 
 
 The Uvaria, while a heavy bearer, cannot be recommended for mar- 
 ketable pickles, as the ratio of pit to flesh is not that which would 
 recommend it to the market. It has too much pit and too little flesh 
 for its size. 
 
 The Rubra and Pleureur de Grasse, while most excellent oil varieties, 
 are subject to the rot to a certain extent, though not so much as the 
 Manzanillo, etc. They are too small for the market when pickled, but 
 make a delicious olive when pickled ripe for domestic consumption. 
 
 The Redding Picholine is fit only for a grafting stock, in spite of its 
 heavy crops. It makes an inferior, greasy oil, and is far too small for 
 pickling purposes. 
 
 The Columbella is too delicate for pickling; is subject to rot, and 
 drops its crop to such an extent that it ceases to be profitable. 
 
 The Oblonga makes good oil, but when pickled shrinks to such a 
 degree that the pit ratio becomes so large that there is left but a small 
 amount of leathery flesh. 
 
 The other varieties are not grown to any great extent in California, 
 and are to be classed according to size as oil or pickle varieties. The 
 price paid by oil-makers does not seem to warrant keeping small varie- 
 ties, when more profit can be made from them by budding or grafting 
 into the Mission or its equivalent in size and hardiness. No one should 
 dig out olive trees of inferior variety, as they make good stocks and can 
 be converted into desirable varieties at small expense and with but 
 slight loss of time. 
 
 Color of the Olive. — Thus far most of the ripe pickled olives that have 
 been sold on the market have been Missions that have been allowed to 
 become jet black; hence, the idea has gone abroad that all ripe pickles 
 
— 30 
 
 should be jet black. That this is an error has been sufficiently demon- 
 strated. Some olives are naturally light in color, and even the same 
 variety varies greatly in this respect, owing to climatic and soil differ- 
 ences. The only requisite of a ripe pickled olive is that it should con- 
 tain its full natural oil-percentage; for no market in the world will 
 tolerate a soft olive, and any market will soon become educated to the 
 use of sound ripe olives, regardless of color. 
 
 The manner of preserving the olive also has a great deal to do with 
 the final color of the pickle. A fruit that has been preserved by the 
 lye process has far less color than one that has been u water cured." 
 Soda will extract far more of the coloring matter than potash; hence, the 
 best practitioners use only potash on this account, as well as from the 
 fact that it softens the flesh less than does soda. While the actual color 
 makes no difference in the eating value of the pickle, it must be kept 
 in mind that uniformity of color is, for the purchaser, a very important 
 consideration, aside from the fact just mentioned that it is impossible to 
 secure a uniform taste, flavor, and firmness unless the color be uniform. 
 
 To Extract the " Bitterness." 
 
 Pure Water Process. — The oldest, and perhaps the best known, method 
 of extracting the tartness from the olive is by simply soaking it in pure 
 water until all the excess of such substances has been extracted. This 
 process, though seemingly very simple, frequently turns out disastrously. 
 It certainly requires as much care and attention as any other known 
 process. The chief drawback would seem to arise from the difficulty of 
 procuring a continued supply of perfectly pure water; and the slightest 
 carelessness in changing the water twice a day will spoil the entire lot, 
 by allowing the dangerous micro-organisms to gain a foothold, not 
 merely in the water itself, but in the flesh of the olive. 
 
 One of the causes of failure in this case may be attributed to the use 
 of water that is of too high temperature; thus not only greatly favoring 
 the growth and development of bacteria, fungi, etc., but also relaxing 
 the flesh tissues of the olive and rendering their attacks more successful. 
 In far too many cases the pickle vats or barrels are located in extremely hot 
 places, not only during the curing process, but also after the pickle was 
 ready for sale. It must be kept in mind that there is fully as much 
 reason for keeping olives from heat, air, and light as there is for keeping 
 meat, fruit, or milk from such influences. 
 
 The water must be pure, cool, and fresh. Canal water is especially 
 dangerous. The practice of keeping the olives in a running stream of 
 water during the soaking is a bad one, for sound pickles rarely result, 
 owing to a slime or scum forming on the surface of the fruit itself and 
 thus greatly facilitating the growth of the micro-organisms which spoil 
 the fruit. It would seem that by drawing the water off rapidly at reg- 
 
— 31 — 
 
 ular intervals the surfaces of the olives are cleansed or "rinsed," so that 
 less danger results. 
 
 The size or shape of the vat or vessel used is immaterial, except that 
 in no case should the mass of olives be more than thirty inches deep; if 
 deeper, the bottom layers become bruised from the pressure from the top. 
 
 A false bottom which will enable the impurities and sediments to be 
 constantly drawn off is advisable. A floating cover, which will keep 
 constantly submerged the olives floating in the liquid, is a necessity; 
 besides this, a cloth or covering of some sort should be kept over the top 
 of the whole. 
 
 It is immaterial what material the vat or vessels be made of, provided 
 that there are no strong tastes (such as from pine, redwood, etc.) that can 
 be communicated. Stone jars are to be highly recommended. 
 
 In some parts of the State the olives are slit, thus greatly shortening 
 the duration of the soaking by bringing the flesh of the olive in more 
 immediate contact with the water. 
 
 The number of incisions vary from one to four. They should be quite 
 shallow, however. One of the commonest contrivances for producing 
 these incisions is to bore an auger hole in a table and place around the 
 edges sharp blades of steel, and pass the olives through the hole by hand, 
 Olives thus treated can be cured by the water process in about twenty 
 days, but are neither as attractive to the eye nor are they so apt to re- 
 main sound after being cured as those in which no incisions are made. 
 
 Ordinarily the extraction process with pure water and unslit olives 
 lasts from thirty-five to sixty days. The water in all cases of soaking 
 should be changed once each twelve hours. Though some have occasion- 
 ally had success with but one change in each twenty-four hours, yet 
 such successes should be considered as accidental. Once a week the whole 
 vat should be well rinsed by repeated filling and drawing off the water in 
 quick succession. The length of this fresh-water soaking varies greatlv 
 according to the tartness and toughness of the olive. After the first 
 twenty days the unslit fruit should be tasted every day, and when the 
 proper amount of tartness has been extracted the fruit should be put 
 into a salt brine containing four ounces of good salt to the gallon of water. 
 
 Much has been written on this subject, but the fact remains that any 
 salt may be used that is free from impurities which may discolor the 
 olive or impart to it a foreign taste. All salt brines should be boiled and 
 applied cold, after skimming. 
 
 Brine should not be applied at full strength after the tartness has been 
 extracted, but progressively, beginning with 4 ounces of salt per gallon, 
 followed by 8 or 10 ounces per gallon, and finally a brine of 14 to 16 
 ounces of salt per gallon, according to the destination of the olive. If 
 for immediate consumption, then 14 ounces is ample; if for long ship- 
 ment or keeping for a year or more, then even more than 16 ounces could 
 
— 32 — 
 
 be used. If the consumer finds the olives too salty they can be readily 
 freshened by a few hours' soaking in fresh water. The stronger the 
 brine the less chance there is of failure to keep well. If the brine at full 
 strength be used at once the olive will shrink unevenly and "wrinkle"; 
 thus taking away much from the market value. 
 
 The use of distilled or boiled water cannot be too highly recommended. 
 Whenever, either during the soakings with fresh water or during the 
 life of the pickle in brine, a scum should be noted on the edge of the 
 vessel, a careful rinsing should follow. The use of caustic soda cannot 
 be too highly recommended in keeping vats, etc., clean; thus removing 
 the wood taste or other foreign flavors. 
 
 The main drawback to the use of the water process is that few pick- 
 lers seem to have the patience to keep constantly changing the water or 
 cleaning the vats. Women as a rule are better than men for successful 
 pickling. Indeed, they seem to realize more fully that the pickling 
 process requires as much exercise of common sense and close attention 
 as cooking, and hence their success. 
 
 Lye Process. — The process of extracting the tartness from the flesh of 
 the olive can be greatly shortened by the use of lye before soaking in 
 fresh water. It is maintained, however, by some of the best prac- 
 titioners that a few days' soaking in fresh water before the lye is used 
 (changing it every twelve hours) aids greatly in preserving the color of 
 the fruit and will cause a clingstone to become a freestone after the lye 
 has been applied. The lye method requires fully as much care as the 
 water process, but as the time is very greatly reduced one must devote his 
 entire time to the work and not allow himself to be called away from 
 the immediate supervision of the pickling vats. 
 
 One of the first precautions in using the lye process is to determine the 
 strength of the material used. The "concentrated lyes" sold on the mar- 
 ket are either soda or potash, but most of these are impure. It makes no 
 difference what the brand may be, a statement on the label should show 
 if the " concentrated lye " be potash or soda, and in what quantities. A ny 
 brand which guarantees 98 per cent of pure soda or potash can be taken. 
 Unguaranteed lyes will be found to vary from 10 to 99 per cent purity. 
 Thus far "Greenbank " lye has been found to be the most common in use, 
 for the simple reason that it marks on the label the exact strength and 
 nature. Potash 98 per cent pure should be insisted on. In calculat- 
 ing the strength of the solution when the lye is 98 per cent pure it may 
 be regarded as 100 per cent pure, unless very large quantities are used. 
 Soda is too caustic and too much of a decolorizer to be recommended. 
 
 The amount of lye used varies from one ounce to four ounces to th 
 gallon of water, preferably two ounces. 
 
 The olives should be covered with this solution, which should be kept 
 in constant circulation, for four hours, more or less, according to the 
 
— 33 — 
 
 strength of the lye used; then the iye should be drawn off at four hours, 
 and the olives immediately well rinsed. 
 
 The olives should be tasted constantly to determine how far the lye 
 has penetrated. In no case should it be allowed to penetrate to the pit. 
 A. slight greenish discoloration marks the line of penetration. Allowing 
 the lye to penetrate about half way from the skin to the pit is in most 
 cases sufficient. It must be kept in mind that if too much or too strong 
 a lye has entered the flesh of the olive almost all of its flavor will have 
 been removed, and the keeping qualities so greatly impaired that there 
 will be but slight chance of making a marketable pickle. If it is found 
 that there still remains an excess of acridity in the treated olive it can 
 always be removed by subsequent treatments. In some cases two or 
 even three lye treatments are necessary on refractory olives. Always 
 err on the side of an excess of "bitterness" than the reverse. 
 
 Prof. Hilgard recommends for soft fruit the use of salt in the lye 
 solution, not more than four ounces to the gallon. 
 
 Mr. B. M. Lelong recommends the use of lime after the lye is drawn 
 off. He uses four ounces of lime to the gallon of water, and allows the 
 olives to remain in this solution five or six hours. 
 
 The writer makes no recommendation; though no possible harm can 
 result from either, and some claim favorable results from both of these 
 processes. 
 
 After the lye has penetrated into the flesh, and the olive has or has 
 not been limed to fix the coloring matter as just described, there 
 remains still an important process to begone through, i. e., the extraction 
 of the lye from the olive. This lye, either pure or in a combined state, 
 must be gotten rid of before the olive is fit for consumption. This is 
 accomplished by soaking the olives in fresh water, and changing it at 
 least twice a day. There can be no safe limit given for the duration of 
 this soaking; taste alone must be relied on. The flesh of the olive is 
 relaxed and soft from previous treatments, and the greatest care must 
 be exercised lest it spoil before the salt brine has been added. 
 
 When the lye has been removed, the olive is ready to be "firmed" by 
 the use of salt, and kept in a preservative liquid. At first a brine (boiled) 
 containing five ounces of salt to the gallon must be used and allowed 
 to stand not more than two days. Then replace this first brine with 
 another (boiled) containing from six to eight ounces of salt to the gal- 
 lon, and allow it to stand five or six days. After this, another brine 
 (boiled), containing eight to ten ounces of salt per gallon of water, 
 and leave a couple of weeks, when the final brine can be used. This 
 brine should be carefully boiled, strained, and cooled. If the olives 
 are for immediate consumption fourteen ounces of salt per gallon 
 is sufficient; if for a long shipment, sixteen to eighteen ounces of salt 
 may be used. During the entire process the olives must be kept in as 
 3— b!29 
 
— 34 — 
 
 cool a place as possible. After they are in the final brine they should 
 be at once removed to the coolest place possible. Those who live in 
 localities where it is very hot in summer are strongly advised to send 
 their olives to some cool locality. Whenever the brine becomes cloudy 
 it should be at once removed, and the olives thoroughly rinsed and a 
 new brine put on. 
 
 The use of alum is not recommended, though it acts as a good "firmer " 
 as well as an antiseptic. It is freely used by some, but alum is con- 
 demned by physicians as unwholesome. 
 
 A. P. HAYNE. 
 
 To the above recommendations on the subject of pickling I would add, 
 from my personal experience, the following points: 
 
 (1) The stronger the lye used in extracting the tartness of the olive, 
 the more the flesh is softened and the more difficult it will be to make 
 the pickle keep. Moreover, the stronger the lye, and therefore the 
 shorter the time of extraction, the greater the liability to its being over- 
 done or underdone. It is far better, by repeatedly using a weak lye, 
 say not exceeding two ounces per gallon, to prolong the time of extrac- 
 tion, and thus to be able to gauge exactly and leisurely the right moment 
 for stopping the process. I should never expect any fruit extracted 
 within four or five hours to keep beyond six months. As many days 
 will be found to be a wiser economy in the end, the weak lye being 
 removed as often as may be found necessary by its becoming saturated 
 with the "tartness." This is easily determined by its ceasing to feel 
 " soapy" between the fingers. This test is also useful in case an impure 
 " concentrated lye " has been used. 
 
 (2) The use of salt brine is advisable at any time when the fruit 
 appears to be softening too much, which may readily happen, especially 
 in the case of that which has been grown on low or over-irrigated ground, 
 where it becomes pulpy and large. Such fruit can be firmed, and prop- 
 erly reduced in size, and made to keep, by the timely use of brine of 
 properly graduated strength. This use need not be deferred until after 
 the lye has been washed out; the salt nowise interferes with its action. 
 I consider close attention to this point of extreme importance in respect 
 to the keeping qualities of ripe-pickled olives; and it is readily seen that 
 here again the use of good judgment and close observation is of the 
 utmost importance, and that no routine prescription will answer. 
 
 (3) Different varieties of olives must never be treated together. 
 When one is done just right another will be found overdone or under- 
 done. The same consideration applies to fruit of greatly different sizes. 
 No uniformity of texture, flavor, or color can be expected when different 
 varieties and sizes are pickled together. pAT)n