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A RESTOEATION OF \ 
 
 THE MAUSOLEUM AT i 
 
 HALICARNASSUS I 
 
A RESTORATION OF 
 
 THE MAUSOLEUM AT 
 
 HALICARNASSUS 
 
 BY 
 
 J. J. STEVENSON, F.S.A. 
 
 LONDON: B. T. BATSFOED 
 
 94 HIGH HOLBOKN 
 1909 
 
KiA- 
 
 w>r' 
 
This paper was originally read before the Society of 
 Antiquaries of London on May 7th, 1896, and was pub- 
 lished in The Builder of August 27th of the same year. 
 To meet some of the criticisms it received, Mr. Stevenson 
 subsequently amended his design in certain details. He 
 had determined to republish the paper, and though at his 
 death in May 1908 the manuscript still awaited final 
 revision, it is now issued in the hope that it may prove 
 of interest. 
 
 The frontispiece, from a water-colour drawing made by 
 Mr. E. J. Lambert under Mr. Stevenson's direction, is 
 reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the British 
 Museum, to whom the drawing has been presented. 
 
 as 6 
 
A RESTORATION OF THE MAUSOLEUM AT 
 HALICARNASSUS 
 
 Pliny's description of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus — 
 the tomb which Artemisia his wife (and sister) built for 
 Mausolus, King of Caria — has been to architects and 
 archgeologists what the discovery of the North Pole has 
 been to sailors and geographers — a problem which suc- 
 cessive generations have tried to solve.^ 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren tried his hand by reproducing Wren's 
 the building from Pliny's description and other notices Restoration 
 of it which existed. For every trace of it had disap- 
 peared — overthrown, no doubt, by an earthquake, the 
 remains serving for centuries as a quarry. His son, in 
 the ' Parentalia,' gives a description of the design, but 
 adds, ' The plate of the above is omitted on account of 
 the drawing being unfinished.' 
 
 ' The sepulchre of Mausolus,' Wren says, * is so well 
 described by Pliny '^ that I have attempted to design it 
 accordingly, and also very open, conformable to the de- 
 ficription in Martial : — 
 
 " Aere vacuo pendentia mausolea," 
 
 and yet not wanting the solidity of the Doric order. The 
 architects living before the time of Alexander, which was 
 
 ^ A list of restorations is given in the official handbook to ' The Mausoleum 
 and Sculptures of Halicarnassus and Priene,' in the British Museum, by A. H. 
 Smith, MA., 1900. 
 
 2 Pliny's description will be found on pp. 11, 12. 
 
6 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 before the Ionic order was first in use, I conclude this 
 work must be the exactest form of the Doric' 
 
 Wren bases liis design on the proportions of the Doric 
 order. The lowest part consists of columns, with statues 
 seven feet high on the cornice ; on the sixteen inner 
 columns rose the pteron, consisting of a pedestal twenty 
 feet high, pilasters of twenty-four feet with a cornice of 
 six feet, and a stone covering of twenty-four feet, the 
 steps being twelve inches high and six inches 'saile.' 
 * I have omitted,' he says, ' the triglyphs in the frieze, 
 which I take to be the only place for the inscription, 
 and monuments never were without.' . . . 
 
 ' There might be round upon the first order twenty 
 statues, sixteen more below upon the solids in niches, and 
 twelve in niches of the pteron, in all forty-eight, each 
 statuary taking twelve.' 
 
 Hawksmoor's Hawksmoor, Wren's pupil, in his church of St. George, 
 
 Restoration Bloomsbury, built about 1750, reproduced what he thought 
 
 was the pyramid of the Mausoleum, in its steeple rising 
 
 in steep steps, supporting on its apex George ii. as 
 
 St. George instead of the chariot of Mausolus.^ 
 
 The height to the top of the statue is one hundred 
 and forty-six feet, which, if he took a larger foot than 
 ours, like the Roman foot, might represent Pliny's one 
 hundred and forty feet for the height ; and it has twenty - 
 four steps, as Pliny says the Mausoleum had, but of various 
 heights. The statue is fairly seen, even in the atmosphere 
 of Bloomsbury ; in the pure air of Caria every detail of 
 the quadriga which crowned it would be clearly visible. 
 
 * Street had this church to restore ; he removed the galleries inside as incon- 
 sistent with what a Christian church should be, though they were an essential 
 part of the architecture, and substituted some ugly draperies at the corner of the 
 steeple below the statue for some quaint sculpturey, including the Lion and 
 Unicorn. 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICAKNASSUS 7 
 
 Professor Cockerell designed a restoration in which Cockerell's 
 the thirty-six columns were arranged two deep around a Restoration 
 central cella. After the discovery of the remains he 
 modified it in some respects, but not sufficiently to make 
 them part of his design. It is beautiful and interesting, 
 the work of one who, like no other, knew Greek Archi- 
 tecture, practical and stable ; but the remains of the build- 
 ing which we possess prove it impossible. The roof is a 
 steep pyramid like some roofs of tombs represented on 
 ancient coins, but we know from the remains its pitch 
 was low ; it is higher than Pliny's measurements allow, 
 though it has only twenty steps instead of twenty-four. 
 His angle columns are square, not circular, as we know 
 they were from a corner capital we have. It has an attic 
 above the order for which Pliny gives no authority, and 
 it hardly professes to embody his measurements. For 
 this and other reasons, however excellent as a design, it 
 cannot be accepted as a restoration of the Mausoleum. 
 
 Cockerell's design, as regards the arrangement of the Lloyd and 
 thirty-six columns, which Pliny says surrounded the build- Falkner's 
 ing, was adopted and modified by Watkiss Lloyd (Archaeo- 
 logische Zeitung, iii. 81), and by Edward Falkner, in 1851 
 (Museum of Classical Antiquities, i. 157). In their design, 
 as in Professor Cockerell's, the columns forming the pteron 
 are arranged in two rows round a small central cella, 
 measuring twenty-two feet outside and fourteen feet 
 inside, which supports the quadriga. 
 
 In the year 1857 Sir Charles Newton obtained per- Pullan and 
 mission from the Sultan to search for and remove the Newton's 
 remains of the Mausoleum. A small warship was lent him estoration 
 for the purpose, and these remains are now in the 
 Mausoleum Room at the British Museum. 
 
 In his account of the discovery he adopted as its 
 
8 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 probable restoration a design suggested first by Lieutenant 
 Smith, and carried out by Mr. Pullan, who accompanied 
 the expedition as engineer and architect respectively. 
 
 The ' motive ' of this design is the size of the steps of 
 the pyramidal roof. These are so flat and low that it 
 requires a much larger building for twenty-four of them 
 (the number Pliny says there were) to cover than Cockerell, 
 taking Pliny's dimensions for the size of the building, 
 had supposed. 
 
 To get in these twenty-four steps the base from which 
 they rise must be widened ; so Pullan and Newton make 
 the central chamber the ' pteron,' putting the thirty-six 
 columns in a single row outside it. They take Pliny's 
 statement that the entire circuit of the building was four 
 hundred and eleven feet for the base of the pteron, with a 
 solid central chamber of the size Pliny says — sixty-three 
 feet on the sides and shorter on the fronts — and to get his 
 total height of one hundred and forty feet mount it on a 
 solid basement about sixty-five feet high. Such a structure 
 has certainly not Martial's characteristics of airy openness, 
 ' hanging in empty air/ 
 
 Fergusson's Fergusson, to whom all students of architecture are 
 
 Eestoration indebted for the important service he has rendered in his 
 History of Architecture, rejecting Newton's restoration, 
 makes one of his own in an essay published in 1862 — *The 
 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with 
 the recently discovered remains.' He discusses the written 
 authorities and the remains in the Museum, and gives plates 
 of a suggested restoration founded on a scheme of ratios. 
 It was inevitable that Mr. Fergusson should try his 
 hand at it, and perhaps it was also inevitable that he 
 should advise how, in one respect, the architects might 
 have made it better than we know from the remainfe 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 9 
 
 in the Museum that they did. ' As I first restored the 
 building,' he says, ' I placed a square anta in the angles 
 with pilasters on each face, as are found in the angles of 
 the Erechtheum at Athens. I had overlooked the fact 
 that a capital was found with an angular volute, which 
 settles the question, but I still think that, architecturally, 
 the square pier arrangement would have been the best.' 
 
 ' After \rying several others,' he says, ' the solution 
 appears to me to lie with the hypothesis that the angle 
 columns were coupled, or, in other words, half an inter- 
 columniation (five feet three inches) apart from centre to 
 centre.' 
 
 * Should it be asked if there are any other examples of 
 this arrangement the answer must probably be that there 
 are not, but there is also no other building which from its 
 design would so much require strengthening at the angles.' 
 Fergusson's design is on the same lines as Smith's and 
 Pullan's, with the thirty-six columns in a single row, a 
 column in the centre of each front, contrary to Greek 
 practice, but the lower story open, divided by square 
 columns, instead of a solid wall ; and for the meta a low 
 pedestal on which the quadriga rests, as in Newton's 
 restoration of the Lion tomb at Cnidos. 
 
 It is an original design of his own, and it has somehow 
 a singularly modern look, suggesting a Town Hall with 
 the municipal offices on the ground -floor, rather than a 
 tomb. It does not carry conviction, and has not, I think, 
 been accepted as the solution of the problem. 
 
 The late Mr. Edmund Oldfield contributed to the Oldfield's 
 Society of Antiquaries a restoration of the Mausoleum in Restoration 
 their papers on June 15th and 22nd, 1893, and June 21st, 
 1894, which are printed with illustrations in the fourth 
 volume of the second series of Archceologia. 
 
10 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 In these he has collected all the accounts of the 
 Mausoleum and the reference to it in old writers, discuss- 
 ing the various readings and emendations of the texts, 
 and he gives drawings and descriptions of previous restora- 
 tions and of other ancient tombs which may have resembled 
 the Mausoleum and may give hints for its restoration. 
 
 He founds one main part of his restoration on a word 
 in Pliny's description, where, after mentioning the four 
 sculptors of the frieze, Pliny continues : — * Accessit et 
 quintus artifex ' — there came in also a fifth artist — ' namque 
 supra pteron pyramis altitudine inferiorem aequavit viginti 
 quatuor gradibus in metae cacumen se contrahens,' which 
 he translates, 'For above the pteron a pyramid equalled 
 the lower pyramid in height,' not ' aequat,' he observes, 
 'in the present tense, like the rest of the sentence, but 
 "aequavit" in the praeterite.' That means, he says, this 
 fifth artist ' found the roof a complete pyramid of twenty- 
 four steps, pointed like a meta ; but he wished to crown it 
 with a quadriga, and this could not be placed on a meta's 
 point. He therefore, as I believe, truncated the pyramid 
 sufficiently to make a platform for his quadriga. Hence- 
 forth the pyramid no longer equalled in height the pyramid 
 in the lower part of the building, and no longer had 
 twenty-four steps ; but on the new or truncated summit 
 or platform thus obtained, he placed the quadriga, which 
 was still standing in Pliny's day, and which is therefore 
 mentioned by him in the present tense, " In summa est 
 quadriga marmorea quam fecit Pythis," bringing the total 
 height of the monument to one hundred and forty feet.' 
 
 He follows Newton in taking Pliny's circuit of four 
 hundred and eleven feet as the size of the pteron, arranging 
 the thirty-six columns in a single row, ten on each side, 
 counting each angle column twice. This would make all 
 the sides equal, so, to distinguish the fronts and make 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 11 \ 
 
 s 
 
 them shorter than the sides, he advances six columns . 
 supporting a pediment on two opposite sides, and thus '' 
 gets an opening, not a column in the centre. The arrange- 
 ment is most ingenious, and makes a not unpleasing < 
 building. 1 
 
 But later editors prefer ' aequat ' in the present tense, i 
 
 which cuts away any authority for the very unlikely i 
 
 alteration in the building after the pyramid had been ' 
 
 completed either during the two years Artemisia lived ; 
 after her husband's death, or after she died, when, Pliny 
 tells us, there was no one to pay for it. And we may take 
 
 it that the quadriga, its crowning feature, was an essential ' 
 feature of the design from the first. Its support must 
 
 have been prepared for from the foundations. < 
 
 On another word in the same passage Mr. Oldfield rests ^ 
 
 another part of his design, taking it to mean that besides ] 
 this pyramid truncated for the quadriga 'pyramis altitu- 
 dine aequavit inferiorem,' — a pyramid equalled the lower 
 
 pyramid in height — which in his design he makes a base of , 
 
 twelve steep steps to the building. That cannot accurately I 
 be called a pyramid, and would be an unusual feature in a 
 
 Greek building. But Newton and other editors prefer ! 
 
 altitudinem, as in some manuscripts, which would mean : 
 
 that the pyramid, contracting itself to a meta above the I 
 
 Pteron, equalled the height below it. 1 
 
 The data which we have for a restoration of the Written ] 
 
 Mausoleum are, first, the descriptions and dimensions Records j 
 
 given by old writers — Pliny, Hyginus, and Martial, and j 
 
 the story of its destruction by De la Tourette and the j 
 
 Knights of Bhodes to build the castle of Budrum. ! 
 
 Pliny's statement in his Natural History, Book xxxvi., ] 
 c. 5, written about A.D. 50, is as follows : — 
 
 ' Scopas habuit aemulos eadem aetate Bryaxin et 
 
12 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 Timotheum et Leucharem de quibus simul dicendum est, 
 quoniam pariter caelavere Mausoleum. Sepulchrum hoc 
 est ab uxore Artemisia factum Mausolo Cariae regulo, 
 qui obiit Olympiadis centesimae sextae anno secundo. 
 Opus id ut esset inter septem miracula ii maxime arti- 
 fices fecere. Patet ab Austro et Septentrione sexagenos 
 ternos pedes, brevius a frontibus, toto circuitu pedes 
 ccccxi. ; attollitur in altitudinem viginti quinque cubitus ; 
 cingitur columnis triginta sex. Pteron vocavere. Ab 
 Oriente caelavit Scopas, a Septentrione Bryaxis, a Meridie 
 Timotheus, ab Occasu Leochares ; priusque quam pera- 
 gerint, regina obiit. Non tamen recesserunt nisi absoluto, 
 jam id gloriae ipsorum artisque monumentum judicantes ; 
 hodieque certant manus. Accessit et quintus artifex. 
 Namque supra pteron pyramis altitudine inferiorem 
 aequavit, viginti quatuor gradibus in metae cacumen se 
 contrahens. In summa est quadriga marmorea quam fecit 
 Pythis. Haec adjecta centum quadraginta pedum alti- 
 tudine totum opus includit.' 
 
 Mr. Oldfield translates this as follows : — 
 
 'Scopas had as rivals in the same age Bryaxis and 
 Timotheus and Leochares of whom it is right to speak 
 together, since they equally adorned with sculpture the 
 Mausoleum. This is the sepulchre made by his wife 
 Artemisia for Mausolus, ruler of Caria, who died in the 
 second year of the hundred and sixth Olympiad. That 
 that work should rank among the seven wonders (i.e. of 
 the world) those artists mainly brought about. It extends 
 on the south and north to sixty -three feet, to a shorter 
 space on the fronts in its entire circuit to four hundred and 
 eleven feet ; it rises to its height by twenty-five cubits ; it 
 is surrounded by thirty-six columns. They called it the 
 pteron. On the east Scopas sculptured it, on the north 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 13 
 
 Bryaxis, on the south Timotheus, on the west Leochares ; 
 and before they had completed it the Queen died. They 
 did not, however, withdraw, unless when it was quite 
 finished, judging it to be a monument to the glory of 
 themselves and of Art ; and to this day their hands appear 
 in competition. There came in also a fifth artist. For 
 above the pteron a pyramid equalled in height the one 
 below, contracting itself by twenty-four steps into the 
 summit of a meta. On the top is the marble quadriga 
 which Pythis made. This having been added includes 
 the whole work in a height of one hundred and forty 
 feet.' 
 
 Hyginus, a contemporary of Vitruvius, says, in a 
 passage which Mr. Falkner claims to have found : * Moni- 
 mentum regis mausoli lapidibus lychnicis altum pedes 
 LXXX. ; circuitus pedes mcccxl.' (' The monument of 
 King Mausolus in polished stone eighty feet high, thirteen 
 hundred and forty feet in circumference.') 
 
 Martial's words are as follows : — 
 
 * Aere nee vacuo pendentia mausolea 
 
 Laudibus iramodicis Cares in astra ferant.' 
 
 De SjoedacuUs, Epig. i. 
 
 (' Nor with extravagant praise let the Carians extol to the stars 
 Mausolea hanging in empty air,') 
 
 Guichard, in a work published at Lyons in 1581, 
 Funerailles et diverses manieres cVensevelir des Romains, 
 Grecs, etc. , gives the following story : — 
 
 ' In the year 1522,' he says, ' when Sultan Solyman was 
 preparing to attack Rhodes, the Grand Master, knowing 
 the importance of the Castle of St. Peter, and being aware 
 that the Turks would seize it easily at the first assault, 
 sent some knights thither to repair the fortress and make 
 all the preparations to resist the enemy. Among the 
 
14 A EESTORATION OF 
 
 number of those sent was the Commander de la Tourette, 
 a Lyonnese knight, who was afterwards present at the 
 taking of Rhodes, and came to France, where he related 
 what I am now about to narrate to M. D'Alechamps, a 
 person sufficiently known by his learned writings, and 
 whose name I mention here only for the purpose of pub- 
 lishing my authority for so singular a story. 
 
 ' When these knights had arrived at Mesy (Budrum), 
 they at once commenced fortifying the castle ; and, looking 
 about for stones wherewith to make lime, found no more 
 suitable or more easily got at than certain steps of white 
 marble, raised in the form of a terrace {'perron) in the 
 middle of a level field near the port which had formerly 
 been the great Place of Halicarnassus. They therefore 
 pulled down and took away these marble steps, and, find- 
 ing the stone good, proceeded, after having destroyed the 
 little masonry remaining above ground, to dig lower down, 
 in the hope of finding more. 
 
 ' In this attempt they had great success, for in a short 
 time they perceived that the deeper they went the more 
 the structure was enlarged at the base, supplying them not 
 only with the stone for making lime, but also for building. 
 
 ' After four or five days, having laid bare a great space 
 one afternoon, they saw an opening as into a cellar. 
 Taking a candle, they let themselves down through this 
 opening, and found that it led into a fine large square 
 apartment, ornamented all round with columns of marble, 
 with their bases, capitals, architrave, frieze, and cornice 
 engraved and sculptured in half-relief. The space between 
 the columns was lined with slabs and bands of marble 
 of diff'erent colours, ornamented with mouldings and 
 sculptures in harmony with the rest of the work, and 
 inserted in the white ground of the wall, where battle 
 scenes were represented in relief. 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 15 
 
 ' Having at first admired these works, and entertained 
 their fancy with the singularity of the sculpture, they 
 pulled it to pieces, and broke up the whole of it, applying 
 it to the same purpose as the rest. 
 
 ' Besides this apartment, they found afterwards a very 
 low door, which led into another apartment serving as an 
 antechamber, where was a sepulchre, with its vase and 
 helmet (tymbre), of white marble, very beautiful, and of 
 marvellous lustre. This sepulchre, for want of time, they 
 did not open, the retreat having already sounded. 
 
 ' The day after, when they returned, they found the 
 tomb opened, and the earth all around strewn with frag- 
 ments of cloth of gold, and spangles of the same metal, 
 which made them suppose that the pirates, who hovered 
 along this coast, having some inkling of what had been 
 discovered, had visited the place during the night, and 
 had removed the lid of the sepulchre. It is supposed that 
 they discovered in it much treasure.' 
 
 ' It was thus,' adds this quaint old writer, ' that this 
 magnificent tomb, which ranked among the seven wonders 
 of the world, after having escaped the fury of the barbarians, 
 and having remained standing for the space of two thousand 
 two hundred and forty-seven years, was discovered and 
 destroyed to repair the Castle of St. Peter, by the Knights 
 of Rhodes, who immediately after this were driven com- 
 pletely out of Asia by the Turks.' 
 
 But these notices could give us no certainty as to the Actual 
 form of the building without the actual remains of it (only Remains 
 too few, but absolutely authentic so far as they go), which 
 Sir Charles Newton discovered on its site. 
 
 These remains were arranged by the late Dr. A. S. 
 Murray, the Director of Greek and Roman Antiquities in 
 the British Museum, in the Mausoleum Room. They 
 
16 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 include the complete order with its column, base, and 
 capital, its architrave, frieze, and cornice — seventeen slabs 
 of the frieze, making a length of eighty-five feet nine inches ; 
 all representing combats of Greeks and Amazons — some 
 fragments of another frieze representing chariot races, of 
 softer marble, and therefore probably placed where they 
 were not exposed to the weather — one of the angle capitals 
 — a marble beam which may fix the width between the 
 exterior range of columns and the wall or columns inside 
 them — some fragments of one of the lacunaria or ceilings 
 between the columns — and most important of all for deter- 
 mining the general appearance and structure of the building, 
 a number of the marble steps of the ' pyramid contracting 
 itself into a meta.' 
 
 Of sculpture, there are fifteen lions, all with their heads 
 turned outwards as if to guard the sepulchre — remains of 
 the quadriga which crowned the tomb, including the fore- 
 quarters of one of the colossal horses, the bronze bit still in 
 its mouth, and the hind-quarters of another — part of the 
 wheel of the chariot, suifficient to reconstruct it ; the statue 
 of Mausolus practically complete, and of Artemisia holding 
 the reins (her face alas ! gone), which stood together in it. 
 There are also torsos of a colossal horse and its rider in 
 violent action ; of a colossal figure seated on a throne, the 
 arm the same as on the statue of Mausolus, and of some 
 statues slightly over life-size. 
 
 Sir Charles Newton had brought home only the lowest 
 and uppermost stones of a column ; and from these Professor 
 Penrose calculated its height. His wide and critical know- 
 ledge of Greek Art, shown in his great work on the 
 Parthenon, and his mathematical ability, warrant accept- 
 ance of the result he arrived at. With the marbles of the 
 base and capital of the columns and of the entablature 
 with its sculptured frieze, Dr. Murray was able to recon- 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICAENASSUS 17 
 
 struct the order, supplying the missing parts by plaster 
 castings. 
 
 Unfortunately the room is not high enough, and I first 
 became interested in the Mausoleum when Dr. Murray 
 asked me how he should divide the order, whether he 
 should set up column and entablature separately, or divide 
 the column and put the entablature on the upper half of it. 
 The obvious solution was to raise a part of the glass roof 
 sufficient to let the whole order rise complete. This would 
 have allowed the proportions of the order to be seen, and 
 would have raised the cornice with its carving and the 
 sculptures of the frieze up into the light where they could 
 be seen, but the architect of the gallery objected to any 
 alteration of his building even if the cost could have been got 
 from the Treasury. The possession by the nation of a treasure 
 like this implies an obligation to let it be properly seen. 
 
 The positions in which the marbles were found indicate 
 that the Mausoleum had been overthrown by an earthquake 
 some time in the Middle Ages. The horses of the quadriga 
 were found buried in the bank on the north outside the 
 enclosing wall, and had remained buried ever since, as the 
 bronze bit remains in the mouth of one of them. The other 
 sculptures are mere torsos, everything breakable having 
 been broken off them to make lime, the ruined building 
 serving as a quarry till in 1522 the Knights of Rhodes 
 carried away what remained of it above ground, and even 
 the foundations, of which Newton found no trace. 
 
 Till Newton's discovery of the flat steps of the pyramid 
 aU the restorers understood Pliny's words to mean that 
 the pyramid rose from a base of sixty-three feet on the 
 sides by something less on the fronts. 
 
 I shall attempt to show that Newton's discovery does 
 not make it necessary to widen the base of the pyramid, as 
 
 c 
 
18 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 later restorers have done, but that a restoration on the 
 lines of a smaller base is not only possible, but accords with 
 Pliny's description, with the dimensions which he and 
 Hyginus give, with Martial's praise of it as hanging in 
 empty air and raised to the stars, and with what the 
 Knights of Rhodes saw before they destroyed it ; that this 
 also finds their right positions in the design for all the 
 remains discovered on the site; the construction stable, 
 such as would stand for the centuries the Mausoleum lasted 
 till it was destroyed by violence. 
 
 The evidence for each part is not equally conclusive, 
 some of it is necessarily conjecture ; its force is cumulative, 
 and in satisfying all the conditions may fairly be counted 
 proof. 
 
 The Order The order as erected in the Museum is thirty-seven feet 
 
 three inches high. Pliny says the height of the pteron 
 was twenty-five cubits (or thirty-seven and a half feet). 
 This practical identity is proof of his accuracy, and entitles 
 us to accept his other measurements as correct. The 
 difference would be imperceptible in a drawing or even 
 in the building. 
 
 Arrangement By ranging the thirty-six columns, as Cockerell does, 
 OF Columns in two rows, an outer and an inner, seven on each side, and 
 six on each front (counting the angle columns twice), 
 twenty-two on the outer and fourteen in the inner rows, 
 and determining the distance between the columns by the 
 lacunar and the marble beam, we get a building of exactly 
 Pliny's dimensions, with a space — not a column — in the 
 centre of the fronts, as is proper in Greek buildings. 
 
 The distance from centre to centre of the columns we 
 find from the remains was 9 ft. 9|- in. This multiplied 
 by six, the number of spaces on the sides according to 
 Cockerell's arrangement, is 58 ft. 7 J in. Adding 3 ft. 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 19 
 
 5 in., the diameter (measured from the columns in the 
 Museum at their base) of the two half columns at the end 
 of the colonnade, gives for the length of the colonnade 
 62 ft. O^- in. Allowing some extra inches for the projection 
 of the base, this approximates very closely to Pliny's 
 statement. 
 
 This arrangement, giving seven columns at the sides, 
 gives six at the fronts, which PHny says were shorter, and 
 makes their length about 53 ft. 
 
 Cockerell's arrangement of the thirty-six columns is 
 that which every one adopted as the meaning of Pliny's 
 words, till the discovery of the broad flat steps of the 
 pyramidal roof led the restorers to enlarge the building 
 to find space for the twenty-four broad steps of the 
 pyramid. 
 
 This low flat pyramid jars on our preconceived ideas, 
 but we must accept it as absolutely proved by the remains. 
 I tried to believe that these flat steps might have been 
 steps forming the base of the monument, but the ingenious 
 care taken to prevent water getting through them proves 
 that they must have formed a roof-covering over some 
 part of the monument which had to be kept dry. 
 
 The edge of each stone at its junction is raised in a 
 ridge a quarter of a circle in section, which, fitting close to 
 the similar quarter circle on the stone next to it, forms a 
 roll like the rolls on a flat lead roof, preventing any water 
 from lying on the joints and getting through. And this 
 ledge is carried round the back of each step, a hollow being 
 made in the bottom side of the covering stone to receive it, 
 thus preventing any water penetrating through the roof at 
 the back of each stone. The ledges at the back, and the 
 grooves in the stone above them to fit them, as well as the 
 draft lines at the front, show the position in which each 
 stone was placed on the one below it, and absolutely 
 
20 A RESTOBATION OF 
 
 determine the slope of Pliny's 'pyramid' to be that 
 adopted in Smith's and PuUan's restoration. 
 
 PYRAMm AND The corner stones in the pyramid, of which there are 
 
 ^^^ four in the Museum, prove that its contiguous sides rose 
 
 at different angles ; the steps on one side have a ' tread ' 
 of one foot nine inches, on the other of one foot five inches, 
 both rising eleven and three-quarter inches on the face, 
 making in one case an angle of twenty-nine and a half 
 degrees, and in the other thirty-five degrees. These are 
 not usual angles for a pyramid, and on some contemporary 
 and older coins and medals there are representations of 
 tombs with steep pyramidal roofs such as Cockerell adopted 
 in his restoration. But the slope given by the steps in 
 the Museum is the usual slope of the roofs of Greek build- 
 ings ; and the remains of the architecture as well as of 
 the sculpture prove that the building was Greek in design. 
 The architects, whose names show that they were Greeks, 
 while compelled to accept the traditional form of a pyramid 
 for the tomb, may have lowered its pitch in conformity 
 with their ideas of the proper slope for the roof of a Greek 
 building. 
 
 One thing is certain, that of any attempted restoration 
 of the Mausoleum this flat-sloping roof must form a part. 
 
 But the pyramid rising at these slopes from the four 
 sides from a base of about sixty-three feet by fifty-three 
 feet meets in a point at about the eighteenth step, not 
 only giving no platform for the quadriga, but no place in 
 the pyramid for the remaining six steps. It is this which 
 has prompted the restorers, since these steps were found, 
 to make the building larger than Pliny says it was. 
 
 But Pliny does not say that the steps of the pyramid 
 'in metse cacumen se contrahens,' were all of the same 
 form and dimensions ; the words rather imply the con- 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICAENASSUS 21 
 
 trary, and there are among the remains in the Museum 
 several higher steps with narrow treads, including one of 
 twenty-four inches rise, and four inches tread. 
 
 May not these, or similar steps now lost, be the steps 
 of the 'meta' he speaks of? The restorers all hitherto 
 ignore his assertion that the pyramid contracted itself, 
 ending in a * meta.' We know what a meta or goal in the 
 chariot races was like ; a high steep cone, like a pine-cone 
 in form ; in a Koman circus sometimes like an obelisk, 
 square-sided — which may have been what Pliny was 
 thinking of ; and why should he have mentioned a ' meta ' 
 if there was nothing like it in the building ? The passage 
 is a marvel of conciseness. He does not waste his words. 
 If he had meant what the restorers think, he could and 
 would have conveyed his meaning better, by saying ' the 
 pyramid rises to a point,' as it is the nature of a pyramid 
 to do, without needlessly bringing in the form of a meta ; 
 and it did not end in a point when Pliny described it, but 
 in a platform or base for the quadriga.^ 
 
 Newton, Fergusson, and Oldfield have not attempted 
 to use in their restorations any steps except the broad 
 low ones ; but positions must be found for all existing 
 forms in any design which shows what the Mausoleum was. 
 
 ^ ' Cacumen ' is used by Pliny and other writers for the top or end of thiags. 
 In his Natural History (Book xi., section 220) Pliny uses the word for the ends 
 of the limbs of the body, 'Arteriarum pulsus in cacumine maxime membroruni 
 evidens.' Again, in his Natural History (Book x., Section 151), he uses it for 
 the end of an egg, ' Si contra lumen cacumine ovorum apprehenso una manu purus 
 perluceat color sterilia estimantur.' Quintus Curtius, who wrote in the first 
 century a.d. a history of Alexandria, describes a rock (viii. xxxix,, 6), 'Petra in 
 metae modum erecta est cujus ima spatiosiora sunt altiora in artuis coiunt summa 
 in acutum cacumen exsurgunt.' This proves that 'cacumen' is not always a 
 sharp point. A common use is for the tops of trees. Columella, a writer on 
 agriculture about a.d. 50, uses the word for the tops of fig trees, pear trees, and 
 apple trees. These quotations, for which I am indebted to the late Mr. Neil, 
 of Pembroke College, Cambridge, go to show that Phny's words, 'Pyramis in 
 metae cacumen se contrahens,' may mean a pyramid contracting itself into and 
 ending in a meta. 
 
22 A RESTOKATION OF 
 
 Many of the steps must be lost, and there may have 
 been more varieties than those of which there are examples 
 in the Museum — our not having any does not prove that 
 there were none such in the building. Being light and at 
 the highest part of the building, they would be scattered 
 by an earthquake. Easy to handle or to carry on an ass's 
 back, they would be the first to be taken for building or 
 making lime, and while we must use all existing forms we 
 are entitled to assume that there were as many of each 
 kind as may be wanted in the restoration of the building 
 which Pliny describes. 
 
 Pliny's words suggest that the pyramid of low broad 
 steps contracted itself by a curve which can be formed by 
 steps of intermediate size leading up from the broad steps 
 of the pyramid to the tall ones of the meta supporting the 
 quadriga which crowned the monument. 
 
 This is corroborated by the existence in the Museum 
 of two steps, one with a tread of ten inches and the other 
 of four inches, both eleven and three-quarter inches high, 
 the same height as the flatter pyramid steps. If we place 
 them between the highest of the broad steps of the 
 pyramid and the tall steps of the meta, it lessens the 
 harshness of the junction between them and increases the 
 size of the meta, making the platform large enough to 
 accommodate the chariot group. 
 
 That a roof of this form realises all the descriptions and 
 dimensions, finds uses for all the materials in a way and 
 in positions suitable for them, fits in with all the other 
 parts of the building, and gives good and stable construc- 
 tion — is a strong presumption (amounting even to proof) 
 that it was the form of the roof of the Mausoleum. 
 
 It may seem strange and unsuitable in a Greek build- 
 ing, but Carian tradition may have prescribed a pyramid 
 as an essential feature of a tomb, and the Greek architects 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 23 < 
 
 may have had to make the best they could of it. It suits ; 
 
 its purpose and is right in its place. The low pyramid I 
 
 has the same pitch as the pediment of Greek temples, and i 
 the meta rising from it forms a suitable base for the 
 
 quadriga, lifting it aloft to the stars. i 
 
 A platform was needed on the top of the meta of the The Quadriga ! 
 
 size and form required for the quadriga. We know the I 
 
 angles (or slopes) of the fronts and sides of the pyramid : 
 
 from the four corner steps in the Museum, which have ! 
 broader treads on one side than on the other. Now, if 
 the lines forming the four corner slopes of the pyramid 
 
 are continued along the corner slopes of the meta, they j 
 
 terminate, at the height of forty-four feet from the cornice, { 
 
 in a square platform of eighteen feet six inches on each side. ) 
 
 This fits the remains of the quadriga in the Museum. | 
 
 The fore-quarters of one, and the hind-quarters of another i 
 of the horses show that they were about ten feet or ten 
 feet six long from head to tail. For the chariot and 
 
 the space between it and the horses about eight feet would j 
 
 be required, making the length of the platform about \ 
 
 eighteen feet six inches. The width of the haunches of 1 
 the horse in the Museum is three feet six inches. Allow- " 
 
 ing spaces between the horses and at the edges, and also j 
 
 for the pole, the width of the platform must be nearly, if j 
 
 not exactly, eighteen feet six inches. ; 
 
 It would therefore seem that the broader and narrower 
 
 steps were designed to produce, from the base of the i 
 
 pyramid, which is longer on the sides than the fronts, a | 
 
 square platform of the size required for the quadriga. i 
 
 We have now to determine the height of the roof. Height of \ 
 
 consisting of a low pyramid with a meta rising from it. Pyramid, etc | 
 
 I think Pliny gives us this. It is probable that he would, ; 
 
 since he gives the other heights. ' Above the pteron,' he i 
 
24 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 says, ' a pyramid contracting itself in twenty-four steps 
 " in metae cacumen " equalled or equals ' (I don't think it 
 matters which reading we adopt) ' the lower height ' or 
 ' lower part in height.' 
 
 The simple and apparently obvious meaning is that the 
 pyramid above the pteron, which he had just said was 
 twenty-five cubits high, equalled in height the part below 
 the pteron : that the roof and the base of the sepulchre 
 were equal in height. Dr. A. S. Murray doubted if the 
 words can bear this meaning, but other scholars whom 
 I consulted, the late Mr. Neil and Professor Stewart, of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, assured me that it can. 
 
 Let us try what results this gives as to the heights of 
 the base and roof of the monument. ' On the summit,' he 
 says, ' is a marble quadriga, the addition of this made the 
 height of the entire work one hundred and forty feet.' If 
 we subtract from one hundred and forty feet the height of 
 the pteron and of the quadriga, the remainder, divided by 
 two, will give the heights respectively of pyramid and of 
 base. The pteron is twenty-five cubits or thirty-seven 
 and a half feet high, which is within an inch or two the 
 height of the order as set up in the Museum. We can 
 get approximately the height of the quadriga. 
 
 The statue of Mausolus, which stood in the chariot, 
 is ten feet two inches high ; the bottom of the chariot was, 
 say, eight inches thick, and it rests on the axle, say ten 
 inches thick ; the wheel measures seven feet six inches in 
 diameter. This makes the height from the lower edge of 
 the wheel fifteen feet, viz. : — 
 
 Statue, 
 
 Bottom of chariot. 
 Top half of axle. 
 Half of wheel, 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ins 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 25 
 
 The platform, formed of great stones, supporting the 
 quadriga, was, say, 2 ft. 6 in., making the total height of 
 the quadriga 17 ft. 6 in. Subtracting this and the height 
 of the order ( = 37 ft. 6 in.) from Pliny's total of 140 ft., 
 the remainder is 85 ft., which, equally divided between 
 roof and base, gives 42 ft. 6 in. for the height of each. 
 
 There is a singular confirmation of this hypothesis. 
 The statement of Hyginus that the Mausoleum was eighty 
 feet high has hitherto been unmeaning. Newton and 
 Pullan dismiss it from consideration as incompatible with 
 Pliny's dimensions. Mr. Fergusson suggests that for feet 
 we should read cubits — Babylonian cubits — as Mausolus 
 was a satrap of the Babylonian monarch, and eighty Baby- 
 lonian cubits are equal to one hundred and forty feet of 
 Pliny. 
 
 This is certainly ingenious — perhaps too ingenious ; for 
 that Hyginus, writing in Latin for Bomans, should for this 
 one dimension use Babylonian cubits, which it is unlikely 
 his readers knew anything about, while his other dimen- 
 sions in the same passage are in feet, which they under- 
 stood, is improbable ; and Mr. Oldfield properly rejects the 
 emendation as having no authority from the manuscripts. 
 
 But no emendation is necessary — Hyginus is quite 
 right. The Mausoleum was 80 ft. high, if I am right in my 
 reading of Pliny's words ; and it agrees with Pliny's dimen- 
 sion of 140 feet for the whole building, including the 
 quadriga with the statue. Pliny's height of 37 ft. 6 in. 
 for the pteron, added to the 42 ft. 6 in. which we found 
 for the base below it, gives exactly 80 ft. to the top of 
 the cornice, which is the ordinary way of expressing the 
 height of a building. 
 
 We have now to consider the base of the monument The Base 
 below the pteron. What was the form of the part of the 
 
26 A EESTORATION OF 
 
 monument which Pliny says was four hundred and eleven 
 feet in perimeter ? It was not the part he says was called the 
 pteron, sixty-three feet on the sides, shorter on the fronts, 
 of which the perimeter is about two hundred and thirty feet. 
 
 The story of the final destruction of the Mausoleum by 
 the. Knights of Rhodes tells us what it was. 
 
 ' When these knights had arrived at Mesy they at once 
 commenced fortifying the castle, and, looking about for 
 stones wherewith to make lime, found none more suitable 
 or more easily got than certain steps of white marble raised 
 in the form of a perron in the middle of a field near the 
 port, which had formerly been the great Place of Hali- 
 carnassus.' 
 
 'A perron,' VioUet-le-Duc says in his Dictionary of 
 French Mediceval Architecture, 'was a flight of steps 
 leading to a platform from which the Seigneur delivered 
 judgments, or to the great hall of a chateau or palace.' 
 From such a platform at Frankfort the newly elected 
 Emperor was proclaimed. 
 
 The statement of the knights, familiar with castles 
 and palaces, is good evidence that there remained at the 
 Mausoleum when they saw it such a platform or base, 
 with steps leading up to it, to which Pliny's circumference 
 of four hundred and eleven feet must apply. Its being 
 built of marble shows that it was an essential part of the 
 monument, a part of the height of forty-two and a half 
 feet below the pteron which, he says, equalled the height 
 of the pyramid and meta above it. It was above ground, 
 visible from a distance. Its height can only be conjectured ; 
 the steps to it show that it was accessible ; not so high 
 but that the approach thus formed was easy and dignified. 
 A height of seventeen feet seems to give good proportion : 
 the wide base it forms gives a sense of stability to the 
 superstructure, and the remainder of the forty-two and a 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 27 
 
 half feet gives a solid base or podium to support the pteron, 
 the open stage of columns and, with the roof crowned by 
 the quadriga rising from it, the appearance of airy open- 
 ness and height which Martial describes as characteristic 
 of Carian mausolea. 
 
 The pteron must have been accessible, as it could be 
 by the door in the podium and the stairs between the walls 
 supporting the two ranges of columns, rather than through 
 the great hall in the basement, the entrance to which 
 Newton found permanently closed, apparently after the 
 funeral of Mausolus. 
 
 The Mausoleum, Hyginus states, stood within a peri- The Peribolus 
 bolus, an enclosure surrounded by walls with the circuit of 
 one thousand three hundred and forty feet. The north 
 wall of it was the first part of the Mausoleum Sir Charles 
 Newton discovered when he was about to abandon the 
 search for it as hopeless, the captain of the warship which 
 was to bring home the remains which might be found 
 having refused to wait longer. 
 
 It is built against the rise of the hill to the north, of 
 marble blocks finished on the outer face, left rough against 
 the hill at the back. Behind it he found the remains of 
 the quadriga where an earthquake would throw them from 
 the top of the building, where they had remained buried 
 since they fell, else the bronze bit would not have remained 
 in the horse's mouth. 
 
 The length of the wall to its ends where it turned south 
 at right angles was 337 ft. or 674 ft. for the north and 
 south walls, leaving 666 ft. or 333 ft. each for the end 
 walls. What gate or entrance it may have had in it is 
 uncertain, or what its height may have been. He found 
 it unfinished ; the stones of the upper part may have been 
 carried away for building, and the lion which he found 
 
28 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 standing on it was more likely placed there from some 
 other part of the building than thrown there by the 
 earthquake, as it seems unlikely that it would fall on its 
 feet. 
 
 The Construc- Any restoration of the Mausoleum must take into 
 
 '^^^^ account the fine large square apartment ornamented all 
 
 round with marble columns and architrave, with frieze in 
 half-relief, with the coloured marbles and reliefs of battle 
 scenes on the walls, into which the knights descended, 
 and leading out of it the chambers in one of which was the 
 white marble sarcophagus. They destroyed what was 
 above ground, and found that the deeper they went the 
 more the structure was enlarged. 
 
 This large hall makes impossible the square tower in 
 the centre of the pteron which Cocker ell in his restoration 
 suggests to support the quadriga. Further, in the wide 
 basement, four hundred and eleven feet in circumference, 
 there is ample space not only for this hall, but for the 
 sepulchre with its marble sarcophagus opening out of it, 
 and for additional chambers which such tombs often had. 
 
 The plan and section show how the pyramid, the meta, 
 and the quadriga could be supported by the walls of the 
 hall and the columns of the pteron. The weight of the 
 flat pyramid part of the roof is supported by the thirty -six 
 columns. It has little or no outward thrust in itself, and 
 its solid mass resists the outward thrust of the sloping 
 sides of the meta, which is greatest at the angles. 
 
 Its steps and the stones of the cornice and architrave 
 under them are cramped together by bronze cramps, the 
 holes for which remain, so as to form a ring resisting the 
 outward pressure of the sloping roof increased by the 
 weight of the quadriga. 
 
 As shown on the section, the sides of the meta come 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 29 
 
 down on and supported by the inner range of columns, 
 leaving an opening about sixteen feet square at the top, 
 too wide to get stones long enough to cover, and strong 
 enough to support the weight of the quadriga. The size 
 of the opening can be lessened by a lintel resting on the 
 two columns next each inner angle column, and upon it 
 building a wall to the top of the meta sloping inward with 
 its slope, making its shape inside octagonal, and leaving 
 a triangular open space between this wall and the square 
 angles of the meta. This wall strengthens the sides of 
 the meta along their centres, and lessens the opening at 
 the top to an octagon of eleven feet across. 
 
 The weight to be supported and the adequacy of the 
 columns for supporting it are approximately as follows : — 
 
 Weight of quadriga, . . say 100 tons 
 
 „ ,, walls of meta, . . „ 300 ,, 
 
 „ „ pyramid, . . „ 400 „ 
 
 Total, 800 tons. 
 
 This weight is borne chiefly by the eight columns at 
 each corner of the octagon. 
 
 Each column, three feet five inches in diameter, equal 
 to nine square feet, can support a weight of one hundred 
 and eighty tons, or twenty tons per square foot, which is 
 not very different from present practice.^ 
 
 For the marble of the columns, from its solidity and 
 uniformity of structure, and from the separate drums being 
 rubbed together on each other at the joints, as was the 
 practice in building the marble columns of Greek temples, 
 so that no splitting from inequalities of bearing would 
 occur, is free from the chance of defects to which iron and 
 
 ^ The structural questions involved were arrived at after discussion with Mr. 
 Max am Ende. 
 
30 A RESTORATION OF 
 
 stone are liable. This allows a much smaller margin of 
 safety than in columns of iron or ordinary stone. 
 
 Greater strength would not have saved the monument 
 from destruction by earthquake, and would have marred 
 the characteristic feature of the design — 'hanging in 
 empty air.' The resistance to lateral pressure would be 
 least at the pteron, and here, if rocked by an earthquake, 
 it would break across, throwing the quadriga to where it 
 was found. 
 
 How the walls of the meta were constructed is a 
 matter of conjecture. Of steps with a rise of twenty-four 
 inches, and a tread of four and a half, which I have taken 
 as the dimensions of the steps of the meta, only one, some 
 fifteen inches thick, is shown in the Mausoleum Room, and 
 a brief search among the marbles in the cellar with Dr. 
 Murray revealed no more. Such a wall may not seem 
 strong enough to support the weight of the chariot and 
 colossal horses, but the example preserved may quite well 
 be a casing stone. 
 
 Other Pliny's words imply that there were other mausolea 
 
 Mausolea in Caria besides that at Halicarnassus. One such remains 
 at Mylassa, the former capital of Caria, which Mr. Oldfield, 
 with every probability, thinks is a reproduction in Roman 
 times, with debased details, of the distinctive and charac- 
 teristic features which had obtained for the Mausoleum its 
 extraordinary renown. In it we find, he says, ' (1) a 
 square podium with a door on one of its sides not placed 
 in the centre. (2) Then a pteron formed of an entirely 
 open quadrangular space, surrounded by a cincture of 
 columns. (3) Above these the remains of a pyramid of 
 peculiar and ingenious construction.' In its ruinous state 
 we cannot tell what exact form its pyramidal roof may 
 have had : it may have had a meta springing from its top. 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 31 
 
 j 
 
 The roof, or what remains of it, is octagonal in plan, which i 
 
 would give support for a meta rising from it. But this j 
 
 octagonal form, which it now shows in its ruined state, i 
 
 may be merely the angle braces such as I suppose in the ; 
 
 Mausoleum meta, concealed when the building was perfect i 
 
 by a roof square in plan, like the building which it " 
 
 covered. j 
 
 The restoration of the Mausoleum I have suffgrested is ■ 
 
 more like this tomb at Mylassa than any other restoration ; 
 
 I have seen, especially in the entirely open quadrangular i 
 
 space surrounded by a cincture of columns. ,' 
 
 I 
 
 The great merit of the building, which, Pliny says. The Sculptures | 
 chiefly caused it to be counted one of the seven wonders 
 
 of the world, was the sculpture. Except portions of three j 
 
 friezes and the fifteen lions, little of it remains. A few [ 
 broken torsos of statues, about life size, are the only 
 remains of doubtless many more. As the Mausoleum was 
 for centuries a quarry, the statues were doubtless made 
 
 into lime for building, as Dr. Middleton found that those '' 
 
 at the House of the Vestal Virgins at Rome had been. \ 
 
 They were useless as building stones, and their small size i 
 
 and the ease with which they could be broken up made '< 
 
 them suitable for making into lime. j 
 
 The remains of the quadriga were saved by being , 
 
 buried, and the lions, and possibly some of the friezes i 
 
 which we have intact, may have been preserved by the , 
 mediaeval builders through appealing to their fighting 
 
 instincts. •! 
 
 The positions on the Mausoleum of some of the \ 
 
 sculptures which remain can be certainly determined. j 
 
 The quadriga, Pliny says, crowned the monument, sup- '• 
 
 ported by the meta : the Amazon frieze is the frieze of , 
 
 the order of the pteron. But the positions of the re- ' 
 
32 A EESTORATION OF 
 
 mainder can only be conjectured. The frieze of the chariot 
 races, of softer marble, with the colour remaining, proving 
 that it had not been exposed to the weather, may have 
 been that of the order inside the pteron. 
 
 The corners of the i^erron, or broad lower base, as 
 Cockerell has suggested, are suitable positions for the 
 colossal statues of horse and rider in violent action, of 
 which one remains, and the life-sized statues seem well 
 placed on its parapet between them, and also on the 
 cornice over each column of the pteron, carrying the eye up 
 to the quadriga — the crowning feature of the monument. 
 
 The gigantic sitting torso, with the same dress as the 
 statue of Mausolus, may have represented him sitting on 
 his throne, perhaps within the pteron. 
 
 The lions, of which fifteen remain, have their heads 
 turned to the side, as if guarding the approach to the tomb. 
 They seem suitably placed on the flanks of the steps leading 
 up to the perron. This does not account for the fifteen that 
 now exist, but others may have guarded the approach to 
 it, like the sphinxes at Egyptian temples, and it must be 
 remembered that probably many are lost. 
 
 That this restoration of the Mausoleum at Halicar- 
 nassus realises all the contemporary measurements and 
 descriptions of Pliny, Hyginus, Martial, and the Knights 
 of Ehodes, finds their right positions for the architectural 
 remains in the British Museum, and that it is stable in 
 construction seems proof that, in its general appearance, it 
 represents what the building was like. 
 
 Some of its features may be taken as proved : the 
 total height (including the quadriga) of one hundred and 
 forty feet, the height of the pteron thirty-seven and a 
 half feet, the number of the columns and their arrange- 
 ment on the building, carrying the weight of the pyramid 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICAENASSUS 33 
 
 and quadriga without any central support (which would 
 have destroyed the open appearance — its main charac- 
 teristic), and that the statement of Hyginus, hitherto 
 unmeaning, that it was eighty feet high, was correct. 
 
 The size of the pteron, sixty-three feet on north and 
 south, shorter on the fronts, and the position and spacing 
 of the columns, accord with the remains of it as erected 
 in the Museum and with Pliny's dimensions ; as do the 
 combined heights of the pyramid and meta above it, and 
 of the podium and the broad base with the perimeter of 
 four hundred and eleven feet under it, giving room for the 
 great central hall and the tombs and chambers round it, 
 which the Knights of Rhodes saw and destroyed. That 
 this lower base was accessible seems proved by the 
 perron with its steps, which they saw and made into 
 lime. 
 
 There is evidence of the peribolus wall and of the 
 lengths of its sides, but its height is uncertain. Newton 
 found only its lower corners. I have not attempted any 
 suggestion as to the gate or entrance it may have had ; for 
 this we have no evidence. 
 
 The feature of the building which was its chief charac- 
 teristic and called forth universal admiration is also 
 certain ; its open and airy appearance, ' hanging in empty 
 air,' with the blue sky seen between the columns from 
 every different point of view. This a drawing from one 
 point cannot show. 
 
 Parts of the design are necessarily conjecture — the 
 relative heights of the podium and broad base, the statues 
 on the latter and on the cornice of the pteron, and the 
 door in the podium giving access to the open stage, and 
 the lions on each side of the flight of steps. 
 
 To make a restoration of what the Mausoleum may 
 have been it was necessary to decide such doubtful points 
 
34 A RESTOEATION OF 
 
 as these, and to design additions not strictly warranted by 
 Pliny's short but admirable account, and by those of other 
 writers, and by the existing remains. Positions especially 
 must be found for the sculpture, which must have been 
 abundant, but of which, except the friezes, almost nothing 
 remains. In thus attempting to complete the design 
 of the Mausoleum one can only be guided by the sense 
 of what is beautiful and in harmony with the main 
 features of the building which we have found to be 
 proved. 
 
 The building which results may not in its architecture 
 be such as we might think Greek architects would design. 
 A pyramid does not seem the form of roof they would 
 by choice adopt, but, as has been said, it may have 
 been prescribed by custom or tradition for Carian 
 tombs. 
 
 Pliny says it was mainly on account of its sculpture 
 that the Mausoleum was regarded as one of the seven 
 wonders of the world. It is an advance on previous 
 styles, and, though we now may see this was the beginning 
 of decadence in the art, would appeal to those who first 
 saw it as new advance. 
 
 We do not know what its immediate surroundings 
 were, but the view from its site remains the same looking 
 out across the bay to the hills on the right and the palace 
 of Mausolus on the promontory on the left. 
 
 The sculpture is the ruling motive in the design of the 
 building and tells its purpose — the Apotheosis of Mausolus ; 
 all the parts of it, the broad base, the pteron, the pyramid, 
 and the meta lead the eye up to its crowning feature, the 
 quadriga — as do the statues on the corners of the pteron, 
 continuing upward the lines of its columns. In the clear 
 air of Caria these and the frieze of the order, the lines of 
 figures defined against the blue Imckground, would be 
 
THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 35 
 
 clearly visible in every detail, though at a height of eighty 
 feet. 
 
 The meta forms an admirable base for the colossal 
 horses and chariot it supports, 'raising them aloft to 
 Heaven,' Mausolus standing with Artemisia at his side, 
 starting on his journey through the skies. 
 
 THE END 
 
 Printed by T. and A. Constable, Printers to His Majesty 
 at tlie Edinburgh University Press 
 
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