RAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE POWELIMD CONNOLLY ^. - ' A RATIONAL GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BY W. B. POWELL, A.M. SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D.C. AND LOUISE CONNOLLY, M.S. NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI.:- CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1899, EY W. B. POWELL AND LOUISE CONNOLLY. P. C. GRAM. W. P. I PREFACE MANY of the rules and much of the terminology of the first English grammars, as is well known, were based largely on the rules and terminology of Latin grammar, because at the time these grammars were written Latin was the language of scholars. The grammar for the new language was made to correspond to the one with which the authors were most familiar. The resulting distortion of the facts of the English language on which a gram- mar of the language should be based has long been the bane of this study. In making this book the authors, recognizing the small amount of inflectional element found in English, have shown the relation element that characterizes the language. This grammar presents the study of our language as it exists, free from the trammels of a forced analogy with Latin, yet avoiding the serious error of teaching Anglo-Saxon more than English. Some of the merits claimed for the book are a natural develop- ment of the subject treated, a simple and clear statement of hitherto puzzling points in grammar, and an adequate emphasis of the practical side of the study, the correct forming of the speech of the pupil. The pupil being led to think for himself (a matter as important in the study of grammar as it is in the study of other sciences) finds the subject so shorn of its terrors that it is interesting. Analysis precedes parsing, the sentence being divided into its great parts according to a simple system of classification based on a single principle, use. This broad analysis is carried far enough for the learner to recognize, from sentences studied, all those uses of words on which their classification into parts of 3 4 PREFACE speech depends. After this study of the sentence, parts of speech are taught, when a more refined analysis is given by which it is shown that the meaning of a word rather than its use determines the kind of modifiers which it takes ; thus the learner is led to study the -parts of speech from two points of view. The treatment of the verb is an especial feature of this book, in which is recognized the tendency in modern languages, especially pronounced in English, to differentiate the words embraced by this part of speech into those that assert and those that express action. The treatment of the verb made possible by the recog- nition of this important movement in language simplifies its study very much. Throughout the book the learner is afforded opportunity to make English for the exemplification of principles which he has been led by analysis to see and understand. Special chapters treat of idioms and peculiar constructions ; the chief uses of punctuation marks are taught by examples which show inductively the grammatical principles on which these uses depend ; and the important rules of spelling and word building are taught in a corresponding way. Every feature of this book has been thoroughly tried in the Washington schools, and has undergone the careful scrutiny of expert philologists. The authors acknowledge with gratitude their indebtedness to Miss Carl L. Garrison, Principal of the Phelps School, Washington, for her invaluable cooperation in the collection of materials for the book, in writing the lessons, and in testing the practical values of the work. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 7 PART I SIMPLE ANALYSIS CHAPTER I. The Sentence 9 II. Classification of Elements according to Use . . .23 III. Classification of Elements according to Structure . . 47 IV. Compounds 68 PART II PARTS OF SPEECH AND COMPLETE ANALYSIS V. Words 81 VI. Nouns 84 VII. Adjectives 106 VIII. Pronouns 118 IX. Verbs . 141 X. Adverbs 185 XI. Relation Words 191 XII. Independent Words ....... 201 XIII. Complete Analysis of Sentences 204 CONTENTS PART III APPLICATIONS OF GRAMMAR CHAPTER PAGE XIV. Punctuation and Capitalization . . . . .210 XV. Arrangement of Words in the Sentence . . .217 XVI. Agreement and Government 226 PART IV SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS XVII. Infinitives and Participles 233 XVIII. Fine Points of Analysis 250 XIX. Idioms 267 XX. Sentences for Analysis 272 PART V ENGLISH DERIVATIVES XXI. English Derivatives 276 APPENDIX 1 . Irregular Verbs 289 2. Complete Conjugation 295 3. History of the English Language 301 4. Additional Study in Word Building 306 5. Advanced Work in Word Building 310 INDEX 313 INTRODUCTION. IF we were asked to give a distinction between man and the lower animals, we should agree that one important difference is that man possesses true speech or language, whereas the lower animals do not. This speech or language is the chief means by which one man communicates his thoughts and feelings to another. The lower animals also are capable of expressing in a limited degree their feelings by means of sounds, as every one must know who has heard the howl of a hungry dog or the song of a bird in summer ; but it frequently takes a good deal of action accompanying these sounds to express a desire even imperfectly. Thus when a dog accompanies his howling by scratching at the door, we know, not only his distress, but his desire to get in. There are a great many languages used by the various peoples of the world, but it is thought by those who have studied the subject carefully that many of the European languages are variations of some single language which was formerly spoken by our common ancestors. Various degrees of relationship are found among the various languages. Our own English, for instance, is much like the German, as you may see by comparing a few sentences. ENGLISH. GERMAN. Who is that? Wer 1st das? The man was here. Der Mann war hier. There is a man. Da 1st ein Mann. Here is my hand. Hier ist meine Hand. In fact, English is called a Germanic language. But German is not the only foreign tongue to which our Eng- 8 INTR OD UC TION lish is related. The French say L* exercice est simple: The exercise is simple. La table est grande: The table is large. Many words that are similar in English and French were taken from an older language, Latin. In fact, we have obtained our words chiefly from three sources, French, Latin, and an old Germanic language called Saxon. This makes our language very rich in variety of expression. For instance, one may say, That child is good, or, A certain individual is virtuous. In these sentences, child, is, and good are from Germanic sources, while certain and virtuous are from the French, and individual is from the Latin. Grammar inquires how the best writers and speakers use language, and forms from their usage rules to guide others. As most of the European languages are pretty closely related, you would not be surprised to find, should you study French, Spanish, or Italian, Dutch or German, Latin or Greek, that their grammars, that is, their modes of using words to make statements, are much like the English, and that many rules made from observing one of these languages apply to all, so that there is indeed a gen- eral grammar. A certain way of using words found to be peculiar to one language is called an idiom of that lan- guage. For instance, it is an English idiom to say, How are you ? for a Frenchman would say, How do you carry yourself? (Comment vous portez von s ? ), and a German, How do you find yourself ? ( Wie befinden Sie sich ?). While we say, There is a story about that, the French say, It there has (II y a) a story, and the Germans, It gives (Es gibt) a story. These peculiar methods of combining words are idioms re- spectively of the English, French, and German languages. An English grammar, therefore, should state the main facts which are true in many languages, and also give the special features true only of idiomatic English. PART L SIMPLE ANALYSIS. CHAPTER I. THE SENTENCE. SYNOPSIS. Ideas must be related in order to express thought. The relation may be asserted or assumed. The expression of a thought in completed form is called a sentence. Of two related terms, one may modify the other. The term which is modified is called the base. The term which modifies is called the modifier. According to their uses, sentences are declarative, interrogative, or imperative. According to their manner of expression, they are pure or exclamatory. The pure declarative sentence is the typical sentence. If two or more expressions which, standing alone, would be sen- tences, are united in one sentence, each is called a clause. A sentence made up of unlike clauses is a mixed sentence. 1. ASSERTION. One person may express ideas to another by signs. The signs may be made in many ways ; for example, with the hands, as is done by those who are dumb ; or with flags, as is done when two ships meet at sea ; or by lights, as on a railroad. The most common way of expressing ideas is by means of words, either spoken or written. EXAMPLES. Man, cat, dog, bird, fly, white, black, singing, running. Each of these words is the sign used to represent an idea. A word may be the sign of an idea. 9 10 THE SENTENCE The words brick singing, or the words easy stone, spoken or written together, seem out of place because the ideas for which they stand bear no logical relation to each other. The words red brick, or black dog, or singing bird, when put together, combine suitably because the ideas for which they stand may bear logical relation to each other ; so we say these words are related. Good mother. Good and mother are two simple ideas which can be joined logically. The expression good motJier, then, repre- sents related ideas ; that is, a thought. In the expression candy is sweet, the sweetness of the candy is told or asserted ; the fact that there is a relation between the word sivect and the word candy is asserted by the word is. In the expression sweet candy, the sweetness of the candy is not asserted, but is taken for granted or assumed, and the relation of the word sweet to the word candy is assumed. In the expression hair is brown, the relation of brown to hair is asserted. In the expression broivn hair, the relation of brown to hair is assumed. Exercise. In the following expressions tell which relations are assumed, and which are asserted : 1. Good men. n. Fair little girl. 2. Men are good. 12. The little girl is fair. 3. Brave boys. 13. Long pencil. 4. Boys are brave. 14. The boat is sailing. 5. Falling snow. 15. The lesson is hard. 6. Long days of summer. 16. Broken pencil. 7. Snow is falling. 17. Sweet apple. 8. Days of summer are long. 18. Sharp knife. 9. Black cat. 19. The pencil is broken. 10. The cat is black. 20. My apple is sweet. THOUGHTS II Assume the relation of good to children ; assert it. Assume the relation of bright to star ; assert it. Assume the relation of happy to bird ; assert it. Assume the relation of sour to oranges ; assert it. 2. THE COMPLETED FORM. Tall tree. These words leave the mind expecting that something more will be said. Do they indicate an assumed or an asserted relation ? An expression showing a relation assumed leaves the mind in a state of expectation. The tree is tall. This assertion leaves the mind in a satisfied condition. Bright star. The star is bright. Which of these expressions leaves the mind satisfied, and is complete in form ? Which leaves the mind expect- ing more, and is incomplete in form ? A thought may be expressed in a completed form by an assertion of relation, or in an uncompleted form by an assumption of relation. Exercise. Write five thoughts about children, assuming all the relations. Write five thoughts about children, asserting some relation. Write five thoughts in the form of assertions. Write the same five thoughts, assuming the relations which were formerly asserted. Tell which of the following thoughts are expressed in completed form, and which in uncompleted form : 1. An old rocking-chair. 4. The rocking-chair is old. 2. The cat is sleeping. 5. The apple is red. 3. Red apple. 6. The broken pitcher. 12 THE SENTENCE 7. A stormy day. 12. The fire burns cheerfully. 8. My pitcher is broken. 13. A bright, starlight night. 9. A cold, driving rain. 14. The man was lazy. 10. The day was stormy. 15. A lazy man. 11. Many beautiful houses. 16. Four little boys. A sentence is a thought expressed in a completed form. 3. THE BASE. In the expression black dog, dog is modified or described by black, so we call dog the central or chief idea. In the expression little black dog, dog is still the central idea, described by little and black. Out of any expression in which the relations are as- sumed, it is usually possible to select the word expressing the central idea. In a group of words whose relations are assumed, the word expressing the central idea is called the base. The words expressing the other ideas serve to describe or mod- ify this base. EXAMPLE. Little kitten. Kitten is the base of this expression, modified by little. EXAMPLE. My little white kitten. Kitten is the base of this expression, modified by my* little, and white. The 6ase of a group of words is that part which the other word or words of the group modify. Any part of a group of words which modifies the meaning of the base is called a modifier. Exercise. Select the base in each of the following groups of words : 1. old man 5. large ripe strawberries 2. young boys 6. my little sister 3. pretty children 7. many famous men 4. a large salmon 8. a word to the wise ESSENTIALS OF A SENTENCE 13 9. driving slowly 13. our handsome new flag 10. four young puppies 14. the watch on the table 11. a bright sunny day 15. an approaching storm 12. the famous little actor 16. walking slowly toward us Use each of the following words as the base of a group of words whose relations are assumed : 1. boys 6. swimming 2. house 7. frightened 3. cat 8. watch 4. lamp 9. tower 5. running 10. climbing 4. DRILL ON SENTENCES. What is a thought? (p. 10.) We have seen that a thought may be expressed in completed form or in uncom- pleted form. What name is applied to the expression of a thought in completed form ? These expressions are sentences : The sky is blue. New York is a very large city. Bees love honey. Was the bird singing ? Water freezes. Little children, love one another. How beautiful is the moon ! These expressions are not sentences : A glass of water. The beautiful sea. Honest men. The procession having started. The sun having set. The winter being long. The sunny days of spring. Smoking ruins. Exercise. Tell which of the following expressions are sentences, and which are not sentences : 1. The high hill. 5. Running water. 2. The fire raged fiercely. 6. Our bell has not rung yet. 3. Writing busily. 7. The baby smiled. 4. These three boys are singing. 8. A day of sunshine. 14 THE SENTENCE 9. Rolling a hoop. 10. And moving toward us. u. An afternoon in the woods. 12. The children had a picnic. 13. In a beautiful sunny meadow. 14. My son, forget not my law. 15. Having resolved to suffer for their faith. 1 6. The light of the body is the eye. 17. The mother of the blue-eyed boy. 1 8. Because I have called, and ye refused. 19. Without fear, and without reproach. 20. And what is so rare as a day in June ! 21. The sea, the sea, the open sea, The blue, the fresh, the ever free. 22. He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest. 23. My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky. 24. O Linden trees, whose branches high Shut out the noontide's sultry sky, Throwing a shadow, cool and dim, Along the meadow's grassy rim. 25. Ye mariners of England, That guard our native seas, Whose flag has braved a thousand years The battle and the breeze. 26. When icicles hang by the wall, And Dick, the shepherd, blows his nail, And Tom bears logs into the hall, And milk comes frozen home in pail, When blood is nipped, and ways be foul, Then nightly sings the staring owl. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. (An expression which is not a sentence may also begin with a capital letter when standing alone.) Exercise. Write five sentences about George Washington : five about your last holiday ; five about snow. Write five expressions that are not sentences. USES OF SENTENCES 15 5. USES OF SENTENCES. Exercise. Write five sentences asking questions ; five giving commands ; five stating facts. Sentences may be used : a. To ask questions. b. To make statements. c. To give commands. The battle raged fiercely. Who won ? Do not ask. Which of these sentences asks a question ? Which ex- presses a command ? Which states a fact ? According to their uses sentences are called : a. Interrogative sentences. b. Declarative sentences. c. Imperative sentences. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. EXAMPLES, i. Are you coming with me? 2. When is the train due? 3. Do you see yonder cloud? 4. With whom were you speaking? 5. What shall I render to my God For all his gifts to me ? A question mark, called an interrogation point (?), is usually placed after an interrogative sentence. Exercise. Write three interrogative sentences about horses ; two beginning with why ; two beginning with when ; two beginning with where ; 1 6 THE SENTENCE two beginning with how, two beginning with will; two beginning with do ; two beginning with may ; two beginning with are ; two be- ginning with who; two beginning with whom; two beginning with to which ; and two beginning vrithfrom which. Mention ten words which you have used at the beginning of inter- rogative sentences. Mention five other words which you might have so used. A declarative sentence is one that makes a statement. EXAMPLES. The President sent a message to Congress. Rome was not built in a day. Brevity is the soul of wit. The war is ended. The sun is the source of heat. A city is a collection of many people. A period () is usually placed after a declarative sentence. Exercise. Write three declarative sentences about roses ; three about lions ; three about icebergs. An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command, an entreaty, or a request. EXAMPLES. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. Boast not thyself of to-morrow. Give me liberty, or give me death ! Let her own works praise her in the gates. Study diligently, if you would succeed. A period is usually placed after an imperative sentence. Exercise. Write three imperative sentences about a penknife ; two addressed to a servant ; two addressed to a dog ; two beginning with please ; two beginning with let. USES OF SENTENCES I/ How bravely they fought ! Alas ! must they die ! They are heroes. They must. Surrender ! Which of these sentences indicate excitement or strong feeling ? According to the manner of their expression, sentences may be pure or exclamatory. An exclamatory sentence is one that betrays excitement or strong feeling in the speaker. EXAMPLES. Help me, Cassius, or I sink ! How sour this apple is ! Thank God I am an American ! Must I do all that ! An exclamation point ( ! ) is placed after every exclam- atory sentence, ivhethcr it is declarative, interrogative, or imperative. Exercise. Write three exclamatory sentences about the weather; two betray- ing sorrow ; two betraying joy ; two betraying anger. Every sentence must be declarative, imperative, or inter- rogative, and no simple sentence can belong to two of these classes at the same time. For instance, an interrogative sentence cannot be at the same time a declarative sentence. The rain falls fast. How dark it grows ! Is the wind blowing ? Come in. Doesn't it blow hard ! Come quickly ! But a sentence which is declarative, interrogative, or im- perative, may at the same time be exclamatory. P. C. GRAM. 2 18 THE SENTENCE Thus a sentence may be : a. Pure declarative. EXAMPLE. It is warm. b. Exclamatory declarative. EXAMPLE. How warm it is ! c. Pure interrogative. EXAMPLE. Must I go ? d. Exclamatory interrogative. EXAMPLE. And must this body die ! e. Pure imperative. EXAMPLE. Do not interrupt the speaker. /. Exclamatory imperative. EXAMPLE. Down, slave, and beg for mercy ! Exercise. Tell fully what kind of sentence each of the following is : 1 . How provoking you are ! 2. The snow falls. 3. Speak more slowly. 4. Oh, where can rest be found ? 5. Come one, come all. 6. Up, comrades, up and face the foe ! 7. May I again behold it ? 8. Go and rejoice. 9. Alas, but you must take him again ! 10. Sleep, sleep, mine Holy One. 11. I cannot sing the old songs. 12. What a noise you make ! 13. Do you ride the bicycle ? 14. Do I ride ! 15. Help me to mount. 1 6. Look out ! Punctuate the following sentences and tell what kind of sentence each is : THE TYPICAL SENTENCE 1 9 1. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky 2. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may 3. Oh, that those lips had language 4. Why sits she thus in solitude 5. Come into the garden, Maud 6. What a rare fellow you are, Adam 7. Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime 8. He was disturbed by the sound of approaching footsteps 6. THE TYPICAL SENTENCE. From a page in your Reader or History select the declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences. Of which class do you find the greatest number ? It is warm. Is it warm ? What kind of sentence is each of these ? Do they differ in the words used ? in the order of the words ? in punctua- tion ? ^l_M1 U Children, obey me. Children obey me. What kind of sentence is each of these ? How do they differ? It is very warm. How warm it is ! What kind of sentence is each of these ? How do they differ? The pure declarative sentence differs from the other kinds of sentences chiefly in the arrangement of its words or in its punctuation, and most things that are true of it are true of all sentences. Pure declarative sentences are besides much more commonly employed than any other kind. For these reasons we may regard the pure declarative as the typical sentence. 20 THE SENTENCE Exercise. Write a pure declarative sentence containing the same related ideas as each of the following : 1. Pull for the shore, sailors. 2. Does the wind blow ? 3. What mean those sounds? 4. How the wind blows ! 5 . Sing loud and clear ! 6. Would 'ye look for greener graves ! 7. Did your brother come alone ? 7. MIXED SENTENCES. You are not tired, are you ? Write the two thoughts contained in this sentence in two separate sentences. These thoughts are so closely related that they are expressed in one sentence, though the expression of each thought standing alone would be a sentence itself. What kind of sentence would express the first thought ? What kind would express the second ? Are you tired ? for you look so. Describe this sentence. When two or more expressions which, standing alone, would be sen- tences, are so closely related that all are required to complete the thought and thus form but one sentence, each of the expressions is called a clause. A clause, like a sentence, may be declarative, interroga- tive, or imperative. What are the clauses in each of the sentences described above ? What kind of clause is each ? Though no sen- tence, as a whole, can be both declarative and interrogative, yet a sentence may consist of unlike clauses. Come with me, won't you ? Of what kinds of clauses does this sentence consist? MIXED SENTENCES 21 A sentence composed of unlike clauses is a mixed sentence. A mixed sentence should be followed by the punctua- tion mark suitable to its last part. A punctuation marlc should be placed between the clauses of a mixed, sentence. This may be a comma (,), a semicolon (;), an interrogation point, or an exclama- tion point, but not a period. Exercise. Tell fully what kind of sentence each of the following is : 1 . Telegraph me on your arrival, will you ? 2. That's what you would like to be doing, is it? 3. We are not cowards, are we? 4. Are you sleepy ? are you cold ? are you hungry ? for you look worn out. 5. Be quiet! there is no danger. 6. Blow wind! come wrack! at least we 1 !! die with harness on our back. 7. Beware, my lord, of jealousy ; It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock the food it feeds on. 8. Give me three grains of corn, mother, Only three grains of corn ; It will keep the little life I have Till the coming of the morn. 9 . Up ! up ! my friend, and clear your looks ; Why all this toil and trouble ? 10. Defer not till to-morrow to be wise ; To-morrow's sun to thee may never rise. Punctuate the following : 1 . Why are you so silent 2. He is your brother is he 3. How silent you are 4. Pull down that flag 5. The band is playing " Yankee Doodle " is it not 6. The wind blew a gale 7- Do hush your mother is ill 8. Will you be there at the appointed hour 22 THE SENTENCE 9. Go away I am busy 10. Bring your book to me n. Summer comes with flower and bee Where is my brother gone 12. Oh that those lips had language 13. When shall we three meet again 14. Throw physic to the dogs I'll none of it 15. Thou canst not say I did it never shake Thy gory locks at me 1 6. Aye tear her tattered ensign down Long has it waved on high 17. You hear that boy laughing you think he's all fun But the angels laugh too at the good he has done The children laugh loud as they troop to his call The poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all Write and punctuate five mixed sentences each containing an im- perative and a declarative clause ; five, each containing a declarative and an interrogative clause; two, each containing an imperative and an interrogative clause. It is not necessary that clauses which are joined shall be of different kinds. // two declarative or two imperative clauses are united in one sentence, without a connecting word, a semicolon is usually placed between them. EXAMPLES. I knew him ; he knew not me. Come kneel at my feet ; look right in my eyes. If several short clauses are united in one sentence they are usually separated by commas. EXAMPLES. I saw him, he saw me, and you saw us both. I came, I saw. I conquered. CHAPTER II. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO USE. SYNOPSIS. A sentence may be divided into the subject and the predicate. The predicate may consist of two parts : the asserter, or copula, and the complement. The predicate base may consist of one word, which represents both the base of the complement and the asserter. A word that represents doing, having, or being, is a verb. A modifier of a subject is called an adjective modifier. Complements which describe or identify the subject are adjective. An objective element receives the action expressed in the verb. Any other modifier of a verb is adverbial. The essential elements of a sentence are the substantive (subject) and predicative (predicate) elements, the latter including the asserted adjective element. The accessory elements are adjective, objective, and adverbial. 8. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Chalk is white. The little red apple is very sweet. One of these assertions is made about cJialk ; the other assertion is made about the little red apple. In every declarative sentence there is a word or group of words about which an assertion is made. The word, or group of words, representing that about which the assertion is made is the subject of the sentence. EXAMPLES. This rose is red. My clock is fast. The clock on the mantle is slow. 23 24 ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO USE Exercise. Write ten sentences, and underline the subject of each. Chalk is white. My red purse is lost. The boys are coming to see us to-day. In the first sentence, white is asserted of chalk ; in the second, lost is asserted of my red purse ; in the third, com- ing to see us to-day is asserted of the boys. In every declarative sentence there is a word or group of words representing that which is asserted of the subject. The chalk is white. I am tired. I have spoken. In the first of these sentences, is asserts white of the chalk ; in the second, am asserts tired of /; in the third, have asserts spoken of /. In every declarative sentence there is a word or a group of words which asserts. That which is asserted of the subject, together with that which asserts, is called the predicate of the sentence. Exercise. Point out in each of the following sentences the part which is asserted and the part which asserts : 1. The boy is good. 3. The boy is my cousin. 2. The boy is a pupil. 4. John was very industrious. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 2$ 5. The poor boy seems very tired. 6. The water is cool. 7. The cool water is running. 8. The winter will be coming very soon. 9. Charles was studying very industriously. 10. The wagon was struck by an engine. n. The examples were done in five minutes. Are you indignant ? In this sentence an inquiry is made about yon ; you is the subject of the sentence. Indignant is the idea whose relation to the subject is inquired about. It corresponds to the asserted part of the predicate of the declarative sentence. Are makes the inquiry. It corresponds to the asserter. Children, be silent. In this sentence a command is made to children ; chil- dren is the subject of the sentence. Silent represents the condition which is commanded of children. It corresponds to the asserted part of the predicate of a declarative sen- tence. Be makes the command. It corresponds to the asserter. Every interrogative or imperative sentence is composed of subject and predicate. Just as the predicate of a de- clarative sentence asserts something of the subject, so the predicate of an interrogative sentence inquires about the subject, and the predicate of an imperative sentence demands or requests something of the subject. In this book we use the word assert to mean assert, or in- quire, or command, and asserter to mean that which asserts, inquires, or commands, and assertion to mean also inquiry and command. 26 ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO USE If the sentence Children, be silent, had been addressed to the children without mentioning them, the command would have been Be silent, in which case the subject would be not mentioned, but understood. In like manner, the declarative sentence Thank you means / thank you ; the subject, /, though not expressed, is understood by the hearer. Exercise. Tell the entire subject and the entire predicate of each sentence given below. Separate each predicate into two parts, the part asserted and the asserter. asserter. asserted EXAMPLE. That dog is very fierce". subj pred. 1 . This watch is pretty. 2. My gold watch is ticking. 3. I was humming in school. 4. I am tired of the lesson 5 . My neighbor was riding. 6. The day is fair. 7. Was yesterday cloudy ? 8. I was detained by the teacher. 9. The letter was written yesterday. 10. I have caught a large fish. 11. Be careful. 12. The large black dog is running in the garden. 13. My brother has gone to Boston. 14. Are you going with him? 15. The wagons were overturned at the bridge. 1 6. The early bird is a wise fellow. 17. Many spring blossoms are frozen. 1 8. The worm was caught by the early bird. 19. Was the worm wise? 20. The small brown book is lying on the table. 21. Be cautious, little worm. 22. Mary and John were reading. 23. A pair of horses were running away. SUBJECT BASE 27 9. THE SUBJECT BASE. A fine view of the harbor was obtained. Viezv is the base of the subject ; it is modified by the words a and fine, and by the group of words, of the harbor. The base of the subject is that part which is modified by the rest of the entire subject. The big boy who recited so well received the prize. The subject base, boy, is modified by the words the and big, and by the group of words, who recited so well. Exercise. Tell the base of the subject in each of these sentences, and tell whether the modifiers are words or groups of words : ~ 1. A large ship was driven ashore. 2. A good conscience will make a happy man. 3. A very high wind shook the windows violently. 4. Tall trees grow in the forest. 5. Are very large hats worn now? 6. Finely powdered sugar is used in making candy. 7. A bright and joyous procession of children danced gayly along the road, when the bells pealed. 8. The man who is not elated by success possesses true fortitude of mind. 9. Large red apples hang upon the branches. 10. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 11. The vessel on which we sailed was commanded by Captain Richard Pike. 12. The barking of the dogs roused the people. 13. Poor Jack fell to the ground. 14. True beauty dwells in deep retreats. 15. The stars of midnight shone brightly on the scene. 1 6. The man who is honest is always respected. 17. A fair little girl was sitting under a tree. 1 8. The heavily laden train was rolling into the station. 28 ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO USE 10. PARTS OF THE PREDICATE ASSERTER (COPULA) AND COMPLEMENT. That red apple is very sweet. That red apple is the entire subject of this sentence ; apple is the base of the subject ; tJiat and red are modifiers of apple, used to tell which apple is very sweet. Is very sweet is the entire predicate of this sentence ; is siveet is the base of the predicate ; very sweet expresses the entire idea asserted of that red apple ; sweet is the base of the idea ; very is a modifier of sweet ; is is the asserter. Exercise. Select the entire subjects of the sentences that follow; select the base of each subject and name each of its modifiers. Select the base of each idea asserted of the subject, and tell its modifiers. 1. Some autumn leaves are brown. 2. Many autumn leaves are very dark. 3. The bright spring grass is light green. 4. Are the leaves of the fir tree very dark green? 5. The new house is rather inconvenient. 6. Men of Company A, be steady in your aim. 7. The little boys might be more quiet. 8. The new wagon was badly broken. 9. The old oak tree is very unsteady. 10. Is the new dress dark blue? 11. The lost book was entirely new. 12. The broken wagon was soon mended. 13. The new play is very interesting. 14. An entire day was lost in the search. 15. Those among the audience who do not hear well may come up to the front. 1 6. That sort of person is often in trouble. 17. When will the new programme begin? Name the entire predicate in each of the foregoing sentences. PARTS OF THE PREDICATE 29 It has been shown that a sentence consists of two parts, a subject and a predicate ; and also that the predicate may consist of two parts, the asserter and that which is as- serted. Since the asserter couples the thing asserted to the subject, it is often called the copula, a word which means to couple or unite, and since the asserted part com- pletes the predicate, it is often called the complement of the predicate. That which is asserted is also an attribute of the subject. It may be called either a complement of the predicate or an attribute of the subject. The asserter, or copula, is that part of a predicate which asserts its complement of the subject. EXAMPLE. I am strong. Exercise. Point out the entire subject, the entire predicate, the asserter, and the entire complement or attribute in each of the following sentences : 1. The spring weather is approaching. 2. Has the winter gone? 3. Our work for to-day is almost finished. 4. The melancholy days are come. 5. The first day of June was perfect. 6. The long vacation is approaching rapidly. 7. The children are waiting patiently. 8. Mary, be ready very early. 9. In every man's heart is a holy city. 10. A hot day was fading into a warm night. 11. MODIFIED ASSERTERS AND COMPLEMENTS. It has been seen that a subject may consist of a base and modifiers. EXAMPLE. The small clock which ticks so fast is a good time- keeper. The small clock which ticks so fast is the entire subject, of which clock is the base. 3 for that. Write correctly : That 1 r,,, ^ A , rnan is lost. That there 2. This here example is difficult. This 3. That knife is mine. That there 4. He came to re house a year ago. this III. Do not use double comparatives or superlatives. EXAMPLE. More kinder is incorrect. Fill the blanks in each of the following sentences in two different ways : 1 . He seems (comparative of wise) than ever. 2. She is the (superlative of unhappy} woman I know. 3. Mary has the (superlative of lovely} complexion I ever saw. 4. The air is (comparative of balmy} to-day than it was yesterday. CAUTIONS II/ Where good authors are found using double compara- tives and superlatives, they are supposed to desire great emphasis. The liberty thus taken is an example of what is called license. Such expressions were formerly much more common than now. EXAMPLE. " This is the most unkindest cut of all." IV. Use the comparative degree (or more or less) when two terms are compared, and the superlative (or most or least) when more than two are compared. Write correctly : 1. Which do you like / er? pears or peaches ? best, 2. John is the cleverest o f the two boys. cleverer IPCC 3. Choose the 5 of two evils. least 4. The w j ses of the three men was in favor of a compromise. wiser 5. Lucy is the } arger of these two girls. largest 6. Which is the most beautiful city, New York or Washington? more V. Do not use a before a vowel sound or an before a consonant sound. Write correctly : A 1. L owl screeched in the woods. An 2. My aunt gave me a orange. an A 3. hundred men marched by the window. /\.n A 4. orphan boy was taken to the asylum. An , 5. n honest man is the noblest work of God. A CHAPTER VIII. PRONOUNS. SYNOPSIS. A pronoun is a word which stands for a noun. The noun for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The four classes of pronouns are adjective, relative or conjunctive, interrogative, and personal. The speaker is called the first person ; the person spoken to is called the second person ; the person or thing spoken of is called the third person. Pronouns are inflected to show number, gender, and case. The cases of pronouns are nominative, possessive, and objective. A pronoun used as a complement or as an appositive must be of the form that it would have if it were in the place of its principal. 60. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. What is a pronoun ? (p. 83.) There are many words which if used with nouns are adjectives, but which are frequently used without the nouns. In the latter case they really represent the nouns, and are therefore pronouns. These words are called adjective pronouns when used as pronouns, and pro- nominal adjectives when used as adjectives. EXAMPLE. One man is tall. Pronominal adjective. One is short. Adjective pronoun. These children are good. These are not. This use of a word to represent the noun which it modifies is a good example of the economical tendency of 1x8 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 1 19 our language. The omission of the noun which has either been previously mentioned or is perfectly understood is a saving of time. - An adjective pronoun is a word which may be used to modify the noun which it represents. A few adjective pronouns are declined as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. ORDINARY. POSSESSIVE. this these one one's that those another another's other other's latter latter's former former's Exercise. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following sentences : 1 . All those in favor of the motion, please say aye. 2. Few, few shall part where many meet. 3. Neither is correct ; in fact, both are wrong. 4. Each of us must try to understand. 5. Both of those men were present at the trial. 6. Who are these in bright array ? 7. You may expect to see such as I am in the assemblies of men. 8. You may repeat this as I have told you. 9. John and James went abroad ; the former stayed a year, while the latter returned almost immediately. 10. Some must work while others weep. 1 1 . This is mine ; that is yours. 12. A barrel of apples came by express to us, but most of them were spoiled. 13. I have enough to last a month. 14. Some of these trees are dead and must be cut down. 15. Both of them were wrong, but neither was willing to acknowl- edge it. 16. The former subject has been discussed ; the latter has not. 17. I do not know which to choose, 18. No one answered me. I2O PRONOUNS 61. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The man who entered the room is the speaker. In this sentence who shows the relation of an adjective clause to its principal. Who also stands for the noun man. As the noun for which a pronoun stands usually precedes the pronoun, it is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the above sentence, man is the antecedent of the pronoun ivha, and is the principal of the clause which who introduces.' Five pronouns, who, which, what, that, and as, are used to represent nouns, and to serve also as subordinate con- nectives. Hence these pronouns are called relative or conjunctive pronouns. What I do, you know. What means the thing which (or the things which). What is ar other example of economy by the use of a word complex in meaning. It contains within itself the ideas of both the antecedent and its relation. Relative pronouns are not altered to show number or sex. Who varies to show relation, and which and that take whose for a possessive form, but what and as are never used as possessives, and do not vary in form. I do not know who is here. I do not know who he is. I do not know whose hat this is. I do not know whom we met. I do not know to whom I wrote. How is each of these relative pronouns used ? What form is used as substantive element in the subordinate RELATIVE PRONOUNS 121 clause ? How else is the same form used ? What is the possessive form ? What form is used as objective modi- fier of the predicate verb in the subordinate clause ? How else is the same form -used ? Pronouns have three case forms. The form which is used as substantive element or base, called the nominative form, is also employed when the pronoun is used inde- pendently, or as complement in an assertive phrase. The form which is used as objective modifier of a verb, called the objective form, is also used as base of the idea part of a prepositional phrase ; that is, as object of a preposition. Nominative. who which that Possessive. whose whose whose Objective. whom which that Relative pronouns are always used as pronouns in the clauses which as connectives they introduce. EXAMPLE. The friend whom I loved, I lost. Whom is used as objective modifier of the predicate base in the clause whom I loved, and it also introduces the clause. A relative pronoun is a pronoun which serves as a subordinate connective. Exercise. Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences, and tell what office each serves in its own clause. 1 . We always like those who admire us ; we do not always like those whom we admire. 2. I have returned the umbrella which I borrowed. 3. Take what is given you and be thankful. 4. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 5. The child who studies will learn. 6. The pilgrims ate such food as they could get. 7- They drove on in spite of the storm that raged. 8. Hail to the chief who in triumph advances. 122 PRONOUNS 9. Will the boy whose name has just been called please stand ? 10. This is the book of which I spoke. 1 1 . The elm tree under which Washington took command of the army still stands. 12. In the nest which was high in the apple tree, we found four young robins. 13. Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie Which we ascribe to heaven. 14. There is a Reaper whose name is Death. 15. No tears dim the sweet look that nature wears. 1 6. The soul that slumbers is dead. 17. He had that delicacy of expression which has always been thought to indicate a sensitive spirit. 1 8. The book, through which I glanced rapidly, seemed well adapted for the purpose. 19. I remember what you said to me. The relative pronouns have compound forms, as fol- lows : whoso whoever whichever whatever whosoever whichsoever whatsoever These compound forms have no expressed antecedent. Four of them are declined like the simple forms from which they are derived. Nominative, whoever whichever whosoeve r whichsoever Possessive. whosever whosever whosesoever whosesoever Objective. whomever whichever whomsoever whichsoever I employ whomever I can get. (any person whom) Whomever is the object of employ in the principal clause, and of can get in the subordinate clause. It therefore has the objective form. I will employ ivhoever will come, (any person who) Whoever represents the entire idea any person zvho. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 12$ It is the object of will employ in the principal clause, but because it is the subject of will come in the subordinate clause its form is nominative. In such a case the com- pound pronoun always takes the form suited to its use in the subordinate clause. These pronouns in the following sentences have the same uses as the simple relative pronouns : 1 . Whoever will, let him partake of the water of life freely. 2. All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. 3. Whatsoever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 4. Whosoever keepeth the law is a wise son. 5. I will take whichever you please. 6. Whatever is, is right. 62. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Who, which, and what are sometimes employed to intro- duce questions. They represent nouns usually known, but found only in the answers to the questions which they introduce. When serving this purpose, they are called interrogative pronouns. EXAMPLES. Who is that ? The commanding officer of the regiment. What did the band play? " The Star-Spangled Banner." Which will you have ? The silk flag. Who has the case forms whose and whom ; but the in- terrogative pronouns which and what have no case forms, and are not used in the possessive. The interrogative pronoun has many of the uses that a noun has. Look at the list of the uses of nouns (pages 124 PRONOUNS 98-100), and give sentences illustrating all the possible uses of interrogative pronouns. Who asks for a person, what asks for a thing, which asks for either a person or a thing, and usually offers a choice. EXAMPLES. Who comes here? (what person) What does he want? (what thing) Which of us shall meet him ? (a choice offered) An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which indicates that the sen- tence or clause in which it occurs is interrogative. Exercise. Tell the uses of the interrogative pronouns in the following expressions : 1. What shall I bring you from Europe ? 2. Who killed Cock Robin? 3. What are the wild waves saying? 4. With whom were you walking? 5. Whose apple is the red one ? 6. With whom were you speaking? 7. Who wrote " Lead, Kindly Light? " 8. Which of these apples is the best for cooking? 9. In whose care did you say the child was left? 10. What is the name of this flower? 1 1 . The virtues of whom did he praise ? 12. What! Do you think I am cruel? 63. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. There are very few pure pronouns, for most pronouns perform some other office in the sentence besides filling the places of nouns. The ordinary pure pronouns are /, you, he, with their inflections or additional forms, as she, it, they, and their compound forms, myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and themselves. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 125 7 talk to you about her. I represents the speaker. You represents the person spoken to. Her represents the person spoken of. We told you of him. Our friend found it in your garden. In the first sentence, which of the pronouns represents the speaker? Which represents the person spoken to? Which represents the person spoken of ? In the second sentence, which of the pronouns represents the speaker ? Which represents the person spoken to ? Which repre- sents the thing spoken of ? A pronoun representing the speaker is said to be in the first person ; the pronoun representing the person spoken to is in the second person ; the pronoun representing the person, or thing spoken of is in the third person. Person is a distinction between the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. The form of a pure pronoun shows in which person the pronoun is. These pronouns are therefore called personal pronouns. My dog lost his collar. He lost it yesterday. My is a pronoun representing the name of the first per- son, which name, though not mentioned, is its antecedent. His and he represent the noun dog, which noun is called their antecedent. Likewise, collar is the antecedent of it. The antecedent for which the pronouns of the first and second person stand are very seldom mentioned, but the antecedents of the pronouns of the third person are gener- ally mentioned before the pronouns. A personal pronoun is a pure pronoun which by its form indicates its person. 126 PRONOUNS Personal pronouns are used much as nouns are, except that it is usually incorrect to use a simple pronoun as an appositive. EXAMPLES. It is wrong to say, as many do, " My sister she went, 1 ' or, "My brother he came," or, " The doctor he wrote a prescription.' 1 But the compounds are frequently so used to strengthen or emphasize a statement, and the simple pronoun may be repeated for the same purpose. EXAMPLES. I myself assisted. He said it himself. I hate him, him who has injured. me. John himself said it. Simple personal pronouns showing the individuals for which the plural stands are sometimes so used. EXAMPLE. We, he and I, went with the crowd. The pronouns so used are sometimes called partitive appositives. What is an appositive ? The personal pronouns change their forms much more than do nouns ; the changes are, in some cases, so great that no one would recognize any relation between two forms of the same pronoun, and some words grouped as forms of the same pronoun are entirely different words. / and we, me and its, for instance, without a letter in com- mon, are called forms of the same pronoun, since they all stand for the first person. FIRST PERSON : I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us. SECOND PERSON : you, your, yours, he, his, him. THIRD PERSON: < she ' her ' hers ' it, its. they, their, theirs, them. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 127 Changes in the forms of pronouns are made as in the case of nouns to show either changes of meaning or dif- ferent relations in the sentence. The changes based on meaning include number inflection and gender inflection. The two numbers, like those of nouns, are singular and plural. One pronoun has three gender forms : masculine, indicating males ; feminine, indicating females ; and neu- ter, indicating usually objects without sex (or thought of without regard to sex): he, she, it. These variations to show gender occur only in the singular of the third person. / spoke. Speak not of my faults. Speak to me. Inflections to show relation give to several pronouns the three case forms, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. For convenience, the inflection of the pronouns is given in tabular form, called the Declension of the Pronoun. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. FIRST PERSON. SINGULAR. I my or mine me SECOND PERSON. SINGULAR. you your or yours you THIRD PERSON. SINGULAR. MASC. FEM. NEUT. he she it his her or hers its him her it PLURAL. we our or ours us PLURAL. you your or yours you PLURAL. they their or theirs them 128 PRONOUNS The declension of the pronoun is more troublesome than that of nouns, because the noun has only one form for all uses save the possessive, whereas some of the pronouns have differing nominative and objective forms as well as possessive forms. Which pronouns are they ? The possessive form is usually required when the pro- noun is used as an adjective word modifier. The objective form is required when the pronoun is used as the direct or indirect object of an active verb, or as the object of a preposition (idea part of a phrase). EXAMPLE. I whipped my dog and hurt him badly. i ~^T ~Y~ 1. Nominative form, substantive use. 2. Possessive form, adjective use. 3. Objective form, objective use. It is 7. My son was he whom you saw. The speaker, he whom I praised, got the medal. I called the servant him whom I suspected to my room. / identifies the subject, and hence has the substantive or nominative form. He identifies the subject, and hence also has the subjective or nominative form. Him identifies the object, and hence has the objective form. A pronoun used as an attribute or as an appositive must be of the form which it would have were it in the place of its principal. Exercise. Select the personal pronouns in the following and tell the case form and the number form of each, giving reasons : i . I wrote a long letter to my friend yesterday. PERSONAL PRONOUNS I2Q 2. She answered it at once and relieved my anxiety. 3. I have immortal longings in me. 4. Her voice is ever soft. 5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks. 6. I would give you some of my violets, but they are withering. 7. The doctor himself said there was no chance for her recovery. 8. You yourself must attend to your own business if you wish it trans- acted to suit you. 9. We have tried to please you. 10. Think of us as traveling slowly onward. 1 1 . Give us a taste of your quality. 12. I thank you for your kindness to your child ; he also appreciates it, I assure you. 13. Let the wicked forsake his way. 14. They shall beat their swords into plowshares. 15. Woe unto them that call evil good. 1 6. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 17. Her children shall rise up and call her blessed. 18. We hanged our harps upon the willows. 19. Their path lay through the woods. 20. The dog persisted in going with them, though they repeatedly drove him back. 21. You must wake and call me early. 22. She herself told the story; therefore it must be true. 23. The little bird fell out of its nest and was taken by the cat. 24. Stand ! The ground's your own, my Braves. 25. You who have tears to shed, prepare to shed them now. 26. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry. 27. First say to yourself what you would be ; and then do what you have to do. 28. I believe in him thoroughly, for though I have known him a long time, I have never found him in the wrong. In the Bible, sometimes in poetry and in scornful excla- mations, and among the Quakers or Friends, tJiou, thy or thine, and thee, in the singular, and ye, your, and you in the plural, are used in the second person. They are called the "solemn forms." P. C. GRAM. 9 130 PRONOUNS OLD STYLE SECOND PERSON. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nominative. thou ye Possessive. thy or thine your Objective. thee you EXAMPLES. Be thou faithful unto death. Be ye angry and sin not. Blessed shall be thy basket and thy store. The Philistines be upon thee, Samson. If ye oppress not the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow, . . . then will I cause you to dwell in this place. And I have loved thee, Ocean. "John, whose horse is that?" "It is mine " (my horse, John's horse). Mine represents both horse and John. Some very curious forms of personal pronouns are mine, ours, yours, hers, theirs, and in solemn style thine. These pronouns stand for two antecedents, the name of the thing owned, and the name of the person who owns it. His is used in like manner, but is the same in form as the ordi- nary possessive. This horse is yours. Yours represents the entire attribute your horse. It is possessive in form, but is used as an attribute in place of horse. Such pronouns always represent two ideas. They are possessive in form to agree with the subordinate idea represented, but their use is that of the principal. They COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 131 resemble in use the adjective pronouns, since they repre- sent the nouns which as possessives they would modify. NOTE. In some writers the forms mine and thine w\\\ be found used just as my and thy are. EXAMPLE. Lend me thine ear. Exercise. Tell the form and use of each pronoun in the following expres- sions : 1 . What's mine is yours, and what is yours is mine. 2. The slate is hers, but the pencil is his. 3. She is mine, she is mine, So I swear to the rose ; For ever and ever mine. 4. Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. 5. Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die. 6. O love ! What hours were thine and mine In lands of palm and southern pine. 7. The money is his to do with what he pleases. 64. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The compound personal pronouns are never used as possessives, and do not vary in form except to express number. SINGULAR. PLURAL. myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself 1 herself [ themselves itself J The solemn form of the second person singular is thyself, plural yourselves. 132 PRONOUNS The compound personal pronouns may be used in several of the ways in which the nouns for which they stand would be used. EXAMPLES. I myself have seen it rise. It was indeed himself. I asked myself the question. I hurt myself. These pronouns have also two special uses. They em- phasize the person indicated, or they indicate that the action is reflected on the actor. These are called the emphatic and reflexive uses of the pronouns. In which of the sentences above is the pronoun reflexive ? In which is it emphatic ? NOTE. These pronouns are parsed without regard to this added shade of meaning. The idea which the compound pronouns cannot express, for want of a possessive form, is often expressed by the adjective own. EXAMPLE. I like my own way best. 65. REVIEW. In general, pronouns have fewer modifiers than do nouns. Every modifier of a pronoun, however the pronoun is used, is an adjective element. The derivation of our language from many sources makes it very rich in words whose meaning is almost the same, and also causes it to be capable of expressing the same thought or idea in a great variety of ways. In Chap- ter III., page 63, it was seen that an element of one class REVIEW 33 is easily converted into an element of either of the other classes, with slight alteration in meaning. No words aid more than pronouns in doing this. In parsing a pronoun, observe the following outline : Adjective Pronouns Forms I Uses f Based on meaning Number | Based on use f Substantive I Objective I Adverbial [ Independent | Ordinary I Possessive r Subclasses ( Sim P le I Co Relative Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns Forms Uses Subclasses Forms Uses Compound f Nominative Based on relation ] Possessive ( Objective As connectives In clauses Compound Based on relation Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Independent Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Nominative Possessive Objective 134 PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns Subclasses Forms Uses Antecedent Simple Compound Based on meaning Based on relation Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Independent Gender Number Nominative Possessive Objective Modifiers of Pronouns Adjective elements Exercise. Analyze the following sentences and parse the pronouns which they contain : 1. My little doves have left a nest Upon an Indian tree Whose leaves fantastic take their rest Or motion from the sea. 2. He saw not the roses so sweet and so red That looked through his window. 3. O river ! Why lie with your beautiful face To the hill ? Can you move him away from his place? You may moan, you may clasp him with soft arms forever He will still be a flinty hill you be a river. 4. And these two saw in her grassy bower, As they sailed the way the river run, A little modest slim-necked flower Nodding and nodding up to the sun, And they made about her a little song And sung it as they sailed along. 5. He has given us a law for the lamp of our path : If we stray from it we err against knowledge. CAUTIONS 135 6. A voice was heard to sing one of those wild and monotonous strains so common in Scotland and to which the natives of that country chant their ballads. 7. That is all that is necessary to be said. 8. "What do you want, gudewife? Who are you? 1 ' said Bailie Middleburg. 9. Are you then the person who requested to meet me here at this secluded bower? 10. "What is it you feel?" he said impatiently. 11. To whom think you is your life of such consequence that they should seek to bereave you of it ? 12. One whose name I do not remember spoke of Chaucer. 13. My soul with patience waits For Thee, the living Lord ; My hopes are on Thy promise built, Thy never failing word. 14. This is the day of prayer ; Let earth to heaven draw near, Lift up the heart to see Thee there, Come down to meet us here. 15. Both Jefferson arid Hamilton failed to strike the happy mean which Washington attained ; the former because of too great faith in the wisdom of the people, the latter, by an overcautious nature. 1 6. How tender is Thy hand, Thou most gracious Lord ! 17. O Thou from whom all goodness flows, 1 lift my soul to Thee. (For government and agreement of pronouns, see Chap- ter XVI., pages 227-229.) 66. CAUTIONS. I. Do not insert an apostrophe in pronouns denoting possession. Write from dictation sentences like the following : 1. The book is hers. 4. I asked him to lend me his book. 2. This horse is ours. 5. Whose coat is that ? 3. Its cover is torn. 136 PRONOUNS II. Do not use the objective form of a pronoun as sub- ject base. Write correctly : She . I 1. TT and went for a walk. Her me 2. ' and Lucy ran for a doctor. Him 3. She writes more legibly than (than do). me V me / Him . she . 4- He and her played together. we ;. She walks faster than us. 6. There were at the rehearsal only '" and T 3 she I. We 7. girls are getting up a fair. 8. He is a singer I know will interest you. Whom . . 9. shall I say asked for you ? III. Do not use the nominative of a pronoun as object of a verb or preposition. Write correctly : Who 1. _ T71 did you mention ? Whom Whom . 2. shall I ask to go on the errand ? 3. I wish he would ask you and Who 4. , TT . did you travel with ? Whom 5. The money is to be divided between you and , Whom . she ? 6. should I see at the station but . . Who her ? CAUTIONS 137 7. She is the girl ; I most admire. who 8. I hope she will let you and go on the errand. 9. I think she wished , . and to go away. 10. shall I telegraph to ? 1 1 . Let . and the bottle try. thee me IV. Remember that an asserter, since it asserts identity between its subject and its complement, requires for its complement the same case form of the pronoun as would be used for its subject. Write correctly : 1. Itwas me ' 2. It was not hen she. 3. It was who spoke. him 4. It was him ' he. 5. Was it me or she? I her? 6. It was not we ' us. 8. It was not we who did it ; it was them ' us they. V. A pronoun must agree with the idea represented by its antecedent in gender, person, and number. (Nouns modified by each and every are singular antecedents. 138 PRONOUNS When either masculine or feminine gender may be under- stood the pronoun should be masculine.) Fill the following blanks correctly : 1. Every one should attend to - own business. 2. Everybody will please bring - paper to the desk. 3. Every person should improve - mind. 4. A pupil who studies - lessons hard is apt to learn. 5. Every boy will please stand by - own desk. 6. None of the girls should go out to play without - hats on. 7. The flock of -birds abandoned by - leader settled slowly down. 8. If any man present objects - will please say so now. 9. Have a place for everything and keep everything in - place. VI. Do not use simple personal pronouns as appositives. Write the following correctly : 1. J hn he went yesterday, but Mar > r t stayed at home. John Mary she 2. Jenny and her aunt came on a visit. Jenny and her aunt they The king he commanded obedience. The king VII. Do not use myself where a simple personal pro- noun is needed. Fill the following blanks correctly with pronouns of the first person : i . John and -- went fishing last week. 2. He and - are of the same age. 3. The secret is between him and -- . 4. They sent an invitation to Charles and - . 5. The storm overtook mother and before we reached home. CA UTIONS 1 39 VIII. Do not use the relative pronoun that to introduce a clause unless you make it an element in the subordinate clause which it introduces. Write correctly : ( The man wrote a book that you couldn't learn anything from it. j i. \ The man wrote a book that you couldn't learn anything from. \ [ The man wrote a book from which you couldn't learn anything. J The children have finished their play may come in. I have a horse that no one can tell whether he is going to run or not. . I have a horse about which no one can tell whether he is going to run or not. I have a horse that no one can tell about whether he is [ going to run or not. IX. Do not use hiss elf, theirself, theirs elves, yourn, hern, his'n or her'n. Write correctly the following, inserting compound personal pronouns or possessives with complex meanings. 1. James - is here. 2. The book is - . 3. Even grammarians - make mistakes. 4. - is used up, but - is lasting well. 5. They who - use profane language need not blame others. X. Do not use the pronoun them for the adjective those. Write correctly the following sentences, giving your reason for the form selected : 1. Them boys threw stones. Those 2. I told them to stop. those 3. They meant to get those peaches. them 140 PRONOUNS XI. A pronoun which represents a collective noun should be neuter singular if the collection is considered as a unit, but plural if the collection is considered in its parts. EXAMPLES. The congregation expressed its feeling by a cheer. The congregation kept their seats. A compound is represented by the pronoun which indicates the number meant. EXAMPLES. The child and his nurse lost their way. Washington, or the father of his country, loved his soldiers. It is sometimes difficult to represent properly a com- pound by a pronoun. EXAMPLES. Did the boy or his sisters have their way? Did the girls or their brother have his way? This is grammatically correct, but the meaning is obscure. EXAMPLES. You, not I, will get your discharge. Not you, but I, will get my discharge. Both of these expressions are ambiguous in meaning. Insert the proper pronoun in the following blanks, and give your reason ; or rewrite, avoiding the use of one pronoun to represent two different antecedents, and tell why : 1. The woods against a stormy sky giant branches tossed. 2. The regiment lost colonel. 3. The regiment lost many of horses. 4. The colonel and his men lost courage. 5. Either the colonel or his men lost courage. 6. Either the men or the colonel lost courage. 7. Not the colonel but his men lost courage. 8. The colonel, not his men, lost courage. CHAPTER IX. VERBS. SYNOPSIS. A verb is a word expressing action. The verb forms used as complements represent the action either as progressing or as completed, and are called participles. The simplest form of the verb, when not used as predicate verb, is called the infinitive. Tense inflection is variation in form to indicate time. There are a few inflections of the verb determined by its subject. Verbs are classified as regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive. The chief asserters are the forms of to be. The infinitive and participial forms of an asserter, when used to indicate relation, form copulative infinitive phrases and participial phrases. A group of verb forms is sometimes employed as predicate base ; the word representing the action that is asserted is called the principal verb, and the other verb forms are called auxiliaries. Auxiliaries are variously used : some as asserters and also to show time and others to show also some condition of the verb's meaning with reference to the subject. 67. THE ASSERTER (COPULA). We have seen that a predicate element makes an asser- tion and that this power of asserting is necessary to a predicate (pp. 24, 25). Exercise. Underline the predicate bases in each of the following sentences : 1. It is raining. 3. The wind was blowing. 2. He is sleeping. 4. " Was it not great ? Was it not well done ?" 141 142 VERBS 5. " Yes, it was just. His loss was not a common one." 6. The rain is falling very fast. 7. That we were caught was the pity. A large proportion of predicate bases consist of groups of words. I am an author. I am discovered. I am tired. Samson was a giant. I am here. Samson's enemies were powerful. I am writing. Samson was overcome. In each of these sentences an asserter (am, was, or were) asserts the relation of some following word (idea) to the subject. The sentences given above are all constructed on the same plan, that is, with an asserter followed by that which is asserted. This kind of predicate base is, in fact, very characteristic of the English language. If you ask a Frenchman or a German what he is doing, he answers, / speak. But an Englishman or an American usually answers the same question by saying, / am speaking. A Frenchman or a German does not ask, What are you doing ? but What do yon ? The peculiarity of the idiomatic English predicate is that it is very likely to consist of an asserter (copula) and complement. This asserter is that part of the predicate which asserts the relation of the complement to the sub- ject of the sentence. 68. COMPLEMENTS. Let us study some predicate bases. I am reading a book. The predicate base of this sentence consists of an COMPLEMENTS 143 asserter, am, and a word representing an action, reading. The complement in this predicate expresses an action which the subject is performing. This predicate base is called active because it shows that the subject acts. Any predicate base which represents the subject as acting, doing, or having is called active. This book is read by me. The predicate base of this sentence, is read, consists of an asserter, is, and a word representing an action, read. The complement in this predicate expresses an action re- ceived by the subject. Any predicate base which represents the subject as receiving an action is called pass/ye. In both active and passive predicate bases, the comple- ment is a verb. Dickens is an author. The predicate base of this sentence consists of an asserter, is, and an attribute or complement, author. The complement in this predicate is a noun which describes the subject. The book is instructive. The predicate base of this sentence consists of an asserter, is, and an attribute of the subject, instructive. The complement in this predicate is an adjective which describes the subject. The predicate bases, is autJwr, is instructive, do not express action, and contain no verb besides the copula ; hence they are neither active nor passive. The predicate bases am reading-, is read, express action, and each con- tains, besides the asserter, a verb to represent this action. 144 VERBS Every active or passive predicate base contains a verb to represent the action that is asserted. Exercise. In the following sentences tell which predicate bases are active, which are passive, and which are neither : 1. An avalanche is falling. 2. We are flying from it. 3. The chalet will be destroyed by it. 4. The spectacle is awful. 5. Our lamp is full. 6. It was filled this morning. 7. It 'is burning well. 8. Many soldiers are gathering at the park. 9. They are handsome men. 10. The mayor was pleased by their salute. Change the following active predicate bases to passive predicate bases : 1 . I was driving a horse. 2. The stone is crushing the flower. 3. She was singing a song. Change the following passive predicate bases to active predicate bases : 1. A man was killed by the engine. 2. The gas is lighted by the janitor. 3. Our organ was played by our teacher. 69. FORMS OF VERBAL COMPLEMENTS. These children are singing. They were singing yesterday. They will be singing to-morrow. In the first of these sentences, the action is asserted as being performed now ; in the second, as being performed FORMS OF VERBAL COMPLEMENTS 145 in the past ; and in the third, as to be performed in the future. But in all these cases the action is being performed (or to be performed} at the time asserted. Exercise. When is the action being performed in each of the following sen- tences ? 1 . The wind was blowing. 2. Our children were running. 3. Birds are caroling. 4. The sun is shining. 5. The bell will soon be ringing. 6. The pupils will be playing at recess. 7. I am expecting to see them. They have sung. They had sung yesterday. They will have sung to-morrow. In the first of these sentences the perfected or com- pleted action (sung) is asserted in present time (have) ; in the second, it is asserted in the past (had); and in the third, in the future (will have). But in all these cases the completed action is asserted. Exercise. When are the actions asserted in the following sentences? 1. I shall have finished my task soon. 2. I have finished mine already. 3. Julia had finished hers before dinner. 4. The lady has sung well ; let us applaud her. 5. When he shall have recited, applaud him. 6. We had rested before the opera. 7. You will have heard of me at this time next year. 8. I have received an answer to my note, p. c. GRAM. 10 146 VERBS I am reading the book. I have read the book. The book is read by me. The verbs used as complements in these sentences ex- press the same action and are employed in corresponding positions, but are of two forms. One form is used to express an action which is in progress, and the other form is used to express an action completed. You are writing a letter. You have written a letter. The letter is written by you. The wind is fanning the leaves. The wind has fanned the leaves. The leaves are fanned by the wind. In the above sentences which are the progressive forms ? Which are the completed forms ? Does the passive predi- cate use the progressive or the completed form of the verb ? The words am, is, are, was, and were assert the com- pleted form as being received by the subject ; the words have, has, and had assert the completed form as being done by the subject. 70. PREDICATE VERB. The assertion, Dickens was an author, cannot be made without the asserter ivas. The assertion, His books are instructive, cannot be made without the employment of the asserter are. But the assertion, / am reading it, can be made without the asserter am, by use of the simple form of the verb : / read it. PREDICATE VERB 147 I am going \s similar in meaning to I go. I am writing is similar in meaning to / write. They are skating is similar in meaning to They skate. My head is aching is similar in meaning to My head aches. Each of the verbs, go, write, etc., performs two offices : it represents action, and it asserts the relation of the action to the subject of the sentence. What is this form of the verb called ? The asserter asserts the relation which a complement bears to the subject ; the predicate verb asserts the relation which its own meaning bears to the subject. Exercise. Analyze the predicates in the following sentences, and change the asserters and complement bases to predicate verbs : 1. The basket fell into the well. 2. The water is gurgling in the pipe. 3. From the mountains a soft wind is blowing. 4. An iceberg was moving toward our doomed vessel. 5. The vessel moves slowly into the harbor. 6. My pen writes the words reluctantly. The words asserting possession are verbs (p. 36). In I have done my best, the word have is an asserter ; in / have a good voice, have is a predicate verb. Exercise. In the following sentences, tell how have, has, and had are used : 1. I have engaged a maid who has many good qualities. 2. We had no time, but we had money. 3. You should have come early, for we had refreshments. 4. You have no room ? 5. I had engaged one. 6. Herbert has laughed several times to-night. 148 VERBS A predicate base may be considered as always consisting of two parts ; an idea part related to, or modifying, the subject, and a relation part asserting the relation of the idea part to the subject. The idea part of the predicate base is attributive, while the relation part is assertive. The rain is falling. John is resting. The assertive part of each of these active predicate bases is the asserter; the attribute part is a verb. The roof was mended. The assertive part of this passive predicate base is the asserter; the attribute part is a verb. I am a teacher. It is I. The day is cold. The boy is weary. The assertive part of each of these predicate bases, which are neither active nor passive, is the asserter ; the attribute part is a noun, pronoun, or adjective. The rain falls. The predicate verb is a verb that contains within itself both the attribute idea and the assertive power. That is, the one verb is both attribute and asserter complement and copula. Thus it is seen that a verb may be attribute only, or it may, by the way it is used, combine the attribute and assertive functions. SIMPLEST FORM 149 Exercise. Analyze the predicates in the following sentences. Change the predicate verbs to asserters and complements. 1. Those men are carpenters. 2. They have builded well. 3. The children sing well to-day. 4. They sang well when I heard them, 5. They are well drilled. 6. The songs, too, are good. 7. I enjoy this music. 71. SIMPLEST FORM. The simplest form of the verb represents the verb's meaning without the addition of any inflection. EXAMPLES. Love, strike, go, rest, possess, live This is the ordinary form of the verb. When this form of the verb is not related or limited to any particular subject or time, it is called the infinitive. EXAMPLES. Die, love, sing, go. This form of the verb is frequently the idea part of a phrase whose relation word is to ; the phrase thus formed is called the infinitive phrase, or often merely the infinitive. EXAMPLES. To die, to love, to sing, to go. The infinitive phrase is used much as other phrases are used, except that it never performs the assertive office. EXAMPLES. To see her is to love her. To be a well-favored man is the gift of fortune. My desire is to study art. I like to study. I went to town to buy a book. His desire to study was very great. Tell what kind of element each of these phrases is. 1 5O VERBS The infinitive is the simplest form of the verb, usually united with the preposition to to represent an action unrelated to any subject or time. Exercise. Select the infinitives from the following sentences : 1. 1 hope to go to Europe. 2. John failed to find the ball. 3. They have left unstained what there they found, Freedom to worship God. 4. To speak truly, I desire it not. 5. Something the heart must have to cherish. 6. The way to resumption is to resume. This infinitive form is used in naming the verb. EXAMPLE. The verb to intend is used oftener in his works than the verb to do. The simplest form is often used as a predicate verb, as in / go, they run, we love, etc. ; but a verb thus related to a subject is not called an infinitive. Exercise. Select the verbs in the following sentences, and decide in each case whether the form should be called predicate verb or infinitive : 1 . I go to-morrow. 2. I wish to go to-day. 3. She bade me go. 4. We study French. 5. To learn a foreign language requires study. 6. You saw me study. 7. The children play to amuse themselves. 8. The boys try to do their duty. 9. The rivers flow to the sea. 10. Watch the river flow. 11. Watch the river's flow. 12. The man hopes to go abroad. 13. Dare you go? PARTICIPLES 151 72. PARTICIPLES. The two forms of the verb which are used as attributes in active and passive - predicate bases have already been noticed. A gently murmuring stream ran by the grove. The vase, filled with flowers, stood on the table. How are these verb forms used ? The daring are ever successful. The condemned hung his head in shame. How are these verb forms used? She came up stairs running. He came limping. How are these verb forms used ? Such forms are frequently employed as adjectives, as nouns, or as adverbial elements. The verb forms thus partaking of or participating in the characteristics of two parts of speech, are called participles. The progressive or incomplete form of the participle is called the progressive or present participle. This partici- ple ends in ing. EXAMPLES. I am reading. He was studying. We were moving. They were traveling. You are speaking too rapidly. The completed form of the participle is called the complete or perfect participle. This participle generally ends in ed, t, or n. EXAMPLES. Burnt, written, done, gone, lain, been, laughed. 152 VERBS A participle is a form of the verb partaking of the characteristics ol the verb and of some other part of speech. The progressive or present participle represents the action as progressing. The complete or perfect participle represents the action as completed. Exercise. Point out the participles in the following sentences, and tell which are progressive and which are perfect : 1 . The dogs are running. 2. The dog barking so is hurt. 3. The letter was published in the papers. 4. John has written a letter. 5. A correctly written note does you credit. 6. The note was written by the boy. 7. The master was obeyed by his pupil. 8. The melancholy days are come. 9. Thinking deeply tired me. 10. The boys have studied their lessons. 11. The chimney was blown down. 12. I dislike going out. 13. The pitcher was broken. 14. The children have broken the pitcher. 15. The signature was forged. 1 6. Thou art gone to the grave. 73. FORMS BASED ON TIME EXPRESSED. I love you. (now) I bless you for this kind act. I write letters in the morning, (customarily) We take much exercise, (usually) The simple form is used as predicate verb to assert something in the present time, or as a present custom. It is called the present tense. TENSE FORMS 1 53 I loved you. (once) I broke the rule, I fear. I walked every morning, (last summer) I went home, (last night) The past form is used as predicate verb to assert some- thing in past time, or as a past custom. It is called the past tense. Come unto me. Learn of the ant. The imperative sentence always contains the present tense, but the command or request may be meant either for present or for future time. This use of the present tense in the imperative sentence is frequently called the imperative mood of the verb, the usual use of the verb forms being the indicative mood. NOTE. For subjunctive mood, see p. 174. Exercise. Point out the verbs in the following sentences ; tell what tense is used and what time is expressed : 1 . I study early in the morning. 2. We heard the band play " Yankee Doodle." 3. I recited history at ten o'clock on Monday. 4. Bring me a glass of water, please. 5. I walked to school. 6. I practice two hours daily. 7. Hope on, hope ever. 8. Go to the ant. thou sluggard. 9. I wish to improve. 10. Robert belongs to a military company. The inflection of a verb to indicate time is tense inflection. The use of one form of the verb rather than another to indicate the condition of the verb's meaning with reference to the subject is called mood. 1 54 VERBS 74. FORMS DETERMINED BY THE SUBJECT. I go. I write. We go. We write. You go. You write. They go. They write. He goes. She writes. The only change of form which most verbs usually make because of the subject, occurs in the present predicate verb. The ordinary form is used for the first and second person in the singular, and for all three persons in the plural. But for the third person singular, the form used generally ends in s or es. The solemn style of pronoun, t/iou, as a subject, is fol- lowed by a form of the verb in the present tense ending in st or est. For the third person singular, in the solemn style, the present verb form generally ends in th or eth. EXAMPLES. I go. I write. Thou goest. Thou writest. He goeth. She writeth. In the solemn style there is often an inflection also in the past for the second person singular. EXAMPLE. Thou saidst. Exercise. Account for the form of each verb in these sentences : 1 . He knows that I know his fault. 2. It rains, and my mother fears to go out. 3. Thou knowest that I love thee. 4. He that goeth forth in sorrow oft returneth rejoicing. 5. Thou didst not what was right. Give all the present predicate verb forms of to cry, to sigh, to flow, to do. REVIEW OF FORMS 155 75. REVIEW. Present \ Predicate verb forms Verb Past forms Participial f Progress forms I Complete f Ordinary (also infinitive and imperative) Third person singular I Solemn forms Ordinary Solemn EXAMPLE. (Inf.) To love r Ordinary love C Present -j Third person singular loves Predicate verb jloved | Sol r lovest Movedst [loveth f Progressive loving i Complete loved Participles A tabulated view of the inflections of a verb that is, of its changes of form because of tense, or subject, or mood is its inflectional conjugation. EXAMPLE. First person. Second person . Third person. First person. Second person. Third person. INFINITIVE to love PRESENT. SINGULAR. I love You love (thou lovest) He, she, it loves (loveth) PLURAL. We love You (ye) love They love PRESENT PARTICIPLE loving PAST. PLURAL. We loved You (ye) loved They loved COMPLETE PARTICIPLE loved IMPERATIVE love SINGULAR. I loved You loved (thou lovedst) He, she, it loved 156 VERBS Exercise on Form. Name the form of each verb in the following sentences and explain the reason for its use. 1 . A wandering minstrel, worn by long travel, sang beneath our window. 2. We thanked him, and, flinging flowers to him, retired to rest. 3. The sun rises arrayed in splendor. 4. To tell her virtues taxes all my powers. 5. They tell themselves to all who know her. 76. MEANING OF VERB FORMS. The infinitive phrase and the progressive participial form are the purest in meaning, being used often merely to name the meaning of the verb. EXAMPLES. To read is pleasant. Reading is a pleasant occupation. The perfect participial form expresses the meaning of the verb and the idea of completion. EXAMPLES. The day is gone. A crumpled paper. The present tense of the verb, or the present predicate verb, combines the meaning of the verb and the assertive function with the idea of present time. EXAMPLES. I go often. He goes often. We live here. He lives here. The past tense, or the past predicate verb, combines the meaning of the verb and the assertive function with the idea of past time. EXAMPLES. I ran. He ran. We lived here. He lived here. NOTE. This means, He did live in the past. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 157 Exercise. Analyze the meanings of the verbs in the following sentences : 1. We hoped tp succeed. 2. Rowing is good exercise. 3. The ship was loaded with curios. 4. The torn page was spoiled entirely by the rain. 5. I enjoy the summer. 6. To think requires brains. 7. A burnt child dreads the fire. 8. The ship sank in mid-ocean. 9. My exercise is finished. 10. A loaded wagon passed the door. 11. The man failed in his attempt to fly. 77. CLASSES BASED ON FORM. I laugh every time I speak of it. I laughed when I spoke of it. I have laughed whenever I have spoken of it. The past predicate verb form past tense and per- fect participle of laugh are formed by adding ed to the present form. The past tense and perfect participle of speak are formed by altering the spelling of the word. According to the manner in which the past tense and perfect participle of a verb are formed, it is called a regu- lar verb, or an irregular verb. A verb whose past tense and perfect participle are formed by adding d or ed to the present, is called a regular verb. EXAMPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PERF. PART. live lived lived A verb whose past tense or perfect participle is formed in any other way than by adding d or ed as by changes within the verb is called an irregular verb. 158 VERBS EXAMPLES. PRESENT. PAST PERF. PART. run ran * run sow sowed sown cost cost cost deal dealt dealt NOTE. The cd or d used in the past tense is the remains of some verb, with a meaning like that of did, which was once used to show the completion of the act: / lean did. The tendency is to make all verbs regular. Many are both regular and irregular; or regular in one part and irregular in another. EXAMPLES. PRESENT." PAST. PERF. PART. hang hung or hanged hung or hanged sow sowed sowed or sown Exercise. Tell which of the verbs in the following sentences are regular, and which are irregular : 1 . The tree which grew by the wall waxed tall and stately. 2. The woodman went out and cut it down. 3. Put the hewn logs in their places and the sawed wood below. 4. The merry children, pleased by the music, sang and danced. 78. CLASSES BASED ON NATURE. I ran. I followed you. Some verbs are capable of modification by an objective element, whereas others are not. I ran. I was followed by you. Those verbs which can be modified by objects can also be used to make passive predicate bases. This gives rise to two classes of verbs transitive and intransitive. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 159 A transitive verb is limited by an object, or used as a verbal com- plement in forming a passive predicate base. EXAMPLE. I love my mother. My mother is loved by me. An intransitive verb is not limited by an object and cannot be used to form a passive predicate base. EXAMPLE. I go to school. Many verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive. EXAMPLE. I write well, (write is intransitive) I write letters, (write is transitive) Exercise. Point out the verbs in the following sentences and tell whether they are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive : 1. Mary found a dime. 2. The young chickens thrive. 3. The little children laughed merrily. 4. The ship foundered off the Nova Scotia coast. 5. Mary, John, and Henry wrote each a composition. 6. My question was answered by a telegram. 7. The child of whom I spoke resembles his mother. 8. I rely on you to help me. 9. John A. Logan joined the army as a volunteer. 10. The pupils wrote well and rapidly. 11. The travelers arrived at noon. 12. Our sleeping rooms are ventilated. 13. The President left town yesterday. 14. I see them on the winding way. 15. I heard Patti sing "Home, Sweet Home." 16. Patti sings divinely. 17. We heard Whittier's " Snow-bound." 1 8. The class read well. 19. I see before me a picture representing a winter scene. 20. The Santa Claus Club gave money to the poor. l6o VERBS 79. SUMMARY OF CLASSES. [Based on form { Re ular ] Irregular ( Transitive Classes of verbs Based on nature 1 Exercise. Write five sentences each containing a regular transitive verb. Write five sentences each containing an irregular transitive verb. Write five sentences each containing a regular intransitive verb. Write five sentences each containing an irregular intransitive verb. 80. USES OF VERBS. I. Predicative use. The proper uses of the verb, so far considered, are as predicate verb, or as verbal attribute, or as asserter. EXAMPLES. I go. I am running. He seems lazy. There are, however, various other uses to which a verb may be put while still retaining its verbal nature. II. Adjective use. a. The two participles of the verb are used as adjective word elements. EXAMPLES. The panting horse soon dropped. A burnt child dreads the fire. b. The present participle is used as the base of an attributive word element. EXAMPLES. True industry is doing the useful and leaving the use- less undone. USES OF VERBS l6l c. Either participle is used as the object of a preposi- tion the idea part of a phrase. EXAMPLES. The credit of discovering it is mine. The honor of the undersigned is pledged. d. The infinitive is used as an adjective phrase. EXAMPLE. A noble race to run is now before us. e. The infinitive is used as an attributive phrase, EXAMPLE. My hope is to go. III. Substantive use. a. The present participle is used as a substantive word element. EXAMPLES. Laughing is contagious. Running is healthful. The perfect participle, having passed through an adjec- tive use, is also used substantively. EXAMPLE. The undersigned begs the favor of an interview. b. The infinitive is used as a substantive phrase. EXAMPLE. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. IV. Objective use. a. The present participle is used as an objective word modifier. EXAMPLE. I dislike rowing. * The complete participle has also passed through the adjective to the objective use. EXAMPLE. She pitied the condemned. b. The infinitive is used as an objective phrase. EXAMPLE. I like to sing. P. C. GRAM. II 1 62 VERBS V. Adverbial use. a. The present participle is used as an adverbial word modifier. EXAMPLES. He came limping. Warren fell fighting. b. Either participle is used as object of a preposition. EXAMPLES. He praises me for discovering it. Your aid is asked by the undersigned. c. The infinitive is used as an adverbial phrase. EXAMPLES. I went to listen. He came to pray. NOTE. The infinitive phrase was formerly used after the preposition for. EXAMPLE. What came ye out for to see ? Exercise. Point out the verbs in the following, and tell their uses : 1. A charge to keep I have, A God to glorify, A never-dying soul to save And fit it for the sky. 2. The wind is blowing a gale. 3. The oppressed of all nations were welcomed here. 4. The glowing coals lay upon the hearth. 5. Rest is not quitting the busy career; Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere : Tis the brook's motion, clear without strife, Fleeing to ocean after its life. 6. I enjoy walking and running. 7. The mourned, the loved, the lost too many, yet how few! * 8. Columbus tried to find a new route to India. 9. He was the loved of all. 10. The child stood trembling in the presence of the man. n. We hope to have the pleasure of your society. THE CHIEF ASSERTER 163 12. The man, forced by circumstances, gave up his hope of becoming an artist. 13. Alice spoke to me, stuttering dreadfully. 14 I tried to get a patent for my invention. 15. We wished to read ""Paradise Lost.'' 1 6. The clergyman prayed for the widowed and the fatherless. 17. The boys enjoyed swimming. 1 8. My desire is to be present on the occasion. 19. He had a chance to go, but did not take advantage of it. 20. A furnished house was advertised for rent. 21. A sparkling brook ran through the meadow. 22. To remain at home was not my purpose. 23. The bereaved spoke tenderly of their dead. 24. Striving for knowledge is better than working for fame. 81. THE CHIEF ASSERTER. Having studied the forms, classes, and uses of verbs, we can better understand the chief asserter. This word has been called the copula because it couples the chief ele- ments of a sentence. It has been called the asserter because it asserts the relation of the chief elements of a sentence. It was formerly a word asserting existence, or being, and even now is sometimes used with its original meaning. When so used, it is a true predicate verb in- dicating existence, and asserting itself of the subject. EXAMPLE. The thing is [exists], even though you do not see it. The asserter, then, was formerly an idea word in the sentence, but has lost much of its original meaning and has come to be used as a relation word, usually asserting the relation of its complement to the subject. The forms of to be, like the forms of the pronoun /, being derived from various sources, do not resemble one another except in a similar use. The conjugation of to be, therefore, is not a tabulated 1 64 VERBS view of its changes of form, but is rather a view of several different words which are used as asserters. INFINITIVE to be PRESENT. PAST. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I am We are I was We were You are (thou art) You (ye) are You were (thou wast) You (ye) were He, she, it is They are He, she, it was They were PRESENT PARTICIPLE. COMPLETE PARTICIPLE. being been IMPERATIVE be Am makes an assertion ; it also indicates present time ; and it shows that its subject is in the first person. Is also represents a similarly complex idea. What do are, was, and were indicate ? There are other asserters besides be, but these retain, when so used, much of their original verbal meaning. EXAMPLES. She seems happy. She appears contented. You look cheerful. Such verbs really serve as copulas, and are hence often called copulative verbs. A copula is a verb whose chief office is to assert the relation of a complement to the subject. 82. INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES OF THE ASSERTER. To be is better than annihilation. What is to be, will be. That ought not to be. {Ought is an asserter.) I did not ask to be. The poor little plant did not struggle to bloom, but only to be. How is the infinitive used in each of these sentences ? INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES 165 His desire to be good is laudable. To be good requires effort. He was to be there. I desire to be good. I work to be successful. How is each of these infinitive phrases used ? Point out the complement which follows each infinitive. To be does not show the relation of its complement to a prin- cipal, but merely introduces the complement. This use of the infinitive of an asserter is idiomatic. The entire ex- pression is a copulative infinitive phrase. Being ill is unpleasant. I liked being ill, for they petted me. How is each of these participial expressions used ? Point out the complement which follows each participle. Being does not show the relation of its complement to a prin- cipal, but merely introduces the complement. This also is an idiomatic use of the asserter, and the entire expression, participle and complement, is called a participial phrase. A copulative infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive of an asserter followed by a complement. A participial phrase consists of the present participle of an asserter followed by a complement. Been, the complete participle of to be, is never used except after some form of have. EXAMPLES. Such things have been. I have been here before. Had the boy been ill many days ? They having been good friends, parted in sorrow. It may not be again, but no one can rob me of its hav- ing been. To have been absent then was annoying. 1 66 VERBS Exercise. Analyze and give the use of each infinitive or participial phrase in the following sentences : 1. The church being empty seemed to be cheerless. 2. To be sure of my ground I questioned him. 3. Being opposed to the scheme, I purpose to be severe. 4. Being agreeable is not always easy. 5. To seem honest is not enough. 6. Feeling tired, I lay down. 7. The maid, looking ill enough, asked leave to retire. 8. My purpose was to appear trustworthy. Write three sentences, each with a copulative infinitive phrase used substantively ; adjectively ; as objective element. Write three sentences, each with a participial phrase used as an attri- bute ; as an adverbial element. 83. INFLECTIONAL CONJUGATION AND PARALLEL FORMS. The forms of to be being understood, it is possible to give the inflectional conjugation of a verb with the parallel forms of the same verb used as a verbal complement. TO LOVE. AS PREDICATE VERB, ACTIVE. PRESENT. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I love We love You love (thou lovest) You (ye) love He, she, it loves (loveth) They love PAST. I loved We loved You loved (thou lovedst) You (ye) loved He, she, it loved They loved MEANING OF AUXILIARIES 1 67 AS VERBAL COMPLEMENT. PRESENT. Active Progressive. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I am loving We are loving You are (thou art) loving You (ye) are loving He, she, it is loving They are loving Passive. I am loved We are loved You are (thou art) loved You (ye) are loved He, she, it is loved They are loved PAST. Active Progressive. I was loving We were loving You were (thou wast) loving You (ye) were loving He, she, it was loving They were loving Passive. I was loved We were loved You were (thou wast) loved You (ye) were loved He, she. it was loved They were loved These active and passive forms are sometimes called the active and passive voices of the verb. Voice is that use of the verb forms which causes the sentence to indi- cate whether the subject performs or receives the action expressed by the predicate. 84. MEANING OF AUXILIARIES. Some changes in the meaning or relations of a verb are indicated by changing the form of the verb. I 68 VERBS I hope. I work. He hopes. I worked. I hoped. I shall work. In which of these cases is the time of the action shown by the tense form of the verb ? In which is it shown by the aid of another word ? Some changes in the meaning of a verb are indicated, not by altering the form of the verb, but by the aid of another, helping word, sometimes called an auxiliary. . He has loved. He will love. He may love. Has asserts loved of he, and also indicates its relation to present time. What is the use and meaning of will? May asserts love of he, and indicates possibility and future time. He will love was originally He wills (or wishes) to love. Will has lost its original meaning, wish or determine, and has become an asserter containing the adverbial modifica- tion of time. He will love means He loves in the future. Such combinations really amount, when analyzed, to phrases. Will contains the assertive relation part, love contains the basal idea part, and will again contains an adverbial time element. But these parts are all so welded together in the mind that it is very hard to separate them. The verbal attributes in these groups are properly called the principal verbs, and the helping verbs are called the auxiliaries. 85. INFLECTED AUXILIARIES. I have a good record. I have spoken to the man. In which of these sentences is have an auxiliary ? In which is it a predicate verb ? TO HAVE 169 The servants do good work. They do try to please. What is the difference between these two uses of do ? The verbs to have and to do are in some cases asserters, and in some cases predicate verbs. I have gone. I do go. - He has gone. He does go. He has money. He does fine work. These two verbs, to have and to do, which are predicate verbs as well as auxiliaries, are inflected to agree with the subject in both cases. I will go. He will go. He wills that you should go. If will is used in the sense of to wish, it also is a predi- cate verb. When thus used it is inflected regularly, like love, p. 155, thus differing from the auxiliary, as seen above. 86. THE VERB TO HAVE. The ordinary present forms of the verb to have are have and has. PRESENT. I have We have You have (thou hast) You (ye) have He, she, it has (hath) They have Having is the present participle, and had is the past predicate verb and perfect participle (in the past, also, there is the solemn style "thou hadst ") . EXAMPLES. I had a pair of pistols in my belt. The poor man, having had no supper, now ate hungrily. 1 70 VERBS Since it is possible to possess only a completed action, the verb to have used as an asserter combines with the perfect participle of the principal verb. It therefore always asserts completion of the act at the time referred to. I have written what I wished, (completed before now) I had written what I wished, (completed before then) The President has sent a message to Congress, (now finished) Before the message came Congress had adjourned, (then finished) These groups are called the present perfect and past perfect tenses, because the one asserts perfected or com- pleted action in present time, while the other asserts per- fected or completed action in past time. Exercise. Explain the uses of the asserters in the following verb groups : 1. I have walked to school every day this year. 2. The moon has reached the full. 3. John had spoken to me of the case before the man appeared. 4. Our boys have fled. 5. The child has lost his way. 6. They have decided to remain at home. 7. The city had prepared for a great number of visitors. 8. The rose has blossomed in the night. 9. I have had playmates ; I have had companions. 10. Clouds have gathered rapidly. 1 1 . You had just gone when I arrived. 12. He has spent all his life in letting down empty buckets into empty wells. 13. She looked as if she had walked straight out of the ark. 14. You have waked me too soon ; I must slumber again. 15. Had you seen the man before I met you? 1 6. There have been many visitors here to-day. 17. Will you come to me when you have done the work? TO DO 87. TO DO. I/I The ordinary present forms of the verb to do are do and does. PRESENT. I do We do You do (thou dost) You (ye) do He, she, it does (doth) They do Doing is the present participle, did is the past predicate verb (with "thou didst " in solemn style), and done is the perfect participle. EXAMPLES. We did our best, and found comfort in so doing, hence we rested satisfied with work well done. Since the verb to do really takes the infinitive as its object when used as an asserter, it combines with the sim- ple form of the principal verb. Although frequently used merely as an asserter, it often emphasizes the meaning of the principal verb when placed next to it, combining the functions of adverbial modifier and asserter. EXAMPLES. I do go. (implying that the going has been doubted) It is not true that I failed in my examination ; I tell you I did pass it with credit. It thus introduces an imperative sentence. EXAMPLE. Do write. It often, however, introduces an interrogative sentence without any emphatic value, serving merely as asserter. EXAMPLE. Do you ride often ? Combined with not it is used without emphatic value in all three kinds of sentences. EXAMPLES. I do not wish it. Don't you wish it? Do not ask me. 1 72 VERBS Exercise. Give the uses of the verb to do in the following sentences : 1 . Do you see yonder cloud that's almost in the shape of a camel ? 2. Our fears do make us traitors. 3. These things are beyond all use, And I do not fear them. 4. If we do meet again, why, we shall smile. 5. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus. 6. I do remember an apothecary's And hereabouts he dwells. 7. Did the boy understand your message ? 8. Eyes did once inhabit those holes. 9. John does improve in his writing. 10. We did not approve of the action of the committee. 1 1 . Does your father write for the Boston Advertiser ? 88. PURE AUXILIARIES. Some verbs have lost their predicate verb uses entirely and are now used only as asserters or auxiliaries. They are can, may, shall, and must. Will, also, is rarely used as a predicate verb. All five of these asserters (with their associated or so-called "past" forms, could, might, should, and would) combine with the simple forms of verbs in making sentences. They indicate : a. Future time, as the present forms of shall and will. EXAMPLES. I shall come to-morrow. You will catch your train if you hurry. b. Some condition of the verb's meaning in regard to the subject, as the "past" forms of shall and will (should and would) ; can and may, with their associated forms could and might ; and must. PURE . A U XI LI ARIES 1 73 EXAMPLES. I can go, but I may not go, for I should study and I must practice. Can, besides asserting, affects the relation of go to its subject by expressing ability. May affects the relation of go by expressing pos- sibility or permission. Should affects the relation of study by express- ing duty, and must affects the relation of practice by expressing necessity. Shall and zvill are similarly used in such sentences as You shall do what I zuish ; I will not obey you. NOTE. The shades of meaning added by the auxiliaries of this second class give rise to the term potential mood, applied to the verb groups containing them. The ordinary inflectional forms and the predicate bases formed by the other asserters (to be, to have, to do, and shall and will meaning simple future) are called the indicative mood. Shall and will are very apt to be misused, especially by foreigners, as in the case of the Frenchman who cried, " I will drown. No one shall help me." I will take lunch, for I shall be hungry. You shall go with me, and you will never forget the trip. He shall go home early, for he will be tired. / will means I have determined ; / shall indicates simple futurity ; You will indicates simple futurity ; You shall means you are compelled ; He will indicates futurity ; He shall means he is compelled. Simple futurity is indicated by shall in the first person, and by will in the second and third persons. Determina- tion is indicated by will in the first person. Compulsion is indicated by shall in the second and third persons. Shall and will, indicating simple futurity, form verb groups called the future and future perfect tenses. EXAMPLE. I shall read it Tuesday, (future) He will have finished it then, (future perfect : that is, completed in the future) VERBS 89. THE SUBJUNCTIVE. If he breathes, I am not able to perceive it. If the dead man speak, I shall yet not give up his property. In expressing a doubt about a future event with if or whether, the s is often not added to the predicate verb in the third person. It is never added if the event doubted is impossible. If he but speak to us, we shall rejoice. This form is used after if when but follows and futurity is denoted. Unless both futurity and contingency are im- plied the s is usually retained. This omission of s in the verb used in a conditional clause leaves the form often called the subjunctive mood or subjunctive form of the verb. A similar form, from which should is omitted, occurs after lest and that annexed to a command. EXAMPLE. Disturb him not, lest he (should) slay thee. In the subjunctive mood to be changes much more than other verbs, becoming throughout, PRESENT be. PAST were. If I be there, I will write to you. The present tense indicates a doubtful future. If I were there, I would vote for you. The past tense indicates an impossible present. It is more customary to say, If I am there to-morrow, than If I be there to-morrow. The use of the past tense REVIEW 175 of the subjunctive is more common, but this mood is often improperly used. We should say, If I was there yesterday. If the past tense is used to indicate present time, that tense should be subjunctive. If I was noiv the director is therefore incorrect. EXAMPLES. If I am here now I do not mean to stay. If I were there now I should be happy. 90. REVIEW. Exercise. Give reasons for the verb forms in the following sentences : 1 . Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast down. 2. If he promise, he will surely perform. 3. Whether he go or stay, my plan will not be changed. 4. If I were you, I would leave town at once. 5. If he but perform as he promises, the result will be good. 6. If he performs as he has promised, I do not see the result. 7. If he be alone, give him the letters. 8. If he speaks as he thinks, he may safely be trusted. 9. If a man smite his servant and he die, he shall surely be put to death. 10. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. n. If he acquire riches, they will corrupt his mind. Insert the proper verb form in each of the following sentences : 1. If the wind , it makes no noise. 2. If the wind too hard, we shall capsize. 3. Fan her lest she . 4. I should be sorry if he to fail. 5. Though a man against thee seventy times seven, yet forgive him. 6. Whether he or not, wait for him. 7. If he there, I missed him. 8. I will come if it . 9. If he there I shall see him. NOTE. For " complete conjugation " of verbs, see page 295. 176 VERBS 91. THE NATURE OF PARTICIPLES. The nature of every part of speech determines its classi- fication, and this nature also determines the kind of modifier it takes. Hence a noun always has only adjective modi- fiers. So also the modifiers of a verb are always objective and adverbial. Adjectives also allow adverbial modifiers ; but it should be borne in mind that the adverbial modifier of an adjective generally indicates degree. This fact sometimes helps in deciding whether a given word is a verb or an adjective. The swiftly flowing stream. The very trying ordeal. Flowing is a verb, used adjectively, and is modified by the adverbial element siviftly, which tells how. Trying is sometimes a verb, but is here an adjective, modified by the adverbial modifier very, which indicates degree. I am hurt by this ring. This ring hurts me. I am hurt beyond recovery. I am a hurt person. In the first case, am is followed by a verbal attribute hurt, the verbal nature being seen when the sentence is inverted. In the second case, the attribute is an adjective, the idea of the action being lost, as is seen by inserting an attribute noun. The same attribute may be verbal or adjective according to the extent to which the idea of action is retained in it. It is safe to say that when the noun representing the actor is or may be added without changing the meaning of the attribute, the verb group is passive, arising from a transitive verb; otherwise the predicate base is neither SPELLING OF VERB FORMS 1 77 active nor passive but consists of asserter and adjective attribute. Exercise. Select the participial forms in the following and tell which are still participles and which are adjectives. 1. A brightly shining star was seen above the manger. 2. The very smiling maiden was dressed in robes of green, 3. A charming prospect lay before us. 4. His music is charming our fears to rest. 5. An alluring song was sung by the sirens. 6. The voices alluring us to approach sounded fainter as we receded. 7. I was placed between two boys. 8. The hotel is placed convenient to the station. 9. The iced drinks are cooling. 10. The street was well paved. 92. SPELLING OF VERB FORMS. The present tense, past tense, present participle, and perfect participle of a verb are called the principal parts of the verb. EXAMPLES. PRESENT. PRES. PART. PAST. PERF. PART. love loving loved loved speak speaking spoke spoken PRESENT. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. PAST. set setting set refer referring referred Monosyllabic verbs, and polysyllabic verbs with the accent on the last syllable, which end in a single con- sonant preceded by a single vowel, double the -final consonant when ing or ed is added. NOTE. For list of irregular verbs, see page 289. P. C. GRAM. 12 VERBS 93. REVIEW In parsing a verb, or verb group, follow the subjoined outline : Asserter only Composed of asserter and verbal attribute Predicate verb Uses Forms Classes Modifiers Predicative Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Based on use Real inflec- . tions Based on f time { Based on f subject Voice Auxiliary variations Tense Based on form Based on nature Present infinitive (ac- tive) Present participle Complete participle Present Past Ordinary | Third person singular [ Solemn forms Active Passive f Indicative ] Potential ( Subjunctive Present perfect Past perfect Future Future perfect r Ordinary Style | Progressive I Emphatic f Regular { Irregular f Transitive I Intransitive Objective elements Adverbial elements REVIEW 1/9 Exercise. Parse the verbs and verb groups in the following sentences : 1 . Men are but children of a larger growth. 2. Drawing near her death, she sent most pious thoughts as harbingers to heaven. 3. To execute laws is a royal office; to execute orders is not to be a king. 4. He is the richest author that ever grazed the commons of literature. 5 . I am fond of the company of ladies. 6. Hanging was the worst use a man could be put to. 7. All the judges had taken their seats, Before Sir Roger came. 8. Gratitude is a fruit of great cultivation ; you do not find it among gross people. 9. Hail to the chief who in triumph advances. 10. Prayer is the soul's sincere desire, Uttered or unexpressed. 1 1 . The moving moon went up the sky, And nowhere did abide. 12. Rose Aylmar. when those wakeful eyes May weep, but never see, A night of memories and sighs I consecrate to thee. 13. I write as others wrote. 14. The siren waits thee, singing songs for song. 1 5 . Few, few shall part where many meet ! The snow shall be their winding sheet. 1 6. Coming events cast their shadows before. 17. To bear is to conquer our fate. 1 8. The north wind doth blow. And we shall have snow, And what will the robin do then, poor thing! 19. The gentleman cannot have forgotten his own sentiment. 20. Sir, I would rather be right than be President. 21. The star-spangled banner, oh long may it wave. 22. Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just. 23. There was a little man, and he had a little soul ; And he said, Little Soul, let us try, try, try. ISO VERBS 24. When true hearts lie withered And fond ones are flown, Oh, who would inhabit This bleak world alone? 25. Earth has no sorrow that heaven cannot heal. 26. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there. 27. And, Oh ! if there be an Elysium on earth, It is this, it is this. 28. He who would thrive must rise at five. 29. A power has risen up in the government. 30. America has furnished to the world the character of Washington, ji. And if our American institutions had done nothing else, that alone would have entitled them to the respect of mankind. 32. Although no sculptural marble should rise to their memory nor engraved stone bear records of their deeds, yet will their resem- blance be as lasting as the land they honored. 33. Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee ; Though sorrows and darkness encompass thy tomb. 34. And thus the heart will break, yet brokenly live on. 35. He rushed into the field, and foremost fighting fell. 36. You may break, you may shatter The vase if you will ; But the scent of the roses Will hang round it still. 37. Perhaps the early grave Which men weep over may be meant to save. 38. Into each life some rain must fall ; Some days must be dark and dreary. 39. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the ramparts we hurried. 40. But to the hero, when his sword Has won the battle for the free, Thy voice sounds like a prophetic word ; And in its hollow tones are heard The thanks of millions yet to be. 41 . As though a rose should shut and be a bud again. 42. The days of peace and slumbrous calm are fled. 43. Can such things be ! CAUTIONS l8l 44. She may still exist in undiminished vigor, when some traveler from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's. 45. If a single man plant himself indomitably on his instincts and there abide, the huge world will come round to him. 46. Though love repine, and reason chafe, There comes a voice without reply, 'Tis man's perdition to be safe When for the truth he ought to die. 47. The Egremonts had never said anything that was remembered, or done anything that could be recalled. 48. Come o'er the moonlit sea; The waves are brightly glowing. 49. Thy leaf has perished in the green, And while we breathe beneath the sun, The world, which credits what is done, Is cold to all that might have been. (For agreement and government of verbs, see Chapter XVI, pages 229-232.) 94. CAUTIONS. I. Do not use the complete participle for the past tense. Write the correct form in the following sentences : 1 . I saw her yesterday. seen 2. He done the example beautifully. did 3. John drew a beautiful sketch. drawn lay 4. The sick child lain on the sofa. laid 5. The boy tak n the book to the library. I 82 VERBS II. Do not use an asserter with the past tense. Write correctly : 1. She has worn a green hat all winter. wore 2. John had wrote a letter. written 3. The horse has been drove too fast. driven 4. My mother has & lven me ten dollars. gave c . The nurse has the child out into the air. took seen . .. . 6. Have you the eclipse? saw 7. Mary has , her work faithfully. III. General truths should be expressed in the present tense. Fill the blanks correctly : 1 . Scientists have proved that the earth round. 2. We proved that the air weight. 3. So this is your cousin ; what did you say his name ? 4. She told me that seven and eight fifteen. 5. It was discovered that the cause of the tides the moon. IV. Be careful to use properly the inflections deter- mined by the subject. The verb agrees with its subject in person, and usually has the number form demanded by the sense of its subject (see page 89). Fill the blanks correctly : 1 . They here this morning. 2. Circumstances cases. 3. When I in Rome I visited the Vatican Gallery. 4. the parcels come from the shop? 5. The number of students yearly. CAUTIONS 183 6. The hopes of youth shattered. 7. There ten cents of your change. 8. " The House of the Seven Gables " written by Hawthorne. 9. Not one of his features moving. 10. The children hard. 1 1 . You and I written one exercise. 12. Man after man to his long home. 13. " Well," I, "you are wrong. 1 ' 14. Ten too many to go at once. 15. There many millions of dollars in the treasury. 1 6. Spring come, and with it come thousands of birds. V. But the pronoun you, even when meaning one, de- mands the plural form of the verb. Fill the blanks correctly : 1 . I was coming ; you coming, too. 2. You ill yesterday. How you to-day ? VI. Two or more nouns or pronouns used substantively and connected by or or nor require a verb which shall agree with the last noun. Insert the correct form of the verb in the following sentences : 1. Either John or Mary wrong. 2. Neither you nor he correct. 3. Did he say that you or I to have the carriage this morning? VII. a. To lie means to repose; its past tense is lay, and its perfect participle is lain. To lay means to place, drop, or put down ; its past tense and its perfect participle are laid. Insert the proper form in each blank space of the following : 1 . I down to rest, and slept as soon as I my head on the pillow. 2. I have often my hand on the child to see if he were not dead, because he has so quiet. 3. The hen sometimes - - an egg which in the nest for some time before we found it. 1 84 VERBS b. The verb to sit means to rest in a sitting posture; its past tense and perfect participle are sat. The verb to set means to place; its past tense and perfect participle are set. Insert the proper word in each blank space in the following sen- tences : 1 . I in my chair, and as I dozed some one a vase of flowers on the table by my side. 2. Though I down daily to write, I sometimes fail to pen to paper. 3. I have a guard over my tongue. 4. I have in silence. NOTE. The sun, however, sets in the west. CHAPTER X. ADVERBS. SYNOPSIS. The real base of a sentence is the subject base. The verb and the adjective, which are alike in belonging to the noun or pronoun, may be called primary modifiers ; and their modifiers may be called secondary modifiers. An adverb is a word fitted by meaning to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Two special classes of adverbs are conjunctive and interrogative adverbs. Some adverbs are compared. 95. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MODIFIERS. I should have gone yesterday. In analysis yesterday is an adverbial element modifying the predicate base, should have gone. An element modifying a verb or predicate base (without receiving action) is adverbial. The very large dog bit me. Very is an adverbial element modifying the adjective large. A modifier of an adjective also is an adverbial modifier. In the sentence, An exceedingly heavy gale was then blowing fiercely ) exceedingly is adverbial because it modi- fies the adjective heavy ; then and fiercely are adverbial because they modify the verb blowing. 185 1 86 ADVERBS We have seen, then, that adverbial modifiers modify verbs and adjectives. It seems at first sight difficult to find any common qualities for words performing such apparently different duties as the modifiers of adjectives and of verbs, but a closer inspection of what a sentence really is, will show why the same term should be applied to the modifiers of these different parts of speech. The sentence, The big dog is running, is a statement about a dog. Dog is really the basis of that sentence. The and big indicate which dog, is asserts about the dog, and running is the action of the dog. The sentence, Few old men are living, is a scatement about men; few, old, are, and living, all refer to men. The substantive base is, therefore, the real basis of the sentence ; and adjective elements, asserter, and verbal com- plement or predicate verb may all be regarded as primary modifiers referring to this true base of the sentence. Adverbial elements are secondary modifiers, that is, modi- fiers of these primary modifiers ; and an adverbial element may be used to modify an adjective, an asserter, a predi- cate verb, a verbal complement, or an entire predicate base. EXAMPLES. A very tall tree is now growing finely near the gate. A word fitted by nature to modify a verb or an adjective is called an adverb. EXAMPLES. Her very violent temper displayed itself violently. Her very violent temper displayed itself very violently. Since many adverbs are derived from adjectives and modified by the same elements or words which modify those adjectives, the modifiers of adverbs are adverbial, and words modifying adverbs are themselves called adverbs. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MODIFIERS 187 An adverb is a word fitted by nature to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Be careful to distinguish between adverb and adverbial element or modifier.- An adverb is a word, so called because of its nature or meaning ; but an adverbial ele- ment or modifier may consist of one or more words, and is so called from its use in the sentence. An adverb is generally an adverbial modifier, but many adverbial modi- fiers are not adverbs, even when containing only one word. EXAMPLE. A man very proud of his appearance dreads ridicule. Proud is modified by the adverb very, and by the adverbial phrase of his appearance. EXAMPLE. He drove swifter than the wind. Swifter is modified by the adverbial clause than the wind (goes)* EXAMPLE. He drove quite swiftly toward the house. Swiftly is an adverb modifying drove ; toward the house is an ad- verbial phrase modifying drove ; quite is an adverb modifying swiftly. EXAMPLE. I came home quickly. Home is a noun used as an adverbial element ; quickly is an adverb used as an adverbial element. EXAMPLE. Quickly is not too strong a word. Quickly is an adverb used as a substantive element. Exercise. Select the adverbs and the adverbial elements from the following sentences : 1 . My eyes make pictures when they are shut. 2. Strongly it bears us along in swelling and limitless billows. 3. Go where glory waits thee! But while fame elates thee, Oh, still remember me! 4. Quoth the Raven, " Nevermore.' 1 5. Then I shall see you again. 1 88 ADVERBS 96. CLASSES AND FORMS OF ADVERBS. Two classes of adverbs must be distinguished because they do double duty. An adverb which not only serves as an adverbial ele- ment but is used to introduce an interrogative sentence, is an interrogative adverb. EXAMPLES. Why do you come ? When did it happen? How are you ? A word serving as a subordinate connective and per- forming the office of an adverbial element in the clause which it introduces, is a relative adverb or a conjunctive adverb. EXAMPLES. Plymouth was founded when the Pilgrims landed. The place where Washington lived is visited by many people. An interrogative adverb is an adverb which indicates that the sen- tence or clause in which it occurs is interrogative. A conjunctive adverb is an adverb which serves as a subordinate con- nective. Some adverbs, like adjectives, vary in form to express the three degrees of comparison. EXAMPLES. SITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. soon sooner soonest well better best early earlier earliest Most adverbs do not vary in form, but, like adjectives again, express the variations of meaning by the help of the words more and most (and less and least). EXAMPLE. Indulgently, more indulgently, most indulgently. CAUTIONS 189 97. REVIEW. In parsing an adverb, follow the subjoined outline: f Ordinary Classes \ Interrogative [ Conjunctive Adverbs Forms (If compared) Uses I To modif y 1 (If double) Positive Comparative Superlative To introduce questions To show relation Modifiers Adverbial elements Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : 1. The very sick child smiled pleasantly, but answered feebly. 2. He staid not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, He swam the Eske River where ford there was none, But ere he alighted at Netherby Gate, The bride had consented, the gallant came late. 3. There are maidens in Scotland more lovely by far. 4. An indignant cry burst involuntarily from the people. 5. Why do you move so slowly ? 6. It was dark when Ben Hur turned into a narrow lane. 7. I heard the mother speaking very earnestly to the boy before he went away. 8. The house where the witches were tried still stands in Salem. 9. The scene was more beautiful far than we had anticipated. 98. CAUTIONS. I. Do not use two negatives to make one denial. Make two correct sentences, either of which would express the meaning intended in these sentences: T cannot no . i. I go further, can any ADVERBS - do . anything 2. I , know ' . about it. do not nothing _ can ever anything . . . 3. I do ;, . & with her. cannot never nothing Introduce never or no, or both never and no, in these sentences, to produce a negative meaning : 1. He will read more. 2. John took honors at school. II. The quality of an object is described by an adjec- tive ; the manner of an action, by an adverb. Write correctly : I. She walks rapidly. slowly. 2. The stream seemed . at that point. rapidly V He was told to walk , slow. charming. 4. She appears . . , charmingly. 5. I whipped him constantly. 6. We were forced to reprove the boy constant . beautifully. 7. In spring the woods look . , .., , III. Do not place an adverb between the parts of an infinitive. Insert the suggested adverb in the proper place, so that it will modify the infinitive : 1 . (kindly) Will you ask him to notify me of the arrival of the box ? 2. (well) I begged her to consider the subject. 3. (quickly) I demanded of him to settle the bill. 4. (heartily) 1 wished to cooperate. CHAPTER XI. RELATION WORDS. SYNOPSIS. Two elements may be coordinate, or one element may be subordinate to the other. The relation word's which show the subordination of one word to another are the asserter, the infinitive and participle of an asserter, and the preposition. The relation word which shows the subordinate relation of a clause is a subordinate connective ; it may perform the office of an idea word also, or it may be a pure connective or conjunction. A coordinate conjunction is a word connecting coordinate words, phrases, or clauses which perform the same office. 99. KINDS OF RELATION WORDS. The parts of speech so far considered are nouns and pronouns, representing things ; adjectives, representing qualities or limitations of things ; verbs, representing action, doing, or being of things ; and adverbs, representing modi- fications of adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. These repre- sent the ideas out of which sentences and discourse are built. These are what in analysis we have known as the idea words in sentences. When we think, we put ideas together; related ideas thus put together form a thought. Relation, as we have seen, is known by logic ; or shown by position, as in the .good boy ; by forms, as in brothers book ; or by words, as in the house by the sea, John and Charles, The boy is good. 191 192 RELATION WORDS There are two kinds of relation between elements : 1 . Coordinate. John and Charles study. John, but not Charles, studies. 2. Subordinate. I shall see him when he comes. He will come if he can. He lives in a house. A copula asserts the subordinate relation of a word to its principal. A preposition only shows the subordinate relation of a word to its principal. Give examples. The infinitive and the participle of an asserter also show relation. Give examples. All connectives join, but many connectives perform two offices. A connective which shows the subordinate rela- tion of a subordinate clause to its principal, and which also serves as a pronoun in the subordinate clause, is a relative pronoun. Give an example. A connective which shows the subordinate relation of a subordinate clause to its principal, and which also serves as an adjective in the subordinate clause, is a relative adjective. Give an example. A connective which shows the subordinate relation of a subordinate clause to its principal, and which also serves as an adverb in the subordinate clause, is a conjunctive adverb. Give an example. A connective which shows the subordinate relation of a subordinate clause to its principal without performing any office within the clause, is a subordinate conjunction its sole office is to join, and that which it joins is subordinate. EXAMPLE. I wish that you would come. Give another example. KINDS OF RELATION WORDS 1 93 A connective which joins two coordinate elements, but does not itself form an element within either of the parts which it joins, is a coordinate conjunction its sole office is to join, and those things which it joins are coordinate. EXAMPLE. You and I will go. Give another example. A conjunction is a pure connective. Conjunctions are coordinate or subordinate. A coordinate conjunction is a word which joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates equal rank. A word which joins a clause to the word it modifies, but performs no office in the clause, and which indicates unequal rank, is a subordinate conjunction. A preposition is a word which joins an idea word to the word which the idea modifies, and shows unequal rank. A copula or a copulative verb is a word which asserts the relation of a subordinate idea word to its principal. 100. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. There are very few coordinate conjunctions. The chief of these are : and showing harmony between the parts : John and Charles play ball. but showing contrast, parts not in har- mony : John studies, but Charles plays. or offering a choice : John is tired or lazy. or showing identity : f Boz, or Charles Dickens, wrote "Christ- mas Stories." nor denying a choice : John is not tired nor is he lazy, p. c. GRAM. 13 194 RELATION WORDS There are some words, adverbial or adjective by nature, and performing still a slightly adverbial office, which were used at first with the conjunction for the sake of emphasis, but have now taken upon themselves the conjunctive office almost to the exclusion of their original use. These are hence also called coordinate conjunctions, in spite of the trace of original meaning left. The following will exemplify them : and group He goes [and] so I go. He plays well [and] also sings with expression. I draw with skill [and] likewise paint. He danced well ; I too danced a little. Washington was a soldier; besides, he was a great statesman. but group I do not know him, [but] yet I like him. The enemy retreated, it is true, [but] still we failed to pursue them. I doubt my power to do it ; [but] however, I will make the attempt. or group The master must rule ; [or] else would he be himself a slave. I am sure that he came, [or] otherwise I should have been notified. Not only the rich, but also the poor flocked in with their offerings. He loved botJi rich and poor. John is cither tired or lazy. John is neither tired nor lazy. A number of coordinate connective expressions consist of two words or groups of words, one of which prepares the mind for the connective effect of the second. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 1 95 NOTE. These conjunctive groups may be divided into parts. We may call only an adjective, not an adverb, but the conjunction, and also an adjective. Many grammarians call them correlatives. Thou too sail on, oh, ship of state. And must this body die ? Coordinate conjunctions often introduce sentences. Then they may be said to connect the sentence with some pre- ceding thought. Exercise. Point out the coordinate conjunctions in each of the following sen- tences, and tell what they connect : 1. Not only the court, but the common people also praised Columbus. 2. The storm is coming, therefore the insect world is hushed and still. 3. Neither the father nor his son can be found. 4. First the mother, then the child, and finally the servant de- scended. 5. My reasons are urgent : first, I wish to go ; secondly, you wish me to go ; and thirdly, my friends there wish to see me. 6. I dislike him ; moreover, he dislikes me. 7. I was hurt as well as you. 8. So, the day being fairly ended, we retire to rest. 9. Oh, I was tired ; so I soon turned in. 10. However, the day came at last, and not too soon. 1 1 . This came to an end, as I happened to know. 12. He often shirked his duties or put them off on some one else. 13. She was not only pretty, but very graceful too. 14. It was pleasant to be called a gentleman sportsman, also to have a chance of drawing a favorite horse. 15. I also loved her. 16. The house, likewise the barn, was painted brown. 17. All my books, besides my other belongings, are there. 1 8. I am hurt, yet not so seriously as to alarm me. 19. He said so himself; otherwise, I should have doubted it. 20. We loved him, yet we feared him. 21. Either you or I must go. 22. We loved him not ; neither did we fear him. 196 RELATION WORDS 101. SUBORDINATE RELATION WORDS. Subordinate relation words are of two classes : subor- dinate connectives, introducing subordinate clauses ; and asserters (copulas) and prepositions, introducing subordi- nate phrases. Relative pronouns, relative adjectives, conjunctive ad- verbs, and asserters have been treated under the parts of speech to which they belong. I. Subordinate conjunctions. There are very few subordinate conjunctions. It is dif- ficult to define a subordinate conjunction, because its use in the substantive clause differs from its use in adjective and adverbial clauses. The subordinate conjunction usually shows the relation of a modifying clause to its principal. But the substantive clause has no principal, since the con- junction serves only to introduce it. A subordinate conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. Oh, that he might come ! In a few cases, a subordinate conjunction seems to be used like a coordinate conjunction, to introduce a sentence. But really, in the case above, we should supply something like / wish, in studying the structure of the sentence. Exercise. Select the subordinate relation words in the following sentences, and tell the class and office of each. 1 . I speak as I feel. 2. When daylight comes we must be off. 3 . I will go if you will accompany me. 4. Where the flowers bloom sweetest, there the bees love to gather. 5. As red as a rose is she. SUBORDINATE RELATION WORDS 197 6. I am not so well as I was. 7. Cheap as it may be, I cannot buy it. 8. However I may feel, I shall not betray it. II. Prepositions. A preposition shows the 'relation of an idea word to its principal. If a preposition has for its object a clause, it is hard to distinguish it from a subordinate conjunction. EXAMPLE. Fred Douglass was born before the Civil War. Before is a preposition. Its object is Civil War. EXAMPLE. Fred Douglass was born before the Civil War put an end to slavery. Before is a subordinate conjunction, joining the clause which follows it to was born. EXAMPLE. We agree in that we both distrust this measure. In is a preposition. Its object is the whole following clause. Is your mother in the house ? (prep.) Yes, she is in. (adv.) A word may be used in some places as a preposition and in others as an adverb. He looked at me. Looked at is similar in meaning to observed, and the sentence can be altered to / was looked at by him. Here at seems to be more adverbial than prepositional, me being the object of the modified verb looked at. The preposition as it appears in the infinitive has in some cases lost its original use as a relation word and become merely an introducing word ; but in most cases its usual office is retained. EXAMPLES. We went to Europe to see the exposition, (relation word) To see is to believe, (introducing word) 198 RELATION WORDS Exercise. Select the subordinate relation words in the following sentences, and tell the class and office of each. 1 . I sat near her. 2. From day to day we watched her. 3. You walk like him. 4. The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled. 5. We will look well into the subject and put off decision until to-morrow. 6. During the holidays we will trim the house with evergreens. 7. I know what I like, and I like what suits me. 8. Under what flag did you serve? There are some cases in which two prepositions combine to show one relation. EXAMPLE. Out of, written as two words, which are as closely united in meaning as in and to are in into. Study the uses of copulative participles and infinitives as relation words, on pages 164, 165. 102. REVIEW. In parsing "a relation v/ord, follow the subjoined outline. Coordinate Coordinate conjunction Rel. pronoun Rel. adjective Classes] auDoramare ^ Conj . adverb Subordinate Subor- I conjunction dinate Preposition Asserter Copula Relation Words Office | Single I Double Participle Infinitive REVIEW 199 Exercise, Parse the relation words in the following sentences : 1 . Daisies pied and violets blue, And lady smocks all silver white, And cuckoo buds of yellow hue Do paint the meadows with delight. 2. They are as sick that surfeit with too much as they that starve with nothing. 3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 4. The ship came so rapidly, and apparently so rashly, that the lands- men of the party were alarmed. 5. When the shepherds came fully to their senses they stared at one another stupidly. 6. It may be doubted if the people of the West ever overcome the impression made upon them by the first view of a camel equipped and loaded for the desert. 7. I take long walks because I enjoy the exercise. 8. The horse and sleigh were injured; but the driver escaped unhurt. 9. You or your brother may carry the message. 10. Will you wait, please, until I have answered the note ? 11. Hail to the chief, who in triumph advances. 12. It is a poor sport that is not worth the candle. 13. Men of courage and of conviction settled New England. 14. This term of forty days is mentioned by Aristotle in his Natural History, as also by some modern physiologists. 15. It is asserted that the dogs keep running when they drink at the Nile, for fear of becoming a prey to the voracity of the crocodiles. 1 6. No man ever wetted clay and then left it, as. if there would be bricks by chance and fortune. 17. The materials of action are variable, but the use we make of them should be constant. 1 8. And if I laugh at any mortal thing, 'Tis that I may not weep. 19. Watchman, tell us of the night, What its signs of promise are. 20. I watched her at her spinning, And that was my beginning Of wooing and of winning. 200 RELATION WORDS 103. CAUTIONS. I. Conjunctions. Do not use like for as, but for than, that for why, without for unless, or but what for but or / Write corrrectly : 1. The English do not ride ... we do. iuCC like . was 2. The man acts .. he crazy. as if were 3. He studies for no higher object ' a rewafd. 4. The reason I remained was because I could not make arrange- ments to leave. 5. I shall not read Un J SS you give me your attention. without 6. There is no one here . ^ agrees with me. but what 7. I don't know you are right. II. Prepositions. Avoid using the preposition for be- fore an infinitive. Supply the prepositions in the following sentences : 1. I went down town - shop. 2. The desire - see you brought me here. 3. They went - - receive him, but failed. NOTE. This use of for was once considered good English. EXAMPLE. " But what came ye out for to see ? " - CHAPTER XII. INDEPENDENT WORDS. SYNOPSIS. Interjections, and nouns and pronouns used in direct address, and words or word groups which have no grammatical relations except to their own modifiers, are independent. 104. INDEPENDENT WORDS. John, the train has come. This sentence is complete without the independent word, John. Train and has come are mutually dependent, and form the base of the sentence ; and the word the is de- pendent as a subordinate upon its principal, train; but John bears no grammatical relation to the statement addressed to him. John is, therefore, called independent. Nouns used in direct address, unless they are subjects in the construction of the sentence, are independent. That is, they bear no grammatical relation, subordinate or coor- dinate, to any other part of the sentence. In the sentence John, go home, John is subject of the verb go. Some grammarians, however, make John inde- pendent ; the word you must then be supplied as the sub- ject of go. Pronouns are rarely used in direct address. EXAMPLE. You, sir, I want you, is inelegant. Nouns and pronouns used as exclamations are inde- pendent. EXAMPLES. My daughter ! Oh, my daughter ! He ! I tell you he died a year ago. 201 202 INDEPENDENT WORDS Any noun that has no grammatical relation except to its own modifiers, is independent. EXAMPLE. The boy, oh ! where was he? Boy here is modified by its adjective modifier the, but is related in no other way as an element in the sentence. Whole phrases may be independent if used in exclama- tion or otherwise, without any grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. An independent phrase is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or an exclamation point. EXAMPLES. Upon my word ! I am sorry for you. Upon my word ! can this be true? Here word is the object of the preposition upon, but the entire phrase is severed from the remainder of the sentence. In the first example it is possible to say that upon shows the relation of word to am sorry, the phrase being adverbial in meaning, as / am really sorry, but no such explanation can be. given in the second instance. There is a small class of words expressive of feeling, and used only in exclamation, which are always inde- pendent. They are called, from their occasional use, inter- jections, or words thrown in. EXAMPLES. Alas ! I am unworthy of such kindness. But oh ! what sounds are these ? These words often have a faint adverbial significance. EXAMPLE. Alas ! he is here. (He is unfortunately here.) Indeed, no expression can be entirely free from some connection in our thought with other expressions on the same subject, but it is only when the connection or de- pendence is clearly expressed, generally by form, position, INDEPENDENT WORDS 2O3 punctuation, or relation words, that we call it grammatical relation. An interjection is a word expressive of emotion, and in construction independent. I need thee, O my brother. And oh, what bliss was there ! The interjection O consisting of the one letter is always a capital. When spelled o-/i, the capital is not necessary. O is generally used in direct address ; ok is usually em- ployed in all other cases. Exercise. Select the independent elements in the following ; give, if possible, their logical relations to the other expressions with which they occur : 1. Hark ! the herald angels sing. 2. Oh ! it is excellent to have a giant's strength. 3. I hold the world but as the world, Gratiano. 4. A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew ! Now, infidel, I have thee on the hip. 5. Blow, blow, thou winter wind ! 6. Hark, my soul ! it is the Lord. 7. Zounds ! I never was so betramped with words. 8. By my faith ! I will not stir. 9. O sleep, O gentle sleep ! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee? 10. Alas ! by some degree of woe, We every bliss must gain. n. ' You are so good, my mother," he said in a grateful way. 12. Hark, they whisper ! angels say, Sister spirit, come away. 13. O grave ! where is thy victory ! O death ! where is thy sting ! 14. Come, Mary, let us be going. CHAPTER XIII. COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. SYNOPSIS. An element is classified according to its use ; words are modified according to their meaning or nature. An adjective element modifies a noun or pronoun. An adverbial element modifies an entire predicate base, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 105. COMPLETE ANALYSIS. So far the sentences considered have contained : a. Subject base of any class, simple or compound, modi- fied by adjective elements, these modifiers being word, phrase, or clause elements. b. Predicate base, simple or compound, modified by objective and adverbial elements. EXAMPLE. A large flock of sheep (which grazed in the pasture ~* ~~~* 3~~ 4 5 where the grass was tall) now entered the field with the speed of 5 ~~6~ 7 8 9 frightened creatures because the train passed. 9 10 Analysis. i 2 __3 4 adj. word el. adj. word el. subject base. adj. phrase el. _^ 5 6 7 adj. clause (with clause modifier) . adv. word el. pred. base. 8 9 obj. word el. adv. phrase el. (with a word and a phrase modifier). 10 adv. clause. 204 COMPLETE ANALYSIS 2O$ Exercise. Analyze the following sentences : 1 . The wanderer stood upon the steps, beneath the rich stone carvings which set forth the Crucifixion over the door of the church, and his quick eye scanned everything within sight. 2. I followed him onto the veranda, where the long cane chairs of the country were placed, and stretched myself out in that indolent, lazy peace which is only to be enjoyed in tropical countries. 3. The darkness of night had closed upon this disastrous day, and a doleful night was it to the shipwrecked Pavonians, whose ears were incessantly assailed with the raging of the elements, and the howling of the hobgoblins that infested this perfidious strait. Write sentences in the order prescribed below : I 2 I. adj. word el. subj. base (compound). 3 45 adj. phrase (with phrase modifier), adj. clause, pred. base. 6 7 adv. word el. adv. phrase (with clause mod.). 8 adv. clause (with clause mod.). I 20 2. adj. word el. adj. word el. (two words), subj. base. 4 5 adj. clause, compound pred. base. 6 7 obj. word el. (containing several words), adv. word el. i 2 3. substan. phrase, assertive phrase. I 2 4. substan. clause (with clause mod.), asserter and adj. phrase. L_ 2 3 5. subj. base (unmodified), pred. verb. obj. clause. 1 ? 3__ 6. adj. word el. compound subj. base. pred. verb. 4 compound adv. phrase. 206 COMPLETE ANALYSIS 7. adj. word el. subj. base. adj. clause (with clause mod.). asserter and compound attribute. i 8. compound clause subj. base. pred. phrase. I 2 9. compound subj. base, ist part of compound pred. base. adv. el. 2d part of compound pred. base. | adv. word el. (with phrase mod.). 6 adverbial clause (with clause mod.). Nouns or pronouns, however used, are modified by adjective elements ; and adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, however used, are modified by adverbial elements so long as they retain their true nature. This makes it possible to analyze the parts of a sentence much more thoroughly, and to make sentences much more varied in structure than any yet given. Model for Full Analysis. " When breezes are soft and skies are fair, I steal an hour from study and care, And hie me away to the woodland scene, Where wanders the stream with waters of green." Sentence complex declarative. Principal clause entire sentence. Subordinate clauses. a. When breezes are soft and skies are fair. b. Where wanders the stream with waters of green. Principal clause. Entire subject / base unmodified. Entire predicate All the rest of the sentence. COMPLETE ANALYSIS 2O/ Predicate base steal and hie compound, active, tran- sitive. Modifiers of steal. a. Objective word element an hour, of which Jiour, the base, is modified by the adjective word element an. b. Adverbial phrase, from study and care, the relation part being from, and the compound idea part, study and care, the bases study and care being connected by the coordinate conjunction and. Modifiers of hie. a. Objective word element me. b. Adverbial word element away. c. Adverbial phrase element, to the woodland scene, Where wanders the stream witJi waters of green, of which the relation part is to, and the idea part all the rest; the base of this idea part being scene, modified by the two adjective word elements the and ivoodland, and by the adjective clause element Where wanders the stream witJi waters of green. Modifier of steal and hie. The compound adverbial clause element When breezes are soft and skies are fair. Subordinate clauses. a. When breezes are soft and skies are fair. First clause breezes are soft. Entire subject breezes base unmodified. Entire predicate are soft when. Base Are soft, (neither active nor passive); as- serter, are ; attribute, soft. Second clause Skies are fair. 208 COMPLETE ANALYSIS Entire subject skies base unmodified. Entire predicate are fair when. Base are fair, (neither active nor passive) ; as- serter, are ; attribute, fair. Subordinate connective, when, is used also as adverbial word element in both clauses of the compound predicate. b. Where wanders the stream with waters of green. Entire subject The stream with waters of green. Subject base stream, modified by the adjective word element the, and the adjective phrase ele- ment with waters of green, of which with is the relation part, and waters of green the idea part, waters being the base, modified by the adjective phrase of green, in which of is the relation part, and green the idea part. Entire predicate wanders where. Predicate base wanders, active, modified by the simple adverbial word element where. The subordinate connective is where, used as adverbial word element in its own clause. Every element must be named according to its office, and every word is modified according to its nature. Exercise. Analyze the following sentences : 1 . The very first movements of the great Peter, on taking the reins of government, displayed his magnanimity, though they occasioned not a little marvel and uneasiness among the people of the Manhattoes. 2. Him did Peter the Headstrong cause to be brought into his pres- ence, and eying him for a moment from head to foot, with a countenance that would have appalled anything else than a sounder of brass, said, " Prithee, and who art thou ? " COMPLETE ANALYSIS 2CK) 3. It was some time, if I recollect right, in the early part of the autumn of 1808 that a stranger applied for lodgings at the Independent Columbian Hotel in Mulberry Street, of which I am landlord. 4. The only piece of finery which he bore about him was a bright pair of square silver shoe buckles ; and all his baggage was contained in a pair of saddlebags which he carried under his arm. 5. Thy leaf has perished in the green, And while we breathe beneath the sun, The world which credits what is done. Is cold to all that might have been. 6. There was a state without king or nobles ; there was a church with- out a bishop ; there was a people governed by grave magistrates which it had selected, and by equal laws which it had framed. 7. Nail to the mast her holy flag. Set every threadbare sail, And give her to the God of storms, The lightning and the gale ! 8. It has been observed that the height of a man from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot is equal to the distance between the tips of the middle fingers of the two hands when extended in a straight line. 9. The thorns which I have reaped are of the tree I planted ; they have torn me, and I bleed. 10. The hunter still pitched his bower of skins and bark beside the rills which ran through the cool and shady glens, while here and there might be seen, on some sunny knoll, a group of Indian wigwams whose smoke arose above the neighboring trees and floated in the transparent atmosphere. 11. The gentlemen, in fact, who figured in the circles of the gay world in those ancient times, corresponded in most particulars with the beauteous damsels whose smiles they were ambitious to deserve. Repeat the analysis of the sentences at the end of Chapter IV, pars- ing particularly all the modifiers of modifiers. Analyze sentences free from difficult idioms, in any available good piece of literature. p. c. GRAM. 14 PART III. APPLICATIONS OF GRAMMAR, CHAPTER XIV. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALI- ZATION. 106. USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS. Punctuation is fully treated in books upon composition and rhetoric ; but, since punctuation marks may aid in making grammatical relations clear, some of the rules for their use may properly be treated in a grammar. What punctuation mark indicates the close of a pure declarative sentence ? Give an example of this use of the period. What other class of sentence is followed by a period ? What mark indicates the close of a pure interrogative sentence ? of any exclamatory sentence ? Give examples. How are compound sentences punctuated ? (pp. 70, 71.) How are mixed compound sentences punctuated? (p. 21.) Give examples, How are compound elements punctuated? (p. 75.) Give examples. In the examples which you have given, what marks have been used to indicate the close of the sentence? Which marks have been used to indicate the state of mind of the author ? Which have been used to separate the parts of a compound ? 210 PARTS OF A COMPOUND 211 What, then, are three of the uses to which punctuation marks may be put ? Good manners, not fine clothing, make the man. In this sentence, the commas before and after not fine clothing show that the expression which they inclose is interposed between the subject and the predicate. So another use of punctuation marks is to separate unre- lated parts within the sentence, which might otherwise be joined in the mind. This use of the comma is somewhat similar to the use of the marks which end sentences. 107. PUNCTUATION TO SEPARATE THE PARTS OF A COMPOUND. Commas are usually placed between the parts of a com- pound, unless all the parts are connected by conjunctions. EXAMPLES, i. Oliver Twist was a pale, thin child. 2. Who never felt the impatient throb, The longing of a heart that pants And reaches after distant good ? 3. I came, I saw, I conquered. 4. I came and I saw and I conquered. If the parts of a compound sentence contain within themselves commas, semicolons are used instead of commas to separate the greater parts. EXAMPLE. In some, ambition is the chief concern ; For this they languish and for this they burn ; For this they smile, for this alone they sigh ; For this they love, for this would freely die. If the parts of a compound sentence express a contrast, but is frequently omitted, a semicolon being used in its stead. 212 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION EXAMPLES, i . Cleon hath a million acres ; Ne'er a one have I. 2. When I was little, thought I was big; Now Pm a giant, don't care a fig. 3. Fire is the test of gold; adversity is the test of strong men. Mary likes candy ; I, cake. The verb is frequently omitted, when well understood, in which case a comma indicates the omission. 108. PUNCTUATION TO SEPARATE UNRELATED PARTS. A pure declarative sentence is followed by a period. EXAMPLE. All orators are dumb when beauty pleadeth. A pure interrogative sentence is followed by an interro- gation point. EXAMPLE. Have you found your life distasteful? A pure imperative sentence is followed by a period. EXAMPLE. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. A parenthesis, if very marked, is separated from that within which it is placed, by parentheses ( ) or dashes ( ). If the parenthesis is not very marked, commas are used instead. EXAMPLES, i . The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, Of wailing winds and naked woods and meadows brown and sear. 2. One writer, for instance, excels at a plan. UNRELATED PARTS 213 An independent noun, or any independent expression which is not an exclamation, is separated from the rest of the sentence with which it occurs, by commas. EXAMPLES. John, your mother wants you. I am, sir, his brother. Child of mortality, whence comest thou? An explanatory noun, being parenthetic in use, is often marked off by commas. EXAMPLES. John, the gardener, cut the grass. The blind poet, Milton, wrote u Paradise Lost." Inversions are frequently indicated by the use of the comma. EXAMPLE. In the midst of life, we are in death. The tune which you play is pretty. I like it when it is well played. A clause introduced by a relative pronoun or by a con- junctive adverb is not marked off by commas if its adjec- tive or adverbial use is plain (restricting or limiting the meaning of its principal). That piano, which my fatJicr purchased for me when I first learned to play, stands by the door. I sat and played by the firelight, when in came the children from tJieir ivalk. These subordinate clauses are merely subordinate in form ; they are really statements equal in importance to the principal clauses, and thus not true adjective and adverbial clauses, but logically coordinate with their prin- cipals. Therefore they are separated from their principal clauses by commas. 214 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION Children, be quiet. Whatever is, is right. There are two exceptional uses of the comma. The subject of an imperative sentence is separated from its predicate by a comma ; and the comma also separates subject and predicate when the subject clause ends with a verb, or when the subject is very long. 109. PUNCTUATION TO EXPRESS EMOTION. The exclamation point is the chief mark used for the purpose of indicating emotion. An exclamatory sentence whether declarative, interrog- ative, or imperative is followed by an exclamation point. EXAMPLE. What rage for fame attends both great and small ! An interjection, or interjectional expression, if used alone, or if very emphatic, is followed by an exclamation point. EXAMPLES, i . Hail, Columbia ! happy land ! Hail, ye heroes ! heaven-born band ! 2. An angel! or if not, An earthly paragon ! An interjectional expression which is part of an exclama- tory sentence is usually followed by a comma, because the exclamation point follows the entire sentence. EXAMPLES. O Lady, he is dead and gone ! Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber ! 110. REVIEW. Exercise. Punctuate the following : 1 . His looks betoken ease plenty and prosperity 2. In a similar manner and with the example of my worthy ancestor full before my eyes have I proceeded in writing this most authentic history REVIEW 21$ 3. But ours alone can ne'er prevail To reach the distant coast The breath of heaven must swell the sail Or all the toil is lost 4. Each in his narrow cell forever laid The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep 5. Ah youth forever dear forever kind 6. Teach me to feel another's woe To hide the fault I see That mercy I to others show That mercy show to me 7. The tall the wise the reverend head Must lie as low as ours 8. But children you should never let Such angry passions rise Your little hands were never made To tear each other's eyes 9. Odds life must one swear to the truth of a song 10. We the people of the United States do ordain and establish this Constitution 1 1 . Alas how light a cause may move Dissension between hearts that love 12. When tillage begins other arts follow 13. Justice sir is the great interest of man on earth 14. Venerable men you have come down to us from a former genera- tion 15. Sink or swim live or die survive or perish I give my hand and heart to this vote 1 6. And lo Ben Adhem's name led all the rest 17. But soft methinks I scent the morning air 1 8. What do you read my lord 19. I will buy with you sell with you walk with you and so following but I will not eat with you drink with you nor pray with you 20. A needy hollow-eyed sharp-looking wretch 21. Romeo Romeo wherefore art thou Romeo 22. For he who fights and runs away May live to fight another day But he who is in battle slain Can never rise and fight again 2l6 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION 23. A man's heart deviseth his way the Lord directeth his steps 24. How would you be if he which is the top of judgment should but judge you as you are The use of punctuation marks to separate unrelated parts is the use most apparent to those who read, for it aids much in enabling the reader properly to apprehend what he reads. This fact has led many writers to use unneces- sary punctuation marks as signs by means of which those who read aloud may know where to pause, so that it is possible, by carefully observing these signs, to read prop- erly without understanding the contents of what is read. Some school readers even formulate such rules as " Stop at a comma long enough to count one ; " " Drop the voice at a period ; " and the like. It should be borne in mind that the proper office of punctuation is to make plain the relations between the parts of the composition. 111. CAPITALS. Capitals are employed usually to indicate the importance of the words of which they are the initial letters. The first word of a sentence should begin with a capital. Proper nouns and proper adjectives should begin with capitals. The words 7 and O should be capitals. The first word of each line of poetry should begin with a capital. The name of the Deity, or any pronoun referring to the Deity, should begin with a capital. EXAMPLE. The Almighty breathed His spirit into man* Personified nouns are generally begun with capitals. Give examples of each of these uses of capitals. CHAPTER XV. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 112. INTRODUCTION. The horse ran rapidly. The horse rapidly ran through the meadow. Rapidly the horse ran through the meadow. The horse ran through the meadow rapidly. No matter how far rapidly is placed from ran it cannot, in the nature of things, modify any other word. Under the spreading chestnut tree, The village smithy stands. The usual arrangement of these elements would be, The village smithy stands under the spreading chestnut tree. By directing the thought first to the spreading tree, a more pleasing picture is formed. The variations from the usual arrangement which occur in sentences are for the purpose either of adding to beauty of form, as in poetry, or of emphasizing some part of the thought. EXAMPLE. Old thou mayst be, feeble thou mayst be ; but rich it is well known thou art. Here, in order to compare emphatically the adjectives old, feeble, and rich, they are removed from their usual positions as attributes after their asserters. To learn when and how to make changes in the ordinary arrangement of elements one should study the writings of good authors. A proper use of such knowledge is, in part,- 217 218 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE what is called style in composition. The careless and unnecessary use of inversions for the sake of peculiarity is an affectation which should be avoided. 113. SUBJECT AND ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. The subject base of a declarative sentence is usually placed before the predicate base, though not necessarily next to it. EXAMPLES. I went. The group of timid creatures, frightened and cowed, crept away. If the predicate base in an interrogative sentence is one word, the subject is often placed after it. If the predicate base is a group of words, the subject comes after the first word of the predicate base. EXAMPLES. Were you there ? Will you stay there ? The subject of an imperative sentence is often omitted, in which case you is understood to be the subject ; but, if given, the subject is placed either before or after the predicate. EXAMPLES. Children, come in. Come in, children. A, an, and the usually precede the principal, or the principal and all other modifiers. EXAMPLE. The fine weather lasts longer this year than usual. But when a noun is also modified by sucJi or many, the position of a or an is next after this modifier. EXAMPLES. Such a mistake is not often made. Such a fine fellow as that should not lack gold. Many a bright-faced boy have I seen enter the same course. SUBJECT AND ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS 2IQ And an adjective modified by so may precede a or an. EXAMPLE. So good a man needs no defense. A short adjective word modifier is usually placed before the noun it modifies. Explanatory terms and very long adjective word modifiers follow their principals. EXAMPLES. The good old man arose. My father, old and venerable, greeted me. She, lovely in her innocence, confronted him calmly. Mary, the sister of Lazarus, chose the better part. They set him free without his ransom paid. It is not easy to recognize paid as an adjective element, because it follows its principal. An attribute usually follows its asserter. EXAMPLE. He was every inch a man. This order is frequently changed by inversions for the .sake of emphasis or rhythm. EXAMPLE. A man he was, to all his country dear. Of two adjective modifiers, one a possessive and the other an adjective, the possessive is placed first to avoid confusion. EXAMPLE. The prisoner's young wife differs in meaning from the young prisoners wife. Adjective phrases and clauses follow their principals. EXAMPLES. The ticking of the clock disturbed me. A reparation which is so grudgingly paid avails nothing. One should avoid placing adjective modifiers so far away from their principals as to render the meaning doubtful. 220 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE Exercise. Place the adjective modifiers properly in the following sentences : 1 . The mother came with her baby, pretty as a picture. 2. The mourners came slowly toward us, followed by their little dog, weeping bitterly. 3. A building with great chimneys, seven stories high, stood near the avenue. 4. Send me a good woman to take care of my baby, about forty years old. 5. The miniature hung by a chain round her neck, which was painted by Benjamin West. 114. ADVERBIAL AND PREDICATE ELEMENTS. Those words which fulfill two offices in a sentence, such as conjunctive adverbs and relative pronouns, must be placed properly for one service at the expense of the other. These words are so placed as to perform their office of relation words, and thus the subordinate clause is fre- quently inverted. The relative pronoun, however, while filling the position demanded by its conjunctive office (except that it may be preceded by a preposition), assumes the form demanded by its pronominal use. EXAMPLES. The gentleman whom I have mentioned is not here. The candidate of whom I spoke was not elected. An interrogative word is generally placed first in the sentence or clause in which it also serves as an element, whatever its grammatical relation. EXAMPLES. Why do you come ? What do you wish ? Which way will you go ? The predicate base usually follows the subject of a ADVERBIAL AND PREDICATE ELEMENTS 221 declarative sentence, is placed at the beginning of an imperative sentence, and -precedes or incloses the subject of an interrogative sentence. EXAMPLES. I desire it. Come with us. Where is it ? What will you do ? An adverbial word element usually precedes its adjective or adverbial principal, but is placed either before or after its verbal principal. EXAMPLES. The very funny story moved us to laughter. A cheerfully blazing fire crackled merrily on the hearth. If the predicate base is composed of a principal verb and one or more auxiliaries, the adverb often occurs be- tween the principal verb and the asserter. EXAMPLES. I have often seen him. I will never do it. When the deed shall have been so nobly done. Adverbial phrases and clauses usually follow their principals. EXAMPLES. She was beautiful in appearance. He walked forward with dignity. I rode while the fine weather lasted. But displacements of adverbial elements are frequently used to create emphasis and variety of style. EXAMPLES, i . Under the greenwood tree, Who loves to lie with me ? 2. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 222 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE 115. OTHER ELEMENTS AND WORDS. An objective element, whatever its class, usually follows the transitive verb. EXAMPLES. I wrote a letter. I desire to see you. I thought that you were here. An indirect object usually precedes the direct object, both being placed after the verb. EXAMPLES. Lend me your ears. Hand Charles a knife. A transitive verb sometimes has the power of showing the relation between its object and a modifier. Such an adjective modifier follows its principal. EXAMPLES. They called him lazy. The people made Caesar emperor. The natural position for a relation word is between the related or connected words or word groups. If displaced from this position, a subordinate relation word usually remains with the subordinate element. EXAMPLES. When the gentle Spring comes, I, Old Winter, hie away. In my opinion, nothing said is safest. A relative pronoun used within its clause as object of a preposition is frequently transposed to perform its conjunc- tive office, leaving the preposition in the position proper for a prepositional phrase. EXAMPLE. What he was thinking of, I cannot tell. INVERSIONS 223 But it is more elegant to place the preposition before its object. That as a relative pronoun, object of a preposition, can be used only when separated from the preposition. If the clause is reconstructed, which or whom must be used. EXAMPLE. The people that I live with. The people with whom I live. 116. INVERSIONS. Certain words usually demand inversions in the sen- tences in which they occur. After else used as a conjunction, the second clause is frequently inverted. EXAMPLE. I failed to see her, else would I have spoken. Nor can be used without neither in a sentence, provided the following clause is inverted. EXAMPLE. I do not know him nor do I wish to. On the contrary, the omission of if inverts the clause. EXAMPLE. Hadst thou stayed I must have fled. In some cases, the inversion creates a demand for the addition of a word. EXAMPLE. Where he is, there am I. This means / am there where he is, the clause where he is being explanatory of there, and hence an adverbial clause. In its ordinary form the sentence would read, / am where he is, the word there being superfluous, and needed only in the inverted sentence. EXAMPLE. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. This is an inversion of I will trust him though he slay me. Yet is introduced because of the inversion. 224 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE EXAMPLE. What I seek, I seek it earnestly. In the natural order this would appear / seek 'what I seek earnestly ; it being introduced because of the inversion. EXAMPLE. For the same reason, whoso is introduced in the sentence Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed. The sentence can be better analyzed, His blood, who sheddeth man's blood, shall be shed by man. 117. USE OF EXPLETIVES. Perhaps the most common case of inversion is that which necessitates the use of one of the introductory expletives, there or it. EXAMPLES. There is no one here. It is strange that he does not come. The awkwardness of using a very long subject before a short predicate is avoided by the* employment of there to introduce the sentence ; the subject being transposed to follow the verb. EXAMPLE. There is many a slip 'Twixt the cup and the lip. There may be called an adverb, but has lost its adver- bial significance, and has become a mere expletive. Similarly, // placed as subject of a short predicate, and followed by an explanatory phrase or clause, is really an expletive, the explanatory phrase or clause being the real subject ; but because of its usual pronominal use it can be called the subject, although there can not. EXAMPLES. It is true that I am here. It surprised me to find so many of them illtreated. Is it not true that you heard me? It moved the people to see so sad a disaster. It seems strange that one so useful should die. REVIEW 22$ 118. REVIEW. Exercise. Explain the reasons for the arrangements of words in the following : 1 . In every deed of mischief he had a heart to resolve, a head to con- trive, and a hand to execute. 2. Could we forbear dispute and practice love. We should agree as angels do above. 3. Of Law there can be no less acknowledged than that her seat is in the bosom of God. 4. Let pride go afore, shame will follow after. 5. The world's a stage on which all parts are played. 6. We can say nothing but what hath been said. 7. Why doth one man's yawning make another yawn? 8. Who cannot give good counsel ? Tis cheap, it costs them nothing. 9. Health is the second blessing that we mortals are capable of, a blessing that money cannot buy. 10. The proverb saith that many a small maketh a great. 11. Diogenes struck the father when the son swore. 12. Be wisely worldly, be not worldly wise. 13. The man that once did sell the lion's skin While the beast lived, was killed with hunting him. 14. Sound of vernal showers On the twinkling grass, Rain-awakened flowers, All that ever was Joyous, and clear, and fresh, thy music doth surpass. 15. In every man's memory, with the hours when life culminated are usually associated certain books which met his views. p. c. GRAM. 15 CHAPTER XVI. AGREEMENT AND GOVERNMENT. 119. AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. The English language, having few inflectional forms, has few cases of agreement or government, but these cases should be carefully studied, since their observance distin- guishes an educated from an uneducated person. An explanatory noun is always of the ordinary form, unless it explains a noun possessive in meaning, in which case the principal often retains the ordinary form, while the explanatory noun assumes the possessive ending. EXAMPLE. I was at Smith the bookseller's store. A compound adjective element consisting of a series of possessive nouns each modifying their principal, requires the possessive form of that noun only which stands nearest the principal. EXAMPLE. Fleming and Tibbin's Dictionary. If the possessives modify their principal singly, each assumes the possessive form. EXAMPLE. Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries. Neither an explanatory noun nor an attributive noun needs to agree with its principal in number. 226 NOUNS PRONOUNS 22J EXAMPLES. We are your surety. The foe, horse and foot, retired in confusion. Stones and earthworks, a solid rampart, were piled before us. The trades union, masters and men, confronted us. The price is fifty cents. 120. PRONOUNS. The person, number, and gender of a pronoun depend on the idea for which it stands ; its case depends on the use to which it is put. EXAMPLES. The men used their tools well ; I saw them. My mother plied her needle ; she is industrious. A pronoun standing for several antecedents of different persons or genders is of the first person in preference to the second or third, and of the second person in prefer- ence to the third ; and of the masculine gender in prefer- ence to the feminine. EXAMPLES. You and John may take your time, but Henry and I will take ours. Each boy and girl may take his place. A pronoun representing a collective noun is neuter sin- gular if the collection is taken as a unit, but is plural if the collected objects are considered separately. EXAMPLES. The crowd increased its bulk constantly. The crowd went to their homes. A pronoun used as the subject of a verb (except infini- tives) is nominative in form. EXAMPLES. am here. He knows it. We were insulted. 228 AGREEMENT AND GOVERNMENT A pronoun used as the subject of an infinitive clause (pp. 247-249) is objective in form. EXAMPLES. They wished me to go. I asked him to accompany me. A pronoun used as subject of a participial clause (pp. 247249) is usually possessive in form. EXAMPLES. I was glad to know of your coming to town. My reason for visiting her was her sending me an invitation. But a pronoun used as subject of an adverbial participial clause, not introduced by a preposition, is nominative in form. EXAMPLE. He being late, we waited dinner. A pronoun used as direct or indirect object of a transi- tive verb is objective in form. EXAMPLES. They injured me. The fire burned him. I gave him a letter. A pronoun used as the idea word in any prepositional phrase is objective in form. EXAMPLES. A search for him was commenced. I read to her an hour. A pronoun used as an attribute is of such form as it would assume in the place of its principal, unless that principal is possessive. EXAMPLES. It was I. I took it to be him. If tlie principal is possessive, which occurs only in the participial clause, the pronoun is nominative in form. EXAMPLE. I was afraid of its being he. ADJECTIVES VERBS 22Q A relative pronoun used in two constructions assumes the case form demanded by its use in the subordinate clause. EXAMPLES. I asked whoever desired to come. Whomever I invited, invited me. 121. ADJECTIVES. Only two adjectives, this and that, change their forms to indicate number, but these should agree with their princi- pals in number. EXAMPLES. This kind of berry grows here. These kinds of berries grow here. If a noun is preceded by two adjectives, the repetition of a, an, or the indicates that there are two subjects. EXAMPLES. A black and a white cat sat in the window. The old and the handsome horse draw the carriage. 122. VERBS. No matter how many rules may be found by gramma- rians to show how the form of one word is governed by the forms of other related words, the real meaning will still, in our language, be the chief consideration deciding such grammatical agreements. EXAMPLES. We say, What news is there, though news is plural in form ; and we say, The enemy were routed, though enemy is singular in form. But custom is not uniform in such matters. It is correct to say the scissors are here, but the news is good. Who is followed by the form which agrees with the 23O AGREEMENT AND GOVERNMENT antecedent of who ; that is, the verb form is governed by the meaning of its subject. EXAMPLES. -I, who am your friend, thus advise you. He, who is your friend, thus advises you. A similar rule applies to other pronouns; for instance, ^vhat may require either a singular or a plural verb. EXAMPLES. We used what is known as subterfuge. We were pursued by what are called attentions. If a verb has a compound subject, it should be of the plural form if it refers to the parts of the subject taken jointly ; but if it refers to them taken separately, its form is usually governed by the part standing next to it. EXAMPLES. You and I are going. You or I am going. If, however, one of these single parts is emphatically denied, the verb agrees with the other. EXAMPLES. Not riches, but honor, makes the man. Riches, not honor, were what he sought. A collective noun may require either the singular or the plural form of the verb, according to the thought in the mind of the speaker. EXAMPLES. The whole army are throwing away their blankets. The army is now in the enemy's country. In a compound subject such as usually demands a plural verb, the parts succeeding the first may be regarded as afterthoughts or parenthetic expressions, and thus a singu- lar verb be allowable. EXAMPLES. Henry, and Kate and Mary too, loves candy. A heavenly race demands thy zeal, And an immortal crown. VERBS 231 This is often the case if the sentence is introduced by there or by an attribute, the verb then coming before the compound. EXAMPLE. Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. Emphasis may be given to one of several persons or things by the employment of the prepositional phrase and of the singular verb. EXAMPLE. Mary and her husband are coming. Mary, with her husband, is coming. It is the custom to use the singular form of the verb with compound subjects that are composed of phrases or clauses. EXAMPLES. To know her and to love her is joy to me. That the train is late and we are thus delayed is annoying. Either, neither, many a, such a, each, and every, used as adjective modifiers, indicate that the objects represented by the nouns which they modify are considered one at a time ; hence the agreeing verb and pronoun rriust be of the singular form. EXAMPLES. Each man does his duty. Every good pupil is punctual. The omission of the usual s in the third person singular of need, as in the sentence, To disobey need not be to suffer, is too common to be called a license. It is really like the similar omission in the case of the auxiliaries will, can, must, may, etc. The tense forms of auxiliaries in subordinate clauses and infinitives should bear proper relation to the tense forms of the principal predicates. 232 AGREEMENT AND GOVERNMENT EXAMPLES. I expected to go. If you will come I may join you. I should be gratified if you would play. I shall be pleased if you will play. Exercise. Explain the forms of the verbs used in the following : 1 . And though he promise to his loss, He makes his promise good. 2. When a building is about to fall, all the mice desert it. 3. There are vicissitudes in all things. 4. Others abide our question. Thou art free. We ask and ask. Thou smilest and art still. 5. Because right is right, to follow right Were wisdom. 6. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. 7. You and I were long friends ; you are now my enemy, and I am yours. 8. God helps them that help themselves. 9. For oft, when on my couch I Jie, In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude ; Arid then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. 10. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached it. 11. Day unto day uttereth speech; and night unto night showeth knowledge. 12. One would put language on the same level with the various arts and inventions with which man has gradually adorned and enriched his life. 13. It might. I think, be sufficient to object to this explanation that language would then be an accident, and, this being the case, that we should somewhere encounter tribes so low as not to pos- sess it; even as there is no human art or invention, though it be as simple and obvious as the preparing of food by fire, but there are those who have fallen below its exercise- PART IV. -r SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. CHAPTER XVII. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 123. THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. The principal phrases so far considered are preposi- tional phrases and assertive phrases. An assertive phrase is a predicate consisting of a rela- tion word (or word group) and an idea part. The relation part asserts the relation of the complement to the subject. EXAMPLES. I am ilL He is a good teacher. The fields look green. What is a prepositional phrase ? What is the difference between the relation parts of these two kinds of phrases ? Prepositional phrases are of two kinds : a. Any preposition serving as relation word in a phrase may be followed by a noun or pronoun used as idea word. EXAMPLES. Of candy. In the room. To the house. From me. b. The preposition to serving as relation word in a phrase may be followed by a verb used as idea word. EXAMPLES. To love. To hate. To see. To inspect. Mary went home. Mary slept at home. Here the action or doing is restricted to one person, / Mary, and to the past time. 233 234 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES The ordinary predicate verb is restricted in meaning by the particular subject given it, and also to the time indi- cated by its form. The verbs which are thus limited are called, like all limited things, finite. The simple form of the verb found in the prepositional phrase with to usually represents simply the action, and is not tied down or limited to any person or time ; it is not finite, and hence is called the infinitive. To see is to believe. I like to study. Seeing is believing. I like studying. This unlimited nature, which is claimed for the infinitive, is clearly true of it only- when it is used as the subject base, object, or attribute, and is equally true of the present parti- ciple when so used. The name infinitive, however, is usually given only to the verb as used in the phrase beginning with to. The infinitive is the simple form of the verb, generally used as the idea word of a phrase whose relation word or introductory word is to. EXAMPLE. To do good is wise. 124. SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE. The preposition to, being the only preposition used with the infinitive, has come to be considered as the sign of the infinitive and even as a part of the infinitive, so that, in- stead of speaking of the " infinitive phrase" to run, we sometimes say merely the " infinitive" to run. Generally the infinitive is introduced by to, but the to is sometimes omitted. EXAMPLES. I asked him to run. I saw him run. She told him to go. The aunt makes the child obey. NATURE OF THE INFINITIVE 235 I went to the well to get some water. He reads to while away the time. In the case of an adverbial infinitive it is usually easy to see that the verb is the base of the idea part of the phrase, and that the to is a relation word really meaning in order to. But in the substantive, adjective, and objective uses, and sometimes even in the adverbial use, the preposition seems to be of no service to show relation, and to have become merely the infinitive sign, so that the phrase cannot be separated, but must be regarded as a whole. EXAMPLES. To sign such a paper required nerve. Our desire to see him was not fulfilled. I wanted to see you. The infinitive (with the sign omitted) may be combined with one of the pure auxiliaries to form a predicate base. EXAMPLES. I will (to) run. They can (to) drive the horses. Mary may (to) lead the way. I must (to) study in order to learn. Study copulative infinitive phrases on pp. 164-166. 125. NATURE OF THE INFINITIVE. The infinitive, no matter how used, may be modified according to its verbal nature, by adverbial and objective modifiers. EXAMPLE. The capacity to do great deeds when the occasion arises, comes only to 'those who have been watchful to fulfill faithfully the small daily duties of life. To do, though adjective in use, is modified by the object great deeds, and by the adverbial clause when the occasion arises ; and the infinitive to fulfill, which is adverbial in use, is modified by the adverb faith- fully, and by the object the small daily duties of life. 236 IN FIN IT I VES To be loving. To be loved. To have loved. To have been loving. To have been loved. By combining the infinitive of the asserters to be and to have with the two participles of the verb, true verb groups are formed that are also called infinitives. a. To be with the present participle forms the present progressive infinitive (active). EXAMPLE. To be learning. b. To have been with the present participle forms the perfect progressive infinitive (active). EXAMPLE. To have been learning. c. To have with the perfect participle forms the perfect active infinitive. EXAMPLE. To have gone. d. To be with the perfect participle forms the present passive infinitive. EXAMPLE. To be written. e. To have been with the perfect participle forms the perfect passive infinitive. EXAMPLE. To have been written. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ^ Ordinary to love to be loved f Progressive to be loving ..... p f. j Ordinary to have loved to have been loved i Progressive to have been loving ..... REVIEW 237 126. REVIEW. Exercise. Point out the infinitives in the following sentences, and tell the voice (active or passive), tense, and office of each : 1 . I hope to leave town to-morrow. 2. When I looked into his office door, the doctor seemed to be writing a prescription. 3. To see her is to love her. 4. To be loved is pleasant to all. 5. See, winter comes to rule the varied year. 6. Teach me to feel another's woe, To hide the faults I see. 7. The child appears to have accomplished his task. 8. I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore. 9. I never could believe that Providence had sent a few men into the world ready booted and spurred to ride, and millions ready saddled and bridled to be ridden. 10. The manuscript seems to have been written many years ago. 11. He ought to have been studying when in reality he was dreaming. 12. O God, that men should put an enemy in their mouths to steal away their brains ! 13. The cock and hens seemed to know that it was Sunday, and made only crooning, subdued noises. 14. She was of the opinion that church, like other luxuries, was not to be indulged in often by a man who had the weather on his mind. 15. I shall think it my duty as a clergyman and a magistrate to interfere. 1 6. The boy ought not to have loitered on the way. 17. And then the day came back to him, when he was a little fellow and used to run by his father's side, proud to be taken out to work, and prouder still to hear his father boasting of him to his fellow-workmen. Use the correct expression in each of the following sentences, remem- bering that the perfect infinitive represents completion at the time referred to by the principal verb : . to have warned . i. It was your duty him. to warn 238 INFINITIVES . to have seen 2. I wished you. to see . to have been 3. I should have been pleased . with you. to be , to have called 4. My mother expected .. upon you yesterday. to have seen . 5. I am sorry not her before she went away. to see J 127. UNUSUAL CONSTRUCTIONS. The infinitive is often used in ways quite difficult to understand. Many of these are what must be considered idiomatic uses, and will be found in Chapter XIX ; but several are comprehended by comparing them with simi- lar, but simpler constructions. Sometimes a conjunctive adverb introduces an infini- tive phrase, as clauses are introduced. EXAMPLE. I know when to go. (when I should go) To go when may be called an objective infinitive phrase, the base to go being modified by the adverb when ; or when may be called object of know, modified by the adverbial infinitive. The conjunctive adverb as often becomes a preposition before an infinitive phrase. EXAMPLE. Her hair was so arranged as to conceal her brow. Here so is an adverb modifying was arranged, and is modified by the prepositional adverbial phrase as to conceal, etc , in which as is the preposition, and to conceal the base of the idea part, modified, accord- ing to its verbal nature, by the object her brow. An infinitive used as attribute after an asserter or a copulative verb is sometimes difficult to parse. EXAMPLE. He seemed to tremble. This is like He seemed tremulous, or He was tremulous. Seemed is asserter, and to tremble is attribute. UNUSUAL CONSTRUCTIONS 239 I found a friend to serve me. Friend is the object of found, and also the subject of to serve. Usually there is no expressed subject for an infinitive, since in its true infinitive nature it is tied to no particular subject. When the subject of an infinitive is expressed, it is usually also the object of another verb or of a prepo- sition. EXAMPLE. I asked for you to accompany me. You is the object of the preposition for and also the subject of the infinitive to accompany. I asked you to go. This means 1 asked the going of you. To go is direct, and^w indirect, object of the predicate verb asked. In many cases, the objective subject of the infinitive is an indirect object of a verb, of which the infinitive itself is direct object. This is different from / desired yon to go. In that sentence you to go is equivalent to that you should go ; such a clause used as the object of asked alters the meaning. I knew it to be him. It is the object of knew and the subject of to be. Hence him is objective, because its identity with an object is shown by to be. I found an example to analyze. An example is the object of found, and also the object of the infinitive to analyze, which yet modifies example adjectively, the meaning of the sentence being similar to I found an example which I could analyze. 240 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 128. REVIEW. In parsing an infinitive, follow the subjoined outline : True infinitive Infinitive Meaning Form Use Limited to subject Based on voice j^ Ctive I Passive Based on condition of j Ordinary act I Progressive f Present 1 Perfect Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Predicate in infinitive clause (p. 249) Based on time Modifiers ( According to nature I According to use According Exercise. Parse the infinitives in the following sentences : 1 . I did not know what to do under the circumstances. 2. She seemed to suffer agony. 3. The affair was so managed as to give each person a good view of the performance. 4. We telegraphed for the stage to await us. 5. We wished the children to study German. 6. I know it to be her. 7. John understood when to jest and when to be serious. 8. The money was so divided as to give to each family the right amount. 9. She wished to give me a present. 10. To have enjoyed such a treat is a pleasant memory, j i . I hoped to reach town to-morrow. FORMS OF PARTICIPLES 24! 129. FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. It has already been stated that the participles are two in number, present and perfect or complete. The raging flood tore away all obstructions. The sea built up the shore, dropping sand and pebbles upon it. The present participle ending in ing, when not infinitive or substantive in meaning, is usually adjective or adverbial in use. It refers to some noun or pronoun mentioned in the sentence, and represents that noun or pronoun as acting or being. The crushed flower yields perfume. My aunt, impressed by my arguments, yielded. The complete participle also refers to some noun or pronoun, and, when used adjectively, represents it as receiving. The participles of the asserters to be and to have com- bine with the participles of verbs to make participle groups or participial phrases. These are used just as other phrases are. a. Having, combined with the complete participle, forms the perfect active. EXAMPLE. The rain, having fallen steadily for days, flooded the roads. Fallen is the idea word, and having shows its relation to rain. b. Being, combined with the complete participle, forms the present passive. EXAMPLE. My watch, being broken, goes badly. Broken is the idea part, which is related to watch by being. p. c. GRAM. 1 6 242 PARTICIPLES c. Having been, combined with the complete participle, forms the perfect passive. EXAMPLE. The marsh, having been drained, proved fertile. Drained is the idea word, related to marsh by having been. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Present. loving being loved Perfect. having loved having been loved Exercise. Point oift the participles in the following sentences, and tell the voice, tense, and use of each : 1 . The sparkling river rushed merrily along. 2. The man, deserted in his time of need, faced the enemy alone. 3. He trudged along unknowing what he sought. 4. The river being frozen now formed a highway for travel. 5. The roads are made of crushed stone. 6. The birds, having migrated southward, were missed from their haunts. 7. The letter, having been sent to the wrong address, was returned to the writer. 8. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear; Robes and furred gowns hide all. 9. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again. 10. The steamer, being delayed, was not able to bring the mail at the appointed time. 11. Diseases desperate grown by desperate appliances are relieved. 12. We wish that this column, rising toward heaven among the pointed spires of so many temples dedicated to God, may con- tribute also to produce in all minds a pious feeling of dependence and gratitude. 13. The vessel, having been quarantined, lay at anchor down the bay. 14. The money, being gone, could not be so applied. 15. The enemy, having surrendered, were forced to give up their guns. 1 6. Changing, fading, falling, flying From the homes that gave them birth, Autumn leaves in beauty dying Seek the mother breast of earth. MEANINGS AND USES OF PARTICIPLES 243 130. MEANINGS AND USES OF PARTICIPLES. Living is loving ; To live is to love. Living near her is being happy ; To live near her is to be happy. I dislike quarreling ; I dislike to quarrel. If the present participle is used as a subject, an attribute, or an objective element or base, and modified only accord- ing to its verbal nature, it is infinitive in meaning, in which case the infinitive may usually be substituted for it. His anger found vent in raging at his enemies. The wind took vengeance by blowing loud. The duty of loving is neglected. If used as object of a preposition and modified only according to its verbal nature, the present participle has generally a meaning different from the infinitive, in which case it is impossible to substitute the infinitive for it. The loving are the daring. Here the adjective modifier the makes loving mean .people who love, and so destroys entirely the infinitive meaning. + The man plowing in the field was sunstruck. The hunter chased ^& panting deer. These participles modify adjectively the nouns which are their subjects. 244 PARTICIPLES The man was sunstruck standing in the field. Standing before my tent, I shot the deer. These participles refer to the subject bases of the sen- tences as their subjects, yet modify the predicate bases adverbially. + He objected to my doing the work. The most remarkable construction is that in which the subject of the present active participle is possessive in form, being used as a possessive adjective modifier of the participle. Doing refers to my as its subject, yet my is an adjective modifier of doing, and doing is also modified, according to its verbal nature, by the object tJie ivork. To die for her is serving thee. To labor only, is to live. In some cases an infinitive subject is explained by a participle attribute ; but it is more elegant to use like forms in the two cases. It is difficult to decide when a participle becomes a true noun, and how long it retains so much of its verbal nature as to admit of adverbial modifiers. One can say : Singing the responses is the usual method, in which case singing is a participle ; or, The singing of the responses sounded well, in which case singing is a noun ; or even, The singing the responses plainly pleases me, in which case singing is modified by both adjective and adverbial modifiers. But this last form is not usual. MEANINGS AND USES OF PARTICIPLES 245 My lodgings suit me. The participle sometimes loses entirely its verbal nature, and becomes so true "a noun as to adopt the inflection of the noun. It is then no longer a participle, but a noun. This is never true of the infinitive, not only because its form would render such expressions as to lodges impossi- ble, but also because it never loses its verbal nature suffi- ciently to be modified by an adjective element placed next it, though it seems to be modified by adjectives when they are used as attributes. EXAMPLE. One can say To obey is good', but not Good to obey. Many participial adjectives have become so thoroughly adjective in nature as to, have synonyms which are not participial in origin. EXAMPLES, surprising wonderful lasting permanent loving affectionate aspiring ambitious, pleasing delightful It is often impossible to judge of the office of a participle by its form. The test here, as always, is, Why is this word here ? What does it do ? It is often possible to make a choice in interpreting the use of a participle, as to whether it is used adjectively or adverbially. The best way to decide is to develop the word element into a clause. EXAMPLE. I saw the moon rising. I saw the moon which was rising', or, I saw the moon when it was rising. EXAMPLE. A fox, having caught a hen, thus spoke. A fox that had caught a hen ; or, A fox, when he had caught a hen. EXAMPLE. John, being tired, went to bed. John, who was tired; or, John, because he was tired. 246 PARTICIPLES 131. REVIEW. In parsing a participle, or participial phrase, follow the subjoined outline : f Meaning ( True infinitive I Limited by subject Based on voice { Active I Passive Based on time { Present (Progressive; I Perfect Substantive Adjective Objective Adverbial Predicate in participial clause (p. 249) MT J-.G f According to nature Modifiers l ( According to use Participle Form Use Exercise. Parse the participles in the following sentences, and also point out true adjectives and nouns that are participial in form : 1 . Rest is not quitting the busy career, Rest is the fitting of self to one's sphere. 'Tis the brook's motion, clear, without strife, Fleeting to ocean after its life ; 'Tis loving and serving the highest and best ; 'Tis onward unswerving; and this is true rest. 2. Mourn for the living, not the dead Whose mortal woes are o'er. 3. Scipio's ghost walks unavenged among us. 4. Whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire. This longing after immortality ! 5. Pleased at the praise bestowed upon us, we made more mighty efforts. 6. Nightly to the listening multitudes he told the tidings of salvation. PARTICIPIAL AND INFINITIVE CLAUSES 247 7. Painting has improved little since the days of the ancients. 8. The paintings that adorn the Louvre are the finest in France. 9. History is philosophy teaching by examples. 10. The picture, placed the busts between, Adds to the thought much strength. 1 1 . Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 12. Nothing, except a battle lost, can be half so melancholy as a battle won. 13. At length, the situation having become embarrassing. Jenny Lind ran forward to the footlights. 14. Being assured of a welcome, we ventured to intrude upon him. 15. Having once drawn his sword for freedom, and being embarked upon a righteous cause, he rested not until his purpose was accomplished. 1 6. The young man, having failed to pass his examination, obtained a situation in a store. 17. The peculiarity of Grant's tactics was that, having once been re- pulsed, he pressed forward with unabated vigor. 18. Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, And coming events cast their shadows before. 19. Robert E. Lee, having been reared amid Southern institutions, and being devoted to the interest of his own state, felt it his duty to resign his commission in the United States army. 132. PARTICIPIAL AND INFINITIVE CLAUSES. What is a clause ? The clauses so far considered have contained finite predicates. EXAMPLES. The boy whom I saw is now gone. I wish that she would come. That she came soon pleased me. Because the carriage stopped I was late. The predicate of such a clause is assertive, and the clause, were it disjoined from its principal, its subordi- 248 INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES nate connective being omitted or changed to a word per- forming one office, would be a complete sentence capable of standing alone without further alteration. EXAMPLES. I saw him. She would come. She came soon. The carriage stopped. Such a clause may sometimes be abridged without sub- tracting any essential part, by causing the predicate to assume rather than assert. EXAMPLES. I wish her to come. Her coming soon pleased me. The carriage having stopped, I was late. In such cases the subordinate connective is not usually retained. The abbreviated clause can no longer stand alone as a sentence if disjoined from its principal, since the relation of predicate to subject is assumed, not asserted. EXAMPLES. Her to come. Her coming soon. The carriage having stopped. None of the above expressions is a sentence. The troubles, which ^vere coming apace, alarmed me. The troubles, coming apace, alarmed me. The clause which were coming apace, in losing its con- nective loses its subject as well, and becomes in its abridged form a word element, coming apace. I wished that the days would pass swiftly. I wished the days to pass siviftly. The clause that the days would pass swiftly loses its connective but not its subject ; the predicate becomes PARTICIPIAL AND INFINITIVE CLAUSES 249 assumptive but remains a predicate. The element is still composed of subject and predicate combined, but the predi- cate is enfeebled has lost its assertive power. Since such an abbreviated clause retains the base or necessary parts of the clause, it is still a clause ; but, since the usual finite assertive predicate is changed to an infini- tive or participial predicate, the resultant clause may be called an infinitive clause, or a participial clause, accord- ing to the change which the predicate undergoes. These infinitive and participial clauses perform the same offices as the finite clauses from which they are derived, but seem to be more closely connected with their principals because of the frequent omission of the connective which makes plain the relation of the finite clause. EXAMPLES. I wished my friend to go. They being with me, I was encouraged. This said, he turned and fled. CHAPTER XVIII. FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS. 133. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. It is not always an easy matter to decide whether a sentence is complex or compound. The logical relation of the clauses is often clearer than the grammatical rela- tion, and the grammarian's sense of this logical relation may influence him in his analysis of grammatical elements. You shall not die ; France needs you. France needs you ; therefore you shall not die. You shall not die, for France needs you. The first sentence, above, is clearly compound in form. The second is by some called compound, therefore belong- ing to the and group of coordinate conjunctions ; but others call it complex, since therefore shows a relation of the second clause to the statement contained in the first. It cannot, however, be said truthfully that the second clause performs any ordinary office within its principal clause, and hence it cannot be known what part of the principal clause it modifies. The third sentence is un- doubtedly complex in form. The thoughts conveyed by the three sentences, however, are identical. A sentence which appears to be an ordinary complex sentence in its formation may contain a subordinate clause which modifies, not some part of the apparent main clause, 250 PECULIAR USES Of MODIFIERS 2$ I but some part of a real principal which is present in the mind, and to which the whole sentence is logically sub- ordinate. EXAMPLE. She was angry, for she frowned at me. She frowned at me appears to be adverbial, modifying was angry, but it does not really give the reason for her anger, as may be seen by comparison with She was angry, for I failed to answer her. There exists in the mind of the speaker a real principal, / kiipw, to which She was angry and She frowned at me are both subordinate. These clauses, then, form a grammatically complex sentence, but are logically both subordinate. Exercise. Analyze the following sentences : 1. Because the clouds lower, do not think that the rain must fall. 2. I cannot go ; I fear the rain. 3. Come to me, my child for the mother heart beats high within me. 4. The vote was cast, so I was told. 5. The polls were closed, so I went home. 6. The answer came, for I saw the messenger enter. 134. PECULIAR USES OF MODIFIERS. In some cases an adjective element modifies, not a noun only, but an expression of which a noun is the base. EXAMPLE. Five old men. Five modifies not the word men only, but the group old men, EXAMPLES. All my ways. Three young men. My older sister. If two or more adjectives in succession modify the same substantive, they should be separated by commas; but if each of them modifies the succeeding group of words, the commas should be omitted. 252 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS EXAMPLES. The good, valiant, unfortunate man. The two poor old men. Good, valiant, and unfortunate modify, severally, man; but two modifies poo* old men, and poor modifies old men. So, also, an adverbial element sometimes modifies, not a word, but a group of words. EXAMWLE. I learn a long poem often. Often does not modify learn alone, but the idea expressed by the entire group of words, learn a long poetn. EXAMPLE. It will bring my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. With sorrow and to the grave do not modify the predicate base alone, but the modified predicate, will bring my gray hairs. In some cases an adverbial element modifies an adjective or adverbial phrase as if the phrase were a single word, instead of modifying the idea part of the phrase only. EXAMPLE. We rode far into the forest. It is possible to say that far modifies rode, but it also modifies the entire phrase into the forest. This is plainer in We rode far away. EXAMPLE. Father, 'save those at sea to-night. To-night modifies the whole phrase at sea ; not the word sea. EXAMPLE. I was born not four hours' walk from London. In this case the phrase from London is modified by the noun walk, used adverbially, as a measure ; and walk, in its substantive nature, is modified by the possessive hours' 1 , which in its turn is modified by the adjective word element not four. An element may be explanatory of a phrase or clause. EXAMPLE. From morn till noon he fell ; from noon till dewy eve, a summer's day. A summers day explains from morn till noon, from noon till dewy eve, which are adverbial phrases, so it is adverbial in use. EXAMPLE. We hope that reinforcements will come a forlorn hope. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION 2$$ A phrase or clause also may be explanatory of an adjec- tive or adverb ; it is then adverbial. EXAMPLES. Now, while we wait, I will tell you. When I shall come, then you will see it. 135. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION. She smiled on me. I was smiled on by her. An intransitive verb assumes a passive construction when the object of a preposition is made the subject of the sentence. This is similar to those cases in which a verb and prepo- sition are united in meaning (p. 259). He walked a mile. The mile was walked by him. An intransitive verb, followed by a noun used adverbi- ally to indicate measure, may assume a passive form and take the noun of measure for its subject, the former subject following as agent. The whole sentence is then similar in form to an ordinary passive construction. There has been much discussion respecting whether or not the active form, The house is building, is correct in the sense of the passive form, The house is being built. Good usage seems to sanction either expression; but the active form for a passive idea is then idiomatic. Usually a passive verb takes no object, the object of the corresponding active verb having become the subject; but if the subject of an infinitive clause becomes the sub- ject of the principal clause in a passive construction, its infinitive predicate remains as object. EXAMPLE. They told him to leave. He was told to leave. 254 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS Also, if a verb capable of having both direct and indirect objects becomes passive in form, the indirect object may become subject, and the direct object remain in its proper objective position. EXAMPLE. They told me that the train was late. I was told that the train was late. Me, the indirect object, is now the subject ; that the train was late is the direct object. Such verbs as advise or notify, in the sense of tell, take the person told as direct object, and the thing told as an indirect object after of, if it is a word element. If it is a phrase or clause it requires no preposition, but seems to be a second direct object. EXAMPLE. They advised me of his coming. They advised me to come. They advised me that it was late. The noun or pronoun representing the person told takes the place of the subject if the verb becomes passive, and the impersonal object remains objective. EXAMPLE. I was advised of the news. I was advised to come. I was advised that it was late. 136. APPOSITION. In they rushed, men, women, and cJiildren. They were all routed horse, foot, and dragoons. These explanatory terms, combined, amount to the same thing as their principal, and each is an adjective element. My trouble is this : that my health is broken. In this sentence, this is an attribute, and the clause which follows is in apposition with this, and is therefore adjective. INDEPENDENT T ELEMENTS 2$$ Thus is often so followed. EXAMPLE. It was thus : I loved him, but he loved not me. They elected him emperor. Emperor is in apposition with him. He was elected emperor. Here emperor is an attribute ; was elected, though a passive assertive phrase with a verbal complement, serves as an asserter. 137. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. Inter] ectional, purely introductory, and many parenthetic expressions are independent. EXAMPLES. Well, as I was saying, she came in. Now Charles was a seaman. To speak truly, I did not know him. Whole phrases may be independent, used as interjec- tions, or simply cut off from grammatical connection. EXAMPLE. Oh, to be happy ! Parenthetic phrases or clauses are often treated as independent when they logically modify some element in the sentence or enforce the entire statement. EXAMPLES. To tell the truth, I love you not. Indeed, it is mine. Generally speaking, it is rainy here. To tell the truth and indeed are modifiers or strengtheners of the whole sentence, and are best called independent ; but generally speak- ing, though often called independent, is really adverbial, equivalent to usually, and modifies is. EXAMPLE. Height on height the mountains rise. Height on height may be considered as modifying either mountains or rise. The expression is not by form, by position, or by relation word connected with any element of the sentence. 256 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS - EXAMPLES. Not to delay you, I set out and arrived safe. Staff in hand we climbed the hill. Not to delay you is almost purely independent, as the sentence reads equally well without it ; but Staff in hand is adverbial or adjective. 138. USES OF PHRASES. It is of little account. An entire phrase may serve as attribute ; but this is not an elegant construction. A phrase may be the object of a preposition. EXAMPLE. In the expression from on high, from is a preposition whose object is the phrase on high. An objective phrase is usually an infinitive; but an ordi- nary prepositional phrase also may be objective. EXAMPLE. She gave me of the tree. The original object was probably some, modified by of the tree used adjectively. The phrase, deprived of its principal, is used pronominally, its preposition serving merely to introduce it. Phrases are rarely used as relation words. A phrase may, however, be used as a conjunction. EXAMPLE. In case we come, we will bring it with us. In case is synonymous with if. a. I will go in this case, that you wish it. b. I will go in the case you wish it. c. I will go in case you wish it. In case still consists of preposition and object, but we have lost all sense of its real meaning and regard it only in its present connective use. The expression come out from under the table may be explained by calling out an adverb, //w;/ under the table an adverbial phrase, from the preposition, and under the table its object. In this case, under does not perform its usual PRONOUNS AND CLAUSES duty, since it fails to show a relation to a principal. From under, like out of, over against, and other pairs of words, may be regarded like one preposition in use. From such constructions came the present prepositions into, upon, unto, and the like. 139. PRONOUNS AND CLAUSES. A pronoun may represent an entire statement. EXAMPLE. The day will be fine ; who doubts it? // represents the statement The day will define. EXAMPLE. He did not come, which I regret. Which represents the entire statement He did not come. The use of the relative in the second example causes the sentence to be considered either compound or com- plex, according to the importance given to grammatical usage or logical relation. A relative usually shows a subordinate relation of a clause to its principal ; but the principal here is an entire statement, and which seems equivalent to and this. In some cases only a part of an objective clause is felt to be the real object of the main verb ; but usually the object is the whole clause. EXAMPLE. I hate what you like. This means I hate the thing which you like. EXAMPLE. I know what you like. In this sentence, the whole clause what you like is the object of know ; I know the whole fact, and it would mean something differ- ent to say / know the thing which you like. This is even clearer in the sentence / know that you like me. The same is true, also, of phrases. EXAMPLE. She knows how to do it. It is customary to call the whole phrase objective, yet it is chiefly how which is the thing known. P. C. GRAM. 17 258 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS An objective clause is often really an adjective modifier of an omitted object. EXAMPLE. / know where he lives may mean / know the place where he lives. A clause introduced by that is generally purely objective. EXAMPLES. I know that he is coming. I erred in that I loved him. The same difference exists in substantive clauses. In the sentence Whatever is, is rig/it, Whatever is the true subject of the principal clause ; and the statement means, That iv hick is, is rig/it. In the sentence That he is ill appears certain, the whole undivided clause is the subject of the verb appears. 140. COMBINATIONS OF WORDS. Some words in English are easily combined with others to form new words. EXAMPLES. Up with on makes upon. Joy with/W/ makes joyful. Many of our verbs have, in the past, formed such combinations with auxiliary verbs, or occasionally with adverbs. EXAMPLES. Love and some auxiliary like did loved. Can and not cannot. But verbs are slow to unite with prepositions. We have undertake, overthrow, withhold, and a few others ; but, as a rule, even where the meanings have become so welded together as to form one idea in the mind, the words still stand apart. Such cases of combined sense, though OMISSIONS 259 divided expressions, occur where the only possible gram- matical disposition is to call the words one. EXAMPLES. That must -be thought of. It shall be seen to. He was spoken of. In many of these cases the verb is intransitive, but the object of the preposition which follows is made the subject of a passive construction (see p. 253). Two words are often so closely united in common use that it is difficult to disentangle their grammatical relations. EXAMPLE. They love each other. Each is an explanatory adjective modifier of they, and other is the object of love. As soon as may readily be divided into two adverbial ele- ments and one conjunction. The complex origin of many words which are really combinations of two or more original words, is lost sight of ; but in such verbs as meseems and met kinks > this origin is plainly apparent. The meaning is, to me it seems, in which the indirect object has been merged with the verb, but is still visible. 141. OMISSIONS. It is best, if possible, to parse every word according to its present use, supplying nothing. There are, however, abridged sentences which make some insertion of omitted words necessary. EXAMPLE. No wonder you ask it. This means // is no wonder that you ask it. 260 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS EXAMPLE. Man never is, but always to be blest. Either man has a compound predicate, never is blest, but always is to be blest, or is is followed by a compound complement, blest, but to be blest. EXAMPLE. Not willing I, to be so poor a tool. This means / am not 'willing. EXAMPLE. Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. The omission of a relative pronoun makes it necessary to employ the one noun, distance, in two constructions. EXAMPLE. Take the goods the gods provide. The word which must be supplied, or goods must be used in two constructions. EXAMPLE. My adventures this day. Here the omission of a preposition as on or during has led to an unusual construction. In such expressions as Ah me, it is customary to insert some preposition to account for the objective form of the pronoun, but the claims of euphony account for it. Ah I would sound intolerable. Poor me, however, admits of -no such explanation unless it arose from analogy. 142. SPECIAL WORDS CONSIDERED. A and The. These words often give trouble because in each case there are two different words spelled alike. The ordinary word a, meaning one, is an adjective, often called the indefinite article ; but there is also a word a, mean- ing on or at. The meaning this or that is an adjective, often called the definite article ; but there is a word tJie having an adverbial use, sometimes even a conjunctive adverbial use, for which the language supplies no synonym. EXAMPLES. A man went a hunting. The more I struggled, the faster I was held. The more the merrier. SPECIAL WORDS CONSIDERED 261 I was held the faster the more I struggled. This means I was held more fast as (or when} I struggled more. The more I struggled is ad- verbial, modifying was held, and the two words the are respectively adverbial and subordinate conjunctive in use. The more the merrier is of like construction, with so much omitted as to form an idiomatic expression, and hence is beyond the scope of ordinary grammatic rule. Yes and No are adverbs, the one of affirmation, the other of negation, which have come to be used to represent the sentences which they at first strengthened or denied. EXAMPLES. Are you going? I am (yes) going, Yes. Is he going? He is not going. He is (no) going, No. But. The proper use of but requires the knowledge of some very fine distinctions of meaning. The original meaning of the word was almost the same as except. EXAMPLES. Who but him would so act ? None knew thee but to love thee. As a conjunction, however, but has departed quite widely from this meaning. In the sentence But, to proceed, we then entered the church, but is independent, being used only to introduce the sentence and make logical connection with a foregoing part of the discourse. In connection with the use of the verb can in its old sense, as predicate verb, but is used in two widely different ways. She can but grieve means She is able only to grieve. Can is the principal verb, grieve is an objective infinitive, and but is an adverb. The sentence means She can do nothing else tJian grieve. She cannot but grieve means She is not able except to grieve. Cannot is the verb, and but is a preposition 262 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS whose object is the infinitive grieve. The sentence means, SJie can do nothing else but (except) grieve. As. The office of as may be conjunctive, pronominal, prepositional, or adverbial ; but it often partakes, in some degree, of more than one nature. From its use as conjunc- tion has grown the custom of expecting nominative forms after it. EXAMPLE. He is as wise as I (am wise). But since it is frequently followed by a noun or pronoun alone, a growing tendency exists toward treating it as a preposition and allowing an object after it. EXAMPLE. As good as me. It seems to be, however, copulative in its nature, like the verb to be, though implying instead of asserting similar- ity ; hence in the writings of the best authors it is usually followed by the same case form as would precede it. EXAMPLES. Can such a fellow as I succeed? To such a creature as me, she was kind. Combined with the participle, it makes groups similar in meaning to infinitives. EXAMPLES. I consider him as having lost his wits ; I consider him to have lost his wits. I consider him as disgraced ; I consider him to be dis- graced. Than is in some cases a subordinate conjunction, and in other cases a preposition. EXAMPLE. You are wiser than I. This means You are wiser than I am wise. EXAMPLE. Than whom none is sweeter. Since whom is objective in form, we must consider than in this case a preposition. SPECIAL WORDS CONSIDERED 263 The French often, the Germans sometimes, but we sel- dom, employ one form in preference to another because it sounds better, or for the sake of euphony. This use with than may be such a case, the grammatical require- ments yielding to the desire for euphony. Some gram- marians even allow It is me instead of // is /, for the same reason. But in the sentence He is iviser than to believe it, tJian seems to be a preposition whose object is the phrase to believe it, the whole phrase, than to believe it, being ad- verbial and modifying wiser. Like and As. As is in some cases prepositional in the same way as than. In strict accordance with the best usage, as is a conjunction corresponding to the preposition like. EXAMPLE. Do as I do. Be like me. In some localities like is used as a conjunction, as in the sentence Do like I do ; but such an expression is not elegant English, and it is much better to say Do as I do. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. In this sentence either like is a conjunction, showing the relation of an adverbial clause (the predicate must be supplied) to a predicate verb, or came is a copulative verb, and like a preposition introducing a phrase used as an attribute. I do not know whether he goes or not. Whether or are correlative conjunctions; but whether is subordinate, showing the relation of the adverbial clause to its principal ; whereas or is coordinate, giving a choice between the two parts of the compound subordinate clause. 264 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS In this case it is necessary to supply another verb, which not modifies. Goes or does not go. That varies as much in its use as any word in the lan- guage. In the sentence, Cursed be /, that I obeyed him, that means because. That used as a relative in some cases takes the place of the phrase at which, and is used adverbially. EXAMPLE. He came at the time that I expected him. This means at which I expected him, or when I expected him. I will go because you wish it. Because performs no office within the subordinate clause. I will go lest he be angry. Here lest performs a negative office within the subor- dinate clause. (I will go that he be not angry.) But lest may be almost synonymous with that. EXAMPLE. I fear lest [that] you should fall. The use of except, or its equivalent unless, as a sub- ordinate conjunction seems to make it possible to dispense with the usual asserter and with a negative. EXAMPLE. Punish him unless he beg too hard. Without unless, this would read, Punish him if he does not beg too hard. EXAMPLE. No man can do these works except God (should) be with him. Next, like, near, may be adjectives followed by phrases which begin with to, or may be prepositions where used without to. EXAMPLE. I was near to him. I was near him. SPECIAL USES OF WORDS 26$ 143. SPECIAL USES OF WORDS. When adjectives denoting quality are used like nouns, they may take the adjective modifier the. EXAMPLE. The beautiful is the useful. They may also take adverbial modifiers. EXAMPLE. The very beautiful is often the extremely useful. Beautiful is modified by the, an adjective modifier, and very, an adverbial modifier. More than a hundred children's children rode on his knee. More is an adjective pronoun. As a pronoun it is sub- ject base; as an adjective, it is. modified by the adverbial phrase than a hundred children's children. Participial modifiers are difficult to classify as adjective or adverbial. EXAMPLE. He stood musing. Whether musing is an attribute, stood being the copula, or whether musing is adverbial, stood being an active verb, or whether stood resem- bles an auxiliary in use, the verb being derived from to muse, is a matter of judgment on which it is possible to differ according to the exact meaning which the sentence conveys to the reader. Not a breath upon the ocean. Not is an adverb, modifying was understood, or an adverb modifying a, which means one. All ready. In this expression and the like, all is an adverb. An adverb is frequently the object of a preposition. EXAMPLES. I came from there. Since then. She is wiser by far. 266 FINE POINTS OF ANALYSIS Two verbs are very curiously used, apparently on their way to becoming auxiliaries with their usual meanings quite changed. EXAMPLES. I am to go. I have to go. By this use of am (and the other forms of to be), followed by an infinitive whose sign remains (to), the meaning appointed or intended is conveyed. By this use of have (similar construction), must is implied. The progressive form of the verb go used before the infinitive of another verb indicates futurity. EXAMPLES. I am going to write to you soon. He is going to buy my house. They are going to have a picnic here next week. The progressive forms of the two verbs come and go may represent either present or future time. EXAMPLES. I am going to Philadelphia, (am now on my way) I am going to a party next Friday. The train is now coming toward us at full speed. The spring is coming ; it will soon be here. It rains. It hails. // snows. It sleets. // blows great guns to-night. The pronoun used as subject of these sentences has no antecedent. The verbs end in s because the subject is third person singular in form. Verbs which are thus used with a subject indefinite in meaning are sometimes called impersonal verbs. CHAPTER XIX. IDIOMS. 144. IDIOMS. It has been said (p. 8) that an idiom is a form of expression peculiar to the language in which it occurs. Since, however, languages are more or less closely related, it follows that several languages may have an idiom in common which belonged to their common parent language. Any form or use of language which cannot be explained by the laws of grammar is called an idiom. Idiomatic expressions have several sources which are easy to detect in the idioms to which they give rise ; but since it is possible to lay bare the entire history of but few, and since many have come into existence through more than one cause, it is not possible to classify and explain all such expressions. In some cases the economical tendency of the language has shown itself in the dropping out of words, thus leaving an abridgment, often unexplained, because the omitted element is lost sight of. EXAMPLE. I will go if possible. If possible follows no analogy of our language. We do not usually introduce adjectives by pure subordinate con- junctions, but in this case it is easily seen that both subject and predicate of a former subordinate clause have been omitted : / will go if it is possible. A form of inflection, once common, but now generally obsolete, may create an idiom. EXAMPLE. Needs must when circumstances drive. 267 268 IDIOMS One must, of necessity, when circumstances drive. An old possessive form, meaning of need, has become the subject where it was formerly an adverbial modifier. Frequently an idiomatic expression is caused by the union of several ideas formerly expressed by as many separate words, the relation of which has been obliterated by constant use. EXAMPLE. To stand by. Had this union of thought occurred before the language was printed, the ivords also would have been united. As it is, the expression is idiomatic. The word already was thus formed long ago. The word alright is, perhaps, in process of formation, but is not yet accepted. A verb may be combined with an adverb, a preposition, or both, the whole expression conveying a meaning far removed from that which an exposition of the grammatical relations of the words would suggest. EXAMPLES. To get rid of. To stand up to. To do away with. To carry on. To fix up. To get on with. To hold on. To lead off. To bring up. To keep up. To have to do with. To head off. To give up. To burn up. To take up. To stand out. It is difficult to draw the line between these accepted idioms and such vulgarisms as to keep company ivith, to go with, to knuckle under, to let on, and the like. Doubtless many combinations now considered idioms were first used as slang, and, being found to convey a meaning not other- wise so well expressed, were accepted as correct. EXAMPLE. To hold on (figurative use). IDIOMS 269 A currently accepted custom, though apparently illogical, may give rise to an idiomatic expression. EXAMPLE. Good usage sanctions the sentence / went everywhere else, but condemns / went every place else ; yet the former is logically a less correct expression, since else means other, and is adjective in nature, as is every also : / went every other place. The use of every- where, then, is idiomatic. So, also, wherever else means whatever other place. Though idioms are troublesome when met with in analyz- ing, as they fail to follow the rules laid down by gramma- rians, it is a mistake to consider their use as faults in style, or defects in a language. A language full of idioms is apt to be strong and expressive. A good writer is idiomatic in style. It is not possible to catalogue all the idioms in a lan- guage like ours. What one person regards as an idiom, another, with a deeper knowledge of the history of the language, or with a broader knowledge of the laws of universal grammar, will be able to account for. A few of the prominent idioms of our language will be mentioned here. The shortening of an infinitive clause by the omission of the infinitive gives rise to an idiomatic expression involving the apparently transitive use of an intransitive verb. EXAMPLES. He worked himself [to be] weary. He danced his feet [to be] tired. In the first example above, the infinitive clause is the abridgment of the clause iintil he was weary. The expression He worked his fingers to the bone is still more idiomatic. Less plainly idiomatic, but somewhat similar, are / will see thee \to be~\ a warrior, and / make the book [to be~] his. 2/0 IDIOMS The idiom He sat him down is accepted, though sat is intransitive, and him should be himself ; but / bougJit me a dress is not correct, though me, like the correct form myself, is plainly explainable as indirect object of the transitive verb bought. Such an expression as It feels heavier than usual may arise from omissions from It feels heavier than is usual, or from // feels heavier than it usually feels, or from It feels heavier than it is usual for it to feel. That book of mine is explained to mean That book of my books ; but That head of mine or That tongue of mine cannot be thus explained, for no one has two heads or two tongues. There are some very remarkable idiomatic uses of the articles. A great many, meaning a great number of, is more easily explainable than full many a gem ; and the which is another singular case. An ordinary intransitive verb is made to seem transitive by the omission of a preposition. I go the errand means I go on the errand. Trip it lightly is transitive in appear- ance, though the indefinite it is a very vague object. There, used to introduce a sentence, and followed by the predicate and then the subject, is called an expletive, and its use is idiomatic. In interrogative sentences this exple- tive occurs in the midst of the sentence. EXAMPLES. There will come a time. What there is, is needed. What is there here ? From the old participial form agone comes the modern idiomatic use of ago. He went an hour ago means He went an agone hour. So is an adverb whose use is sometimes almost pronom- IDIOMS 271 inal. It may stand for an expression previously used, or for a statement implied from what precedes. EXAMPLES. I am not rich, but hope to be so. I walked slowly, and Alice did so too. He may be rich, but I do not think so. In the last example so stands for he is rich. He being ill, they sent for a doctor. The participial clause used as an adverbial element (without a preposition) consists of a substantive united with a participle, usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. In English, this construction is called the nomina- tive absolute. When a noun is employed the case is immaterial, for nouns do not change their form except for possessive use ; but the pronoun so used must be nominative. It is to you that I speak. This means, // is you to whom I speak, or, better, The one to whom I speak, is you, or, more simply, / speak to you. It was there that I saw him. This means / saw him there. The use of that is idiomatic. She wept all night long. Long is adverbial, modifying wept, and is modified by all night used idiomatically. CHAPTER XX. SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS. 145. 1. Toward evening Columbus returned to his ships, accompanied by many of the islanders in their boats, which they called canoes, and which, though rudely formed out of the trunk of a single tree, they rowed with surprising dexterity. 2. It was small tyranny for a respectable wind to go wreaking its ven- geance on such poor creatures as the fallen leaves. 3. Toil on, poor heart, unceasingly ; And thou shalt find thy dream to be A truth and noonday light to thee. 4. But peaceful was the night, Wherein the Prince of Light ' His reign of peace upon the earth began ; The winds, with wonder whist, Smoothly the waters kissed, Whispering new joys to the mild Ocean, Who now hath quite forgot to rave, While birds of calm sit brooding on the charmed wave. 5. On the first day of the session of Parliament, the book thus dis- gracefully obtained was laid on the table of Lords by the Earl of Sandwich, whom the Duke of Bedford's interest had made Secretary of State. 6. Civil war raging in England, Bunyan enlisted in the parliamentary army at the age of seventeen. 7. There was a youth, a stripling of twenty-four years of age, of diffi- dent and retiring manners, who ventured to take up the gantlet that the first college in Europe had thrown down. 8. He had received previous information from the family physician regarding the lad, with respect to whose family, fortune, and personal merits the honest doctor had spoken with no small enthusiasm. 9. Poor little silent flowers ! What business had you to show your red cheeks in this dingy place? 272 SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 2/3 10. "Take my counsel, Altamont, 11 Strong said gravely, "and mind how you deal with that man." 11. But what shall we say of Addison's humor, of his sense of the ludicrous, of his power of awakening that sense in others, and of drawing mirth from incidents which occur every day? 12. " Barere," said he to O'Meara, " had the reputation of being a man of talent, but I did not find him so. 11 13. Is the love of approbation a stronger motive than the love of wealth ? 14. Springing from the humblest ranks in life, and unaided by the adventitious supports of family or wealth, Mr. Lincoln reached his exalted position by the strength of his will, the power of his intellect, and the honesty of his heart. 15. The emigrants who came at different periods to occupy the terri- tory now covered by the American Union, differed from each other in many respects ; their aim was not the same, and they governed themselves on different principles. 1 6. America is the only country in which it has been possible to wit- ness the natural and tranquil growth of society, and where the influence exercised on the future condition of states by their origin is clearly distinguishable. 17. A violent outcry was raised, not against that part of his conduct which really deserved severe condemnation, but against a step in which we can see nothing to censure. 1 8. When the citizens learned that he had been sent for from Somer- setshire, that he had been closeted with the King at Richmond, and that he was to be the first minister, they had been in trans- ports of joy. 19. O Italy, how beautiful thou art ! Yet I could weep, for thou art lying, alas ! Low in the dust ; and they who come admire thee As we admire the beautiful in death. 20. While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand ; When falls the Coliseum, Rome shall fall ; And when Rome falls the world. 21. And this strange and ancient city, In that reign of his truth and love, Shall be what it seems in the twilight, The type of that city above, p. c. GRAM. 1 8 2/4 SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS 22. A multitude had assembled there, for as yet military spectacles were novelties, and the camp was full of visitors, men, women, and children, from all parts of the country. 23. Here we were provided with comfortable quarters in a large log house belonging to a fur trader, of which we had hardly taken possession, when the door was thrown open and several fur- clad figures rushed in. 24. What has poor Ireland done, Mother, What has poor Ireland done That the world looks on and sees her starve, Perishing one by one? 25. These writings which I have hitherto published have been little less than visions which impersonate my own apprehensions of the beautiful and the just. 26. And the soul of the maiden, between the stars and the fireflies, Wandered alone, and she cried, " O Gabriel ! O my beloved ! Art thou so near unto me, and yet I cannot behold thee ? " 27. And now depart ! and when Thy heart is heavy, and thine eyes are dim, Lift up thy prayer beseechingly to Him Who, from the tribes of men, Selected thee to feel his chastening rod ; Depart ! O leper ! and forget not God ! 28. " What think you," said Washington, " if we should retreat to the back parts of Pennsylvania, would the Pennsylvanians support us?" 29. The soul of music slumbers in the shell, Till waked and kindled by the master's spell ; And feeling hearts touch them but rightly pour A thousand melodies unheard before ! 30. Let us rejoice that neither of them threatens to return to vex either the soil of the West or the soul of our government. 31. The story of the ape and the walnuts is one of the most extraor- dinary I ever read ; but what a wretched limit of intellect does it imply to be cited as an instance of extraordinary sagacity ! 32. " How many are you then," said I, " If they two are in heaven ? " Quick was the little maid's reply, U O master ! we are seven." SENTENCES OR ANALYSIS 2?$ 33. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, Thou dost not bite so nigh As benefits forgot ; Though thou the waters warp, Thy sting is not so sharp As friends remembered not. 34. O how can beauty master the most strong, And simple truth subdue avenging wrong ! 35. Hail, beauteous stranger of the grove ! Thou messenger of spring! Now heaven repairs thy rural seat, And woods thy welcome sing. 36. Slacken not sail yet at inlet or island ; Straight for the beacon steer straight for the highland ; Crowd all thy canvas on, cut through the foam ; Christian ! cast anchor now heaven is thy home. 37. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse ; but to weigh and consider. 38. " Dear friend," she said, "Why are you so sad ? Am I in such great danger ? " 39. Heap on more wood ! the wind is chill ; But let it whistle as it will, We'll keep our Christmas merry still. 40. Beneath this discipline a formidable people had been formed, fierce hearts in strong bodies, intolerant of restraint, longing for violent deeds, born for constant warfare because steeped in permanent warfare, heroes and robbers, who, as an escape from their solitude, plunged into adventures, and went, that they might conquer a country or win Paradise, to Sicily, to Portugal, to Spain, to Livonia, to Palestine, to England. 41. Whether the author knows it or not, he writes in order to exhibit his ideas of nature and of life ; and the characters which he fashions, like the events which he arranges, only serve to bring to light the dim creative conception which raises and combines them. The pupils should analyze sentences from any good piece of literature used in the school. PART V. ENGLISH DERIVATIVES. CHAPTER XXI. ENGLISH DERIVATIVES. 146. INFLECTIONS AND COMPOUND WORDS. Write the declension of the noun hen. What are the four forms of that noun ? Which is the simplest form ? How is the possessive singular formed; the ordinary plural ; the possessive plural ? Write the comparison of the adjective tall. How is the comparative formed ; the superlative ? Write the entire declension of the pronoun he. Write the inflectional conjugation of the verb talk. The inflection of a word is the changing of its forms to indicate differ- ences in its meanings or uses. The noun, the pronoun, the verb, and some adjectives and adverbs are the only parts of speech in our language that are inflected. Write a comparison of the adjective beautiful, using the adverbs more and most. Write in full the present perfect tense of the verb to speak. What auxiliary indicates the time of the action ? In some cases two words are combined to make one word, called a compound word, the two parts being united by a hyphen. EXAMPLES, labor-saving looking-glass school-teacher 276 INFLECTIONS AND COMPOUND WORDS 2/7 After long use in this way the hyphen may be omitted, the two original words uniting more closely to make one. EXAMPLES, lookout overmuch railway masterpiece pushpin forthcoming One of the words thus united may be altered in spelling, usually by the dropping of letters. EXAMPLES, faith + full = faithful, god + like = godly. These processes of word combining and word blending are constantly going on. Prepositions like into and upon are simple unions ; expressions like I'd and can t show the tendency to blend. We call Pd a contraction, and sepa- rate it into a pronoun and a verb ; but cannot is called a verb; though it has absorbed an adverb. If our language were not printed, these changes would be more rapid. Most of those which have occurred took place before printed English existed. Most of the inflec- tions of our words are results of word blending. The s added to make the third person singular of most verbs, and the ed or d added to make the past form (page 1 58) are the remnants of words formerly added. The plural s or es, the possessive 's, and perhaps the er and est of adjectives are traces of former word combinations. Thus, the inflection of a word is frequently the sign of former word combinations which expressed variations of meaning or relation. oversee popgun Each of these words is formed by uniting two English words. Tell in each case which of the original words is the principal and which the modifier. 2/8 ENGLISH DERIVATIVES true truth untruthful untrue untruth untruthfully truly truthful truthfulness Many of the syllables united with true are now merely syllables, and not whole words. Fnl is evidently an abbre- viation of full ; ly is a still greater abbreviation of like ; in ness and nn we have lost the feeling that a word exists at all ; th is not even a syllable. The word to which these words, abbreviated words, sylla- bles, or letters are added is called the root, or the primitive word. Which addition is placed before the primitive word in the list above ? It is called a prefix. fix = place pre = before Which of these syllables is the root ? Which is the prefix ? Which of the additions are placed after the root in the foregoing list ? Such an added syllable or combination of letters is called a suffix. Analyze the word suffix. The words formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to roots are called derivative words. A primitive word may have but one syllable added to it, as man + ly; or it may have two, or even more such syllables added at one time, as nn man fy, nn man li ness. Frequently the primitive word may have a number of derivatives formed by the addition of different prefixes and suffixes. EXAMPLE. Primitive word, part divide. Derivatives : i. parter, one who parts, or divides. 2. part/-, dividing, separating. INFLECTIONS AND COMPOUND WORDS 2/Q 3. part/K, in part, not wholly. 4. part/taw, the act of separating, or that which separates. 5. part/Wzte, denoting a part. 6. depart, separate from. 7. dfepartwr*, act of departing. 8. #;/ in like manner becomes partly. Most derivative adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly. Give some examples of adverbs thus formed. Verbs may be formed from nouns and from adjectives. The noun terror, with the suffix ize added, becomes the verb terrorize. The adjective black, with the suffix en added, becomes the verb blacken. Many masculine nouns are made feminine by the addi- tion of a suffix, or by a change in the last syllable. Some- times alterations of spelling also occur within the word. 284 ENGLISH DERIVATIVES EXAMPLES. MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. host baron hostess baroness shepherd hero shepherdess heroine emperor abbot actor empress abbess actress administrator prior benefactor administratrix prioress benefactress sorcerer sorceress heir heiress The following noun has a masculine form apparently derived from the feminine. FEMININE. MASCULINE. widow widower Note the following rules for the spelling of derivative words : I. Final e (if preceded by a consonant) is usually dropped on adding a suffix beginning with a vowel. EXAMPLES, come, coming tame, tamable fame, famous But words ending with ge or ce retain the e before able, ably, or ous. EXAMPLES, changeable, peaceably II. Final e is usually retained on adding a suffix begin- ning with a consonant. EXAMPLES, rude, rudeness fine, finely But when the final e is preceded by u or by dg it is omitted. EXAMPLES, true, truly judge, judgment abridge, abridgment SUFFIXES 285 III. Final y, when preceded by a consonant, is gen- erally changed to i on the addition of a suffix. EXAMPLES, beauty, beautiful merry, merrily But if the suffix itself begins with i, final y is retained to prevent the doubling of the i. EXAMPLES, try, trying pity, pitying In the case of a few words ending in ie, the e is dropped, and the i is changed to 7, on adding ing. EXAMPLES, die, dying lie, lying vie, vying Final y is in a few cases changed to e. EXAMPLES, beauty, beauteous plenty, plenteous IV. Final y t when preceded by a vowel, is retained before a suffix. EXAMPLES, joy, joyful boy, boyhood V. Words of one syllable, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. EXAMPLES, beg, beggar abhor, abhorrence rid, riddance If the final consonant is not preceded by a single vowel, or if the accent is not on the last syllable, or if in the derivative the accent is carried back, the final consonant is not doubled before a suffix. 286 ENGLISH DERIVATIVES EXAMPLES, moan, moaning travel, traveler confer, conference The suffixes which form nouns may be divided into three classes. a. Those which mean one who or that which : an, ian cer ist ent ar eer er ite ard ier ary ive le or ant ee b. Those which mean state or quality of being : age ship ure dom acy al ion ance, ence ency ty, ity ry ancy ment mony ism, sm ness tude, ude hood c. Those which mean little or diminutive : cle en kin cule let ling ie ock Exercise. Add a noun suffix to each of the following words, and give the mean- ing of the new word : 1. history 10. man 19. proceed 2. beg ii. depend 20. bestow 3- duke 12. Mormon 21. restful 4- fellow 13. act 22. hill 5. mother 14. allow 23. Israel 6. engine 15. lamb 24. useful 7. scarce 16. disturb 25. Africa 8. animal 17. friend 26. slave 9- pay 1 8. fruit 27. relate al less ate an, ian ive- ous ic, ical iy en ary y ish ful ar er SUFFIXES 287 The suffixes which form adjectives are : ern, erly able, ible, ble ed some ery Of these, able (ible, ble) means tJiat may be, worthy of ; ful signifies plenitude ; and less means free from, without. Exercise. Add an adjective suffix to each of the following words : 1. person 7. spirit 13. venture 2. red 8. respect 14. drear 3. large 9. endure 15. snap 4. Europe 10. granule 16. angel 5. waste 11. value 17. toil 6. consul 12. affection 18. cloud The suffixes (meaning to make) which form verbs are : en fy, ify ate ize, ise The suffixes which form adverbs are : ly, ward, wards wise, ways Exercise. Add a verb suffix to each of the following words : 1. white 4. memory 7. alien 2. character 5. sign 8. moral 3. broad 6. origin 9. glory Add an adverb suffix to each of the following words : 1. brave 4. home 7. true 2. in 5. cross 8. side 3. mere 6. length 9. truthful 288 ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 149. REVIEW. Exercise. Tell what suffix has been added to each of the following words; what part of speech the primitive word is ; and what part of speech has been formed by the addition of the suffix : payee auctioneer inducement dependent wharfage guardianship lambkin kingdom animalcule absorbent witty wonderful writer satirize quicken effective realize lessen justly justify novelist corruption superiority actor astonishment honestly plantlet Mormonism fortunate globule wealthy joyous fertilize departure pleasantly instructive girlhood European northerly Form five nouns from nouns ; five from adjectives ; five from verbs. Form five adjectives from nouns ; five from verbs ; five from adjectives. Form five verbs from nouns ; five from adjectives. Form five adverbs from adjectives ; five from nouns. Exercise. Add a proper suffix to each of the following words, and tell what part of speech has been formed by the addition of the suffix : art owner might hope real loose create profess auction king white station commission noise wing judge severe grateful own sign parent duck glo r y post mercy quick mine boy heart instruct APPENDIX. 1. IRREGULAR VERBS. PREDICATE VERB FORMS. PARTICIPIAL FORMS. PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. abide abides abode abiding abode am is was being been arise arises arose arising arisen awake awakes awoke * awaking awoke * bear (to bring \ forth} J i - bears i bore bearing ( born (passive) ( borne (active) bear (carry} bears bore bearing borne beat beats beat beating j beaten ( beat become becomes became becoming become befall befalls befell befalling befallen beget begets begot begetting j begotten ] V ( begot begin begins began beginning begun behold beholds beheld beholding beheld bend bends bent* bending bent* bereave bereaves bereft * bereaving bereft * beseech beseeches besought beseeching besought bet bets bet* betting bet* bid bids j bade (bid bidding ( bidden Hid bind binds bound binding bound bite bites bit biting ( bitten Hit bleed bleeds bled bleeding bled blend blends blent * blending blent* bless blesses blest * blessing blest * * The regular form also occurs. P. C. GRAM. 19 289 290 APPENDIX PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. blow blows blew blowing blown break breaks broke breaking broken breed breeds bred breeding bred bring brings brought bringing brought build builds built building built burn burns burnt * burning burnt * burst bursts burst bursting burst buy buys bought buying bought cast casts cast casting cast catch catches caught catching caught chide chides chid chiding ( chidden (chid choose chooses chose choosing chosen cleave (split) cleaves ( cleft ( clove cleaving ( cleft * l cloven cling clings clung clinging clung clothe clothes clad* clothing clad* come comes came coming come cost costs cost costing cost creep creeps crept creeping crept crow crows crew * crowing crowed curse curses curst * cursing curst * cut cuts cut cutting cut dare dares durst * daring dared deal deals dealt dealing dealt dig digs dug digging dug do does did doing done draw draws drew drawing drawn dream dreams dreamt * dreaming dreamt * dress dresses drest * dressing drest* drink drinks drank drinking ( drunk ( drank drive drives drove driving driven dwell dwells dwelt * dwelling dwelt * eat eats ate eating eaten fall falls fell falling fallen feed feeds fed feeding fed feel feels felt feeling felt * The regular form also occurs. IRREGULAR VERBS 291 PRESENT. fight find flee fling fly forbear forget forsake freeze get gild gird give go grave grind grow hang have hear heave hew hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lade lay lead lean leap PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. fights fought fighting fought finds found finding found flees fled fleeing fled flings flung flinging flung flies flew flying flown forbears forbore forbearing forborne forgets forgot forgetting j forgotten ( forgot forsakes forsook forsaking forsaken freezes froze freezing frozen gets got getting 5 got ( gotten gilds gilt* gilding gilt* girds girt* girding girt* gives gave giving given goes went going gone graves graved graving graven * grinds ground grinding ground grows grew growing grown hangs hung* hanging hung* has had having had hears heard hearing heard heaves hove * heaving hove * hews hewed hewing hewn * hides hid hiding ( hidden Hid hits hit hitting hit holds held holding held hurts hurt hurting hurt keeps kept keeping kept kneels knelt * kneeling knelt * knits knit* knitting knit* knows knew knowing known lades laded lading laden * lays laid laying laid leads led leading led leans leant* leaning leant * leaps leapt * leaping leapt * * The regular form also occurs. 2Q2 APPENDIX PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. learn learns learnt * learning learnt * leave leaves left leaving left lend lends lent lending lent let lets let letting let lie (recline} lies lay lying lain light lights lit* lighting lit* lose loses lost losing lost make makes made making made mean means meant meaning meant meet meets met meeting met mow mows mowed mowing mown* pay pays paid paying paid pen (shut up} pens pent* penning pent* put puts put putting put quit quits quit* quitting quit* rap raps rapt* rapping rapt* read reads read reading read rend rends rent rending rent rid rids rid* ridding rid* ride rides rode riding ridden ring rings jrang ringing rung (. rung rise rises rose rising risen rive rives rived riving riven * run runs ran running run saw saws sawed sawing sawn* say says said saying said see sees saw seeing seen seek seeks sought seeking sought sell sells sold selling sold send sends sent sending sent set sets set setting set shake shakes shook shaking shaken shape shapes shaped shaping shapen * shave shaves shaved shaving shaven * shear shears shore * shearing shorn * shed sheds shed shedding shed shine shines shone shining shone The regular form also occurs. IRREGULAR VERBS 293 PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. shoe shoes shod shoeing shod shoot shoots shot shooting shot show shows showed showing shown * shred shreds shred * shredding shred * shrink shrinks ( shrank ( shrunk shrinking j shrunk < shrunken shrive shrives shrove * shriving shriven * shut shuts shut shutting shut sing sings jsang ( sung singing sung sink sinks \ sank i sunk sinking sunk sit sits sat sitting sat slay slays slew slaying slain sleep sleeps slept sleeping slept slide slides slid sliding ( slidden (slid sling slings slung slinging slung slink slinks slunk slinking slunk slit slits slit* slitting slit* smell smells smelt * smelling smelt * smite smites smote smiting smitten sow sows sowed sowing sown * speak speaks spoke speaking spoken speed speeds sped* speeding sped* spell spells spelt * spelling spelt * spend spends spent spending spent spill spills spilt * spilling spilt * spin spins spun spinning spun spit spits spit spitting spit split splits split splitting split spoil spoils spoilt * spoiling spoilt * spread spreads spread spreading spread spring springs ( sprang springing sprung ( sprung stand stands stood standing stood stave staves stove * staving stove * stay stays staid * staying staid * * The regular form also occurs. 294 APPENDIX PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PERF. PART. steal steals stole stealing stolen stick sticks stuck sticking stuck sting stings stung stinging stung strew strews strewed strewing strewn * stride strides strode striding stridden strike strikes struck striking ( struck ( stricken string strings strung stringing strung strive strives strove striving striven swear swears swore swearing sworn sweat sweats sweat * sweating sweat * sweep sweeps swept sweeping swept swell swells swelled swelling swollen * ( swam swim swims swimming swum ( swum swing swings swung swinging swung take takes took taking taken teach teaches taught teaching taught tear tears tore tearing torn tell tells told telling told think thinks thought thinking thought thrive thrives throve * thriving thriven * throw throws threw throwing thrown thrust thrusts thrust thrusting thrust tread treads trod treading \ trodden 1 trod wake wakes woke * waking woke * wear wears wore wearing worn weave weaves wove weaving woven wed weds wedded wedding wed* weep weeps wept weeping wept wet wets wet* wetting wet* win wins won winning won wind winds wound winding wound work works wrought * working wrought * wrap wraps wrapt * wrapping wrapt * wring wrings wrung wringing wrung write writes wrote writing written * The regular form also occurs. COMPLETE CONJUGATION 295 2. "COMPLETE CONJUGATION." INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Active. SINGULAR. First Person. I love Second Person. You love (thou lovest) l^hird Person. He loves (loveth) First Person. Second Person. Third Person. Passive. I am loved You are (thou art) loved He is loved PLURAL. We love You (ye) love They love We are loved You (ye) are loved They are loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Active. First Person. I have loved Second Person. You have (thou hast) loved Third Person. He has (hath) loved Passive. First Person. I have been loved Second Person. You have (thou hast) been loved Third Person. He has (hath) been loved We have loved You (ye) have loved They have loved We have been loved You (ye) have been loved They have been loved PAST TENSE. Active. First Person. I loved Second Person. You loved (thou lovedst) Third Person. He loved Passive. First Person. I was loved Second Person. You were (thou wast) loved Third Person. He was loved We loved You (ye) loved They loved We were loved You (ye) were loved They were loved 296 APPENDIX PAST PERFECT TENSE. Active. SINGULAR. PLURAL. First Person. I had loved We had loved Second Person. You had (thou hadst) loved You (ye) had loved Third Person. He had loved They had loved Passive. First Person. I had been loved We had been loved Second Person. You had (thou hadst) been You (ye) had been loved loved Third Person. He had been loved They had been loved FUTURE TENSE. Active. First Person. I shall love Second Person. You will (thou wilt) love Third Person. He will love Passive. First Person. I shall be loved Second Person. You will (thou wilt) be We shall love You (ye) will love They will love We shall be loved You (ye) will be loved Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. loved He will be loved They will be loved FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Active. I shall have loved You will (thou wilt) have loved He will have loved Passive. I shall have been loved You will (thou wilt) have been loved He will have been loved We shall have loved You (ye) will have loved They will have loved We shall have been loved You (ye) will have been loved They will have been loved COMPLETE CONJUGATION 297 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. " PRESENT TENSE. Active. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. SINGULAR. (10 I love (If) you (thou) love (If) he love Passive. (If) I be loved (If) you (thou) be loved (If) he be loved PLURAL. (If) we love (If) you (ye) love (If) they love (If) we be loved (If) you (ye) be loved (If) they be loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Active. (If) I have loved (If) you (thou) have loved (If) he have loved Passive. (If) I have been loved (If) you (thou) have been loved (If) he have been loved PAST TENSE. Active. First Person. (If) I loved Second Person. (If) you (thou) loved Third Person. (If) he loved Passive. First Person. (If) I were loved Second Person. (If) you (thou) were loved Third Person. (If) he were loved (If) we have loved (If) you (ye) have loved (If) they have loved (If) we have been loved (If) you (ye) have been loved (If) they have been loved (If) we loved (If) you (ye) loved (If) they loved (If) we were loved (If) you (ye) were loved (If) they were loved 298 APPENDIX PAST PERFECT TENSE. Active. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. SINGULAR. (If) I had loved (If) you (thou) had loved (If) he had loved Passive. (If) I had been loved (If) you (thou) had been loved (If) he had been loved PLURAL. (If) we had loved (If) you (ye) had loved (If) they had loved (If) we had been loved (If) you (ye) had been loved (If) they had been loved First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. First Person. Second Person. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE Active. I may, can, must, or will We may, can, must, or love will love You may, can, must, or shall You (ye) may, can, must, (thou mayst, canst, must, or shall love or shalt) love He may, can, must, or shall They may, can, must, or love shall love Passive. I may, can, must, or will be We may, can, must or loved will be loved You may, can, must, or shall You (ye) may, can, must, (thou mayst, canst, must, or shall be loved or shalt) be loved He may, can, must, or shall They may, can, must, or be loved shall be loved PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Active. I may, can, must, or will We may, can, must, or have loved will have loved You may, can, must, or shall You (ye) may, can, must, (thou mayst, canst, must, or shall have loved or shalt) have loved COMPLETE CONJUGATION 299 SINGULAR. PLURAL. Third Person. He may, can, must, or shall They may, can, must, or have loved shall have loved Passive. First Person. I may, can, must, or will have been loved Second Person. You may, can, must, or shall (thou mayst, canst, must, or shalt) have been loved Third Person. He may, can, must, or shall have been loved We may, can, must, or will have been loved You (ye) may, can, must, or shall have been loved They may, can, must, or shall have been loved PAST TENSE. Active. First Person. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, should love or should love Second Person. You might, could, would, or You (ye) might, could, should (thou mightst, would, or should love couldst, wouldst, or shouldst) love Third Person. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, should love or should love Passive. First Person. I might, could, would, or should be loved Second Person. You might, could, would, or should (thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst) be loved Third Person. He might, could, would, or should be loved We might, could, would, or should be loved You (ye) might, could, would, or should be loved They might, could, would, or should be loved PAST PERFECT TENSE. Active. First Person. I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, should have loved or should have loved 3OO APPENDIX SINGULAR. PLURAL. Second Person. You might, could, would, or You (ye) might, could, should (thou mightst, would, or should have couldst, wouldst, or loved shouldst) have loved Third Person. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, should have loved or should have loved Passive. First Person, I might, could, would, or We might, could, would, should have been loved or should have been loved Second Person. You might, could, would, You (ye) might, could, or should (thou mightst, would, or should have couldst, wouldst, or been loved shouldst) have been loved Third Person. He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, should have been loved or should have been loved IMPERATIVE MOOD. Active. Love Passive. Be loved INFINITIVE. Active. To love PRESENT TENSE. Passive. To be loved PERFECT TENSE. To have loved To have been loved PARTICIPLES. PRESENT TENSE. Active. Passive. Loving Being loved PERFECT TENSE. Having loved Having been loved HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 3Wuate ; egress. graph, write ; as autograph ; graph- ical. grat, pleasing ; as grateful ; grati- tude. hospit, host, guest ; as hospitality. ject, throw ; as eject ; project. junct, join ; as junction ; adjunct. jur, swear; as juror; adjure. jur, law ; as jurist ; injury. lat, carry, bring ; as dilate ; trans- late. leg, send, bring ; as al/<^e ; legacy. lect, gather, choose ; as collect ; elective. liber, free ; as liberal ; liberate. lin, flax; as linen; linoleum. liter, letter ; as /z'teral ; literature. loc, place ; as dislocate ; locality. log, word ; as logic ; prologue. loqu (locut), speak ; as loquacious ; interlocutor. lud (lus), sport, play ; as il/w.rion ; ludicrous. magn, great ; as magnate ; magni- tude. man, hand ; as w^^acle ; manual. mar, sea ; as marine ; mariner. WORD BUILDING 309 mater, mother ; as maternal ; mat- rimony. medi, between ; as mediate. ; medi- ocrity. ment, mind ; as mental ; mentality. mere, merchandise, trade ; as com- mercial ; market. merg, dip, sink; as, emerge; sub- merge. meter, measure ; as symmetry ; thtrmometer : migr, wander ; as emigrate. mir, wonder, look ; as miracle ; mirror. mitt (miss), send; as admission; commit. mon, advise, remind ; as monitor ; mort, death ; as immortal. mot, move ; as motion ; motor. mult, many; as ;//#//iple ; multi- tude. mun, fortify ; as muniment ; muni- tion. nat, born ; as natal ; national. nav, ship ; as naval ; navy. not, known ; as notice ; notify. numer, number ; as in/zw/z^rable ; enumerate. nunci (nounc), tell ; as announce ; ocul, eye ; as binocular ; oculist. par, get ready ; as parry ; pre/tore. parl, speak ; as parley ; parlor. part, divide ; as partition. past, feed ; as pasture ; repast. pass, suffer; as compassion. pater, father ; as paternal ; patri- cian. ped, foot ; as biped', pedal. pell (puls), drive; as exflttlsion; propel; compel. pend (pens), hang, weigh, pay ; as pendant ; pension. pet, ask, seek ; as compete ; petition. phil, love, fond ; as philanthropy ; plet, fill ; as complete ; replete. plic, fold, bend ; as com///<:ation. pon, place ; as com^went ; post- pone. port, carry ; as porter ; transport. port, gate ; as portal ; porter. pos, place ; as impost ; transpost. prim, first ; as primate ; primer. sacr, holy ; as sacrament ; sacred.. sci, know ; as omnLrc zence ; science. scrib (script), write ; as describe ; sent (sens), feel, think ; as sensible ; sentiment. sequ (secut), follow; as consecut- ive ; sequel. sol, alone ; as solitary ; j^/itude. spec (spect), look; as prospect; spectacle. spir, breathe ; as expire ; inspire. stru (struct), build ; as construe ; sum (sumpt), take; as assumpt- ion ; presume. tact, touch; as contact; tactile. un, one; as w^animous (of one mind); unit. ut, use, useful ; as ?^ility ; ^/ilize. vid (vis), see ; as evident ; visual. viv, live ; as wVacious ; vivid. voc, call ; as vocal ; vocation. 3io APPENDIX 5. ADVANCED WORK IN WORD BUILDING.* Point out the effect of the following prefixes in the words given, and in any others you can find in the dictionary : a, an, not, without; as atheist; anarchy. amb (ambi), around; as ambient; ambiguity. amphi, on both sides, around; as amphibious ; amphitheater, ana, back, again, throughout ; as analyze; anatomy, ant (anti), against; as antarctic; ante, before ; as apo, from, off; as apology. bene, well ; as beneiactor ; benevo- lence. bi, two, twice ; as biped. ; ^'weekly. bis, twice ; as fa'scuit. cata, down, completely ; as catastro- phe ; catalogue. contra (contro, counter), against; as contradict, counterbalance. dia, through ; as diameter. dis (di, dif), apart ; as differ ; dis- tract. du (duo), two ; as duel ; ditet. epi, upon ; as epitaph. eu, well ; as eulogy. extra, beyond ; as extravagant. hemi, half; as ^