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 IN MEMQRIAIA 
 George Davidson 
 1325-1911 
 
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 GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 
 
 ELEMENTS AND GRAMMAR 
 SCHOOL 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXIS EVERETT FRYE 
 
 First Superintendent of Schools of Cuba. Author of "Child and 
 
 Nature" "Brooks and Brook Basins," "Elements of 
 
 Geography," "Grammar School Geography ," 
 
 "Home and School Atlas" etc. 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
 
 QLht ^enactim press 
 
 1903 
 
CONTEXTS. 
 
 -+0+- 
 
 Pages 
 Part I. — General Notes ....... 1-34 
 
 The suggestions in this part of the Manual are appli- 
 cable to both geographies of the series — Elements and 
 Grammar School, and in general to other subjects, such 
 as history and reading. These notes suggest how to 
 use the material of the book, — the maps, pictures 
 and text. 
 
 Part II. — Elements of Geography Lesson Notes . . 35-78 
 
 In connection with these special notes for the Ele- 
 ments of Geography, teachers should read the general 
 notes on pages 1-36. 
 
 Copyright, 1896, 1903 
 By ALP:XIS EVERETT FRYE 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 11 
 
TEACHERS' MANUAL, 
 
 I. GENERAL NOTES. 
 
 1. Ideas vs. Words. 
 
 No wide-awake teacher of to-day wastes his own time 
 and that of his pupils by forcing them to memorize 
 the exact words of a text-book. Such work is not 
 teaching, and is not worth the smallest salary paid in 
 the poorest school district. 
 
 The pupil who studies the text of a lesson and then 
 expresses the thoughts in his own words becomes master 
 of the lesson. A pupil who merely recites parrot-like 
 the words of the text may not have grasped a single 
 thought. Even if every sentence were backed by the 
 proper thought, what a cruel waste of energy would 
 result from trying to fix the exact words in mind for a 
 day or at most for a week ! 
 
 No teacher really believes in such work, for no 
 teacher ever takes the trouble to force himself to mem- 
 orize the text. The teacher who drives his pupils to 
 this task does not seem to know how to teach them to 
 grasp an author's meaning. He thinks the meaning 
 must be in the words and that the pupils must swallow 
 them. 
 
 Definitions. — Of what use are definitions of hills, 
 rivers, etc. ? In daily life do we ever use them? Must 
 a child define in order to know ? Does he not know a 
 
 M27S050 
 
 k\ 
 
teachers' manual. 
 
 chair, a shoe, a horse ? — vet lias lie learned to define 
 them? Nay, he learns to know such things hj*eeit 
 or sensing ( them. 
 
 Among countless objects that affect our life, why 
 should teachers select the forms of land and water and 
 claim that these few can best be known or studied 
 through their definitions ? Is it because pupils can 
 hide ignorance in empty words and thus make a good 
 showing in that form of examination which calls for 
 husks instead of grains of thought Let us hope not ; 
 yet if it be true, the number of teachers of this class is 
 small, for the thoughtful teachers of to-day show by 
 their work that they believe in the study of th — 
 
 not mere ivord-sliells. 
 
 A pupil should learn to know a hill or a plain by 
 studying the thing itself or a good picture of it. The 
 teacher may use various devices to stimulate careful 
 
 ■ 
 
 looking. Thus, he may tell the pupil to model, draw 
 or describe it : and the attempt to express in either of 
 these wavs will lead to closer looking and so to the 
 gaining of clearer mental pictures. 
 
 Let us illustrate by a Irook. By one plan the pupil 
 will learn the words. " A brook is a small stream of 
 fresh water flowing over the land."' By the other plan 
 he will study the brook itself and may discover the 
 following : 
 
 •• A brook is running water. The water is fresh. 
 The brook winds about. Where the brook is swift the 
 bottom is steep. In some places the bottom is rocky : 
 in other places it is muddy. The water nio . Lowly 
 over the muddy bottom. The brook grows larg 
 flows downward. In wide pans of the brook the water 
 
teachers' manual. 
 
 moves slowly ; in narrow places it moves swiftly. The 
 bottom of the brook slants downhill. The banks of the 
 brook are in most places nearly parallel. The land 
 slopes down to the brook on both sides and holds it in 
 place." Etc., etc. 
 
 Which pupil knows more about a brook, the one who 
 can recite the definition or the one who has learned the 
 above facts by seeing and discovering for himself? 
 Which pupil has gained the greater power in the study ? 
 Which has the knowledge better suited to his later life? 
 
 It is claimed that the " book ' definition is better 
 worded than any a pupil can make. What of it? The 
 pupil will never use either. If such definitions are 
 useful, why not also teach definitions of buttons, chairs, 
 pins and countless other common objects ? 
 
 The pupil has the right to learn to describe objects 
 in his own words in order that he may gain in power to 
 see and express. What right has the teacher to deprive 
 him of growth, merely that in an examination he may 
 appear to know what he does not really know ? 
 
 Any examination that calls for definitions of geograph- 
 ical forms, and that does not give opportunity for the 
 pupil to show his power to see and to think, is certainly 
 far behind the times. Which is the better question, 
 " Define a brook," or " Tell what you know abou*" 
 brooks and their uses " ? Which tests the quality of 
 the teaching ? Which proves the ability of the pupil 
 to see and to think ? 
 
 The superintendent or school-board that gives broad 
 examinations, based on the pupils' power to think, 
 rather than on memory of details, wields a powerful 
 weapon in the cause of good teaching. 
 
teachers' manual. 
 
 2. Lessons on the Text. 
 
 When told that pupils should not memorize the 
 words of the text, many teachers are at a loss to know 
 what to do with the text. Pupils, also, who have been 
 dwarfed by learning words, words, ivords, do not know 
 how to study the lessons. They have not been taught 
 how to crack the shell and get at the kernel, — in other 
 words, how to get the thought out of a sentence. This 
 work should receive the teacher's first care in placing 
 before a class any text, — whether geography, history, 
 arithmetic or reading. 
 
 To illustrate this step in the work, let us take the 
 following text. Keep in mind that our aim is to teach 
 pupils how to study the lesson, so as to make the 
 thoughts their own. 
 
 The Land and the Sea. 
 
 Most parts of the sea near the land are shallow. 
 Far from the shores the sea is in many places two 
 miles deep, and in some places the bottom is four 
 or five miles below the surface. 
 
 The land and the surface of the sea have light 
 by day and darkness by night. They have also 
 warm and cold seasons. No sunshine reaches the 
 deep parts of the sea. The deep water is always 
 cold and dark. 
 
 The land has many valleys and mountains, but 
 a large part of the sea-bottom is a great smooth 
 plain. 
 
teachers' manual. 5 
 
 The wind blows sand and dust over the land 
 and also makes waves on the surface of the sea, 
 but the deep sea is very still. Part of the rain 
 falling on the land feeds brooks and rivers, which 
 carry or ivash loose soil down the slopes and help 
 to wear valleys in the land. Thus the form of 
 the land is slowly changed. 
 
 Nearly all the soil which is washed into the sea 
 settles in the shallow water near the shores. The 
 smooth bottom of the deep sea hardly changes at 
 all, for there are no streams to wear valleys in it, 
 and very little soil from the land reaches these 
 quiet waters. 
 
 The following lesson-plans suggest five different ways 
 of teaching pupils how to study the text. Each of 
 these pla,ns, and others which the teacher's own inge- 
 nuity will suggest, may be used to give variety to the 
 work. 
 
 Lesson-Plan i. Teacher. — "Read the lesson through 
 carefully ; then take a paragraph at a time and write 
 fully in your own words just what it tells. In this 
 way write the whole lesson. Use words where you can 
 that are not the same as those in the book." 
 
 With these directions the pupils prepare their lesson. 
 When the time of study is ended, they are called on to 
 read their work. Thus : 
 
 Teacher. — "William may read the first paragraph as he has 
 written it." 
 
 William. — "The water along the seashore is not deep. Some 
 parts of the ocean are four or five miles deep, and many are two 
 miles. The deep parts are mostly far from land." 
 
6 teachers' manual. 
 
 Teacher. — " Can any one correct William's thought ? " 
 
 Albert. — " The book does not say that the water is shallow 
 near all shores, but in most places" 
 
 Teacher. — " While William is correcting his work, Albert may 
 tell how he has written the first sentence." 
 
 Albert. — " Along nearly all shores the bottom of the sea is not 
 far below the surface. Out in the ocean the bottom is farther 
 from the surface than it is along the shore. Many parts of the 
 sea are two miles deep. Some places are known to be four or five 
 miles deep." 
 
 Teacher. — " Did Albert get the whole thought? " 
 
 Thus the lesson proceeds, with the pupils noting any 
 omission or error in thought, till the teacher is certain 
 that the meaning of the paragraph is firmly fixed in mind. 
 Then the next paragraph is taken up for discussion. 
 
 Teacher. — " Mabel may read the second paragraph." 
 Mabel. — " The bottom of the deep sea is never warm, because 
 the sun cannot shine so deep through the water. The sunshine 
 causes the seasons, and so there cannot be any change from winter 
 to summer in the deep water, nor from night to day." 
 
 Teacher. — " Can anybody add to this paragraph ? If not, 
 Edith may tell what she has written for the same." 
 
 Edith. — " The sun shines on the surface of the earth and gives 
 warmth, but the sunlight cannot reach very deep in water. There 
 is no sunrise nor sunset seen down there, and there are no warm 
 summer days. The deep water is chilly and gloomy." 
 Teacher. — " Grace may read her next paragraph." 
 Grace. — " There is level land under much of the sea . . ." 
 Etc. 
 
 When the pupils have discussed every paragraph, 
 there can be no doubt about the lesson being known. 
 While the paragraphs are being read, the teacher goes 
 quietly through the aisles, glancing at the work of each 
 pupil to see that it is carefully done. Less than half a 
 minute's examination of each paper tells the story. 
 
teachers' manual. 7 
 
 If the teacher wishes to impress still further the facts 
 of the lesson, the pupils may be asked to close their 
 books and write from memory what they have learned. 
 This may be their language work for the day. All the 
 papers need not be read, but the teacher may wish to 
 look over the papers of those who are inclined to do 
 careless work, to see if they should be told to do the 
 work again. A glance at each paper will show what is 
 needed. It is a great waste of time and energy to try 
 to read all written work of pupils. 
 
 Lesson-Plan 2. It is an excellent plan to have pupils 
 study a lesson by writing a list of questions which shall 
 bring out the various thoughts in the text. The pupils 
 are told to make their own questions. If such work is 
 new to the pupils they may not know how to begin. 
 In this case the teacher may illustrate as follows : 
 
 Teacher. — " Albert may read the first paragraph." 
 
 Albert. — " Most parts of the sea near the land . . ." etc. 
 
 Teacher. — " We do not wish Albert to remember the exact 
 words, but we wish to know whether he knows the meaning of 
 the paragraph. You may each write a question for Albert about 
 what he has read." 
 
 Grace. — " What parts of the sea are shallow ? " 
 
 Mabel. — " Can you tell where there are any shallow parts of 
 the sea? " 
 
 Edith. — " What have you learned about the sea near the shore? " 
 
 Ada. — " What does shallow mean ? " 
 
 Frank. — " What do you mean by the sea ? " Etc., etc. 
 
 Teacher. — " Those are all good questions, and if Albert can 
 answer them he knows the meaning of the words he read. You 
 may all read the rest of the lesson and make questions about every 
 part, as you have done with the first paragraph. Perhaps some 
 sentences will need two or three questions to bring out the full 
 meaning. 
 
8 teachers' manual. 
 
 " When the time comes to recite this lesson, you may ask each 
 other questions that you have written. Be sure that you can 
 answer your own questions and then you can feel quite sure that 
 you can answer the questions which others ask." 
 
 With these directions the pupils study the text, — 
 to search out the meaning in order to ask questions. 
 When a pupil has made a good series of questions, 
 the teacher may feel certain that the meaning of the 
 text is clear and that the pupil has made the thoughts 
 his own. The following may suggest a form of reci- 
 tation for this lesson : 
 
 Teacher. — " Grace may read her first question." 
 
 Grace. — " What parts of the sea are shallow? " 
 
 Teacher. — " Edith may answer." 
 
 Edith. — " The shallow parts are along the shores." 
 
 Teacher. — " Do all agree ? Does the text say so ? " 
 
 Albert. — " The text does n't say that all the shallow parts are 
 near the shores. It says the sea is shallow near most shores, but 
 it does not say the sea is not shallow in some places far from the 
 land." 
 
 Teacher. — " How many of you agree with Albert? Does any- 
 one differ? If not, Helen may ask another question about the 
 first sentence or the second." 
 
 Helen. — " What does shallow sea mean ? " 
 
 Teacher. — " Ada may answer." 
 
 Ada. — " Shallow sea is sea that is not deep." 
 
 Teacher. — " Who can tell that in another way? — William." 
 
 William. — " In shallow water the bottom is not far below the 
 surface." 
 
 Teacher. — " The book does not tell how far from the land the 
 water is shallow. In some places the shallow part reaches only a 
 mile or two offshore, but in other places the deep water begins 
 at about a hundred miles from the land. When we think of an 
 ocean thousands of miles wide, a hundred miles may be called 
 a short distance. When we think of parts of the sea two or 
 
teachers' manual. 9 
 
 more miles deep, we may call the water shallow even where it 
 is several hundred feet deep. We mean that it is shallow com- 
 pared with the deep sea. 1 
 
 " Mabel may ask a question." 
 
 Mabel. — " How deep is the sea far from the shores ? " This 
 question, and many others, are discussed. 
 
 If the teacher has good control of the class, he can 
 greatly add to the interest of the lesson by allowing 
 the one who asks a question to name the pupil who is 
 to answer. If the teacher sees that some pupils are 
 slighted, he can easily remedy the evil by suggesting 
 that no pupil be asked to recite twice until all have 
 recited once ; or he may use a more direct means and 
 name the pupil who is to answer. 
 
 When the teacher sees that the questions do not call 
 out all the leading thoughts of the text, he can assist 
 by asking questions. It will be found a pleasing device 
 to allow the pupil who has given a correct answer to 
 ask the next question and select the one to answer. 
 The tendency of this device will be to draw out the 
 pupils who are most backward, for pupils take just 
 pride in proving that they have found thoughts in the 
 text which others have passed blindly over. A few 
 lessons of this kind will cultivate the most careful 
 study of the text. 
 
 This lesson-plan does not call for the examination 
 of the various papers written by pupils. Each takes 
 some part in asking and answering ; moreover the 
 pupils soon learn to feel that the great value in writing 
 
 1 This note by the teacher is added to suggest that he should at all 
 times be ready and free to draw on his own fund of knowledge. With 
 this in mind, many notes on the lessons in the geography have been 
 placed in this Manual for the teachers. 
 
10 teachers' manual. 
 
 the questions lies in the fact that the answers are at 
 the same time learned. The recitation gives all an 
 opportunity to show how fully the lesson has been 
 learned. If at any time a pupil finds that the class is 
 passing over an important part of the text, he should 
 be encouraged to show that he has a good question to 
 ask. 
 
 When the lesson is over, if the teacher wishes to 
 impress the facts still more, he can ask the pupils to 
 write from memory what they have learned. This 
 need not be done, however, if the teacher thinks that 
 the facts of the text are well known. 
 
 Lesson-Plan 3. Now and then the teacher can vary 
 the lesson-plan by placing a list of topics on the 
 blackboard and asking the pupils to learn what the 
 text teaches about the topics. A glance at a paragraph 
 will tell the teacher what the topic is. For example, 
 we will select from our sample lesson the following 
 topics : 
 
 1. Depth of the sea. 
 
 2. Sunlight in the sea. 
 
 3. Surface of the land and sea-bottom. 
 
 4. Action of wind and rain. 
 
 5. Changes in the sea-bottom. 
 
 Review : — Tell how the land differs from the sea- 
 bottom. 
 
 The work of the pupils is now to find what the text 
 teaches about each topic. They are to study the lesson 
 till they can close the book and in their own words 
 recite the thoughts of the text. 
 
teachers' manual. 11 
 
 At first it may be wise to ask the pupils to write 
 their answers to the topics. The teacher can then 
 glance over the papers of the weaker pupils and help 
 them. After a few lessons the pupils will be able to 
 study without writing. 
 
 The recitation may take some such form as this : 
 
 Teacher. — " Tell what you can about the depth of the sea, 
 Albert." 
 
 Albert. — " The deepest parts are far out in the ocean. There 
 are some places five miles deep. There are many parts of the sea 
 near the shores that are not very deep." 
 
 Teacher. — " Recite on the same topic, Mabel." 
 
 Mabel. — " There are some deep places near the shores, but 
 there are more shallow places. Many parts of the ocean are two 
 miles deep. Most of the deep places are far out in the sea. Some 
 deep hollows are four or five miles below the surface." 
 
 Teacher. — " Does any one wish to ask Mabel or Albert a 
 question ? " 
 
 Edith. — "I should like to ask Mabel how she knows that there 
 are deep places near the shores. The lesson does n't say so." 
 
 Mabel. — " The text does n't say that the sea is shallow all 
 along the shores, but that in nearly all places it is shallow. If 
 all places are not shallow, some must be deep." 
 
 Grace. — " How does Albert know that the deepest places are 
 far out in the sea ? " 
 
 Albert. — "I think the text says so." 
 
 Teacher " Let us all open our books and find out. Can any 
 
 one find a statement like Albert's ? " 
 
 William. — " The text does n't say just what Albert did, but I 
 think it means that. The first sentence tells about the sea near 
 the land and does n't speak of deep places. The second sentence 
 is about the sea far from the land, and this sentence does speak of 
 the very deep places in the sea. I think that if there were still 
 deeper places near the shore the text would say so." 
 
 As the class agrees with William, the teacher calls 
 for the second topic from Ada. 
 
12 teachers' manual. 
 
 Ada. — " When the sun shines it lights the land and the upper 
 part of the ocean. The sun warms them also. Sometimes the 
 days are warmer than at other times and we have spring, summer, 
 autumn and winter. The bottom of the deep sea has no sunshine. 
 The sun can't shine deep in the water. It must always be dark 
 down there, and if the sun's heat does not reach so deep it must 
 be very cold all the time." 
 
 Mabel. — " Is n't it a little warmer on the deep sea-bottom in 
 summer than it is in winter? " 
 
 Teacher. — " What do you think about it, Grace ? " 
 
 Grace. — " If the sun never shines there I don't see what differ- 
 ence it makes whether it is summer or winter at the surface." 
 
 Albert. — " If it is so cold why does n't the water freeze ? " 
 
 If the teacher cannot answer this question, he should 
 frankly say, " I don't know, but I will try to find out 
 and tell you." The most learned man in the world 
 cannot answer a tenth part of the questions which a 
 little child may ask about any lesson in this book. 
 Such questions are likely to crop out at any time in all 
 studies. It is a great pleasure to be able to say now 
 and then to a class, " I don't know, but I will try to 
 find out." It fills the pupils with the same spirit, — 
 " I don't know, but I will try to find out." If you would 
 develop honor in children, be honest with them. If the 
 questions are such as you ought to be able to answer, 
 be sorry that you cannot, but be frank. 
 
 On the other hand, if you can answer the question, 
 do not hesitate to do so even though you know that the 
 pupils cannot grasp the full meaning. The answer will 
 show them the need of growth. Thus the teacher may 
 answer Albert's question as follows : " The water is 
 very cold, but not cold enough to freeze. Fresh water 
 freezes at the temperature of 82°, but salt water must 
 
teachers' manual. 13 
 
 be about four degrees colder before it changes to ice. 
 In many parts the deep sea reaches 30°, but that is not 
 cold enough to form ice. In the polar regions the sur- 
 face water of the oceans may drop to 28° and freeze, 
 but the bottoms of the oceans are never quite so cold, 
 though parts are within 2° of it. The deep sea there- 
 fore never freezes." 
 
 Teacher. — " William may tell what he knows about 
 the surface of the land and the sea-bottom." 
 
 Thus the work goes on till all the topics have been 
 discussed. The pupils receive their best growth, not 
 from the study of the text, but from the contact of mind 
 with mind in the recitation ; yet the study of the text 
 affords a common ground for the meeting of the minds. 
 
 The last topic is headed "Review." This topic is made 
 broad enough to cover the entire lesson and may serve 
 as a subject for a written lesson, if the teacher desires. 
 If the teacher is sure that the pupils know the meaning 
 of the text, this written exercise may not be desirable. 
 It will tend, however, to fix the facts of the lesson. 
 
 Lesson-Plan 4. Teacher. — " You may study to-day's 
 lesson so as to be able to answer any questions I may 
 ask about it. As }^ou study the text you had better 
 think what questions I may ask and learn to answer 
 them. Do not try to learn the words of the book." 
 
 The teacher, as well as the pupils, should prepare for 
 the recitation. He should read the text carefully and 
 place a question mark near each word that suggests a 
 question. When the class is ready to recite he can then 
 readily glance at the catch-words thus marked and 
 quickly frame his questions. 
 
14 teachers' manual. 
 
 The questions may deal with the details of the text. 
 as follows : 
 
 What does the word shallow mean ? What is the 
 sea f What parts of the sea are shallow ? What parts 
 are deep ? How deep are some of the great valleys of 
 the sea-bottoin ? Etc.. etc. 
 
 Or, the text may deal with broader topics resembling 
 more those of lesson-plan 3. In this lesson the pupils 
 have not had the topics in sight for study, but have 
 been learningr to read or study a text without such aid. 
 For the recitation the teacher may ask a pupil to 
 tell what he knows about the depth of the sea : the 
 sunlight in the sea : the surface of the land ; the sea- 
 bottom : the work of wind and rain on the land ; etc. 
 
 Lesson-plan 4 is more difficult than either of the 
 preceding, yet it is the way that pupils must learn to 
 read and study books. — that is. without questions or 
 topics. After leaving school they cannot find such 
 helps in the books they will study. 
 
 Lesson-Plan 5. Teacher. — •• After you have studied 
 to-day's lesson you may write for me what the text 
 teaches. I do not want you to learn the words of the 
 book, but give me the thoughts in your own words. 
 As you study, think of some topics to remind you of 
 the various parts of the lesson. These will help you 
 to write in paragraphs. If you have good topics yon 
 will be less likelv to forget the parts of the text. Per- 
 haps u study you can think what you will wish to 
 
 write." 
 
 After the lesson is written the papers may be collected 
 and then distributed at random among the pupils. The 
 
TEACHERS" MA.XL'AL. 15 
 
 teacher then directs : •• Read carefully the paper which 
 you have and see if any thoughts EU - n Lg. If 
 
 make note of them at the bottom of the | aper. Th< - ■ 
 sitting in the back seats may collect the papers and 
 return them to the pupils who wrote them. Look at 
 the notes on your own paper and sec what you forgot 
 to write." 
 
 This exercise is of value in several ways. It often 
 places an excellent paper in the hands i ickward 
 
 pupil and so stimulates him to better work by giving 
 him a better ideal ; it gives • very pupil a ehanc< I 
 look at the lesson from the standpoint f som ler 
 
 pupil: it makes pupils careful both in the reading of 
 another paper and in the writing of th wn ; it g 
 the teacher opportunity to move throi _ • aisles as 
 
 the pupils are studying the papers and to note the work 
 of the backward pupils. The hrighl 3 I little 
 
 attention, but they get what thev do need. — namelv. 
 practice in getting and giving thought. 
 
 Do not feel that every paper si e carefully re 
 
 by the teacher. It is a great wasl : time to try to 
 correct every mistake. S I t three or four from 
 lesson and before you realize it hundreds of min . 
 errors will be outgrown. In fact the unusual errors will 
 correct themselves, or will 1 ted without tJ 
 
 teacher's aid. Let the teacher direct his energy against 
 the greatest fan 
 
 Comments. — Teachers whose ideal rises no higher 
 than the assigning of lessons to be learned word 1 . 
 word, do not of course wish to use text that descril - 
 
 or explains. If the object is to teach empty words, a 
 
16 teachers' manual. 
 
 child can memorize the sentence, " A plain is level 
 land," more quickly than two or three pages of text 
 explaining how the various kinds of plains were formed, 
 — some along the banks or at the mouths of rivers ; 
 others by the slow uprising of smooth sea-bottoms ; 
 others by the spreading of lava over great areas ; others 
 by the draining of large lakes ; etc., etc. By the former 
 plan he knows nothing more than a name for level land ; 
 by the latter plan he knows, not only how the vast 
 plains of the earth were formed, but also why some 
 are suited to produce wheat, cotton, grass, etc., while 
 others are barren. 
 
 For actual teaching, — not mere word-learning, — 
 the text which fully describes and explains is far 
 simpler than the definitions and other text which for 
 many years have been trimmed and pruned till not a 
 leaf, twig or even a branch is left on the worm-eaten 
 old word- trunks. It is the writer's firm belief that no 
 teacher who has tried to teach text by lesson-plans like 
 those above (and the number of such teachers is legion) 
 will ever long for the drudgery of driving pupils to 
 crowd their minds with the exact words of any 
 geography. 
 
 Moreover, pupils should be trained to read or get 
 thought from the kind of text which will be constantly 
 before them in later life, — in newspapers, magazines, 
 works on travel, history, biography and general litera- 
 ture. Such works consist of descriptive text never to 
 be memorized word-for-word, but from which the reader 
 is to glean the grains of thought. 
 
 In other words, the full descriptive text is not 
 
 ONLY THE EASIEST TO TEACH, BUT IT IS THE ONLY 
 KIND FROM WHICH PUPILS CAN BE TAUGHT TO GET 
 AND GIVE THOUGHT ! 
 
teachers' manual. 17 
 
 3. Text in Small Type. 
 
 The following note appears in the Preface of the 
 Grammar School Geography : " The text which needs 
 most careful study is in large type. The descriptive 
 matter in small type does not call for close study, but 
 may be used for supplementary reading." 
 
 These small-type notes fill out the thoughts expressed 
 in the large type, and often explain or describe features 
 or phenomena of general interest, yet not essential to 
 a brief course in geography. 
 
 To illustrate the use of text in small type, we will 
 take a note from page 165 of the Grammar School 
 Geography, as follows : 
 
 " Fossil elephants are found in the gravelly river 
 banks of the Siberian tundras. These animals had 
 woolly coverings that fitted them to live in the cold 
 plains. The ' woolly elephants ' are unlike any now 
 living on the earth ; yet the flesh of these great beasts, 
 after being buried perhaps for many centuries in the 
 frozen ground, is sometimes found well preserved and 
 is eaten by dogs. The tusks of these fossil woolly 
 elephants have for a long time supplied part of the 
 ivory so finely carved in China and Japan." 
 
 When the lesson containing this small-type note is 
 assigned to the class for study, the teacher may say, 
 " You need not study the part of the lesson in small 
 type, but read it carefully and find out where the people 
 of Japan and China obtain some of their ivory," — or, 
 the teacher may simply say, " Read the note in small 
 type and find out what it tells about ivory." 
 
18 teachers' manual. 
 
 All that is needed to guide the pupils in the study 
 of the matter in small type is a topic for each leading 
 thought. Many of these notes need no further study 
 than comes from reading and briefly discussing them 
 during the recitation period. Teachers may judge that 
 some of the notes are worthy of close study according 
 to the plans suggested for the text in large type. On 
 the other hand, the teacher may decide to pass over 
 some parts of the text in large type, treating it like 
 small type. 
 
 4. The Use of Pictures. 
 
 The pictures are an essential part of the geography 
 and deserve as careful study as the text or the maps. 
 Nearly all the pictures were engraved directly from 
 photographs and are true to nature in all details. Great 
 care was used to select only typical views. 
 
 The various pictures are not all to be studied in one 
 manner. Some are suitable to describe in words. 
 Pupils may model or draw others, or parts of them. 
 The picture of a Lapland family, on opposite page, will 
 serve as an example of one suitable to describe. The 
 teacher may assign the study work as follows : 
 
 Teacher. — " Write what the picture shows you about 
 the Lapps and the way they live." 
 
 Pupils will readily see that the Lapps wear thick 
 coats and warm caps ; they bind up their legs ; the}" 
 live in a hut made of sods ; the hut has a wooden door 
 that swings out : the hut is rounded in form ; it is low 
 and small for so many people ; the hut is dark ; it has 
 no windows ; etc., etc. 
 
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20 teachers' manual. 
 
 If pupils are not guided by the teacher, they may 
 ramble too much in the description. It may be well to 
 ask them to tell what they can about one object before 
 going to another. 
 
 The lesson may take the form of studying from topics. 
 The teacher places upon the blackboard a few guiding 
 words, — as people, deer, hut, — and asks the pupils to 
 write what they can about each. 
 
 When they have been trained to see and describe, 
 the work may take a broader basis. Thus, the teacher 
 may ask such questions as these : 
 
 " What is there in the picture to show whether these 
 people live in a rainy land or in a dry one ? " 
 
 Pupils readily see that without rain there would be 
 no grassy sods for the hut ; no moss nor branches for 
 the reindeer ; no wood to burn ; no wood for the door- 
 way, etc. 
 
 They can also find proof that the air is cold, in the 
 way the hut is built; the coats, caps and boots worn 
 there ; the mittens on the girl's hands ; the fire in the 
 hut; etc. Perhaps some pupils know that reindeer 
 live in cold lands. 
 
 Even if the teacher were to ask whether these people 
 read books and newspapers, the pupils might judge after 
 seeing how dark the hut is inside, with no windows ; 
 how cold the air must be outside ; also, how lacking in 
 intelligence the faces seem. 
 
 After the pupils read the text and learn that the 
 reindeer live in a land that is snowy in winter and in 
 places marshy in summer, they may be led to still 
 closer study of the picture, — to see, for example, how 
 well fitted the broad hoofs of the deer are for travel 
 
TEACHERS* MANUAL. 21 
 
 over the snow or the marshy tundras, and also for 
 scraping away the snow to find moss ; how the sods 
 are placed on the hut, to shed rain or snow water ; how 
 the binding of the boot-legs helps to keep the warmth 
 in, and the snow or water out ; etc. Locate Lapland 
 on the map of Europe. 
 
 This picture shows more about the life of the Lapps 
 than could be told in a long chapter of text. Unless 
 such pictures receive careful study, the geography is 
 not used to best advantage. 
 
 Pictures as Models. — Many of the pictures in the 
 geography were selected as types of land and water 
 forms for modeling. The sand or the clay is merely 
 the means by which the pupils are led to observe the 
 forms in the pictures. 
 
 Take, for example, the two pictures on following page. 
 The first shows a volcano with a lava-flow between the 
 two river branches. The second picture shows the 
 same region after ages of weathering and erosion. The 
 lava now rises as a mesa, — a common form in our 
 western states. The volcano now appears only as a 
 remnant or " neck ' of hard lava that once filled the 
 opening in the volcano. 
 
 If any teacher wishes to prove the value of sand or 
 clay as a means of leading to careful seeing, let him 
 model the forms in these two pictures, — first, the 
 young volcano with its setting of bluffs, valley and 
 lava-flow ; then change the same model so as to show 
 the mesa and neck. Do not simply try to imagine 
 what the work would be, but do the icork itself, — 
 actually model the two pictures and the result will 
 prove a pleasing surprise. 
 
22 
 
 TEACHERS MANUAL. 
 
 Model the pictures as if looking down on them from 
 above. Slight portions must of course be supplied from 
 
 Youkg Volcano. 
 
 the imagination, yet this part of the work has great 
 value in raising the question as to what forces must 
 
 u^*_H=--» 
 
 
 
 Mesa and Volcanic Neck. 
 
 have shaped the unseen portions and, therefore, what 
 the shape must be. 
 
TEACHERS MANUAL. 
 
 23 
 
 When preparing to teach the various lessons, the 
 teacher can readily select such pictures as are best 
 suited for modeling". This work with clay or sand is 
 not essential, but it is certainly very helpful. If the 
 modeling cannot be done during school hours, many 
 pupils may be led to try the work at home. 
 
 Many of the pictures, or parts of them, are suitable 
 for drawing, — especially plants, animals, simple build- 
 ings, diagrams and some of the land and water forms. 
 The drawing is simply a means of leading pupils to 
 observe more closely. If any teacher doubts the value 
 of this device, let him try to draw these little snow 
 crystals and see what beauty he finds in them. 
 
 5. The Use of Maps. 
 
 Maps should be studied like pictures. The aim of 
 the map study should be, not only to gain knowledge 
 of the world's chief features, but also to gain poiver to 
 read maps, — that is, power to get thought from maps 
 as from text. 
 
 The study of map questions alone will not develop 
 the needed power. In fact, the best map study can be 
 done without the usual questions. 
 
 Let us select a lesson on the relief map of North 
 America. Our aim will be to lead the pupils to read 
 the map. With the geographies open at the page con- 
 taining the relief map, the teacher says : k * What does 
 the map show you about North America ? ' 
 
24 teachers' manual. 
 
 At first the answers will be rambling, and the teacher 
 wishes them to be, for the pupils need a general view 
 of the entire map. Thus, the answers may come as 
 follows : 
 
 " There are high mountains along the west side. 
 North America is wide at the north and narrow at the 
 south. There are low mountains in the east. The 
 middle of the continent is a great plain. The eastern 
 coastline is more irregular than the western. There 
 are several large lakes in the plain." Etc., etc. 
 
 When the pupils have discovered the relations of the 
 principal features, the work may be made more specific 
 by saying to the class, " Tell me more about the great 
 western highland." 
 
 The pupils will see that it is very long ; its ranges 
 extend northwest and southeast ; it is highest not far 
 from the southern end ; the middle part is widest ; the 
 highest ranges are on the east and west sides of the 
 highland ; three large rivers from the highland flow to 
 the sea on the west ; etc. 
 
 For another lesson, the teacher may direct the class 
 to tell what the map shows about the great central 
 plain ; or the eastern highland ; or the coastline ; or 
 the rivers. This work may be oral or written. If one 
 or two of these topics are assigned for a study period, 
 the answers will form an excellent reading lesson ; 
 moreover, by having the answers read aloud, pupils can 
 find out what important parts of the map they failed 
 to see. 
 
 At first little attention need be paid to names of 
 features on the maps. As soon as the teacher wishes 
 pupils to learn the names, he may assign a lesson as 
 
teachers' manual. 25 
 
 follows: "Write a description of the surface of North 
 America, using any of the names you wish, as shown 
 on the key map opposite the relief map." Tins work 
 may be varied according to the lesson-plans suggested 
 for the text in the preceding pages. In fact, the same 
 plans may be used for text, maps or pictures. 
 
 The map studies in this series of geographies are 
 carefully graded, so that pupils are made to rely more 
 and more on their own seeing. Thus, compare the map 
 studies on North America with those on Africa or 
 Australia. In the latter the pupils are made to rely 
 more fully on their own power to read the map and 
 gather the facts for themselves. Pupils gain this 
 power very quickly under proper guidance. 
 
 It would perhaps be a good plan to use the map 
 studies given in the geography, after the pupils have 
 made a careful study of the map itself, but not before. 
 These will serve to review what the pupils have dis- 
 covered and will also help to group or relate the im- 
 portant facts. 
 
 6. Map Drawing. 
 
 Map drawing is a device for training pupils to see or 
 to read maps. The first question for the teacher is 
 this : What should a pupil be led to see in a map ? 
 The second question is : How should he be led to 
 see ? 
 
 First. Pupils should know the general shape of a 
 continent ; the general directions of the coastlines ; the 
 great peninsulas and arms of the sea that affect the 
 climate of large natural regions ; important commercial 
 
26 teachers' manual. 
 
 bays and harbors. They need not know the details of 
 coastlines, which exert little if any influence over the 
 life of the continent. 
 
 Finely finished maps, showing hundreds of details 
 which are worse than worthless in the mind, — simply 
 clogging the memory or crowding out the broader and 
 more useful knowledge of general features, — might 
 look pretty if they did not serve to remind us of a great 
 waste of time and energy. Pupils should be trained 
 to draw carefully such parts of a map as are worth 
 remembering. 
 
 The following account of actual lessons may suggest 
 a simple plan for teaching map drawing 1 : 
 
 First Lesson. Teacher. — "Turn to the simple relief 
 map of North America, in the supplement. Draw a 
 straight line showing the general direction of the 
 northern coast." 
 
 " Look closely at the map and then at your line. 
 Can you do better ? Try again." 
 
 This work was repeated till the pupils could readily 
 draw the line in the proper position. 
 
 Teacher. — " Draw a line showing the general direction of the 
 east coast." This line was drawn again and again, till fixed in 
 mind ; then the pupils learned to draw a line for the west coast. 
 No attempt was made to connect the three lines. 
 
 Teacher. — " "Which is the longest line? " 
 
 Pupil. — " The west line is the longest." 
 
 Teacher. — " How do the north and east coasts compare in 
 length ? " 
 
 Pupil. — " They are about equal." 
 
 1 Pupils may work at the blackboard. If there is not enough 
 blackboard room for the entire class, part can draw on paper. 
 
TEACH Hits 1 MANUAL. 27 
 
 Teacher. — u Now draw the three lines together, showing the 
 general directions of the coasts." 
 
 "Compare with the map and try again." ••Try once more." 
 So the wort went on till the pupils could readily indicate the 
 general shape of the continent. 
 
 Second Lesson. Teacher. — "Study the relief map 
 and then draw the general shape of North America, by 
 using only three straight lines." This was repeated 
 three times in order to fix the shape in mind. 
 
 " Now draw the northern coastline, as it appears on 
 the map. Compare with the map and try to improve 
 your drawing. Draw the north coast again." 
 
 " Practice drawing the east coast till you can draw it 
 from memory." 
 
 " Draw the north and east coasts together." 
 
 Third Lesson. Teacher (after a review of lesson 2). 
 — " Practice drawing the west coast. Study the map 
 each time you draw." 
 
 " Now draw the entire coastline of the continent. 
 Compare carefully with the map and draw again. Re- 
 peat till you can draw it from memory." 
 
 In teaching map drawing, no construction lines are 
 needed except such as pupils discover in the relative 
 directions of coastlines. These directions may easily 
 be judged. The effort to discover and draw tends to 
 fix the lines in memory. 
 
 The above lessons on North America will serve to 
 illustrate one plan of training pupils to draw the out- 
 lines of the continents. The general shapes of South 
 America and Africa can be shown by three lines. 
 
28 teachers' manual. 
 
 Australia is so simple that pupils can sketch it off- 
 hand, without first indicating the general directions by 
 straight lines. Europe and Asia may each call for four 
 lines, though three serve very well. 
 
 The value of this work is in leading the pupils to 
 discover for themselves the general directions of the 
 coastlines. 
 
 If the class is to use the device of sand modeling, 
 the mountains and streams can be shown on the raised 
 sand maps and need not be taught by drawing ; but if 
 the sand table is not to be used, the pupils should draw 
 the rivers and mountains. The guide maps in the 
 supplements of the geographies suggest the amount 
 of details that a class may reasonably be expected to 
 memorize. 
 
 These guide maps are based on several principles, 
 among which are these : (1) The coastlines show the 
 chief indentations and projections which affect the 
 climate of large regions. (2) The rivers on the maps 
 show where the principal slopes of the river basins 
 meet. (3) The mountain ranges are those which form 
 the chief divides between the large river basins. 
 
 The relief maps in the supplements show the com- 
 parative areas of the continents. These areas are also 
 shown on the various globe maps in the geography, as 
 well as on the colored relief maps, pages 17 to 23. 
 
 7. Use of Molding Sand and Clay. 
 
 Map modeling, like sketching or drawing, is a means 
 of arousing and directing mental activity. Being simply 
 a device, sand modeling may or may not be used, as 
 
teachers' manual. 29 
 
 teachers judge best. A few suggestions may prove 
 helpful to those who model in sand. 
 
 In the study of a school district the attempt to model 
 hills, valleys, plains, etc., using either nature or good 
 pictures for models, leads pupils to look closely at the 
 forms ; but the sand should never be used in the place of 
 nature or pictures of the same. 
 
 In the study of a continent, molding sand may be 
 used to show the main slopes and other general features; 
 but the character of the surface, — that is, whether 
 rocky, sandy or loamy, fertile or barren, young or old, 
 — can best be learned from pictures and text. 
 
 Care of Sand. — Fine sand of any kind can be used. 
 Iron-molder's sand is excellent, when sifted: 
 
 Keep the sand moist by sprinkling upon it a little 
 water each day after using. Do not try to mix the 
 sand while wet, but let it stand over night and the 
 water will filter evenly through it. If kept in a covered 
 box it will need but little water. The exact amount 
 must be learned by practice. The sand retains its 
 form best when only slightly damp, and should never 
 be wet enough to stick to the hands. 
 
 The Sand Table. — Make a table-top about three by 
 four feet, with a rim raised two inches. Use seasoned 
 wood. 
 
 Place the top on a small table or stand, about 32 
 inches in height. Fasten at one end by hinges so that 
 it may be tipped towards the pupils. Strips of wood, 
 like those used to hold up piano-tops, may be used to 
 support it at any angle. 
 
 A zinc-lined drawer placed under the table-top will 
 be found convenient for holding the sand, although it 
 
30 teachers' manual. 
 
 can be kept in any common box or bucket. A coat or 
 two of blue paint on the table will tend to preserve it 
 and give a good background for the sand. 
 
 Model Tins. — In many schools each pupil is supplied 
 with a tin tray upon which he models while the teacher 
 is making a large map on the sand table. This device 
 insures individual attention and work by requiring all 
 pupils to model at the same time. 
 
 Model tins can be supplied by any tinsmith. They 
 are simply shallow pans. They should be made of stiff 
 tin, 14 by 20 inches, hemmed, rimmed one-half inch, 
 with the hem turned out and corners soldered. 
 
 Potter's Clay. — Potter's clay, such as is used in 
 kindergartens and primary schools, is excellent for mak- 
 ing careful models of natural forms of land and water, 
 either from nature or pictures of the same. 
 
 Some teachers use putty, papier mache* or modeling 
 wax for making models of maps that are to be kept for 
 a long time. We should not forget that the making of 
 the map, and not the map itself, is of greatest value to 
 the pupil. It will therefore doubtless be found that 
 sand is the best material for general modeling. 
 
 8. Map Modeling. 
 
 A marked fault in geography work is the attempt to 
 teach too many details of relief, outline and location. 
 Pupils are often forced to learn the names of hundreds 
 of unimportant forms of relief, as well as places, which 
 teachers themselves cannot retain in memory. There 
 are not too many studies in the public schools, but there 
 is too much study of worse than worthless details. The 
 
teachers' manual. 31 
 
 chief purpose of the simple relief maps in the various 
 supplements is to indicate the few essential features 
 of relief of the continents. 
 
 Before beginning to model a continent, — for example, 
 North America — the teacher and the pupils should 
 learn to draw the general outline. Practice drawing 
 upon the blackboard, and make the outlines of the 
 maps as large as they will be on the sand table. 
 
 Spread about two quarts of damp sand in a very thin 
 and even layer over the table. Draw the outline of the 
 map in the sand. Brush all the spare sand into one 
 corner of the table. 
 
 Next build up the great plateaus — not mountain 
 ranges. On a table-top three by four feet, use a scale 
 of about one fourth of an inch for 1000 feet. As the 
 chief object of the modeling is to sIioav the relative 
 positions of main slopes, do not waste time in making 
 exact measurements of the depth of the sand. What the 
 eye cannot readily detect cannot wrongly impress the 
 minds of pupils. Lay stress on the slopes rather than 
 on the depth of the sand. 
 
 Thus, model the broad plateau in the western part of 
 the continent. Let it extend the entire length of the 
 Pacific coast. Notice that the high land spreads from 
 the Sierra Nevada and Cascade range to the Rocky 
 mountains, and thence descends gently eastward into the 
 great central river basins. 
 
 At the isthmus of Tehuantepec the highland drops 
 into low hills. The plateau of Mexico is about 8000 
 feet high, — the ranges being much higher. The 
 average height of the Great Basin is about 4000 feet. 
 There is a general descent of the western plateau from 
 
32 teachers' manual. 
 
 Mexico to the Arctic coast. The plateau level in Colo- 
 rado is about 6000 feet above the sea. 
 
 It is an easy matter to estimate the needed depth of 
 the sand on the table. The 800 feet in Mexico may be 
 shown by two inches ; but if this depth is too great for 
 convenient modeling — owing to the narrowness of 
 Mexico — do not hesitate to make it lower. The 
 height of the Great Basin will be shown by one inch 
 of sand. 
 
 Next model the plateau of the eastern highland, 
 extending from Alabama to Labrador. The general 
 level is a little under 2000 feet. Make the depressions 
 for the St. Lawrence, Champlain, Hudson and Mohawk 
 valleys. From the region of the Great Lakes build the 
 Height of Land westward towards the Rockies, — the 
 elevation in the lake region being about 1000 feet above 
 sea level. Next model the low plateau on the east side 
 of the Mackenzie basin. 
 
 From all the highlands thus built, model the slopes 
 of the river basins forming the great central plain. 
 Make the slopes so that they will meet in the beds of 
 the large rivers. Thus the slopes from the Rocky and 
 Appalachian mountains meet in the bed of the Missis- 
 sippi- The Ohio and Missouri rivers show where the 
 southern slopes from the Height of Land meet the 
 slopes from the Appalachian and Rocky mountains. 
 Lead the pupils to think of river beds as the lines along 
 which slopes meet at their lower edges. 
 
 Model the Pacific and Atlantic slopes. 
 
 Do not forget that the prime object of the modeling 
 is to show relative positions of main slopes ; therefore, 
 see that every portion of the map shows slope. 
 
teachers' manual. 33 
 
 Next build the mountain ranges. Lead pupils to 
 think of the ranges as marking the upper parts of some 
 of the slopes. Others do not end at the crestlines of 
 ranges, but blend with other slopes in plains, as in many 
 parts of the Height of Land. 
 
 The following principle is suggested to guide 
 teachers in the selection of important ranges for model- 
 ing : Model the ranges ivhich divide great river basins. 
 Pay no attention at this stage to the location of particu- 
 lar peaks, but simply give the ranges a broken or other 
 characteristic appearance. The peaks worthy of special 
 study can be added later when they are subjects of 
 a lesson, or they can be located on the maps in the 
 geographies. 
 
 Look for the chief centers of drainage, — the regions 
 from which many great rivers flow. North America has 
 three, namely : The region about Yellowstone park for 
 the Missouri, north branch of the Colorado, southeast 
 branch of the Columbia, Rio Grande, etc. ; the Rocky 
 mountains of British Columbia for waters reaching 
 the Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, Athabasca and 
 Mackenzie ; the Height of Land in which rise the 
 Mississippi, the Red river and others. 
 
 Now trace the beds of the great rivers shown on the 
 map in the supplement. A simple device is to groove 
 slightly the sand, using a pencil point, but taking care 
 not to cut through to the table top. After tracing the 
 rivers, begin near the mouth of each and see that the 
 land actually slopes upward to the source ; also that the 
 river beds lie at the lower edges of the side slopes. 
 The Great Lakes may be traced with a pencil point, 
 and then slightly depressed. 
 
34 
 
 TEACHERS MANUAL. 
 
 With a thin strip of wood or any sharp edge, cut 
 the relief map into two parts and sketch the cross- 
 section thus made. This is an excellent device for 
 teaching the slopes and the comparative heights. Let 
 one cut be made across the principal highlands, and 
 another following the greatest valley. Thus, in North 
 America the sections may be shown from San Francisco 
 to cape Hatteras, and from the mouth of the Mississippi 
 to the mouth of the Mackenzie. Other sections also 
 may be shown as the map is modeled on different days. 
 
 After a little practice, teachers can model a continent 
 in from five to ten minutes. Try to make the work 
 simple, by omitting useless details. The hints given 
 above will enable teachers to model any continent, 
 using as guides the maps in the supplements of the 
 geographies. 
 
 The following table of general elevations of plateaus 
 (in feet) may prove helpful in modeling : 
 
 South America. 
 
 Bolivia 12,000 
 
 Brazil 2,000 
 
 Guiana 2,000 
 
 Central plain .... 250 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Tibet . . 
 Middle Basin 
 Gobi desert 
 Altai . . 
 Hindustan . 
 Persia . . 
 Asia Minor 
 
 14,000 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 4,000 
 1,500 
 4,000 
 3,000 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Swiss 2,000 
 
 Spanish 2,000 
 
 Valdai hills .... 1,000 
 
 Scandinavian .... 2,000 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Abyssinia 7,000 
 
 Kongo basin .... 2,500 
 
 Zambezi basin . . . 3,000 
 
 Kalahari desert . . . 3,000 
 
 Sahara desert .... 1,000 
 
 Atlas 2,000 
 
 Central Lake region . 4,000 
 
 Australia. 
 
 The border highlands are about as high as the eastern high- 
 lands in Xorth America. 
 
H. ELKMEXTS OF GEOGRAPHY LESSON NOTES. 
 
 1. Geography. 1 
 
 To Teachers : Bead the Preface of the Elements of Geog- 
 raphy, and then read the rest of the book, in order to 
 get the general ^>Z«n of the ivork. Pages 1 to 34 of 
 this Manual suggest methods of teaching the lessons, 
 and should be studied with care. 
 
 Teachers who wish to gain fuller knowledge of the 
 topics treated in the Elements of Geography may derive 
 help from the lessons on the same topics in the larger 
 geography. Refer to the index of the latter. 
 
 Study each lesson and make it your own. No book 
 of methods can take the place of live thought. 
 
 Find out what each lesson teaches. Make note of 
 the facts that are to be brought out by the class. 
 
 Think how best to throw light on these facts, — 
 whether by pictures, by short stories or by crayon 
 sketches. Above all, know your school district. Be 
 ever alert to direct pupils to objects that they can see 
 or handle, — to hills, brooks, flowers, animals, people. 
 
 Let each lesson grow out of the one preceding it. 
 
 1 All number and title references in part II of this Manual are to 
 pages and lessons in the Elements of Geography. The letter M placed 
 after figures (thus, page 9 M) refers to this Manual. 
 
 35 
 
36 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Forge a chain of thought and each link will help to 
 hold all others in memory. 
 
 The work of making a definition is of great value to 
 pupils tvhen they have ideas to classify. Such work 
 then tends to vivify and to relate ideas. 
 
 Thoughtful teachers no longer treat pupils as if they 
 were parrots to chatter words. The objects themselves 
 are studied, and not their mere word-shells. 
 
 Each lesson contains a few words that are new to 
 pupils. Make a list of such words, and be sure that 
 pupils learn the sense in which each word is used, and 
 also how to pronounce it. 
 
 Let overworked teachers bear in mind the fact that 
 each minute spent in preparing a lesson saves ten minutes 
 in teaching it. 
 
 The first lesson in the geography aims to interest pu- 
 pils in the study and to give an inkling of its meaning. 
 
 Lead pupils to talk about parts of the earth that 
 they have seen. Webs of spiders and cocoons of moths 
 will give an idea of the work of silkworms. See 
 Arabs and camels on pages 46 and 47. A sandy field 
 will serve to illustrate desert; see also pages 102 aud 
 103. Lead pupils to make a collection of spices ; see 
 page 110. Talk about the land of the Eskimo and 
 seal; see pages 43 and 44. Flax, thistle or milkweed 
 will help to teach cotton. See mountains on page 13. 
 
 Do not teach all the above in one lesson. 
 
 For pronunciation of names of places and of other 
 words used in Elements of Geography, see supplement. 
 If pupils are to use the Pronouncing Word List they 
 should be trained to pronounce the key words. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 37 
 
 2. Hills and Valleys. 
 
 The purpose of this lesson is to lead pupils to loot 
 for hills and valleys near home. 
 
 Running water shows which way land slants. 
 
 How does a hill differ from a valley ? This question 
 does not call for definitions. Pupils can discover that 
 on a hill the sides meet at the top, while in a valley 
 they meet at the bottom ; that a hill rises above the 
 land near it, while a valley is lower than the land at its 
 sides ; that water runs away from hills, and into valleys. 
 A few simple questions will help to bring out these and 
 other thoughts. Do not expect too much at first. 
 
 Pupils can draw hills and valleys, on the blackboards. 
 The sand tables, now in use in many schools, will help 
 to illustrate this lesson. 
 
 3. Brooks and Rivers. 
 
 To show that the speed of streams depends mainly 
 on the slant (or slope) of the land, and to teach the 
 names brook and river. 
 
 Look for names in the pictures, page 2. Rain feeds 
 these brooks. The water flows swiftly in the rapids, 
 because the land is steep. Under the bridge the land 
 is nearly level. 
 
 The brooks spread over the meadow, because there is 
 a hollow in it. The water fills the hollow and makes a 
 pond. 
 
 See pictures of rivers on pages 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 102 
 and 135. ' See brooks on pages 4 and 7. 
 
38 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 4. Slopes. 
 
 To teach the value of slopes in nature. 
 
 Talk about the slopes near your school, and then find 
 pictures of slopes in this book. This text may be used 
 for an oral reading lesson. 
 
 Pupils can discover that the pond in the meadow has 
 already overflowed its banks. The water now runs off 
 as fast as it flows in. In times of heavy rain the water 
 may flow in faster than it can flow out. Then the 
 pond will spread over more of the meadow. 
 
 The text does not state that all ponds and lakes are 
 made by brooks and rivers. 
 
 What can pupils find in the picture ? 
 
 5. Kinds of Soil. 
 
 To lead pupils to observe the kinds of soil in their 
 district. 
 
 Use any kinds of soil. Let the pupils know that the 
 water poured on the soil shows what becomes of some 
 of the rain. 
 
 Plants that decay help to form soil. If there is a grove 
 near your school, the pupils may find leaf mold in it. 
 
 The most important part of this lesson is that of 
 interesting pupils in collecting kinds of soil. 
 
 6. Work of Water. 
 
 To show that water washes away soil. 
 Try to teach this lesson on a rainy day. Lead pupils 
 to talk about the picture. Notice the clear sky above 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 39 
 
 the clouds. The rain shows the direction in which the 
 wind is blowing. The sun lights the tops of the 
 clouds. 
 
 Have pupils seen washouts? Have they seen roads 
 cut by rain? 
 
 Sand is too heavy for slow rills to move. Fine soil 
 is lighter and is more easily carried. 
 
 Footnote. — Weather Record. 
 
 To train pupils to observe the weather. 
 
 This work lays a basis for the study of climate, and 
 thus saves time in the higher grades. No part of the 
 entire course is more important than the making of 
 these records. 
 
 7. Loose Soil. 
 
 To show why soil around plants should be kept 
 loose. 
 
 Let the pupils who try the experiments make a report 
 to the class. 
 
 Frost cracks and crumbles soil. 
 
 8. Rain in the Soil. 
 
 To teach the work of water in soil. 
 
 Great interest can be aroused by trying some of the 
 following experiments : 
 
 Put a few kernels of corn into a bottle of water, and 
 see how soon they will sprout. 
 
 Sow a little grass or flax seed in a wet sponge. 
 
 Put two or three potatoes in a damp cellar to sprout. 
 
40 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Place a sweet potato in a glass of water and keep it 
 in a warm room. It will make a beautiful vine. 
 
 Hollow out a common potato, being careful not to 
 injure the " eyes " ; fill it with wet soil, and plant in it 
 an ivy or other vine. 
 
 Take good care of the plants and they will tell a 
 wonderful story. 
 
 A box of ants will prove very instructive, and pupils 
 will never grow weary of watching these little toilers. 
 The box should have a glass cover. Put in a few 
 crumbs of bread each clay. 
 
 9. How Soil settles. 
 
 To lead the thought to the order in which soil or 
 rocky matter settles in water. 
 
 The coarse and heavy matter settles first. The finest 
 soil settles on top. 
 
 10. Work of the Brooks. 
 
 To show how brooks carry soil. 
 
 The rapids, of course, roll the pebbles. They wash 
 down the sand, also. If there were no pond, the brook 
 would carry the mud away and deposit it somewhere in 
 still water. 
 
 11. Deltas. 
 
 To show how deltas are made. The teacher may wish 
 to read lesson 8 of the Grammar School Geography, and 
 perhaps the first column of page 161. 
 
 The Greeks gave the name delta to the alluvial land 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 41 
 
 at the mouth of the Nile, because this low land was 
 shaped like the Greek letter (A) delta. The word 
 channel is here used in the sense of a trough or cut in 
 which water flows. See maps of the Orinoco, Ganges 
 and Nile deltas, on pages 80, 86 and 98. 
 
 It may be a good plan to turn to the maps on page 
 29, and show pupils the land and sea. No names for 
 the parts of the sea are now needed. 
 
 On page 91 there is a picture of a village built in 
 the delta of the Ganges. 
 
 12. Water and Heat. 
 
 To show the origin of clouds. 
 
 The word vapor is often loosely used in the sense of 
 cloud, fog or smoke. In this book the word is used in 
 its true scientific meaning. Water vapor is water in its 
 gaseous state, and, as such, is invisible. 
 
 As the water in the bottle is heated, observe the 
 bubbling or boiling. A tiny cloud can be seen coming 
 from the bottle. The deposit of moisture on the cold 
 glass will prove that the cloud contains water. 
 
 The cold window will show that the breath contains 
 vapor of water. The water in the tin cup goes away 
 as vapor in the air. 
 
 Pupils will readily answer that the cloud from the 
 kettle is made by heating water. They may discover 
 that the hot water changes into vapor, and that the 
 vapor changes into this cloud. 
 
 Do not expect too much from pupils in this lesson. 
 Let them see the experiments and tell what they see. 
 
42 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 13. Forms of Water. 
 
 To lead pupils to observe forms of water. 
 
 This lesson should be made very simple. The ques- 
 tion of dew-point, or of saturation, need not arise. 
 
 Tyndall uses the name water-dust for cloud. 
 
 Snow is now thought to be frozen vapor. When 
 vapor freezes upon grass, stones, etc., it forms frost. 
 True frost is not frozen dew. 
 
 Just before water freezes, it expands. Water at the 
 freezing point is, therefore, lighter than that which is 
 slightly warmer. The colder water rises and freezes 
 over the warmer. 
 
 The meaning of the picture is plain. Just as the 
 water in the kettle is changed by heat into vapor that 
 forms a cloud, so the surface of the sea or of the lake 
 is changed into vapor that, in turn, forms clouds. In 
 all these cases, the vapor is in the clear space between 
 the water and the cloud. 
 
 14. Springs. 
 
 To direct the thought to water coming out of the 
 ground. 
 
 In some places, as in swamps, the soil is filled with 
 water ; but in many places the water finds its way to 
 springs, and thus flows out of the ground. 
 
 Many brooks flow in dry seasons, because they are 
 fed by springs. Raindrops may travel for months in 
 soil before reaching a spring. 
 
 Note that a spring is not the " place where a stream 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. I-', 
 
 starts," — it is the flowing water itself. The issue of 
 water from the ground, or the beginning of the stream, 
 and not the hole in the ground, is the spring. 
 
 15. Sources of Streams. 
 
 To show the various ways in which streams form. 
 
 It does not seem best to discuss fully at this time 
 the sources of streams shown in the pictures. Brief 
 mention of each kind will suffice. The larger book of 
 the series gives more details. 
 
 One picture on page 7 shows the melting end of a 
 glacier. See, also, the picture on page 52. 
 
 Pupils may need assistance in understanding the 
 picture of the glacier on page 7. The entire white 
 mass, looking like a distant mountain chain, is the end 
 of a great glacier. See the wide cave in the end of 
 this glacier. A huge block of ice has recently fallen. 
 
 Page 107 shows other hot springs, now partly 
 destroyed. 
 
 What can pupils discover in the pictures on page 7? 
 
 16. Where Brooks flow. 
 
 To teach that brooks follow slopes. 
 
 Brooks cannot flow uphill, and so they wind around 
 the high places in their paths. 
 
 Every stream must flow downhill. 
 
 The speed of a stream depends largely on the slope 
 of the land over which it flows, as well as on the 
 volume of water. 
 
 Brooks spread out in low and level places. 
 
44 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 17. Systems and Basins. 
 
 To prepare for the study of the basins and systems 
 of the grand divisions. 
 
 The lower picture on page 8 shows two brook basins, 
 with their systems. 
 
 Show pupils the Mississippi basin on pages 61 and 
 65. 
 
 A basin is land ; a system is water. A basin is made 
 of slopes, while a system is made of streams. A sys- 
 tem drains a basin. 
 
 Point out the great systems and basins on the map, 
 page 80. 
 
 18. The Top of a Ridge. 
 
 To prepare for the study of divides 1 in the grand 
 divisions. 
 
 A sand table would greatly aid in impressing this 
 lesson. If there is a ridge near the school, refer to it 
 for all answers. 
 
 When rain falls on the top of the ridge, part of the 
 water doubtless flows into each valley. 
 
 Each valley reaches to the top of this ridge and is 
 bounded by the line forming the valley-rim. 
 
 19. Divides. 
 
 The aim is the same as in lesson 18. 
 If possible, direct pupils to a divide near the school. 
 One minute with nature is worth a day with a map. 
 
 1 Some teachers prefer the term water-partings. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 I." 
 
 Have you any pictures of divides ? 
 
 Lead pupils to trace some of the divides on the map, 
 page 80. Make clear the fact that water partings may 
 be on low land as well as on high ranges. 
 
 Illustrative Lesson. — It may prove helpful to 
 teachers to study this report of a lesson. 
 
 The aim is to teach how rain is gathered into 
 streams. The teacher shows to the class a map like 
 the one on this page, but made in actual relief on a 
 sand table. This map is made of clay or of putty, and 
 is covered with a thin layer of loam. 
 
 Water is sprinkled upon the map, and tiny streams 
 form in the low places. 
 
 Teacher. — " In what direction does every brook flow ? " 
 
 Pupils. — " It flows downhill." 
 « It follows the valley." 
 
46 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 " It flows from the high places to the low ones." 
 " It runs down the steepest slopes." 
 
 Teacher. — " In what part of a valley should you look for a 
 brook? " 
 
 Pupils. — " We should look in the lowest part." 
 
 " A brook is just between the slopes." 
 
 " It is where the slopes from both sides meet." 
 
 Teacher. — " How much land does a brook drain? " 
 
 Pupils. — " It drains a valley." 
 
 " It drains all the land that slopes toward it." 
 
 " Water flows from the sides of the hills into the brook." 
 
 Teacher (sprinkling water upon the middle ridge). — " Into 
 which valley does this water flow ? " 
 
 Pupils. — " It flows into both." 
 " Part flows into each." 
 
 Teacher. — " Why does not all the water flow into one valley? " 
 
 Pupils. — " Because it can't flow uphill." 
 
 " It must flow down the slope." 
 
 " The land is too high between the valleys." 
 
 The teacher now points to many parts of the map, 
 and asks to which valley each part belongs. The pupils 
 answer readily until the finger rests upon the divide, and 
 the class is in doubt. 
 
 Teacher. — " Can you find other places like this ? " 
 
 Eager fingers then trace the divide between the 
 vaileys. 
 
 Teacher. — " To which valley does this line belong? " 
 
 Pupils. — " It does n't belong to either." 
 
 " It belongs to both." 
 
 " It is just between the valleys." 
 
 " Both valleys begin at this line." 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 47 
 
 Teacher. — " On which slope is this line ? " 
 
 Pupils. — " It comes between the slopes.'' 
 
 " It is on both slopes." 
 
 " The slopes meet at this line." 
 
 Teacher. — " We will call this line a divide. Can you tell why? " 
 
 Pupils. — " Because it divides the land into two valleys." 
 
 " Because it divides the slopes." 
 
 " It turns the rain in two directions." 
 
 Teacher. — " Open your geographies at page 9. Point to a 
 high divide that has snow upon it. Point to one on low hills. 
 Can you find one on land that is nearly level?" 
 
 Notes on the Lesson. — It had been carefully 
 prepared. The teacher had a definite aim. The ques- 
 tions were direct and simple. The thinking was done 
 by the pupils. Each question was answered in sev- 
 eral ways, showing that pupils were allowed time for 
 thought. 
 
 20. How Slopes are worn. 
 
 To lead pupils to think of the wasting away of land- 
 masses. 
 
 Use any piece of wood that has begun to decay. 
 
 Nearly every pebble taken out of the soil shows 
 decay. A shell of soft stone surrounds the hard 
 nucleus. The outer part has begun to decay. 
 
 Pupils can find many pieces of rock in all stages of 
 decay. 
 
 Look at the ground under the eaves of buildings, 
 and see how the rain has worked. 
 
 The "rocky cliff" on page IT has been cracked and 
 crumbled by frost. 
 
48 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The canyon (or canon) of the Colorado, page 59, and 
 the gorge of Niagara, page 66, were made by running 
 water. 
 
 21. Plains. 
 
 To show some ways in which plains are formed. 
 The teacher may receive help from lesson 6 of the 
 Grammar School Geography. 
 
 This Dakota grainfield is part of a vast plain that 
 was at one time the bed of a lake. It is thought that 
 on the north this lake was shut in by a mass of ice, 
 near the close of the ice age. 
 
 In the state of Idaho alone there are about 12,000 
 square miles of lava plain, like that in the picture. The 
 Shoshone falls, page 11, are in this lava region. The flow 
 of lava must have come through long fissures or cracks. 
 
 The Rhine flood plain is made of soil brought down 
 by the river. There are thousands of square miles of 
 flood plain along the Mississippi and its branches. 
 
 See plains on pages 37, 62, 70 and 130. The Colo- 
 rado river, page 59, flows through a plateau. 
 
 Show pupils how low plains and plateaus are pic- 
 tured on maps, pages 60-61. 
 
 Give several lessons on plains. 
 
 22. Beds of Streams. 
 
 To show how streams wear their beds. 
 
 The Snake river in Idaho has worn away its bed in 
 layers of lava and made beautiful falls. The cliff 
 beyond the falls is made of lava and ashes. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 49 
 
 This ice jam is in the Mississippi. The mud, sand 
 and stones held by ice are left in the places where the 
 ice melts. 
 
 The portion of Niagara river that is above the falls 
 flows on hard limestone. Under this, there is a thick 
 bed of soft stone (shale). The falling water easily 
 wears out this shale, leaving the limestone overhanging 
 the gorge. From time to time the limestone breaks off 
 and falls into the gorge. The picture on page 66 
 shows pieces of fallen rock. 
 
 In the little cut of Minnehaha, pupils can see layers 
 of rock back of the falls. 
 
 Stones in a river bed are rounded by being rubbed 
 together. After a long time these stones will be 
 ground to sand and mud. The rivers carry part of this 
 rocky matter wherever they flow. 
 
 23. Mountains. 
 
 To teach types of mountains. 
 
 The pictures on page 13 are as follows : 
 
 (A) Peak of Pico, Azores ; (B) Appalachians, near 
 Asheville, North Carolina ; (C) Temples of the Virgin, 
 Utah ; (D) Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina ; (E) Dolo- 
 mite Mts., Austria ; (F) The Needles and Black Head, 
 Les Pres, France ; (G) Mont Blanc, France ; (H) Out- 
 lines of plateau in an Arizona canyon. 
 
 Page 10 shows the Rhine valley, u long and deep," 
 in a plateau. The Temples of the Virgin are merely 
 fragments of a plateau. The sharp points standing near 
 the " mesa " were once a part of the mesa or plateau. 
 
50 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Pico volcano shows plainly the cooled lava. The 
 word from which crater is derived means a " dish for 
 mixing," — a very apt name. It would interest pupils 
 to tell them a story about Vulcan, the god of fire ; see 
 any good book of myths. The eruption of Vesuvius, 
 burying Pompeii, forms a basis for a good story ; see 
 page 147 of the Grammar School Geography. 
 
 Pupils should see pictures of types of the low, 
 rounded ranges, such as the Jura and Allegheny, as 
 well as types of rocky ranges. Mt. Mitchell is a typi- 
 cal dome, and the range pictured above it may be taken 
 as a type of low, rounded mountains. The flowers that 
 show in the picture of Mt. Mitchell are the royal rho- 
 dodendron,, the glory of the southern Appalachian 
 mountains. In places these flowers cover hundreds of 
 acres. 
 
 See crests on pages 54 and 60-61. 
 
 The soil on steep slopes is generally poor, because 
 the finest part of it is washed away by rain. 
 
 Study the pictures on page 13. Give several lessons 
 on mountains. 
 
 24. Valleys. 
 
 To show types of valley forms. 
 
 Do not forget that the district should be studied. 
 
 See pictures of valleys on pages 6Q, 94 and 102. 
 That on page 102 is a fine example of a transverse val- 
 ley. It crosses a range. 
 
 One of the pictures on page 14 shows the Hayden 
 valley, in Yellowstone park. This will serve to illus- 
 trate a wide valley. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 51 
 
 The canyon of the Colorado shows the cutting of a 
 river in a dry region. The banks are steep, because 
 there was not enough rain to wear them very far back 
 while the river gouged its bed. 
 
 In the primary course it does not seem best to enter 
 very far into the cause of shapes, but merely to show a 
 variety. The teacher, however, may be interested to read 
 lesson 7 of the Grammar School Geography. 
 
 Pupils can bring to school many pictures of valleys. 
 
 Rain, streams and moist air cause the sides of valleys 
 to waste away. The glacier melts as it reaches lower 
 and warmer levels. See glaciers on pages 7 and 94. 
 
 The sand table will aid greatly in the study of 
 valleys. Give several lessons on valleys. 
 
 25. Shore Forms. 
 
 To compare the outlines of shore forms. 
 
 Collect many pictures of shore forms. These should 
 show islands, capes, bays, etc., of many shapes and 
 sizes. Have pupils draw some of these shapes. 
 
 As each form is taught, show one or more like it on 
 a map. 
 
 Make one entire lesson on islands, another on 
 peninsulas, etc. 
 
 It would be mere waste of time to search for differ- 
 ences between bays and gulfs or seas. Glance at the 
 map, page 24, showing the bay of Bengal, the gulf of 
 Guinea and the Arabian sea. Why should one be 
 called a gulf and another a bay or a sea? 
 
 Pupils can doubtless bring many excellent pictures. 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 26. Work of Water on Shores. 
 
 To show how coastlines are shaped by water. 
 
 Gravel consists of small pebbles, and is often mixed 
 with sand. 
 
 The stones on the shore near the clay cliff came from 
 the cliff. Water washes the clay from under the stones 
 and they fall. 
 
 The loose earth at the foot of the rocky cliff will in 
 time be swept away by waves and tides. 
 
 The caves in the middle cliff were made by waves. 
 Seaweed protects shores from the action of waves and 
 rolling stones. A coat of seaweed helps to prevent 
 frost from cracking the rocks. 
 
 The picture marked "Dunes" shows how sand has 
 been drifted by winds. 
 
 The Stones of Stennis are ruins of an old Druid tem- 
 ple in Scotland. The shore around these stones is low 
 and grassy. Grass prevents sand from drifting. 
 
 Deep water is needed in harbors, in order to float 
 large ships. High shores help to shut out strong winds. 
 
 As a rule the best harbors are on rocky coasts. 
 Harbors on sandy coasts are apt to be shallow and 
 easily swept by gales. 
 
 Spend two or three days on this lesson. 
 
 27. Points of the Compass. 
 
 To teach directions. 
 
 Pupils can readily be led to discover that the sun 
 does not always rise in the same place, but that it rises 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 53 
 
 in or near the east. The sun is in the south at midday, 
 and at that time casts the shortest shadows. Make the 
 definite midday shadow the starting-point for teaching 
 directions. 
 
 Can pupils discover the difference in time between 
 the midday and the noon of railroad time ? 
 
 Pupils should become familiar with the directions 
 indicated by letters around the compass on page 18. 
 
 28. How Maps are made. 
 
 To show pupils how to draw to a scale. 
 
 No teacher will make the mistake of having pupils 
 copy the plans shown in this lesson. These plans are 
 intended to show pupils what parts of their own school- 
 room, house, yard and district they should draw. 
 
 29. Reading Maps. 
 
 To show pupils how to read the outline maps in their 
 geographies. 
 
 A series of maps leading out from the pupils' own 
 school district would prove more helpful than this series. 
 
 The class can make original maps of the parts of the 
 district with which they are familiar. 
 
 Be sure that the pupils know what the lines on the 
 maps represent. Each sign on a map is like a word in 
 a sentence. There must be ideas behind the signs or 
 there can be no thought. Map signs, like words, are 
 of no use unless they help to relate ideas. 
 
 On page 118 there is a picture of a New York water 
 front. 
 
54 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 30. Form and Size of the Earth. 
 
 To give some idea of the form and great size of the 
 earth. 
 
 " If an ant were placed on a large balloon, do yon 
 think that to the tiny creature the balloon would look 
 round?" This question may awaken thought on the 
 part of pupils. 
 
 Cut a very small round hole in a piece of cardboard 
 and place it against a globe so that a small part of the 
 surface of the globe will appear in the hole. This part 
 will look level. 
 
 A common illustration is that of a train going 
 25,000 miles. Such a trip would take about a month. 
 
 The rings on the moon are thought to be craters. 
 
 31. What a Hill is made of. 
 
 To direct the thought to what is beneath the surface 
 of the earth. 
 
 Lead the pupils to the thought that rocks are some- 
 times covered with clay, sand or water, as well as with 
 gravel. 
 
 The water in the picture flows upon rock. Streams 
 flow also, of course, upon clay, gravel or fine soil. 
 
 By shaking pieces of sharp rock in a bottle, pupils 
 have found that sand consists of little grains of rock. 
 
 If there is no clay in the school district, omit the 
 question, " What is clay ? ' Pupils are not expected 
 to tell the composition of clay, but merely to tell some 
 of its properties : when wet, it is sticky ; when molded 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 55 
 
 or pressed, it readily retains its shape ; when baked, it 
 becomes very hard. 
 
 32. What the Earth is made of. 
 
 To teach what the earth is made of. 
 
 On page 29 there are four maps of the earth. On 
 these globes the mountains are greatly exaggerated, in 
 order that the slopes from them may be plainly seen. 
 
 It is not known whether the interior of the earth is 
 in a liquid or in a solid state. The ball of rock may be 
 solid to the center. 
 
 33. The Air. 
 
 To make pupils conscious of the presence of air all 
 about them. 
 
 It is the air, of course, that offers resistance to the 
 falling paper. 
 
 Pure air cannot be seen, at least in small quantities. 
 The blue color of a clear sky is largely due to the 
 presence of dust motes. 
 
 We can feel air when in motion. 
 
 34. The Shell of Air. 
 
 To direct the thought to the earth in its shell of 
 air. 
 
 In how many ways can pupils prove that there is air 
 about them ? Let pupils discuss these questions : " Is 
 the air of greater use when calm or when in motion ? 
 When warm or when cold ? " 
 
56 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 35. The Poles. 
 
 To teach directions on the globe. 
 
 Guard against the thought that there is a line drawn 
 through the earth or that there are pegs at the poles. 
 
 Try tossing a ball into the air and discovering the 
 direction in which its axis points when turning. 
 
 Pupils will be greatly interested in meeting the 
 teacher some evening to look for the pointers and the 
 north star. 
 
 It does not seem necessary to direct the attention of 
 pupils to the fact that the north star is not exactly in 
 line with the earth's axis, or that the axis itself is very 
 slowly changing its position. The motion is so slow 
 that its effect is not felt in a lifetime. 
 
 Impress upon pupils that north is toward the north 
 pole. When they can tell the directions in which all 
 the arrows on page 23 are flying, there will be no 
 difficulty in reading directions on all the maps in the 
 geography. 
 
 36. The Equator. 
 
 This lesson continues the work of the preceding. 
 
 Find the equator on each of the maps on page 23. 
 Give thorough drill in reading the directions in which 
 the arrows on the maps fly. 
 
 Hold a ball in the sun, and see what part is lighted 
 by the direct rays. 
 
 At the close of this lesson turn to the colored maps 
 of the continents, and find on them north, south, east 
 and west. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 57 
 
 Review often the work outlined on page 23 of the 
 Elements of Geography. 
 
 37. The World Ridge. 1 
 
 To teach the simple unity in the world's great high- 
 lands. 
 
 A small globe in the hands of each pupil would 
 prove of great value. There should be at least one 
 globe in the schoolroom. 
 
 Opposite each large relief map there is a small key 
 map, giving names that occur in the text. Other 
 names can be found on the colored maps of the conti- 
 nents. Show the pupils how to use the key maps. 
 
 Train pupils to read maps. What can they read 
 from the map on page 24 ? They can find the north 
 pole and the equator (see page 23) ; they can tell which 
 lines run north, south, east or west; they can point to 
 the land and to the sea; they can find the great plains 
 and the plateaus ; they can show where the highest 
 divides run, and where the great streams flow. Give 
 the pupils a chance, and they may surprise the teacher 
 with their skill in reading maps. 
 
 By turning the book to right and left, it will be seen 
 that each continent is but slightly distorted. This is, 
 doubtless, the most accurate projection for making a 
 map of the land areas. 
 
 We may speak of the north pole as being not far 
 from the middle of the world ridge. 
 
 1 Some teachers prefer the term primary highland. 
 
58 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 38. Andes Highland. 
 
 From this time on do not let the pupils lose sight 
 of the unity of the globe relief. As each new form is 
 studied, show its position on the relief map on page 24. 
 
 On page 82 there is a picture of a condor in the 
 Andes. 
 
 39. Rocky Mountain Highland. 
 
 Look for this highland on the relief map of the 
 globe, page 24. 
 
 Pupils can easily see that the Andes highland is 
 higher but narrower than the Rocky Mountain high- 
 land. 
 
 There are pictures of parts of the Rocky mountains 
 on pages 26 and 56. See map on pages 60-61. 
 
 40. Highland of Tibet. 
 
 See picture on page 88, and map on page 86. 
 The longest plains of Asia are north of Tibet. 
 
 41. Highland of Abyssinia. 
 
 From Asia the world range extends into Africa. A 
 spur from this great ridge enters Europe, but no part 
 of the divide between the great ocean basins enters 
 that grand division. 
 
 The two ends of the world ridge are at cape Horn 
 and Good Hope. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 59 
 
 42. Slopes from the World Ridge. 
 
 The Atlantic slopes are on the inner side of the 
 world ridge. The Pacific slopes are on the onter 
 side. 
 
 Have pupils show on the map, page 24, the long and 
 short slopes from each of the four great highlands in 
 the world ridge. 
 
 43. Selvas. 
 
 On page 85 there is a scene in the selvas. 
 
 The picture on page 27 shows natives without cloth- 
 ing. From this picture pupils can readily judge that 
 the air of the selvas is warm. 
 
 Skill in reading pictures is of far greater value than 
 mere memory of the text. 
 
 44. Central Plain of North America. 
 
 There is a picture of a grain field on page 62, and 
 of a cotton field on page 70. 
 
 The prairies are plains, but they do not form part of 
 the Western plains. 
 
 45. Tundras. 
 
 On page 88 there is a scene on the tundras. 
 
 The animals on page 90 live in great forests that 
 grow on the plains north of Tibet. 
 
 The word tundras appears on the key map, page 25. 
 and also on page 89. 
 
60 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 46. Desert of Sahara. 
 
 On pages 102, 103 and 160 there are pictures of 
 parts of the Sahara. 
 
 Some parts of this desert are covered with rocks, and 
 other parts with parched soil. 
 
 47. The Continents. 
 
 The names used in this lesson appear on the maps 
 of the hemispheres, page 28. Have pupils show the 
 grand divisions on the little globes pictured on pages 
 28 and 29. 
 
 See, also, map on page 24. 
 
 48. The Oceans. 
 
 Follow the suggestions given under lesson 47. 
 
 Page 34 shows a junk on the Pacific. On page 44 
 there is an Arctic scene. There is an Atlantic steam- 
 ship on page 79. 
 
 The Pacific is the largest ocean. The Atlantic is 
 next in size. 
 
 49. The Bottom of the Sea. 
 
 Lead pupils to think of a coastline as the line where 
 the land slopes under the sea. This line shows how 
 far water rises on the slopes of the grand divisions. 
 
 The land is being constantly worn by streams and 
 waves, while the sea is ever sp reading material evenly 
 over its bottom. The work on the land consists largely 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 61 
 
 of tearing down. The work in the deep sea is that of 
 building. Thus we see why the bottom of the sea is 
 not cut and gullied like the surface of the land. 
 
 Bring out the thought that the characteristic appear- 
 ance of the sea-bottom is that of a vast smooth plain. 
 There are broad plateaus under the sea, but they have 
 not the appearance of land plateaus that have been 
 worn by rain. 
 
 Dwell upon the darkness of the deep sea and its 
 coldness. Look for pictures of fish peculiar to deep 
 sea. 
 
 The shores of the grand divisions are the feeding 
 grounds of many of the best food fishes. Waves churn 
 and help to grind sea plants, and thus prepare food for 
 fish. 
 
 50. Coral Islands. 
 
 Encourage pupils to collect specimens of coral. 
 Look for pictures of other coral islands. 
 
 On pages 110 and 111 there are pictures and descrip- 
 tions of breadfruit, cocoanut and banana. These are 
 the chief food plants on many coral islands. 
 
 This lesson illustrates the grinding power of waves. 
 It also shows what becomes of part of the land waste. 
 
 51. Home Lesson for a Hot Day. 
 
 In some places teachers can take their pupils out 
 into the fields to study this lesson. 
 
 Encourage as many as possible to try the experi- 
 ments. 
 
62 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 52. How the Air is heated. 
 
 Pupils that try the experiments named in lesson 51 
 will learn most from lesson 52. 
 
 It is thought that the sun's rays pass through pure 
 air without heating it. 
 
 The leading thought of this lesson is this : The sun's 
 rays do not heat the air directly, but the surface of the 
 earth changes the sun's rays to heat, and gives the heat 
 to the air. Clouds and dust help to perform the same 
 work. 
 
 53. How the Earth is heated. 
 
 Pupils should be led to observe the varying path of 
 the sun. Such work would prove of far greater value 
 to them than would any text that could be written. 
 
 Take for a problem the question : At what time of 
 year does the sun shine the shortest distance into a room 
 at midday f 
 
 If your schoolroom has no south window, try the 
 experiment regularly at any hour of the day when the 
 sun enters an east or a west window. 
 
 Once a week at the appointed hour mark on the floor 
 the inner edge of the sunlight. This may be done by 
 driving small tacks into the floor. 
 
 Suppose that the record is begun in early autumn. 
 Week after week pupils can discover that the sun runs 
 lower and lower, for its light reaches farther into the 
 room. At length, in the latter part of December, it 
 remains the same for a few days. Then the path of 
 light becomes shorter, and we know that the sun is 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 63 
 
 rising higher and higher in the sky. In June the sun- 
 light reaches the same point for several days, and then 
 the shadows of objects begin to lengthen. 
 
 The answer to our question is : The latter part of 
 June. This answer is of very little consequence, un- 
 less pupils have been led to observe the changes tak- 
 ing place in nature during the passing seasons. They 
 can discover that the path of the sun determines each 
 season, and this fact is the key to the study of how the 
 earth is heated. 
 
 Mark the shadows and study the seasons, and pupils 
 will easily comprehend the lessons on belts of heat. 
 
 If the above work is done, the text of this lesson 
 need not be studied. 
 
 Lessons 54 to 57. 
 
 These lessons need occupy but little time. Most 
 teachers will doubtless prefer not to try to explain in 
 this primary course the relation of the earth's revolu- 
 tion on a fixed axis to the changes of season. It would 
 seem better to leave that philosophy for the more 
 mature minds to grapple. 
 
 Keep the work in these lessons very simple. Use 
 the text for oral reading and discussion. Use a globe 
 to illustrate briefly lesson 36. 
 
 58. Belts of Heat. 
 
 For the convenience of teachers that wish to include 
 in this course the study of the zones of light, a lesson 
 has been added in the supplement, page iii. 
 
64 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The map on page 24 shows what river basins are 
 crossed by the equator. 
 
 The rivers that flow into the Arctic ocean are those 
 that drain most of the northern parts of Asia, Europe 
 and North America. Pupils do not yet know the 
 names of these rivers. 
 
 Pupils need not study the exact bounds of the heat 
 belts. It will be sufficient if they learn which of the 
 large river basins are wholly or in part in the various 
 belts. The questions in the lesson will serve to direct 
 this study. 
 
 In the larger book of this series the lines of heat 
 will be studied. The aim of this lesson is to prepare 
 the way for the study of plant belts. 
 
 59. The Trade Winds. 
 
 Within a few years many of the theories relating to 
 causes of winds have been set aside. Ferrel's work 
 has placed this study on a new footing. 
 
 Pupils can easily be led to discover the principle 
 of motion resulting from difference in pressure or 
 " weight," but the application of this principle and of 
 Ferrel's theory of the effect of the earth's rotation 
 seems to be far beyond the grasp of primary pupils. 
 The difficulty will be evident to teachers that are 
 familiar with Davis* Elementary Meteorology or with 
 any other modern treatise on the winds. 
 
 It may not be amiss to caution teachers not to over- 
 look the fact that the polar regions are areas of loiv 
 pressure, and that the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn 
 are in or near belts of very high pressure. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 65 
 
 Lesson 59, in the Element* <>f G-eogr<</>J///, gives a 
 simple outline of the more important winds, and most 
 teachers will doubtless be content not to press the 
 subject further, in the primary grades. 
 
 60. The Gulf Stream. 
 
 The causes of ocean currents and their general plan 
 of circulation are clearly not within the scope of this 
 book. It has been thought best, however, to treat of 
 two great currents, because of their influence upon the 
 climate of important countries. 
 
 Find on the maps all places mentioned in this lesson. 
 
 Lessons 61 to 69. 
 
 The aim of these lessons is to interest pupils in the 
 study of the races, and to give some knowledge of the 
 home life of people in other lands. 
 
 The stories deal with race characteristics. Inciden- 
 tally, they introduce facts concerning the climate, plants 
 and animals of these lands. 
 
 The pictures should be studied very carefully. At 
 the end of each lesson a few questions are asked. They 
 are answered in the text or in the pictures, and may 
 take the place of topics. 
 
 The last question under lesson 65 aims to bring out 
 the thought that the clothing of each race is best suited 
 to the climate and habits of that particular race. 
 
 Locate on the map the scene of each lesson. 
 
QQ ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 70. Homes of the Races. 
 
 Study the natural boundaries of races in the Old 
 World. Note that high chains of mountains separate 
 the yellow and white races in Asia. Nearly all Europe 
 belongs to the white race. Roughly speaking, the 
 desert of Sahara divides the lands of the white and the 
 black races in Africa. The Malays and Indians are 
 often classed with the yellow race. 
 
 The Malays are chiefly an island people. 
 
 The Eskimos are classed with the yellow race. Peo- 
 ple of the black race are scattered along the warm 
 coasts of America. About one tenth of the people in 
 the United States are Negroes. 
 
 There are only about 250,000 Indians in the United 
 States, but the number of people of this race in Mexico, 
 Central America and South America runs far into 
 millions. 
 
 71. Homes of the Nations. 
 
 Use this lesson for oral reading. It does not need 
 close study. 
 
 A nation is a large family. 
 
 Can the teacher name a country that is not wholly 
 or in part bounded by natural features? In the study 
 of countries locate, as far as possible, by natural features 
 which have shielded the nations. 
 
 With slight changes the story in this lesson would 
 apply equally well to the " Indians of America, to the 
 Negroes in Africa, or to any other race. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 67 
 
 72. Surface of North America. 
 
 See Preface-note on spelling and use of capital 
 letters. 
 
 This lesson is one of a series of map studies. See 
 also lessons 87, 92, 93, 99 and 105. These questions 
 are so graded that when pupils reach lesson 105, they 
 should know how to read a map without assistance. 
 
 Teachers should not lose sight of this grown/*/ power 
 to read maps, for it is worth much to pupils. 
 
 Pupils can show on the map, page 24, what part of 
 the world ridge is in North America. 
 
 It will be interesting to note what the relief map 
 tells your pupils. Will they see that the great high- 
 land is on the west side ; that there is a small highland 
 along the Atlantic coast; that between these highlands 
 stretches a vast plain ; that the coastline is more broken 
 on the north and east than on the west; that the long- 
 est rivers are east of the great highland? Teachers 
 may need to ask a few guiding questions, but let pupils 
 do all they can without such help. 
 
 Train pupils to use the key maps. 
 
 The picture of the globe on page 55 is one of a series 
 intended to keep comparative sizes and relative posit ions 
 before the eyes of the pupils. These globes show the 
 relative positions of both land and water areas. Ask 
 questions leading pupils to study the globes. In addi- 
 tion to North America the globe on page 55 shows 
 parts of four other grand divisions and of three oceans. 
 These furnish a "setting" for North America. 
 
 In the supplement there is a map that will serve as a 
 
68 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 guide for modeling and drawing. Many teachers pre- 
 fer not to have pupils model the grand divisions in the 
 primary course. Pupils can readily learn to sketch 
 these maps. Large maps modeled in sand by teachers 
 are of great assistance. 
 
 Notice that by folding down a leaf (65-5G) pupils can 
 see both the relief and the colored map of this continent. 
 The same holds true for each of the other continents. 
 
 Lessons 73 to 80. 
 
 These lessons may well be studied on lesson-plans 
 3, 2 or 4, outlined on pages 7 to 14 of this Manual. 
 Instead of writing topics on the blackboard, the teacher 
 may direct pupils to use two, three or more of the 
 topics printed at the end of lessons 73 to 78. Lesson- 
 plan 3 is specially recommended for these. Pupils 
 may make their own topics for lessons 79 and 80, or 
 else follow lesson-plan 4 or 5, pages 13-15 M. 
 
 Lead pupils to study the pictures. Use also the 
 pictures between pages 115 and 140. 
 
 Locate all features and places on the maps. Use the 
 large relief map of the United States, pages 60-61, and 
 its key map on page 63, or the colored key map on 
 pages 64-65. 
 
 Ottertail range is part of the Rocky mountains in 
 Canada, not far from the United States border. 
 
 These Mexican children live in straw huts, and dress 
 in cotton cloth. Their dress shows that the air is 
 warm. Lead pupils to think of steep and rugged slopes 
 among the Rocky mountains, and of the difficulties of 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. G9 
 
 travel in this region. The donkey, or burro, with his 
 load, will form a good subject for a language lesson. 
 
 Pikes peak is not far from the city of Denver. See 
 map, page 137. 
 
 Formerly the name was spelled Pike's, but by a rul- 
 ing of the United States Board on Geographic Names 
 (Report of 1892) the apostrophe was dropped from this 
 and all similar names in the United States, such as 
 St. Marys river, Longs peak, Marthas Vineyard (see 
 Preface). 
 
 The Mississippi basin is roughly bounded as follows : 
 On the west by the Rocky mountains, on the north by 
 the Height of Land and a low swell that runs south of 
 the Great Lakes, and on the east by the Appalachian 
 highland. 
 
 The word Height may convey a wrong impression to 
 pupils. The grain field on page 10 is near this Height, 
 and many fields like this are on the Height of Land. 
 
 The Welland canal joins lake Erie with lake Ontario. 
 The change in level between these lakes is about 800 
 feet. 
 
 In this elementary course it does not seem desirable 
 to spend much time studying the region north of the 
 Height of Land. 
 
 81. Heat and Rainfall. 
 
 Teachers are recommended to read lessons 19, 20, 
 21 and 22 of the Grammar School Geography. Very 
 little of the work there mentioned can be given to 
 pupils using the Elements of Geography, except perhaps 
 
70 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the suggestions for observations, but the text may help 
 to prepare teachers to explain some parts of lesson 81 
 in the Elements of Geography, if pupils question closely. 
 
 Lessons 82 to 90. 
 
 These lessons treat of the leading industries of the 
 nation. The maps are based on government reports. 
 
 The darkest tint on each map shows the region of 
 greatest production. The aim should be to fix in mind 
 the regions whose products affect commerce. 
 
 Refer often to the relief map on pages 60-61. 
 
 Collect pictures that illustrate these great industries. 
 In this work pictures are of far greater value than any 
 text that can be written. 
 
 Ask pupils to bring specimens of products, and use 
 them in giving the lessons. 
 
 These lessons need constant reviews, in order to fix 
 in mind the leading facts. 
 
 91. Routes of Trade. 
 
 Use this lesson for oral reading, then let pupils dis- 
 cuss the topics at the end of these notes. 
 
 Study the pictures. The steamship plies between 
 New York and Liverpool. This freight train is cross- 
 ing the Rocky Mountain highland. See the snow 
 beside the tracks. 
 
 The canal boats are in the Erie canal. 
 
 Some teachers may think best to teach a few of the 
 trunk lines of railroad across the United States. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 71 
 
 92. Surface of South America. 
 
 Before studying the map questions, see how much 
 information pupils can get from the study of the relief 
 map itself ; then perhaps assign the map studies. 
 
 Pupils will readily answer that the middle part of the 
 Andes highland looks widest and highest. 
 
 On the west slope of the Andes there are no long 
 rivers, because the slope is steep and short. 
 
 Ask questions leading pupils to study the globes. In 
 addition to South America the globe on page 81 shows 
 parts of three other grand divisions and of four oceans. 
 These furnish a " setting " for South America. 
 
 Compare the two globes on pages 55 and 81, and tell 
 which is the larger, South America or North America. 
 
 See supplement, for guide maps for drawing and 
 modeling. These maps show also the comparative 
 areas. 
 
 Lessons 93 to 97. 
 
 Read first three paragraphs of suggestions under les- 
 sons 73 to 80, preceding. 
 
 The pictures on page 112 show some of the animals 
 of the Amazon valley. 
 
 The lily in the picture on page 85 is the Victoria 
 regia. The stork is standing on a lily leaf. Note how 
 the edges of the leaf are turned up. 
 
 A great deal of Brazilian coffee goes under other 
 foreign names. Most of the coffee used in this country 
 is raised in Brazil. Comparatively little comes to the 
 United States from Java. 
 
72 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 This story teaches that the climate of Brazil is warm 
 and moist. 
 
 Notice the blossoms and berries together on a sprig 
 of coffee. This growth is characteristic of the coffee 
 tree. 
 
 The general slope of the Plata basin is towards the 
 south. 
 
 Rio de la Plata means river of silver. 
 
 The basin of the Amazon is about twice as large as 
 that of the Plata. See tables of statistics in the sup- 
 plement. A part of the highland of Brazil divides 
 these basins. 
 
 98. Surface of Asia. 
 
 Read suggestions under lesson 72, preceding. Do 
 not forget to lead pupils to read the relief map itself, 
 before studying the map questions. 
 
 The longest slope is north of Tibet. 
 
 For directions, refer to maps on page 23. 
 
 What continents appear on the little globe on 
 page 87 ? 
 
 The model map of Asia is in the supplement. 
 
 Lessons 99 to 104. 
 
 Read the first three paragraphs of suggestions under 
 lessons 73 to 80, preceding. 
 
 Refer constantly to relief and political maps. Study 
 the pictures. 
 
 Study the picture on page 88. Mt. Dunkia is in the 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 73 
 
 Himalayas, north of Calcutta. This peak is about four 
 miles and a half in height. 
 
 The natives in the picture of the tundras are Sam- 
 oyedes. They belong to the yellow race. What docs 
 the picture show about their habits ? 
 
 The Ganges is the sacred river of India. 
 
 Pupils can draw the tea plant forming the decoration 
 of the round picture on page 90. What can they find 
 out about the beaver? The picture on page 91 shows 
 a typical Hindu village near Calcutta. 
 
 105. Surface of Europe. 
 
 Read suggestions under lesson 72, preceding. 
 
 Are pupils learning to read maps? Ask guiding 
 questions, if necessary. 
 
 Europe is on the inner side of the world ridge. 
 
 What grand divisions and oceans are shown on the 
 globe, page 93 ? Compare the area of Europe with that 
 of each of the other grand divisions studied. See little 
 globes. 
 
 The model map of Europe is in the supplement. 
 
 Lessons 106 to 110. 
 
 Read the first three paragraphs under lessons 73 to 
 80, preceding. 
 
 By this time the pupils should be thoroughly familiar 
 with the use of topics, and should know just how to go 
 to work on a new lesson. All places and features 
 should be located. 
 
74 ' ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 On page 13 there are two views of the Alps, — Mt. 
 Blanc (G) and the peaks near Les Pres, France (F). 
 Mt. Blanc is in France. 
 
 The highest peak in Europe is Elburz, in the Cau- 
 casus range. 
 
 Study the pictures on page 94. The Rhine view 
 shows the famous vineyards opposite Bingen. At the 
 top of the bluff, or palisade, may be seen the great 
 Germania monument. 
 
 The long glacier on page 94 is the Viesch glacier. 
 The medial moraine is very clearly shown. 
 
 111. Surface of Africa. 
 
 Read suggestions under lesson 72, preceding. 
 
 Do not neglect the world ridge map, page 24. 
 
 Can pupils read the relief map of Africa without 
 assistance ? 
 
 Have pupils learned how to read the little 
 globes ? 
 
 What can they read on the globe map, page 99 ? 
 
 The model map of Africa is in the supplement. 
 Compare model maps and see how continents compare 
 in area. 
 
 Lessons 112 to 117. 
 
 Read the first three paragraphs under lessons 73 to 
 80, preceding. 
 
 Study the maps and pictures. The Suez canal has 
 no locks. This great ditch is about one hundred miles 
 in length. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 75 
 
 The Nile view shows the landing place at Assouan. 
 Several caravan routes lead to this place, because there 
 are no cataracts in the river below. 
 
 The scene in the Atlas mountains (page 102) shows 
 a Moorish town, and a fine example of a valley worn 
 through a mountain range. 
 
 The pictures of the Nile, page 103, were taken near 
 Cairo, looking towards the pyramids of Gizeh. The 
 nearest of the three pyramids is the famous Cheops. 
 
 118. Australasia. 
 
 Pupils should by this time have learned to describe a 
 relief map fairly well, without using the map questions. 
 As this is the last of the continents to be studied in 
 relief, it might be well to ask for a written description 
 of the surface, to test each pupil's power to read such a 
 map. 
 
 The position of Australia, relative to the world ridge, 
 is shown on the key map, page 25. See also map on 
 page 28. This continent is on the outer side of the 
 great ridge. For comparative areas, see the model maps 
 in the supplement. Compare globe maps also. 
 
 Lessons 119 to 121. 
 
 Use maps and pictures. Locate places and features. 
 The eucalyptus shown on page 106 is a typical Aus- 
 tralian tree, though it now grows abundantly in Cali- 
 fornia and other western states. The tree sheds its 
 bark, instead of its leaves. 
 
76 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Locate the Solomon islands, east of New Guinea. 
 Samoa is still farther out in the Pacific. 
 
 These hot springs of New Zealand are known as the 
 "white terraces." They have been partly destroyed. 
 
 Before passing to lesson 122, two or three valuable 
 review lessons may be given, looking especially to the 
 comparison of features. In one lesson the continents 
 and oceans, as to sizes and shapes ; the plateaus ; the 
 plains ; the great rivers, as to length and direction, etc. 
 
 122. Where Plants grow. 
 
 The aim is to direct the thought to the relation of 
 plants to soil, water and heat. This will help pupils 
 to understand the distribution of plants. 
 
 Modify the questions in this lesson to suit the plants 
 that grow near the schoolhouse. The purpose is to 
 direct the thought to conditions of plant life. 
 
 123. Plants of the Hot Belt. 
 
 Study the pictures under this lesson. See also the 
 Hot Belt on page 111, and the pictures on pages 23, 81 
 and 85. See map on page 33. Collect spices. 
 
 124. Plants of the Warm Belts. 
 
 See the pictures on pages 69, 70 and 90. 
 Interesting language lessons may be given on the 
 products of these belts. Refer to map on page 33. 
 
ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 77 
 
 125. Plants of the Cool Belts. 
 
 Find on the map, page 83, the cool belt of the south. 
 A glance will show that it is scarcely worth notice. 
 See pictures on pages 72, 73, 74 and 1 11. 
 
 126. Plants of the Cold Belt. 
 
 The cold belt of the south calls for but slight notice. 
 See pictures on pages 43, 44 and 111. 
 For the food of the reindeer, see page 42. 
 
 127. Structure of Animals. 
 
 The aim of this lesson is to show how animals are 
 fitted to their habitats or native haunts. Study a few 
 of the common animals and discover their peculiarities. 
 Note their habits, and discover the relation of their 
 structure to these habits. 
 
 The pictures on page 114 may suggest a line of study. 
 
 128. Animals of the Heat Belts. 
 
 Lesson 128 aims to show the distribution of a few 
 of the largest and most familiar animals. Notice the 
 coastlines in the picture. Pupils will be deeply inter- 
 ested in collecting pictures and stories of animals. 
 
 129. Animals and Their Homes. 
 
 The text of this lesson touches upon the structure of 
 animals, their means of defense, etc. 
 
 Pupils can doubtless give many other illustrations of 
 each of these topics. The pictures on pages 112 and 
 113 will suggest many interesting stories. 
 
78 ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 130. Uses of Plants and Animals. 
 
 Use the questions for oral or written language lessons. 
 
 Lessons 131 to 146. 
 
 From this part of the geography to the end, the text 
 of the various lessons follows the same general plan, 
 namely, the study of groups of states, of cities and of 
 countries, from the standpoint of industries and matters 
 of special importance. Perhaps the best topics that 
 can be used are the names of cities printed in heavy- 
 face type, as Boston, and names of countries printed in 
 capital letters, as Germany. 
 
 It is perhaps needless to seek further to impress upon 
 teachers the great value of constant reference to the 
 maps. The pupils should locate every city, trying if 
 possible to state its position near some natural feature 
 which affects its industries, as New York, at the mouth 
 of the Hudson ; Chicago, on lake Michigan. 
 
 In beginning the study of any section or country, 
 make use of the old to help build the new ; that is, 
 review briefly the surface, climate, leading industries, 
 etc., and let the study lead as far as possible to the 
 reasons for the growth of the city, state or country. 
 
 In many cities and towns the school officers or the 
 teachers may not deem it necessary to study in detail 
 every city named in the text; but if selection is made 
 of leading cities to receive close study, it is suggested 
 that the locations of the others be learned. 
 
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