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REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
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 Accessions Nn.wlfvOf . Class No. 
 
THE HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 AND COOKERY 
 
 ; 
 
 COMPILED AT THE REQUEST OF 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX OF RECIPES USED BY THE TEACHERS OF THK 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL OF COOKERY 
 
 BY 
 
 W. B. TEGETMEIER 
 
 AUTHOR OF i: A MANUAL OF DOMESTIC ECONOMY 
 
 (JTWIVERSITY) 
 
 H o n tr o n 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK 
 1894 
 
 The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved 
 
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 LONDON AND EUNGAY. 
 
 First Edition printed 1876. 
 Reprinted 1877, 1879, 1882, 1888, 1890, 1891, 1894. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE present work was written at the request of THE 
 SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON. It was designed to 
 supply a want which has:iong been felt by practical 
 teachers ; that of a handbook on the general principles 
 on which the processes of Cookery and the sanitary 
 management of a home depend. 
 
 No work on the subject at present exists which 
 can be advantageously placed in the hands of the 
 pupils in ordinary schools. A mere collection of 
 recipes, however valuable in themselves, does not 
 constitute a book fit for use in schools, where the 
 pupils should be instructed in the first principles 
 adapted to all cases, and not have the memory 
 burdened by details applicable only to each indivi- 
 dual case. The " Manual of Domestic Economy," * 
 published by the Author for the use of students in 
 female Training Colleges, is adapted for the instruc- 
 tion of teachers, by whom it has been used with so 
 
 1 "A Manual of Domestic Economy," by W. B. Tegetmeier. 
 Tenth Edition. Hamilton and Adams, 1877. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 much success that Her Majesty's Commissioners, 
 appointed to Investigate the Education in Mining 
 Districts, in their Report on the Industrial Schools 
 founded by Messrs. Baird at the Iron Works at 
 Gartsherrie, stated that "The girls, in three months, 
 can be taught plain cooking, washing, and cleaning, 
 enough to prepare them for service, or to make 
 them useful to their mothers at home. They are 
 all instructed in Tegetmeier's ' Domestic Economy ' 
 at school, so that their minds have been directed 
 to many useful principles. On going to service 
 after such a course, a girl would probably get i/. 
 more wages for the first half-year's service." 
 
 The value of the present work has been greatly 
 increased by an Appendix of upwards of 150 
 recipes prepared for the use of those teachers of 
 the NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL OF COOKERY, South 
 Kensington, who inaugurated the teaching at the 
 Cookery Centres, established by the SCHOOL BOARD 
 FOR LONDON. For the permission to use these 
 recipes the author has to express his sincere thanks, 
 
 Finchley, N. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. FOOD. 
 
 CHAP. PAGH: 
 
 I. THE NATURE AND USES OF FOOD .... II 
 
 II. MEAT : ITS COMPOSITION ....... 15 
 
 III. MEAT : THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY . . . 2O 
 
 IV. FISH : ITS VALUE AS FOOD, AND COOKERY . 34 
 
 V. EGGS : THEIR COMPOSITION, VALUE AS FOOD 
 
 AND COOKERY 37 
 
 VI. MILK : ITS CONSTITUENTS AND PRODUCTS 
 
 BUTTER AND CHEESE 41 
 
 VII. FLOUR : ITS CONSTITUENTS, STARCH, SUGAR 
 
 BREAD-MAKINGPASTRY, ETC 47 
 
 VIII. PULSE, PEAS, BEANS, AND FRESH VEGE- 
 TABLES AND FRUITS . 56 
 
 IX. CONDIMENTS : SALT, PEPPER, SPICES, ETC. . 60 
 
 X. BEVERAGES : TEA, COFFEE, COCOA, BEER., ETC 63 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 XL THE HOME : CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO 
 
 HEALTH 66 
 
 XII. WATER SUPPLY : QUALITIES OF WATER, 
 INFLUENCE ON HEALTH, WASHING, 
 COOKING, ETC 72 
 
 XIII. AIR AND VENTILATION 76 
 
 XIV. FIRING: STOVES, RANGES, AND ECONOMI- 
 CAL MANAGEMENT OF FUEL 80 
 
 XV. LIGHTING : CANDLES, PETROLEUM, BENZO- 
 LINE, AND GAS LAMPS. THEIR MANAGE- 
 MENT, ETC 85 
 
 XVI. CLEANING, WASHING, AND GENERAL HOUSE- 
 WORK 91 
 
 XVII. CLOTHING 99 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LESS. PAGE 
 
 J. LIGHTING A FIRE, MILK AND EGGS, CHIL- 
 DREN'S FOOD 103 
 
 II. ROASTING, AND THE PUDDINGS EATEN 
 
 WITH ROAST MEAT . ., 105 
 
 III. BOILING 106 
 
 IV. SOUPS AND BROTHS . , . IO8 
 
 V. STEWS ...... \ ....... 109 
 
 VI. BAKING . . . * . \ v , * ; . . . . IIO 
 
 VII. FRYING , 112 
 
 VIII. BROILING , . . 113 
 
 IX. USING UP COLD MEAT ....... 114 
 
 X. AUSTRALIAN MEAT .....'.... 115 
 
 XL FISH 117 
 
 XII. VEGETABLES . Il8 
 
 XIII. PIES AND BAKED PUDDINGS . . . , . JJ9 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LESS. PAGE 
 
 XIV. BOILED PUDDINGS I2O 
 
 XV. BREAD AND CAKES 122 
 
 XVI. INVALID COOKERY 123 
 
 XVII. FARINACEOUS FOODS , . 125 
 
 XVIIL CHEAP SAUCES 126 
 
 XIX. CHEAPEST DISHES WITHOUT MEAT . . . 127 
 
 XX. CHEAPEST DISHES WITH MEAT . . . . 128 
 
^A/fyX 
 
 OF THE Y \ 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 THE HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 AND COOKERY. 
 
 PART I. FOOD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE NATURE AND USES OF FOOD 
 
 1. Milk is almost the only example of a substance 
 which is to be regarded as a naturally prepared food ; 
 other articles of diet serve other purposes. Seeds 
 grow, plants and animals live ; but milk is expressly 
 formed for food, and for food alone. 
 
 2. The young animal fed on milk grows or increases 
 in weight daily. It forms or secretes several sub- 
 stances, such as the saliva of the mouth, the bile of 
 the liver, the tears from the eye, &c. ; it keeps itself 
 warm, and exercises its strength in moving the limbs ; 
 all of which it is enabled to accomplish only by means 
 of materials derived from the milk which is its sole 
 food 
 
12 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 3. Hence, as milk supplies every requisite for the 
 body, and enables a young calf to grow into a heifer 
 and a baby into a child, we may regard it as a model 
 food ; it is, in fact, the most perfect food that exists 
 in nature. 
 
 4. It is desirable, therefore, to examine milk and 
 ascertain the materials of which it is composed. A 
 very large proportion of milk consists of water, which 
 is necessary to supply the fluids of the body. 
 
 The cream which rises to the top when the milk is 
 allowed to stand at rest consists of fat, which is 
 chiefly consumed or burnt away in breathing, and 
 maintains the warmth natural to the young animal, 
 and, like the coal in a steam-engine, is the source of 
 the force or strength that it exercises ; when more 
 cream is taken than is required for immediate use it 
 is stored up in the body in the form of fat. 
 
 If milk is allowed to become sour the solid part 
 separates in the form of curd. It is this portion 
 which supplies the materials for the growth of the 
 flesh, skin, hair, heart, lungs, &c., of the young animal, 
 and for replacing the daily loss arising from the 
 wearing out of the different parts of the body. 
 
 The whey, or liquid left after the separation of 
 the curd, contains dissolved in it salt and other saline 
 bodies necessary for digestion, and the earthy materials 
 of which the bones are formed. It also contains some 
 sugar, which acts like the cream in keeping up the 
 warmth and maintaining the strength of the body. 
 
 5. In preparing our food we must endeavour to 
 imitate as far as possible the composition of milk ; 
 for any one simple substance, such as starch, arrow- 
 root, fat, gelatine, &c., which only fulfils one of the 
 
CHAP, i.] THE NATURE AND USES OF FOOD. 13 
 
 purposes required in our food will not alone support 
 life; hence it is necessary we should arrange the 
 articles of food according to their uses. 
 
 6. The substances that when eaten go to supply the 
 materials of our bodies, and in this respect resemble 
 the curd of the milk, are sometimes termed flesh- 
 forming foods ; and, from containing nitrogen, are 
 sometimes called nitrogenous ; but as they resemble 
 white of egg (albumen) in many properties, they are 
 better termed albumenoid, or albumen-like. 
 
 The most important albumenoid articles of our 
 food are the solid parts of the flesh of animals, the 
 curd of milk, which when dried becomes cheese, the 
 albumen of eggs, gelatine, the gluten of flour, and the 
 curdy matter that forms a large portion of many seeds, 
 as peas, beans, &c. 
 
 7. The foods that are used to keep up the warmth 
 natural to the body, and by being consumed in the 
 breathing are the source of the strength we exercise, 
 are sometimes termed warmth-giving foods; as they 
 contain a great amount of carbon or charcoal they have 
 also been termed carbonaceous; and as they resemble 
 oil in being combustible they are frequently termed 
 oleaginous foods. 
 
 The most important of these foods are fats, oils, 
 starch, sugar, gum, and the softer and more digestible 
 fibres of plants. 
 
 8. Many of the articles used as food do not con- 
 tain a proper proportion of these two kinds of sub- 
 stances, and in economical cooking it is desirable that 
 the defects in one article of diet should be supplied 
 by using it with some other which contains that which 
 is wanting in the first. 
 
14 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 _ ___ 
 
 For example, rice and potatoes consist chiefly of 
 starch, and of themselves are bad foods unless com- 
 bined with fatty and albumenoid matters; therefore 
 we endeavour to use rice in puddings with milk, eggs, 
 and butter, which supply all that is wanting, and it 
 thus becomes a valuable article of food. Potatoes 
 are most useful and economical if eaten with milk, 
 fat meats ; alone they are barely able to support life 
 and cannot sustain health and strength. Beans, 
 which are chiefly albumenoid, are eaten with bacon. 
 Bread, which is wanting in fat, with butter or bacon, 
 &c. &c. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 MEAT: ITS COMPOSITION. 
 
 9. Meat, or the flesh of animals used for food, 
 consists of several very distinct substances, each of 
 which possesses different qualities. Some of these 
 substances are hardened, others softened by heat ; 
 some dissolved, and others rendered tough by boiling 
 water. It is therefore necessary to understand the 
 nature of these different substances, in order to per- 
 form the different operations of cooking in the best 
 and most economical manner. 
 
 10. If we take some small shreds of lean meat 
 and wash them repeatedly in clean water, rubbing 
 them at the same time, we shall wash away all the 
 soluble part, and at last there will remain nothing 
 but some white threads which constitute the fibrous 
 part of the flesh of the animal from which they were 
 obtained. We could in this manner obtain about 
 fifteen pounds from every hundred pounds of flesh. 
 This substance of which these threads are composed 
 is termed fibrin ; it is an albumenoid (6) article of 
 food. Fibrin also exists dissolved in the blood of 
 
1 6 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 living animals ; and when the fresh blood of a pig 
 or other animal is stirred, as is done in making black 
 puddings, the fibrin separates and adheres to the stick 
 in long fibres. 
 
 The action of heat on fibrin is very important. It 
 is hardened and contracted by a heat as great as that 
 of boiling water : this is easily shown by pouring some 
 perfectly boiling water on the threads obtained by 
 washing meat, or by cutting a thin shred of meat in 
 the direction of the fibres, boiling it for a few minutes, 
 and then noticing the alteration in its size and the 
 hardening it has undergone. 
 
 In water that is considerably less hot than boiling, 
 the fibres of meat become soft, consequently any 
 meat, even if old and tough, can be rendered useful 
 for food by long continued stewing, at a heat much 
 less than that of boiling water. 
 
 ii. When meat is thoroughly washed to obtain the 
 fibrin, a soluble substance, similar to the white of egg, 
 passes away in the water; this is termed albumen. 
 There are from three to five pounds of albumen in 
 every hundred of meat; it also forms a very large 
 proportion of the brain and of the blood. In cold 
 or warm water it is easily dissolved, but if heated to 
 near the boiling point of water it becomes solid. If 
 a piece of fresh meat is suddenly plunged for a few 
 minutes into water quite boiling, the albumen at the 
 outside is hardened and becoming solid prevents the 
 escape of the juices which form the gravy. Exposed 
 to a heat greater than that of boiling water albumen 
 becomes very horny and indigestible, but when pro- 
 perly cooked it is one of the most valuable articles of 
 diet. 
 
CHAP, ii.] ME A T: ITS COMPOSITION. i ^ 
 
 1 2. The tendinous or gristly parts of the flesh, such 
 as cow's heel, the sinewy parts about the joints, also 
 the skin and the nutritive parts of the bones, consist 
 chiefly of a peculiar substance termed gelatin. This 
 is a valuable album enoid article of food when used 
 with other substances. Gelatin and gelatinous articles 
 of food may be dissolved by boiling, and the solution 
 becomes a jelly when cold. Gelatin is rendered hard 
 and horny by a dry heat, and therefore the sinewy 
 and tendinous parts of meat are better adapted for 
 stewing or boiling, than for roasting, broiling, or 
 frying. 
 
 13. If a quantity of lean meat be chopped up small, 
 and placed in a closely-covered earthen pot, without 
 water, and the pot be then put in a saucepan of water 
 by the side of the fire so as to be very gradually heated, 
 the juice of the flesh will escape. At first this will 
 be of a red colour, being tinged with a little blood, 
 but if heated to a greater degree it will become brown. 
 
 The juice of the flesh contains many substances of 
 the greatest value as food, and meat from which it is 
 extracted is of very inferior value. 
 
 All operations of cookery should be conducted so 
 as to prevent as far as possible any loss of this 
 valuable fluid. When meat is salted a large propor- 
 tion of the juice of the flesh is extracted and forms 
 the brine. This contains so much albumen as to 
 become partly solid if heated. It is from the loss of 
 this valuable juice that salted meats are so much less 
 nutritious and wholesome than those that are used 
 in a fresh state. What is termed extract of meat 
 is merely the juice of the flesh from which the water 
 has been evaporated so that it is nearly solid. 
 
1 8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 14. Almost all flesh used for food contains a con- 
 siderable proportion of fat, which when eaten main- 
 tains the warmth of the body. Hence we have a much 
 greater appetite for fat in cold seasons and climates 
 than in those that are warm. Fat is one of the olea- 
 ginous foods (7) which are the source of the force 
 we exert ; it is also essential to the proper action of 
 the digestive organs. When taken in too great a 
 quantity it accumulates in the body, which thus be- 
 comes fattened. 
 
 15. The quantity and quality of these different 
 substances vary very much in the different kinds of 
 meat. The flesh of very young animals is not nearly 
 so nutritious as that of those which are of mature age. 
 Lamb and veal contain much less solid food than 
 mutton or beef, and are consequently not so econo- 
 mical, even if purchased at the same cost per pound. 
 Mutton, if in good condition, is one of the most easily 
 digested of the ordinary flesh meats. Pork is not so 
 easily digested as beef or mutton, consequently is 
 unfitted for sick persons, and from the unwholesome 
 manner in which pigs are often kept, is more subject 
 to be diseased than the flesh of sheep or oxen. 
 
 1 6. Some of the internal parts of animals are ex- 
 ceedingly useful as food. The stomach of the ox 
 when cleaned and partially boiled is sold as tripe, an 
 easily digestible and nutritious food. In the tongue 
 the fibres of the flesh are very small and delicate, 
 and if stewed slowly, become very soft and digestible ; 
 but tongues are frequently much hardened by salting 
 for a long time. The flesh of the heart of the ox and 
 of the sheep is very firm and solid, and though nutri- 
 tious, is not very easily digested. Kidney and liver, 
 
CHAP, ii.] MEAT: ITS COMPOSITION. 19 
 
 except in the case of those of young animals, are also 
 hard and firm when cooked, and are not very digest- 
 ible. The brain consists chiefly of albumen and water, 
 and if properly prepared is a useful food. The blood 
 contains a very large proportion of nutritive albu- 
 menoid substances, but it is not a favourite food, and 
 except in the form of " black puddings," which are 
 made from the blood of the pig, is rarely used in this 
 country. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 MEAT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 
 
 17. Roasting is a mode of cooking meat that is 
 more common in this than in any other country. It 
 is, however, not an economical or advantageous mode 
 of cooking small joints, as they become dried up ; and 
 it is exceedingly wasteful in the case of sinewy or 
 tendinous pieces of meat, as it renders a very large 
 proportion of them quite uneatable. Roasting is an 
 advantageous mode of cooking only in cases where 
 the joints are large and where the cost of a large fire 
 is not of importance. Consequently it is not the best 
 suited to the circumstances of the working classes. 
 
 When a piece of meat is hung before a fire, part of 
 the fat melts and forms the dripping which should be 
 carefully and cleanly preserved, as it constitutes a 
 valuable article of food. During the process some of 
 the water of the juice of the flesh is dried up ; from 
 these two causes the meat loses in weight. In some fat 
 joints more than one quarter of the weight is lost, in 
 others much less, as in the case of a leg of mutton 
 which is covered by a skin, and has but little fat to 
 melt away. 
 
Ctt. in.] MEAT : TtfE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 21 
 
 To roast well the meat should be hung up before a 
 brisk bright fire, the first effect of which is to harden 
 the albumen in the outer parts and thus prevent the 
 escape of the nutritious juices. The heat should then 
 be continued until it has penetrated the inside. When 
 it is heated the natural red colour of the flesh is 
 changed, and from the hardening of the albumen the 
 meat becomes firm and can be cut in thin slices. 
 
 Underdone meat is not, as is generally supposed, 
 more nutritious than that which is properly cooked. 
 
 The heat of the fire causes the production of pecu- 
 liar flavours and odours which distinguish one kind of 
 meat from another. 
 
 1 8. In roasting it is important that the meat be put 
 down before a bright, clear fire, sufficiently large to 
 heat the whole of the joint at once. If possible, 
 skewers and spits should not be thrust into the meat, 
 as they make holes through which the gravy escapes. 
 The time usually allowed for roasting is a quarter of 
 an hour or twenty-minutes for every pound, but this 
 depends on the thickness and also on the size of the 
 joint. 
 
 The usual plan of making gravy for roast meat is, 
 to sprinkle a little salt on the joint after it is placed in 
 the dish, and then pour some boiling water over it ; this 
 washes off some of the brown and makes a coloured 
 liquid in the dish. 
 
 A much better plan is to collect the dripping in a 
 flat pan, and when the meat is dished to leave as much 
 as may be required for making the gravy ; and then to 
 dredge in some flour and place the pan over the fire 
 or stove until the flour is browned. A little cold water 
 is next added, which is to be well mixed with the brown 
 
22 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 flour so as to avoid leaving any lumps. Boiling water, 
 or still better, broth made by stewing any scraps of 
 bones from the joint, is then poured on in sufficient 
 quantity, the whole being constantly stirred ; the whole 
 is allowed to boil for a few minutes and poured 
 over the joint. In this manner a large quantity of 
 very good, rich, nutritious gravy is produced which 
 is very economical, as it renders potatoes and other 
 vegetables much more acceptable, especially to child- 
 ren, and in this mode saves the consumption of meat. 
 
 If a joint is to be eaten cold it is better that it 
 should not be cut whilst warm, as the contraction of 
 the fibres forces out the gravy; but if not cut until cold 
 the gravy is retained and the meat is much more tasty 
 and tender. 
 
 19. Baking is a more economical mode of cook- 
 ing than roasting, especially in small families where 
 economical stoves or ranges with side ovens are used, 
 In baking there is less loss of weight than in roasting 
 as the joint is less dried. Care should be taken that 
 the floor of the oven is not too much heated or the 
 fat may be burnt, which causes a bad flavour. A great 
 advantage in baking is that it requires less attention 
 than roasting, and that potatoes, or a batter or York- 
 shire pudding, can be cooked under the meat. This 
 latter may be made by taking four tablespoonfuls of 
 flour, and rubbing them into a smooth batter with a 
 pint of milk, which has previously had a well-beaten 
 egg mixed with it. If eggs are abundant two or three 
 may be employed with advantage, the quantity of 
 flour being lessened. The milk and egg must be 
 added gradually, the batter being rubbed until uni- 
 formly smooth after each addition. 
 
CH. m.] ME AT: THE, PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 23 
 
 20. Broiling is the rapid cooking of a small 
 piece of meat, as a chop or a steak, by exposing it to 
 the heat of a fire ; in large kitchens the gridiron on 
 which the meat is cooked is usually placed over a 
 large, clear fire, but in smaller houses it is generally 
 hung up before the fire. Broiling has very nearly the 
 same effect on meat as roasting. The albumen of the 
 outer portions is hardened, and forms a kind of skin 
 retaining the juices. 
 
 In order that this may be done most perfectly, the 
 meat should be rapidly turned so as to prevent the 
 juices escaping on the side furthest from the fire. 
 A fork should not be thrust into the flesh, as it makes 
 holes through which the juices escape. 
 
 In large chop-houses, the chops are turned over very 
 quickly with broiling-tongs. 
 
 Broiling is a good mode of cooking thick fleshy 
 chops and steaks, but is a wasteful method of pre- 
 paring thin pieces such as are often purchased when 
 cheap meat is required. 
 
 Success in broiling depends on having a thick, fleshy 
 piece of tender meat, a clear fire, a clean gridiron, and 
 on the meat being turned repeatedly. Broiled meat 
 should not be sprinkled with salt until after it is 
 cooked, and it should never be cut into in order to 
 ascertain whether it is done ; as if again put down 
 to the fire the juice escapes from the cut, and the 
 meat becomes dry and much less nutritious. 
 
 21. Frying is the cooking of meat in melted fat 
 heated in a frying or stew-pan over a fire or stove. 
 
 If the frying-pan is placed over an open fire, the fat 
 is usually over-heated, and gives out a very disagree- 
 able smell ; meat when placed in overheated fat ha. 
 
24 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 its fibrin hardened and contracted, so that it becomes 
 very tough ; therefore fried meat is usually regarded as 
 inferior to such as is broiled. 
 
 If, however, the fat is not over-heated, and there 
 is sufficient to prevent burning, and to cover the 
 piece to be cooked, meat may be fried of a very light 
 brown colour without being hardened. 
 
 22. Boiling may be performed in various modes. 
 If the joint is put in cold water and placed on the 
 fire, and the heat very slowly raised to the boiling- 
 point, after which the saucepan is pulled back from 
 the fire so as to be kept hot without boiling until the 
 joint is thoroughly done ; the meat will be tender in 
 proportion to the length of time and slowness with 
 which it has been cooked, but a considerable propor- 
 tion of the gelatin and albumen will be dissolved in 
 the water, and unless this be used for soup or broth 
 will be wasted. 
 
 This dissolved albumen coagulates or hardens as 
 the water approaches the boiling-point, and forms the 
 scum, which should be removed by skimming just 
 before the water boils, or it is carried down by the 
 boiling and discolours the meat. 
 
 A different mode of boiling is sometimes adopted 
 when the liquor is not required for soup. It is to 
 place the joint in perfectly boiling water for a quarter 
 of an hour ; this hardens the outside and prevents the 
 escape of the nutritious juices ; the water is then 
 cooled, either by adding a quantity of cold water or 
 by drawing the vessel back from the fire, and the 
 process continued at a low heat until the whole is 
 thoroughly cooked. 
 
 If the water is made to boil during the whole time 
 
CH. ill.} ME AT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 25 
 
 the meat is being cooked, the fibrin is rendered hard, 
 and the meat becomes tough and stringy. 
 
 To have meat tender it is important not to expose 
 it to the heat of boiling water for any length of time. 
 In what is termed a Norwegian kitchener the water 
 in which the meat is placed is made to boil. Then 
 the vessel is placed in a box thickly lined with 
 layers of woollen felt ; this prevents the escape of the 
 heat, and the largest joints will be perfectly and most 
 tenderly cooked after having been taken away from 
 the fire for three or four hours. 
 
 In all cases of boiling it is desirable to avoid 
 thrusting a large fork or skewers into the joint, as 
 these, by passing into the interior where the albumen 
 is not hardened, make holes through which the juice 
 escapes, and the meat becomes dry and less nutritious. 
 If necessary, it is better to tie the joint round with 
 string than to employ skewers. 
 
 Ham and the lean of bacon, which is usually hard 
 and tough, may be cooked so as to be perfectly tender 
 and without waste of fat, by not allowing the water to 
 boil. At the large ham and beef shops in London, 
 where the meat is always very tender, the hams are 
 placed in large coppers of cold water, a small fire is 
 lighted under the copper, and the water gradually 
 raised to the boiling-point, when the fire is imme- 
 diately raked out, the copper covered over, and the 
 hams allowed to remain in the water until it is nearly 
 cold. In this manner they are several hours in cook- 
 ing, and are never heated to the boiling-point, conse- 
 quently the flesh becomes exceedingly tender, and 
 there is no loss of fat. 
 
 23. Stewing is a much more advantageous and 
 
26 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AtfD COOKERY. 
 
 economical mode of cooking than boiling : by its use 
 the flesh of old animals, and tough, sinewy joints that 
 would otherwise be wasted, can be used for food. 
 Stewing consists in cooking meat in a small quantity 
 of liquid, by a very moderate heat, which is continued 
 for a very considerable time. By this long-continued 
 action of a gentle heat the fibres are softened and the 
 toughest joints become tender and eatable. In cook- 
 ing meat by stewing it must be remembered that 
 length of time is much more important than extra 
 heat; and that the cooking of the food cannot be 
 hastened by increasing the heat, which if raised to the 
 boiling-point only hardens the fibres and renders the 
 meat tough. 
 
 In the houses of the working classes in England 
 stewing is not so much employed as it should be. 
 By its use small pieces of meat may be cooked with 
 vegetables, and made into the most savoury and 
 nourishing dishes, and the coarsest and cheapest 
 joints may be made almost equal in flavour and quite 
 as nutritious as the dearest. 
 
 The stews best known in this country are stewed 
 steak, haricot mutton, Irish stew, and jugged hare. 
 The value of these is recognized, and it is only 
 prejudice or ignorance which prevents the English 
 housewife applying the same mode of cooking to 
 other joints, and using the French plan of always 
 having a stewing pipkin or pot-au-feu by the side of 
 the fire. 
 
 24. As examples of different modes of stewing, the 
 following recipes are given : 
 
 Stewed Steak. Take a clean, well-tinned stew- 
 pan, which is much better for the purpose than an 
 
CH. in.] MEAT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 27 
 
 ordinary saucepan, put in a little butter or dripping, 
 and melt it; then place in the steak, cut into conve- 
 niently sized pieces, and fry each of a very light brown, 
 frying a sliced onion at the same time; when suffi- 
 ciently fried, add the seasoning, such as pepper and salt. 
 The salt must not be added at first, as it would draw 
 out the gravy and prevent the meat browning. The 
 meat should then be barely covered with cold water 
 and allowed to stew slowly for four or five hours, 
 the greatest care being taken that it does not boil. 
 
 The vegetables, such as turnip, carrot, celery, &c., 
 should be cut up and boiled in a separate saucepan 
 of water until tender, and them added to the stewed 
 meat. The object of cooking the vegetables separately 
 is to prevent the necessity of boiling the meat, which 
 would harden it. Half an hour before serving, add a 
 little flour and water, mixed into a very thin paste, and 
 let the stew just simmer so as to thicken the gravy. 
 
 Haricot Mutton is made in precisely the same 
 manner, using small cutlets from the neck of mutton 
 instead of steak. 
 
 Irish Stew is a popular dish ; it is usually made 
 by placing in a stew-pan alternate layers of pieces of 
 mutton and sliced potatoes and onions, with pepper 
 and salt, barely covering them with water, and allow- 
 ing the whole to stew for some hours. If a large 
 quantity of potatoes are required, it is desirable to 
 partially boil some small ones and place them on the 
 top of the stew half an hour or more before serving, 
 as they then become perfectly cooked and acquire the 
 flavour of the stew. If too many potatoes are added 
 at first, so much water is required to cover them 
 that the stew is spoiled. 
 
28 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 Jugged Hare is a very good example of the 
 utility of stewing. If a hare is too old and tough to 
 be eaten when roasted, it is cut up and placed in an 
 earthenware vessel with a little bacon, onions, cloves, 
 lemon peel, sweet herbs, pepper and salt, and 
 a little water; the earthen jar is then to be very 
 closely covered over and placed in a large sauce- 
 pan of cold water, taking care the water is not 
 sufficiently high to run into the jar. The saucepan 
 is allowed to boil for four hours, or the jar may be 
 placed in a very slow oven. Before serving, the 
 gravy is thickened by adding a little flour and water. 
 
 Stewed Rabbits. A very economical and useful 
 mode of cooking rabbits is used in Spain. Alternate 
 layers of pieces of rabbits and sliced onions are 
 placed with a little seasoning and flour in a stew-pan 
 without any water, the whole is closely covered down, 
 and placed by the side of the fire for three or four 
 hours. 
 
 Vinegar is sometimes used in the preparation of 
 stews, as directed in the following recipe, which, if 
 strictly followed, produces a most excellent dish : 
 
 " Take shin or leg of beef, cut it into slices or 
 pieces of two or three ounces each ; dip it in good 
 vinegar, and with or without onions, or any other 
 flavouring or vegetable substances, put it in a stew- 
 pan, and without water, let it stand on a stew-hearth, 
 or by a slow fire for four or six hours, when it will 
 be thoroughly done, will have yielded plenty of gravy, 
 and be perfectly tender. Great care must be taken 
 that the heat is sufficiently moderate. Leg or shin 
 of beef makes the richest and most nutritious stew, 
 and., may be had at a low price \ but any other meat 
 
CH. in.] MEAT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 29 
 
 or fish may be so dressed. A pound and a half of 
 leg of beef, without bone, so dressed, and plenty of 
 potatoes, will dine four people luxuriously." 
 
 25. The Stewing Pipkin or Pot-au-feu is the 
 general mode of cooking amongst the working classes 
 in France. Its use effects a great saving of fuel, 
 trouble, and skill. Careme, one of the most celebrated 
 French cooks, gives the following directions : 
 
 "The good housewife puts her meat into an 
 earthen pot, and pours cold water on it, in the pro- 
 portion of two quarts to three pounds of the beef. 
 She sets it at the side of the fire. 
 
 " The pot grows gradually hot, and as the water heats 
 it dilates the muscular fibres of the flesh by dissolving 
 the gelatinous matter which covers them, and allows 
 the albumen to detach itself easily, and rise to the 
 surface of the water in light foam or scum, while the 
 savoury juice of the meat, dissolving little by little, 
 adds flavour to the broth. 
 
 " By this simple proceeding of slow cooking, the 
 housewife obtains a savoury and nourishing broth, 
 and tender boiled meat, and with a good flavour. But 
 by placing \hzpot-aii-feu on too hot a fire, it boils too 
 soon the albumen coagulates and the fibre hardens ; 
 the sad result is that you have only a hard piece of 
 boiled meat, and a broth without flavour or goodness. 
 A little fresh water poured into the pot at intervals 
 helps the scum to rise more abundantly." 
 
 Whatever vegetables are in season may be added to 
 the ste wing-pot, as celery, onions, carrots, turnips, and 
 salt, pepper, and sweet herbs. The broth may be 
 poured over toasted bread, or rice or Scotch barley 
 may be added so as to make it more nutritious. 
 
30 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 The great precaution to be taken in stewing is not 
 to allow the heat to rise too high. This is quite pre- 
 vented in Captain Warren's cooking-pots. These 
 consist of one saucepan within another, like a car- 
 penter's glue-pot, the outer being filled with water. 
 By this arrangement the inner cannot become over- 
 heated to the boiling point ; consequently the meat 
 is cooked slowly and without becoming hard. In 
 Warren's cooking-pots, meat, fowls, ham, bacon, &c., 
 can all be cooked perfectly without any water 
 being placed in the inner vessel, so that the whole of- 
 the gravy flowing from the meat is preserved in the 
 richest form. 
 
 26. Soups and Broths are not so generally 
 used among the working classes in this country as is 
 desirable. They furnish, when properly prepared, 
 very economical and nutritive articles of food. 
 
 Pea Soup is that which is most generally used in 
 England. It may be prepared either with or without 
 meat ; the latter is hardly required, except for the 
 flavour, as the peas are remarkably rich in albumenoid 
 substances. The following directions may be fol- 
 lowed. Soak a quart of split peas over night, place 
 them in a stewpan with half a pound of lean bacon, 
 or some bones from roast meat broken small, and 
 three quarts of cold water, or the liquor in which 
 some fresh meat has been boiled ; place on a very 
 slow fire and add celery, onions, and sweet herbs, and 
 simmer for two or three hours until the peas and 
 vegetables are sufficiently soft to pass through a 
 colander, when pepper and salt should be added and 
 the whole reheated, and eaten with toasted bread cut 
 into small square pieces. If no meat can be obtained 
 
CH. m.] MEAT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 31 
 
 the soup may be rendered much more savoury by 
 frying the onions and celery in a little dripping before 
 adding them to the soup ; and if dripping is plentiful, 
 the bread may be fried instead of toasted. 
 
 Scotch Broth is very generally used among the 
 middle and working classes in Scotland. It is very 
 economical, as both broth and meat are used. The 
 following are the directions : Put into a pot three 
 quarts of cold water, along with a cupful of Scotch 
 barley, and let it boil. Add two pounds of neck of 
 mutton. Allow it to stew gently for an hour, skim- 
 ming occasionally. Then add turnips cut in squares, 
 and onions sliced, and carrots and turnips uncut. The 
 half of a small cabbage chopped in moderately sized 
 pieces may be put in instead of all these vegetables, 
 and leeks may be used instead of onions. Stew the 
 whole for an hour longer. The broth is now ready. 
 Season with salt, and serve in a tureen. The meat 
 is served in a separate dish, with the uncut pieces of 
 turnip and carrot, and a little of the broth as gravy. 
 Any meat may be employed in the same way, which 
 is not unlike that followed in preparing the French 
 Pot au feu (25). 
 
 27. Salting Meat is in most cases a very waste- 
 ful process ; salt when applied to fresh meat extracts 
 a very large proportion of the nutritious juice of the 
 flesh, and at the same time hardens the fibres and 
 renders them much less easily digestible. The brine 
 that runs from salted meat contains so much nutri- 
 tious albumen that it becomes nearly solid on being 
 heated, and as there is no means of extracting the 
 salt, it is necessarily wasted. 
 
 The salting of meat before cooking is an English 
 
32 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 prejudice which is not followed in any other country, 
 nor is there any good reason why beef and pork should 
 be salted before boiling, and mutton and veal boiled 
 without salting. The plan followed on the Continent 
 of slowly stewing a joint of beef without first salting 
 it, yields a much more nutritious, tender, and well 
 flavoured food. 
 
 In cases where it is necessary to preserve meat, as 
 on shipboard, salting may be useful, but .health can- 
 not be preserved for any length of time on meat from 
 which the most valuable part, the nutritious juice> 
 has been extracted by salting. 
 
 In the case of very fat meats, as bacon, salting is 
 not objectionable, as in them the most valuable con- 
 stituent is the fat, which is not injured by the process. 
 
 In the case of ham a peculiar flavour is produced 
 during the process of salting which is highly esteemed) 
 but it should be remembered that the value of the 
 flesh of ham as food is very much less than that of 
 the meat from which it is produced. 
 
 28. Preserved Meats. The meats imported in 
 tins from Australia and South America are exceed- 
 ingly valuable articles of diet ; and are at the present 
 time much cheaper than fresh butcher's meat. The 
 only drawback to their value is that they are rather 
 overcooked in the process for preparing them, it is 
 therefore more advantageous to use them cold than in 
 any other manner. 
 
 29. Extract of Meat. The extracts of meat sold 
 in small jars are merely the juice of the flesh eva- 
 porated till it becomes nearly dry. It is useful as 
 means of making beef tea or soup quickly, but is by 
 no means an economical article of food. 
 
CH.III.] MEAT: THE PROCESSES OF COOKERY. 33 
 
 Beef-tea, which is so valuable in cases of illness, 
 is usually made by boiling the meat in water ; this is a 
 very bad plan, as the fibres are hardened, and the 
 soluble portions less readily extracted. It should be 
 made by pouring a pint of cold water on half-a-pound 
 of finely-cut or chopped lean beef, and then placing it, 
 in a covered earthenware vessel, by the side of the fire 
 for an hour or two. By this means the whole of the 
 soluble nutritious portions are extracted and the 
 insoluble fibre alone remains. A small quantity of 
 salt and two or three cloves greatly improve the 
 flavour. 
 
 TEG. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 FISH: ITS VALUE AS FOOD, AND COOKERY. 
 
 30. Fish although of great importance as yielding 
 a cheap supply of nutritious and easily digested animal 
 food, is not equal in value to the same weight of meat, 
 as it contains a much larger proportion of water and 
 less solid material. 
 
 Fish usually contain a very considerable proportion 
 of oil, in some kinds, as herrings, sprats, pilchards, 
 salmon, eels, mackerel, this is found in all parts of 
 the body, whilst in others, which are usually termed 
 white fish, the oil is contained in the liver, and the 
 rest of the body is almost entirely free from it. Such 
 is the case in cod, haddock, whiting, soles, plaice, 
 flounders, &c. 
 
 The fibre of the flesh of fish is very digestible, and 
 the juice though more watery than that of meat is of 
 considerable nutritive value. When boiled, a large 
 proportion of this escapes into the water and is lost ; 
 hence though so frequently practised, boiling is not 
 the most economical or advantageous mode of cooking 
 fish. 
 
CHAP. iv.J FISH : ITS VA&UE AS . 3C 
 
 ^ 
 
 31. Salting, though often necessary to preserve 
 fish when caught in large quantities, is not a desirable 
 mode of preparing white fish. It extracts a very large 
 proportion of the nourishment and hardens the fibrin ; 
 and if the salt has to be extracted by soaking in water 
 before cooking, as in the case of salt cod, very little 
 nourishment remains. The fat of the oily fish, as 
 hearings, &c., is not removed by salting ; hence they are 
 very valuable as food when preserved in this manner. 
 
 32. The most advantageous modes of cooking fish 
 are those that retain the whole of the nutritious por- 
 tions. A plaice or" a sole placed on a buttered dish 
 covered over with a few bread-crumbs and seasoning 
 and baked retains the whole of the nutriment, and 
 furnishes a much more savoury meal than if boiled. 
 
 The following recipes give directions for the econo- 
 mical and advantageous cooking of fish. 
 
 Baked Fish. Almost any kind of fish, as 
 mackerel, haddock, whiting, soles &c. may be cooked 
 by being placed in a dish with bread crumbs, a little 
 chopped parsley, and other seasoning, as pepper, salt, 
 a few sliced onions, if desired, and baked in a side oven. 
 The more oily fish, as herrings, pilchards, sprats, may 
 be packed closed in a deep earthenware dish, seasoned 
 with pepper and salt, covered with vinegar and cooked 
 perfectly even by the side of the fire. Fish prepared 
 in either of these modes, are very good to eat cold, and 
 as they will keep good for some days furnish very 
 useful and cheap articles of food. Broiling fish is an 
 excellent mode of cooking them, there is no loss of 
 nourishment and the flavour is much better than 
 when they are boiled. A broiled mackerel, &c., is a 
 much more substantial meal than one that has been 
 
 B 2 
 
36 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 cooked by boiling, and no sauce is required to be 
 prepared. 
 
 Frying is a useful mode of preparing fish, especially 
 soles, whitings, plaice, cod, and other white fish. 
 The chief precautions are to dry them thoroughly, 
 either to flour or dip them in a thin batter made of 
 flour and water, and fry in a deep pan with sufficient 
 fat or dripping to cover them if possible, and to take 
 care that the heat is not so great as to burn the fish, 
 which should be of a light brown colour. 
 
 Fish soups are largely used in some countries. In 
 the Channel Islands a very good and nutritious soup 
 is made of conger-eel according to the following 
 directions : 
 
 Cut up a moderate sized conger-eel in a stewpan 
 with three or four quarts of water, and let it simmer 
 two or three hours till it breaks to pieces. Rub it 
 through a sieve, and pour back into the stewpan with 
 a little butter. Throw in a small leek, the white heart 
 of a cabbage cut up, some parsley chopped small, and a 
 bunch of thyme. Mix two table- spoonfuls of flour in 
 a pint of milk, and when the cabbage is done, throw 
 it into the stewpan, stirring all the time, till it comes 
 to a boil ; then let it boil ten minutes to take off the 
 rawness of the flour. Before dishing up, season with 
 a little salt, as the salt is apt to curdle the milk if 
 added before. Have ready thin slices of bread in 
 your tureen, and pour the soup over. 
 
CHAPTER V, 
 
 EGGS: THEIR COMPOSITION, VALUE AS 
 FOOD, AND COOKERY. 
 
 33- Eggs contain two distinct substances, the 
 white and the yolk. The solid part of the white is 
 almost entirely albumen which forms fifteen parts out 
 of every 100, the remaining eighty -five parts being 
 water. Albumen is a valuable flesh-forming food and 
 gives its name, albumenoid, or albumen-like, to the 
 class of foods to which it belongs. It possesses 
 peculiar properties, it dissolves in cold or warm water, 
 but in the white of egg it is in layers like those of an 
 onion, and these require to be broken up by beating 
 before the albumen can be dissolved. 
 
 If the beating is long continued a glairy fluid is 
 formed in which large quantities of air are contained 
 in bubbles; when used in pastry in this state eggs add 
 very much to the lightness or sponginess of the mass. 
 Heated to a point many degrees below that of boil- 
 ing water the albumen hardens, becoming solid and 
 of an opaque white, hence its name from the Latin 
 word, albus, white. 
 
 When an egg is boiled very hard and allowed to 
 
38 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 become cold, the solid albumen may be separated into 
 the layers of which it consists. 
 
 The yolk contains a considerable quantity of 
 albumen, with nearly a third of its weight of oil, and 
 a very large proportion of sulphur and other mineral 
 matters. It is the sulphur which causes eggs to tarnish 
 silver, and produces their exceedingly offensive smell 
 when rotten. 
 
 34 The value of eggs as food is very great. Like 
 milk, they contain all the materials required for the 
 growth of the body. The entire of the young chick, 
 its bones, down or feathers, skin, internal organs, and 
 flesh are formed out of the materials contained in the 
 egg, which must therefore contain every substance 
 required for the support of the body. 
 
 35. The usefulness of eggs as food depends very 
 greatly upon the mode of cooking. When boiled 
 in the shell the outer portion of the white becomes 
 much hardened, and is of so solid a character, being 
 quite destitute of pores, that it is digested with ex- 
 treme slowness, and hence is not fitted for children 
 or persons of weak digestion. Eggs may be boiled 
 so as to render them much less difficult of digestion 
 by placing them in a saucepan of cold water, making 
 it boil, and then allowing the eggs to remain a few 
 minutes in the saucepan after it has been removed 
 from the fire, the time they have to remain in the 
 boiling water varies with that required to make the 
 water boil. 
 
 Poached eggs, if well prepared, are much less 
 hardened. The usual plan is to break each egg sepa- 
 rately into a tea-cup and pour it with the yolk un- 
 broken into a frying-pan or shallow stewpan of boiling 
 
CHAP, v.] EGGS: THEIR COMPOSITION, <Sw. 3$) 
 
 water, removing it with a skimmer as soon as the white 
 is set Prepared in this mode the egg is much more 
 quickly cooked and the albumen less hardened th^n 
 in the process of boiling. 
 
 In frying, eggs are exposed to a very high tempe- 
 rature, and the thin edges of the white become very 
 horny and quite indigestible. 
 
 A much better plan is to cook the eggs on a plate 
 on which a little butter, % pepper and salt have been 
 placed ; this is first heated by the side of the fire or 
 on the stove, and when the butter is melted the eggs 
 are broken on to the plate and cooked by a gentle 
 heat. 
 
 Omelettes, which consist of eggs beaten up with 
 flavouring and other ingredients and fried very lightly, 
 are most valuable articles of food that are not properly 
 appreciated in this country. An omelette with herbs 
 may be made by melting a little butter in a small 
 frying pan, beating up three or four eggs with a dessert- 
 spoonful of milk, a little chopped parsley,, pepper and 
 salt, pouring it into the frying-pan and stirring till it 
 thickens, then allowing it to remain for a few moments 
 until it is firm, the pan being sharply shaken so as 
 to prevent the omelette sticking to the bottom. 
 
 Sweet omelettes are made by the addition of 
 sugar instead of herbs, pepper, &c. Cheese omelettes 
 by the addition of grated cheese, &c. 
 
 Custard, which consists of eggs beaten up mixed 
 with milk sweetened and set in a slow oven, is one of 
 the most easily digested and nutritive articles of food,, 
 especially adapted for chidren and invalids. 
 
 The use of eggs in pastry and cakes depends partly 
 on their nutritive value and partly on their rendering 
 
40 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 the paste more tenacious and so retaining the gases 
 and vapour that by expanding make the paste light 
 in the process of cooking. 
 
 The preparations sold under the name of egg-pow- 
 ders consist merely of chemical substances that give 
 out a gas when moistened. They help to render the 
 dough light, but have no nutritive value whatever. 
 
 36. Preserving Eggs. As eggs are produced in 
 large numbers in spring and summer, it is desirable to 
 preserve them for winter use. They may be kept good 
 for many weeks by closing the pores of the shells, by 
 rubbing them with a little melted lard as soon as they 
 are laid, or they may be packed in a vessel and a mix- 
 ture of freshly-slaked lime in water, mixed to the 
 thickness of thin cream, poured over them. This 
 method will keep them, if fresh when laid down, for 
 many months, but it unfortunately renders the shells 
 very brittle. 
 
 37. From the great value of eggs many persons are 
 tempted to keep fowls in a confined space ; but this 
 plan cannot be recommended, as after a few weeks the 
 ground becomes tainted, the hens become diseased, 
 and cease to lay. But a few hens can always be kept to 
 great profit on the waste house scraps and a little corn, 
 provided they have a free range and can obtain a supply 
 of worms and insects. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MILK: ITS CONSTITUENTS AND PRODUCTS- 
 BUTTER AND CHEESE. 
 
 38. Milk, as it is obtained fresh from the cow, 
 is a white fluid, having a slight smell and taste. It 
 consists of several distinct substances, which partly 
 separate from one another on its being allowed to 
 remain at rest. These are Cream, Curd, and 
 Whey, the last consisting of water, which contains 
 dissolved in it the Sugar of Milk, and the saline 
 and earthy minerals necessary to supply the saline 
 materials of the blood, and those required for the 
 growth of the bones. 
 
 39. The Cream is formed of very small globules 
 of butter, invisible to the naked eye, but readily seen 
 with the aid of a microscope ; each of these globules 
 is surrounded by a very fine skin of curd. They are 
 dispersed in the milk when it is first drawn from the 
 cow, but as they are lighter than the whey, they slowly 
 rise to the top when the milk is allowed to rest, 
 and form the cream. This rising takes place more 
 quickly in warm than in cold weather. A larger 
 quantity reaches the top if the milk is placed in 
 
42 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 very shallow pans than if it is in vessels several 
 inches in depth. The quantity of cream varies con- 
 siderably ; some cows give milk much richer in cream 
 than others. The quality of the food on which they 
 are fed also affects the quantity of the cream. Cows 
 feeding in rich pastures give richer milk than those 
 that graze on poor land ; and if they are fed upon 
 oil- cake, &c., the amount is greatly increased. The 
 quantity of cream is usually about 10 per cent., but 
 is much lessened if the cows are driven a long dis- 
 tance daily, and also by exposure to cold weather ; 
 in the first case the cream is consumed in producing 
 the force the animal exercises in walking, and in 
 the second by generating the heat necessary to resist 
 the cold (4). 
 
 40. Clotted Cream. The rising of the cream 
 can be hastened by heat, which causes it to separate 
 in a much more solid form, when it is called clotted 
 cream. 
 
 The milk, after standing ten or twelve hours in a flat 
 metal milk-pan, is placed, without disturbing the cream 
 that has risen, over a stove or clear fire, until a thick 
 scum or cake rises to the surface ; a small portion of 
 this is gently removed with the finger from time to time, 
 and when a few small air-bubbles are seen underneath, 
 the whole is immediately removed from the fire, and 
 allowed to stand twenty-four hours. The cream thus 
 obtained is much more solid than usual ; it can be 
 gathered off the milk with the fingers, and butter is 
 easily made from it by stirring for a few minutes with 
 the hand. This cream, which is called scalded or 
 clotted cream, will keep several days without turning 
 spur. It, however, requires to be carefully made ; 
 
CH. vi.] MILK: ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 43 
 
 for if the milk is allowed to remain on the fire after 
 the bubbles appear beneath the cake of cream the 
 process fails. 
 
 The plan of scalding the cream is very useful in 
 small dairies, where only one or two cows are kept, 
 as the cream keeps much longer without becoming 
 sour, and may be kept until a sufficient quantity is 
 collected to make it into butter. 
 
 41. Skimmed Milk. The milk remaining after 
 the cream has been removed is termed skimmed 
 milk. If used before it becomes sour it is of great 
 value as food ; where new milk cannot be obtained, 
 its use is of very great importance ; for puddings it is 
 almost equal to fresh milk, as the place of the cream 
 that has been removed can be supplied by adding half 
 an ounce of suet or dripping to every pint of milk. 
 When fresh milk cannot be obtained for children, the 
 use of good skimmed milk is of the greatest benefit. 
 It is sometimes the case that the skimmed milk 
 has been so long kept, that, although not sour, it 
 will curdle when heated. This may be prevented by 
 adding a pinch of common carbonate of soda to it 
 before boiling ; and in the same manner unskimmed 
 milk that is " on the turn " may be boiled for bread 
 and milk or puddings, without curdling, by the use 
 of a very small quantity of carbonate of soda. 
 
 42. The Curd which is dissolved both in milk and 
 in skimmed milk separates in a solid form as they 
 become sour. The quantity of curd, like that of the 
 cream, varies considerably in different samples of 
 milk. The curd when separated from the milk by 
 the use of rennet (a fluid obtained by soaking in 
 water the digestive stomach of the calf), and pressed 
 
44 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 out and dried, forms cheese, which varies very much 
 in quality and in its value as food. Cheese made 
 from fresh milk contains nearly the whole of the 
 cream, and is more digestible and useful as food 
 than that which is made from skimmed milk, which 
 is very hard and digested with difficulty, although it 
 contains a great amount of albumenoid substances. 
 In all situations in which milk can be obtained, it 
 is far preferable to use it as food in a fresh state 
 than to employ the cheese obtained from it. The 
 whey which remains after the separation of the curd 
 contains the sugar of milk and the mineral ingre- 
 dients. Where neither fresh nor skimmed milk can 
 be procured, whey is a useful article of food. 
 
 43. butter is obtained from cream by the operation 
 of churning; during this the thin skin of curd sur- 
 rounding each globule of butter is broken, and the 
 butter unites into a solid mass. Sometimes the 
 butter refuses to " come j " this usually arises from 
 the temperature being either too high or too low. 
 Butter can be obtained most readily from either milk 
 or cream at a temperature of 60 Fahrenheit, and 
 cold or warm water should be added to the cream or 
 milk, so as to obtain that degree of heat. When 
 churned, the butter should be well washed, so as to 
 remove every trace of curd, which, if left, soon 
 putrefies and renders it rancid, and then salted. 
 
 Butter may be made from scalded or clotted 
 cream by stirring briskly with the hand for a few 
 minutes. 
 
 Butter is an expensive article of food, and its 
 value is no greater than that of any other soft fat, 
 such as dripping, lard, or the melted fat of good 
 
CH. vi.] MILK: ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 45 
 
 bacon. Hence, where economy is an object, these 
 may be advantageously substituted for it. 
 
 44. The use of milk for food is not sufficiently 
 valued in this country. Young children can hardly 
 be reared in health without it. When first swallowed 
 it is made into a soft curd by the acids of the 
 stomach, and in this state is readily digested. In 
 dairy countries skimmed milk should be largely used 
 by those children whose parents are unable to obtain 
 fresh miik, as it is, if not sour, the cheapest form in 
 which animal food can be obtained. 
 
 45. Milk is seldom adulterated with anything 
 except water, which may be detected with 
 sufficient accuracy by means of two instru- 
 ments termed milk-testers. The most useful 
 
 of these consists of a long tube, containing 
 100 parts of milk; this is numbered from 
 the top downwards. When filled with milk to 
 the upper line, and allowed to stand twenty-- 
 four hours, the number of parts of cream 
 that have risen to the surface may be seen, 
 and the richness of the milk ascertained. 
 
 From the height of the glass tube all the cream 
 does not rise, so that the milk appears poorer than it 
 really is. 
 
 In some of the large Union houses the milk is paid 
 for according to the quantity of cream it contains, 
 10 parts in 100 being regarded as a fair quantity, and 
 a larger amount being paid for at a greater rate, and 
 a less amount at a smaller. 
 
 As rnilk is heavier than water in the proportion of 
 1030 to 1000, its quality is sometimes tested by an 
 instrument to ascertain its weight \ the stem of this 
 
46 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 lactometer floats higher in the heavier pure milk than 
 it does if it is diluted with water. But this method 
 of testing is not so good as that first described, as 
 the milk is rendered heavier and apparently better by 
 the removal of the cream. 
 
 46. Preserved Milk is now largely used in cities, 
 on shipboard, and in situations where fresh milk 
 is not to be readily obtained. It is made by eva- 
 porating nearly the whole of the water of the milk, 
 and adding sugar. If well prepared it is perfectly 
 wholesome, and is very valuable as an article of diet 
 where fresh milk cannot be obtained. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FLOUR : ITS CONSTITUENTS, STARCH, 
 SUGAR BREAD-MAKING PASTRY, &c. 
 
 47. Flour. The flour of wheat is that usually 
 employed for making bread in this country. Wheaten 
 flour, like all valuable foods, consists of several dis- 
 tinct substances. These may be separated from each 
 other very readily. 
 
 If a little dough, made of moistened flour, is tied 
 up in a piece of muslin, and kneaded for some time 
 between the fingers in a large basin of water, the 
 latter becomes milky from the starch of the flour 
 being washed out into it. If this water is allowed to 
 stand at rest, the starch settles at the bottom in the 
 form of a fine white powder. The water contains 
 dissolved in it a small quantity of sugar, gum, and 
 the other soluble substances of the flour. 
 
 When the whole of the starch has been washed 
 through the muslin, a greyish tough substance, like 
 very soft indiarubber remains. This is gluten, which 
 forms about 10 per cent, of the flour, the starch being 
 nearly 70 per cent, and the sugar and gum 7 per cent, 
 the remaining parts being made up of water, mineral 
 substances, and indigestible fibre. 
 
48 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 48. Starch is one of the most important of all 
 vegetable foods. It does not contain any albumenoid 
 substances and cannot therefore supply the materials 
 of which our bodies are formed ; taken by itself, it 
 would not long support life, nor enable a young 
 animal to grow ; but it is the source of the warmth 
 of our bodies and of the strength we exert, in this 
 respect resembling fat and the other oleaginous foods 
 with which it is classed. 
 
 As obtained in a pure state, it consists of very 
 minute grains, each covered with an outer skin which 
 is perfectly insoluble in and unchanged by water ; 
 hence pure starch is unaffected by moisture, and may 
 be washed without change. 
 
 In boiling water these grains crack, and the interior 
 of each dissolves in the water, forming a thick, gummy 
 solution. A similar change takes place if starch is 
 baked, when it becomes soluble and forms what is 
 called British Gum, which is used in stiffening muslins 
 and cementing postage stamps, &c. Several nearly 
 pure starches are largely used as food. Tapioca is 
 a very pure starch, which is slightly heated during its 
 preparation, and rendered partially soluble in cold 
 water. 
 
 Sago is a starch obtained from the interior of 
 the stem of a palm tree. It also is heated in its 
 preparation. 
 
 Arrowroot is a very pure starch, obtained in the 
 form of a white powder. Potatoe-starch may be 
 easily prepared by grating well washed large potatoes 
 into water and allowing time for the starch to settle 
 at the bottom, when the water with the vegetable fibre 
 may be poured away, fresh water being added, and 
 
CH. vii.] FLOUR: ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 49 
 
 the starch washed repeatedly until the water can be 
 poured off perfectly clear, when the starch may be 
 dried on cloths and is ready for use. 
 
 Prepared in this manner, potato-starch may be used 
 in the place of arrowroot, for which it is often sold, 
 as food it is not at all inferior in value. 
 
 The preparations sold under the names of Corn- 
 flour and Maizena are pure starches obtained from 
 maize or Indian corn by the removal of all the 
 albumenoid and other substances. Their value as 
 food is precisely the same as that of arrowroot or other 
 starchy articles, and, like them, when combined with 
 milk and eggs, they form very advantageous articles 
 of diet. 
 
 All starches are useless for food, if taken alone. 
 To render them valuable they require the addition of 
 albumenoid and fatty substances. These may be fur- 
 nished by the addition of milk. By 'placing about two 
 ounces of tapioca, rice, or sago in the bottom of a 
 baking-dish, with a little sugar and butter, or dripping, 
 pouring over a quart of cold milk and baking for 
 about an hour in a slow oven, a very economical and 
 valuable pudding results. 
 
 49. Starch, in its uncooked insoluble state, is not 
 capable of digestion by the human stomach ; hence 
 all uncooked starchy articles should be avoided. 
 Seeds and fruits which consist chiefly of starch, espe- 
 cially if it is combined with oil, as is the case in 
 almonds, hazel and other nuts, are remarkably difficult 
 of digestion. 
 
 The perfect digestion of articles of food that con- 
 tain starch depends greatly on the action of the saliva 
 of the mouth with which they are mixed during 
 
50 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 mastication, consequently, it is of great importance to 
 cause children to eat all starchy articles, as potatoes, 
 bread, rice, &c. slowly, and to masticate them 
 thoroughly. It is of much greater consequence to 
 chew potatoes and bread well than meat ; but all 
 substances are more easily digested if eaten slowly. 
 
 50. Sugar in its value as food closely resembles 
 starch, but being soluble and more readily digested, 
 is especially fitted for children, by whom it is 
 greatly relished. It is unfortunately not so econo- 
 mical as starch, and consequently, except with very 
 young children, is only to be regarded as a luxury. 
 Sugar was formerly obtained almost entirely from the 
 sugar-cane ; but at the present time very large quan- 
 tities are made on the continent of Europe from beet- 
 root. This sugar is now largely used in this country ; 
 but its power of sweetening is not as great as that 
 of cane-sugar. Treacle, which is an impure syrup 
 obtained in producing white or refined sugar from the 
 moist, or raw sugar, is largely used by the poor ; but 
 it is not so economic a food as sugar itself, though 
 convenient and useful in sweetening bread and for 
 making puddings, &c. 
 
 Sugar has a very great preservative power, con- 
 sequently is largely used in making preserves, and it 
 or treacle is most useful to assist in preparing hams, 
 bacon, &c. 
 
 51. Bread in this country is made of wheaten flour. 
 Wheat when ground produces what is calkd whole 
 meal. This may be separated by sifting into several 
 distinct substances. The outer skin, which is in large 
 scales, is called Bran. This, contrary to a very 
 prevalent opinion, has no nutritive value whatever. 
 
CH, VIL] FLOUR: ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 51 
 
 It is not capable of being digested, but irritates the 
 digestive organs, sometimes to a very injurious extent. 
 
 The inner skins are called pollard, sharps, and 
 middlings. The pollard, or coarsest, should be re- 
 moved from the flour ; but the finer inner skins, 
 which constitute the middlings, contain a large pro- 
 portion of albumenoid and oily substances, and it is 
 economical to allow them to remain. The very finest 
 and most expensive flour from which all the outer 
 portions have been removed is termed pastry whites. 
 That which is not so finely sifted is termed house- 
 holds, or seconds, though the latter is usually made 
 from wheat of slightly inferior quality, and is 
 consequently cheaper. 
 
 In consequence of the tenacious character of the 
 gluten of the wheat, flour when mixed with water 
 forms a tough dough. If yeast is added with the 
 water a slight fermentation is caused, and gas is pro- 
 duced which cannot escape owing to the tough nature 
 of the dough. This gas fills the dough with air- 
 bubbles, which cause it to swell or rise, and form 
 when baked a light spongy bread. 
 
 52. Bread-making. In order to make the bread 
 as light and spongy as possible, bakers mix a small 
 quantity of the flour they are about to use with water 
 and the yeast and set it to rise some time before 
 mixing up the mass of dough ; this is called by them 
 " setting the sponge." The advantage of this plan 
 over that usually employed in making " home-made 
 bread " is that a smaller quantity of yeast is required ; 
 and, as the whole " sponge " acts as a ferment, the 
 bread is much better and softer than if made in the 
 ordinary manner. To increase the fermenting qualities 
 
52 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 of the sponge, bakers always add a small quantity of 
 mashed boiled potato, which greatly quickens the 
 rising of the dough. 
 
 To make half a peck of flour into bread on this 
 system, take three-quarters of a pound of well-boiled 
 mealy potatoes and mash them through a cullender or 
 coarse sieve into a large pan, mix with them a pint of 
 flour ; take an ounce and a half of German dried yeast, 
 mix it in a separate basin with a pint and a half of 
 lukewarm water, 1 and strain into the flour and pota- 
 toes; beating the whole well into a batter. This should 
 then be covered with a blanket and set to rise by the 
 side of the fire, or in a warm place. If kept quite warm 
 it will be found to have risen greatly in two hours, con- 
 stituting the sponge. This, which is very tenacious or 
 gluey, should then be perfectly beaten or broken down 
 with the hand, and mixed with one pint and a half of 
 water nearly blood-warm ( 92 Fall.) and poured into 
 half a peck of flour, which has previously had one 
 ounce and a quarter of salt mixed with it. The whole 
 should then be kneaded into dough, and allowed to 
 rise in a warm place. In warm weather it will rise 
 sufficiently in two hours ; but in cold weather it will 
 take a longer time. After the dough has risen, it 
 should be turned out on a floured table or paste-board, 
 divided into pieces of the size required for loaves, and 
 lightly kneaded up into shape, with sufficient flour to 
 prevent its adhering to the table. 2 
 
 If required to be made into lighter bread, a portion 
 
 J The right temperature is 88 Fahrenheit thermometer. 
 2 Directions for making bread without setting the sponge will 
 be found in the Appendix. 
 
CH. vii.] FLOUR : ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 53 
 
 of the dough, when ready for the oven, should be very 
 well kneaded, with sufficient flour to make it rather 
 solid, divided into small loaves or rolls, placed on a 
 slightly greased tin, and set in a very warm place to 
 rise again. The loaves are then washed over with a 
 little milk and baked immediately for about twenty 
 minutes. They should be covered over with cloth 
 after removal from the oven, to prevent the outside 
 becoming hard. 
 
 Bakers' bread sometimes contains a small propor- 
 tion of alum ; this is added to inferior flour, made 
 from wheat harvested in wet seasons, in order to 
 prevent it making sticky and uneatable bread. 
 
 Bread contains nearly half its weight of water ; 
 good freshly ground flour absorbing or taking up a 
 larger quantity than such as has been long exposed to 
 the air. 
 
 Newly baked bread is much less digestible than 
 that which has been baked the previous day. Stale 
 bread may be rendered soft and palatable by cover- 
 ing it closely with a tin and placing it for half an hour 
 in an oven very moderately heated. 
 
 Pulled Bread, which is very useful with cheese or 
 in place of biscuit, is made by pulling the crumb of 
 a loaf in pieces with two forks and baking them in a 
 slack oven until of a very pale brown colour. 
 
 Pastry differs from bread in being made with a 
 proportion of fat, as suet, dripping, lard or butter. It 
 is not as easily digested as bread, though very nutri- 
 tious, and is therefore not suited for invalids. Direc- 
 tions for making the most useful kinds will be found 
 in the Appendix. 
 
 53. Baking Powder is usually employed for 
 
54 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 raising unfermented bread, and is also of great use in 
 making pastry, cakes, &c. It consists of substances 
 that effervesce or give out a gas when moistened. The 
 best baking powder may be very cheaply made by 
 mixing two ounces of bicarbonate of soda, one ounce 
 and a quarter of tartaric acid, and a quarter of a pound 
 of corn flour, or ground rice. These ingredients 
 should be quite dry, and perfectly mixed by passing 
 them twice through a sieve. The powder should be 
 kept in a canister or bottle closely corked, so as to 
 prevent its becoming moist. The preparations sold 
 as egg powder are of a similar character and use, but 
 they do not add to the nutritious value of the food in 
 the same manner as eggs. Patent and self-raising 
 flour is merely flour to which soda and tartaric acid 
 has been added. 
 
 54. Oatmeal. Oatmeal though highly nutritive 
 does not contain a tough and adhesive gluten like that 
 of wheat, and cannot therefore be made into fer- 
 mented bread. It is largely used in the north of 
 England and in Scotland in the form of oatcakes and 
 porridge. Oatcakes are made by moistening the meal, 
 so as to make it adhesive, and rolling it into thin cakes, 
 which are baked on a hot plate, The best method 
 of making porridge is to strew oatmeal with one hand 
 into a vessel of boiling water (to which salt has been 
 previously added), so gradually that it does not be- 
 come lumpy, stirring the mixture all the time with the 
 other hand. After about two large handfuls of coarse 
 oatmeal have been stirred in to a quart of boiling water, 
 the whole should be allowed to stand by the side 
 of the fire, so as to simmer gently and thicken for 
 twenty or thirty minutes. Porridge is usually eaten 
 
CH. VII.] FLO UR : ITS CONSTITUENTS, &c. 55 
 
 with milk. It is excellent for children, being very 
 nutritious, wholesome, and economical. 
 
 Oatmeal should only be purchased at places where 
 there is a quick sale for it, as it absorbs moisture 
 from the air, and very quickly becomes rancid and 
 unpleasant. 
 
 Barley, when its husk is taken off, is termed Scotch 
 or pearl barley, which is very useful in soups and 
 broth, it requires from two to four hours' cooking, 
 
 Rice from its cheapness is very largely used in this 
 country. It contains a less amount of albumenoid 
 substances than other grains, and scarcely any oily 
 material, being chiefly starch, hence it should always 
 be used with milk, eggs, and fatty substances. (47.) 
 When rice is the same price as household flour the 
 latter is by far the more economical food. 
 
 Maize is one of the cheapest of the corn 
 plants, but as it does not yield a tenacious dough, 
 cannot be made into light fermented bread. In 
 America, where it is largely used, it is employed as 
 oatmeal is in Scotland in making cakes and a kind 
 of porridge. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PULSE, PEAS, BEANS, AND FRESH VEGE- 
 TABLES. 
 
 55. Peas, Beans, and Haricots are valuable 
 articles of food. They differ greatly from grain in 
 containing a less amount of starch and fat, and a 
 much larger quantity of albumenoid matter, which so 
 closely resembles the caseine of curd of milk that 
 cheese can be made of it. From their very dry and 
 hard nature they require good cooking to render them 
 easily digestible, and even when well cooked they do 
 not agree with all persons. 
 
 Peas. These are often used in the green state. 
 Dried peas are chiefly used in making soup, and in 
 this form they furnish a very"economical dish for strong 
 healthy persons from the quantity of albumenoid sub- 
 stance they contain, the addition of animal food is 
 scarcely required; the liquor, however, in which 
 meat has been boiled or stewed may be used with 
 advantage. Pea-soup may also be made exceedingly 
 savoury without meat, by previously frying the 
 vegetables, the celery, carrots, onions, or leeks in 
 dripping, with a little flour, until of a brown colour, 
 and then adding them to the soup. The quality of 
 peas varies very much ; some are good boilers, others 
 even after long continued boiling, do not soften so as 
 
CH. viii. j PULSE, PEAS, BEANS, &c. tf 
 
 to mix with the water, and are, therefore, unfit for 
 soup; good boilers readily dissolve in two or three 
 hours. Dried peas should not be used in the whole 
 state, as the shells or skins are exceedingly indigestible. 
 
 Haricots are the seeds of white kidney and run- 
 ner beans. They are greatly used on the continent 
 as a vegetable and in soups. When required as a 
 vegetable they should be placed in water the previous 
 night so as to soak thoroughly, they then require 
 less boiling and are softer; when cooked they are 
 eaten with meat, gravy, melted dripping or butter. 
 
 The seeds of any of the varieties of French bean 
 or scarlet runner may be employed in a similar man- 
 ner, but from the colour of the skins they are less 
 sightly on the table. 
 
 Lentils are largely used on the continent in the 
 same manner as dried peas are in England. 
 
 Ground lentil flour is sold as " Revalenta " for 
 the use of invalids, but it is only fitted for persons of 
 strong digestion. 
 
 56. Fresh Vegetables, The use of fresh green 
 vegetables is necessary to health. Persons deprived of 
 them for any great length of time, as sailors sometimes 
 are at sea, become subject to a very serious and fatal 
 disease termed scurvy. The number of fresh vege- 
 tables used as food is very great, but the most valuable 
 are potatoes, cabbages, turnips, carrots, parsnips, and 
 onions. Peas and beans are also largely used in a 
 green state. 
 
 57. Potatoes. The potato contains about three- 
 quarters of its weight of water. The solid matter is 
 principally starch ; the saline substances it contains, 
 however, render it valuable as a fresh vegetable ; the 
 
58 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 addition of a few pounds of potatoes weekly to the 
 diet of sailors, &c., is most effectual in preventing 
 scurvy ; the potato also contains a peculiar sub- 
 stance, having an extremely nauseous and unplea- 
 sant taste ; this is in great part driven off by the heat 
 employed in cooking ; some, however, remains in the 
 water in which potatoes are boiled, giving it a dis- 
 agreeable taste and smell ; consequently in making an 
 Irish stew, or soup in which potatoes are used, it is 
 desirable to boil them by themselves in the first place 
 and throw away the water in which they are boiled. 
 
 Potatoes should be cooked with their skins on, 
 except when baked under meat ; for if peeled before 
 boiling, there is great waste, as well as considerable 
 loss of time; they can also be cooked to a much 
 greater degree of perfection when boiled unpeeled. 
 Many kinds of potatoes are much better steamed 
 than boiled, and there is less risk of their being badly 
 cooked. It should be borne in mind, however, that, 
 as the condensed steam runs back into the saucepan 
 underneath, the water becomes contaminated, and 
 imparts an unpleasant taste to any food boiled in it. 
 
 58. Cabbages. All the plants of the cabbage 
 tribe, such as savoys, greens, kail ; &c. 7 are very 
 valuable articles of food. Like most green vegetables 
 they contain only one tenth of their weight of solid 
 substance, the other nine-tenths being water. Cab- 
 bages when well boiled are very wholesome food. 
 They consist chiefly of albumenoid substances, with 
 no fat or oil and very little starch. Consequently 
 they should be eaten with fat substances, as dripping 
 or bacon, to supply the deficiency. 
 
 All green vegetables should be cooked in soft 
 
CH. viii.] PULSE, PEAS, BEANS, &>c. 59 
 
 water ; where this cannot be had a very small quantity 
 of soda may be used; and in order to soften the 
 water as much as possible, it should be made to boil 
 rapidly before the greens are put in ; it should also 
 boil quickly during the whole time the green vegetables 
 are cooking, or they will become brown. 
 
 Turnips also contain about ninety per cent, of 
 water; the solid part is very nutritious, easily digested, 
 and wholesome. Turnips are used as fresh vegetables, 
 and flavour soups, broths, &c. 
 
 Boiled turnips pressed so as to get rid of the water, 
 and mashed up with a little butter or dripping, pepper 
 and salt, supply a very valuable article of food. 
 
 Carrots and Parsnips are more nutritive than 
 turnips ; they can be kept many months if the tops are 
 cut out and they are placed in damp sand. 
 
 Onions. Onions and leeks owe their flavour to a 
 volatile pungent oil ; if eaten uncooked they are not 
 easily digested, but when boiled or roasted, they are 
 nutritious and wholesome they contain a large amount 
 of albumenoid matter. They are also largely used 
 for flavouring stews and soups. 
 
 59. Fresh Fruits, such as apples, gooseberries, 
 oranges, pears, &c., are very important foods ; the 
 health of children can hardly be preserved without 
 their use, and they suffer greatly if deprived of 
 them. 
 
 Nuts and dried fruits, such as figs, raisins, &c., do 
 not possess the beneficial action of fresh fruits, and 
 nuts are very difficult of digestion. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 CONDIMENTS: SALT, PEPPER, SPICES, &c. 
 
 60. THE most important condiments are salt, pep- 
 per, and mustard of these salt alone is a necessary 
 of life. The others are useful if used in small 
 quantity to render food more palatable, but employed 
 in large quantity they are injurious, and not required 
 by the young, whose powers of digestion are good. 
 
 6 1. Salt is absolutely essential to health, and even 
 to life. It is one of the most abundant of all 
 minerals \ in many places it is found in the earth in 
 great quantities. Sea water contains three parts in 
 every hundred ; it is found in small amount in all 
 soils, in spring and river water, and in all those 
 vegetables which are used for the food of man and 
 animals. 
 
 Salt when taken in the food supplies two substances, 
 an acid which helps to form the sour fluid of the 
 stomach that digests our food, and soda, which is the 
 bile, a fluid which must be added to the dissolved or 
 softened food before the nourishment can be extracted 
 from it. If persons are compelled to live without 
 salt, or on such food as does not contain a sufficient 
 quantity, they become ill. The quantity of salt each 
 
CH. ix.] CONDIMENTS: SALT, PEPPER, &c. 61 
 
 person requires is between a quarter to half an 
 ounce daily. A large part of this is contained in the 
 various articles of food and drink. 
 
 Salt possesses the power of preserving meat and 
 other substances. It acts by removing a large pro- 
 portion of the liquid parts. The injurious effect of 
 salted meat, when used for a lengthened period, has 
 already been described (27). 
 
 Salt is largely employed in some countries in pre- 
 serving green vegetables for winter use. Thus French 
 beans may be kept for many months by cutting them 
 in slices, packing them in a jar with layers of salt, and 
 pressing them down so that no part comes above the 
 brine, which flows out. If tied over and placed in a 
 cool situation they will keep a long time, and are ready 
 for use as soon as the salt brine is washed away. In 
 many countries cabbages and cucumbers and other 
 vegetables are preserved in the same manner. 
 
 Salt should always be taken with our meals, for a 
 sufficient quantity does not exist in our food to supply 
 the wants of the body. 
 
 62. Vinegar. Vinegar is an acid liquid, obtained 
 in this country by allowing a kind of weak beer to 
 become sour. 
 
 It has the power of preventing substances putrefy- 
 ing, and is used for this purpose in making pickles. 
 If taken with our food in small quantity it helps us 
 to digest many substances that are difficult of diges- 
 tion ; in large quantity it is very injurious. It is 
 employed in cookery to assist in softening the fibres 
 of tough meat, 1 and to pickle fish, vegetables, &c. 
 
 1 See directions for making Brazilian Stew in Appendix, 
 Fifth Lesson. 
 
62 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 Pickled vegetables, as onions, cabbage, &c., are very 
 difficult of digestion, and if taken in large quantity are 
 decidedly injurious. 
 
 63. Mustard is one of the most common condi- 
 ments. If used in small quantity it promotes the 
 appetite and increases the digestive power, but taken 
 too freely it irritates the stomach and is very injurious. 
 As a medicine mustard is of very great use, spread on 
 calico and applied to the skin it relieves internal 
 inflammation, by drawing the blood to the surface, 
 in this manner it often relieves the most violent pain, 
 and may be safely used in the absence of medical 
 aid. 
 
 64. Pepper is the spice most frequently employed 
 in this country ; like other spices it is useful in sea- 
 soning, but great care should be taken not to use it in 
 large quantity, as it injures the stomach and renders 
 the digestion of plain food difficult. Children should 
 not be accustomed to highly spiced and seasoned 
 dishes. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 BEVERAGES : TEA, COFFEE, COCOA, BEER, &c. 
 
 65. Tea is more used in this country than any 
 other unintoxicating beverage. Taken in moderate 
 quantity it is not injurious, but in large quantity it 
 is hurtful, especially to persons who are not well 
 fed. Tea is best made in an earthenware teapot, 
 which should be kept dry, for if allowed to remain 
 damp after use it acquires a musty flavour. The 
 water should be boiling, and, if possible, soft; when 
 hard water is used, it may be softened by being 
 kept boiling for half-an-hour, when the lime which 
 causes the hardness is partly thrown down, forming 
 what is called fur or rock on the kettle ; or a very 
 small quantity of carbonate of soda may also be used, 
 or the tea may be allowed to remain soaking for half- 
 an-hour by the fire-side, or be covered over with a 
 woollen cover to prevent the escape of heat. As a 
 general rule, the harder the water the longer the tea 
 should be allowed to remain before use, care being 
 taken to keep its temperature as near as practicable 
 to that of the boiling point. 
 
 66. Coffee is more stimulating than tea. If taken 
 immediately after a meal, it appears to assist the 
 
^HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY* 
 
 digestion. Like tea, if drunk strong, it produces 
 wakefulness, which sometimes lasts for many hours. 
 Coffee contains a bitter principle, but its flavour 
 .mainly depends upon a volatile substance which 
 is driven off by boiling ; to preserve its taste, it 
 should therefore be made without boiling. The 
 French coffee-pots, made of two Cylindrical vessels, the 
 upper having a metal strainer on which the ground 
 coffee is placed, and through which the clear infusion 
 runs into the lower one, are the best. The flavour of 
 coffee is also very greatly improved by the employment 
 of hot boiled milk. 
 
 Chicory is the root of a plant. When roasted it is 
 used with ground coffee to give colour and flavour ; it 
 is most advantageous to purchase it separately and 
 mix it in the proportion of one part to three or four 
 of coffee. 
 
 67. Cocoa. Cocoa and chocolate are prepared 
 from the crusted seeds of an American plant. The 
 kernels contain nearly half their weight of fat. Cocoa 
 is much more nutritious than tea or coffee, but not so 
 stimulating. Chocolate is made of the pure kernels 
 ground in a mill with sugar. Cocoa should con- 
 tain the ground kernels only, but the husks are 
 ground up with the cheaper kinds, which also contain 
 potato-starch, and earthy substances, as red ochre, &c. 
 Soluble cocoa contains a large proportion of starch, 
 which thickens when boiling water is poured upon it. 
 Genuine ground cocoa unmixed with other substances 
 cannot be sold under one shilling to fourteenpence 
 per pound. 
 
 Cocoa is a very wholesome and nutritious beverage, 
 and does not produce those effects which render tea 
 
CH. x.] BEVERAGES: TEA, COFFEE, &c. 65 
 
 and coffee objectionable to some people; and is far 
 better for working men and for children. 
 
 68. Beer and other intoxicating drinks are taken 
 as luxuries. There is no doubt that they are not 
 necessaries of life. To children all stimulants are 
 particularly injurious ; and they are never taken 
 willingly, unless the child has been trained to use 
 them. If children are brought up without them their 
 strength and health are much better than those of 
 children who take them, and they can do more work 
 and endure more fatigue. 
 
 There is more support and strength to be obtained 
 from a pint of milk than a gallon of beer. To old 
 persons who have been accustomed to the use of 
 spirits and beer for many years they often become 
 necessary, but it is exceedingly wrong to teach children 
 to use them. 
 
 TEG. 
 
PART II. 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT, 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE HOME: CONDITIONS NECESSARY TO 
 HEALTH. 
 
 69. Good health and the power of working so as to 
 gain a comfortable living are impossible when persons 
 dwell in unhealthy and overcrowded homes. Many 
 circumstances render a house or dwelling unhealthy. 
 The neighbourhood of an overcrowded churchyard, or 
 a place where any unwholesome trade is carried on, 
 is always injurious to health. If a house is in a 
 narrow dark street, and the rooms face the north so 
 as not to be warmed by the sunshine, or if they are 
 closely shaded by trees, they always remain damp and 
 cold, and the health of the persons inhabiting them 
 suffers. 
 
 Houses in low situations, where the ground is 
 always damp, are never healthy, and fevers, rheuma- 
 tism, colds, and other diseases, are much more frequent 
 than in drier situations. 
 
CH. XL] THE HOME, 6*. 67 
 
 70. In London and other large towns where the 
 houses are drained into the sewers, no house should 
 ever be lived in which is built over or near a cess- 
 pool, nor in which the drains allow an unpleasant 
 smell to escape, as fever is certain to attack the 
 inhabitants sooner or later. If cesspools are neces- 
 sary, as is the case where there are no sewers, they 
 should be placed at as great a distance as possible 
 from the house. 
 
 Earth closets are much more healthy than cesspools, 
 as, if well managed, they do not give out any offensive 
 smell ; the use of any patent apparatus is not neces- 
 sary; any outdoor closet may be made into an earth 
 closet by placing a stout well-pitched drawer or box 
 beneath the seat, arranged so as to pull out behind 
 when required to be emptied, and a box of dried 
 earth, with a scoop in the inside, is all else that is 
 necessary. Or the seat may be made to lift up, and 
 a large galvanized iron pail placed below, which can 
 be removed and emptied when necessary ; very little 
 earth is required if no slops are thrown into the pail. 
 Slops should not be thrown into an earth closet. 
 
 71. The homes of working men in London and 
 other large towns are generally greatly overcrowded, 
 and without proper sleeping-rooms. When a family 
 is obliged to dwell in one or two rooms, it is impos- 
 sible that they can live healthily or decently. Bed- 
 rooms should be of good size, and each one should 
 have a fire-place and chimney, which should never be 
 closed by a board, as the current of air passing up the 
 chimney helps to ventilate the room. It is not possible 
 to state any exact size for bedrooms as the air in a small 
 room properly ventilated may be purer than a large 
 
68 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 one that is closed up. A room 12 feet square by 
 10 feet in height, would contain 1,440 cubic feet of 
 air. In barracks this would only be regarded as 
 space for two men, and in the best hospitals for 
 one patient. 
 
 In the country every cottage for a working man 
 with a grown up family should have three bedrooms 
 one for the husband and wife, one for the elder boys, 
 and a third for the girls. One of these bedrooms at 
 least should have a fire-place, to be used in case of 
 illness ; and for the sake of ventilation, it is better 
 that each one should be so provided. 
 
 Every cottage should have a living-room not less 
 than 12 feet square, and a small scullery or wash- 
 house. A small pantry for food is necessary ; this 
 should have a window able to be opened outside 
 of the cottage into the air. A place for tools, and 
 another for fuel, are desirable. Every house should 
 have a back as well as a front door, so that by open- 
 ing both in summer thorough ventilation may be 
 effected. If the front door opens into the sitting-room, 
 there is in cold weather a great loss of heat each 
 time the door is opened, and the sudden change of 
 temperature often gives rise to colds and coughs, 
 tiie front door should always be made to open into 
 a porch or lobby. 
 
 72. The following designs for a pair of cottages for 
 agricultural labourers, show the smallest accomoda- 
 tion that is necessary for health. 1 
 
 73. Furniture. Good well-made articles of furni- 
 
 1 They are from the publications of " The Society for Im- 
 proving the Condition of the Labouring Classes." Exeter Hall, 
 W.C. 
 
CH. XI.] 
 
 THE HOME, 
 
 69 
 
 ture are much more lasting than those of inferior 
 quality, and are really the cheapest. Therefore it 
 is much better to purchase furniture of a durable 
 kind, although the first cost is greater. 
 
 Articles purchased at cheap shops are always made 
 of bad materials and are very much the dearest. 
 
 DOUBLE COTTAGES FOR THE COUNTRY. 
 
 It is desirable in a working man's house not to use 
 furniture which requires much time and trouble in 
 cleaning; glass and earthenware are more readily 
 cleaned than any other substances, and, for many 
 purposes, are preferable to metal. 
 
 Iron bedsteads are better than wooden ones, as they 
 do not harbour insects, are easily cleaned, and very 
 
70 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 durable. The laths may be prevented from becom- 
 ing rusty by laying a piece of coarse canvas or old 
 
 GROUND FLOOR PLAN. 
 
 UPPER FLOOR PLAN. 
 
 carpet over them ; waterproof materials should not 
 be used under the mattress as they prevent the damp 
 
CH. XL] THE HOME, &c. 71 
 
 escaping, when the bedding decays quickly and the 
 bed remains cold and damp. On getting up in the 
 morning the bed-clothes should be thrown across the 
 foot of the bed or on the backs of some chairs, and 
 aired for two or three hours before the bed is made ; 
 making the bed immediately on rising is a very 
 bad plan, as the sheets are charged with the moisture 
 of the perspiration which has passed out of the skin 
 during the night. 
 
 Mattresses are cheaper and more healthy to use than 
 soft feather beds; and curtains which keep the foul 
 air that has been breathed round the sleepers should 
 not be used. 
 
 74. It is very undesirable to buy furniture or cloth- 
 ing of the hawkers known as Tallymen, who call at 
 working men's houses, and sell showy and inferior 
 goods, to be paid for by small payments of sixpence 
 or a shilling per week. The articles are generally 
 purchased by the wife, often without the knowledge 
 of the husband, who becomes liable for the debt. 
 Should the payments not be kept up, the husband is 
 summoned to the County Court, and ordered to pay 
 so much a week or month ; after a judgment has been 
 obtained, if only one of these instalments be left 
 unpaid, the whole balance becomes instantly due, 
 and everything the debtor has can be seized by 
 the brokers and sold by auction immediately. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY: QUALITIES OF WATER, 
 
 INFLUENCE ON HEALTH; WASHING, 
 
 COOKING, &c. 
 
 75. THE goodness of the water used by us is of 
 very great importance. Many more diseases are 
 caused by bad water than even by bad food. Water 
 forms three-quarters of our weight, and before any part 
 of our food can be taken into our bodies it must be 
 dissolved in the watery fluids of the stomach. All 
 fresh vegetables contain a very large proportion of 
 water. Thus potatoes consist of three-quarters, and 
 turnips and cabbage of upwards of nine-tenths, of their 
 weight of this liquid. Even the driest vegetable sub- 
 stances contain a large proportion. Dry wheaten flour 
 has fifteen pounds of water in every hundred ; this is 
 driven off by the heat when it is baked in making 
 infant's food ; 1 and bread contains one third of its 
 weight of water. 
 
 76. Water has so great a power of dissolving other 
 substances, that it is not found anywhere in a perfectly 
 pure state, but has always in it mineral substances, 
 sometimes decaying vegetable and even animal mate- 
 rials derived from the soil or earth thrcugh which it 
 flows, and gases and odours absorbed from the air. 
 
 1 See Appendix, First Lesson. 
 
OF THE 
 CH. xii. ] WA TER SUPJ&y[g?&g$ *&$ 73 
 
 77. In large towns water is usually supplied by the 
 water companies through pipes, having been obtained 
 from rivers. The water is generally supplied only for 
 a short time each day, and the quantity received has 
 to be stored up in cisterns or water-butts. These 
 should be very frequently cleaned out, as the impurities 
 of the water settle at the bottom and are stirred up 
 each time the fresh water comes in. Water-butts and 
 cisterns should never be placed near any decaying 
 matters, such as manure heaps, or in close underground 
 cellars, or near cesspools or drains, as the water very 
 quickly absorbs the gases and bad smells arising from 
 such substances, and becomes unwholesome. Water 
 standing for a night in a close or crowded room 
 absorbs the impure air and becomes unpleasant to 
 the taste and injurious to health. When the waste or 
 overflow pipe from a cistern runs into a drain the foul 
 air rises up the pipe and renders the water unwhole- 
 some, and the same evil arises if the cistern supplies 
 a water-closet. 
 
 78. River water varies very much in quality, that 
 from some rivers contains a great amount of decaying 
 matter from the sewers and drains that run into them ; 
 such water should not be used if it is possible to 
 avoid it, but if no other can be obtained, it should be 
 filtered and boiled before being drunk, or used in 
 preparing food. 
 
 All river water contains a small proportion of chalk, 
 or carbonate of lime, dissolved in it. If the quantity 
 is large the water is said to be hard the greater the 
 proportion of chalk the harder the water. The water 
 of the river Thames, with which the greater part of 
 London is supplied, contains fourteen grains of chalk 
 
74 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 in each gallon. Very little chalk (only two grains in 
 every gallon) can be dissolved by pure water. The 
 large quantity found in river and spring water is dis- 
 solved by means of a gas, called carbonic acid gas, 
 which is always present. When the water is heated 
 this gas is driven off in small bubbles, which may be 
 seen just before the water reaches the boiling point ; 
 the chalk is then thrown down in a solid form, 
 rendering the water slightly cloudy or turbid, and 
 afterwards it settles down on the sides and bottoms 
 of boilers or kettles forming the rock or fur which 
 is always found in old boilers. 
 
 When green vegetables are boiled in hard water, 
 the chalk causes them to be of a dull colour ; and 
 when clothes are boiled in hard water, as is sometimes 
 done in washing, the rock or fur settles on them, 
 causing them to be of a bad colour, the dirt being 
 fixed in the clothes. 
 
 When hard water is used for cooking or washing it 
 is best to boil it for a few minutes before using it, as 
 then the fur is thrown down on the sides of the 
 boiler, and not on the food or clothes. Hard water 
 is not good for making tea, as the strength of the 
 tea-leaves is very slowly extracted. 
 
 The bad effects of hard water in cooking may be 
 partly remedied by using a small quantity of carbonate 
 of soda, or even common washing soda, this softens 
 the water, but if much be added it gives a soapy, un- 
 pleasant taste ; as much as would cover a sixpenny- 
 piece may be added to a large saucepan of greens, 
 and about a quarter as much to a large teapot of tea. 
 
 79. Spring or well water differs very much in 
 purity, that which is collected in shallow wells should 
 
CH. xii.] WATER SUPPLY QUALITIES, &c. 75 
 
 never be used in places that are thickly populated or 
 highly manured, for the water is rendered impure by 
 the decaying animal and vegetable substances in the 
 soil, and becomes very unwholesome. 
 
 When shallow wells are situated near cesspools or 
 drains, the water becomes quite poisonous, and gives 
 rise to cholera, fevers, and other fatal diseases. The 
 water of wells situated in large cities, or near grave- 
 yards, is always to be avoided. 
 
 80. The water from deep wells is generally free 
 from any decaying vegetable matter or drainage, and 
 is wholesome as a beverage, but it most frequently is 
 excessively hard from containing a large amount of 
 chalk dissolved in it. 
 
 8 1. Rain water is very pure if collected in country 
 districts where there is but little smoke, but in towns 
 it is always blackened by soot It is very soft, being 
 perfectly free from mineral substances, and if collected 
 in proper tanks free from leaves of trees and other 
 decaying substances is very well fitted for cooking, 
 drinking and washing. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 AIR AND VENTILATION. 
 
 82. The Air we breathe is necessary to purify the 
 blood and to support life. Air, though invisible, is a 
 material substance, a quantity of it in a bladder or air- 
 tight bag prevents the sides being pressed together ; it 
 also possesses weight ; a box, each side of which is one 
 foot square (or one cubic foot), contains one ounce 
 and a quarter of air. The air in a room twelve feet 
 square and ei & ht feet in height weighs ninety pounds. 
 
 83. Air is not a simple substance, but a mixture of 
 several gases. The most important of these is oxy- 
 gen, which forms one-fifth part of its bulk. It is the 
 oxygen which purifies the blood when we breathe, and 
 it also enables combustible substances to burn when 
 set on fire. The remaining four-fifths of the air consist 
 chiefly of nitrogen, which serves to dilute the oxygen 
 and render it milder, otherwise both our breathing 
 and the burning of fires would go on too rapidly. 
 
 84. The breathing of men and animals and the 
 burning of fuel take away part of the oxygen of the 
 air, and its place is supplied by a gas called carbonic 
 
CH. xiii.] AIR AND VENTILATION. 77 
 
 acid. This is very injurious if breathed. Air con- 
 taining only one-thousandth part ( 10 1 00 ) of carbonic 
 acid destroys health if breathed for any length of time. 
 In crowded places, or in bed or sitting-rooms when 
 the doors and windows have been kept closed for 
 some time after they have been occupied, the air often 
 contains two or three times as much of this poisonous 
 gas, or from two to three parts in a thousand. If this 
 air is breathed for any length of time it speedily causes 
 headache, weariness, and loss of strength. Persons 
 who spend great part of their lives in rooms filled 
 with bad air become pale and sickly, and are liable 
 to many more diseases than those living in pure air. 
 
 85. The air always contains a considerable quantity 
 of moisture, which varies very much at different times 
 of the year and in different places. When the quan- 
 tity of moisture is so great that it settles upon objects 
 and makes them damp, it is injurious to health ; and 
 houses in which the walls and foundations are damp 
 are always unhealthy. 
 
 A large quantity of moisture passes away from the 
 body in the air that is breathed out from the lungs, 
 and a great amount is produced by the burning of 
 gas and other lamps. 
 
 86. Not only is the air of close rooms and houses 
 rendered injurious by the carbonic acid and water 
 produced, but it is made still more poisonous by the 
 decaying animal matter which passes off in our 
 breath, and which is also given out by the walls and 
 floors of unclean houses, by dirty clothes, and by 
 that air which comes into the house through drains 
 or passes over stinking dust-bins and heaps of decaying 
 refuse. 
 
^HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 Whenever a house smells close and fusty to a 
 person coming in out of the open air, it is always 
 unhealthy, and sooner or later will produce illness 
 in those who live in it. The good health that 
 persons who live in houses in open country places 
 enjoy is entirely owing to the pure air they breathe. 
 But even in country villages the air is often rendered 
 unwholesome by cesspools or dung-heaps being kept 
 close to the house, or by the filthy habit of throwing 
 the house-slops and dirty water on the ground close 
 to the door. 
 
 87. A full-grown person takes into his lungs about 
 two-thirds (f ) of a pint of air every time he breathes, 
 and when not breathing quickly, from running or 
 hard work, he usually does so about eighteen times 
 every minute ; this is equal to twelve cubic feet every 
 hour. This quantity of air weighs nearly one pound, 
 so that we actually take into our lungs nearly twenty- 
 four pounds of air every day, a greater weight than 
 our food and drink taken together. 
 
 88. The air that passes out of our lungs is quite 
 unfit to support life if breathed again, even when 
 mixed with ten times its bulk of pure air, therefore 
 the air in our living and sleeping rooms must be con- 
 stantly changed, or it would soon become poisonous. 
 Persons have often been killed by being shut up in 
 close rooms or in ships during storms. 
 
 The burning of a candle renders the air nearly as 
 impure as the breathing of a single person, and every 
 gas burner consumes a very much larger quantity. 
 
 89. The impure air that passes off from our bodies 
 and that produced by the burning of lamps and fires, 
 is always, from being heated, lighter than before, it 
 
CH. xiii.] AIR AND VENTILATION. 79 
 
 therefore rises and at first collects in the upper part 
 of the room, unless it is allowed to escape. 
 
 In a room that has a fire-place a stream of air is 
 usually passing up the chimney, fresh air coming in 
 by the cracks round the doors and windows. No bed- 
 room should be slept in without a fire-place unless 
 ventilation is otherwise provided for ; even the quan- 
 tity of air coming in round the window and door is 
 not sufficient, it is therefore much better to sleep with 
 the window open. This may be done without causing 
 a draught, by placing a board three inches wide on its 
 edge under the lower sash, which is thus raised, caus- 
 ing a space between the two sashes in the centre of 
 the window ; through this the air enters and being 
 directed upwards does not cause a draught. 
 
 90. It is much more desirable to let the air come 
 into a bedroom through the window than through the 
 door, as the house being closed at night the air often 
 comes through the drains or damp cellars, and is not 
 as pure as that which comes from outside the house. 
 Gas is not desirable in close sitting or bedrooms, its 
 effect on the air being much more injurious than 
 candles or lamps. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 FIRING: STOVES, RANGES, AND ECONOMICAL 
 MANAGEMENT OF FUEL. 
 
 91. The fuel used for cooking our food and 
 warming our dwellings is usually coal or coke ; in some 
 parts wood or peat is employed, and occasionally 
 coal gas. 
 
 92. The heat produced during the burning of fuel 
 is given out when the carbon of the fuel unites with 
 the oxygen of the air, and carbonic acid gas is pro- 
 duced, as it is by the breathing of men and animals. 
 This poisonous gas usually passes up the chimney with 
 some unburned carbon which forms the smoke. 
 
 When charcoal is burnt, the carbonic acid is pro- 
 duced without smoke, and therefore it is often used in 
 stoves without chimneys, and the carbonic acid escap- 
 ing into rooms is frequently the cause of fatal accidents. 
 All stoves without flues or chimneys to carry off the 
 carbonic acid are dangerous, and many persons have 
 been poisoned by their having been used. 
 
 93. The heat produced by the burning of any kind 
 
CH. xiv.] FIRING: STOVES, RANGES, &c. 81 
 
 of fuel makes the air in and around the fire much 
 lighter, and it rises rapidly over the fire, usually passing 
 up the chimney. More than nine-tenths ( T V) of the heat 
 of a common grate passes up the chimney in this 
 manner, and is wasted. If the grate is constructed of 
 thick solid metal, this conducts away a large quantity 
 of the heat so that it is impossible to keep in a very 
 small fire in an iron range, whereas a mere handful of 
 fuel can be kept alight in a grate lined with fire brick 
 or fire-clay which does not cool the burning fuel in the 
 same manner metal does. Part of the heat produced 
 is thrown out by the fire, and passes into the room. In 
 ordinary grates the amount of heat passing off in this 
 manner is very much lessened by the thick bars which 
 are frequently placed in the front of the grate. 
 
 94. Ordinary fire-grates are most extravagant modes 
 of using fuel, and are not employed by the people of 
 any other nation. Not only is a good deal of the 
 heat carried away up the chimney, and by the con- 
 ducting power of the iron, but the shape of the grate 
 and the bars also prevents much being thrown out 
 into the room. 
 
 95. An ordinary grate may^however, be made more 
 economical. If it be lined with bricks, tiles, or fire- 
 clay, and the open bars underneath be closed, either 
 by fire-clay or a piece of tin plate, the air will have 
 to enter in front where the fire will be brightest, and 
 no heat will be thrown down into the ash pit. 
 
 96. Cooking ranges with an oven on one side are 
 very useful in a small family. If well constructed they 
 will bake bread, meat, and pies or puddings very 
 perfectly. 
 
 Even when there is a low fire the oven can be used 
 
82 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 for stewing, and slow cooking can be done on the top 
 much better than over a common fire. 
 
 A boiler by the side is not so important as an oven. 
 Boilers are liable to get filled with the deposit or rock 
 from the water ; and if they are of cast iron, they are 
 apt to crack. 
 
 As an example of a good cheap open range, the 
 following may be taken ; it has a fire-clay back to 
 
 IftltHtHHtt 
 
 prevent the heat passing away where it is not required, 
 a good sized oven with the door to let down in front, 
 and a boiler. Grates of this kind are now made by 
 many manufacturers, and are sold at a low price. 
 
 97. Cooking stoves are much more convenient 
 and economical in use than ranges. They are used by 
 almost all persons in America, and are now very largely 
 
CH. xiv.] FIRING: STOVES, RANGES, &>f. 
 
 employed in this country. A very good pattern is 
 shown in the engraving. It has an open fire which 
 can be used for broiling and toasting. This fire is 
 quite under control, and can be raised or lowered in 
 a few minutes by opening or closing the doors so as 
 to cause a strong current of air to pass through the 
 
 burning fuel or over it as required. The size shown 
 will bake a joint as large as a leg of mutton, or two 
 tins of bread admirably. 
 
 The cooking vessels can be put down on the fire or 
 placed on the hot iron top, and shifted so as to receive 
 as much heat as required. 
 
 The stove can also be used as a hot plate for 
 
84 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY, 
 
 preserving or stewing. The open fire is cheerful, 
 and the stove is a good heating stove as well as 
 cooking stove. Any large boiler placed on the top 
 will furnish an unlimited supply of hot water. If 
 placed in front of an open fire-place these stoves 
 require about six feet of iron pipe to be placed up the 
 chimney. Being perfectly movable they can be carried 
 by the owner from one house to another and placed 
 in front of any fire-place. They are sold by Smith 
 and Welstood, Ludgate Circus. 
 
 98. Gas-stoves. Gas when employed as ordinary 
 fuel is exceedingly expensive, being at least five or six 
 times as dear as coal. When the gas is burned inside 
 the oven in which meat is to be baked the vapour 
 arising from the burnt gas renders the meat sodden 
 and unpleasant, and quite different from the meat 
 cooked in an ordinary oven or before the open fire. 
 
 Gas can however be used as an occasional source 
 of heat with great economy as it is instantly lighted 
 and put out ; there is no waste of fuel or loss of time. 
 The best small gas stoves are those that can be placed 
 on a table and burn the gas mixed with air; when it 
 produces a pale blue flame which does not smoke 
 any vessel placed within it. These stoves are particu- 
 larly useful in heating a kettle of water in the summer 
 time, or when there are no fires in the house. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 LIGHTING: CANDLES, PETROLEUM, BENZO- 
 LINE, AND GAS LAMPS, THEIR MANAGE- 
 MENT, ETC. 
 
 99. Flame, which gives the light employed in our 
 houses during the absence of the light of the sun, is 
 always produced by the burning or combustion of 
 inflammable gas. 
 
 When a candle is lit, the fat, wax, or other material 
 of which it is formed, is melted, then drawn upwards 
 into the flame by the attraction of the wick, it is there 
 heated so strongly that it is converted into gas, which 
 burns as fast as it is made, thus producing the flame. 
 In oil lamps the same happens, and in gas burners the 
 gas burns as it escapes. 
 
 100. The gas which is burnt to give us artificial 
 light, whether obtained from coals and supplied through 
 pipes, or produced in the burning of a lamp or candle, 
 consists chiefly of two substances, namely, hydrogen, 
 which is always a gas, and carbon, which when not 
 united with hydrogen or any other substance is usually 
 a black solid, like charcoal or soot. 
 
86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 i o i . Both these substances burn in the flame, uniting 
 with the oxygen of the air. The hydrogen in burning 
 forms water, a large quantity of which passes off from 
 every flame in the form of vapour or steam. Many 
 gas lights in a close room make the air very damp, 
 and the moisture they produce may often be seen 
 settling on the cold glass of the windows, or even run- 
 ning down the walls. The carbon or charcoal when 
 burnt forms carbonic acid, an invisible gas. When 
 there are many gas lights in a badly ventilated room, 
 or even one in a room that is not ventilated at all, the 
 air becomes very unwholesome from the presence of 
 carbonic acid gas. 
 
 102. If there is not enough air to enable both the 
 carbon and the hydrogen to burn, the hydrogen burns 
 first, and part of the carbon passes oft in the form 
 of smoke. By putting any cold pieces of metal, glass, 
 or earthenware into a flame, the carbon is prevented 
 from burning and settles on the metal or glass, cover- 
 ing it with black soot. 
 
 103. Candles, which were formerly very generally 
 used, give out very little light and are the dearest mode 
 of producing light. 
 
 Much may be learned of the nature of flame by 
 watching attentively that of a common candle ; at the 
 bottom is a pale blue light which is caused by the 
 fresh air rising against the flame and producing the 
 perfect burning of both the carbon and the hydrogen ; 
 in the interior of the flame is a dark centre which 
 consists of the unburnt inflammable gas rising from 
 the wick ; this cannot burn until it reaches the air 
 outside. The outside of the flame is very bright it is 
 there only the gas burns. 
 
CH, xv.] LIGHTING. 87 
 
 If a small slip of wood be held for a moment 
 steadily across the centre of a flame, it will be seen 
 that the part in the middle is not burnt, only that 
 which was at the outside of. the flame. 
 
 104. The oil used in lamps is of two distinct 
 kinds. The fat greasy oils, such as seal or whale oil 
 from animals, and olive or colza oil from vegetables. 
 To obtain a good light from these fat oils it is necessary 
 to make the flame hollow, and admit air into the in- 
 terior, as is done in what is termed an Argand burner. 
 
 In order to cause a strong current of air through 
 the flame of an Argand, a tall glass chimney is requisite. 
 
 105. The mineral oils, called paraffin or petro- 
 leum oils, are the cheapest oils in use They contain a 
 very great amount of carbon or charcoal, and if they are 
 burned without a chimney this escapes into the air in 
 dark clouds of black smoke. These oils, therefore, 
 require to be burned in a properly constructed lamp, 
 so that sufficient air shall be sent against the flame to 
 consume all the carbon. 
 
 The best paraffin lamps are those with a single flat 
 wick, which is able to be turned to any required height 
 above the wick tube A, by small toothed wheels turned 
 by a handle, B. The large quantity of air required by 
 the flame rises up through the cone or cap c, and is 
 directed against the sides of the flame, producing a 
 complete combustion of the carbon, and a very 
 brilliant light. 
 
 Paraffin or petroleum oils were formerly sold con- 
 taining much volatile inflammable spirit. At the 
 present time no mineral lamp oil must be sold which 
 is dangerous. 
 
 Petroleum lamps are perfectly free from danger if 
 
88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 properly used. The oil-holder should be of glass, as 
 if made of metal, it is apt to become heated. The 
 lamps should always be filled before dark, and never 
 after being lighted. 
 
 Any oil spilled on the outside should be carefully 
 wiped off, or it will produce a disagreeable smell when 
 
 DIETZ'S FLAT WICK BURNER. 
 
 the lamp is used. To light a petroleum lamp the 
 glass chimney should be removed, then the wick turned 
 above the slit in the cone, and when lighted instantly 
 turned down again ; the chimney should then be put on 
 and the wick turned up so as to produce a large bright 
 flame without smoke, but so as to produce the full 
 flame, when the lamp burns without smell. -If the 
 flame is turned down low, there is no saving of oil, 
 
CH. xv.] LIGHTING. 
 
 as a large quantity is sent off in vapour and produces 
 a most disagreeable smell. 
 
 1 06. Sponge or spirit lamps are made for using 
 the very inflammable spirit termed benzoline. They are 
 rilled with sponge or cotton wool which is moistened 
 with benzoline, the wick-holder is then screwed on and 
 the wick turned up level to the top; when lighted a 
 small flame, rather greater than that of a candle, is 
 produced. As the benzoline is very inflammable these 
 lamps should never be trimmed after dark, or near a 
 fire, as the vapour may take light. If trimmed in the 
 day-time, and only enough spirit poured in to moisten 
 the cotton wool, they are quite safe, and are the cheap- 
 est source of a small light. When used as night 
 lights they should always be placed under a chimney as 
 the vapour escapes and smells when they are turned 
 down low. 
 
 Coal gas is unquestionably the cheapest source of 
 light, but its economy is not so great as is generally 
 imagined ; the flame cannot always be brought 
 where it is wanted, consequently a much greater 
 amount of light is necessary than when movable 
 lamps are employed. 
 
 For small rooms, the two-hole, or fish-tail burner is 
 best, being cheap, simple, and capable of causing a 
 very perfect combustion of the gas. With this burner 
 the flame is spread out into a thin, flat sheet, by the 
 two currents of gas striking against one another. In 
 a fish-tail burner the gas should always be turned on 
 so as to cause a full-sized flame without flickering, as 
 otherwise the gas is not perfectly burnt. A large-sized 
 burner should not be used where a smaller one will 
 answer. The flame gives a much brighter and steadier 
 
go HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 light when placed horizontally, with the flat sides 
 turned up and down, than when burned upright in a 
 glass globe, when the flame always flickers and is 
 injurious to the eyes. An ordinary- si zed fish-tail con- 
 sumes from three to four cubic feet of gas per hour, 
 and gives the light of from six to nine candles. 
 
 Where a great amount of light is required a circular 
 or Argand burner is more economical than the fish-tail. 
 In most burners the chimney is too high ; this causes 
 too strong a current of air, and a great loss of light 
 ensues. An Argand with a ring having fifteen holes, 
 should not have a chimney more than seven inches 
 high. Such a burner will consume about five cubic 
 feet of gas in an hour, and give an amount of light 
 equal to that of fifteen sperm candles. 
 
 In all cases where gas is used, the room should be 
 ventilated, or the air will become very unhealthy from 
 the great amount of carbonic acid and vapour of 
 water produced. 
 
 Explosions sometimes occur when gas has escaped 
 from a leaky pipe or a burner that has been left open. 
 The explosion is generally caused by some person 
 taking a lighted candle to discover the leakage, when 
 the escaped gas takes fire instantaneously, and burns 
 with a violent explosion. Whenever there is a strong 
 smell of escaped gas, the maincock at the meter should 
 be immediately turned, and the doors and windows 
 opened to allow the gas to escape. No attempt should 
 be made to search for the leak with a light, but notice 
 should instantly be given to a gas-fitter. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 CLEANING, WASHING, AND GENERAL 
 HOUSEWORK. 
 
 107. THE healthiness or unhealthiness of a house 
 depends very greatly upon its degree of cleanliness; 
 dirty, uncleaned houses are always more or less un- 
 healthy. In country places, where the ground around 
 a house is not paved with stone, care should be taken 
 that no puddles of dirty water remain close to the 
 house, as they not only render the air damp and 
 unwholesome, but cause much dirt to be brought in 
 on the feet. 
 
 Slops of dirty water, tea-leaves, coffee-grounds, &c., 
 should never be thrown out near the house, as they 
 decay and are injurious. 
 
 All decaying vegetable and animal matter near a 
 house is injurious. Cabbage-leaves, potato and apple- 
 parings, and other waste vegetables should never be 
 thrown into the dust-bin, but should always be burnt ; 
 which can always be done if they are first dried by 
 throwing them at the back of the fire or in the ash-pit. 
 
 The dust-bins of houses in town should only be 
 
92 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 used for ashes ; instead of using dust-bins, it is a 
 much better plan for the dust to be put into a 
 galvanized iron pail and carried away each day, as 
 is done in many towns. 
 
 1 08. The inside of the house not only becomes 
 dirty by the dust carried in by the air and the dirt 
 brought in by the feet, but from the odour or smell 
 given out by our skin, and by the lungs with the 
 breath. 
 
 This smell or odour is absorbed by all porous 
 substances, as the walls, floors, and ceilings ; it then 
 decays, and gives rise to that close, sickening, un- 
 wholesome smell, which is present in all dirty houses, 
 especially such as are overcrowded. No house with 
 such a smell can possibly be a healthy place to 
 live in. This animal effluvium, or smell of decay- 
 ing animal matter, is taken up by some substances 
 much more readily than others. Walls that are 
 covered with paper smell much more offensively than 
 those that are painted. And in rooms where one 
 paper has been pasted over another the whole thick- 
 nesses of paper become very offensive and injurious to 
 health. Painted or lime-washed walls are much 
 to be preferred to papered walls for crowded dwellings 
 and for all sleeping rooms. 
 
 Woollen garments, carpets, and curtains absorb 
 these smells freely, and give them out for a long 
 time. Rough wooden floors also take them up, and 
 consequently require frequent washing ; smoo thed 
 waxed, or painted floors are much preferable to rough 
 wooden ones. 
 
 109. The wholesomeriess of a dwelling is much 
 increased by its being frequently white-washed. 
 
CH. xvi.] CLEANING, WASHING, &c. 93 
 
 White -wash is made by pouring water on cakes of 
 whiting, and stirring until the liquid is like a thin 
 cream, when a small quantity of warm size or dissolved 
 glue is then added, to prevent the colour from 
 rubbing off when dry. White- wash is applied with a 
 broad, flat brush, working in a uniform direction up 
 and down the wall. It is requisite first to remove the 
 dirt and the old white-wash by washing it away with 
 a brush and abundance of clean water. 
 
 no. Lime-washing is a much more effectual 
 mode of purification than white-washing, but is not so 
 often used, as few persons know how to make lime-wash. 
 If glue is used, it is destroyed by the lime, and the 
 wash easily rubs off the walls when dry. This also 
 happens if the lime be simply slaked in water and 
 used without any fixing material. Lime-wash should 
 be made by placing some freshly-burned quick-lime 
 in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water to cover 
 it; if the lime is fresh, great heat is given out; 
 boiled oil (a preparation of linseed oil, sold by all 
 oilmen) should then be added, one pint to each gallon 
 of wash. For cheapness, any refuse fat, such as 
 dripping, may be used instead of the boiled oil. The 
 whole should then be thinned with water. The brush 
 should not be left in the lime-wash or the bristles will 
 be destroyed. Should coloured wash be required, 
 one pound of green vitriol added to every two gallons 
 of wash gives a very pleasing drab. 
 
 Quick-lime slaked with skimmed milk, and after- 
 wards thinned with water, makes an excellent wash 
 for out-door walls, as it is not acted on by the 
 weather. 
 
 Lime- washing is strongly recommended as a means 
 
94 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 of purification, more especially when any infectious 
 disorders are prevalent. 
 
 in. Floors should not be scrubbed so frequently as 
 is often recommended ; once a- week is generally quite 
 sufficient. In damp weather wet floors do not dry, 
 and the house remains damp and cold for a consid- 
 erable time ; it is better, in all cases, to defer the 
 scrubbing even for a week, than to wet the floors 
 on a rainy or foggy day. In cases of illness this is 
 particularly important ; so injurious is damp air to 
 invalids, that in some hospitals the floors are waxed, 
 and dry rubbing used instead of scouring, with great 
 advantage to the health of the patients. 
 
 It should be a fixed rule that floors, particularly 
 those of sleeping-rooms, are to be scrubbed only on 
 dry days, and, where the health of the inmates is 
 delicate, the drying should be quickened by lighting 
 a fire in the room. 
 
 Kneeling when scrubbing sometimes causes a pain- 
 ful disease of the knee-joint called " Housemaid's 
 Knee." In order to prevent, as much as possible, 
 this complaint, a thick soft mat should always be used 
 to kneel upon. In some parts the scrubbing is done 
 by men with a heavy stiff brush fixed to a long handle, 
 like house-brooms. 
 
 112. No dirty old lumber should ever be allowed to 
 collect in the house ; bones, old shoes and boots, old 
 dirty woollen clothes, and pieces of carpet, are often 
 kept : these render the air of the house impure, and 
 consequently unwholesome, are exceedingly apt to be- 
 come mouldy, harbour vermin, serve as breeding-places 
 for the clothes-moth, and retain most tenaciously any 
 infection to which they may have been exposed. 
 
CH. xvi.j CLEANING, WASHING, &c. 95 
 
 Such things should always be got rid of; if not sold 
 at once, if of any value, they had better be given away, 
 or even burnt, rather than kept to render the air of 
 the house impure and unwholesome. The Jews are 
 remarkable for their good health and great freedom 
 from infectious and contagious diseases : this is doubt- 
 less in great part owing to the annual cleaning of the 
 houses, when every part of the dwellings is thoroughly 
 cleansed in the most perfect manner. 
 
 113. The washing of dirty clothes is usually done 
 with the aid of soap, soda, and washing preparations ; 
 chloride of lime being sometimes also used, 
 
 Washing-soda softens the water; it also possesses 
 great powers of cleansing, as it removes stains and 
 dissolves dirt and grease, rendering less rubbing 
 necessary. 
 
 Soda must not be used with coloured clothes, as it 
 changes many colours. If white clothes, after being 
 washed with soda, are not perfectly freed from it by 
 rinsing in pure water, they wilf turn very yellow 
 when heated or ironed, or even in drying or airing 
 before the fire. Once produced, this yellow colour is 
 very difficult to get rid of. 
 
 114. Borax is much better than soda for fine, 
 delicate things ; it is very much used by the French 
 laundresses, as it saves soap, and does not injure the 
 finest laces. It is used in the proportion of a hand- 
 ful to ten gallons of water. 
 
 115. Soap is made of caustic soda and fat: the latter 
 renders the soda less destructive, but does not take 
 away its power of loosening dirt. The best soap is by 
 far the cheapest to use, as the common kinds contain 
 a great deal of water, which makes the soap very 
 
96 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 soft, and causes it to dissolve very quickly when used. 
 It is most economical to buy soap in bars, and then 
 cut it up into small pieces to dry before use. 
 
 1 1 6. Washing preparations and powders are 
 very similar to soda in their action, some of them being 
 very cleansing, and even corrosive in their properties. 
 When used, the greatest care should be taken to rinse 
 the clothes thoroughly after washing, so as to remove 
 every portion, or the clothes will soon be weakened 
 by their action. 
 
 117. Chloride of lime is often used to remove 
 stains, but it must be employed with great caution, as 
 it is corrosive, and destroys all the colours of almost 
 all dyed fabrics. 
 
 1 1 8. The following practical directions on wash- 
 ing were furnished by an experienced laundress : 
 
 " Wash as often as convenient. Dirty clothes put 
 by for weeks are more difficult to clean the longer 
 they remain dirty; they acquire a permanent bad 
 colour, and in damp places are apt to become mil- 
 dewed and rotten. 
 
 " Remove all stains as soon as possible ; leave 
 nothing long enough to fix itself thoroughly to the 
 cloth ; wash out grease, gravy, and fruit-stains, &c., 
 before putting anything on one side. Fruit-stains 
 yield readily to bleachi ng-powder, especially if, after 
 being put on, it is moistened with a drop of some 
 acid, as vinegar or lemon ; but neither acids nor 
 bleaching-powder should be used to coloured things. 
 Inkstains should never be put into soapy or soda 
 water or lye, as they directly become iron-moulds ; 
 but should be instantly wetted with clean water, and 
 may be at once removed by the application of a little 
 
CH. xvi.] CLEANING, WASHING, <Srv. 97 
 
 salt of lemon, or oxalic acid, which should be washed 
 out immediately. 
 
 " After making starch, cover it with a plate until 
 required for use ; otherwise it forms a useless skin on 
 the top. To prevent starch sticking to the irons, 
 the addition of a small piece of solid paraffin, as the 
 end of a paraffin-candle, will be found more cleanly 
 and efficacious than tallow. 
 
 " When water has once been made to boil, the fire in 
 the copper or grate may be very much lessened, as but 
 little heat is required to keep it at the boiling point. 
 There is no advantage whatever in making water boil 
 furiously, for it is not in the slightest degree hotter 
 than when merely simmering, as all the extra heat 
 given to boiling water goes off in the steam, without 
 raising the heat in the slightest degree. 
 
 " The shrinking and discoloring of woollen articles 
 may be in great part prevented by care in washing 
 them. They should never be washed in hard water, 
 nor in water softened by soda, nor should they be 
 rubbed with soap. The fibres of wool are covered 
 with little points, all directed one way; as the woollen 
 is rubbed, these become tangled together, and form a 
 kind of thick felt, by which means the article is shrunk 
 and thickened. For the same reason it is not desir- 
 able to wring woollen things. Before washing, they 
 should be well brushed and shaken, to get rid of the 
 dust ; rain, or soft river, water should have a strong 
 lather made in it with soap, or, if the things are very 
 greasy, ox-gall may be added, in the proportion of 
 half-a-pint to six quarts of water ; then boiling water 
 should be added to the lather, to make it as hot as it 
 is possible to bear the hand in, and thediry_^x)llen 
 
 TFG. 
 
98 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 should be put in, and dipped and raised repeatedly for 
 several minutes. It should then be squeezed (not 
 wrung) as dry as possible from the dirty, slimy liquor, 
 and the process, if necessary, repeated with some 
 clean lather. If the article is not very dirty, and 
 becomes quite clean in the first washing, the second 
 washing may be in hot water only, without soap ; and 
 in either case, a blue bag should be used in the last 
 water. When gall has been used, a third water is 
 necessary to take off the smell. When the article is 
 finished, it should be squeezed as dry as it can be, 
 and dried as quickly as possible in the open air, if the 
 weather is fine." 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 119. PROPER clothing is necessary to health, for 
 when the skin is cold, and we feel chilly, the blood is 
 sent to the internal organs of the body in increased 
 quantity, and the perspiration and proper action of 
 the skin being checked, ill-health is always caused ; 
 sometimes more serious results occur, and colds, and 
 even other more dangerous diseases, are produced, 
 f 120. All persons should be clothed so as to feel 
 warm and comfortable in cold weather; no person 
 who always feels chilly can ever be in good health. 
 
 "The clothes should be loose, so as not to impede 
 muscular movement, and in the case of young girls 
 nothing should be done to support the spine by stays 
 or other contrivances. To make a girl tightly brace 
 herself with stays is a great mistake. Her ribs should 
 have the fullest play, and her clothes should be as 
 loose as those of a boy, and for the same reason, viz., 
 that every muscle may have unrestricted play, and 
 that the lungs may expand without impediment. For 
 both sexes girdles and belts, which especially bind 
 the lower ribs, should be avoided." 1 
 
 1 Dr. Parkes. 
 
 D 2 
 
ioo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 121. Keeping the feet dry and warm is exceedingly 
 necessary for all those persons predisposed to cold, 
 or whose constitutions are delicate ; wearing worsted 
 stockings in winter is, in such cases, particularly 
 desirable. 
 
 122. Cotton, being warmer and cheaper than linen, 
 is generally employed for under-clothes. Woollen 
 under-garments are, in this climate, essential to health 
 in cold weather : the warmth obtained by wearing 
 flannel next the body keeps up an action of the skin 
 very beneficial to health. Sailors, and all persons 
 much exposed to wet and cold, know the use of 
 wearing flannel next the skin. For delicate children 
 its use is extremely important ; the old practice of 
 trying to make children hardy by exposure to cold 
 when scantily dressed is very wrong; many weakly 
 ones die under the process. 
 
 123. Shoes, as generally made, are very faulty; 
 naturally the broadest part of the foot is towards the 
 front, and the great toe is in a straight line with the 
 inner side, as shown in the first figure in accom- 
 panying engraving. The boots and shoes are usually 
 pointed at the front, forcing the toes together, and 
 producing the deformity shown in the second figure ; 
 so general is this practice, that a natural-shaped foot 
 is never seen in any adult who has worn shoes. Corns 
 and bunions are the result of the constant pressure, 
 and the power of easy walking is greatly interfered 
 with. 
 
 The sole of the shoe should always be made with 
 the inner side straight, and not pointed, so as to 
 force the great toe over the adjoining toes. Shoes 
 of this form are now in very general use with the 
 
CH. xvn.] CLOTHING. 101 
 
 richer classes. The shoes of the labouring classes 
 are unfortunately made in large numbers on lasts of 
 the old pointed shape, and it will probably be some 
 years before the right form of shoe reaches the working 
 classes of this country. The high heels which are 
 now used by some women are excessively injurious ; 
 the weight of the body is thrown forward on the toes, 
 which are tightly thrust into the fore part of the shoe, 
 and the foolish wearers are crippled. 
 
 In taking the measure of the foot, the person should 
 stand on a sheet of paper, and have a line drawn 
 
 Sole of Natural Foot. Sole of Foot deformed 
 by Tight Shoes. 
 
 round the foot with a pencil ; the shoe should then 
 be made to fit the foot, instead of endeavouring to fit 
 the foot to the shoe. Children, from the soft state of 
 their bones, have their feet and toes quickly deformed 
 by tight, narrow shoes a defect which lasts through 
 life, producing, to a greater or less degree, lameness, 
 and consequently inability to take active or long-con- 
 tinued walking exercise. 
 
 124. The wooden-soled clogs used in the manu- 
 facturing districts keep the feet perfectly dry an<2 
 
102 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT AND COOKERY. 
 
 warm in winter, and are exceedingly cheap and durable, 
 a pair costing from 3^. to 3^. 6</., lasting on the average 
 twelve months ; they are very easy and comfortable 
 to walk in ; for out-door labour in wet weather they 
 far surpass the ordinary shoes in dryness, comfort, 
 and durability ; the greatest objection against their use 
 arises from the noise they cause on stone or wood. 
 Unfortunately, like the boots of the working classes, 
 they are generally made pointed at the toes, and so 
 force the great toe over the others. 
 .- 125. For boots and shoes exposed to wet the 
 following composition is recommended : 
 
 " Linseed oil, one gill ; spirit of turpentine, one 
 ounce; beeswax, one ounce; Burgundy pitch, half- 
 an-ounce : to be melted together, and rubbed into 
 the leather when quite dry, before the fire or in the 
 hot sun." This composition will be found very 
 effectual in preserving the leather from both rain and 
 sea- water. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The following Notes of a course of Twenty Lessons have 
 been prepared by one of the teachers of THE NATIONAL 
 TRAINING SCHOOL OF COOKERY, South Kensington. 
 They are based on the principles taught in that In- 
 stitution, and were expressly arranged for the use 
 of teachers in the Schools established^ THE SCHOOL 
 BOARD OF LONDON. 
 
 FIRST LESSON. 
 
 LIGHTING A FIRE, MILK AND EGGS, CHILDREN'S 
 FOOD. 
 
 To Light a Fire. In a close stove the first thing is to empty 
 the fireplace. Take out the larger cinders and half-burnt coal 
 with your fingers, and lay them on one side for lighting the fire ; 
 then rake out all the ashes (this can be done with the lids on, 
 then it will not make so much dust). Next take off all the lids, 
 and sweep all the soot carefully out ; once or twice a week the 
 Hue pipe must be taken off and cleared out ; also the flues under 
 the oven. The soot should be carried away at once, as it blows 
 about. Then black-lead the stove ; put in a few cinders, lay on 
 them a piece of paper and a few sticks crossing one another, on 
 these lay very lightly some pieces of half-burnt coal and a few 
 cinders, leaving space for draught. Do not fill the grate full, put 
 the lids on, draw out the damper, light the fire, and shut the 
 front door. An open fire is lighted in much the same way. 
 There are no flues to clean out ; but the chimney as high as one 
 can reach, and behind the register door, should be cleared from 
 soot daily. Having lighted the fire, clean the fire-irons, carry 
 away the small cinders and dust to be sifted, and wash the 
 hearth. 
 
I0 4 APPENDIX. 
 
 To Make Tea and Coffee. Rinse the kettle and fill it from the 
 tap (not the boiler). When it boils make your tea and coffee. 
 Warm the teapot : allow one teaspoonful to each person and 
 one for the pot. After filling the teapot, let it stand five 
 minutes. Broken-leaf good tea is better than cheap tea ; it does 
 not take so much of it to make a good cup of tea. Warm your 
 coffeepot. One ounce or one tablespoonful of ground coffee will 
 make a pint. Pour on it one and a quarter pint of boiling water ; 
 let it stand five minutes ; clear by pouring in a little cold water and 
 letting it stand a few minutes. This coffee could have a little 
 more water added after the first pint had been poured off for 
 the children. Neither tea nor coffee is good if made with 
 water that has remained in the kettle for many hours. 
 
 To Boil an Egg. Put it gently into a saucepan full of boiling 
 water (and don't let it boil hard) for three minutes. 
 
 To Poach Eggs. Break the eggs one by one into a good- 
 sized saucepan of boiling water, with a teaspoonful of salt in it. 
 Draw the saucepan to the side of the fire and let them be in four 
 minutes. Take them out with a slice. 
 
 To Beat up an Egg for an Invalid. Choose a fresh one ; break 
 it into a cup and beat it lightly two minutes with a fork. Raw 
 eggs are considered more digestible with a spoonful of water or 
 milk added to them. Wine is frequently used. 
 
 Thick Milk. To one pint of milk stir one tablespoonful of 
 flour and a pinch of salt ; boil over the fire for ten minutes, 
 stirring all the time. An excellent breakfast for children. 
 
 Infants' Food. Flour baked in a slow oven till of a light 
 fawn, or put in a basin tied over with a cloth and boiled six 
 hours. Crush the lumps, mix smooth with cold water, and boil 
 three minutes. Add milk and sugar, Pap made with bread, being 
 fermented, is apt to turn sour, and that made from biscuits is 
 objectionable from the butter in them. 
 
 Teacup Puddings. One dessertspoonful of corn- flour, half pint 
 of milk, six lumps of sugar, a few grains of salt ; stir these on the 
 fire to boil five minutes, add one egg, beat up until well mixed ; 
 pour this into a buttered cup, and boil twenty-five minutes. 
 
 Milk Porridge. Put on one pint of skim-milk to boil, mix 
 one tablespoonful of oatmeal with two of milk very smoothly. 
 When the milk boils, pour it in and stir over the fire for ten 
 minutes. 
 
 Batter Pudding. Beat up an egg with one tablespoonful of 
 flour and a grain of salt, add by degrees a cupful of milk, 
 stirring vigorously. Boil half an hour in a greased cup. 
 
APPENDIX. 105 
 
 Rice Milk. Put half a pint of milk on to boil, take from it two 
 tablespoonfuls to mix smooth with one dessertspoonful of ground 
 rice. Pour this into the boiling milk and stir over the fire ten 
 minutes. N.B. It is most essential that all farinaceous foods 
 should absolutely boil in the milk or water. Starchy foods 
 should never be given to children made with water alone, as they 
 are not nutritive without the albumenoid principles the milk 
 contains. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : 6 eggs, 2 qts. of milk, 2 ozs. 
 of lump sugar, 2 oz. of moist ditto, 2 oz. of corn-flour, \ oz. 
 of ground rice, \ oz. of salt, I Ib. of flour, ^ oz. of tea, I oz. of 
 coffee, I oz. of oatmeal, |oz. of butter. 
 
 SECOND LESSON. 
 
 ROASTING, AND THE PUDDINGS EATEN WITH 
 ROAST MEAT. 
 
 To Roast a Joint. Have a clear fire and the stove and hearth 
 well swept up so that there is no occasion to make a dust while 
 the meat is down. Allow a quarter of an hour to each pound of 
 meat, and one quarter of an hour over. White meats, such 
 as pork and veal and very thick joints, want a little longer. Put 
 the meat close to the fire for five minutes, then draw it further 
 away. This is to close up the pores of the meat and keep the 
 gravy in. Baste it frequently ; see that it does not burn. If in 
 a Dutch oven turn it from time to time, so that it is equally done. 
 Some roast meats are stuffed. 
 
 Stuffing. Veal, heart, rabbit, and chicken, are stuffed with 
 the following : One tablespoonful of bread crumbs, one of 
 chopped suet, half of chopped parsley, one teaspoonful of lemon- 
 thyme and marjoram, a little pepper and salt, mixed together 
 with an egg or a little milk. Pork, geese, and ducks are stuffed 
 with sage and onions as follows : Boil two onions half an hour, 
 lay a thick slice of bread in the water five minutes, drain them 
 very dry, chop them finely with a teaspoonful of chopped sage 
 leaves, pepper and salt to taste. 
 
 To Make Gravy for Roast Meat. Take any bones, scraps of 
 cold meat, or trimmings of the joint, put them in a half pint of 
 water with a little salt and half an onion, let them stew all the 
 time the meat is roasting : colour with a little burnt sugar. When 
 the meat is done pour the dripping from it carefully into a basin, 
 leaving the gravy at the bottom of the tin ; strain the gravy you 
 have made to this, let it boil, and pour round (not over) the 
 
106 APPENDIX. 
 
 meat. If the gravy is liked thick put a dessertspoonful of flour, 
 mixed into a smooth paste with two of cold water into the sauce- 
 pan five minutes before you strain it. 
 
 To Roast a Heart in a Stewpan. Clean and trim off the deaf 
 ears, and soak in warm water to draw out the blood. Stuff it 
 with veal stuffing, fasten it up, put it in a stewpan with two 
 ounces of dripping over a very slow fire, or on a hot plate, baste 
 frequently and turn over occasionally. A bullock's heart takes 
 two hours, and a calf's heart one hour. Make a gravy 
 trimmings ; a quarter of an hour before serving pour a 1 : y the 
 fat from the heart and pour the gravy in. 
 
 Yorkshire Pudding. To every quarter of a pound of flottl 
 allow one egg and half a pint of milk. Break the egg into the iiour 
 and mix quite smoothly with a little of the milk ; beat it well, let 
 there be no lumps in it ; add the remainder of the milk by 
 degrees ; put the pudding tin under the meat to catch some drip- 
 ping, then pour in the pudding and bake half an hour. 
 
 Suet Pudding. Chop fine half a pound of suet, mix it with one 
 pound of flour, one teaspoonful of baking powder, and a pinch of 
 salt ; make it into a stiff dough with cold water or milk. Dip a 
 pudding cloth in boiling water, dredge well with flour, put in 
 the pudding, tie it securely, but leave it room to swell. Boil in 
 plenty of water one hour and a half. Or grease a pint and a 
 half basin and put it in, tie a clolh over and boil two hours. 
 
 Norfolk Dumplings. Mix half a pound of flour with half a 
 teaspoonful of baking powder and a pinch of salt, make into a 
 light dough with cold water ; form into small balls, put them 
 into boiling water immediately, and boil for twenty minutes. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : A joint, I heart, IO oz. of 
 suet, ^qtn. of flour, ^ pint of milk, 2 eggs, baking powder, a 
 small bunch of herbs, two sprigs of parsley, pepper, salt, and 
 bread. 
 
 THIRD LESSON. 
 
 BOILING. 
 
 To Boil Meat. To keep all the goodness in the meat it is 
 essential to put it into boiling water sufficient to cover it, to draw 
 the saucepan or pot to the side of the fire, and let it simmer 
 gently all the time it is cooking. When you boil meat to get the 
 goodness out, as in soups and broths, it is put into cold water and 
 very gradually brought to the boil. Allow a quarter of an hour 
 to each pound and a quarter of an hour over, for beef and 
 
APPENDIX. 107 
 
 mutton ; veal and pork want twenty minutes to the pound. 
 Boiled meats are not stuffed. Vegetables that are eaten with 
 boiled meats are generally boiled with them ; this is a good plan, 
 as both are improved ; but cabbage must always be excepted as 
 it gives a strong flavour to anything boiled with it. The liquor 
 in which meat has been boiled should never be thrown away as it 
 can be made into many nice soups. Sauces or gravies of boiled 
 meat are always poured over them. Boil salt beef with carrots 
 and turnips. The carrot cut in four takes one hour to boil, 
 and the turnip half an hour. Always keep the saucepan in 
 which meat is boiling well skimmed. 
 
 Rabbit and Pickled Pork. Ostend rabbits are cheaper than 
 English ones. They come over skinned and cleaned. Eng- 
 lish rabbits require skinning and paunching. Wash the rabbit 
 well in cold water, cut off the legs at the first joint, clear 
 out all the blood from the head and neck, truss it into a proper 
 shape, put it into boiling water, and let it boil gently for 
 one hour, if a large one ; forty minutes will cook a small one. 
 Pickled pork to eat with rabbit is boiled in the same saucepan. 
 A thin piece of four pounds will be done in an hour, but a leg 
 of pork weighing eight pounds will take three hours. Wash it 
 and scrape it and put into the boiling water with the skin upper- 
 most. Keep it well skimmed. Pease pudding is generally served 
 with boiled pork, or in summer-time beans. Boiled rabbit is 
 served with parsley and butter or onion sauce. 
 
 Tripe. Wash it clean and put it on to boil in plenty of water 
 with four or six onions. Boil one hour and a half, strain off all 
 the liquor, mash the onions, pour in a cupful of milk thickened 
 with a dessertspoonful of flour, pepper and salt to taste, and a 
 piece of butter the size of a nut ; mix all well together and boil . 
 ten minutes. 
 
 Cow-heel. Get a ready-dressed cow-heel, put it on in a pint 
 and a half of milk with an onion in it ; let it boil till the bones 
 will slip out. The milk strained and sweetened is very nourishing 
 hot or cold for children. The heel is eaten with a little parsley 
 and butter made as follows : Put half an ounce of butter into 
 a little saucepan to melt, stir smoothly into it a quarter of an 
 ounce of flour, pour into it by degrees a quarter of a pint of the 
 liquor in which the meat was boiled (or plain water), stir till 
 it boils, move it to the side of the fire, chop a teaspoonful of 
 parsley, washed and dried, stir into it, and serve directly. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Meat, rabbit, 2 Ibs. of pickled 
 pork, I Ib. of tripe, a cow-heel, carrot and turnip, butter, floui, 
 milk, parsley, onions. 
 
io8 APPENDIX. 
 
 FOURTH LESSON. 
 SOUPS AND BROTHS. 
 
 Soups can be made of anything that is eatable ; the most 
 sinewy pieces of meat, the heads, tails, and feet of anii 
 which contain much gelatine make good soup. So do bones, 
 and vegetables alone make very good soup. If you have any 
 pot liquor, in which meat, or even suet puddings, or carrots and 
 turnips, not greens ; have been boiled, use it instead of water to 
 make your soup. In making soups three things are specially to 
 be borne in mind. 1st. The scum must be taken off before it 
 boils, or it will boil down and thicken the soup. And all the __ t 
 should be taken off. 2nd. Simmer very softly ; if soup boils 
 rapidly it spoils. 3rd. Never let soup get cold in the saucepan, 
 turn it out into an uncovered shallow pan. 
 
 Bone Soup. Take three pounds of bones, cooked or un- 
 cooked, pieces of meat, or scraps or trimmings. Fry the pieces 
 of meat with an onion in dripping till brown, put them on with 
 four pints of water ; when near boiling throw in a dessert- 
 spoonful of salt to raise the scum, skim it well. When it boils 
 put in two carrots, two turnips, one parsnip, a bunch of herbs, 
 and two or three sticks of celery, a blade of mace, and fifteen 
 peppercorns. Let it simmer gently two hours. Strain it, and 
 return to the saucepan with the vegetables cut in slices, and 
 thicken it with corn-flour, or common flour, one dessertspoonful 
 to a pint. Colour, if liked, with burnt sugar. 
 
 Ox-tail. Cut the tails in joints, flour them, and fry brown in 
 a little dripping, with half an oniort cut in rings. Pour off the 
 dripping and put in four pints of cold water, two carrots, two 
 turnips, half a head of celery, all neatly cut. When near boiling 
 add half a teaspoonful of salt, skim well, put in a bunch of 
 herbs and ten peppercorns. Let it simmer four hours, thicken 
 with two tablespoonfuls of flour. 
 
 Leg of Beef Soup. Take four or five pounds of, leg of beef, 
 cut off the meat, break the bone and take out the marrow, fry 
 the meat in it a light brown, with two onions, one turnip, one 
 carrot, half a head of celery, all cut up, put in six pints of water 
 and let it boil, throw in a dessertspoonful of salt, skim, and let 
 it boil fifteen minutes ; then put in a bunch of herbs, ten pepper- 
 corns, and ten allspice berries. Let it simmer slowly five 
 hours. This soup is clear, so is not thickened. 
 
 Carrot, Onion, and Potato Soups. Boil six carrots, two or 
 three large onions, and three ounces of dripping, with a bunch of 
 herbs, a leaf of celery, half a parsnip, and a turnip in four quarts 
 
APPENDIX. 109 
 
 of water or pot liquor an hour and a half. Take out the carrots, 
 pass them through a colander, strain the soup to them, season to 
 taste, boil five minutes and serve. Onion soup is made the same 
 way, only reversing the proportions of onions and carrots. For 
 potato soup, which is very good, the potatoes are boiled or 
 steamed separately, then mashed and added to the strained soup ; 
 four pounds would be required for four quarts of soup. All 
 vegetable soups are best eaten the day they are made. 
 
 Haricot Puree. Soak one pint of beans all night, boil them 
 four hours in two quarts of water, with an onion sliced, pass them 
 through a sieve or colander, season to taste, add one pint of milk, 
 let it boil five minutes and serve. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : I oxtail, 4 or 5 Ibs. of leg 
 of beef, 4 Ibs. of bones, 12 onions, I bunch of carrots, \ of 
 turnips, 2 parsnips, herbs, head of celery, 4 Ibs. of potatoes, 
 I pt. ot haricots, \ pound of flour, J of an oz, each of peppereorns, 
 mace, and allspice, J Ib. of dripping, I pt. of milk, pepper 
 and salt. 
 
 FIFTH LESSON. 
 
 STEWS. 
 
 Stews are at once the simplest and most economical of all ways 
 of cooking, for whatever goodness is taken out of the meat in the 
 cooking we get in the gravy, and the most inferior parts of meat, 
 properly stewed, are palatable and nourishing. Stews can be 
 made hither in saucepans or stone jars, cooked on the hob or in 
 the oven ; in the latter case the vegetables are put in with the 
 meat in the cold water ; in the former they are added when it 
 comes to the boil, never between the two points. They are 
 flavoured with carrots, onions, herbs, &.c.^ and thickened with 
 rice, barley, r sago, flour, and potatoes. Stews must only simmer ; 
 they are spoilt by boiling. 
 
 Beef a la Mode. An ox-cheek, a cow-heel, six onions, three 
 carrots, one ounce of dripping, flour, pepper and salt. Cut the 
 cheek up, flour the pieces well, and put them with the dripping 
 into a saucepan to brown ; cut up the vegetables and the cow- 
 heel and put into the saucepan with cold water, one pint to a 
 pound, season to taste, cover close, and let it simmer for three 
 hours. Thicken the gravy with two tablespoonfuls of flour 
 mixed with one of ketchup and one of water into a smooth paste. 
 
 Brazilian Stew. This stew is made by dipping inferior parts 
 of beef or mutton into vinegar which has the power of soften- 
 ing the fibres and making them tender. Take four pounds of 
 shin of beef, clod, or sticking piece, cut it into small pieces. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 dip each piece into vinegar, put them with four onions, two 
 carrots, two turnips, pepper and salt into a saucepan, without any 
 water, and let it simmer very gently three or four hours. 
 
 Giblets. Wash and pick two sets of chicken's or cluck's gib- 
 lets, scald the wings, heads, and feet to get the feathers off and 
 the skin and claws off the feet, roll them in flour ; put the gizzards 
 on first in half a pint of water with an oniun, six peppercorns, 
 and a little salt ; when they have stewed an hour put in the rest 
 of the giblets, with one pint more water and a bunch of herbs : 
 let them stew another hour. 
 
 Mutton Haricot. Cut the neck or scrag of mutton into chops, 
 fry them in a little dripping with one onion cut in thin slices, 
 pour off the dripping, and put in one pint of water thickened 
 with a tablespoonful of flour, one carrot, and one turnip cut in 
 slices, cover close and let it stew one hour. 
 
 Ragout of Rabbit. Wash and clean a good-sized Ostend 
 rabbit ; boil the liver and heart, chop them and mix with veal 
 stuffing, fill the rabbit, sew it up, and tie it into shape. Put a 
 piece of fat beef and one pound of bacon, cut in slices, into a 
 saucepan with one ounce of dripping, put in the rabbit to brown, 
 turning it over to brown both sides, pour off the dripping, and 
 put in one quart of water. Let it simmer gently an hour and a 
 half. A quarter of an hour before serving skin off all the fat 
 and thick en the gravy with a little corn-flour ; season with pepper 
 and salt, and, if liked, stew a bunch of herbs and half an onion 
 with it. Lay the rabbit on a dish, with the bacon round it, and 
 pour the gravy over. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Ox-cheek, cow-heel, shin of 
 beef, neck of mutton, rabbit, herbs, parsley, vinegar, dripping, 
 flour, ketchup, bacon, giblets, onions, carrots, and turnips. 
 
 SIXTH LESSON. 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 Baking is not the most economical way of cooking joints of 
 meat ; but as it requires very little attention, and is very savoury, 
 it is a favourite mode with many people. The best way of 
 baking meat, is enclosing it in crust, it makes a little meat go a 
 long way. 
 
 Baked Pork. We cut the rind of the pork through with a 
 sharp knife at regular distances ; stuff it with sage and onions, 
 and put it in a dish in the oven. Potatoes or batter pudding, 
 are better baked under any other meat than pork. Turn it 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 about in the oven that every part gets equally baked, and allow 
 twenty minutes to the one pound for pork, and fifteen for beef or 
 mutton. Baste frequently, and when it is done, put it on a hot 
 dish ; and pour all the dripping out of the baking dish and pour 
 a little boiling water, and stir it round to make gravy, which 
 pour round, not over the meat. Apple sauce is eaten with roast 
 pork. 
 
 Poor Man's Goose. Wash a pig's fry and dry it well in a cloth, 
 cut the liver and heart into slices ; flour it and lay it in a baking 
 dish, season it with pepper, salt, and a teaspoonful of chopped 
 sage leaves, and one onion chopped fine, pour in a gill of water, 
 cover it with the caul, and bake three-quarters of an hour in a 
 moderate oven. 
 
 Toad in the Hole. Six ounces of flour, one egg, one pint of 
 milk, a pinch of salt. Break the egg into the flour, stir in the 
 milk by degrees, so as not to get it lumpy. Lay your meat or 
 ox kidney cut in slices in a greased tin or pie-dish, pour the 
 baiter over and bake one hour to one and a quarter^ Batter is 
 better for standing before it is cooked. 
 
 Meat Pie. Make a crust of three quarters of a pound of 
 flour, three quarters of a teaspoonful of baking powder, and 
 quarter of a pound of dripping, with a pinch of salt. Rub the 
 dripping into the flour, mix in the baking powder and salt ; 
 make into a paste with one gill and a half of water, or enough 
 to make a stiff paste (this depends on the quality of the flour). . 
 Flour your board, rolling-pin, and hands ; roll your paste a 
 little larger than your pie-dish ; cut your meat in slices, lay it 
 in season with pepper and salt, fill two-thirds with water ; cut 
 a strip off your crust to lay on the edge of the dish, wet the 
 edges, lay your crust on, trim it neatly round, decorate with the 
 remains of the pastry, and bake one and a half hours. Two 
 pounds of meat will fill a quart dish. 
 
 Cornish Pasties. The crust the same as the last, or made 
 with suet in the same manner, rolled very thin, divided into 
 pieces about eight inches square. On each piece put one ounce 
 of meat and one ounce of potato seasoned, fold and pinch the 
 edges together, and bake on greased tins one hour. 
 
 Baked Apple-dumplings. Same crust as above ; peel six 
 apples and core them without dividing them, divide the crust 
 into six pieces, lay an apple on each, and work the crust over it 
 till the apple is covered without any cracks. Bake half an hour. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Pork, I Ib. of pig's fry, 3 
 Ibs. of meat, 4 Ib. of potatoes, I pt. of milk, I egg, I qtn. of 
 flour, 6 apples, I Ib. of suet or dripping. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 SEVENTH LESSON. 
 
 FRYING. 
 
 Frying is simply boiling in fat. It is not economical, but as 
 it is very expeditious, owing to the fat attaining a greater heat 
 than water, and so cooking anything put into it, in a very short 
 time, it is very useful, though it is very seldom properly 
 The great art in frying is to have the fat hot enough, ai 
 have the article fried immersed in the fat, if not the fried food is 
 always sodden and greasy. It is not wasteful to use a large 
 quantity of fat in frying, as the same fat will do over and over 
 again by occasionally melting it, and pouring it into cold water, 
 when the impurities sink to the bottom. When anything fried 
 is taken out of the fat it should be laid on whitey-brown paper 
 to drain for a few minutes. 
 
 Sausages. Sausages, should be pricked in two or three 
 places before they are put in the frying-pan, to prevent their 
 bursting. They are fried dry, as it is called, i.e. without being 
 plunged in boiling fat. Put an ounce of dripping into the 
 frying-pan, when it boils put in the sausages. Move them to 
 get brown all round. Seven minutes on a good fire will do 
 them. Serve on a piece of fried bread, or mashed potatoes. 
 
 Liver and Bacon. Wash your liver, but do not soak it. 
 Wipe it dry, cut it in thin slices, and flour each piece. Cut the 
 rind off the bacon, and cut it into thin rashers. Fry the bacon 
 first ; and put it on a hot dish before the fire while you fry the 
 liver in the fat, which came from the bacon. When the liver is 
 done lay it on the bacon ; mix a dessertspoonful of flour smooth 
 with a cup -full of water, add a pinch of pepper and salt, pour it 
 into the frying-pan, stir over the fire till it boils, and strain over 
 the liver and bacon. 
 
 Tripe. Tripe is cut into pieces about three inches square, and 
 dipped into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one table- 
 spoonful of oil, or one ounce of butter, half a pint of tepid 
 water. Mix the oil with the flour, add the water by degrees ; 
 whip the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir into the batter, 
 dip the tripe in, throw it into a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry 
 three or four minutes, take it out and drain. 
 
 Fritters. Are slices of meat, or fruit, or cake dipped in 
 batter and fried the same way. 
 
 Fried Potatoes. Cold potatoes cut in slices, or raw potatoes 
 cut in slices or ribbons, are fried by throwing them into boiling fat, 
 
APPENDIX. 113 
 
 Pancakes. Pancakes are made with four ounces of flour, 
 half a pint of milk, and one egg mixed smoothly. A piece of 
 lard or dripping the size of a nut is put into the pan for each 
 pancake. This quantity makes six. 
 
 Omelets. Omelets are made by beating up two eggs with a 
 dessertspoonful of sugar for sweet omelets, or for savoury with 
 chopped herbs, parsley, onion, or bacon ; put half an ounce of 
 butter into the pan, pour in the omelet, stir till set, and fold in 
 half. Omelet soufflee is made by beating the whites of the 
 eggs to a froth and mixing with the other ingredients. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : I Ib. of sausages, I lb. of 
 liver, I oz. of butter, \ lb. of bacon, \ lb. of tripe, I lb. of 
 fat, 2 apples, I potato, f lb. of flour, 8 eggs, J a pint of milk, 
 parsley. 
 
 EIGHTH LESSON. 
 
 BROILING. 
 
 Broiling is one of the most difficult ways of cooking meat. It 
 requires a clear fire, no smoky coals ; no fork should go into 
 the meat to let the juices out. Well broiled meats are very 
 easy of digestion. The bars of the gridiron should always be 
 rubbed with suet or fat, to prevent the meat sticking. When 
 the fire is not clear, broiling is often done in front of the fire, but 
 the flavour of meat broiled over the fire is superior. Broiling 
 is adapted for small slices of meat or fish ; when chickens are 
 broiled they are split in half. Fish is often broiled wrapped in 
 buttered paper. 
 
 Steak. A steak or a fillet from the leg of mutton should be 
 peppered on both sides, and broiled for five minutes on each 
 side. A warm plate should be ready for it, on which has been 
 mixed half an ounce of butter, one teaspoon ful of chopped 
 parsley, a little salt. This is called maitre d'hdtel butter. 
 
 Mutton Chop. A chop takes the same time ; this generally 
 has a teaspoonful of ketchup, and a piece of butter the size of a 
 nut, with a pinch of pepper and salt put on it when it is taken 
 from the gridiron. A chump chop is the most economical. 
 
 Kidney. Kidneys are split and skewered open, they require 
 thorough cooking ; bullock's kidney quarter of an hour ; a piece 
 of butter is laid on them when taken from the gridiron. 
 
1 14 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sprats. These should be washed and rubbed dry in a cloth, 
 a skewer should be run through the eyes of six or eight to 
 prevent their falling into the fire, and to enable you to turn them 
 all at once. Dried herrings are split down and opened flat, the 
 inside is broiled first, then the outside. 
 
 Veal Cutlet. Veal cutlet for broiling is cut into nice-shaped 
 pieces, a little butter is melted on a plate, pepper and salt is 
 ackled, each piece is dipped in, and then in bread crumbs (to 
 which some people add a little chopped parsley and herbs or 
 lemon rind). They require ten minutes over a good fire. When 
 they are dished, a squeeze of lemon over them is a great im- 
 provement. 
 
 Bacon. Bacon is best 'broiled or rather toasted in front of the 
 fire, the rashers should be thin, and the rind cut off. The fat 
 which drops from bacon should never be wasted. All broiled 
 meats should be eaten as soon as they are done ; off the grid- 
 iron on to the plate is the way to get them in perfection. 
 
 Mushrooms. The only vegetable broiled is the mushroom. 
 You must be very careful to get a wholesome one ; peel it care- 
 fully, grease the bars of the gridiron ; lay your mushroom on 
 with the stalk uppermost, do not turn it ; in seven minutes it 
 will be full of delicious ketchup, which you must be careful 
 not to spill in taking off. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson: I Ib. of steak, I chop, I 
 kidney, sprats or herring, I Ib. of veal cutlet, \ Ib. of bacon, 
 1 4 oz. of butter, I lemon, bread, parsley. 
 
 NINTH LESSON. 
 USING UP COLD MEAT. 
 
 It is an expensive meal to have a dinner of cold meat and 
 pickles. It is not so satisfying as a hot one ; in other words, our 
 bodies don't get the same amount of nourishment out of it. In 
 warming up cold meat, it should not be overheated as it does 
 not require to be cooked any more. 
 
 Hash. Hash is too often tough meat served up in greasy 
 gravy. Cut your meat all off the bones ; put them on with a 
 
 Eint of water for an hour or two, with an onion, half a cariot, 
 alf a turnip, and a bunch of herbs to make gravy. Roll your 
 slices of meat in flour, strain your gravy on to them, and let 
 them just come to the boil. Add a tablespoonful of ketchup, 
 or one or two pickled walnuts chopped up. 
 
APPENDIX. 115 
 
 Shepherd's Pie. Cut up any scraps of cold meat, season to 
 taste, sprinkle over a few fine herbs, put them in a pie-dish, pour 
 over a little water. Mash some potatoes with halt a gill of hot 
 milk, in which half an ounce of butter is melted. Cover your 
 pie with them, and bake half an hour. 
 
 Rissoles of Cold Meat. Two tablespoonsful of cold meat 
 chopped fine, one of suet, two of bread crumbs, half a tab^e- 
 spoonful of chopped parsley, and half of dried herbs, pepper 
 and salt to taste, half an egg. Mix all together, roll into balls, 
 egg and bread crumb, and fry a light brown. 
 
 Meat Patties. Three quarters of a pound of flour, a quarter 
 of a pound of dripping, one teaspoonful of baking powder. 
 Mix into a stiff paste. Roll out a quarter of an inch thick. 
 Grease your patty-pans, line with paste ; put in cold meat cut 
 up neatly, seasoned with pepper and salt, and herbs, cover with 
 crust, trim the edges neatly round, and bake half an hour. 
 
 Goblet Pie. Scraps of cold meat two ounces, apples chopped 
 two ounces, suet two ounces, raisins two ounces, currants two 
 ounces, sugar two ounces. Mix, put into a pie dish, and cover 
 with a crust made as above. 
 
 Curry. Fry an onion, cut in slices, and an apple finely 
 chopped, in two ounces of dripping, mix a dessertspoonful of 
 curry powder and one of flour in half a pint of water ; stir it 
 over the fire with the onions, etc. , till it boils. Strain it. Put back 
 in the saucepan with some slices of cold meat and a little salt 
 till the meat is thoroughly warm. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Cold meat, carrot, onions, 
 turnip, herbs, parsley, I Ib. of potatoes, \ Ib. of dripping, j Ib. 
 of suet, bread, 3 apples, I Jib. of flour, curry powder, I oz. of 
 butter, i egg, 2 oz. of raisins, 2 oz. of currants, 2 oz. of moist 
 sugar, and ^ oz. of curry powder. 
 
 TENTH LESSON. 
 AUSTRALIAN MEAT. 
 
 Australian meat being already overcooked in the process of pre- 
 serving, great care must be taken to cook it as little as possible. 
 
 Meat Pie. Make a crust of three-quarters of a pound of flour, 
 and one quarter of a pound of dripping, and three-quarters of a 
 teaspoonful of baking powder. For a quart dish, take two 
 pounds of Australian meat, or a pound and a half of meat and 
 half a pound of kidneys. Season to taste, pour in a little water, 
 
n6 APPENDIX. 
 
 cover, and bake half an hour. This can be made into a pudding 
 in a quart basin. 
 
 Brown Stew. Fry a little chopped onion in one ounce of 
 dripping, stir in half an ounce of flour, and mix smoothly with 
 half a pint of water. Lay in one pound of Australian meat cut 
 in slices, and a teaspoonful of chopped herbs. Let it warm 
 through, and serve. 
 
 Mince Meat with Mashed Potato. Take one and a half pound 
 of potatoes boiled and mashed with half a gill of milk, with half an 
 ounce of butter melted in. Build a wall round the dish. Mince 
 half a pound of Australian meat very fine, warm it up in a 
 saucepan with a tablespoonful of ketchup or gravy, and a piece 
 of butter the size of a nut, season to taste, and put it in the 
 middle. 
 
 Irish Stew.- Boil one pound of potatoes and four good-sized 
 onions half an hour, drain off the water, and mash them. Lay 
 in slices of Australian meat seasoned to taste, and let it simmer 
 fifteen minutes. Mind it does not burn. 
 
 Rissoles of Australian Meat. Make a crust of half a pound 
 of flour, half a teaspoonful of baking powder, and a quarter of 
 a pound of dripping, with sufficient water to make a stiff paste. 
 Roll it thin, cut it into rounds the size of a breakfast cup, lay a 
 little minced meat well seasoned on each, fold the edges together, 
 pinch them to make them stick, egg and bread crumb, and fry 
 in hot fat. 
 
 Mulligatawny Soup. Pour over two pounds of Australian 
 meat two quarts of warm water. Fry a carrot, a turnip, two 
 onions and two apples in a little fat, pour over them half a pint 
 of the liquor from the meat, boil till reduced to one gill. Make 
 a paste of one tablespoonful of, curry powder, two of flour, and 
 a little water, stir in, add a spoonful of salt and half of sugar, 
 the meat, and the liquor. Let it simmer two hours, strain, and 
 put into it a two-pound tin of calf s head. In opening a tin of 
 Australian meat, only remove the fat from the part you are 
 going to use. The, fat put into boiling water to clarify it is very 
 good for pie-crusts. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : 6 Ib. tin of Australian meat, 
 2j Ib. of potatoes, 6 onions, \ Ib. of dripping, baking powder, 
 I oz. of butter, \ gill of milk, \\ Ib. of flour, carrot, turnip, 
 apples, curry powder, calf's head, I Ib. of fat for frying. 
 
APPENDIX. 117 
 
 ELEVENTH LESSON. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Boiling fish is by no means so savoury or so satisfying as any 
 other way of cooking it ; but it is generally adopted for cod, 
 brill, and salmon. Very oily fish, such as salmon, mackerel, 
 eels, are also frequently boiled. Salt cod is always boiled ; but 
 as the goodness is nearly all taken out in the salting and the 
 soaking, salt cod is by no means a cheap food, even if it costs 
 very little money. Fish should be put into boiling water suf- 
 ficient to cover it, the saucepan should then be moved to the side 
 of the fire and kept just below boiling point until the fish is 
 done, which is shown by its leaving the bone, and the fins or 
 tail pulling out easily. 
 
 To Bake a Haddock. Clean it carefully, scrape the scales 
 off, and stuff it with half a tablespoonful of chopped parsley, one 
 quarter of herbs, and one tablespoonful of bread crumbs worked 
 together with a bit of butter, and seasoned to taste. Sew up the 
 fish. Rub it over with a little melted butter or dripping, roll it 
 in bread crumbs, lay on a greased tin, and bake from half to 
 three quarters of an hour. Any fish can be done the same way, 
 proportioning the quantity of stuffing and the time of cooking 
 to the size of the fish. 
 
 Fried Fish. Large fish when fried are cut in fillets, small 
 fish are fried whole. Fish is either egged and rolled in bread 
 crumbs, or dipped in batter made of flour and water, before it is 
 fried. 
 
 Grilled Fish. Mackerel, herring, pilchards, and dried salmon 
 are generally grilled. The gridiron bars must be greased, and 
 the fish peppered before it is put on. When it is done, a 
 little salt and, if liked, a small piece of butter is put on. Fish 
 is very delicate wrapped in greased writing paper to broil. 
 
 Potted Fish. Cut fresh herrings or mackerel in thick pieces, 
 pack them in a stone jar with plenty of peppercorns, a blade of 
 mace, a shallot, a pinch of salt, a bay leaf, a gill of vinegar. 
 Tie the lid down, and let them cook several hours in a very slow 
 oven. They are well cooked if left in a baker's oven all night. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Mackerel, haddock, plaice, 
 herrings, cod, id. of bread, herbs and bay leaf, parsley, 4 oz - of 
 butter, 2 oz, of dripping, I gill of vinegar, spices, I Ib. of fat for 
 frying. 
 
Ii8 APPENDIX. 
 
 TWELFTH LESSON. 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Potatoes. How to cook a potato. Potatoes vary very 
 greatly in quality. Some potatoes are best boiled, and some 
 steamed ; some do best cooked in their skins, and some require 
 peeling first ; some cook in twenty minutes, some in thirty ; 
 some will only bake. As a general rule, it is more economical 
 to boil potatoes in their skins ; but they must be boiled gently, 
 and the water strained off directly they are done, for if they 
 break in the water there is great waste. The skins must be care- 
 fully scrubbed quite clean before they are boiled. When potatoes 
 are very old they acquire an unpleasant taste if boiled in their 
 skins. Potatoes must never boil hard. Potatoes are best put into 
 cold water with plenty of salt in. New potatoes are put into 
 boiling water ; they take longer to boil than old potatoes. 
 Potatoes take longer to steam than to boil. They take about 
 an hour to bake. To see if they are done run a fork in. 
 
 Greens, Savoys, and Cabbages must be boiled in plenty of 
 water, with a tablespoonful of salt to every half-gallon. They 
 must be kept well stirred down, and if boiled with the lid off 
 will want no soda to keep them green, unless the water is very 
 hard. The time required to cook them depends upon their age. 
 The stalk should be split up, so that it gets done as soon as the 
 green part. 
 
 Peas want plenty of water with salt in ; soda makes their 
 outer skin crack. They take from fifteen to thirty minutes. 
 
 French Beans are split or sliced, and, if old, strung before 
 boiling. Boil with the lid off. 
 
 Carrots, Turnips, Parsnips and Spanish Onions. Carrots 
 are scraped, turnips peeled thickly to get below the woody fibre, 
 parsnips peeled thin or scraped. These roots are generally 
 boiled with meat. If boiled alone, put two ounces of salt to 
 a gallon of water. When put into boiling water, parsnips, 
 onions, and carrots take over an hour, turnips half an hour. 
 Turnips are generally mashed. 
 
 Spinach wants well washing, and then it is packed closely into 
 a saucepan and boiled in its own juices. When tender, it is 
 squeezed dry, chopped fine, returned to the saucepan, and 
 warmed up with a little piece of butter. 
 
 Cauliflower must be soaked in salt and water to get out cater- 
 pillars, &c. Put it into boiling water, and boil from twenty to 
 thirty minutes. Melted butter is generally eaten witk it. 
 
APPENDIX. 119 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Cauliflower, 2 Ibs. of pota- 
 toes, greens or cabbage, peas, beans, 2 oz. of butter, I Ib. 
 of spinach, 2 carrots, 2 turnips, 2 parsnips, 2 Spanish onions, 
 \ Ib. of salt. 
 
 THIRTEENTH LESSON.- 
 PIES AND BAKED PUDDINGS. 
 
 Fruit Pie. Pie-crust is made either short or flaky according 
 to the way the fat, whether it be butter, lard, suet, or dripping, 
 is put into the flour. For short crust, it is rubbed into the flour 
 before the flour is wetted ; for flaky, it is rolled in afterwards. 
 Short crust is the easiest for beginners. Take half a pound 
 of flour, mix with it half a teaspoonful of baking powder, and 
 rub lightly into it a quarter of a pound of butter, or dripping, 
 or lard. (Suet crust is better for boiling ; but is not good to eat 
 cold. ) Wet it with sufficient cold water to make a stiff paste ; 
 the quantity required depends on the quality of the flour. Roll 
 it out two inches larger than the pie-dish it is to cover, fill the 
 dish with fruit, put four tablespoonfuls of moist sugar to a quart 
 of fruit. For dry fruit, as apples, and plums, and green goose- 
 berries, put in half a gill of water ; juicy fruit requires none. 
 Cut a strip all round your paste to lay on the edge of your pie- 
 dish, moisten it slightly, lay on your cover, press the edges 
 together, trim them neatly, sprinkle a little water over the top, 
 grate a little sugar over, and bake haH an hour in a moderate 
 oven. This crust would be made richer by mixing the yolk of 
 an egg with the water, and commoner by using only one third 
 as much lard or dripping as flour, instead of half. 
 
 Patties. Put half a pound of flour into a basin, mix in half 
 a teaspoonful of baking powder, mix it into a stiff paste with 
 cold water (half the yolk of an egg with it makes it richer), flour 
 your board and pin, roll it out very thin, spread a quarter of a 
 pound of butter, lard, or dripping on, as if spreading bread and 
 butter, sprinkle a little flour on it, cut it in eight, lay the pieces 
 on the top of each other, flour the edges, roll it out again, fold 
 it, roll it out one-third of an inch thick, grease your patty pans, 
 cut rounds of paste a little larger, lay them in, fill them with 
 meat cut in dice and seasoned to taste, sprinkle a little water on, 
 cover, press the edges together, trim neatly, and if you have an 
 egg broken, brush them over with it. This flaky crust can be 
 made with one-third or even one-fourth of fat or shortening. 
 
 Baked Plum Pudding. Chop fine a quarter of a pound of 
 suet, put it into three-quarters of a pound of flour with a tea- 
 spoonful of baking powder in, pick a quarter of a pound of 
 
120 APPENDIX. 
 
 plums and chop them, wash, dry, and pick a quarter of a pound 
 of currants, two ounces of peel and two ounces of moist sugar 
 and a pinch of mixed spice, mix into a stiff paste with one egg 
 beaten up in a gill or more of milk. It should be so stiff a 
 spoon will stand up in it. Bake in a greased tin one hour. 
 
 Baked Custard. To the yolks of four eggs beaten lightly with 
 a little sugar pour one pint of boiling milk, flavour to taste, line 
 a dish with a little piece of pie-crust, pour in the custard, and 
 bake three-quarters of an hour. A common one can be made 
 of two whole eggs. 
 
 Bread Pudding. Soak half a pound of pieces of bread in 
 cold water, any crusts however stale will do, if you cut off the 
 burnt, provided they are not mouldy. Squeeze them dry, and 
 pour on them one quart of boiling milk. Cover, and let them 
 swell. Beat up two eggs with two ounces of sugar, stir into 
 the pudding, put in a quarter of a pound of plums or currants. 
 Bake in a greased dish half an hour. This pudding can be 
 boiled in a buttered basin. Time required two hours. 
 
 Sago, Tapioca, or Rice Pudding. Soak two tablespoonfuls 
 in a pint of milk, put it on to boil, stirring it to prevent its 
 sticking ; mix in (off the fire) one egg and one tablespoonful of 
 sugar. Bake in a greased dish. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : qth. flour, \ Ib. of butter, 
 \ Ib. of meat, 2 qts. of milk, J Ib. of suet, f Ib. of plums, 
 \ Ib. of currants, | Ib. of moist sugar, 8 eggs, 2d. of bread, 2 
 oz. of peel, 5 oz. of spice, I oz. of sago. 
 
 FOURTEENTH LESSON. 
 
 BOILED PUDDINGS. 
 
 Boiled puddings are generally shortened or made light with 
 suet. Where people cannot eat suet, butter may be used in its 
 place. Boiled puddings are lighter if boiled in a cloth, but 
 easier to keep in shape if boiled in a basin ; but they require 
 a longer time to boil. It is most essential to keep a pudding 
 cloth" clean ; it should be washed in two or three hot waters 
 without soap immediately it is done with, wrung dry, and dried 
 off quickly, or it will get a musty taste. Always put the sauce- 
 pan of water on to boil before you begin to make a pudding. 
 
 Meat Pudding. A quart basin holds two pounds of meat ; 
 a pound and a half of steak or beef skirts and half a pound of 
 kidney makes a good pudding. Make a crust of half a pound 
 of suet chopped fine, a pound of flour, a pinch of salt, a tea* 
 spoonful of baking powder mixed together, and sufficient cold 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 water to make a stiff paste. Cut off one-third for the cover. 
 Roll the rest to a round twice the size of the top of the basin, 
 grease the basin, and lay it neatly in. Fill it with the meat cut 
 in slices, and seasoned with pepper and salt, pour in a little 
 water, wet the edges of the paste, roll out the cover the proper 
 size, lay it on, press the edges together, trim neatly. - Dip the 
 cloth in boiling water, flour it, tie it on, tie up the edges, and put 
 it in boiling water. Let the pudding boil two hours and a 
 half. It can be made commoner with one- third suet, or even 
 a quarter instead of half. 
 
 Batter and Black Cap Puddings. Eight ounces of flour, half 
 a teaspoonful of baking powder, two eggs, a pint of milk. Mix 
 the flour with the baking powder and a pinch of salt-. Break 
 the eggs into a cup, beat them lightly with a little of the milk, 
 mix them by degrees quite smoothly into the flour so that there 
 are no lumps, add the rest of the milk, grease a basin, pour the 
 pudding in through a strainer, flour the cloth thickly after dip- 
 ping it in boiling water, tie it securely, and boil gently for an 
 hour and a half. Black cap pudding is made by throwing in a 
 quarter of a pound of currants after the batter is in the basin. 
 
 Fruit and Roly-poly Puddings. The crust for these should 
 be the same as for meat puddings. Allow a quarter of a pound 
 of sugar to a quart of /ruit. For roly-poly, roll the crust out 
 thin, cover it with jam, treacle, or currants, apple, and sugar ; 
 roll it up, tie in a cloth securely at each end, and boil an Hour 
 and a half. 
 
 Plum Pudding. A quarter of a pound of suet chopped fine, 
 a quarter of a pound of currants, a quarter of a pound of plums, 
 a quarter of a pound of sugar, six ounces of flour, six ounces of 
 bread crumbs, two ounces of peel, a gill of milk, two eggs, half 
 a teaspoonful of baking powder. Mix thoroughly the dry things, 
 beat the eggs lightly with the milk, add to them, dip a cloth in 
 boiling water, flour it, tie in the pudding securely, leaving it room 
 to swell, and boil two hours and a half. 
 
 Treacle Pudding. One pound of flour, a teaspoonful of 
 baking powder, a quarter of a pound of suet chopped fine, a 
 quarter of a pound of treacle, an egg, a gill and a half of milk. 
 Mix the dry ingredients, stir the egg and milk into the treacle 
 and mix with them, pour into a greased basin, tie a well-floured 
 cloth over, and boil two hours. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : 2 Ibs. of meat, I qtn. of flour, 
 1 4 Ib. of suet, six eggs, 2\ pts. of milk, \ Ib. of plums, 5 Ib. of 
 currants, 2 oz. of peel, ^ Ib. of sugar, 6 apples or jam, 3 Ib. of 
 treacle, I pkt. of baking powder, I oz. of dripping or butter. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 FIFTEENTH LESSON. 
 BREAD AND CAKES. 
 
 Home-made bread is at once more wholesome, and more 
 satisfying than baker's bread ; it keeps fresh a longer time, it is 
 eatable at the end of a week, when baker's bread is very dry. 
 
 To make a Quartern of Flour into Bread. Take three pounds 
 of flour, and put it into a dry pan. Mix one ounce of German 
 yeast into a smooth paste with a little tepid water, and add by 
 degrees more tepid water till you have a pint and three-quarters. 
 Put a pinch of salt into a well in the middle of the flour, and 
 strain it in gradually mixing it all smoothly into dough. Be 
 careful not to leave dry lumps of flour. Sprinkle a little flour 
 over, cover and set in a warm place for at least two hours to 
 rise. Then turn it out on a well-floured board, and work in 
 more flour. Make it into three loaves, bake on a well-floured 
 tin, or in flat bread-tins. Half a pound of flour is required in 
 making it up. In making large quantities of bread, only a 
 small portion of the water is put in at first, and a small portion 
 of the flour wetted, this is called setting or laying the sponge ; 
 this rises for some hours, large batches are laid over-night ; 
 when it has risen, more water is added, and the whole mixed 
 up into dough ; potatoes are frequently added. 
 
 Unfermented Bread. Unfermented, or unleavened bread is 
 not much used. It has the advantage of being very quickly 
 made. Take one pound of flour ; mix thoroughly with it one 
 teaspoonful of baking powder, and half a teaspoonful of salt. 
 Mix it with cold water, sufficient to make it into a light firm 
 dough. Make it into two small loaves and bake immediately. 
 Flour thus prepared is sold as self-raising flour. 
 
 Milk Rolls. Rub two ounces of butter into one pound of 
 self-raising flour, mix with milk into a light firm dough and 
 bake immediately. 
 
 Plum Cake. Eight ounces of flour, half a teaspoonful of 
 baking powder, quarter of a pound of fruit, either currants, 
 plums, or sultanas, or mixed, two ounces of sugar, two ounces 
 of dripping rubbed into the flour ; mix in the other ingredients ; 
 beat up one egg with a little milk, mix with the other in- 
 gredients ; cake should be so stiff a spoon would stand up in it. 
 The quantity of milk required depends on the flour ; the egg 
 and milk should be about a gill. Pour into a well greased tin 
 and bake immediately. 
 
IUNIVERSITT' 
 
 Seed Cake. Ten ounces of flour, two ounces of dripping, two 
 ounces of sugar, one egg ; milk half a gill (or more), a tea- 
 spoonful of carraway seeds, a tea spoonful of baking powder. 
 Mix the dry things together, beat the egg up with the milk, 
 make it into a stiff paste and bake at once in a greased tin. 
 
 Rock Cakes. Half a pound of flour, quarter of a pound of 
 dripping, quarter of a pound of currants, quarter of a pound of 
 sugar, two ounces of peel, a little grated nutmeg, one egg, three 
 quarters of a gill of milk, two teaspoonfuls of baking powder. 
 Rub the dripping into the flour, mix all the dry things together, 
 beat up the egg lightly in a cup with the milk, mix all together, 
 lay in little heaps on a greased tin, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Rice Buns. Quarter of a pound of ground rice, quarter of a 
 pound of sugar, two ounces of butter, two eggs, half a tea- 
 spoonful of baking powder. Beat all well together, and bake 
 in greased patty pans. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : 2 qtns. of flour, I oz. of 
 yeast, Ib, of ground rice, I Ib. of self-raising flour, | Ib. of 
 dripping, |d. of carraways, J Ib. of butter, 2^d. of milk, f Ib. 
 of sugar, 5 eggs, l z Ib. of fruit, 2 oz. of peel. 
 
 SIXTEENTH LESSON. 
 INVALID COOKERY. 
 
 Invalid cookery is one of the most important and most neglected 
 branches of the art. Good food is as essential to the sick as 
 good physic ; many a valuable life has been lost for want of 
 proper food during recovery from sickness. When necessary 
 articles of diet for the sick room are to be given rests with the 
 doctor ; in the earlier stages of illness, particularly fevers, little 
 food is required, the patient loathes it, and to press beef-tea, 
 &c., on a sick stomach, is positively injurious ; refreshing 
 drinks are chiefly what the patient requires. Perfect cleanliness 
 and freshness are most essential to invalid cookery. Don't 
 make beef- tea, lemonade, &c., enough for two or three days, 
 to save yourself trouble, and don't let the patient see you taste 
 with a spoon, and put it into the food again. 
 
 Beef Tea (Liebig's). Chop a pound of lean beef as fine as 
 sausage meat ; pour on it a pint of cold water, let it soak ; put 
 it over a slow fire, when it has boiled five minutes pour it off. 
 
 Beef Tea. Cut up one pound of lean beef ; (beef skirts or 
 gravy beef are best for beef- tea) ; put it in a stone jar with one 
 
124 APPENDIX. 
 
 pint of cold water and a shank bone of mutton if you have one; 
 cover it closely and set in a saucepan of boiling water, or in a 
 slow oven three hours. 
 
 Raw Beef Tea (for Typhoid Fever). Two ounces of lean 
 gravy beef, two tablespoonful of cold water. Chop the meat 
 very fine ; let it stand quarter of an hour in the water, then pour 
 off the liquid. Make no more than this at one time, as it will 
 not keep. 
 
 Mutton Broth. Two pounds of scrag of mutton put into a 
 saucepan with three pints of water and a little salt. Let it 
 simmer gently two hours. Strain through a sieve ; when cold 
 remove every particle of fat ; it can be thickened with arrowroot 
 or ground rice. The mutton is good to eat with parsley and 
 butter. 
 
 Toast and Water.- Toast a crust of bread till it is of a light 
 brown on all sides ; plunge it into a pint of cold water, and let 
 it stand covered half an hour. 
 
 Irish or Iceland Moss. Wash Irish moss, and let it soak all 
 night ; dry it and boil it, one ounce in a quart of water till 
 reduced to one half. Strain through a sieve. Take the jelly 
 with milk, or wine, flavoured to taste. The moss can be boiled 
 in milk and put in a shape. 
 
 Barley Water.- -Boil one ounce of pearl barley in one quart 
 of water twenty minutes, sweeten to taste. A second quart of 
 water boiled with the same barley is better than the first. A bit 
 of lemon rind improves it. 
 
 Bran Tea. IP our one quart of boiling water on three table- 
 spoonfuls of middling sized bran, let it stand a quarter of an 
 hour ; sweeten with sugar or honey. 
 
 Lemonade. Peel a lemon very thinly, remove all the white 
 pith, part the rind into a jug with the lemon cut in slices ; pour 
 over it half a pint of boiling water. Cover till cool. Sweeten 
 to taste. 
 
 Wine Whey or Treacle Posset. Into half a pint of boiling 
 milk pour half a gill of wine or treacle ; let it stand five 
 minutes ; pour off the whey. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson. f lb. of gravy beef, 2 Ibs. 
 of mutton, id. of bread, I oz. of Irish moss, I oz. of barley, 
 \ lb. of bran, I lemon, \ pint of milk, \ gill of treacle, 
 
APPENDIX. 125 
 
 SEVENTEENTH LESSON. 
 FARINACEOUS FOODS. 
 
 Maccaroni with Cheese. Wash a quarter of a pound of 
 maccaroni broken into short pieces. Put it into a large saucepan 
 of cold water, with a teaspoonful of salt. Boil it for about 
 three quarters of an hour, or until it is soft. Then strain off the 
 water. Melt one ounce and a half of butter in a small sauce- 
 pan, stir in one ounce of flour, then add by degrees half pint of 
 milk, pepper and salt, and stir it over the fire till it boils and 
 thickens, then add one ounce of strongly flavoured grated cheese, 
 stir in the maccaroni, then spread it out on a flat dish and 
 sprinkle over it another ounce of cheese, and brown the top in 
 a quick oven or before the fire. 
 
 Maccaroni Pudding or Sweet Maccaroni. Quarter of a pound 
 of maccaroni, two eggs, one pint and a half of milk, two ounces 
 of sugar. Wash the maccaroni, let it boil gently in plenty of 
 water with a little salt in half an hour ; strain it off, put in the 
 milk and let it boil half an hour, with a little piece of cinnamon 
 or bayleaf in. Beat up the eggs lightly with the sugar, pour the 
 milk off the maccaroni to them, grease a pie-dish, lay in the 
 maccaroni, pour the custard over and bake in a quick oven half 
 an hour. 
 
 Maccaroni Stewed in Stock. Boil quarter of a pound of mac- 
 caroni as before in salt and water half an hour, with an onion 
 cut in slices, strain off the water, pour in one pint of stock or 
 broth, pepper and salt to taste, let it simmer one hour, lay it in a 
 dish, sprinkle bread crumbs over, and brown in front of the fire. 
 
 Semolina. Semolina is coarsely ground wheat, and is very 
 nutritious. Boil one tablespoonful in half a pint of milk, ten 
 minutes, stirring all the time, sweeten with one dessertspoonful 
 of powdered white sugar ; it can be eaten hot, or put in a shape 
 to turn out when cold. To make it into a pudding, add one egg 
 lightly beaten and bake fifteen minutes. While many other farina- 
 ceous puddings are chiefly starch, and valuable principally for the 
 eggs and milk in them, semolina is of itself highly nutritious. 
 
 Hominy. Wash it in two or three waters, pour boiling water 
 on it, and let it stand all night. Take it out and put it in 
 ? saucepan, one quart of hominy to two of water, and boil 
 four or five hours till quite soft. Drain it, put it into a deep 
 dish, and stir in some butter. If any is left cold, cut it in slices 
 and fry it. 
 
 Maize Flour Porridge or Polenta. Drop two tablespoonfuls of 
 maize flour into a pint of boiling water and salt, stirring all the 
 time until it is of the consistency of pea-soup. 
 
126 APPENDIX. 
 
 Corn Flour Pudding. Corn flour is the starch of Indian corn. 
 To make a pudding of it, mix four tablespoonfuls of corn flour 
 and three of sugar with a very little milk. Put on one quart of 
 milk to boil, when it boils pour in the mixture and add three 
 eggs well beaten. Bake in a greased pie-dish. 
 
 Blancmange. Mix four tablespoonfuls of corn flour with a 
 little milk ; put one quart of milk with three tablespoonfuls of 
 sugar in it, on to boil, when it boils pour in the corn flour, let it 
 boil two minutes, wet a mould with cold water, pour in the 
 mixture. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : f lb. of maccaroni, 2 oz. oi 
 cheese, 6 eggs, 7 pts. of milk, \ lb. of sugar, 2 oz. of semo- 
 lina, I pt. of stock, I qt. of hominy, 2 oz. of maize flour, 4 lb. 
 of corn flour, 2 oz. of butter. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH LESSON. 
 CHEAP SAUCES. 
 
 Melted Butter. Put one ounce of butter in a stewpan, when 
 it is melted put in half an ounce of flour, stir it quite smooth 
 over the fire, and pour in by degrees half a pint of water. Stir 
 till it thickens, then move it to the side of the fire. This recipe 
 will never fail to produce good melted butter free from lumps. 
 If you cannot afford so much butter use less ; but never put 
 more flour than butter. Melted butter too often resembles paste. 
 
 Parsley and Butter is made by stirring a teaspoonful of 
 chopped parsley into the above just before serving. 
 
 Egg Sauce is melted butter made with milk instead of water, 
 and an egg boiled ten minutes and allowed to get cool chopped 
 up and put into it. 
 
 Bread Sauce is made by soaking an ounce and a half of bread 
 crumbs in half a pint of milk a quarter of an hour; putting it on 
 to boil fifteen minutes, with an onion, six peppercorns, and a 
 pinch of salt in. Before serving, pick out the onion and the 
 peppercorns. 
 
 Mint Sauce. Wash clean and chop fine a handful of mint 
 without the stalks, dissolve half an ounce of sugar in half a gill of 
 water, add to it one gill of vinegar and the chopped mint, mix 
 well together. 
 
 Onion Sauce. Parboil the onions in water, strain them off, 
 cover them with milk, and let them boil gently half an hour, 
 strain the milk off, chop the onions fine, put half an ounce of 
 
APPENDIX. 127 
 
 batter into the saucepan, when melted stir smooth] j in half an 
 ounce of floor, add by degrees the milk, stir it till it thickens, 
 then add the onions, and let it boil up. 
 
 Apple Sauce. Pare four apples, quarter and core them, pot 
 them into a yamrpflfi with a very little water, and sugar to t***f 
 Boil gently till reduced to a smooth palp, stirring occasionally. 
 
 Sweet Sauce, for Paddings, Ac. Pat on half a pint of water 
 to boQ, mix one dessertspoonful of arrowroot or corn-floor and 
 one of sugar with a little cold water, flavour with a tahlespoon- 
 ful of jam or mniijlad^ or a few drops of ranILa or a glass 
 of wine, poor it into the boiling water and strain over the 
 podding. It r=n be coloured with r***h"rel 
 
 Cow-heel Jetty. Take a cow-heel ready dressed (i.e. from 
 the tripe shop), and boil it in three pints of water six hoars. 
 When cold, remore all the fat, put the jelly in a stewpan with 
 the joke of two lemons and the rind of one, two ounces of sugar 
 and the white and shell of one egg slightly beaten, and a little 
 spice if die invalid likes it. A little saffron, fire or six threads, 
 gives it a nice colour. Let it boil up, stirring all the time, place 
 it on one side twenty minutes, then strain it through a doth till 
 clear. The foot itself is good either hot with onion save, or 
 cold. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : J lb. of batter, parsley, Jib. 
 of floor, id. of bread, 3 onions, 3 apples, | lb. of sogar, 2 eggs, 
 I or. of arrorrroDt, mint, | gfll of vinegar, cow-heel, 2 * 
 saffron, jam. 
 
 NINETEENTH LESSON. 
 CHEAPEST DISHES WITHOUT MEAT. 
 
 Crowdie. The liqnor in which a kg of mutton has been 
 boiled, half a pint of natm***^ pepper and salt, two onions cot: 
 very fine. Hake the oatmeal into a paste with a little of me 
 liqnor over the fixe, stir in die remainder, and let it boil gentry 
 twenty minutes. 
 
 Savoury Rice. Put half a pound of rice into two pints and a 
 half of cold water, bofl it gently two hoars, then add one pint 
 of skim milk and two ranees of strong cheese grated, a Httfe 
 pepper and salt, and bofl nery gently another hour. 
 
 Rice Padding. Tie half a pound of rice in 
 so loose as to be able to hold five times as mi 
 gently till it fills the bag. Tom it oat and poor two < 
 treacle over it. 
 
128 APPENDIX. 
 
 German Pea Soup. Take Haifa German pea-soup sausage, six 
 pints of boiling water, grate the sausage, mix into a smooth paste 
 with a little cold water. When the water boils, pour it in and 
 stir smooth. It requires no more cooking. 
 
 Dr. Kitchener's Broth. Four ounces of Scotch barley, four 
 ounces of sliced onions, two ounces of dripping, four ounces of 
 bacon, four ounces of oatmeal, pepper and salt. Put the barley, 
 previously soaked, and the onions into five quarts of liquor. Let 
 it boil gently one 'hour. Put into a saucepan the bacon and 
 dripping, and fry brown. Stir in by degrees the oatmeal till it 
 is a paste, then stir in the broth, and season to taste. Let it 
 simmer half an hour. 
 
 Milk Soup. Four large potatoes, two leeks, two ounces of 
 butter, three tablespoonfuls of crushed tapioca, one pint of milk. 
 Put the potatoes and leeks, cut in four, in a saucepan, with two 
 quarts of boiling water and two ounces of butter, a teaspoonful 
 of salt, and pepper to taste. Boil an hour, rub through a 
 colander, and return it to the saucepan, add the milk, sprinkle 
 in the tapioca, and let it boil fifteen minutes. 
 
 Haricots. The seeds of the French bean are very nutritious. 
 Soak them all night. Put them on in plenty of water, let them 
 boil till tender three or four hours, strain, and eat with parsley 
 and butter. 
 
 Potato Cake. A pound of cold potatoes, a quarter of a 
 pound of flour or oatmeal, half a gill of warm milk (with a 
 quarter of an ounce of yeast dissolved in it, if you have it), a 
 little salt and butter. Mash the potatoes, add the other things, 
 roll out the paste an inch and a half or two inches thick, lay it 
 in a greased tin and bake it. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : I Ib. of rice, f pt. of oatmeal, 
 6 onions, 2 oz. of cheese, milk, 2 oz. of treacle, \ German pea 
 soup stick, 4 oz. of barley, 4 oz, of bacon, 2 leeks, I \ Ib. 
 of potatoes, \ Ib. tapioca, 3 oz. of butter, I pt. haricots, \ Ib. of 
 dripping. 
 
 TWENTIETH LESSON. 
 CHEAPEST DISHES WITH MEAT. 
 
 Sheep's Head and Pluck. Thoroughly clean the head, put 
 it into a saucepan with three pints of cold water, a cupful of rice, 
 four onions sliced, and a little salt. Set it on a slow fire to cook 
 very gently, skim it when it boils, and put in two carrots and 
 
APPENDIX. 129 
 
 two turnips cut in quarters. Let it simmer two hours. A 
 quarter of an hour before serving, carefully skim off all the fat, 
 and season to taste with a little pepper and salt. The liver may 
 be fried, and the heart stuffed and baked, or both may be stewed 
 together in one pint of water (after being browned in the sauce- 
 pan with an ounce of dripping) for one hour, the gravy to be 
 thickened with half an ounce of flour. 
 
 Irish Stew. This is a way of economizing meat by cooking 
 it with a large quantity of potatoes. It is best made of fat meat 
 the ends of the neck of mutton and the scrag do very 
 well. Lay in a saucepan layers of mutton and potatoes and 
 onions cut in slices, seasoned to taste, pour over a very little 
 water, and let it stew two or three hours. Many people, con- 
 sidering the water in which potatoes are boiled unwholesome, 
 boil the potatoes partially, throw away the water, cut them up or 
 mash them, and then lay them in layers with the meat as above. 
 
 Pot-au-feu. The French national dish, and a most econo- 
 mical one. Take four pounds of the sticking piece, round, or 
 ox-cheek, tie it tightly round with string, put it into a pot with 
 eight pints of cold water. Let it come slowly to a boil, then 
 
 Eut into it any vegetables in season (except green ones), say two 
 ;eks, two onions, two carrots, two turnips, two parsnips, a piece 
 of celery, a bunch of herbs, twenty peppercorns, a teaspoonful 
 of salt. Let it simmer four hours. The vegetables are best put 
 in a net or tied in bundles. If you put in any cabbage it must 
 be a white one tied tightly together, or it will boil to pieces. 
 For serving, the meat is put on a dish with the vegetables round 
 it ; and the soup is thickened with sago, corn-flour, or tapioca, 
 boiled in it a few minutes. 
 
 German Potatoes. Choose large potatoes, scrub them clean, 
 cut a slice off the top, scoop out a hole in the middle, fill it with 
 half a sausage, put the top on again, and bake in a moderate 
 oven. 
 
 Materials required for Lesson : Sheep's head and pluck, 4 Ibs. 
 of ox-cheek, neck of mutton, \ Ib. sausages, peppercorns, 4 Ibs. 
 of potatoes, 6 onions, 2 leeks, 2 carrots, I parsnip, | celery, 
 herbs, parsley. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 The Recipes in the Appendix are Printed in Italics. 
 
 AIR, 76 
 
 Albumen, 16, 37 
 Albumenoid foods, 13 
 Apple sauce, 127 
 Arrowroot, 48 
 Australian meat, 115 
 
 Bacon, to broil, 114 
 
 Baking, no 
 
 Baking meat, 22 ; powder, 53 
 
 Barley, 55 
 
 Barley water, 124 
 
 Beans, French, to boil, 118 
 
 Beef a la mode, 109 
 
 Beef-tea, 33 
 
 Beef -tea, 123 
 
 Beer, 65 
 
 Benzoline lamps, 89 
 
 Blancmange, 126 
 
 Boiling, 24 
 
 Borax, 95 
 
 Bran, 50 
 
 Bran tea, 124 
 
 Bread, 50 ; making, 51 ; pulled, 53 
 
 Bread, 122; unfermented,ib.', sauce, 
 
 126 
 
 Broiling, 23 
 Broiling, 113 
 
 Broth, Dr. Kitcheners, 128 
 jBuns, rice, 123 
 Butter, 44 
 
 Cabbages, 58 
 
 Cake, plum, 122 ; seed, 123 ; rock, 
 
 113 ; potato, 128 
 Candles, 86 
 Carrots, 59 
 Carrots, turnips, 118 
 Caitliflower, 118 
 Chloride of lime, 96 
 Cleaning, 91 
 Clogs, 101 
 Clothing, 99 
 
 Cocoa, 64 
 
 Coffee, 63 
 
 Coffee, to make, 104 
 
 Cornflour, 49 
 
 Cornish pasties, in 
 
 Cotton clothes, 100 
 
 Cow-heel, to boil, 107 ; jelly, 127 
 
 Cream, 41 ; clotted, 42 
 
 Croivdie, 127 
 
 Curd, 43 
 
 Curry, cold meat, 115 
 
 Custard, 39 
 
 D^^mplings, Norfolk, 106; baked apple,. 
 in 
 
 Earth-closets, 67 
 
 Eggs, 37 ; poached, 38 ; preserving, 40 
 Eggs, to boil, 104 ; to poach, ib. ; for 
 invalids, ib. ; sauce, 126 
 
 Farinaceous foods, 125 
 
 Fat, value as food, 18 
 
 Fibrin, 15 
 
 Fire to light, 103 
 
 Firing, 80 
 
 Fish, 117 ; fried, ib. ; grilled, ib. ; 
 
 , . 
 Fish, 34; salt, 35; baked, ib.\ fried* 
 
 36 ; soups, ib. 
 Flour, 47 
 
 Food, nature and use of, n 
 Fritters, 112 
 Fruits, 59 
 Fruit pie, 119 
 Frying, 112 
 Fuel, fo 
 Furniture, 68 
 
 Gas lighting, 89 ; stoves, 84 
 
 Gelatin, 17 
 
 Giblets, no 
 
 Gluten, 47 
 
 Goblet pie, 115 
 
 Gravy, to make, 21 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Gravy for roast meat, 105 
 Greens, Savoys, and Cabbages, 118 
 
 PIaddock,to bake, 117 
 
 Hare, jugged, 28 f 
 
 Haricots, 57 
 
 Haricot mutton, 27 
 
 Haricots, 128 
 
 Haricot puree, 109; w/to, no 
 
 Hash, 114 
 
 Hominy, 125 
 
 Houses, unhealthy, 67 
 
 Infants' food, 104 
 Invalid cookery, 123 
 /r/V* and Ice land moss, 124 
 Irish stew, 27 
 
 Juice of the flesh, 17 
 Kidney, to broil, 113 
 
 Lemonade, 124 
 Lentils, 57 
 Lighting, 85 
 Lime-washing, 93 
 Liver and bacon, 112 
 
 Maccaroni, with cheese, 125 ; pudding, 
 ib.; stewed in stock, ib. 
 
 Maize, 55 
 
 Maizena, 49 
 
 Meat, its composition, 15 ; effect of 
 salt on, 31; preserved, 32; extract 
 of, ib. 
 
 Meat pie, in; to boil, 106; cold, to 
 -use up, 114 ; patties, 115 ; pie, Aus- 
 tralian, 115 
 
 Melted butter, 126 
 
 Milk, 41 ; an example of perfect food, 
 ii ; skimmed, 43 ; testers, 45 ; pre- 
 served. 46 
 
 Milk, thick, 104 
 
 Milk porridge, 104 ', rolls, 122 
 
 Mincemeat, 116 
 
 Mini sauce, 126 
 
 Mushrooms, 114 
 
 Mustard, 62 
 
 Mutton broth, 124 
 
 Mutton chop, 113 
 
 Nitrogen in air, 76 
 
 Oatmeal, 54 
 Oleaginous foods, 13 
 Omelettes, 39 
 Omelettes, 113 
 
 Onions, 59 
 
 Onions, Spanish, 118 ; sauce, 126 
 
 Oxygen in air, 76 
 
 Pancakes, 113 
 
 Paraffin lamps, 87 
 
 Parsley and butter, 126 
 
 Parsnips, 59 
 
 Parsnips, 118 
 
 Pastry, 53 
 
 Patties, 119 
 
 Peas, 56 
 
 /Vrtj, to &?zY, IJ 8 
 
 Pea-soup, 30 
 
 Pepper, 62 
 
 Pickled pork, 107 
 
 Polenta, 125 
 
 /Wr Mans Goose, in 
 
 /><?r, &**, no ; pickled, 107 
 
 Potatoes, 57 
 
 Potato starch, 48 
 
 Potatoes, fried, 112 ; * to wfc, 
 118 ; German, 129 
 
 Potato cake, 128 
 
 Pot-au-feu, 29 
 
 Pot-ait-feu, 129 
 
 Puddings, batter, 104, 121 ; bread, 
 120; cornflour, 126 ; fruit, 121; 
 c^tstard, 120; meat, 120; plum 
 baked, 119 ; plum boiled, 121 ; rzVtf, 
 120; roly-poly, 121 ; sago, 120; sz^, 
 106; tapioca, 120; teacup, 104; 
 treacle, 121; Yorkshire, 106 
 
 Rabbits, stewed, 28 
 
 Rabbit^ 107 ; ragout of, no 
 
 Ranges for cooking, 82 
 
 Rice, 55 
 
 J?zV* wzzY/6, 105 ; pudding, 120, 127 ; 
 ^;w, 123; savoury, 127 
 
 Rissoles of cold meat, 115; Austra- 
 lian meat, 116 
 
 Roasting, 20 
 
 Roast joint, 105 ; heart, 106 
 
 Rooms, size of, 68 
 
 Sago, 48 
 
 Salt, 60 
 
 Salting meat, 31 
 
 Sauces, 126 
 
 Sausages, 112 
 
 Scotch broth, 31 
 
 Scrubbing, 94 
 
 Semolina, 125 
 
 Sheep's head and pluck, 128 
 
 Shepherd's pie, 115 
 
 Shoes, 100 
 
132 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Soap, 95 
 
 Soda, 95 
 
 Soups, 30 ; fish, 36 
 
 Soup, bone, 108 ; Carrot, Onion, and 
 Potato, 108 ; German pea, 128 ; 
 leg of beef, 108 - milk, 128 ; mulli- 
 gatawny, 1 16 ; ox-tail, 108 
 
 Spinach, 118 
 
 Sponge lamps, 89 
 
 Sprats, to broil, 114 
 
 Starch, 47, 48 
 
 Steak, stewed, 26 
 
 Steak, to broil, 113 
 
 Stewing, 25 
 
 Stewing pipkin, 29 
 
 Stews, 109 
 
 Stew, Brazilian, 109; brown, 116; 
 Irish, 1 1 6, 129 
 
 Stoves for cooking, 82 
 
 Spiffing, 105 
 
 Sugar, 51 
 
 Sweet sauce i 127 
 
 Tallymen, evils of buying from, 71 
 
 Tea, 63 
 
 7V to make, 104 
 
 Treacle posset, 124 
 
 Toad-in-the-holc, in 
 
 Toast-an d-water, 1 24 
 
 Tripe, 107 ; fried in batter, 112 
 
 Turnips, 59 
 
 Km/ cutlets, 114 
 Vegetables, fresh, 57 
 
 l^:getables, 118 
 Ventilation, 79 
 Vinegar, 61 
 
 Washing, 95, 96 
 Water supply, 72 
 Waterproofing for shoes, 102 
 Whitewashing, 93 
 Wine whey, 124 
 Woollen clothes, 100 
 
 x x x |Jig.ESE L!BR4^>s. 
 
 f OF THE \ 
 
 (UNIVERSITY) 
 
 \v 9f S 
 
 ^*^*^ -"-^**^ 
 
 THE END. 
 
 RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BUNGAY. 
 

YA 02177