-NRLF
CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OF SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
This book is designed to aid in giving the pupil a culture that will enable him to
understand, appreciate, and therefore enjoy, good language, and chiefly in this
way, to lead him to acquire the habit of using good language himself.
COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION
OF THK
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION.
sacramento. california.
Printed at the State Printing Office.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by the
STATE OF CALIFORNIA,
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,
(^h 6) (p '-->
Diagram System copyrighted by
Alonzo Reed and Beainerd Kellogg,
in 1868, 1877, 1878, 1885, and 1887.
/ in
ITnTTEODTJCTION. kv\ fi\ I
Part I. of this book is made to be used in the schools of this State,
with pupils of from 11 to 14 years of age — the class that is about
concluding the Second Reader, of the State Series.
I It is designed to give the pupil aid in clearly understanding the
English sentence, and at the same time the ability to write sen-
tences with ease and accuracy.
Believing that the sentence is the language-unit, and that there-
fore it is more interesting as well as more profitable to begin with
the study of sentences, the subject has been thus introduced. An
effort has been made to introduce technical grammar with very
little technicality.
In the grammar school there is an abundance of time for the
study of language as here presented. The work should never be
crowded. On the contrary, to secure all the culture there is in the
study of language, it must be taken slowly, and if so studied, instead
of being uninteresting and distasteful, the subject will increase in
interest from day to day.
It is fully understood that the child must first have ideas and
thoughts before he can express them, and that much of the work of
the school must be devoted to leading him to observe, judge, and
think for himself. But it is also true that one's language reacts
upon his thoughts. While, in one sense, " we speak as we think,"
there is another sense in which " we think as we speak." Accuracy
of language begets accuracy of thought, and coarse or slovenly lan-
guage may be both the cause and the result of the same kind of
thought. The mastery of a new word, or of a new form of expres-
sion, means the conception of a new idea, or a new thought or shade
of thought.
4 INTRODUCTION.
It is said, " Give a child something to say, and he will find a way
in which to say it." This is probably true. He will find a way,
but to find an acceptable way, or the best way, he needs guidance
and culture. These a book on Grammar should give.
By a special arrangement made with Messrs. Reed and Kellogg,
authors of Reed and Kellogg' s "Graded Lessons in English" and
"Higher Lessons in English," we are permitted to use the system
of diagraming owned exclusively by them — a system that commends
itself for its simplicity and expressiveness. We are confident that
this will be acceptable to the teachers of the State, as the Reed and
Kellogg Grammars are so widely used and are giving such excellent
satisfaction.
CONTENTS-PART I.
PAGE.
Ways of Grouping "Words, 7
Sentence, Clause, and Phrase, 8
Kinds of Sentences, 10
The Predicate, 12
The Subject, • 15
Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects, 16
Phrase SuDJects and Clause Subjects, 16
Position of the Subject, 17
Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates, 18
Analysis of Sentences, 20
The Object Complement, 23
Analysis of Sentences, 25
The Attribute Complement, 27
Diagrams, 29
Analysis of Sentences, 30
Modifiers of the Predicate, 31
Adverbial Modifiers — Phrase and Clause, 33
Adjuncts of the Subject and Object, 35
Adjective Adjuncts — Phrase and Clause, 36
Adjective Adjuncts of the Attribute, 37
Composition and Analysis — Expanding Sentences, 38
The Form of Sentences — Simple, Complex, and Compound, ... 38
More About Adverbial Modifiers, 41
Prepositional Phrases, 42
Verbal Phrases, 44
The Clause — Connective Pronouns, 46
The Clause— Connective Adverbs, 47
Conjunctions, 48
Independent Parts, 50
Sentence Building, 52, 54
Review Questions, 55
Forms for Analysis, and Diagrams, 58, 61
Sentences for Analysis, 62
PART IT.
Chapter 1.— Review of Parts of Speech.
Definitions, * 68
How to Tell the Parts of Speech, 69
Chapter II. — Nouns and Pronouns.
Kinds of Nouns, 71
Number, 73
Collective Nouns, 80
Person, 81
Gender, 82
Office (Case), 84
Rules and Cautions, 91, 95
Declinable Pronouns, 93
Errors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns, 97
Analysis and Diagrams, 99
6 CONTENTS.
Chapter III. — Pronouns. page.
Antecedents, 106
Personal Pronouns, 107
Compound Personal Pronouns, Ill
Connective (Relative) Pronouns, 113
Compound Connective Pronouns, 118
Rules and Cautions, 120, 126
Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns, 126
Interrogatives, 128
Chapter IV. — Adjectives.
Classes of Adjectives, 131
Changes in Form (Comparison), 139
Rules and Cautions, 143, 149
Errors in the Use of Adjectives, 145, 147
Chapter Y.— Adverbs.
Uses of Adverbs, 153
Classes of Adverbs, 157
Comparison, 158
Rules and Cautions, 160, 164
Errors in the Use of Adverbs, 162
Chapter VI. — Conjunctions.
Classes of Conjunctions, 166
Rules and Cautions, 171, 174
Chapter VII.— Prepositions.
Objects of Prepositions, . . { 177
Variable Uses of Prepositions, 179
Choice of Prepositions, 181, 186
Rules, 181, 186
Position of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases, 183
Chapter VIII. — Interjections.
Interjections, 188
Chapter IX. — Verbs and Verbals.
Principal Parts 189
Auxiliaries, 190
Strong and Weak Verbs, 191
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 201
Forms of Verbs — Simple, Progressive, Emphatic, Active, and
Passive, 202
Idiomatic Constructions, 204
Tense 206
Mode 207
Conjugation, 216
Rules and Cautions, 223
Errors in the Use of Verbs, 224
Uses and Forms of Infinitives, 227
Rules for the Use of Infinitives, 230
Uses and Forms of Participles, 231
Rules for the Use of Participles, 233
Chapter X. — Selections for Analysis, 237
Chapter 'Kl.— Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax, 241
Chapter XII. — Topical Abstracts in Review 248
Chapter XIII.— i^mew Questions, 255
Chapter XIY.— Punctuation 264
Chapter XY.— Letter Writing 275
Index 289
OALTFOE:SriA SERIES.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
jDesson /.
Ways of Grouping Words.
When we wish to express our thoughts, either by speak-
ing or writing, we use words. If we know how to use words
well, we can express our thoughts in a variety of ways, and
in each so as to be clearly understood. This expression of
thoughts by the use of words is called Language. The
study of Grammar is designed to teach us: (1) to under-
stand language, and (2) to use it well.
By examining the following groups of words, we shall
find that they are put together in four quite different ways:
1. Little fast a under garden saw. 3. When the boy came home.
2. Running down the street. 4. Henry lost his ball.
In the first, although each word, alone, means something,
the words taken together mean nothing.
In the second, there is a meaning, but the thought is not
fully expressed.
In the third, there is a thought expressed, but it does not
seem complete.
In the fourth, the thought is fully expressed.
Examine the following groups of words, comparing them
with the four examples given above, and arrange them in
four divisions, writing those like the first example in one
division; those like the second example in another, and
so on:
8 OROUPINQ WORDS.
1. Jennie fed her birds. 2. (When) the hunter saw the fire. 3. In
that little cup. 4. The farmer is tired. 5. Letter long a writing inter-
esting. 6. A poor man once had a parrot. 7. (Which) the child found.
8. To read aloud well. 9. As a lion was lying asleep. 10. The tall oak
was once a small acorn. 11. Speaking very kindly. 12. An old pine
tree stood by the house. 13. (While) the wind is blowing. 14. Not
were kind these always men. 15. To reach home soon. 16. The two
base ball clubs played a game. 17. (If) James is a brave boy. 18. (After)
the men had eaten supper. 19. Little Frank has been playing with
Rover. 20. Under the spreading branches. 21. The high hills rose on
all sides. 22. Overhead we flying which saw swiftly. 23. Three sisters
once lived here. 24. Waving his arms and shouting aloud. 25. The
men were catching fish. 26. Flying through the air.
Note.— Where the parenthesis is used, note the difference between the
group of words with and without the inclosed word.
Jjesson 2.
Composition Exercises:
a. Arrange the words in number 5, so as to form a group
under example two.
b. Arrange the words in, number 14, so as to form a group
under example jour.
c. Arrange the words in number 22, so as to form a group
under example three.
d. Select a part of number 12 that is a group under
example two.
e. Write three examples each, like two., three., and /oitr.
Zesson 3.
Sentence, Clause, and Phrase.
A group of words arranged like those in example jonr^
Lesson 1, is called a Sentence ; like those in example three
is called a Clause ; and like those in example two is called
a Phrase.
As the groups like example one do not express thoughts,
they do not belong to the study of language, and have no
general name.
SENTENCE, CLAUSE, AND PHRASE. 9
Definition.
A Sentence is a complete statement, a question, or a" com-
mand.
When a sentence contains two or more statements, ques-
tions, • commands, each of these is called a Clause.
Notije that a phrase alone can not make a statement, ask a
question , or express a command.
a. Classify the following as sentences, clauses, or phrases:
1. Unless the weather is pleasant. 2. A few days ago. 3. Carl and
Andrew are spinning their tops. 4. That he has no money. 5. Walk-
ing along the street, 0. The ships coming in. 7. The ships are coming
in. 8. In the woods. 9. While we were in the woods. 10. The sun set
while we were in the woods. 11. Though we must start to-morrow.
12. Of credit and renown. 13. John Gilpin was a citizen of credit and
renown. 14. A family of crows lived in an old pine tree. 15. Where he
once hunted the deer. 16. Just in time. 17. Which could be seen
through the fog. 18, Not far away. 19. Not far away rose three high
peaks which could be seen through the fog. 20. Here is a loaf of bread.
21. To see my brother daily. 22. For he had sprained his ankle. 23.
When the horse grows old. . 24. Sugar is imported from the Sandwich
Islands. 25. A new steamer has been built. 26. In twenty minutes.
27. I will start.
b. From the preceding select seven clauses which will
become sentences when the first word in each is dropped.
c. Select four phrases that form parts of clauses or
sentences.
d. Select five phrases, five clauses, and five sentences
from the last lesson that you read in your Reader.
Jjesson ^.
Sentence, Clause, and Phrase.
Composition Exercise:
a. Copy four clauses from the list in Lesson 3, adding
enough words to form a sentence of each.
b. Copy four phrases, adding enough words to form a
sentence of each.
10 KINDS OF SENTENCES.
c. Write four sentences, four clauses, and four phrases,
of your own composition.
Ijesson J.
Kinds of Sentences.
Examine the four examples given below, and observe
the change in thought, and in the way the thought is ex-
pressed :
Susan plays. Susan, play.
Does Susan play ? How Susan plays.
The first sentence states, or declares; the second asks a
question; the third commands; the fourth exclaims and
also declares.
Exercise :
In the same way, classify the following sentences:
1. Where is the hunter going ? 2. Whatahappy boy heis! 3. Boys,
finish your work. 4. What is the largest river in South America? 5.
Name the largest river in South America. 6. The Amazon is the largest
river in South America. 7. The train has left the station. 8. The train
has not left the station. 9. How fast the horse runs! 10. When will
your brother return? 11. Neither a lender nor a borrower be. 12.
Polly, put the kettle on.
Definitions.
A sentence that states, or declares, is called a Declara-
tive sentence.
A sentence that asks a question, or interrogates, is
called an Interrogative sentence.
A sentence that commands, is called an Imperative
sentence.
When any one of the above is used to express strong or
sudden feeling, it becomes an Exclamatory sentence.
A declarative sentence may become exclamatory; as,
We are lost!
An interrogative sentence may become exclamatory; as,
Whatl shall we desert our friends I
KINDS OF SENTENCES. 11
An imperative sentence may become exclamatory; as,
Run! run for your lives!
By comparing numbers seven and eight of the above
sentences, you will see that a declarative sentence may
declare either by affirming, as in number seven, or by
denying, as in number eight.
Remark. — A sentence that affirms is called an affirmative sentence.
A sentence that denies is called a negative sentence.
Interrogative or imperative sentences may have the negative foi-m; as,
Did you not spend the money ? Do not leave the room.
JOesson 6.
Kinds of Sentences.
Exercise :
a. Classify the following sentences as Declarative, Inter-
rogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory:
1. Boys, do not throw stones at that poor cow. 2. Joseph was the
son of Jacob. 3. Alas, we are left alone ! 4. Did you ever hear of the
emperor Nero ? 5. I have found a place where the sun shines. 6. How
anxious was the poor sailor then I 7. Are you not ready yet, Thomas?
8. A little old woman went slowly down the street. 9. He asked when
we would be ready to go. 10. When shall you be ready to go ? 11. Love
your enemies. 12. Merrily goes the swing, under the old oak tree. 13.
How sweet the answer Echo makes to music at night. 14. What have
you been searching for? 15. What a good time we have had !
b. Find in your Reader, four Declarative sentences; four
Imperative; four Interrogative; and four Exclamatory.
Jjesson 7.
Composition — Kinds of Sentences.
[To the Teacher.— This lesson may be divided into sections accord-
ing to the ability of the class. In all written work hereafter the pupil
should be held responsible for the following directions.]
1. Begin every sentence with a capital letter.
2. Put a period at the end of each declarative sentence
and each imperative sentence.
12 KINDS OF SENTENCES.
3. Put an interrogation point at the close of each inter-
rogative sentence.
4. Put an exclamation point at the close of each exclama-
tory sentence.
5. When the name or the title of the person addressed is
used simply to call his attention or to point out the person
meant, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by the
comma; thus,
" Frank, come and help us." " Harry, you and Louis may get some
water." " 1 think, sir, that you are mistaken."
Exercises:
a. Compose and write four declarative sentences; four
imperative; four interrogative; and four exclamatory, ob-
serving carefully the directions given for punctuation.
b. Write three declarative sentences and change them,
first, to interrogative; second, to imperative; third, to ex-
clamatory.
c. If the three declarative sentences just written are
affirmative, change them to negative; if negative, change
them to affirmative.
d. Write an interrogative sentence in the negative form.
e. Write an imperative sentence in the negative form.
f. Change number six in Lesson 6 to an interrogative
sentence.
g. Change number twelve to an interrogative sentence.
h. Change number eight to an interrogative sentence.
i. Change number fifteen to a declarative sentence.
Jjesson 8,
The Predicate.
Examine closely the sentences and clauses already given
you to classify, and you will find, in each, one or more
words that make the assertion.
Thus, in the sentence, Henry lost his ball, lost is the
THE PREDICATM W A'! .13
asserting word; in the clause, WheriHhd boy came home,
CAME is the asserting word ; in the sentence, The farmer is
tired, is is the asserting word.
The asserting word in the following sentences is itali-
cized :
1. Charles lives on a farm. 3. The child sings for joy.
2. 1 see ten geese. 4. The horses are in the stable.
5. Men often hunt with dogs.
Exercise :
Find all the asserting words in the examples given in
Lesson 3.
The word that asserts is the most important word in a
sentence or a clause; for, without it, neither a sentence nor
a clause can be formed ; while some sentences, as
Go; Come; March;
are complete without any other word expressed.
If you have looked carefully through the examples in
Lesson 3, you have discovered that every sentence and
every clause contains an asserting word, but that a phrase
does not contain any such word.
The asserting word has various names. It is called the
Word-Predicate, Grammatical Predicate, or Verb {predi-
cate meaning that which states, and verb meaning merely
the word, so called because it is the chief word).
The verb with all the words that modify its meaning is
called the Entire Predicate, or the Logical Predicate.
Thus, in the sentences above, the entire predicates are,
lives on a farm; see ten geese; sings for joy; are in the
stable; often hunt with dogs; while the word-predicates are,
lives, see, sings, are, hunt.
Remark. — Words joined to other words to modify or limit their mean-
ing are called adjuncts, The word adjunct means joined to.
14 THE PREDICATE— COMPOSITION.
Jyesson 9.
The Predicate.
Exercise :
In the examples given in Lessons 3 and 5, give the entire
"predicate of each clause or sentence, then select the word-
predicate.
As you have seen in the examples already studied, the
word-predicate, or verb, is sometimes made up of two or
more words of nearly equal importance.
Examples :
1. A lion was lying asleep. 2. The wind is blowing. 3. The men had
eaten supper. 4. Little Frank has been playing with Rover. 5. The
men were catching fish. 6. Do not go too near. 7. May I go to school?
8. The sun has just set. 9. The poor man has lost his hat. 10. The river
can not be seen.
Zesson W.
Composition Exercise — The Predicate.
a. Write sentences, in which the following shall be used
as word-predicates, making six declarative sentences, six
interrogative, four imperative, and four exclamatory, using
the required predicates in any order that you choose :
Look, lost, sent, builds, swam, knew, escaped, have met, will send,
were dismissed, had been writing, has suffered, will raise, was seen, has
hurt, came, were, grow, took, are.
b. Compose five sentences in which the word-predicate
shall be made up of two or more words, and underline the
words of which it is formed.
c. Select the word-predicates from your last reading
lesson.
[Note to Teacher.— These composition exercises, though included
in one lesson, should occupy from four to six recitations.]
THE SUBJECT. 15
JOesso7i //.
The Subject.
Examine again the sentences and clauses in which you
have selected the predicates, and you will find in each
another very important word. This word names the per-
son or the thing about which something is asserted. Thus,
in the sentence, Henry lost his hall, Henry is the name of
the person about whom the predicate, lost his bally makes
an assertion.
We may change the sentence, and write it, The ball was
lost by Henry.
In this sentence, ball is the name of the thing about
which the predicate, was lost by Henry, makes an assertion.
In the clause, while the wind is blowing, wind is the
name of the thing about which the predicate, is blowing,
makes an assertion.
The name of the person or thing about which the predi-
cate asserts something, is called the Word-Subject or the
Grammatical Subject.
The Word-Subject, with all its adjuncts, is called the
Entire Subject or the Logical Subject.
In the following examples, one line is drawn under the
entire subject, and two lines under the word-subject.
Examples :
1. An hour soon passes.
2. This man is shooting ducks.
3. The Indian's hut is made of bark,
4. The fence has been broken by the cows.
5. A little robin has built her nest in this tree.
Exercise
a. Rewrite number two, expressing the same thought, but
making dMcJcs the subject; number three, making Indian
the subject; number three again, making bark the subject;
16 NOUN SUBJECTS AND PRONOUN SUBJECTS.
number/oitr, making cows the subject; number five, making
nest the subject.
b. Give the entire subject, then the word subject, of the
sentences and clauses used as examples in Lessons 1 and 3.
Lesson /2,
Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects.
The word-subject is generally a name, or noun {noun
meaning name) . In some sentences, as numbers four, nine,
eleven, and some others, in Lesson 3, the word-subject is not
a noun, but is a word used instead of a noun. Such a word
is called a Pronoun.
Examples :
1. Here we are. 2. He is always cheerful. 3. I think they are going.
Exercise :
a. Write in one column all the noun subjects, and in
another the pronoun subjects in the sentences given in Les-
son 3.
b. Write four sentences with noun subjects and four with
pronoun subjects.
Lesson /J.
Phrase Subjects and Clause Subjects.
Exercise:
After selecting the predicate in eacli of the following
sentences, carefully examine the subject :
1. To write well is a valuable accomplishment.
. 2. Sliding on the ice made him tired.
3. To work with a will is a remedy for sadness.
1. Where he went is not known.
2. That we shall succeed is certain.
3. Where are you going? is the question.
The subject of each of the first three of the preceding
PHRASE SUBJECTS AND CLAUSE SUBJECTS 17
sentences is a phrase. The subject of each of the next
three is a clause.
It will be seen, therefore, that the subject of a sentence
may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause.
Remark. — As nouns are, in a more general way, called substantives;
words, phrases, or clauses used as nouns are substantive in office.
Exercise ;
a. Copy the following sentences, then draw two lines
under each entire predicate, and one line under each entire
subject.
b. Select the word-predicate, and state whether the sub-
ject is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause.
1. Amidst the storms they sang. 2. I do not know where he is.
3. Why he returned was not told. 4. This is the cat that killed the rat.
5. To learn a language well is difficult. 6. To plan well is of great im-
portance. 7. There eternal Summer dwells. 8. To see you happy sat-
isfies me. 9. That I have helped you, is proof of my friendship.
10. Around the fire, one wintry night, the farmer's rosy children sat.
c. Write three sentences with phrase subjects, and three
with clause subjects, underlining as directed above.
JOesson /^.
Position op the Subject.
In most of the examples studied so far, the subject is
placed hejore the predicate. In some sentences, however,
the subject is placed ajter the predicate, and in some
sentences it is placed between the words that form the
predicate.
Examples :
1. Here is the man. (After.) 2. There sat the king. 3. Do you see
that tree? (Between.) 4. Loud blew the mnd. 5. Has the mowe^/ been
found ?
In an imperative sentence, and often in an interrogative
sentence, the name of the person addressed, although it at
18 POSITION OF SUBJECT.
first seems to be the subject, is used simply to point out the
person meant, or to call his attention; and because it has
no connection with the other words in the sentence, it is set
off by the comma. The subject of an imperative sentence
is always you^ ye, or thou, and is generally understood but
not expressed.
Exercise :
a. Select first the entire predicate, then the entire subject
in each of the following* sentences. Give reasons for the
marks of punctuation:
1. Where have you been? 2. Wind the clock. 3. Found he the
peace he sought? 4. Friends, give me your hands. 5. Ill fares the
land. 6. Lucy, where have you been ?
"b. Select the entire subject, then the word-subject, in
each of the sentences given as examples in Lessons 5 and 6.
c. Write five sentences in which the subject shall be
placed after the predicate or between the words that form
the predicate, underlining the predicate, or its parts, twice,
and the subject once.
J^esson /cJ.
Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates.
Exercise :
Select the word-predicates and the word-subjects in the
following :
1. The horse jumped and ran. 2. I ate my breakfast and started for
school. 3. The children laughed, danced, and shouted. 4. Jennie and
Lucy are feeding their pets. 5. The cows, the horses, and the chickens
have been fed. 6. The old hen and her brood started for the water.
7. William and his father dug the holes and set the posts. 8. Lizzie,
Nellie, and Frank picked the peas and shelled them for dinner.
From these sentences it will be seen:
1. That two or more predicates may have the same sub-
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND COMPOUND PREDICATES 19
ject, as in numbers one, two, and three; in this case, the
predicate is compound.
2. That one predicate may have two or more subjects, as
in numbers four, jive, and six; in this case, the subject is
compound.
8. That two or more predicates may have two or more
subjects, as in numbers seven and eight; in this case, the
subject and the predicate are both compound.
Remark. — Such sentences are classified as simple sentences, (2) vnth a
compound subject, or (2) a compound predicate, or {S) with both.
Direction for Punctuation. — When a compound subject
or a compound predicate is made up of more than two
parts, the parts should be separated by the comma; as,
The trees, the bushes, the fences, and the houses were covered with
snow.
We encamped by the river, pitched our tent, and prepared our evening
meal.
Composition Exercise :
Form sentences, using the following compound subjects
and compound predicates :
Apples, pears, peaches. Books, papers, magazines.
Lincoln, Grant, Garfield. Bellows, anvdl, hammer, iron.
Mother, father, sisters, brothers.
"Were watching, were working, were waiting. Go, tell, come.
Will study, will learn, will improve. Said, started.
Are written, are published.
Zesson /6.
Predicate and Subject.
Exercise :
Select the word-predicates in the following stories, and
give the word-subject of each predicate:
Two travelers were going along a dangerous road, and they prom-
ised to stand by one another to the last. By-and-by they entered a
wood, and were alarmed at seeing a huge bear coming in their direo
20 PREDICATE AND SUBJECT—EXERCISES.
tion at full speed. The younger man quickly climbed a tree, and left
his companion to shift for himself. The other man fell and lay per-
^fectly still, as if dead. Soon the savage beast came up, snifted all
around, and as the man lay breathless, it walked away, supposing him
to be dead, and left him unharmed. The younger man now descended
from the tree where he had been watching, and jestingly asked,
"What did the bear whisper in your ear?" "He told me," replied
the other, " never again to believe or trust a man like you."
A horse was drawing a heavy load of timber along one of the crowded
thoroughfares of a large city, lately, and being unable, with its heavy
load, to turn quick enough to please its driver, he, in a fit of bad temper,
began to beat it severely. This only made the animal stupid, and at
last it stood quite still, and refused to move another step. He whipped
the horse again and again, but it only reared and kicked, and then
again stubbornly stood still. A passer-by, who knew the horse well,
and knew how to treat it, went up to its head, spoke gently to the
trembling animal, patted it on the neck, and then said, " Come along,
Bob." The horse looked at him with its great eyes, as much as to say,
"I would do anything for you, because you speak kindly to me." Then
it exerted all its great strength, and the heavy load was once more
moving along the street.
A poor old blind soldier used to earn a scanty living by playing his
violin every night in one of the public gardens in Vienna. His little
dog sat beside him, holding its master's hat for the few coppers that
passers-by occasionally dropped in. One night the old man was in
great trouble. No one stopped to listen to his music, and he had not
received a single coin that day. Hungry and weary and grieved, the
poor soldier at last fairly broke down and wept. A stranger, seeing his
distress, came up to him, put a coin in the hat, and said kindly, " Lend
me your violin, and I will play while you collect." He tuned the fiddle
carefully, and then played so well that a great crowd soon gathered to
listen. The hat quickly filled, not with copper only, but with silver,
also. The stranger, who so nobly came to the help of a poor, broken-
down soldier, was one of the finest violin players in the world. The
old man wept tears of joy as he blessed his benefactor, and as the latter
walked away the crowd heartily cheered him for his kindness.
Jjesson 17 *
Analysis op Sentences.
To analyze a sentence is to separate it into its parts and
to give the office of each part.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21
Exercise :
Classify the following sentences, as in Lesson 5; give yie
entire predicate, the word-predicate, and the entire subject
of each; state whether the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a
phrase, or a clause.
Note. — In the analysis of a sentence, it is better to select the predicate first.
Models :
1. "The general sent a message."
A declarative sentence, because it contains a statement; Entire
predicate — sent a message; Word-predicate — scjit; Entire subject — the
general; Word-subject — general — a noun.
2. "Is climbing the mountain difficult ? "
An interrogative sentence, because it asks a question ; Entire pred-
icate — is difficult; Word-predicate — is; Subject — climbing the mountain —
a phrase.
1. I met a little cottage girl. 2. Where did you find that pretty stone?
.3. Lookatme. (Subject not expressed) 4. Which book did you ask for?
5. Go thy way for this time. 6. Did you and May go to school yester-
day ? 7. The wizard opened a drawer and took from it a lovely necklace.
8. What a delightful time you must have had ! 9. Come in, poor child,
and warm yourself. 10. Eating unripe fruit will make you sick. 11.
The doctor had seldom seen a more patient child. 12. That a mistake
had been made, was quite evident. 13. " We shall see," was his only
answer. 14. Children, can we not learn something from this story?
15. In his arm-chair sits dear old grandpa. 16. The parrot dragged the
doll down and hid it. 17. Where the robber concealed his treasures,
has never been discovered. 18. To leap down upon the pavement
below would be instant death.
19. A little word in kindness spoken,
A motion, or a tear.
Has often healed the heart that's broken,
And made a friend sincere.
20. Under a spreading chestnut tree, the village smithy stands.
Jjesson 78,
Composition in Review.
1. Write the words / and as capitals.
2. Begin with a capital, (a) every sentence, (b) every
22 ' COMPOSITION— REVIEW.
particular name of a person or a place, (c) all names of the
Deity.
Look in your Readers for examples of each.
Exercises :
a. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi-
cate.
b. Write an interrogative sentence with a compound
subject.
c. Write an exclamatory sentence with a pronoun as
the subject.
d. Write a declarative sentence with a clause as the subject.
e. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi-
cate, and with a compound subject made up of two pro-
nouns.
f. Write a declarative sentence with a phrase as the
subject.
g. Write an imperative sentence with a compound predi-
cate consisting of three verbs.
h. Write an interrogative sentence with a phrase as the
subject.
i. Write an affirmative sentence.
j. Write a negative sentence.
Jjesson /9.
The Complement.
In some of the sentences already studied, the word-predi-
cate and the subject together do not make the sense com-
plete. One of the other words seems to be needed. Thus,
John lost, James is, men were, your answer was, are in-
complete in sense; but when we add something to each,
and say, John lost his hall, James is a hrave youth, men
were catching fish, your answer was right, the meaning of
each is complete. These additional words are called com-
plements, because they complete the sense of the predicate,
THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 23
Remark. — Verbs requiring complements are called incomplete verbs.
The Object Complement.
Examine the complement of the predicate in the follow-
ing sentences from Lessons 1 and 3:
1. Jennie fed he r bird. 2. The hunter saw the fire. 3. The two base-
ball clubs played a game. 4. The men had eaten supper. 5. Carl and
Andrew are spinning their tops. 6. He once hunted the deer. 7. He
had sprained his ankle.
[Note to Teacher.— In the first three sentences, the object is under-
lined. In the other sentences let the pupil find it for himself.]
In each of these sentences, the complement is a noun,
naming something upon which the action asserted by the
predicate is performed ; thus, bird is the name of the ani-
mal that Jennie fed; fire is the name of the thing that the
hunter saw, etc.
Such a complement is called an Object complement, or
Object.
Exercise: ^ .
a. In the folk) wing sentences, select the verbs that have
objects ,^nd give the object of each :
romas built this house. 2. I saw a man by the roadside. 3.
found shelter in a large oak tree. 4. With our money we
books. 5. Choose your friend with care. 6. Frank lit the fire,
sister cooked the dinner. 7. Joseph had a coat of many colors.
8. Select from this basket the largest apple. 9. Do you remember the
man who built this house? 10. But when he caught the measure wild,
the old man raised his head and smiled.
b. Use the verbs in the first column in sentences, select-
ing, from the second column, a suitable object for each verb.
read vase
ate book
are driving baby
burn picture
gave friends
has broken breakfast
hold oxen
am drawing story
forsook table
made ' dress
24 THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT.
Jjesson 20,
The Object Complement.
Examine the objects in the following sentences :
1. My friend surprised me. 2. We expect hiin to-morrow. 3. Did
the stick strike you^ 4. The President expects to he there. 5. Fred
enjoys sliding on the ice. 6. Your brother hopes to see you. 7. Your
brother hopes that he shall see you. 8. 1 do not know when we shall
return. 9. The teacher said, '^ Study your lessonJ"
In the first three sentences, the object is a pronoun; in
the next three, the object is a phrase; in the last three, the
object is a clause. It will be seen, then, that the object,
like the subject, is either a noun, a pronoun, or one or more
words used as a noun. In other words, the object is always
substantive in office.
A verb may have two or more objects; as,
10. My mother called Lucy and me. 11. The horse eats hay, oats, and
barley. 12. He intends to come here to-day and to go there to-morrow.
Two or more verbs may have the same object; as,
13. The merchant buys and sells country produce. 14. We picked,
prepared, and ate the fruit.
Two or more verbs may have two or more objects; as,
15. We fought and conquered our enemies and our oppressors. 16. I
found and rescued my books, my pictures, and my papers.
Remark. — A verb having an object complement is called a Transitive
Verb.
Exercise :
In the stories in Lesson 16 select the transitive verbs,
and tell whether their objects are nouns or pronouns.
jLesson 27 .
The Object Complement.
Exercises :
a. In the following sentences select the verbs that have
ANALYSIS. 25
objects, and state whether the object is a noun, a pronoun,
a phrase, or a clause:
1. He took no notice, but looked as if he had not heard the words.
2. The men who do the greatest things do them by steady, unremitting
toil. 3. I hope to find my friend much better 4. He knows where we
are going. 5. The janitor forgot to ring the bell. 6. I had never before
seen such swimming. 7. You know that I do not want money. 8.
"What can be the matter?" exclaimed Mr. Brown. 9. The warrior
bowed his crested head and tamed his heart of tire. 10. He appointed
the moon for seasons ; the sun knoweth his going down.
b. Select and classify the objects in the first four para-
graphs of your last reading lesson.
JOesson 22.
Analysis of Sentences.
Exercise :
Classify the following sentences as in Lesson 17; give the
predicate, the subject, and the object in each sentence and
clause, and state whether the subjects and objects are nouns,
pronouns, phrases, or clauses:
Model :
" I do not know where my brother put the book."
This is a declarative sentence, containing two statements : Entire
predicate — do not know where my brother put the book; Word-predi-
cate — do know ; Subject — T, a pronoun ; Object — where my brother
put the book, a clause ; Entire predicate of object clause — put the book
where ; Word-predicate — put ; Entire subject of object clause — my
brother; Word-subject — brother, a noun; Object — book, a noun.
1. Galileo taught that the earth revolves. 2. The owl kills mice and
eats them. 3. Regulus lost his life, bat kept his word. 4. Did you have
a good time ? 5. " Good morning," said the young frog. 6. Columbus
thought he had reached an island near Asia. 7. Ladies and gentlemen,
you will now elect your officers. 8. That we had succeeded, pleased
and encouraged him. 9. Jack marched up, took the rope in his teeth,
and rang the bell again.
10. Go ring the bells, and fire the guns,
And fling the starry banner out,
26 COMPOSITION-REVIEW.
11. What a pleasant picture of an evening home scene the poet
Cowper draws ! 12. The Spaniards now resolved to make their way to
Cuba. 13. Now, I propose that we build a wharf. 11. What do you
say, lads ? Shall we do it ?
15. With slow tread and still tread,
He scans the tented line,
And he counts the battery guns
By the gaunt and shadowy pine.
Zesson 2S,
Composition in Review.
After writing the following sentences, underline the
entire predicate twice and the entire subject once; put the
objects in brackets, and indicate the word-predicate by a
dagger (f ), and word, phrase, or clause subject, by a double
dagger (j).
Example :
t t t t
When our friends return, Mary and I will invite [them] to supper .
Exercises :
a. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a
pronoun and the object a phrase.
b. Write an interrogative sentence in which there is a
compound predicate and a noun object.
c. Write an exclamatory sentence in which both the sub-
ject and the object are nouns.
d. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a
pronoun, and the object a phrase.
e. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a
clause, and the object a pronoun.
f. Write an imperative sentence in which the object is a
phrase.
g. Write a sentence which shall have a noun as the sub-
ject and a noun as the object.
h. Write an interrogative sentence in which the object is
a clause.
ATTRIBUTE COMPLeJJBJ^ 2 ' ' 27
i. Write an interrogative sentence in Winch the subject
is a noun and the predicate has two objects.
j. Answer the question that you have just made by a
negative sentence in which the subject is a pronoun.
Jjesson 2J^.
The Attribute Complement.
We will now return to the phrases and sentences given
in Lessons 1 and 3, and examine some of those that have
another kind of complement.
1. The farmer is tired. 2. Unless the weather is pleasant. 3. When
the horse grows old.
1. The tall oak was once a small acorn. 2. If James is a brave boy,
3. John Gilpin was a citizen.
In the first three, the complement is a word describing
the subject; that is, giving some quality of the real thing
which the subject names; thus,
pleasant weather ; tired farmer ; old horse.
In the next three, the complement is a noun giving an-
other name to, or identifying, the subject.
Such complements as the above are called attributes of
the subject, because they either describe or identify the
subject.
Remark. — An attribute is any property, or quality, of the person or
thing.
Exercise:
Select the attributes in the following sentences, and in
the sentences of Lessons 5 and 6.
1. Harold is industrious. 2, This child's face is interesting. 3. Is
hje brave f 4. Be brave, children. (Notice the use of the word children.)
5, He is S'Jiian- 6, Is he a soldier?
28 ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT.
Jjesson 25,
The Attribute Complement.
Exercise :
a. Give the predicate and the subject of each of the fol-
lowing sentences, and examine carefully the office and
form of the italicized attributes :
1. The children are happy. 2. Henry is in trouble. (= troubled)
3. The patient seems to be better. 4, Everything shall be as you wish.
6. This rose is beautiful. 6. The doctor is at work. (= working)
The above attributes all describe the subjects, but have
different forms. In numbers one and five, the attribute is
a WORD describing the subject; in two^ three ^ and six, the
attribute is a phrase describing the subject; in Jour, the
attribute is a clause describing the subject.
b. In the same manner, examine the following sentences:
1. It is sAe. 2. Our amusement was j)tet/twgrcrogtte^ 3. The question
is, what to do with it. 4. The fact is, he stole the money. 5, James is my
brother. 6. My hope was, that we should arrive before sunset. 7. The
trouble is to answer your question. 8. My wish is, that you should dine
with me.
In these sentences, each attribute identifies the subject,
that is, tells who or what the subject is. In numbers one
and five, the attribute is a word identifying the subject; in
numbers two, three, and seven, the attribute is a phrase
identifying the subject; in numbers foii^r, six, and eight, the
attribute is a clause identifying the subject.
From these examples, you will see :
(1) That, inform, the attribute is either a word, a phrase,
or a clause.
(2) That the office of an attribute is either to describe or
to identify the subject.
Exercise :
a. Select and classify the attributes in the following sen-
teuQes ;
DIAGRAMS. 29
1. This book is a present, 2. The pudding is too sweet. 3. The chil-
dren were at play. 4. Your child is in danger. 5. My intention is to
complete the work to-day. 6. Her work was sewing on buttons. 7.
Jennie appears to be satisfied. 8. The subject of debate is, Which is the
best plan ?
Ijesson 26.
Diagrams.
It is often convenient to show the relations of the different
parts of a sentence so that they may be recognized at a glance.
When this is done by the use of lines, dots, and position,
it is called diagraming. Notice how the relations are shown
in the following sentences:
(Subject.) (Predicate.)
Dogs hark. Dogs ■ bark
Cats catch mice.
Cats
(Object complement.)
, catch mice
Gold is yellow.
Wolves and dogs bark.
Gold
(Comj
<
■
Gold
(Attribute complement.)
1 is \ yellow
)Ound subject.)
Wolves
"^.l.^^f'L.
Dogs hark and bite.
logs., -^ 1
(Compound predicate.)
bark
Gold is bright and yellow
1 N§j bite
(Compound attribute.)
bright
1 '^ \^
Cats
t— "*V| yellow
Cats catch rats and mice.
(Compound object.)
rats
. catch , ^<r
■ \^i mice
80 ANALYSIS.
Exercise :
Diagram the following. Capitalize the first word of the
sentence:
Words are signs.
Thoughts and feelings are realities.
We imitate deeds and language.
Satin is smooth and pliable.
Ijessou 27.
Analysis of Sentences.
Exercise :
Classify the following sentences; give the predicate, the
subject, the object, if any, and the attribute, if any, in each
sentence and clause; and state the form and the office of
the attributes :
Model :
••You may be a smart boy, but you must be honest, too."
This is a declarative sentence, containing two statements; Entire
predicate of first clause — may he a smart hoy; Word-predicate — may
he; S"ubject — you — a pronoun; Attribute of subject— 601/ — a noun;
Entire predicate of second clause — must he honest, too; Word-predi-
cate — must he; Subject — you — a pronoun; Attribute of subject —
honest — an adjective.
1. Jack was an idle fellow who would not work. 2. Jack was idle,
and would not do any work. 3. Thy brother was dead, and is alive
again. 4. I am a Thracian and a soldier. 5. Unarmed and unattended
walked the Czar. 6. It was summer, and the flowers were in bloom.
7. You were born a king, and I was born a private man. 8. The enter-
prise proved too difl&cult for Raleigh. 9. Now his eldest son was in the
field. 10. To be blamed was my reward. 11. My reward was to be
blamed. 12. His best exercise was leaping the bar. 13. The wonder is,
how he escaped. 14. Who can that man be? 15. This subject is to be
discussed. 16. The thing that you have always wanted has been a set,
steady, constant purpose. 17. I firmly believed that the expedition
would be successful. 18. Where are the flowers? 19. The chief art of
learning is to attempt but little at a time. 20. Nothing that we do wil-
lingly is troublesome.
COMPOSITION— REVIEW. 31
Ijesson 28.
Composition Exercises in Review.
a. Fill the blanks in the following, as indicated by the
words in parenthesis; then analyze the resulting sentences,
as in Lesson 27:
(adj.) (adj.) (noun)
1. Is it not ?
(noun) (phrase) (pronoun) (noun)
2. When was I broke .
(pronoun) (noun) (noun) (pronoun)
3. That is , but has borrowed .
(noun) (adj.) (noun)
4. was a .
(adj.) (adj.) (noun) (noun)
5. was called .
(clause) (noun)
6. -^^as my .
(phrase) (phrase) •
(phrase) (clause)
8. is .
(noun) (noun) (adj.) (adj.) (adj.)
9. and are . . and .
(pronoun) (pronoun) (phrase)
10. and are .
b. Write an interrogative sentence with a phrase attribute.
c. Write a negative sentence with a clause attribute.
d. Write a declarative sentence with a phrase subject and
a phrase attribute. •
e. Write a declarative sentence with a clause subject and
a noun attribute.
f. Write an exclamatory sentence with a pronoun as at-
tribute.
g. Write an imperative sentence with a phrase attribute.
Jyesson 29.
Modifiers of the Predicate.
The Predicate and the Subject are called the Principal
32 MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE.
Parts of the sentence, because both are required in order to
form a sentence. There may be many other words in a sen-
tence besides the principal parts, but the office of the addi-
tional words is, generally, to modify or to limit the thought
expressed by the principal parts.
Remark. — The Object Complement, or Object, as it performs an impor-
tant office in the sentence, and yet does not directly modify or limit either the
subject or the predicate, is considered by some grammarians as one of the
principal parts of the sentence.
Select the principal parts of the following sentences, and
then try to discover the office of the additional words :
1. Mary played weZZ. 4. W/ien will he come?
2. How did you succeed ? 5. Bring your book here.
S. It rained yesterday. 6. TT^ere did you find water?
In each of these sentences, there is a word which adds
something to the idea expressed by the word-predicate, and
which is therefore called a modifier of the predicate. In the
first and the second sentences, the additional word tells or
asks how; in the third and fourth, when; in the fifth and
sixth, where. As these words modify verbs, they are
called adverbs, the word adverb meaning added to a verb.
Diagram.
Mary , played (Adverbial adjunct.)
She , walked
She walked slowly along.
Exercise :
In the following, select the words that modify predicates,
stating what they modify, and how:
1. Where did you fill your basket so soon ? 2. Study your lessons
carefully to-night. 3. How merrily the sparrows twitter and how hard
they work! 4. The boy and his dog marched merrily along. 5. Where
shall wisdom be found ? 6. I will gladly help you. 7. The boy took off
ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS— PHRASE AND CLAUSE. 33
his hat when he came in, and answered my questions promptly and
respectfully. 8. From San Salvador, Columbus sailed southward.
9. Overhead hang the long, fan-like branches. 10. The fox looked
wistfully on while the crane coolly ate up the supper.
[Note to the Teacher. — Do not try to have the pupil diagram any-
thing but word elements at this stage of advancement. Kemember
that sentential analysis should precede diagraming.]
Zesson SO.
Adverbial Modifiers — Phrase and Clause.
We will now vary some of the sentences already given by
using different modifiers of the predicate:
1. Mary played with care.
2. It rained in the night.
3. Bring the book to me.
4. Mary played as her teacher directed.
5. It rained while we slept.
6. Bring your book where you can see better.
In the first three sentences, the word predicate is modi-
fied by a phrase telling how, when, or where.
In the next three, by a clause telling how, when, or where.
Phrases and clauses used to modify verbs, have the office
of adverbs, and are called adverbial modifiers^ or adverbial
adjuncts.
Exercise :
Select the adverbial modifiers in the following sentences,
classify them as words, phrases, or clauses, and tell what
each does in the sentence :
1. When the tide has gone out, we will hunt for shells. 2. At the
appointed time the boys met. 3. To-morrow we may catch fish at our
ease. 4. As she reached farther, she slipped and feU into the water. 5.
In the noisy street, my pleasant face you'll meet. 6. Bruno at once
sprang down and seized the reins in his teeth. 7. Long ago, in a land
beyond the sea, lived a poor wood-cutter. 8. One Christmas eve the
children were sitting with their father and mother before the bright
warm fire.
9. Pleasantly breaks the light
Down through the leafy bough.
34 ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS.
10. After this David had tq move from one place to another to
escape from Saul. 11. The dog set off at full speed down the mountain
side. 12. There is a story of a horse that took hold of a pump-handle
with his teeth and pumpe.d water into a trough when he wanted to
drink.
13. Snow-drop nearly fainted
Because the room was hot,
And went away before the rest
With sweet Forget-me-not.
14. "When I'm a man, a man,
I'll be a shoe-maker if I can— and I can 1
I'll sit on a bench with my last held so,
And in and out shall my needles go.
I'll sew so strong that my work shall wear
Till nothing is left but my stitches there.
Ijesson S/.
Adverbial Modifiers.
Exercise :
Choose some story from your Reader, and select and
classify the adverbial modifiers in the first three para-
graphs.
Direction for Punctuation. — When a clause is placed
before the word it modifies, it should be set off by a comma.
For examples see numbers one and four of the sentences in
Lesson 30.
Composition Exercise:
a. Write three sentences in which the predicate is mod-
ified by a word.
b. Write three in which it is modified by a phrase.
c. Write three in which it is modified by a clause.
d. Use the following in sentences as adverbial modifiers,
using as many as you please in the same sentence :
Anywhere, while I slept, unless you go, kindly, in time, to please
you, soon, with ease, while you are gone, to recite our lesson, rapidly,
indifferently, under the bridge, when you wish, yonder, if they per-
severe, from your house, at that time, after the fire, without you, by
doing this.
ADJUNCTS OF SUBJECT AND OBJECT 35
Zesson 32,
Adjuncts of the Subject and Object.
Exercise :
Select the predicate, the subject, and the object, in the
following sentences, and determine the use of the remaining
words :
1. Kind friends helped the poor old man. 2. The little boy ate that
red apple. 3. A selfish man has few friends.
In these sentences there are words added to the subjects
and to the objects. Some of these words, as, Hnd, 'poor^
oldj little^ redj selfish, tell a quality of the real thing named
by the noun to which they belong ; others, as the, that, a,
few, point out, or limit the meaning of the noun.
Words used to qualify, i. e., to limit or describe, nouns or
pronouns, are called adjectives; therefore, all words, phrases,
and clauses used to qualify nouns or pronouns are adjective
adjuncts.
1. Henry^s horses ate my barley. 2. Mr. Brown keeps ladies' and
children's shoes.
In these sentences the subjects and the objects are lim-
ited by nouns denoting either ownership, as in number 1;
or kind, as in number 2. As they limit nouns, they are
adjective in office; or in other words, they are nouns used
adjectively.
A word that qualifies a substantive is called an adjective.
As the subject is always substantive in office, the attri-
bute is always adjective in office.
Remark, — 1. The attribute is sometimes placed before the subject; as,
Happy are the children. Here he is.
2. In such sentences as
He is here, They are in the house,
the italicized words, though they seem adverbial, are really adjective in office,
describing the subject through the predicate. Many grammarians, however,
prefer to consider them adverbial modijiers.
3. Adverbs modify; adjectives qualify.
36 ADJECTIVE ADJUNCTS-PHRASE AND CLAUSE.
Exercise :
Select the adjuncts of the subjects and of the objects in
the following sentences, telling what each one does.
Model :
" This little boy found my red shawl."
This limits hoy by pointing out ; little describes hoy by telling size ;
my limits shawl by telling ownership; red describes shawl by telling
color.
Diagram.
boy I found | shawl
^ \^ (Adjective V^^
^ ^ adjuncts.) \ \
1. The brave soldier received a severe wound. 2. Every man carried
a square box. 3. A babbling brook, clear and cool, bounded our garden
on the south. 4. I gave John's old coat to a beggar. 5. Helen has
pretty, brown eyes. 6. The rich old man gave a large diamond to his
son.
Zesso?i 33,
Adjective Adjuncts — Phrase and Clause.
In the following sentences, the italicized adjuncts of the
subjects and objects are phrases or clauses used adjectively:
1. I see a boy running past.
2. The man in the hoat saw the fish in the water.
3. The fruit to he hrought will refresh us.
4. The sick girl took the medicine hrought hy the doctor.
5. The pupil, who was industrious, won the prize that his teacher offered.
6. The place where the house stood is now covered with trees.
Exercise :
Select and classify the adjuncts of the subjects and of
the objects in the following sentences, and state what each
one tells of the word to which it belongs:
7. The house on the hill was burned. 8. The house that stood on
the hill was burned. 9, His patience will bring a sure reward. 10.
Learn the same lesson that you had yesterday. 11. Crusoe had no mill
ADJUNCTS OF ATTRIBUTE. 37
to grind his grain. 12. The beggar that came to the door yesterday has
come again to-day. 13. We kept the clock that had belonged to our
grandfather. 14. The remark that he made did not please me.
15. She wears a quaint little scarlet cap,
And a little green bowl she holds in her lap.
Jjesson 3J^.
Composition Exercises :
a. Whenever possible, change the phrases in the sen-
tences in Lesson 33 to clauses, and the clauses to phrases;
thus,
(1) I see a boy running past. (Phrase)
I see a boy who is running past. (Clause)
(5) The pupil who was industrious, won the prize that his teacher
offered. (Clauses)
The pupil, being industrious, won the prize offered by his
teacher. (Phrases)
b. Write three sentences of your own containing phrases
used as adjective adjuncts, and three containing clauses
used as adjective adjuncts; then reverse them as above.
Zesson 35 ,
Adjective Adjuncts of the Attribute.
When the attribute is a substantive, that is, when it is a
word identifying the subject (see Lesson 24), it may itself
have the same classes of adjuncts as the subject or the
object; viz., (1) adjectives, (2) nouns, or pronouns denot-
ing ownership or kind, and (3) phrases or clauses.
Examples :
1. These are good apples. 3, He is a man to he respected.
2. This is the baby^s doll. 4. He is the man that helped us.
Exercise :
a. Select and classify the adjuncts of the attribute in the
following:
88 COMPOSITION— EXPANDING SENTENCES.
1. Jack was an idle fellow who would not work. 2. This was my
reward. 3. They are good friends. 4. This is a trap to catch foxes. 5.
What he needs, is our help. 6. It is a very good arrangement. 7. Man
is the only animal that has a hand. 8. A mighty man is he. 9. This is
the way to do it. 10. The sugar-cane is a native of the far east. 11.
The constitution is the highest law of the land.
b. Select the attributes that have adjective adjuncts, in
the sentences in Lessons 5 and 6.
Zesson S6,
Composition and Analysis — Expanding Sentences.
Exercise :
Give the word-predicate, the subject, and the object or
the attribute, if any, in the following sentences. Expand
each sentence by adding adjuncts to one or more of these
parts; classify the adjuncts, and tell what each does.
Model :
Donkey found skin.
Predicate— /ow?id. Subject — donkey. Object — shin.
Expanded. — A long-eared donkey once found a lion's skin that was
hanging in his master's shed.
A limits donkey by pointing out ; Long-eared describes donkey by tell-
ing kind; Once modifies found by telling when ; A limits skin by point-
ing out; Lion's describes skin by telling kind; The clause that was
hanging in his master's shed limits skin by pointing out ; The predicate
of this clause is was hanging; Subject — that. The phrase in his master's
shed modifies was hanging by telling where.
1. Horse was eating grass. 2. Robin built nest. 3. Prince traveled.
4. Bees are insects. 5. Man lived. 6. Men left work. 7. Grandfather
was man. 8. Bees make honey. 9. Peas were growing. 10. Books are
friends.
Zesso?i S7,
The Form of Sentences.
(Simple, Complex, and Compound.)
We have seen, in several instances, that a clause may be
used as an adjunct, either adjective or adverbial; thus,
y
FORM OF SENTENCES. 39
1. "We will ride when the wind goes down.
2. I found my book where I left it.
3. As she reached farther, she slipped and fell into the water.
4. The pupil who was industrious, won the prize that was offered.
5. The place where the house stood is now covered with trees.
Clauses used as adjuncts are called dependent clauses, or
subordinate clauses, because they depend upon some other
word. In the above sentences, the italicized clauses are
dependent. The other clause in each sentence is called the
principal clause, or independent clause, because it contains
the most important assertion, and because the other clause
or clauses depend upon it.
When a sentence contains one principal clause, and one
or more dependent clauses, it is called a complex sentence.
The above are complex sentences.
Sometimes a sentence contains two or more clauses of
equal rank, no one being dependent on another; as,
1. You may go but I will stay.
2. The grass is green and the flowers are beautiful.
3. You may speak your piece or Robert may sing a song.
When a sentence contains two or more independent
clauses, it is called a compound sentence.
The above are compound sentences.
In a compound sentence there may be one or more de-
pendent clauses belonging to the principal clauses.
Thus, we may add dependent clauses to the last sentence:
You may speak the piece that you like best, or Robert may sing
the song that I taught him.
This sentence, however, is still compound, because it
contains two independent clauses.
A sentence containing a single assertion, that is, but one
combination of subject and predicate, is called a simple
sentence; as,
That pretty little stone is a carnelian. (See also the sentences
in Lesson 5.)
40 COMPOSITION— REVIEW.
Remark. — A simple sentence may contain any nurnber of words and
phrases, but it never contains a clause.
Remabk. — Any part of a simple sentence may be compound. {See
diagrams in Lesson 26.)
Remark. — Any substantive clause is subordinate to the whole sentence;
and any sentence containing a substantive clause, either as subject, attribute,
or object, is considered complex.
Exercise :
Classify according to form all the sentences in Lessons 22
and 27, and give reasons.
Ijesson S8.
Composition in Review.
Exercises :
(a) Write four simple sentences.
(b) Write four complex sentences in which the dependent
clause shall be an adjunct:
(1) Of the subject of the principal clause.
(2) Of the predicate of the principal clause.
(3) Of the object in the principal clause.
(4) Of the attribute in the principal clause.
(c) Write three simple sentences, then form a compound
sentence by uniting the three simple sentences.
(d) Write a compound sentence consisting of two clauses.
(e) Expand your first simple sentence by adding an ad-
verbial clause.
(f) Expand another simple sentence by adding an adjec-
tive clause.
(g) Write a complex sentence in which an adverbial
clause is placed before the word it modifies.
(h) Write a compound sentence consisting of four clauses.
(i) Write a complex sentence in which there are three
dependent clauses.
to
ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 41
Note. — After writing the above sentences, draw two lines under ea£>h prin-
cipal clause and one line under each dependent clause.
(j) Write a complex sentence having a subject clause.
(Is.) Write a complex sentence having an object clause.
(1) Write a complex sentence having an attribute clause.
Zesson 39.
More About Adverbial Modifiers.
Analyze the following sentences; that is, name the prin-
cipal parts, then the dependent words, or modifiers.
Examine carefully the italicized words, and try to deter-
mine their use.
1. We walked very slowly.
2. The weather is delightfully cool.
3. Very few men would have been so brave.
4. My teacher spoke more kindly than I deserved.
5. Many more flowers can be found.
It will be seen that each of the italicized words modifies
•some other word that is itself a modifier or adjunct of one
of the principal parts. Thus slowly modifies the word-
predicate walked, and very modifies slowly by telling how
slowly; cool qualifies the subject weather, and delightfully
modifies cool by telling how cool.
In number one and number four, the italicized modifier
belongs to an adverb ; in number two, number three, and
number ^t^e, to an adjective.
A word that modifies an adjective or an adverb is called
an adverb.
Remark.— Thus it is seen that an adverb may modify a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb.
Exercise :
a. Select the modifiers of adjectives or adverbs in the fol-
lowing, telling what they modify, and how ; also tell what
the word that they modify does in the sentence.
42 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
' Diagram the sentences thus:
We , walked This
is \ day
1. She was too happy to speak. 2. The evening is quite cool. 3.
This lot is not so large as ours. 4. It rains more frequently in that
country. 5. You came too late to see the procession. 6. The house is
too old for service. 7. It was thought very strange. 8. This is an un-
usually cold day. 9. Henry rises very early. 10. Henry is a very early
b. Compose and analyze five sentences containing modi-
fiers of adjectives or adverbs, underlining the modified
adjective or adverb once, and its modifier twice.
J^esson 4^-
Prepositional Phrases.
Let us now examine more closely some of the phrases
that have been used as principal parts or as adjuncts:
1. We will go into the house. 2. The house on the hill was hurned.
3. I laid a book on the table. 4. Give the book to me. 5. The gardener
picked a box of apples. 6. The boy beside me asked a question.
You will see that each italicized phrase is made up of a
noun or a pronoun, and a word which connects this noun
or pronoun to the word which the phrase modifies or limits.
Thus, in the first sentence, the phrase, into the house, is
an adverbial adjunct modifying the verb will go, by telling
where.
Into connects the noun house to the verb will go.
In the second sentence, the phrase, on the hill, is an ad-
jective adjunct limiting the noun house.
On connects the noun hill to the subject house.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 43
In the same way, analyze the phrases in the remaining
sentences.
The connecting word in each of these phrases is called a
preposition, because it is placed before the noun or pronoun,
the word 'preposition meaning placed before. The noun or
pronoun that the preposition connects to some other word
in the sentence, is called the object of the preposition.
Note. — The word to which the noun or pronoun is connected is of more
importance, of higher rank in the sentence, than the object of the preposition.
Exercise :
Name the objects of the prepositions in the above sen-
tences.
Remark. — The term object is applied in thi^ ca^e because of the form
that the pronoun takes when it has this office. Thus, we say by me, and
not by I ; to Wm, and not to he.
The object of the preposition may be described or limited
by adjuncts: thus,
1. We will go into the brown house,
2. The barn on that high green hill was burned.
Diagramed :
These additional words, however, are not essential parts
of the phrase.
Phrases that are introduced by prepositions are called
prepositional phrases.
Exercise :
a. Name the prepositional phrases in the sentences at the
beginning of this lesson.
b. Select and analyze the prepositional phrases in the fol-
lowing:
44 VERBAL PHRASES.
Model:
Lay your books on the table.
On the table is a prepositional phrase in form and adverbial in oflBce,
modifying the verb lay by telling where. The preposition on connects
its object table to lay. Table is limited by the adjective adjunct the.
1. A seed of the beautiful mistletoe was separated from its parent.
2. At the age of twelve, Franklin was apprenticed to his brother James,
who was a printer. 3. A large number of monkeys will sometimes get
together in the morning, in the woods. 4. After dinner we will walk
to town. 5. School opened on Monday, at 9 o'clock a. m. 6. In all the
surrounding fields there grew fine crops of wheat and barley. 7. The
long, slender boughs of the willow are the favorite resort of the oriole.
8. Long ago, in a castle in the heart of the German forest, lived a proud
nobleman, who, on one particular Sunday morning, took it into his
head to go hunting.
9. And little brown bird in the sycamore tree,
You have sung pretty songs all day to me ;
Now go to your rest.
In your nice soft nest;
I shall see you again in the morning light.
10. A small remnant of cheese was divided among the famished
children.
Diagram 1, 3, 4, and 7.
Jjesson ^/.
Verbal Phrases.
In the sentences studied in preceding lessons, we have
also had a second class of phrases, such as the following :
1. Jumping rope is good exercise.
2. We saw Henry eating an apple.
3. I found the horse tied fast.
In these phrases, the principal words, jumping^ eating,
tied, are words very much like verhs, but they do not assert,
and, therefore, are not verbs. Thus, / am jumping, Henry
was eating, the horse was tied, are assertions; but, I jump-
ing, Henry eating. Horse tied, are not assertions.
Words which come from and resemble verbs, and yet do
not assert, are called verbals.
VERBAL PHRASES. 45
A phrase in which the principal word is a verbal, is
called a verbal phrase.
Some verbal phrases have another form, as in the fol-
lowing :
1. 1 hope to see you. 2. To earn my living is my ambition.
In such cases, the verbal is made up of two words — to
see, to earn.
In a verbal phrase, the verbal may be modified by some
other word; as,
to write well ; running fast ;
or it may have an object; as.
To see you eating an apple ;
or an attribute complement; as,
Being rich ; to be rich.
N f^ing, apple \ eat , apple
\ ing \ rich \ be \ rich
There are, then, two classes of phrases; namely, preposi-
tional phrases, of which the principal words are a preposi-
tion and its object, and verbal phrases, of which the principal
part is a verbal, with its complement, if there be one.
The introductory word in a phrase is called the leader.
In a prepositional phrase, the leader is a preposition; in a
verbal phrase, the leader is a verbal.
Remark. — A verbal introduced by to is called an infinitive.
T?ie to of the infinitive is sometimes understood; as
Who saw her eat the apple ? = [to] eat.
She was seen to eat the apple. (Expressed.)
Analysis. — To eat the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the
leader is the infinitive to eat, and its object is the noun ajjple.
46 THE CLAUSE— CONNECTIVES.
Remark. — A verbal not having to either expressed or understood is
called a participle.
Having eaten the apple, she counted the seeds.
Having eaten the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the leader is
the participle having eaten and its object the noun apple.
Exercise :
Select, classify, and give the office of the phrases in the
following sentences; then analyze each phrase, according
to the model last given:
1. The boys are swimming in the river. 2. The books to be studied
next are these. 3. Get a box of apples, x 4. I hope to see you. 5. The
man sitting there is a lawyer. 6. To write well is a valuable accomplish-
ment. 7. 1 enjoy watching the bathers. 8. I came to ask you. 9. We
saw the men mowing grass. 10. John came limping along. 11. Into the
street the piper stepped. 12. The hat on the table is yours. 13. My wish
is to receive instruction.
J^esson 4^2.
The Clause — Connective Pronouns.
Let us now return to some of the sentences already
studied, and examine more closely the clauses used as modi-
fiers, observing especially the office of the introductory word
in the clauae.
The pupil who was industrious, won the prize that his teacher offered.
In this sentence, the subject pupil is limited by the
clause, who was industrious. The clause is connected to
pupil by the pronoun who. The predicate of the dependent
clause is was industrious; the subject of the dependent
clause is the pronoun who.
It will thus be seen that the pronoun who has a double
office; first, as a connective, connecting the dependent clause
to the word which the clause limits; second, as the subject
of the dependent clause. Again, the object prize is limited
by the clause, that his teacher offered. The clause is con-
nected to prize by the pronoun that. In the dependent
CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 47
clause, offered is the predicate, teacher is the subject, and
that is the object. Therefore that has a double office in the
sentence ; first, as a connective; second, as the object in the
dependent clause.
A pronoun that connects a dependent clause to the word
which the clause limits, and, at the same time, performs
some substantive office in the dependent clause, is called
a connective pronoun.
remark , did please ^ me
"% \ \
he , made . that
Exercises :
a. You may now take the sentences that you made as a
composition exercise in Lesson 36, and select the clauses
that are introduced by connective pronouns. Tell what
word each clause limits, and give the two offices of the con-
nective pronoun.
b. Do the same with the following sentences:
1. The only man whom I was acquainted with was absent. 2, The
remark that he made did not please me. 3. Learn the lesson that was
given to you yesterday. 4. Learn the lesson that I gave to you yester-
day. 5. Jack was an idle fellow, who would not work. 6. The house
that stood on the hill was burned. 7. The soldier whose wound was so
severe recovered. 8. I expect to find the book that you lost. 9. This is
the person whom you wished to see. 10. He spoke of my brother, who
was then absent.
Lesson ^S.
The Clause — Connective Adverbs.
There is a second class of words which connect depend-
ent clauses to the words which the clauses modify, and, at
the same time, perform another office.
I found my book where I left it. ^
48 CONNECTIVE ADVERBS.
In this sentence, where I left it is an adverbial clause
modifying the verb found. Where connects the dependent
clause to found. It also modifies the verbs found and left
by showing place, and is, therefore, an adverb.
We shall ride "when the wind goes down.'
When connects the dependent clause, when the wind goes
down, to the verb shall ride. It also modifies the verbs shall
and goes, and so is adverbial in office.
A word that connects a clause to the word that the
clause modifies, and, at the same time, performs the office
of an adverb, is called a connective adverb.
I I found I book
■"t^'^^T^^^^T' (Here where equals in the place in
\<^ N^ which. The first phrase modifies
^ \®, found, the second modifies left.)
I I left I it
Exercise :
In the following sentences, select the clauses which are
introduced by connective adverbs. Tell what word the
clause modifies, and give the two offices of the connective
adverb. Diagram each sentence:
1. A plant sprang up where we had planted the seed. 2. "We will
start whenever you are ready. 3. Do good while you can. 4. I did as
you requested. 5. My dog foLows me wherever I go. 6. The sun set
while we were in the woods. 7. Do as I do. 8. When the cat is away,
the mice will play.
Jjesson ^4"
Conjunctions.
We have now selected and studied three kinds of con-
nectives :
First, the preposition, which connects its object to the
word which the prepositional phrase limits or modifies;
-Second, the connective pronoun^ which connects a depend-
CONJUNCTIONS, 49
ent clause to the word which the clause limits, and, at the
same time, has some substantive office in the dependent
clause;
Third, the connective adverb, which connects a dependent
clause to the word which the clause modifies, and, at the
same time, itself modifies one or more verbs.
There is one other class of connectives which connect, but
have no other office.
Sometimes connectives of this class connect words; as,
1. Jennie and I go to school. 3. My teacher is kind but firm.
2. Bring me a hook or a slate. 4. Go and find your hat.
5. They fought like brave men long and well
Jennie
firm
teacher ■ is
J IS ^ ^^j
<h ^! kind
Sometimes they connect phrases ; as,
6. The lecturer spoke of Rome and of Paris.
7. You will find John in the barn or in the shed.
8. Learn to speak distinctly and to write legibly.
9. Hunting for the cows ANiy'driving them home took an hour.
lecturer , spoke
Sometimes they connect clauses :
10. I will go IF you are willing. /p
11. The sailor said that he had been wrecked twice. %
12. The crops are good though but little rain fell.
13. Henry wants to go to school but his father needs him at home.
14. We shall not sow the seed until rain falls.
15. Washington was a great general and Jefferson was a great statesman.
50 CONJUNCTIONS.
Henry , wants , A
-S!Ll2 Ibut
\ 1
you ■ are\willing father , needs , him
V^ V home
Connectives like the above, which have no other office in
the sentence, are called Conjunctions, the word conjunction
meaning that which joins together.
Words or phrases connected by a conjunction usually
have the same office in the sentence. Thus, in the first sen-
tence, the conjunction connects two subjects of the same
verb; in the second, two objects of the same verb; in the
third, two adjectives qualifying the same noun; in the sixth,
two phrases modifying the same verb, and so on.
Clauses connected by a conjunction may have a similar
office, or one may be subordinate to the other.
Exercise :
Select the conjunctions in the following sentences, and
tell what they connect:
1. My mother called Lucy and me. 2. He is proud that he is a sol-
dier. (Connects a subordinate clause.) 3. The driver intends to come
here to-day and to go the^e to-morrow. 4. The rolling mist came down
and hid the land. 5. Regulus lost his life but kept his word. 6. I lost
the train but I found my cloak. 7. "Now I propose that we build a wharf.
8. He will move neither to the right nor to the left. 9. If you would be
happy, you must be active. 10. The sun is larger than the moon [is
large]. 11. Washington always decided wisely and justly. 12. The boy
has no father nor mother. 13. Love not sleep, lest thou come to pov-
erty. (Connects a subordinate clause.)
J^esson 4^5.
Independent Parts.
We have seen that the words in an ordinary sentence
INDEPENDENT __
may usually be classified as having one of three ofiices in
the sentence; they are principal partSj adjuncts, or con-
nectives. ^■^^*;:::;L=-^"-
There are sometimes, however, words and phrases used
that have no grammatical connection with the rest of the
sentence. These words often add something to the thought
expressed by the sentence, or help to express the thought
in a more forcible manner, but as they are not used as
principal parts, modifiers, or connectives, they are called
independent parts.
These independent parts may be :
(1) Exclamatory words and phrases; as,
Irtish! did you hear a footstep? What a mistake! It is greatly to
be regretted. What! he a friend! I know he is an enemy. Life! life!
Only let me live.
Hush
you I did, hear , footstep
Tfote.— Hush, although clearly a verb of command, is here used as an
exclamation.
(2) A name or a title used simply to call the attention
of the person addressed, or to name the person of whom
the sentence speaks, without having any other office; as.
Children, it is time to go, James, attend to your studies. Our
friends, why do they not help us? Remorseless Time, what power can
stay him ?
James
X I attend
studies
52 SENTENCE BUILDING.
(3) A noun limited by a verbal phrase, the whole having
no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence; as,
The jury having been selected, the judge proceeded to try the case.
The teacher coming in just then, our conversation was brought to a
close.
This is called an absolute phrase.
conversation
, was brought
\^
teacher V close
X® ^mg
(The absolute phrase is placed below the verb because it modifies it
in sense although there is no grammatical connective.)
(4) Introductory words used for emphasjs or for eu-
phony; as,
Yes, you may go. No, you must not do it. There is an old man at
the door.
Yes There
you ■ may go ; or, you ■ may go man . is
W > door
Zesson SO.
Composition — Sentence Building.
A Simple Sentence Expanded.
In each of the following sentences, tell what adjunct or
adjuncts have been added to the preceding sentence to form
the new sentence, and give the office of each adjunct:
SENTENCE BUILDING. 53
1. A man called. 2. A poor old man called. 3. A poor old man
called at our house. 4. A poor old man called at our house one morn-
ing. 5. A poor old fnan called at our house one chilly morning in the
spring. 6. A poor old man, tired and hungry, called at our house one
chilly morning in the spring, to ask for a cup of coffee.
Remark. — Notice that number six, though very much longer than num-
ber one, is still a simple sentence.
Exercise :
In the same way, expand the following sentences, mak-
ing at least five new simple sentences from each:
1. These children went. 2. A friend had money. 3. Our teacher
saw us. 4. A bee lighted. 5. Sparrows built.
Jjesson 4^7,
Composition — Sentence Building.
A Complex Sentence Built.
1. Brother planted trees. 2. My brother planted trees last winter.
3. My brother planted peach and apple trees in our garden last winter.
4. My brother planted twenty peach trees and thirty apple trees in our
garden last winter. 5. My brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty
peach trees and thirty apple trees in our garden last winter. 6. My
brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty peach trees and thirty
apple trees in our garden last winter, when he came to visit us.
Exercises :
a. Which of the above sentences are simple ? Which are
complex? Name the independent clauses and the depend-
ent clauses in the complex sentences. Select the phrase
adjuncts in the last sentence, and tell what they limit or
modify.
b. Change sentence number six in Lesson 46 to a com-
plex sentence.
c. Expand the following according to the above plan,
making five new sentences from each, three simple and two
complex:
1. Jennie found a bird. 2. A farmer had a horse. 3. Fishes swim.
4. The boys were riding.
54 REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Ijesson 4^8.
Sentence Building.
A Compound Sentence Built.
1. The boys had built a boat. 2. The boys of our school had
built a large boat. 3. The boys that belonged to our school had
built a large boat. 4. The boys that belonged to our school had
built a large boat, in which they often sailed on the lake. 5. The
boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat, and in it
they often sailed on the lake. 6. The boys that belonged to our
school had built a large boat, which they painted red ; and in it
they often sailed on the lake near which the school house stood.
Exercises :
a. Select the simple sentences, the complex sentences,
and the compound sentences, from the above. Give the
independent clauses and the dependent clauses in the com-
plex sentences; also in the compound sentences. Select all
the phrase adjuncts and tell what they limit or modify.
b. Make six new sentences from each of the following, the
first two simple, the next two complex, and the last two
compound.
1. The soldiers marched. 2. Night came. 3. The prisoner
thought.
REVIEW QUESTIONS, 55
Review Questions.
[To the Teacher. — As a test of what the pupil has learned, of his com-
prehension of what has been x^resented, and of his ability to use the
knowledge acquired, the following questions are inserted. Many of
them are fully answered in the text, but there are others requiring
the exercise of the judgment and understanding before they can be
answered. These are far the most valuable. In the text, few defini-
tions are given, because one definition made is worth ten learned. The
first is the training of the power of discernment and discrimination,
the second, of the memory only.
Tlie answers to these questions should be in complete sentences, and
if the pupil is taught to weave the question into his answer it gives a
good training in the use of language.]
1. For what do we use words? 2. Why should we study words
and their uses? 3. What is language? 4. What is the purpose of
studying grammar? 5. What is a sentence? A phrase? A clause?
Illustrate each by several examples. 6. What is the diflference
between a phrase and a clause? B etweg fl^sente nce and a clause ?
7. Name the diflferent kinds of sentences, niive examples ot each.
8. What is the diflference between a declarative sentence and an
interrogative sentence? 9. What is the diflference in the way they
are written? 10. What is the diflference between an imperative
sentence and a declarative sentence? 11. How can you change the
following declarative sentences into imperative sentences? Boys
play quietly. Children go to school. 12. Rewrite the following,
changing them to interrogative sentences, and notice how the change
is made : Henry may go out to play. William has fouiid his knife.
Julia writes very neatly. 13. How is a declarative sentence changed
to an interrogative sentence? 14. Give the rule for beginning a
sentence. 15. Should words in columns begin with capital letters?
16. Give the rule for ending a declarative sentence ; an interroga-
tive sentence ; an imperative sentence ; an exclamatory sentence.
17. When do we use exclamatory sentences? Show that an inter-
rogative sentence may become exclamatory: that a declarative sen-
tence may become exclamatory. 18. How can you tell a negative
sentence ? 19. How can you change an affirmative sentence to a
negative sentence? Change the following to negative sentences:
The soldiers have returned. It rained yesterday. Take that booh.
Is he ready f
20. What is the complement of a verb? 21. Show the diflference
between a complete and an incomplete verb, 22. What kind of verbs
56 REVIEW QUESTIONS.
take complements? 23. What kind take object complements? 24.
When a transitive verb takes a complement, what is the comple-
ment called? 25. What besides a noun may be the object comple-
ment? Give examples of each. 26. Give two sentences each
containing a verb having two or more object complements ; of two
or more verbs with the same object ; of two or more verbs with more
than one object complement. 27. What is the subject of a declara-
tive sentence ? of an imperative sentence ? of an interrogative sen-
tence? (Notice that the interrogative sentence may have for its
subject the person or thing of whom or about whom the question is
asked.)
28. What is the predicate of a declarative sentence? Of an im-
perative sentence? Of an interrogative sentence? 29. In the sen-
tence, The boy is happy, what word completes the verb is? What
word does happy describe? 30. What are such complements called?
31. Do these complements ever do anything but describe the sub-
ject? What else do they do? Illustrate. 32. Take the following
words and put into the brace as many different kinds of comple-
ments as you can think of, and, as far as you can, tell what each
one does. (Those that you can not fully understand, you will
hereafter study further.)
Horses are -j
33. What is the attribute in a sentence? 34. Do all attributes
describe the subject? 35. If not, what else do they do? 36. Give
an example of a clause attribute ; of a phrase attribute ; of a pronoun
used as an attribute. 37. Give an example of an attribute used be-
fore the subject. 38. What words qualify or limit nouns? 39. What
words modify verbs ? 40. What words besides verbs do adverbs mod-
ify ? 41. W^hat are the principal parts of a sentence ? 42. What are
words called that qualify or limit the subject, the object, or the noun
attribute? 43. What do adverbial modifiers generally show? 44.
Name some adverbial modifiers that show how; when; where; why.
45. When adverbial clauses are set before the clauses that they mod-
ify, how are they separated from them? 46. What are adjective
adjuncts? 47. Give examples of word adjuncts, phrase adjuncts,
and clause adjuncts, used adjectively. 48. Notice how a phrase
maybe expanded into a clause. Expand the italicized phrases into
clauses: I saw a stone rolling down hill. A bird in the hand, is
worth two in the bush. The work to be accomplished is difficult. 49.
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 57
Of what is a prepositional phrase composed ? Of what is a verbal
phrase composed? 50. How many kinds of verbal phrases are there ?
Give an example of a verbal phrase having an infinitive as its
leader ; one having a participle as its leader.
51. (a) Give an example of an infinitive having an object.
(To) Give an example of a participle having an object.
(c) Give an example of an infinitive having an attribute.
(d) Give an example of a participle having an attribute.
(e) Give an example of an infinitive having an adverbial modifier.
(f) Give an example of a participle having an adverbial modifier.
(g) Give an example of an infinitive with the to understood,
(h) Use an infinitive phrase as the subject of a sentence.
(i) Use an infinitive phrase as an attribute.
(j) Use an infinitive phrase as an object.
(k) Give an example of an infinitive phrase used as an adverbial
modifier.
(1) Give an example of a participial phrase used as an adjective
adjunct.
(m) Give an example of a prepositional phrase used as an attri-
bute of the subject.
52. How many and what diflferent kinds of connectives may con-
nect subordinate clauses to the rest of the sentence? Give examples
of each. 53. What is the difference between a connective pronoun
and a connective adverb? 54. What is the difference between a
connective pronoun and a conjunction?
55. (a) Give an example of a conjunction connecting words.
(b) Give an example of a conjunction connecting phrases.
(c) Give an example of a conjunction connecting independent
clauses.
56. When words are connected by conjunctions, what can you
say of the office of the words? 57. What is a word or a phrase hav-
ing no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence called?
58. Give examples of an exclamatory word; of an absolute phrase.
Of the name of the person addressed. 59. How should they be
punctuated? 60. Expand each italicized word or phrase into a
clause, and tell what kind of clause it is:
(a) The boy yonder is industrious.
(b) The man sitting by the roadside is a cripple.
(c) Seeing the difficulty, we abandoned the undertaking.
(d) Having finished his task, the prisoner was given a frugal
repast.
58
FORMS OF ANALYSIS.
Additional Work in Analysis.
Form for Analysis of a Simple Sentence.
I. Classify the Sentence:
\1. According to form.
\2. According to meaning.
II. Point out the Asserting
Words.
Modified or completed by :
Adverbial adjunct.
Attribute or Object Complement.
Which may be
Word.
Phrase=Prin.
part.
I Adjunct.
c. Clause.
Showing —
III. Principal Part of Subject.
Qualified by .^^ j^ ^1^^ g^^^^^^^
(2. In the Predicate (Attribute).
Adjective Adjunct:
Which may be
a. Word.
b. Phrase=Prin. part.
I Adjunct.
c. Clause.
Showing .
Form for Complex and Compound Sentences.
1. Analyze the principal clause or clauses first.
2. Classify the subordinate clauses as adjuncts, and then analyze
as above. (See form for simple sentence.)
3. Point out the connectives.
Model :
The chair of solid oak in which Van Twiller sat was very heavy.
A complex declarative sentence.
Principal clause : The chair of solid oak was very heavy, of which
v)as is the asserting word, completed by heavy, an attribute word
showing weight. Heavy is modified by very, an adverbial word-
adjunct showing degree. The principal part of the subject is chair,
limited by the, an adjective word-adjunct pointing out, and by of
solid oak, an adjective prepositional phrase showing material. Of
oak is the principal part, and oak is limited by solid, an adjective
word-adjunct showing kind. Chair is also limited by in which Van
Twiller sat, an adjective clause showing which chair. Of this
gubordin9,te clause, sat is the asserting word, modified by in whichj
DIAGRAMS. 59
an adverbial prepositional phrase of place. Van Twiller is the
subject. The subordinate clause is connected to chair by which. . ^
Diagram.
chair , was \ heavy
To the Teacher.— The diagram is much shorter than the analysis,
but diagraming does not train the pupil in the ready use of oral lan-
guage.
Phrases and Clauses.
Analyze, and notice the diagrams :
1. Subject phrase, prepositional.
For every one to succeed is impossible.
one
"^^
\<^.
V succeed
A
H ^
is \ impossible
2. Attribute phrase, prepositional :
Bertha is in trouble. (Condition.)
V
\ trouble
Bertha , is \ A
3. Subject and attribute phrases, verbal :
To analyze a sentence is to separa,te it into its parts.
DIAGRAMS.
■^ V
o
analyze | sentence \ separate | it
V) parts
IS
\ A ^W
4. Object phrase, verbal :
/ mean to he punctual.
Vo
\ be \ punctual
5. Independent phrase, prepositional :
In fact, she has no money.
\ fact
she , has , money
6. Independent phrase, verbal :
To tell the truth, she has no money.
\ tell , truth
^
she , has , money
7. Object phrase, verbal:
lean not prevent his making trouble.
(Making, part verb and part noun.)
DIAGRAMS.
mak
T I can prevent
^
A
8. Independent phrase, verbal:
Putting it plainly, he is a villain.
V
voting I i t
<i
he , is \ villain
trouble
61
Complex Sentences.
Substantive Clauses and Introductory Conjunction.
1. Subject clause and attribute clause:
That she drowned herself cannot be proved.
The belief is that she drowned herself. (Identity.)
That
she J drowned , herself
I
can be proved
that
she 1 drowned i herself
belief
j^
1
62 DIAGRAMS.
2. Object clause:
People think that she drowned herself.
that
she , drowned | herself
People , think , A
He cried, " Who is it ?" (No conjunction needed.)
it I is \ Who
He . cried
I
1. T do not fear to meet him on the open field. 2. Why stanc
we here idle? 3.'' Already the bold riflemen are on the rock. 4
How magnificent was the sight that now burst upon me ! 5. Whal
she did there I can not tell. 6. What she did there has never beer
told, 7. The best place for the flag is on that high hill, 8. ''Father,
Thy hand hath reared these venerable columns, 9. To do good for-
get not. 10. To load his gun was the work of an instant.
^11. Then the master,
With a gesture of command,
Waved his hand. /
12. Pruning the trees kept us busy for a month, 13. Can time,
or winds, or floods, or fire destroy Luther's pyramid? 14. Never
boast of catching a fish until he is on dry land, 15. To gain an
undying name, Alexander drew the sword of conquest. 16. In the
second day of the voyage, they came to the Highlands. 17, *' Well,
my boys, ' ' said the old gentleman, ' ' I will be the judge. ' ' 18. How
far that little candle throws its beams !
19. On right, on left, above, below,
Sprang up at once the lurking foe.
20. How often since, I have been reminded of the fish that I did
not catch. 21. Pleased with this praise, Polly sang awav in a fresh
little voice that went straight to the listener's heart, f 22. Never
take a mean advantage of any one in any transaction, and never be
unkind to people who are in your power.
DIAGRAMS. 63
23. Why woulds't thou leave me, gentle child?
Thy home on the mountain is bleak and wild.
}/ 24. The nightingale shyly took
Her head from under her wing,
And, giving the dove a look,
Straightway began to sing.
25. Now, here you see young David Copperfield, and the ques-
tion is. What shall I do with him? •26. The chapel bell began to
ring at a quarter to eleven, and Tom got in early and took his place
in the lowest row.
27. Flag of the seas ! on ocean wave
Thy stars shall glitter o'er the brave.
V 28. Born upon the verge of civilization, Webster retained to the
last his love for that pure, fresh nature in which he was cradled.
1^ V 29. And Maud forgot her brier-torn gown,
||ir And her graceful ankles bare and brown,
And listened, while a glad surprise
Looked from her long-lashed hazel eyes.
V30. A form more fair, a face more sweet,
Ne 'er hath it been my lot to meet.
^ 31. When Mackenzie had finished sx)eaking, the chief rose, began
to address him in a low voice, but soon became loud and violent,
and ended by working himself into a furious passion.
/ 32. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find
The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow;
He who surpasses or subdues mankind
Must look down ou the hate of those below.
PART lI-mXRODUCTION.
To tlie Teacher. — In Part I. you have led the pupil to see by the
actual investigation of the English sentence its signification as a
whole, its division into elements, and their meaning and bearing
upon, or relation to each other. You have also shown him that the
separate words, as signs of certain ideas or relations, are the Parts
of Sjjeech, and you have given him the names which, for purposes
of convenience, are commonly applied to these. It now remains to
show him that a word is not necessarily always the same part of
speech, though retaining exactly the same form ; and, on the other
hand, that some words may undergo certain changes of form, called
modifications, and yet remain the same part of speech. He should
also now discern the changes of relations that give rise to these
modifications, and the laws controlling them.
Wherever it is practicable, the pupil should be led to see these
things for himself. The plan of Part I. is, therefore, continued — ex-
ercises on all important points being presented for examination,
from which the pupil should be taught to deduce general principles
and rules. The amount of space required, however, makes it im-
possible to carry out this plan in every detail. It is left for the
teacher to present additional exercises for development and illus-
tration, according to the ability and advancement of the pupils.
In this work no attempt is made to give formal definitions to be
memorized. There is usually too much parrot-like recitation in
grammar classes, and definitions, forms for parsing, etc., contribute
to foster this kind of work. The design here is to lead the child
himself to recognize facts, relations, and laws. This is done by
means of questions upon sentences presented for his careful exam-
ination.
.3-G
66 INTRODUCTION.
As far as possible he should be required to make his own defini-
tions, thus cultivating a clear conception and understanding of the
subject, as well as a habit of expressing his thoughts clearly and
accurately. It may often be found profitable to require more than
one definition for the same thing, with illustrations, original oi
selected, to make sure that the point is well understood. This
becomes, under the guidance of the teacher, oral composition.
If in parsing or construction, the pupil is required to give, before
stating his conclusions, the facts derived from his observation, his
power of discrimination and judgment will be trained as well as hig
power of discernment and memory. Thus, instead of ''This is a
noun because it is a name ; masculine gender because it denotes the
male sex; second person because spoken of," etc., let the order be
reversed, as follows : " This is a name, therefore a noun; denotes a
male, therefore masculine gender; denotes the person spoken to,
therefore second person," etc.
Of course, neither plan should be followed exclusively, but great
care should be taken that the pupil do not fall into the habit of
almost thoughtless recitation.
The composition exercises should be carefully prepared, and may
be much extended, those given here being mainly suggestive.
CHAPTER I.
REVIEW OF PARTS OF SPEECH.
Jjesson 4.9.
In Part First, you have learned to classify words as nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs, etc., according to their use in sentences.
There are nine of these classes, called Parts of Speech,
viz.: Nouns^ Pronouns^ Adjectives^ Verhs^ Verbals, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
Besides these there are a few words used merely for
euphony (that is, for the sake of sound) which do not
belong properly to any one of the above classes.
Such words are generally called^ expletives.
Exercise:
Analyze the following sentences according to models
given in Part First.
Give the use of each word in the sentence, and tell what
part of speech it is.
Model :
The school that I visited in San Francisco is large.
The limits the noun school, and is therefore an adjective. SchAwl is a
name, and is therefore a 7wu7i. That stands for the noun school, and is
tlierefore a pronoun. I stands for a name, and is therefore a pronoun.
Visited asserts something of I, and is therefore a verb. In connects its
object San Francisco to the verb visited, and is therefore a preposition.
San Francisco is a name, and is therefore a notm. Is asserts something
of school, and is therefore a verb. Large describes school, and is therefore
an adjective.
1. Breakfast was ready and they sat down at the table. 2. I shall
fish where the water is deep. 3. HalJoo! come and help us. 4. The
next morning proved fine and sunny, and great numbers of people
came to the auction. 5. How did you know I was coming? 6. Annie's
papa was sitting in the rocking-chair by the stove, when she went back.
7. In the corner of the park is the hunter's lodge built of stone. 8. The
68 PARTS OF SPEECH.
poor woman works very hard to support her family. 9. There is no
hope of catching the train. 10. " Oh !" cried the girl, "look at that fish !"
11. In the afterno6n they played all sorts of games. 12. Through the
opening, Becky could see her grandfather bending over the big brick
oven. 13. Goldsmith would give away his money, his dinner, or his
clothes, whenever he saw anybody in distress. 14. Where are you
going, my pretty maid?
15. The sudden sun shone through the pane,
And lighted both their faces.
Definitions. "'^>
From the foregoing exercises you have learned that :
A Noun is a name.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
An Adjective is a word limiting or describing a noun or a
pronoun. ,
[Note to the Teacher.— The pupil should be led to see that a-qualify-
iug adjective really describes the thing named rather than the noun
which names the thing, but as the above definition is brief, and the one
in general use, it is thought best to retain it here.]
A Verb is a word that asserts (tells, asks, or commands).
A Verbal is a word derived from a verb, and is generally
used to assume something instead of to assert.
An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a verbal, an ad-
jective, or an adverb, to modify its meaning.
A Preposition is a word connecting its object to the word
that the prepositional phrase limits or modifies.
A Conjunction is a word connecting words, phrases, or
clauses, and having no other office.
An Interjection is a word expressing strong or sudden feel-
ing, and having no grammatical connection with the rest
of the sentence.
[Note to the Teacher.— Additional exercises in telling parts of speech
should be given from lessons hi the First and Second Readers. Let
children bring in original sentences, in which the class name the parts
of speech.]
PARTS OF SPEECH. 69
Ijesson J/.
How TO TELL THE PaRTS OF SPEECH.
Exercise
Give the part of speech of each italicized word in the
following :
1. I saw a hlack swallow fly fast. 2. Did the little boy swallow a fly?
3. The boys hlack their boots. 4. That light went out. 5. The light that
you put in the window went out. 6. Write the word that on the board.
7. Light the lamp so that the room may be light. 8. Little Harry is
afraid of the dark, but his sister cares little if the room is dark. 9. /
forgot to dot the i in the word in. 10. Your book is in the house.
From the sentences already studied, it will be seen that there
are three methods of classification by which we may determine
what part of speech any given word is :
First, and least important, every word, spoken of merely
as a word, is a name, or noun; thus,
Write go on your slate. Last is often mispronounced. You have
not spelled great correctly. He could not say no. Cross the t in then.
Look for whom in the dictionary.
Second, most words are, in their derivation and general
use, some particular part of speech; thus.
Good is usually an adjective : This is a good apple.
IIoTne is usually a noun : He lives at home.
Above is usually a preposition : The clouds are above our heads.
But is usually a conjunction : The day is cloudy but warm.
This is called the etymology^ or etymological classification
of words.
Third, and most important, the use of a word in any-
given sentence determines its part of speech in that sen-
tence; thus.
Good may be used as a noun : He tried to do good.
Home may be used as an adverb : Let us go home.
Above may be used as an adjective ; I refer to the above statement.
But may be used as a preposition : All are gone but me.
70
PARTS OF SPEECH.
This is called the grammatical classification, or the syn-
tax of words, and it is the classification with which, in the
study of grammar, we are especially concerned.
Lesson 52,
Exercises:
a. Write sentences containing the following words used
as directed:
lie as a verb,
lie as a noun,
dry as a verb,
dry as an adjective,
clean as a verb,
clean as an adjective,
striking as a verb,
striking as an adjective,
striking as a noun,
well as a noun,
well as an adjective,
well as an adverb,
well as an interjection,
enough as an adverb,
enough as an adjective,
right as a nonv.
right as an adjective,
fire as a verb.
brick as a noun,
brick as an adjective,
pick as a 7ioun.
pick as a verb,
outside as a wo?tn.
outside as an adjective,
sound as a noun,
sound as an adjective,
sound as a t^erfe.
made as a wrft.
made as a verbal,
reading as a yiown.
reading as a verbal,
safe as an adjective,
safe as a wortw.
stranger as a norm.
stranger as an adjective,
fire as a no?(n.
b. Select five words for yourself, each of which may be
used as two or more different parts of speech, and use them
as such in sentences.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 71
CHAPTER II.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Zf ess 071 J.?.
Kinds of Nouns.
We have seen from the foregoing that words are classified in syn-
tax as different parts of speech, not from their etymology, but from
their meaning and use in the sentence.
But some of these classes have subdivisions, and changes of form,
which we study in order to understand language clearly and to use
it correctly.
Let us first examine the nouns in the following :
I met a c/a7d. Which child? Harry.
He was from the city. What city? Los Angeles.
The hoys are happy. What boys ? Ned and Tom.
We will go some day. What day ? Tuesday.
Saddle the horse. Which horse ? Fleetfoot.
We climbed a unountain. What mountain? Mt. Shasta.
In the first column, each italicized noun may be applied to any
one or to all of that class of objects. Hence
Such nouns are called common nouns.
Most things belong to some class, and can have a general or
class name. But we sometimes wish to show more clearly which
one of a class is meant, and therefore we must use a particular or
special name, such as those in the third column.
Such names are called proper nouns.
People, countries, cities, rivers, and sometimes horses, dogs, etc.,
have both kinds of names.
Exercises :
a. Give a suitable proper noun instead of each of the fol-
lowing common nouns:
Brother, sister, mountain, cousin, dog, city, lake, mother, book,
president, ocean, doctor.
72 KINDS OF NOUNS.
b. Give the common or class name for each of the fol-
lowing proper nouns:
British America, Susie, Cape Horn, Mr. Black, Dash, Tecumseh,
Fourth of July, Stockton, Oeneral Grant, Robinson Crusoe.
Notice (1) That some proper nouns are single words; as, Susie,
Dash, Stockton; and that some are made up of two or more words ;
as, British America, Cape Horn, Fourth of July. In the latter case
all the words together make the noun, because all are required to
name the thing clearly.
Notice (2) That every proper noun and, usually, every word of a
proper noun, begins with a capital letter.
c. Write a list of six common nouns, using three of them
in sentences.
d. Write a list of six proper nouns composed of one word
each, using three of them in sentences.
e. Write six proper nouns, of two or more words each,
using capitals properly.
Remark. — Wheyi a proper name, as Clark, Milton, becomes partly com-
mon by applying it to more than one individual, it still retains its capital;
as, The three Miss Clarks. There are not many Miltons. He was a new
Milton {meaning such a poet as Milton). When an object is personified,
that is, spoken of or spoken to as an individual, the noun becomes proper,
and is written with a capital; as, ^^Thou hast all seasons for thine own,
Death."
Lesso7i 54^,
Kinds of Nouns.
Exercise
In the following sentences, select the common nouns and
the proper nouns, and show why they are thus classified :
1. We quote from Professor Swett's " School Elocution."
2. There are maidens in Scotland, more lovely by far.
That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar.
3. Then hail the banner of the free
The starry Flower of Liberty !
4. Here, Tim, tell Ned Saunders he can 't have the mare. Neighbor
Derby wants her. 5. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight.
NUMBER.
i). " I came from Westminster Hall," replied the miller ; " my name is
]\ratthew Hale; I am Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench." 7.
Whence are thy beams, O Sun ! thy everlasting light?
8. Love and tears for the Blue ;
Tears and love for the Gray.
9. Judge not the Lord by feeble sense,
But trust him for his grace ;
Behind a frowning Providence,
He hides a smiling face.
10. In one of Hans Christian Andersen's " Wonder Stories," entitled
" The Ugly Duckling," he has written, in allegory, his own history.
JOesson 55.
Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns.
Some parts of speech change their relations and their form much
more than other parts of speech, and sometimes a change in the
office or form of one word requires a change in the form of one or
more other words in the sentence. It is necessary to understand
these modifications, in order to use the correct form, and to make
the diflferent parts of speech agree with one another.
[Note to the Teacher.— It is thought best, for purposes of brevity and
for greater clearness, to teach the modifications of nouns and pronouns
at the same time.]
Modification by Number.
1. This nut is good. 3. That boy hopped and / saw him.
2. These nuts are good. 4, Those boys hopped and we saw them.
Select the nouns and the pronouns in the above sentences, and
tell whether each of them means one or more than one.
Compare number 2 with number 1, and number 4 with number
3, and notice that other words besides the nouns and pronouns are
changed.
This modification of the noun or pronoun by which it
changes its form to denote more than one, is called Num-
ber. As there are two forms, there are two numbers.
The Singular Number denotes one; as, man, tree, she, it.
The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, men, trees,
they.
74 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Zesson 56,
Formation of Plurals.
1.3 the noun -pen singular or plural? Pronounce the last sound in
the word 'pen. The last in pens. Join the two sounds. Now pro-
nounce pens.
Do the same with tree, desk, boot, table.
Pronounce box. See if you can add the sound of s easily. What
would be easier to pronounce? Why?
In the same way try bush, fence (silent e), church.
Rule I. — Nouns ending in a sound that will easily unite
with the sound of s, form their plurals by adding s only;
but if the last sound of the singular will not easily unite
with that of s, then es is added.
Exercises:
a. Spell the plurals of the following and give the part of
the rule that applies to each:
Sea, path, gas, lace (drop silent e and add es), chief, loss, fox, barge,
ear, perch.
b. Write twelve nouns under each part of the rule.
c. Reconstruct the following sentences, changing the itali-
cized words to the opposite number, and change any other
words necessary to make the sentences sound well:
1. The dog is barking.
2. This horse is a noble animal.
3. Til at bush has grown rapidly.
4. Where were the children?
5. I want a yard of cloth,
6. The boys have lost their hats.
[Note to the Teacher.— The first rule is developed in full as a guide.
Each succeeding rule should be developed by exercises of the same
character. Drill exercises similar to those under Rules I. and II. should
be given after each rule is developed.]
Rule II. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a con-
sonant change y to i and add es; but when the y is pre-
ceded by a vowel, s only is added; as.
NUMBER. /5
Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu.
fly flies key keys
pony ponies valley valleys
mercy mercies boy boys
Exercises:
a. Pluralize the following, giving the rule for each:
Story, sky, turkey, spy, toy, donkey, colloquy, lady, tray.
Remark.— r/ig letter u folloiving q is always a consonant, having the
sound of w.
b. Write six examples of your own under each part of
the rule. Select three from each list, and use them in sen-
tences; then change the words used to the plural form, aiid
rewrite the sentences.
Ijesson 57^
Formation of Plurals.
Rvle 111. — (a) Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel
form their plurals regularly by adding s ; as,
folio folios ratio ratios trio trios
cameo cameos cuckoo cuckoos embryo embryos
(b) Common English nouns ending in o preceded by a
consonant, add es; as,
cargo cargoes motto mottoes hero heroes
echo echoes potato potatoes buffalo buffaloes
(c) Foreign nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant,
add s only; as,
halo halos piano pianos octavo octavos
lasso lassos solo solos memento mementos
Some of this last class are spelled differently by different
authorities; as,
Webster. Worcester.
grottoes grottos
porticoes porticos
dominoes or dominos dominos
quartos quartos or quartoes
76 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Rule IV. — (a) Compound nouns generally pluralize the
most important part; as,
mouse-trap
mouse-traps
court-martial
courts-martial
wagon-load
wagon-loads
spoonful
spoonfuls
sister-in-law
sisters-in-law
cupful
cupfuls
Remark.— She drank two cupfuls, means one cup filled twice, or an
amount equal to that. She has two cups full means two cups, each filled.
In cupfuls the chief idea is the filling.
(b) Some compounds pluralize both parts; as,
man-singer men-singers Knight-Templar Knights-Templars
woman-servant women-servants man-child men-children
(c) Some pluralize the last word without regard to the
most important part; as,
forget-me-not forget-me-nots jack-a-lantern jack-a-lanterns
piano-forte piano-fortes tete-a-tete tete-a-tetes
Ijesson 58.
Formation of Plurals.
'Rule V. — (a) Proper nouns, when pluralized, add s or es
and are generally preceded by the definite article; as,
The Crawfords ; the Bushes.
Remark. — Proper nouns thus pluralized, as they apply to classes, are
generally classified as common nouns.
(b) When two or more persons of the same name and the
same title are mentioned together, the best usage pluralizes
the name and not the title, particularly if it is accompanied
by an adjective of number; as,
The Miss Clarks; the three Mr. Hales.
(c) But when the names are different and the title the
same, or when different Christian names are expressed, the
title is pluralized and not the name; as,
NUMBER.
.77
Generals Howard and Sheridan; Messrs. Wells and Hatch; the
Misses Eva and Frances Moody
Rule VI. — The plurals of names of nations and societies
should have the article prefixed; as,
The Germans ; the Odd Fellows ; the Masons.
Ijessofi 59,
Formation of Plurals.
Rule VII. — Foreign nouns, when anglicized, or made
English, take plurals according to the English rules ;
other foreign nouns retain the plurals which they have in
the original language; some, however, have both plural
forms.
A few examples of foreign nouns in common use are
given. The plurals of others may be found by referring to
the dictionary:
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Alumnus
alumni
Genus
genera
Amanuensi!
3 amanuenses
Gymnasium
gymnasiums or gym-
Analysis
analyses
nasia
Apex
apexes or ap''ices
Hypothesis
hypotheses
Axis
axes
Ignis-fatuus
ignes-fatui
Appendix
appendixes or ap-
Larva
larvae
pendices
Monsieur
messieurs
Beau
beaus or beaux
Memorandum memorandums or
Basis
bases
memoranda
Bandit
bandits or banditti
Nebula
nebulae
Cherub
cherubs or cherubim Nucleus
nuclei
Chrysalis
chrysalides
Oasis
oases
Crisis
crises
Parenthesis
parentheses
Datum
data
Phenomenon
phenomena
Ellipsis
ellipses
Radius
radii
Emphasis
emphases
Stamen
stamens or stamina
Erratum
errata
Stratum
stratums or strata
Formula
formulas or formulae
Thesis
theses
Focus
focuses or foci
Vertebra
vertebrae
Fungus
funguses or fungi
Vortex
vortexes or vortices
78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Jjesson 60.
Formation of Plurals.
Rule VIII. — Letters, marks, figures, etc., form- their plurals
by adding the apostrophe and s; as,
Dot your i's and cross your t's. The 4's and the I's are not made
carefuJjy.
Irregular Plurals.
(a) Some nouns and pronouns change the word to form
the plural.
NOUNS.
Sing.
Plu.
man
men
woman
women
foot
feet
goose
geese
tooth
teeth
louse
lice
mouse
mice
ox
oxen
chUd
children
PB
Sing.
tONOUNS.
Plu.
I
we
mine
ours
me
us
thou
you
thee
you
it
they
he
they
she
they
(b) Some are alike in both numbers; as.
Sheep, deer, swine, vermin, grouse, salmon, trout, apparatus, series,
alms (generally plural), bellows, cannon, means, odds, species, amends,
pains (care).
Apparatus and cannon have also a regular plural.
(c) Some are always plural; as.
Annals, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, eaves, hose,
hysterics, nuptials, pinchers, riches, remains, scissors, shears, snuffers,
statistics, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, tweezers, victuals, vitals.
Dregs, embers, lun^s, oats, stairs, though used chiefly in the plural
have also a singular form.
(d) Some are always singular; such as the names of
Metals; as, gold, copper: Virtues; as, kindness, honesty:
Vices; as, intemperance, dishonesty: Arts; as, painting j
sculpture: Sciences ; as, chemistry, physics: Abstract quali-
ties; as, hardness, elasticity: Names of substances; as,
sugar, oil, etc,
NUMBER.
But nouns denoting different kin
be pluralized; as,
The wines, grapes, and fruits of the New Wd
Jjesson 6/.
Formation of Plurals.
(e) Some nouns ending in/or/e change /to -y and add
s or
as.
calf calves
wife
wives
beef
beeves
knife knives
elf
elves
half
halves
loaf loaves
leaf
leaves
life
lives
shelf shelves self
selves
sheaf sheaves
wharf wharfs
or wharves wolf
wolves
thief thieves
Others ending in/ add s only; as
•>
dwarf
dwarfs
scarf
scarfs
reef reefs
brief
briefs
chief
chiefs
grief griefs
handkerchief
handkerchiefs
gulf
gulfs
safe safes
fife
fifes
strife
strifes
proof proofs
hoof
hoofs
reproof
reproofs
muff muffs
flagstaff
flagstaflfs
(f) When other parts of speech become nouns, if they
take a plural, it is formed regularly; as,
At sixes and sevens. The ifs and the buts.
(g) Some nouns have two plurals of different meanings;
as.
Singular. Regular Plural.
brother brothers (of a family)
die dies (stamps for coining)
genius geniuses (men of genius)
head heads (parts of the body)
index indexes (tables of contents)
pea peas (distinct grains)
penny pennies (distinct coins)
sail sails (pieces of canvas)
Irregular Plural.
brethren (of a society)
dice (cubes for gaming)
genii (spirits)
head (of cattle)
indices (algebraic exponents)
pease (taken in bulk)
pence (an amount of monejO
sail (vessels)
Caution. — Nouns ending in man, when not compounds, should be plu-
ralized regularly; as, Germans, Mussulmans, talismans.
80 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
J/esson 62.
Collective Nouns.
I saw a flock of birds, a band of sheep, a drove of horses.
The words flock, hand, and drove are singular, for there may be
two or more Jiocks, bands, or droves; yet each of these words, in its
singular form, expresses the idea of a number of individuals. So,
such words as
audience, assembly, committee,
express an idea of many, though singular in form. Such nouns are
called collective nouns. Therefore :
A Collective Noun is a noun that, in its singular form,
names a collection of persons or things.
(h) When the individuals are spoken of together, as a
whole, the collective noun is singular, but it may also take
a regular plural; as,
The audience is large. The lecturer drew large audiences.
(i) When a collective noun of the singular form is taken
in a distributive sense, that is, when the individuals are
thought of separately, it is plural in meaning, and its verb
or pronoun must also have the plural form ; as.
The audience were not able to agree upon a committee, so the chair-
man appointed one that suited them, all.
The committee were divided in their opinions.
I/esson OS,
Exercises :
a. Tell whether each of the following is singular or plu-
ral, give the opposite number, when there is one, and state
the rule for forming each:
Path, sugar, geniuses, valley, 9, mice, box, potato, sisters-in-law,
policies, apparatus, spoonful, Messrs., measles, idleness, milk, engrav-
ing, beau, brother, gooseberry, solo, way, oases, genus, postoflfices, Mr.
Cook, men-servants, chief, angels, mother-in-law, Frances Hart and
Nellie Hart (different form). Miss Hart and her sister (different form),
tea, proof, kingdom, mathematics, tomato, morning, thej', gentlemen,
leaves, pianos, bridge, genii, chimneys, wives, axes, money, and, clothes.
PERSON. 81
b. Use the words ^ocA:, hand, drove, correctly, with a sin-
gular verb or pronoun. Also with a plural verb or pronoun.
Ijessoii 6J^.
Modification by Person.
In the sentence,
/ study my lesson,
I and my represent the speaker of the sentence.
In the sentence,
James, study your lesson,
James and your represent the person spoken to.
In the sentence,
He studies his lesson,
he and his represent the person spoken of.
Exercises :
a. Take the sentences in Lesson 54, and tell the person
of each noun and pronoun used, calling of the first person^
all that represent the speaker, of the second person, all that
represent the person or thing spoken to, and of the third
person, all that represent the person or thing spoken of.
Notice (1) that nearly all nouns are in the third person. When
a noun does occur in the second person ; as,
Geoege, come here,
it is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma, and is an
independent word.
Nouns are sometimes used in the first person, in legal forms; as,
"/, James Smith, being of sound mind,"
and in the Bible ; as,
"I, Paul, beseech you."
Notice (2) that most pronouns use different words to show the
different persons; as, we, you, they, while nouns remain the same
in all persons.
Were it not that the person of the noun sometimes affects the
pronoun and the verb ; as,
Henry do your work, Henry does his work,
it would be unnecessary to say anything about the person of nouns.
6-G
82 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
b. Give the person of the nouns and of the pronouns in
the following:
1. My teacher asked me to hand this book to you. 2. Now, Preston,
show your father the letter you have written. 3. I am but a servant;
you are the master. 4. We pupils have little hope of understanding
that which puzzles our teacher. 5. I, John, saw these things.
Jjessofi 65.
Modification by Gender.
The husband, instead of the wife, should do the heavy work, for
lie is stronger than she.
I saw a lion and a lioness; lie was looking at Ms mate, and she
was fondling her cubs.
Examine the words husband and wife; lion and lioness; also the
pronouns representing these nouns.
The distinction you observe here, is called gender.
Gender, then, is that modification of nouns and pronouns
which shows the sex of the animate object named.
As there are two sexes, male and female, there are two
corresponding genders, masculine and feminine.
Most nouns and some pronouns; as, tree, book, fence, it,
etc, show that the object represented has no sex. These
words, for convenience, are commonly said to be of the
neuter gender, because they have neither gender. This,
however, except in the case of the pronoun it, is not a mod-
ification, but rather the absence of a change of form.
To these three genders there are three corresponding pro-
nouns, — masculine he, feminine she, neuter it.
In the study of language, the only purpose in determin-
ing the gender of a noun is to decide what pronoun to use
to represent the noun.
Remark. — 1. The singular pronouns of the first and of the second person,
as they represent, respectively, the speaker and the person spoken to {both
supposed to be present), have no modification of gender.
2. The plural pronouns, as they may represent persons of either gender,
have no gender form. With these are classed such nouns as parent, chil-
GENDER. 83
dren, cattle, birds, etc., for these words, although they represent animate
objects, having sex, have in themselves nothing to determine their gender.
They have sometimes been called of the common gender, but there being no
corresponding pronoun the distinction seems unnecessary. Either say noth-
ing about the gender, or say that it can not be determined.
There are three chief ways of distinguishing the mascu-
Hne gender from the feminine gender:
(1)
By different words.
man woman
nephew niece
earl countess
(2)
By different
terminations.
tiger tigress
prince princess
hero heroine
(3)
By prefixing or affixing words
to distinguish the sex.
landlord landlady
man-servant maid-servant
gentleman gentlewoman
Remakk. — Many of the feminine forms ending in ess are becoming obsolete.
He is the mascuHne pronoun, and she the feminine.
When a noun is appHcable to either sex, the masculine
pronoun is employed, unless there is something else to indi-
cate that the female sex is meant; as,
Every passenger must now pay his fare.
In a nunnery every one must do her duty.
When objects possessing no sex are personified or given
the characteristics of either sex, they take the correspond-
ing pronoun; things noted for power j strength, etc., the
masculine; those noted for grace ^ beauty^ productiveness, etc.,
the feminine; as,
The sun sheds Ms beams upon all. (power)
The moon sheds her silver light, (beauty)
Small animals and young children are generally repre-
sented by the pronoun it.
Lesson 66.
Modification by Gender.
Exercises
a. Give the gender of the following, and name the noun
or the pronoun, if any, of the opposite gender:
84 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Nephew, songstress, widow, count, friend, him, lord, qneen, duke,
nun, bridegroom, hero, wife, actor, witch, mountain, tiger, daughter,
heiress, male descendant.
b. Write sentences containing the following:
1. A pronoun in the third, person, singular number, feminine gender.
2. A proper noun in the third person, masculine gender.
3. A pronoun in the first person, plural number.
4. A common noun in the third person, plural number, feminine
gender.
5. A proper noun, second person, feminine gender.
Ijesson 67,
The Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
(Commonly called Case.)
Subject and Object.
Take the words
Stanley; the hear; chased;
and see if you can tell which chased the other, Stanley or the bear.
Which is the subject and which the object?
Arrange them so that you can tell.
How do you know now? By the form of the noun, or by its posi-
tion?
Change the position, and what becomes the subject?
Now make a sentence with the pronouns he and them and the
verb chased.
Which is the subject?
Could the other pronoun be the subject? Why not?
How do you know? By the form of the pronoun, or by its posi-
tion?
Again, take
" Awhile the stranger eyed the maid,"
what is the subject?
'' Awhile the maid eyed the stranger,"
now what is the subject?
Conclusion: The subjective and the objective relations of
nouns are shown by their 'position.
The office, or relation, of most pronouns is shown by their
Jorm^ as well as by their position.
OFFICE-SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 85
Exercises:
a. Analyze these sentences and tell the office of each
noun:
1. The boy grew rapidly. 2. 1 met the boy. 3. That is the boy I
met. 4. That one, the boy in blue, is he. 5. I am talking about that
boy. 6. T am talking about that one, the boy in blue. 7. The boy's
coat is blue.
Notice that the noun hoy performs a different office in each of
the foregoing sentences, but it does not change its form, except
in (7).
Substitute the plural of hoy, and you have the same result, except
that (7) stands thus :
The hoys' coats are blue.
Now substitute a pronoun for the singular noun hoy, and you have
he, him, his. Make the pronoun plural, and you have they, their,
them. From this you see that these pronouns change their form
with each change in office, while nouns change their form only in
the possessive relation. It follows, therefore, that while few errors
can be made in the use of nouns, great care must be taken in the
use of pronouns.
b. Give the office of each noun and pronoun in the fol-
lowing:
1. I thank you for helping me. 2. Did you see us sliding down that
hill? 3. He thinks you are the person who has done the mischief.
4. The messenger whom we sent yesterday has returned with our letters.
5. There goes my brother. Call him back, for he has started too early.
6. This garden is Frank's greatest delight.
Ijesson 68,
Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
Apposition.
1. Mr. Howard, the book-seller, died last night.
Bobk-seller is used to show which Mr. Howard.
Mr. Howard (book-seller) died. (Explanatory word in
\<ro ' parenthesis.)
86 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
2. We saw Mrs. Johnson, the milliner.
How is milliner used ?
3. They, they alone, have the right to be happy.
The second they does not explain the first, but emphasizes it; so
also with himself in (4) and (5).
4. Mr. Howard himself sold the book. 5. She met Joseph himself.
6. 1 will do it myself.
Nouns and pronouns used thus, merely to identify or to
emphasize a preceding noun or pronoun, are said to be in
apposition with it. Apposition means placed with or by.
Diagram emphatic nouns or pronouns like explanatory, as they
are also appositional. See sentences 3 and 4.
Nouns Used Adverbially.
Notice the italicized nouns :
1. He is six feet tall. 2. She walked three miles. 3. They arrived last
week. 4. That is fifty per cent better.
The italicized nouns are used adverbially to modify a verb or an
adjective, and show a measure of time, size, distance, etc. They
have the relation of adverbs only.
Pronouns are never used in this way.
Heisxtall
feet (noun used adverbially.)
Exercise :
Select the nouns and the pronouns in apposition and the
nouns used adverbially in the following:
1. David, the shepherd boy, became king of Israel. 2. Last winter
we read Ivanhoe, Scott's best novel. 3. The ride seemed ten miles long.
4. The Nile, the only river in Egypt, overflows its banks yearly. 5. The
careless boy ought to sweep the room himself.
Zesson 69.
Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
Nouns used as Objects of Prepositions not Expressed,
1, Giv^ me a penny=(to) m^,
ATTRIBUTES. 87
2. My father sent Susie a pony=(to) Susie.
3. They bought Hattie a piano=(for) Hattie.
4. The teacher asked them five questions=(of) them.
The italicized words in the above are objects of prepositions not
expressed. If the preposition be supplied, it forms, with its object,
an adverbial phrase, which must then be placed after the object
complement; as,
Give a penny to me.
Supply the preposition in each of the above sentences,
placing the phrase in its proper place. *
Remark. — When the preposition is understood, but not expressed, its object
precedes the object of the verb, and it is inelegant to express the preposition
withoxit transposing the parts.
Composition Exercises:
a. Write six original sentences, two for each of the
prepositions to., for ^ and o/, but let the preposition be under-
stood.
b. Supply the preposition in each sentence and transpose
properly. Study to obtain smoothness and variety.
Zesson 70.
Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
Attributes of the Object.
(See Lessons 24 and 25, Part I.)
1. They call this flower a weed.
Is the verb call complete or incomplete ?
What is the office of flower f
Is the sense complete if we say, ** They call this flower f"
The office of weed, then, is to help complete the sense of the verb
call and to describe the flower.
In the lessons referred to we have learned that a word
used in the predicate to describe or to identify the subject
is an attribute of the subject. In the same. way the object
may have an attribute. Thus weed is another name applied
to flower, and is, therefore, an attribute of flower.
88 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
2. TJie President made Mr. Baxter governor.
Governor helps to complete made and shows the office or jKJsition
of Mr, Baxter.
That which helps to complete the verb and shows a pecu-
liarity of the thing named by the object complement is called
the Attributive Object, or Attribute of the Object.
3. We believed him to be a good doctor.
Here doctor completes to be but describes Mm, in the same man-
ner as governor describes 3fr. Baxter.
Note. — The verbal to toe could be inserted in 2, and it is very nearly implied
in 1.
4. We believe it to be her.
Here her completes to be and shows identity of it, hence her is
an attribute of the object, and the whole phrase is an attributive
object.
They , call / weed , flower
Note. — The line before weed slants towards the object, because weed
describes flower.
We ^ believed
\ be /.her
Note. — The lines before the phrase and her slant towards the object It,
because her shows the identity of it.
JjCSSou 7/'
Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
Exercise :
a. Analyze and diagram each of the following:
1. They named the child Harold. 2. I consider you my friend. 3.
I find this letter to be an expression of his opinions. 4. If you will
come, we shall esteem it a great favor. 5. Howard made the prisoners
his friends,
OFFICE— POSSESSIVES. 89
b. Write four original sentences containing attributive
objects.
Ijesson 72.
Office of Nouns and Pronouns.
Harold's crown. What does Harold's show?
Coffman has ladies' gloves for sale, (kind)
We use Howe's sewing machine, (kind)
He received a month's wages, (amount)
His crown, (whose)
Their money, (wliose)
My friend, (whose)
Notice that the noun, as well as the pronoun, here changes its
form, although in a different way. This is called the possessive
form ("case"), because it came originally from the idea of posses-
sion, which it always more or less directly indicates.
In analyzing sentences, these possessive nouns and pro-
nouns are called adjective elements j because they limit
nouns.
Diagram.
Godfrey^ s hook was made of parchment.
book was made
parchment
Have you heard of Watson running for office f
This sentence is incorrect. It means :
Have you heard of that action {running for office) as belong-
ing to Watson?
It should be expressed thus :
Have you heard of Watson's running for office f
Write, as above, the meaning of the following:
Do you know of Wilson's being sickf
90 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
In the same way give the reason for the possessive form in the
following :
1. What need is there of a boy's using tobacco? 2. A late frost was
the cause of the leaves' curling. 3. My going at that time was a for-
tunate occurrence. (Not me going.) 4. What is the use of women's
studying politics?
Diagram.
"use . is \ What
Note. — The line is broken because studying is part noun and part verb.
Thus you see that although the possessive generally
limits a noun, it may also, to prevent ambiguity, limit a
verbal used partly as a noun.
The possessive idea may be expressed in still other ways,
and these help to avoid unpleasant repetition and give a
pleasing variety to our language.
Examples :
1. The house of Mr. Babcock.
2. The court house=court's house.
3. The state laws=state's laws.
4. The place belonging to Mrs. Mitchell.
In (1) possession is shown by the preposition of; in (2)
and (3) by an adjective form making a sort of compound
noun; in (4) by the words belonging to.
Remark.— >Smc/i expressions as court house, city police, etc., have been
so long in use that the apostrophe has been worn out, and is no longer ex-'
pressed. See also idiomatic possessives in Lesson 9^,
RULES OF SYNTAX. 91
Zesson 73,
Rules of Syntax, and Cautions.
Nouns and Pronouns.
L All nouns not used adjectively to indicate possession
are in the nominative, or name, form; as,
The dog is here, (subject) I saw a dog. (object)
See also the noun T>oy in sentences 1-7, Lesson 67.
II. A noun or a pronoun used adjectively to limit a noun
or a verbal, by indicating possession, origin, etc., is in the
possessive form; as,
Henry's top. My top. Our going.
III. The possessive singular of nouns is formed by add-
ing an apostrophe and s; as, girl, girVs; the possessive
plural by adding an apostrophe only; as, girls\ except in
irregular plurals not ending in s, which are then formed
like the singular possessive; as, men, men^s.
Exception.— Even singular nouns sometimes omit the s after the
apostroi)he, when there would be an unpleasant repetition of hissing
rounds ; as,
The Princess* slippers.
IV. The possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe,
but change the word; as,
he, his; I, my; it, its; who, whose.
V. When one possessive is in apposition with another,
give the possessive form to the one nearest the noun they
limit; as,
I found it at Smith, the Jeweler's, store.
Remark. — Sonie prefer to give tJie sign to the first of the possessives in
apposition, particularly when the second has many adjuncts; as,
I read an essay of Bacon's, the most eminent English philosopher.
VI. When connected nouns show joint possession of the
same thing or set of things, the possessive sign should be
^iven to the one only that is nearest the noun they limit; as,
Wheeler ^nd Wilson' 5 sewing machine,
92 NOUm AND PRONOUNS.
V II. Connected nouns showing separate possession should
have the sign given to each; as,
Duncan's money and not Frank's.
Note. — Notice that when you can repeat the noun limited, you should
repeat tlie possessive sign; _^ otherwise, use but one sign. The above equals
Duncan's money and not Frank's money.
VIII. A noun or a pronoun used to limit a verbal should
have the possessive form; as,
There is no use of your swearing or of any man's swearing.
Remark. — Compound nouns, and some groups of words equivalent to
compounds, have the possessive sign given to the part nearest the word limited;
as, father-in-law's house; the king of Burmah's jewels; nobody else's
things, or, as preferred by some grammarians, nobody's else things.
Jjessoii 7^.
Possessive Forms.
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative form,
baby
babies
Possessive form,
baby's
babies'
Nominative form,
wife
wives
Possessive form,
wife's
wives'
Remark. — The objective form of nouns is the same as the nominative.
Exercise :
In the same way, (1) write the Nominative form and the
Possessive form of each of the following, (2) give the reason
for writing each Possessive as you do, and (3) use the Pos-
sessives in sentences:
Brother, morning, child, fox, chief, lady, kingdom, sister-in-law,
mouse, gentlemen.
Ijesson 7^.
Possessive Forms.
Exercises
a. In the following tell what each expression means, and
show why the possessive is formed as it is:
DECLENSION. 93
1. George the IV's temper. 2. The children's father has come. 3.
You will find it at Willard's, Hale's, or Cook's. (Three stores) 4. You
will find it at Smith and Tyler's. (Store) 5. The Mayor of New York's
influence is great. 6. 1 should like somebody else's opinion. 7. Was
Peter's occupation the same as Andrew's? 8. Do you use Brown's
grammar or Reed and Kellogg's? 9. This piece of land is Mr. Jones's.
10. The governor of California's term of office is four years. 11. Do this
for conscience's sake if not for honor's. 12. The places of her two
brothers-in-law were both flooded.
b. Change as many as you can of the possessives in the
above sentences to some equivalent expression, without pro-
ducing awkwardness.
J^esso7i 76,
Possessive Forms.
Exercises:
a. Correct the following, and state the rule for each:
1. Do you use Robinson or Ray's arithmetic? 2. Mr. Hart is the
childrens' friend. 3. My book's are better than her's. 4. The general's
servants came on before them. (Two generals) 5. Was Cain's and
Abel's mother there ? G. I intended to meet you at Mr. Welch's the
bookseller's store.
b. Change to more elegant forms:
1. Lazarus's sister. 2. Robert's wife's mother's sorrow. 3. An ac-
count of the proceedings of the Teachers' Association of the State of
California. 4. That house's windows. 5. For conscience's sake. 6.
The city's police. 7. The county's jail.
JOesson 77.
Declinable Pronouns.
We say:
I am seen. We are seen.
Hty hook, Our hooks.
William sees me. William sees us.
Here you see the diflferent forms of the pronoun I corresponding
to the different offices it performs.
94
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Sing.
Plu.
Nominative,
I
we
Possessive,
my
our
Objective,
m^e
us
There are a few pronouns, seven only, that change their
form in this way. When these changes are arranged as
above, so as to show conveniently what form is used, the
process is called declension, and the pronouns that change
their form thus are called declinable pronouns. The
declinable pronouns are 7, thou, he, she, it, who, and whoever.
Some pronouns do not change; as, which, that, etc.
Declension.
Sing.
Plu.
Nominative,
thou
ye or you
Possessive,
thy or th
ine
your or yours
Objective,
thee
you
Nominative,
he
they
Possessive,
his
their or theirs
Objective,
him
them
Nominative,
she
they
Possessive,
her or hers
their or theirs
Objective,
her
them
Nominative,
it
they
Possessive,
its
their or theirs
Objective,
it
them
Sing, or Plu.
Nominative,
who
Possessive,
whose
Objective,
whom
Nominative,
whoever or whosoever
Possessive,
whosesoever or whosever
Objective,
whomsoever or whomever
Note. — The rvords whosever and whomever, though not given in stand-
ard dictionaries, are sanctioned by good usage.
RULES FOR PRONOUNS. . 95
Jjcsson 78,
Rules of Syntax.
Pronoiiiis.
IX. A declinable pronoun used, (1) as the subject of a
verb, (2) as attribute of the subject, or (3) in apposition
with any of these, is in the nominative form; as,
(1) We are going. (2) It is I. (3) Mr. French, lie who helped us yes-
terday, is president of the society.
X. A declinable pronoun used independently is in the
nominative form; as,
Oh, happy we ! He being absent, we came away.
XI. A declinable pronoun used, (1) objectively, or (2)
as attribute of an object, or (3) 'in apposition with any of
these, is in the objective form; as,
(1) Let us go. (2) He thought the stranger to be me. (3) I
mean Joseph, Mm whom Pharaoh promoted.
Remark. — It will be seen that an attribute noun or pronoun is generally
in the same form as the word to which it refers, but such sentences as the
following appear to be exceptions, for here the attribute after a verbal refers
to a possessive and yet is in the nominative form: I have no doubt of its
being he. (He refers to possessive its.) To say, I have no doubt of its
being Ms conveys an entirely different thought.
[Note to the Teacher.— Naming and describing in full the relations
of the different parts of a sentence to one another is called analyzing.
Indicating these relations by lines and position'is called diagraming.
Naming the parts of speech and giving their variations of form, and
at the same time designating the relation of each to other words is called
parsing.
To give the part of speech of a word and its relation, with the gov-
ernment and agreement, if there be an5^ is to construe a word, or to give
its construction {i. <?., how it is built into the sentence).
A sentence, then, may be diagramed or analyzed ; the words in the
sentence may be parsed in full or construed only.
To give to a pupil the ability to understand at once and clearly the
.full meaning of a sentence and the force of each word in the sentence,
complete analysis is by far the most valuable exercise. If the pupil is
96 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
required to state these relations clearly and tersely, the exercise is also
a valuable drill in the use of language.
Diagraming has the advantage of allowing many pupils to work at
the same time, and to express their understanding of a sentence more
briefly than in a full analysis, but it does not give the same culture in
oral expression.
Parsing is a convenient method of drill upon the classification of
words, changes in their form, and their relation to the rest of the sen-
tence, but it is of little or no value unless done rapidly enough to incite
the pupil to quick and accurate thought in the application of correct
forms in composition. For this reason, drill upon changes in form and
upon the rules is the most practical part of parsing. But perhaps the
exercise of the greatest value in a grammar class, is to require the pupil
to give the construction of such words as the teacher may designate, for
this shows at once and briefly whether the pupil understands the sen-
tence and grasps the essential points of relation and inflection.
In parsing and in giving the construction of words, the constant
apphcation of the rules and cautions will impress them upon the
memory, and will work out the (desirable end of giving to the pupil the
results of the rules as well as the rules themselves.]
Jyesson 79.
Parsing Nouns.
Exercise :
Form for parsing
nouns.
Parse the nouns in the sentences below after the following
formula:
'Classify.
Sing. Plu.
Changesof form.|^^"^™^"•
• • • • J (Possessive.
Person, Number, Gender.
Use in sentence.
^ Rule.
1. Harry, where is Ben's father? 2. One day a hungry fox was
prowling around in search of food. 3. The Bushman uses a bow and
arrow to shoot with. 4. The hen flew at the little girl's face. 5. Tabby
crawled into the basket to steal a fish, but she got the end of her tail
into the lobster's big claw. 6. What boy would rob a bird's nest? 7.
Pronounce the word aged. 8, A bird's home is in a tree or under the
eaves or in the chimney.
ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 97
Ijesson 80,
Errors in Construction.
Exercise :
Correct the following after this
Model:
Him and her quarreled.
This sentence is incorrect, because Aim, used as one of the subjects
of the verb quarreled, has the objective form, violating the rule: "A
declinable pronoun used as the subject of a verb should be in the nom-
inative form." The nominative form of him is lie. Corrected, He and
quarreled. Correct her in a similar way.
Learn this condensed form for correcting:
f Incorrect, because here used
has the form, violating
< the rule: ''The
I The — of
I Corrected,
[To the Teacher.— Have the following sentences written out fully in
the correct form in note books kept by the pupils for this purpose, and
have the correct form read frequently without the reasons, so that this
form, instead of the false one, may make a lasting impression.]
1. They that study diligently I will reward. 2. Cain's and Abel's
mother was Eve. 3. That horses' hoof is injured. 4. The teacher said
this was for you and I. 5. 1 have been reading an essay of Bacon's,
the philosopher's. 6. His fathers' worth assisted him. 7. The blame
was thrown from my shoulders to Mason. 8. The fault lies between
you and she. 9. Who did it come from ? 10. I found this book at Ban-
croft's the publisher's. 11. You shall ride on horseback after we. 12. I
knew that it was him; who did you take him to be? 13. There is no
fear of its being her. 14. They desired him and I to go. 15. Is there
any need of him being so cruel ? 16. I had no idea of it snowing to-day.
17. Some thought it was her. 18. Do you know whom it is? 19. There
is no telling who he will call next.
J/esso/i 8/ .
Supplementary Analysis.
As was shown in Lesson 70, a noun or a pronoun may be used
7-0
98 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
as the attribute of the object, and is then called the attributive
object; as,
They named the girl Virginia,
We call him Sir Tristram.
But nouns and pronouns are not the only forms of expression
that can perform this office of helping to complete the verb or
verbal by expressing some characteristic of the object.
Give the office of the italicized words below:
1. We C'dllhim proud. 2. They thought her frivolous. 3. They found
him to be courteous and affable. 4. I knew it to be Mm. 5. Whom did
you take him to be? 6. He found his daughter grown to womanhood.
Thus you see that adjectives and phrases, as well as
nouns and pronouns, may be used as attributes of the
object.
Diagrams.
We ^ call / proud , him (Adjective used as attribute
of the object.)
\
^°be
^^^-H
courteous
(Verbal phrase.)
afiable
They . found / /\ , him
Note.— TAe line before courteous and affable slants towards Mm, because
those adjectives describe him ; as also does the whole phrase.
^ womanhood
He found / A ^ I daughter
DIAGRAMING. 99
Sometimes the attribute of the subject or of the object is
idiomatically introduced by the conjunction as.
They employed her as saleswoman.
as 4
They , employed / ; saleswoman i her
She ivas employed as saleswoman.
as
She I was employed \ j saleswoman
Zesson 82,
Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming.
You learned in Lesson 68 that a noun or a pronoun can explain
a preceding noun or pronoun. Now notice the following :
1. It\!& easy. What is easy?
It is easy to make mistakes.
2. It is strange. What is strange?
It is strange that you have never made mistakes.
3. The thought that he had made a grave mistake haunted him
continually.
1. Explanatory phrase:
V make , mistakes
ilH
j I IS \ easy
2. Explanatory clause:
that
you , have made i mistakes
^%
It ( A ) I it
is N strange
100 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
3. Explanatory clause:
that
he , had I made » mistake
thought ( A ) 1 haunted ^ \ him
Zesson 83,
Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming.
Or sometimes connects parts that are in apposition; as,
We came to a small bay, or inlet.
Notice the comma before the explanatory term.
Ijesson 8J^,
Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming.
When an ellipsis occurs, and the word or words are clearly
understood, use in the diagram a small cross (X) in place
of each word to be supplied.
Gol= X.go
DIAGRAMING. 101
He is wiser than she (is wise).
He ^ is \ wiser
%
she ^ y \ \^ y
Note. — Some consider than a conjunctive adverb, others a pure conjunction.
There is frequently an ellipsis after than or as used in
expressing comparison:
Ruth was not so cowardly as I (was cowardly).
Ruth ^ was \ cowardly
X \ \
When the noun is used adverbially to show a measure of
weight, distance, value, etc., no preposition is needed. Use
no cross.
He ^ walked
\ miles
Remark. — Good usage has established the idiom went home, but when
home ha^ an adjunct, the preposition is supplied; as,
He went to his own home.
In this respect, home differs from other nouns used adverbially.
Ijesson 85,
Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming.
There are in good use some combinations, the words of
which can not be disposed of separately. These are called
idioms.
102 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
One by one the sands are flowing.
sands are flowing
c^^ \?> (Idiomatic phrase used adverbially.'
1
Sin
has , tools
Sin has a great many tools.
(Idiomatic phrase used adverb-
ially.)
An adjunct may modify a whole phrase or a whole asser-
tion.
You are always in trouble.
You
are
That the man is an impostor being clearly demonstrated,
we should be foolish to trust him again.
we . should be > foolish
(A verbal limiting a
whole clause used
as a noun.)
ANALYSIS. 103
Note. — Place the absolute phrase below the predicate should be foolisli,
because it logically modifies the predicate, being abridged from an adveibial
clause of reason. But as the conjunction ha^ been dropped, there is no
grammatical connection.
J^esson 86.
Sentences for Analysis and Diagrams.
1. I thought the man a friend. (Attribute of the object) 2. They
pronounced her insane. 3. I felt my fingers becoming numb. 4. You
knew her to be unfortunate. 5. They christened the child Judith. 6.
You will find her to be a kind and loving mother. 7. He is employed
as book-keeper at Smith's. 8. Smith employs him as book-keeper. 9.
It is evident that he served as captain in the Mexican War. (Explana-
tory clause) 10. To argue down a vice is not the way to correct it. 11.
The grammatical predicate, or word-predicate, is always a verb. 12.
Hurrah, hurrah for Ivry and Henry of Navarre ! (Consider hurrah a
verb here.)
13. What matter if you fall? (Supply the ellipsis.)
14. What though upon her speech there hung
The accents of the mountain tongue ?
15. Wilton was not so foolish as that.
16. "A stranger I," the huntsman said,
Advancing from the hazel shade. (Parts transposed)
Zesson 87*
Analysis and Diagrams.
1. Hand me the boat-hook, boys. ( To understood) 2. That branch
is six inches longer than it was last week; so rapid is the semi-tropical
growth in California.
3. Now, man to man, and steel to steel,
A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel.
4. A boy is always in a hurry to become a man. {Always modifies
the whole phrase in a hurry.) 5. The brain is constantly at work.
(=constantly working) 6. Charles Lamb was seldom in earnest. 7.
What by work and what by economy, he has succeeded in amassing
quite a fortune. 8. This fact having been announced, the messenger
withdrew. 9. The fact that they could not have a holiday having been
announced, the messenger withdrew. 10. Now it was, you observe, that
the kettle began to spend the evening. 11. There was all the excitement
of a race. 12. There being no law to the contrary, the cattle were
allowed to graze on the common. {There is an expletive used to intro-
104 ANALYSIS AND PRONOUNS.
duce the absolute phrase. There being no law to the contrary=no law to
the contrary existing.)
There I
law
W
contrary
y^ing
Zesson 88.
Analysis and
Diagrams.
Saint Augustine ! well hast thou said,
That of our vices we can frame
A ladder, if we will but tread
Beneath our feet each deed of shame !
All common things, each day's events
That with the hour begin and end,
Our pleasures and our discontents,
Are rounds by which we may ascend.
Notice that there are several appositional terms in this stanza.
We have not wings, we cannot soar ;
But we have feet to scale and climb,
By slow degrees, by more and more.
The cloudy summits of our time.
To scale and climb is a verbal phrase, compound adjunct of feet.
we , have , feet
The heights by great men reached and kept
Were not attained by sudden flight,
But they, while their companions slept
Were toiling upward in the night.
Standing on what too long we bore
With shoulders bent and downcast eyes,
ANALYSIS. 105
We may discern— unseen before —
A path to higher destinies.
Nor deem the irrevocable Past
As wholly wasted, wholly vain,
If, rising on its wrecks, at last
To something nobler we attain.
— //. W. Longfellow.
as wasted
106 PRONOUNS.
CHAPTER III.
PRONOUNS.
Jjesson 89.
Antecedents.
[To the Teacher.— The topics of Pronouns and Verbs are the two
most difficult and most instructive in the whole subject of English
Grammar, because these parts of speech undergo many changes in
signification, use, and form ; and even when there is no change in the
form of the pronoun, there is often a change in meaning that needs to
be clearly linderstood by the pupil, in order that he muy have a correct
appreciation of language. And some of these changes, as in the num-
ber and person of the pronouns who and that, affect, not the form of the
pronoun, but the form of the verb following; as, I who write. Thou
that writest. He that writes. They that write. There is no better field
than this for the training of the power of discrimination.]
Show what each italicized pronoun in the following sentences
represents :
1. General Grant completed his book before he died.
2. This hat that looks so shabby was good enough when it w^as
bought.
3. To be kind to one's neighbor is right, but it is not the whole
duty of man.
4. That Cortez conquered Mexico is true, but it is sometimes
doubted.
5. The man who thinks himself w^isest is the most ignorant.
The preceding substantive word, phrase, or clause for
which the pronoun stands is called its antecedent, from
ante=heiore-\-cedere=ib go.
Exercise:
In the following sentences point out the pronouns and
their antecedents, and notice what are most frequently
used as antecedents:
1. Among the Jews, education was restricted to the familj'', in which
the father was the principal teacher. 2. The ocean is not the idle
creature that it seems, with its vast and lazy length stretched between
the continents. 3. It is my living sentiment, and it shall be my dying
sentiment: independence now, and independence forever.
f
PERSONAL PRONOU]!iff.rj\> ^ *. 107
4. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er,
Sleep the sleep that knows not
5. The song that is the sweetest is the song thar^^au^r ^f^k-U^ '
"There," said the Indian, addressing the officer, "are your countrymen ;
there is the enemy who waits to give us battle. Remember that I have
saved your life."
7. Yet this is Rome,
That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne
Of beauty ruled the world !
8. The branches of a pair of antlers served as hooks on whicli to
hang hats and spurs. 9. There sat the very man for whom the captain
and his men had searched far and near. 10. The aunt, who was one of
the best tellers of ghost-stories in all Germany, had just been recount-
ing one of her longest, and had fallen asleep in the very midst of it.
Jjesso?i 90,
Personal Pronouns.
In some sentences, as in the following, the pronoun has no ante-
cedent expressed. Point out the pronouns :
1. 1 am learning to think.
2. Why are you doing it?
3. Where is he going now ?
4. Get it for yourself, not for me.
5. She despised herself for her cowardice.
Give the person of each pronoun in the above sentences.
You see that it is not always necessary to have the antecedent
expressed in order to tell the person of pronouns. But when the
antecedent is expressed, the pronoun must be so chosen as to repre-
sent it correctly.
(a) I who write this do it freely.
(b) You who write this do it freely.
(c) He who writes this does it freely.
In (a) who represents the first person ; in (b) the second person ; in
(c) the third person.
It will be seen, therefore, that some pronouns do not show
by their form of what person they are.
Which pronouns do show by their form of what person
they are? See Lesson 77.
Person, as here used, means, not an individual, bid the grammatical mod-
ification called person.
108 PRONOUNS.
These pronouns are, therefore, called personal pronouns,
because each shows its person by its form.
The personal pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and it, with
their different forms and compounds.
Remark, — The personal pronouns have also a distinct form for number.
Singular, he; plural, they.
The pronoun It is often used without a true antecedent, and may have a
phrase or a clause which explains it, and which, coming after, is really its
subsequent; as,
It is very easy to find fault.
If the sentence be re-arranged it may mean very nearly the same thing, and
the it disappears. Thus:
To find fault is very easy.
In the above construction it seems to be an expletive. As this use comes
under no rule of language, being merely a peculiarity of expression attending
this word, it is called an idiom, and the expression is idiomatic.
Another idiomatic use of the same word is found in such expressions as:
It rains. It is very cold.
There is no definite word for which the pronoun, if it is indeed a pro-
noun here, stands. The construction, aside from its agreement, is very simple,
and of agreement nothing, in this case, need be said.
Lesson 9/,
Hxercises :
a. Review the declension of each of the simple personal
pronouns, Lesson 77.
b. Make sentences, using the following forms of the per-
sonal pronouns:
1. First person, singular, nominative.
2. First, singular, objective.
3. Third, masculine, singular, nominative.
1. Third, masculine, singular, possessive.
5. Second, singular, possessive.
(5. First, plural, objective.
7. Third, feminine, objective.
8. First, singular, possessive.
9. Third, masculine, plural, nominative.
10. Second, plural, objective.
c. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, and see how
POSSESSIVES. 109
many different pronouns you can find that might be cor-
rectly used in each blank:
1. They sent Mary and to school. 2. Let John and go
home. 3. May, Willie, and study grammar. 4. They all left but
and . 5. pupils are studying language. 6. The teacher
told boys to use our common sense. 7. The difference between
you and is. you study the theory of language while 1 practice it.
8. Who tore my book? . 9. John is taller than . 10. •
expect to be present. 11. expects and to be
present. 12. Who is there ? . 13. That book is . 14.
hats lie on table.
Zesson 92,
Possessive Pronouns.
By the declension of the personal pronouns, Lesson 77, you see
that there are two forms for all the possessives except hu and it^,
the third singular, masculine, and neuter.
Examine these sentences and notice how the i)OSse8sives are used,
calling
fny, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their,
the first form, and
mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs,
the second form :
1. My father was a soldier. 2. Henry found your ball. 3. Honor thy
father and thy mother. 4. We should obey our parents. 5. The child
has lost its rattle. 6. I will use Henry's ball, and he may use mine.
7. Have you found yours? 8. Theirs is much better than ours. 9.
Your failure, not hers, is the cause of my anxiety. 10. Thine is the
glory.
Rule. — Use the first form of the possessive pronouns
when the noun limited is expressed after the possessive,
and the second when the noun is. not expressed after the
possessive.
Exercise :
Make sentences of your own, using both forms of all the
possessive personal pronouns.
The second form of the possessive generally equals the
possessive and the noun it limits, as in the sentences:
110 PRONOtlNS.
I will ride your horse, and you may ride mine, (my horse)
She stole your purse, but has she theirs? (their purse)
Remark. — In solemn style, mine and thine are frequently used before
words beginning with a vocal sound; as, mine eyes ; thine enemies.
Exceptions. — The expression, that letter of mine equals that letter of
my letters or that one of my letters, hut this friend of mine can not be
expanded in the first way, for this friend of my friends tneans something
quite different from this one of my friends.
This heart of mine, That mouth of thine, are still more idiomatic
and can not be expanded with sense, for a person has but one heart and but
one mouth.
Zesson 93,
Composition Exercise — Quick Oral Work.
[Note to the Teacher. — The following is the practical application of
declension. If done rapidly it will be very profitable, and will be enjoyed
by the pupils.]
Give sentences containing the personal pronouns, as fol-
lows:
1. First form, first person, singular.
2. First form, second person, plural.
3. Third person, masculine, singular.
4. Third persoUj neuter, singular.
5. Third person, feminine, singular. *
6. First form, third person, plural.
7. Second form, third person, plural.
8. Second form, first person, plural.
9. Second form, second person, plural.
10. First form, second person, singular, solemn style.
Miscellaneous.
11. Nominative, singular, third person, masculine.
12. .First person, nominative, singular.
13. First person, objective, singular.
14. First person, nominative, plural.
15. First person, possessive, plural, first form.
16. Second person, solemn style, nominative, singular.
17. Third person, masculine, possessive, singular.
18. Second person, common style, nominative, singular.
19. Third person, masculine, possessive, plural, first form.
I
COMPOUND PEftSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill
20. Second person, common style, possessive, plural, second form.
21. Second person, objective, plural.
22. Third person, neuter, objective, singular.
23. Second person, solemn style, objective, singular.
24. First person, plural, objective.
25. Third person, feminine, singular, objective.
26. Third person, feminine, singular, nominative.
27. Third person, plural, neuter, objective.
28. Third person, singular, masculine, objective.
29. Third person, singular, neuter, nominative.
Ijesson 94"
Compound Personal Pronouns.
The compound personal pronouns are as follows :
Singular. Plural.
my-j-self our-}-selves
thyself yourselves
yourself yourselves
himself themselves
herself themselves
itself themselves
What suffix is added to form the singular? What suffix is added
to form the plural? To what form of the personal pronoun is this
suffix added in the first three singular compounds ? To what in the
first three phiral compounds? In what persons are these com-
pounds? In what persons are the remaining compounds? To
what form is the suffix added in the last three, singular and plural?
Rule. — To form the compound personal pronouns add
self for the singular and selves for the plural to the •first
form of the possessive in the first and second person, but to
the objective in the third person.
Ca.ution. —Hisself and theirselves are errors arising from not observing
the last point of the above rule, viz.: The compound personal pronoun
in the third person is formed by adding the suffix to the objective form.
Use of the Compound Personal Pronouns.
1. I will do that myself. (Emphasizes 7)
2. She told Joseph himself. (Emphasizes Joseph)
3. You 2/owrse?/ made a mistake. (Emphasizes yow)
112 PRONOUNS.
In the foregoing cases the compounds are used simply
for emphasis.
4. He hurt himself. 5. We injure ourselves when we neglect a duty.
6. He talks to himself. 7. You wronged yourself to write in such a case.
In these examples the verb is transitive, the action ter-
minating on the actor. This is called a reflexive use, from
re = again or hack-{-flectere, to bend; the action being bent
back, and received by the actor.
When used reflexively these pronouns serve the purpose
of distinguishing the person or thing receiving the action.
These words may be used reflexively after prepositions
also; as, I did it for myself. We can do it among ourselves.
In the above, notice:
1. The compound personal pronouns change their form
for number only.
2. They may sustain either the nominative or the object-
ive relation, but never the possessive.
Remark. — When we wish to emphasize the possessive, we use the adjective
own ; as, She likes her own home best.
Jjesson 95,
Exercises :
a. Give the plurals of
my, myself; thy, thyself; him, himself ; her, herself; it, itself.
b^ Use each singular compound in a sentence for emphasis.
Same with each plural.
Use each singular reflexively. Same with each plural.
c. Fill the following blanks with words used for empha-
sis, or used reflexively, and distinguish the use of each:
1. It is cowardly for a man to kill . 2. A wise woman will attend
to her affairs, 3. I saw Charles instead of his friend, and he
gave me his opinion. 4. I know it is true, for General Grant
told it. 5. Be careful, or you will betray . 6. We have many great
men in America who have raised from poverty and obscurity by
their industry.
Form for parsing a personal
pronoun
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 113
Jjesson 96,
Agreement.
Rule. — A personal pronoun should agree with its antece-
dent in person, number, and gender.
' Classify.
Decline.
r Person.
Antecedent, ! Number.
if present, j Gender, if any.
L Rule for agreement.
Form.
Rule.
Remark. — When the antecedent is not expressed, no rule for agreement is
given, and the Person, Number, and Gender can be determined only by the
form of the pronoun.
Exercise :
Parse the personal pronouns, both simple and compound,
in the following:
1. As soon as the little silkworms are hatched, they begin to devour
the leaves of the mulberry trees on which they find themselves. 2. " I
know why George will not go," said Rob ; " he is afraid he will fall down
and hurt himself." 3. The raging storm grew faint and breathed its
last. The restless clouds fretted themselves to atoms. 4. The tree
stood again in loveliness ; she was dressed in more than her former
beauty. 5. A wounded serpent will sometimes bite itself.
6. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up
To such a sudden flood of mutiny.
They that have done this deed are honorable.
7. If you '11 step in one moment, dear, you shall behold yourself. 8.
I seated myself in a recess of a large bow-window. 9. Our arrival
being announced, the Squire came out to meet us. 10. For ourselves,
therefore, it is comparatively of but little importance whether England
does us justice or not ; it is, perhaps, of far more importance to herself.
Zesson 9 7.
Connective Pronouns.
Exercise
Point out the adjective clauses in each of the following
8-G
114 PRONOUNS.
complex sentences, analyze the adjective clause, point out
the connective, and notice what other office each connective
performs in the subordinate clause:
1. People that do not like grammar think it a useless study.
2. The boats that they, had seen were not large.
3. General Grant, who had been an inveterate smoker, died in the
prime of life from the effects of the poisonous nicotine.
4. Virtue, which is always its own reward, sometimes receives the
condemnation of the world.
A pronoun that connects to the antecedent the adjective
clause in which the pronoun performs a substantive office,
is called a Connective Pronoun.
liE^AnK.— Connective pronouns have usually been called Relative pro-
nouns, hut as personal pronouns also relate, the name seems inappropriate.
Exercise :
Point out the connective pronouns in the following, after
this model:
Model:
The berries that she gathered were ripe.
That connects the adjective clause that she gathered to the antecedeni
berries and is the object of gathered; therefore a connective pronoun.
1. Humboldt, whom you have heard so often mentioned here, was
a great traveler.
2. The people and the animals that he met were new to him.
'^Tx.,.
, were x new
animals ^j/ \
H—
he . met i
^ him
that
3. Wheat, which is the most important cereal, grows abundantly ir
India. 4. Livingstone, who explored vast regions in Africa, tried alsc
to convert the savages. 5. Such savages as became Christians wen
baptized. 6. As many people as could be seated heard the lecture. 7
I have more land than I want. 8. There is no sane man but might dc
better if he would try.
CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 115
man
\but , might do
V%
Remark. — In this sentence the meaning is: There is no sane man "who
might not do better if he would try. The word but fills the office of both who
and not.
Jjesson 98,
The simple connective pronouns are who^ which, that, as,
and rarely but and than.
Remark. — The connective pronouns agree in sense with their antecedents
in person and number, b xitdo not change in foi'm to show this agreerrw nt.
Exercise :
Parse the connective pronouns in the following sentences
according to this formula:
( Classify.
Decline, if declinable.
Show what it connects.
(Person.
Form for parsing simple
connective pronouns.
Agrees with antecedent :-s
(Number.
Syntax and form.
. Rule.
1. They also serve who only stand and wait. 2. He is a man in
whom we can confide. 3. He who would thrive must rise at five. 4.
Mr. Thome is the farmer whose barn was burned last week. 5. He
whom thou lovest is sick. ^^ '^
Remark.— Who and which m^y also be used in asking questions; as,
Who brought itf Which did he fiudf Whom did you send? Which may
also limit a noun and become an adjective: as. Which horse is itf Answer.
The brown one. In such cases, who and which are not connective pi-onouns
but interrogatives.
Jyesson 99,
Connective Pronouns.
What:
She bought what she needed.
116 PRONOUNS.
This sentence equals,
She bought that which she needed;
or,
She bought the thing which she needed;
or.
She bought those things which she needed.
Hence what is a connective pronoun,, having a double
relation, and equals the antecedent that or those and the
connective pronoun which.
Exercise :
Expand these sentences and give the construction of
what, tell what it equals, naming the office (subjective or
objective) of each part.
»
Model:
She bought what she needed.
What equals that which. The antecedent that is the object of the verb
bought. The connective pronoun which is the object of the verb needed.
She , bought , X ^t
Diagram:
she , needed , wh X
Note. — The first {X) to indicate the first part, that, understood, and the
second (x) the second part, which. Put tog ether =wha.t.
1. He did what was required. 2. She hkes to see what is passing.
3. He was not thinking of what he said. 4. What is mine is also yours.
Composition Exercise :
a. Use the connective pronoun what in as many other
constructions as you can, in every case giving the office of
each part.
In sentences like the following, the word what has its
antecedent after it, and equals an adjective and connective
pronoun:
He carries in his snuff-box what money he needs = He carries in
Adj. Antecedent. Pro.
his snuflf-box all the money that he needs.
CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 117
b. Make six sentences illustrating this use of what. Try
to get a variety.
c. Analyze, showing the different uses of the connective:
1. That tall lady whom you saw is the very one that did it. 2. The
horses that ran away were frightened by the windmill. 3. All that
came were pleased. 4. As many as can be seated will be welcome. 5.
These ducks, which I shot, are large ones.
That, as, but, and what may have other uses than as connective pro-
nouns, and thus become other parts of speech, as seen in the following
table:
That.
1. I gave all that 1 had. (Connective pronoun)
2. Parse the word that. (Noun)
3. That leaf is torn. (Adjective)
4. That is a sad story. (Pronominal adjective)
5. I am very sorry that you went. (Conjunction)
As.
1. As is a very small word. (Noun)
2. I bought asi much a^s I could find. (1. Adverb; 2. Connective
pronoun)
3. He was sent as surgeon. (Conjunction)
4. And the river became as blood (=like). (Preposition)
Note. — As a preposition as is very uncommon.
But
1. But has only three letters. (Noun)
2. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended,
But has one vacant chair. (Connective pronoun)
3. He went, but he could not stay. (Conjunction)
4. They are all gone but me (= except). (Preposition)
5. It is but right to pay your debts. (Adverb)
6. He is but a man. (Adjective)
What.
1. Parse what. (Noun)
2. She got what she deserved. (Connective pronoun)
3. What is it? (Interrogative pronoun)
4. TF/mf tree is it ? (Interrogative adjective)
5. What! is that all? (Interjection) ^
6. What fun this is ! (Emphatic adjective)
7. FTia^ miserable work ! (Emphatic adverb)
118 PRONOUNS.
8. What by patience and what by perseverance you will win (=partly).
(Adverb) This use is very rare.
Diagram:
you I will win
I \ and \ >
\^> K perseverance
JOesson WO.
Connective Pronouns.
Exercise
Determine what part of speech each italicized word is,
by its use, or office in the sentence, in all cases giving the
office first:
1. What have you in that hand? 2. What is what in that sentence?
3. There is nobody here hut me; hut we are safe. 4. Butter brings hut
twenty cents a pound now. 5. The antecedent of what is not usually
expressed. 6. The committee said that that that that that boy wrote was
not so good as that. 7. But, as, that, and what may each be used as several
different parts of speech. 8. I think it is hut just that you should make
the confession. 9. I think it hut justice that you should be required to
pay for the damage. 10. What! do you think it is so late as four
o'clock ? 11. There is no boy hut can do this if he tries. 12. I am as
brave a^ you, but I do not want to go as a soldief. 13, What a hand-
some man he is ! but what a voice he has !
Zesson W^.
\ Compound Connective Pronouns.
Examine whoever, whichever, and whatever.
The suffix ever is derived from the adverb ever, or the adjective
every, coming from the same Anglo-Saxon root aefre, meaning all;
hence its effect is to give the pronoun a broad meaning.
COMPOUND CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 119
Thus: Whoever means all who, or every person ivho, or he who.
Whatever means all things which, or everything which.
The compound connectives, then, expand Hke what, into
antecedent and connective pronoun.
Whoever is the only one declinable, and it changes the
first part like the simple connective pronouns. The plural
is like the singular.
Singular and Plural.
Nominative, whoever or whosoever
Possessive, whosesoever or whose ver
Objective, whomsoever or whomever
Remark. — Sometimes the compound is used for emphasis; as,
Take it, whosesover it may be. (Partly independent)
Tell whomsoever you meet= Tell [every one \ whom] you meet.
The antecedent every one is the object of tell; the connective pro-
noun whom is the object of meet.
Whomsoever has the objective form.
I will punish whoever did that=I will -punish [the one \ who] did that.
The antecedent the one is the object of will punish. The connect-
ive pronoun who is the subject of did.
The compound has the nominative form. Hence the
Rule. — The form of the compound whoever depends upon
the office of the connective part.
I , will punish | one
who , did , that
Composition Exercise :
Write six sentences containing compound connective
pronouns; let two have whoever in the nominative form and
two in the objective form. Aim at variety. Analyze each.
Zesson /02,
Exercise :
a. Analyze the following and parse the italicized words
according to this forrn:
and the compound i
connective pronouns.
120 PRONOUNS.
( Classify.
I Decline, if declinable.
( Antecedent part.
Form for parsing what I Expand mtorj^^^^^^^^.^^ p^^^
The connective agrees with J Person.
the antecedent in : (Number.
Syntax of antecedent part, Rule.
I Syntax of connective part, Rule.
1. The court favors whomsoever it chooses (to favor). 2. He sold what
he could spare. 3. What she did was good. 4. Whichever yon bring will
please me. 5. The Emperor commanded w;/iomsoet;er he pleased (to com-
mand) to enter the army. 6. People talk of what interests them most.
7. Whatever our visitors wish is at their disposal. 8. Whoever finds the
horse may have my watch.
b. Fill the blanks with the proper compounds:
1. desires may join the excursion. 2. Thie chairman will
appoint the committee recommends. 3. he appoints will
serve for one year.
c. Correct the following sentences:
1. Whoever the children choose shall be queen. 2. We shall give
the medal to whomever deserves it most. ' 3. Whoever we wait for
must pay a fine. 4. Whomever rides in a carriage must pay for it.
After correcting the above, diagram each.
Zesson /OS.
Rules and Cautions for the use of Pronouns.
Examine the pronouns in the following sentences, tell their per-
son, number, and gender, and notice their antecedents :
Every man who thinks himself perfect is greatly mistaken.
Queen Bess resembles her father more than he did his; her temper
was so violent that it often alarmed even her favorites.
I. Personal pronouns must agree with their antecedents
in person, number, and gender. Connectives, only in per-
son and number.
Exercise :
Correct the following:
RULES AND CAUTIONS. 121
I. If there be any one to help, let them come now. 2. Each woman
brought their work with them. 3. The sun is a father to us, and we
should love it. 4. We gave the horse oats, but it would not eat it. 5.
Have you ever seen a lioness rave when its young were taken from it ? 6.
Every boy should study for themselves. 7. Each moment is a treasure,
and we should guard them well. 8. My teacher and friend gave me their
advice. (One person)
II. TvTO or more antecedents meaning different things
and connected by and^ require a plural pronoun; as,
Mr. and Mrs. Curtis have returned from their wedding journey.
III. Two or more antecedents connected by and^ but
describing the same person or thing, require a singular
pronoun; as,
This great lawyer and statesman has gone to his rest.
IV. Two singular antecedents connected by and^ but
emphatically distinguished from each other, require a
singular pronoun; as,
The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward.
Remark. — In this construction the words and and too have the same
force that as well as would have.
V. Antecedents connected by and, but limited by each,
every ^ or no, require a singular pronoun; as,
Every book, every ruler, and every pencil should have its place.
Ijesso7i WZ^.
Rules for the Use of Pronouns.
VI. Singular antecedents connected by or or nor require
a singular pronoun; as.
One or the other must take back his (not their) word.
Remark.— TTt/.s rxde applies to antecedents connected by as well as, and
to antecedents one affirmative and the other negative. In the latter case, the
pronoun agrees with the affirmative and not with the negative; as,
The baker, as well as the grocer, has lowered his prices. Lucius,
122 PRONOUNS.
and not Claude, is expected to bring his horse. The boys, and not the
father, should give up their seats.
VII. When the antecedent is a collective noun taken dis-
tributively, the pronoun should be plural; as,
The jury could not agree, and so they were discharged.
VIII. A collective antecedent conveying the idea of unity
requires a singular pronoun; as.
The Board of Education has its trials also.
IX. Do not use pronouns needlessly; avoid repetition
except for great emphasis.
Henry he left her book here. Incorrect. Omit he.
X. Do not use both the solemn and the common style of
the pronoun you in the same sentence.
Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. Incor-
rect. Change thou to you, or you to thee.
XI. For politeness, the speaker should mention himself
last, except when confessing a fault; as,
FoiA^nd I.
XII. A pronoun should not be used to represent an adjec-
tive, or in any place where reference to its antecedent would
not be clear. Substitute a noun, use a direct quotation, or
reconstruct the sentence.
Incorrect: Be virtuous, which is more valuable than diamonds.
Corrected: Be virtuous, for virtue is more valuable than dia-
monds.
Incorrect because not clear: Johnson told "Williams that he would
not be noticed, because he was so commonplace.
Corrected: Johnson told Williams that he, Williams, would not
be noticed, etc.;
or,
Johnson said to Williams, "You will not be noticed, because you
^re so commonplace,"
RULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 123
Ijesson /05.
Work, under Rules for Use of Pronouns.
Exercise :
Correct the following:
1. The committee were divided in opinion, so it referred the business
to the society. 2. The crowd was so great that we could scarcely make
our way through them. 3. Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter;
it will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship. 4. My mother
she thinks I am too young. 5. Either James or Milton has lost their
cap. 6. This poet and philosopher had their little weaknesses. (One
person) 7. Now, ray friend, I am going to help thee and lend you
some money. 8. I and James and you will succeed, never fear. 9.
Every soldier and every citizen should be ready to do their duty. 10.
The rich man, and the poor man, too, is accountable for the use of
their means.
Composition Exercise :
Write one original sentence under each of the rules for
the agreement of pronouns in Lessons 103 and 104, and
underline the word illustrating the rule. Be ready to assign
the reason for the form of each pronoun used.
Z/esson 100,
Rules for Connective Pronouns.
From an examination of all the sentences previously
given upon the subject of connective pronouns, we deduce
the following:
RuleB for Connective Pronouns.
T. Who is used to represent persons and also animals and
things personified; which to represent animals and things;
that to represent persons, animals, and things, together or
separately.
II. That is preferred to who or ivhich in the following
places, except when euphony forbids;
124 PRONOUNS.
(a) When having joint reference to persons and things;
as,
The men and the horses that were in the lot were blown across
the valley.
(b) In a restrictive clause after an adjective expressing
the highest degree of quality or quantity; as,
He is the wisest man that I know.
Remark, — A restrictive clause is one that limits to a specific person,
object, or class the application of what is said.
(c) In a restrictive clause after an antecedent otherwise
unlimited; as,
People that have honor will not trifle with it.
(d) After the antecedent who; as,
Who that saw her could believe her guilty?
(e) After all, very, or same; as.
He is the very one that I met.
(f) After the indefinite pronoun 1^ ; as,
It is you that did it.
(g) To avoid ambiguity: as,
He sent his boy to a school that did him good.
Remark. — To say " which did him good " might seem to mean the send-
ing did him good, instead of the school.
(h) Whenever the propriety of using who or which is
doubtful; as.
The little babe that lies in its cradle.
Remark. — A babe can scarcely be called a person, and be represented by
who, or an animal or an inanimate thirig, and be represented by which.
III. Use who or which, not that, when a clause is not
restrictive, but can be introduced by and he, and it; as,
Garfield, whowas [and he was] a self-made man, rose to the high-
est position in our country.
Remark. — The non-restrictive clause should be set off by the comma.
RULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 125
Jjesson W7.
Rules for Connective Pronouns.
Examine the following sentences, and notice the differ-
ence in meaning:
1. All the man's friends, who are very anxious, think he must be
dead. 2. All the man's friends that are very anxious, think he must he
dead. 3. All our sheep, which were on the mountain, did well. 4. All
our sheep that were on the mountain, did well. 5. The parlor stove,
which we never liked, was sold to-day. 6. The parlor stove that we
never liked, was sold to-day.
Exercise :
Construct six sentences similar to these, and explain the
difference in meaning caused by using ihai^ instead of who
or which.
Remark. — The connective pronoun that should not follow a preposition.
When that is the object of a preposition, the preposition must end the clause;
as,
This is a duty that all will attend to = This is a duty to which all
will attend.
As 18 sometimes used as a connective pronoun, instead of that.
He cut down such trees ow were not needed. He cut down the trees
that were not needed. I will give you such as I have. I will give you
those that I have.
Whose is the only possessive form of the connective pronouns,
and it is used to represent persons, animals, or things.
This is the man whose horse was stolen. This is the horse whose
mane was trimmed. This is the mane whose shape is neatest. Here is
a watch whose works need cleaning.
Remark. — The use of whose to represent a thing, can be and in many
cases should be avoided by the use of a pi-epositional phrase; as, Here is a
watch, the works of which need cleaning.
Ijesso?i i08.
Rules for Connective Pronouns.
TV. To prevent ambiguity, place the connective pronoun
as near its antecedent as possible:
126 PRONOUNS.
Incorrect: He is like a straw in the current of the Amazon that
has no will.
Corrected: He that has no will is like, etc.
V. When several connective pronouns relate jointly to the
same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each
clause; as,
The things that Madam de Forest brought from Paris and that
were burned in the fire yesterday, were very costly.
VI. A proper name taken merely as a name or in a sense
not strictly personal, should be represented by which, not
by who; as,
Arnold, which is only another name for traitor, died a miserable
death.
VII. What should not be used instead of the conjunction
that nor after an expressed antecedent; thus.
You do not know but what you can do it, should be You do not
know that you can not do it, or, possibly, You do not know tout that
you can do it.
Jjesson /09.
Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns.
Exercise :
Correct the following:
1. The lady which she mentioned is an heiress. 2. This is the warm-
est weather which we have had yet. 3. The boys and the dogs which
are romping on the common make great merriment. 4. General George
"Washington, that was our first president, was also an excellent farmer.
5. People who knew. him intimately say he was very systematic. 6.
Who who is not systematic could he a successful farmer? 7. She saw
in a window a bunch of beautiful flowers that she wanted greatly. 8.
Do not call a child Nero, who is simph^ a name for cruelty. 9. This is
the very plant which is described there. 10. It is strange what she did.
11. People who believe in ghosts and that are always believing wonder-
ful stories, must be very credulous. 12. How do we know but what they
are insane? 13. The two men what were seen were Germans. 14. Who
is he who dare insult a king? 15. Mr. Fox, which was very hungry,
EXERCISES. 127
thought he would hold an interview with Mistress Hen. 16. The sequoia
is the tallest tree which grows. 17. Sun-bonnets, that are very useful
articles, are not as fashionable as they used to be. (Observe the comma.)
18. Sun-bonnets that are generally made of light, cool material are the
most useful articles of ladies' attire. 19. John Muir, that has written
so many interesting descriptions of California glaciers, discovered the
Little Yosemite. 20. The people and the animals which he saw on the
journey were wild and savage. 21. Mrs. A. gave Mrs. B. for her son the
dozen new handkerchiefs which she said she had hemmed for him. 22.
That is the same bear which I tracked yesterday. 23. Men that work
over hot quicksilver and who do not muffle their mouths, will not live
long. 24. He is very avaricious, which makes any one become a miser.
Lesson iW.
The connective pronoun used as the ohject of a verb may-
be understood, but as the subject must always be expressed;
as,
1. The picture you gave is a fine one. (Tliat you gave)
2. The friends that help us are those that tell us our failings.
Exercise :
Some of the sentences in Lesson 109 do not need the con-
nective expressed. Rewrite them, omitting the connective,
and state why it may be omitted.
Composition Exercise :
Construct a sentence under each of the seven rules in
Lessons 106 and 108.
Examine the following sentences, and notice that the third
explains the first and second :
1. All thertf escaped.
2. All the people there escaped.
3. All the people that were there escaped.
1. Many in town did not know it.
2. Many children in town did not know it.
3. Many children that were in town did not know it.
In the first, there is part of a clause modifying all, as seen by the
third.
128 PRONOUNS.
In the first one of the second set, in town is part of a clause lim-
iting many.
Adverbial expressions are frequently parts, or fragments, of
clauses that belong to some noun as adjective adjuncts.
Zesson ///.
Interrogatives.
Notice the kind of sentences:
mio found it? Where^ Whenf Howf
Which house is it? Whose f Row do you know?
What man did you mean?
What did you say ? Why f
Each italicized word asks a question, and is, therefore, an
interrogative word. Some are pronouns; as, who: some,
adjectives; as, which: some, adverbs; as, why.
(a) He said, ''l^7io are you?"
(b) He said, " P^7iere are you?"
(c) He said, ''Tf7tic/i one are you?"
These three sentences are declarative, but each contains
a direct quotation tbat is interrogative; who (a) being an
interrogative pronoun, where (b) an interrogative adverb,
and which (c) an interrogative adjective.
Remark. — A direct quotation is the repetition of the exact words used by
another person. An indirect quotation is a repetition of the thought with a
change in one or more words.
Direct quotation: He said, " I will go."
Indirect quotation: He said that lie would go.
«
Remark. — A direct quotation introduced into a sentence by the words
said, replied, answered, etc., should be (1) set off by the comma, (2) be
begun with a capital, and {3) be inclosed in quotation marks.
Diagrams.
(Interrogative pronoun asking :) you . are \ Who
INTERROGA TI VES. 1 29
(Interrogative pronoun in a you , are \ Who
direct quotation ; object clause :)
He , said ,
Remark.— TVo connective is needed for a quotation, or for a question used
as a noun clause.
you , are \ who
(Interrogative in an indirect \^ know / \
quotation ; object clause :) j
He , wished , X
I I saw [ man
(A connective pronoun belong-' [ \,^
ing to an adjective clause :) y&
who ■ found | it
(d) He asks who you are. you | are \ who
He I asks [
1
(e) He asks where you are. / yQJ^ [ are
He , asks , A X*©
(f) He asks which one you are. you , are \ one
He I asks , /\ \ ^
These last three sentences express the same thoughts as
(a) , (b) , and (c) . The direct quotations have been changed
to indirect, but they still imply the same question, and the
italicized words are still interrogatives.
Notice that a question is implied in each of the following,
also:
9-G
130 PRONOUNS.
(g) He said, "Tell me who you are."
(li) I do not know who she is.
(i) I have found out where you got it.
(J) You can guess which horse won.
Diagram.
horse . won
You , can guess , \^
Zesson //^.
Interrogatives.
«
Definition.
An interrogative, then, is a word that asks or implies a
question, and may be a pronoun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Exercises :
a. Fill the blanks, and tell whether you have inserted an
interrogative pronoun, an interrogative adjective, or an
interrogative adverb:
1. found Moses in the river?
2. did it happen ?
3. woman did the princess appoint as his nurse?
4. had his mother hidden him ?
5. was his sister's name?
Do these five sentences a^l, questions, or im'ply them?
b. Fill the following blank sand notice whether the words
ask or imply:
1. Guess Moses was put into the ark of bulrushes.
2. Tell in country it happened.
3. Do you know his father was ?
4. I have heard you like best.
INTERROGA TIVES. 131
Zesson //J*.
Interrogatives.
c. Point out the interrogative pronouns:
Who are they? Of which did you speak? To what do you allude
now? Give me a hint as to who they are. Who am I? Who are you?
Who is he? Who are we? What am I? What are you? What is
he? What is she?
Notice that the interrogative pronoun does not change, whether
the question is about one or more, or about naale or female.
As the question is always about some person or thing,
the interrogative pronouns are always of the third person.
When asking about a person, however, we use who; as. Who is
it? If the question is about a thing. What is it?
There being no true antecedent, the gender and number
can not be determined, as they are not shown in the form.
Exercise :
Analyze and diagram, noticing the ofl&ce and form of
each interrogative:
1. W^ho comes yonder? (Nominative— subject)
2. Who are they? (Nominative— attribute)
3. Whose hat is this? (Possessive — limiting)
4. Whom did Peter strike ? (Object)
5. Of whom were they speaking? (Object)
Jjesson //^.
Interrogatives.
Composition Exercise:
a. The declinable interrogative pronoun who has a nom-
inative, an objective, and a possessive form. Construct two
original sentences illustrating each form.
b. Construct two sentences illustrating implied interrog-
atives. Change each to a direct quotation and punctuate
properly.
132 PRONOUNS.
c. Parse the interrogatives in the five sentences of Lesson
113, using the formula for nouns, Lesson 79.
[To the Teacher.— There is no particular gain to be derived from
drilling on the interrogatives which and what, except to cultivate the
power of discrimination.; but drill on these can be added here if
thought desirable.]
Zesson //J.
Errors in the Use op Pronouns.
Exercise :
Correct the following according to the formula already
given:
1. Who did you buy that for? 2. Who did you see in town? 3.
Whom is expected to-morrow ? 4. Susie is the friend who I expected.
5. No one can tell what trials may await them to-morrow. 6. Sam and
Fred, get yourself ready for school. 7. Who should I find there but he ?
8. You have mine, and I have thine. 9. I have a new book, which, when
I have read, you may have it. 10. My father, and not a stranger, shall
give me their advice. 11. The scissors have been taken from its place. 12.
You have written this three times, which was not necessary. 13. The
rotation of the earth on its axis, it causes day and night. 14. The com-
mittee has reported favorably on the matter that they considered yes-
terday. 15. Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the
place of coffee. 16. I and father and mother went to see the panorama.
17. How do you know but what Mars is inhabited ? 18. When a dish is
set on this table, it should be wiped first. 19. Whom do you think has
arrived? 20. Who, I ask, who sees me now, can doubt my story? 21.
Mother and father, they do not want me to go to sea.
Zesson //6,
Errors in the Use of Pronouns.
Exercise :
Correct as in Lesson 115.
22. The grocer told the baker that his horse had run away. 23. My
brother is not so slow as me. 24. It is you who need to be temperate.
25. Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a stranger to thy heart.
26. Dudley, that was here to-day, is president of our society. 27. This
is the best which can be had. 28. The merchant bought a suit of clothes
INTERROGATIVES. 133
and gave them to the poor boy. 29. He is not the same man which he
once was. 30. The boiler can not be tested to-day that has just been
finished. 31. In every movement self-possession and grace showed
itself. 32. The moon shed his silvery beams over the landscape. 33.
Dr. Blake sent his patient to a climate which helped him. 34. You
may invite whomever will be the best company. 35. He was the wisest
man whom 1 ever knew. 36. He is as foolish as a little child who
reaches out to grasp the moon. 37. The passengers and baggage which
had arrived were taken to the hotel. 38. The father and guide of your
childhood will prove themselves the friend of your riper years. 39.
Let him be who he may, I will not obey such an unjust command.
Z€SS07l /^7.
Errors in the Use op Pronouns.
Exercise :
Correct as in Lessons 115 and 116.
40. The friends whom I hoped to meet, and that had promised to
wait for me, were not at the station. 41. We were surprised to see
Lucius talking with Andrew, because we knew that he was his enemy.
42. The committee separated to go to its dinner. 43. These apples, if
they had been sorted sooner, they would not have spoiled so rapidly.
44. That bright star set at si:3£ o'clock this morning which we saw rise
last night. 45. The soldiers dispersed the crowd who had gathered. 46.
Get me the red and black ink ; they will both be useful. 47. Parliament
overtaxed the American colonies, which caused the Revolution. 48.
Animals which live upon plants are called herbivorous. 49. Every
team and every steamer is loaded to their utmost capacity. 50. The
same person is both policeman and sheriff and they are kei>t very busy.
51. It was Fred, and not Henry, that hurt themselves with a knife. 52.
The company have disbanded because it could not agree. 53. He did
not say but what we were welcome. 54. The man should first count
the cost who attempts to oppose nature. 55. It is in poor taste for any
one to praise themselves. 56. If my aunt or my sister comes, tell them
I will be back soon. 57. He needs no book that can not see. 58. You
are as tall as her.
134 ADJECTIVES.
CHAPTER IV.
ADJECTIVES.
Zesson //8,
Classes of Adjectives.
Limiting — Descriptive.
Review the definition of an adjective in Lesson 50.
1. Boys are playing. Here the noun hoys can mean any boys and any
number of boys.
2. The hoys are playing. Some particular boys, therefore the limits or
narrows the meaning.
3. Five hoys are playing. Five limits by telling number.
4. Each hoy plays. Each limits by applying the noun to the indi-
viduals separately.
5. My eyes are blue. The possessive pronoun my limits to particular
eyes ; hlue describes them.
6. Platinum is hard. The adjective hard describes the platinum by
telling quality.
7. That sick child will die. That limits by pointing out, and sick
describes by showing condition.
8. He is in an upper room. Upper describes room by showing its
position.
Thus you see that there are two classes of adjectives —
limiting and descriptive.
Limiting adjectives do not describe, but descriptive adjec-
tives often limit as well as describe.
By examining the sentences above, you will see that
limiting adjectives show how far the meaning of the noun
extends, by pointing out, numbering, separating, etc., and
that descriptive adjectives describe the real person or thing
by showing quality, position, condition, etc.
1. The horse is a noble animal. 2. Hand me a7i orange. 3. Every
star is a sun.
These limiting adjectives — a or an and the — are often
called articles. The points out some particular thing or
I
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 135
Bet of things, and a or an limits to one, but not any par-
ticular one.
Remark.— A arid an are different forms of the same word, from the
Anglo-Saxon root an meaning one ; for euphony tlie n is dropped before sub-
vocal ar aspirate sounds.
The is occasionalhi an adverb; as, The more haste the less speed.
A is sometimes, though rarely, used as a preposition; as, He went a fish-
ing (on fishing).
Zesso7i //^.
Classes of Adjectives.
Pronominal.
Examine the italicized words below :
Some people are happy, other people are not.
Some and other are limiting adjectives.
By leaving out the noun people we can say,
Some are happy, others are not.
Few men are wholly bad. Few are wholly bad.
The tirst five (pupils) recited well.
This has a good fiavor=This (peach or apple). ^
Each should do his duty = Each (person).
When limiting adjectives are used instead of the nouns
that they limit, they are called pronominal adjectives,
(something like pronouns). They are, however, not pro-
nouns, because the nouns for which they stand, though not
expressed, are understood, and if supplied, would follow
these adjectives.
When the nouns are expressed with such adjectives, the
latter are then simply liraiting adjectives, no longer pro-
nominal.
Remark. — Most limiting adjectives, except the articles, may become pi-o-^
nominal.
Exercise :
Point out the pronominal adjectives, and tell what noun
is understood :
136 ADJECTIVES.
1. This is a good apple; these are all ripe. 2. Don't take that on the
upper shelf ; those in the fruit basket are better. 3. This one of the
two girls is a mute. 4. The other is blind. 5. The other's vision is de-
fective. 6. He pointed to the others. 7. Some people have money, I
have not much ; perhaps you have more, but doubtless she has the most.
By examining the above you will see
In 1 and 2 that this and that have plurals ;
In 4-5-6 that some other pronominals also have plurals and pos-
sessives, like nouns ;
In 7 that some undergo another change of form, used to express
degree, as, much, more, viost; few, fewer, fewest.
Remark. — This last change of form is called comparison.
This is applied to objects near by; its plural is these.
That is applied to objects at a distance; its plural is
those.
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative form,
other.
others.
Possessive,
other's,
others'.
Nominative form,
one,
ones.
Possessive,
one's,
ones'.
The possessive of another is another^s, and it has no plu-
ral, the prefix an meaning one.
Composition Exercise: •
Write a sentence for each of the forms of this, that one,
other, another.
J^esso?i 720,
Classes of Adjectives.
Interrogative Adjectives.
What trees were burned? (Asking a question) .
trees , were burned
2. Guess wTa.B,t trees were burned f (Implying a question]
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 187
X , Guess
trees
were burned
\
_J\
Exercise :
%
Write two sentences using which, and two using what as
interrogative adjectives.
Descriptive Adjectives.
Descriptive adjectives may be used:
1. To limit a noun; as,
A warm day will start the young grass.
2. As the attribute of subject or object; as,
The sunshine is warm. The furnace made the room warm,
3. They may also be used substantively; as,
The rich do not always oppress the poor.
Diagrams.
1. dav 2. sunshine , is \ warm
3.
furnace ,
\
made /
warm , house
fa- rich
, do oppress , poor
'
4.-
b. X
■ \
, do oppress ,
poor
N.
B. — The noun may be e
upplied.
~^.
138 ADJECTIVES.
Rk^ark.— Such descriptive adjectives as rich, poor, wise, good, beau-
tiful, etc., when used substantively representing a whole class, have virtually
become nouns, generally plural, and when plural, though singular in form,
they require plural verbs and pronouns; as,
The good are not always happy, though they deserve to be.
The purely descriptive Adjective expresses
1. Quality; as,
An industrious man.
2. Condition, or state; as,
A sick man.
3. Position; as,
An upper room.
There are others, like the following:
1. A German university, A Shakespearian sonnet, called Proper
Adjectives, derived from proper names, and always capitalized.
2. An unheard-of event, A two-foot rule, called compound and
written with the hyphen.
3. Trying weather, Murmuring sea, A forgotten face, A forsaken
wife, derived from verbals, and called Verbal Adjectives.
Verbal adjectives differ from true verbals in having lost
the idea of special time. They express a general charac-
teristic of the person or thing to which they belong.
Illustration. — A bird singing beneath my window atvoke me.
In this sentence, the verbal singing expresses an act as going on
at that particular time — the time it awoke me.
The nightingale is a singing bird, but the blue jay is not.
Here singing expresses an act as a general characteristic belong-
ing to the bird at one time as much as at another, and is, therefore,
a purely descriptive adjective.
Remark. — Nonns may become adjectives; as, An iron spoo7i. The city
police.
Zesson /^/.
Classes of Adjectives.
Exercise :
Point out and classify the descriptive adjectives:
CHANGES IN FORM. 139
1. The fragrant breezes fanned his burning brow. 2. We met a
blue-eyed maiden among the romantic ruins. 3. It was in an
upper chamber, the inner walls of which were hung with rotting
tapestry. 4. The Italian government has undergone many im-
portant changes. 5. The closing speech was made by the retiring
president. 6. The child is well now, but he has been very ill.
Composition Exercises:
a. Write six seijtences containing compound adjectives.
b. Write six sentences containing proper adjectives.
c. Write six sentences containing verbal adjectives.
Ijesson /22,
Changes in Form.
As you have seen, descriptive adjectives may show qnal-
ity, condition, or position, of the real things.
1. Walter is large for his age, but his brother Louis is larger.
Large and larger express the same quality, s/2;e, but larger shows that
one of the boys possesses this quality in a greater degree than the other.
2. Alva is the largest one of the four brothers.
Largest shows that Alva has the greatest degree of size of all the
persons compared.
Notice, then, that this adjective has three forms — large, larger,
largest.
Name two other adjectives that can have this change in form.
This change in the form of the adjective to express differ-
ent degrees of the same quality is called comparison.
It would be very burdensome to our language to have a different
form of the adjective for each of these degrees. Usage has settled
upon three forms, for many adjectives, called the common, or posi-
tive, form, the comparative, and the superlative form. With some
there is a diminutive form, as yellowis/i, saltish. Many variations of
degree are shown by joining an adverb to the adjectives ; as, more
healthful, most healthful, less healthful, least healthful.
Examine :
large, larger, largest.
140 ADJECTIVES,
strong, stronger, strongest.
. ^ ( more amiable, miost amiable.
' I less amiable, least amiable.
Exercise :
Use the above adjectives in sentences.
Large, strong, amiable, yellow, are in the common, or simplest,
form. (Usually called the positive)
Examine these sentences; notice, (1) what things are compared,
and (2) how many at a time :
Ned is tall, but Will is taller.
The mother is more amiable than her daughter is [amiable].
Miss G's desks are smaller than Miss H's.
The second book is less interesting than the others.
The italicized adjectives used above are in the comparative form.
The comparative form shows that two things, or sets of
things, have been compared with regard to a certain quality,
and that the one described by the comparative has more or
less of the quality than the other.
Examine these in the same way :
He is the tallest boy in school, and the best scholar in his class.
She is the youngest of four children.
The three sisters have each a pony, but Susie's is the smallest.
Of all the books I have read, this is the least interesting.
This form is called the superlative. It shows that more
than two things, or sets of things, have been compared in
regard to a certain quality, and that the one described has
the most or the least of that quality.
Exercise :
Write out the comparison of the adjectives in the four
sentences above, in this form:
Simplest form.
Comparative.
Superlative.
wide,
wider,
widest.
jbappy,
"j merry,
happier.
happiest.
merrier,
merriest.
CHANGES IN FORM.
141
timplest Form.
Cumparatice.
Superlative.
(able,
(gentle.
abler.
ablest.
gentler.
gentlest.
(narrow,
(shallow.
narrower,
narrowest.
shallower,
shallowest.
excitable.
(more excitable,
(less excitable.
(most excitable,
(least excitable.
healthful,
more (or less) healthful,
most (or least) healthful.
Zesso?i 723,
Changes in Form.
Directions for Comparison.
I. Most adjectives of one syllable, and those of two syl-
lables accented on the last, or ending in y, le, ow, are com-
pared by adding er to form the comparative, and est to
form the superlative.
In forming these different degrees, observe the rules for spelling.
II. Other adjectives of two syllables, and those of more
than two syllables, are usually compared by prefixing more
and most for increase, and less and least for decrease.
Remark. — More and most, less and least, may be construed either as
adverbs or as a part of the adjective, expressing a degree of comparison.
Note. — The choice of modes of comparison is often a matter of sound.
Choose that which is most agreeable to the ear, if in accordance with good
usage.
III. Some adjectives are compared by a radical change
in the word:
Good, better, best.
Irregular Comparison.
'imple Form.
Comparative.
Superlative.
^ft,
after.
aftermost.
bad,
■ evil,
worse.
worst.
ill,
far.
farther,
farthest or
142
Simplest Form.
fore,
(Forth,)
Good,
Hind,
(In),.
Late,
Late,
Little,
(Many,
(Much,
Near,
Old,
Out,
Under,
(Up),
Top,
Remark. — The words inclosed in parentheses are adverbs. Most limiting
adjectives are not compared, though some expressing number or quantity may
admit of comparison. Descriptive adjectives expressing qualities that can
exist in one degree only, or are already in the highest degree, are not com-
pared; as, round, dead, level, perfect. We may say more nearly perfect,
etc.; and the comparative and superlative forms are frequently used in that
sense.
ADJECTIVES.
Comparative.
former.
Superlative.
foremost or first.
further.
(furthest or
(furthermost.
better.
best.
hinder.
[hindmost or
(hindermost.
inner.
[ inmost or
(innermost.
later.
latest.
latter.
last.
less.
least.
more.
most.
nearer,
[nearest,
(next.
[older,
(elder,
(oldest,
(eldest.
[outer,
(utter.
outermost.
- utmost,
[uttermost.
undermost,
[upmost,
(uppermost.
upper.
topmost.
Ijesso7i 724-^
Changes in Form.
Exercise :
a. Compare according to the above rules or exceptions:
Wise, lovely, intelligent, much, lazy, pretty, graceful, hot, cold,
capable, well, good, honorable, peaceful, hard, horizontal, eloquent, ill,
sallow, tender, handsome, idle.
RULES AND C^9^f>N8.r)^ . ,£f5 •-
Some of these may be compar4l^ hf 'irfea-ns of suflfixes ch* 6i
prefixes; look in the dictionary when^iJ/doubt. ^, ..^- ,-
b. Sum up your knowledge of the siJ^^j^i^^^lii^tives
by rapid parsing, after this form:
1. Classify.
C Simplest Form. ^
2. Compare : < Comparative Form.
(. Superlative Form.
3. Give Form.
4. Give Use.
5. Rule: "Adjectives limit or describe nouns or pronouns."
Model:
That boy is tall.
' Common descriptive adjective.
fTall.
Compared : < Taller.
Tall<; [Tallest.
Simplest form.
Used as an attribute describing hoy.
Rule. — Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns.
Zesson ^25,
Rules and Cautions.
The Articles.
I. Use a or an to indicate one, but no particular one; the
•to point out a particular thing or class.
II. For euphony, use a before words beginning with a sub-
vocal or an aspirate sound and an before a vocal sound;
as a ball, an apricot, a task.
Exception.— Ji5 is considered good usage to use an before the aspirate
sound of h when the word is accented on the second syllable; as,
An historian; an hypothesis.
FvV.'M AUK.— Subvocals, vocals, and aspirates, are sounds and not letters.
We say an hour because h is silent and the word begins with the vocal
sound of on.
144 ADJECTIVES.
III. When two or more connected adjectives describe
different things, use the article before each adjective; as,
We found a hot and a cold spring. (One spring could not be
both hot and cold.)
IV. When two or more connected adjectives describe one
thing or set of things jointly, use the article before the first
adjective only; as,
A black and white shawl. (One shawl, but two colors)
N. B. — A repetition of the article implies a repetition of the noun.
Lesson /26.
Rules and Cautions.
V. Connected nouns emphatically distinguished from
each other have the article before each; as,
In choosing a friend, we should consider the character rather
than the social standing.
VI. Do not use the article before the names of virtues,
vices, passions, arts, or sciences, taken in a general sense;
before titles or words mentioned merely as words; or before
a proper name in the singular; as,
Milton thinks love is a virtue and anger a vice. They gave her
the title of M.D. Hill comes from the same root as column — not A
hill comes, etc.
Few expresses number, and little — quantity.
VII. Use a few and a little when meaning some; feio
when meaning not many, and little, not much; as,
I am content wdth a few friends and a little money. (Meaning
some friends, and some money.)
Note.— A few and a little mean more than few and little.
yill. In expressing a comparison with than, if both
nouns refer to the same person or thing, use but one
article; otherwise, repeat the article; as,
EXERCISES. 145
Mr. S. is a better carpenter than blacksmith. (He is a better
carpenter than he is a blacksmith.) Mr, S. is a better carpenter
than a blacksmith. (He is a better carpenter than a blacksmith
would be.)
J^esson /27.
Composition Exercise :
Write a correct sentence illustrating each of the eight
rules and cautions, Lessons 125 and 126.
Zesson /28.
Errors in the Use of Articles.
Exercise :
Correct the sentences below by the following
Model :
He was an wise man.
Incorrect : Because an is here used before the word wise, begin-
ning with a subvocal sound, thus violating the rule:
".1 should be used before words beginning with a subvocal or an
aspirate sound."
Corrected: He was a wise man.
1. They found an hornet's nest, but were rescued by an young man
in an uniform like that of a soldier. 2. Hattie has a elegant new dress.
3. Is she a honest girl? 4. We staid a hour, an whole hour. 5. A frac-
tion is one of the equal parts of an unit. 6. Kow we are studying not the
noun but adjective. 7. Imitate the virtues, as well as manners, of your
neighbors. 8. The hard and soft maple require very different soil. 9.
The east and west boundary are a mile apart. 10. Ellen's aunt gave her
two new handkerchiefs, a linen and silk. IL The honesty is always
the best policy. 12. She wrote another and a colder letter. 13. What
is the original meaning of a memorandum? 14. Howard was always
partial to the mathematics. 15. Wilson had a few friends because he
was so surly. 16. As the waves were rolling high, but a little of the
cargo and a few passengers were rescued. 17. You sent me less books
than ordered. 18. Little (something) can be accomplished in so short
a time, but not enough. 19. Few Japanese come to this country to study,
because they wish to learn our manners and customs.
10-G
146 ADJECTIVES.
Zesson /29.
Rules and Cautions.
IX. Whenever the adjective has a form to denote one or
more than one, the adjective and noun should agree in
number; as,
TJiis kind, these kinds, twenty pounds.
But we may say a five-dollar piece, or a ten-foot pole, when the
singular noun helps to form th6 compound adjective.
The following nouns are singular in form when used with numer-
als, but add s in other cases :
Brace, couple, pair, yoke, score, hundred, thousand, etc. Two pair of
shoes. They marched in pairs.
X. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs for
adjectives; as.
His face looks cross. (Not crossly) Diagram.
I scolded him well. (Not good)
XI. Do not use the pronoun them as an adjective; say,
Those scissors, not them scissors.
XII. Use either and neither with reference to two things
only; any and none with reference to more than two; as,
Any of the six. Neither of these two.
Zesson /SO.
Rules and Cautions.
XIII. Use the reciprocal expression each other Yf\i\i refer-
ence to two; and one another with reference to more than
two; as,
That couple are very devoted to each other. Neighbors should
be kind to one another.
XIV. When adjectives are of the same rank, and joined
to one noun, they should generally be arranged in order of
length, the shortest first; as,
George is both honest and industrious.
EXERCISES. 147
Remark. — Terms are of the same rank when connected by and, or, or
nor, expressed or understood. When in a series of adjectives of the same
rank, one or more of the conjunctions is omitted, the adjectives must be sep-
arated from one another by the comma.
XV. In a series of adjectives of different rank, place
nearest the noun the one expressing the most distinguishing
quality of it, or most closely limiting it; as.
An intelligent young lady.
lady
It would not sound correct to say,
"An intelligent and young lady ;" there-
fore no comma, and the adjectives need
not be in order of length.
XVI. Be careful in the choice of adjectives; do not exag-
gerate the idea, or repeat it; thus.
Do not say, *' I have a horrible cold." (Look up the meaning of
the word horrible.) Severe would be better,
"He is wise and intelligent,^^ repeats the idea.
Zesson 737.
Errors in the Use op Adjectives.
Exercises:
a. Correct the following hy model under Lesson 128:
1. It is impossible for me to like those kind of peaches. 2. That tree
is sixty foot high. 3. He walked very gentle. 4. She appeared beauti-
fully that evening. 5. I have not seen Jane this five daj'S. 6. It is
uncommon foggy this morning. 7. What do you think of them sugar
tongs? 8. Pass me those molasses. 9. None of you two can do this.
10. Here are four horses, but neither will do. 11. Twins are generally
very much like one another. 12. Richard is an intelligent and full-
grown young man. 13. Members of the same school should recognize
each other on the street. 14. The three last verses are the best. 15. I
have taken an awful cold. 16. The house is large and roomy. 17. It is
beastly weather. 18. These sort of people are always quarrelsome.
b. After correction, parse the adjectives in the above.
148 ADJECTIVES.
Zesson /32.
Composition Exercise:
Make a correct sentence under each of the rules and
cautions in Lessons 129 and 130. Give a good reason for
each adjective that you use.
Zesso?i /SS,
Rules and Cautions.
XVII. When this and that^ these and those are contrasted,
this and these should refer to the latter of the two things
mentioned, and that and those to the former; as,
There was once a marked difference between the Spartans and
the Athenians, these being noted for their hardihood, those for their
culture. (For the true meaning, change the position of the terms,
Athenians and Spartans.)
XVIII. When the one and the other are contrasted, the
one should refer to the former term mentioned and the other
to the latter; as,
The two brothers, George and Milton, were a striking contrast;
the one was fair and amiable ; the other dark and fiery.
XIX. Place adjectives so that they will clearly limit or
describe the word intended; as,
A box of fresh grapes, not A fresh box of grapes, unless a different
thought is intended.
XX. The comparative degree is generally used with
reference to two objects, or sets of objects, and the superla-
tive, to more than two; as,
The Mississippi is longer than the Ohio. It is the largest river
in the United States.
Remark. — The superlative form is often used by good writers in compari-
son of two things, particularly if there are only two in all. {His right hand
is the largest)
RULES AND CAUTIONS, 149
Zesson /SJ^,
Rules and Cautions.
XXI. Avoid double comparatives and double superla-
tives; as,
This was the most unkindest cut of all. (Omit moii.)
XXII. When the comparative form is used, the latter
term of comparison should exclude the former; as,
My new horse is better than any I have ever had, should be
than any I have had before.
Remark. — The comparative is usually followed by than, the superlative
is preceded by the and followed by of. A comparative preceded by the may
be followed by of; as, He was the wiser of the two. Some words implying the
comparative are followed by to; as, superior to, preferable to, etc.
XXIII. When the superlative form is used, the latter
term of comparison should include the former; as,
He was the best-natured boy in his class. The latter term class
includes the former term he. He was the best-natured of his asso-
ciates is incorrect, because he could not be one of his own associ-
ates — the latter term does not include the former. Therefore the
superlative should not be used.
XXIV. Do not use comparative terminations or adverbs
of degree with adjectives that do not admit of comparison,
and avoid comparing a thing with itself ; as,
A more universal opinion, should be An opinion more nearly
universal, or more common.
Zesson /S5.
Exercises Under the Rules in Lessons 133 and 134.
a. Fill the blanks:
Superlative.
Which of the three brothers is the ?
Comparative.
That picture is any you have had .
He was the abler man of .
150 ADJECTIVES.
b. Correct the following:
1. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we
should not therefore account those happy and these miserable. 2. Bring
a new can of milk. 3. She was the most miserablest creature in exist-
ence. 4. Mrs. Hayes was the most plainly dressed of any other lady
present. 5. The most superior article can be obtained there. 6. Wheat
is more nutritious than any grain. 7. Wycliffe should be called the
father of English prose, if Chaucer is called the father of English poetr3^
The one was the courtly student, the other, the vigorous preacher. 8.
This is the taller of the three trees. 9. A baked dish of pork and beans.
10. The ignorant and the wise should live side bj'' side ; then when these
get into trouble, those could help them out. 11. Which of them two
flowers is the prettiest? 12. I know a more preferable way. (Prefer-
able implies a comparison of two.) 13. The most principal rules should
be learned thoroughly. 14. The use of tobacco is, of all other extrava-
gant habits, the most disgustingly selfish. 15. There is no vice so costly
and degrading as drunkenness. 16. China is more populous than any
country in the world. 17. The tower of Paris will be the tallest of all
the other towers since Babel.
Zesson iS6.
Composition Exercises.
a. Write two sentences, using the comparative form.
b. Write two sentences, using the superlative form.
c. Write two sentences, using adjectives that can not be
compared.
d. Write two sentences, contrasting ih,%% and thai.
e. Place a suitable noun after each of the following ad-
jectives:
Great, wise, high, long, bright, roaring, sleeping, fifteen, awful,
terrible, pale, delicious, frosty, ripe, wet, a few, lean, natural, gay,
these, those, that, persevering, stooping.
Jjesson /37.
Composition Exercises.
f. Prefix an adjective to each of the following, without
using the same adjective twice:
Peer, child, goose, hero, negro, work, fence, fear, delay, vices,
EXERCISES. 151
actions, story, porch, judge, mountain, woman, leaf, actor, traitor,
wolf, attorney, body.
g. Insert the definite article:
Henry Eighth, reasons most obvious, man of means, new books,
better way, first and last, high and low, three graces, how great
provocation, all modern writers.
h. Insert the indefinite article:
Such power, open window, what incident, too great variety, uni-
versal opinion, so great joke, uniform course, few dollars, little hope.
i. Arrange each set of words so as to form a good sen-
tence:
(1) Good, one, is, man, better, a, community, for, than, hundred,
ones, a, bad.
(2) Gives, Earth, Spring, green, shroud, to, soft, beautiful, deli-
cate, of, moss, a.
(3) Round-faced, that, who, is carrying, boy, box, a, large,
peaches, rosy-cheeked, of, has, a cheerful, heart, honest.
(4) Hundreds, ferns, tall, of, graceful, wave green plumes, their,
the, rocks, over, gray.
j. Name all the parts of speech in the sentences you have
arranged from the above. Parse the adjectives in the sen-
tences you have made.
Have you used the comma correctly?
Zesson /38,
Composition Exercises.
k. Make six sentences, each of which shall contain three
adjectives, one from each of these lists. Be careful about
the comma:
1.
2.
3.
A
long
blue
the
dark
sunny
those
tall
meddlesome
this
lazy
purple
every
blue-eyed
warm
a few
sweet-
•tempered
tender
152 ADJECTIVES.
Notice whether the adjectives are of the same rank or of differ-
ent ranks.
1. Write a sentence comparing the horse and the ox, with
regard to height.
2. Write a sentence expressing a comparison between the
horse and all other animals.
3. Write a sentence comparing the sea lion and the whale,
with regard to any quality.
4. Compare the story you heard last with all you have
ever heard.
5. Compare with one another three flowers that you have
seen.
ADVERBS.
153
CHAPTER V.
ADVERBS.
Zesson /S9.
Uses of Adverbs.
The word adverb means added to a verb.
You have aheady learned that adverbs may be added also to
adjectives and to other adverbs. Let us examine some of their
other uses.
Notice what the italicized words modify and what they show:
1. The boat approached rapidly.
2. We saw a boat approaching rapidly.
3. The officer ordered the small boat to approach rapidly.
What does rapidly modify in (2) and (3) ?
4. That is exactly right.
5. It lies exactly opposite the town.
6. We have gone partly through the book.
We , have gone
book
7. He stood just under the bridge.
8. She is seldom seen.
9. She is seldom at work.
10. Some are always in a hurry.
Some , are \ "^ A
154 ADVERBS.
11. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion.
Notice that (9) means seldom working, (10) means always
hurrying, (11) means in perpetual motion; but (5), (6),
and (7) can not be changed in this way. In these sentences,
exactly (5), partly (6), Siud just (7), modify the preposition
following; but seldom (9), always (10), and perpetual (11),
modify whole phrases.
Next examine the following:
1. Yes, that is my brother.
that I is \ brother
2. No, you can not have it.
3. Perhaps he is the one.
4. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my
life.
The italicized adverbs modify the whole assertion, and it
is doubtful whether they should be construed as modifying
any particular word in the assertion.
Remark. — As these adverbs do not modify any particular word in the
sentence, some grammarians call them independent. ' Yes and no are called,
also,responsives, because they can answer a question alone; as,
Are you going? Yes. = Yes, I am going.
Summary: Adverbs, then, may modify verbs, verbals,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, whole phrases, or whole
assertions. They most frequently, however, modify verbs
or verbals, and, as verbals were formerly considered a class
of verbs, the name adverb ( ad -f verb) was appropriate.
Adverbs having no other use are sometimes called simple
adverbs.
USES OF ADVERBS 155
Exercise :
Write two sentences illustrating each of the above uses
of adverbs.
Ijesson ^4.0,
Uses of Adverbs.
Interrogative Adverbs.
Besides these uses, adverbs may modify by asking or
implying questions, and are then called interrogative ad-
verbs; as,
Where did he find it? Guess where he found it. When did you
come? How can you tell? Show me how you tell.
(See, under pronouns, the lessons on interrogatives.)
Conjunctive Adverbs.
Analyze and diagram the two following sentences:
1. Come when you are ready.
2, I go where I choose.
What is the connective in each sentence ? What does the con-
nective show?
These are called connective (or conjunctive) adverbs, be-
cause they join a subordinate clause to the word modified.
A conjunctive adverb connects a subordinate clause to
the principal, and modifies some part of either or both
clauses.
Many adverbs are abridged phrases. We can generally tell
what word or words a conjunctive adverb modifies, by expanding
it into one or two phrases, and then seeing to what each phrase
would belong; as, Come when you are ready.
Expanded : Come at the time at whicli you are ready.
156 ADVERBS.
Diagram of Expanded Sentence.
■X , Come
Y^ tim e (^^ i^^^ ^^/^^ modifies come
. \ \ \ ^ and at which modifies ready;
you are \ ready \ \ hence, when modifies a word
' \ \ ^ in each clause.)
V which
Diagram of Sentence not Expanded.
X . Come
you are \ ready
But in the sentence,
/ saw the field where he was shot,
The conjunctive adverb where equals only one phrase, viz.: on
which.
The expanded sentence is,
I saw the field on wMch he was shot.
The phrase on which modifies shot only.
Diagram of Expanded Sentence.
I , saw , field
he , was shot \ V^
\ which
Diagram of Sentence not Expanded.
1 . saw field
he was shot
CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 157
jLesson /^/.
Conjunctive Adverbs.
Composition Exercise :
Write sentences containing the conjunctive adverbs
because, until, before, as, where, and when; then change the
adverbs to phrases, and determine what each adverb mod-
ifies.
Wesson ^4-2,
Exercise :
Review all the sentences given in the last three lessons,
and notice again what each adverb shows; then what each
in the following shows:
1. Speak now. He wrote yesterday. I will do it soon. WJien will
he come? (Time)
2. Come here. Look upward. Where did you find that knife ?
{Direction or place)
3. She could scarcely speak. You are very kind. Lizzie is quite
amiable. {Degree)
4. Miss N. speaks distinctly. They came somehow. Do not act
foolishly. {Manner)
5. Wliy did he save the child? We can not go out in the boat
because the wind is too high. [Cause)
6. I was only joking. Robert has but one hand. She plays only,
she does not sing. [Exclusion)
7. She plays, and sings also. The baby sang, too. {Addition)
Hence adverbs may be divided into the several classes,
adverbs of time, place, degree, manner, cause, exclusion, addi-
tion, etc.
Remarks. — 1. Most adverbs of manner are derived from adjectives by
adding ly ; as,
Wise, wisely ; sweet, sweetly ; slow, slowly.
2. Adverbs of exclusion and of addition are classed by some as adverbs
of degree.
3. Some adverbs are used merely for emphasis; as,
Yes, indeed, it is very line ; no, indeed, you must not go.
158 ADVERBS.
4. Adverbs of time have various shades of meaning interesting to notice,
hut perhaps not absolutely necessary; namely, time present, past, future, rel-
ative, absolute, repeated, and order of time.
5. Many words may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs; as,
Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, low, fast.
Composition Exercise:
Write two sentences under each kind of adverb, using
words not given above, if possible.
Lesson /^J".
Parsing Adverbs.
Exercise :
Classify the adverbs by telling whether simple, interrog-
ative, or conjunctive, whether of time, place, degree, etc.,
and tell what they modify, according to the following
Models:
1. Have the men arrived yet?
Yet is a simple adverb of time, modifying the verb arrived.
2. They will wait until the wind goes down.
Until is a conjunctive adverb of time connecting the subordinate
clause, the wind goes down, to will wait, and modifying both will wait and
goes. ( Until=until the time at which.)
3. Where did you see them? Where is an interrogative adverb of
place modifying did see. 4. The fire went out while Susan was dreaming.
5. They told her the news again, but she seemed scarcely to realize it, for
she was nearly crazed. 6. Speak gently to the erring. 7. But wherefore
do you droop, why look you so sad ? 8. The mail comes but once a day.
9. Poor Lear became stark mad. 10. The affrighted people ran hither
and thither, up and down. 11. Andrew is too particular. 12. Who
comes oftener than I ? 13. Come earlier next time.
Lesson /^^.
Comparison of Adverbs.
Examining the last three sentences in the preceding les-
son, you will notice that some adverbs admit of comparison
like adjectives.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 159
Foolishly, more foolishly, most foolishly. (Using the adverbs
more and most)
Often, oftener, oftenest. {Addition of er aiid est)
Far, farther, farthest. {Somewhat irregular)
Forth, further, furthest. {Somewhat irregular)
Badly or ill, worse, worst. {Irregular)
Well, better, best. {Irregular)
Little, less, least. {Irregular)
Much, more, most. {Irregular)
There are not many adverbs that admit of comparison,
but a few vary their form to express degree, in the same
manner as adjectives.
Exercises :
a. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of
the following:
Patiently, comfortably, easily, earnestly, economically, profit-
ably, secretly.
b. Prefix the comparative adverbs of decrease to each of
the above.
Jjesson /z^J'.
Notice the following:
Hence, get thee gone ! [Go] hence.
Away to the meadows, away ! [Come] away.
Dovm, soothless insulter ! [Get] down.
Once more unto the breach, dear friends ! [Advance] unto the
breach.
The italicized adverbs modify verbs understood, as shown by the
words in brackets. The omission of the verb gives greater strength
and animation to the sentences.
Exercise :
Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and see if
you can strengthen the sentences by omitting one or more
of the words:
160 ADVERBS.
1. Come here, my boy, take this bottle to the druggist for your
mother's medicine. Run quick I she may die.
2. Go hence, go home, you idle creatures!
3. "Step forward, march!
Adverbs, being more concise than their equivalent phrases, add
strength to the language ; thus,
Where is he ?=At what place is he ? Whyf=For what reason? Wisely =
In a wise manner.
Exercise :
Write ten sentences containing adverbs, and then change
the adverbs to phrases, where possible.
\
Jjesson /J^O.
Rules for the Use of Adverbs, and Cautions.
I. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs when
quality, not manner, is meant.
II. Do not repeat or exaggerate the idea.
III. The rules under adjectives, relating to the use of
comparatives and superlatives, apply also to adverbs.
IV. Be careful to place adverbs where they will make
the meaning clear and the sentence smooth.
Remark. — ''''For the placing of adverbs no definite rules can be given.'''' —
Goold Brown.
(i) Those that modify adjectives or adverbs, prepositions, or whole phrases,
almost always imraedlately precede them.
{2) But those that modify compound verbs, generally follow the first part
of the verb.
(3) Good usage does not allow the placing of an adverb between to and
the rest of the verbal.
Examples :
A very clear sky. Quite slowly. Half-way around the grounds. He
may not have done wrong. Merely to speak {not to merely speak).
{4) -Sw< adverbs are frequently transposed for the sake of emphasis:
I have to-day seen ten sea-lions. To-day I have seen ten sea-lions.
EXERCISES. 161
Composition Exercise :
From the following list select a suitable word for each
blank in the sentences:
Sweet, firmly, badly, sad, harshly, harsh, firm, sweetly, bad,
sadly.
1. The man spoke to the child.
2. Such expressions sound .
3. The soldiers stood- at their post.
4. This red rose smelfs very /^ ^ /-^ }<^'t
5. My friend spoke ■ ^ <' ^^ ' ' of her loss.
6. The work is v-ii:^^-^ (ione. ..^'"
7. Your canary sings -/i-'^-*;^-^'*^^.^
8. He is a brave man who - ' ■ ' '^ ^ refuses to yield to temptation.
9. How • ^ ■ ' "* ■ she must feel.
IQ. I feel '• to-day.
a. Use the following correctly in sentences:
proud clear angry prompt bashful
proudly clearly angrily promptly bashfully
b. Explain what each of the following sentences means,
and name the adjectives and the adverbs:
1. She looks graceful in that dress.
2. The platform was gracefully draped.
3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
4. Slow and sad was the music she played.
5. Have you talked with Herbert? No, I have only written to him.
6. I only have written to Herbert.
7. I wrote to Herbert only, yesterday.
8. I wrote to Herbert, only yesterday.
9. I wrote to Herbert yesterday only.
10. Nellie has only heard of this book.
c. Rewrite the last sentence, changing the position of only
as many times as possible, and tell what each new sentence
means.
ll-G .
162 ADVERBS.
Zesson /4^8.
Errors in the Use of Adverbs.
Exercise :
Correct according to the following
Model:
Petunias smell very sweetly at nightfall.
This sentence is incorrect, because sweetly, which is used to express
quality of the petunias, not the manner of smelling, has the adverbial
form, violating the caution: "Do not use adverbs when quality, not
manner, is to be expressed." The adjective is sweet. Corrected: Petu-
nias smell very sweet at nightfall.
1. Such sentences sound awkwardly to me. 2. Some things are easier
done than others. 3. This here knife is awfully sharp. 4. Which of
those five horses runs the faster? 5. Miss C. sang gorgeously; she
always sings better than any one I ever heard. 6. I can't do that there
example. 7. She reads the most distinctly of any other member of the
club. 8. Some children are in trouble always. 9. River valleys are
more productive often than great plains. 10. We know very little of
her life previously to this time. 11. I like this fruit better than any I
have ever tasted. 12. Miss N. thought Mr. Simpson's the most prefer-
able advice.
Wesson /^^.
Parsing Adverbs.
Exercise :
After correcting the sentences in the preceding lesson,
parse all the adjectives and adverbs, using the same formula
for both. Write out the first six in the form of an abstract^
thus:
That is done more easily.
' Simple adverb of manner.
{easily,
more easily,
most easily.
Comparative form.
Modifies verb is done.
Rule. — "Adverbs modify verbs, verbals, adjectives,
I. adverbs, prepositions, phrases, or whole assertions. "
More easily
RULES AND CAUTIONS. 168
Note.— in rapid parsing, it is better to repeat only the part of the rule
that is applicable to the word parsed; thus, in the preceding sentence, "Ad-
verbs modify verbs."
J^esson 750.
Rules and Cautions.
1. It is not pleasant to-day, I don't think.
This sentence is intended to express a negative, but the second
negative denies the first. "I don't think it is very pleasant to-
day," is illogical. Say, " I think it is not very pleasant to-day."
V. To express one negation employ but one negative,
placing the negative in the clause to which it really belongs.
Remark. — Neither-nor are virtually but one negative, as they always
accompany each other. "He is neither wise nor brilliant "="He is not
either tvise or brilliant."
Exercise:
Write four negative sentences.
2. I do not know whether to start or no.
Supply the ellipsis and see what no modifies. No may be an
adjective; as,
She has no friends.
It may modify a comparative ; as.
No sooner said than done.
Or it may answer a question , as,
No, he has not returned.
But it is not in accordance with the best usage to have no modify
a verb or a verbal. Substitute not; as,
I do not know whether to start or not [to start].
VI. Do not use no instead of not to modify a verb or a
verbal.
3. He said how the boy could not resist temptation.
Analyze the sentence. Notice the object of said. What is the
connective ? How is an adverb of manner. The proper connective
for an object clause, if any is needed, is the conjunction that.
164 ADVERBS.
VII. Do not use the adverb how as a connective or with
the conjunction that.
4. I did not think it would grow that large. My father is that
tall he can reach the ceiling. He has a pencil that long.
Each of the above sentences, and all like them, would be better
if so were used in place of that. While some of them may be barely
admissible in conversation, it will be far better for you to observe the
following :
VIII. Never use that as an adverb of degree.
5. Most adverbs are contracted phrases.
Thus : Thence means from that place. Whence means from what
place. Hence means /rom this place or from this reasoning. There-
fore it is unnecessary to put the preposition from before any of these
words. Where means at what place or to what place; therefore to
Bay, ''Where is it at?" is to use the word at incorrectly.
IX. Do not prefix the preposition from to the adverb
hence, whence, or thence, or any other preposition to adverbs
that already contain the idea conveyed by the preposition.
Exercises :
a. Correct the following:
1. That poor child hasn't no father. 2. Have you inquired whether
the tide will be high to-morrow or no? 3. I was told how that it would
be high tide at six p. m. 4. It was that cold that the fowls' combs were
all frozen. 5. From hence we deduce the following rule. 6. Where is
that policeman going to? 7. He is not very happy, I don't think. 8.
If you have not neither dictionary nor reader, how do you expect to
learn? 9. From thence they journeyed to Spain. 10. Mr. P. remarked
how that his son was becoming unmanageable, but he had not got any
bad habits, neither. 11. I know that much, at least, whether any more
or no. 12. I never had nobody's knife nor nothing.
b. After correcting the above, parse each adverb.
Zesson /^/.
Composition Exercises — Adverbs.
a. Use the following adverbs in sentences, observing the
rules already given:
EXERCISES. 165
Even, nevertheless, besides, withal, herein, thereat, afterward, till,
almost, twice, hence, already, no, yes.
b. Use three adverbs to tell how a baby cries; two to tell
how a good boy studies; four to describe the roaring of the
sea; one to tell how much you like music.
c. Expand into phrases the adverbs in the sentences just
made.
d. Make sentences in which some of the following adverbs
shall modify adjectives and some shall modify adverbs:
Very, somewhat, almost, too, generally, only, remarkablj^ nearly,
e. Make two sentences for each of the following words,
using each first as an adjective; secondly, as an adverb:
Hard, most, but, what, no, less, early, long, much, most, only.
f. Change these adjectives to adverbs:
Perfect, square, good, slow, easy, smooth, harsh, much, gentle, bad,
eloquent, faithful, pretty, whole, patient.
Ijesso7i /5S,
Miscellaneous Exercises for Correction under Adjec-
tives AND Adverbs.
Correct by the full formula, or simply quote the rule vio-
lated; then give the corrected form:
1. She is a small little girl. 2. The then monarch was tyrannical and
vain. 3. Such a harsh course will produce nothing but evil. 4. That
molasses isn't good for nothing. 5. The proud and the humble are
often brought into contact; those form the door-mat upon which these
condescend to wipe their feet. 6. The disputants grew excitedly and
behaved very bad. 7. Try it over again, or she will scold you good. 8.
Your garden looks some better now, but it needs watering most every
day. 9. She was dreadful glad I came, but I only saw her once. 10.
Helen nearly rowed across the river. 11. You are to only come when 1
call. 12. 1 can do it easier than you can. 13. Henry was awful glad to
meet the Portuguese sailor, who knew more about fishing than any
man he ever saw. 14. The two sisters enjoyed one another's society.
15. Wilkins was an idle and an ignorant man.
166 CONJUNCTIONS.
CHAPTER VI.
CONJUNCTIONS.
Ijesson 754-^
Analyze these sentences and notice what office besides that of
connectives is filled by that and when:
1. People that live in glass houses should not throw stones.
2. The services were nearly over when we reached the church.
Notice the use of the italicized words in the following :
3. How sweet and solemn is this scene !
4. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my heart and my
hand to this vote.
5. Not Peter, but Paul, was the apostle to the Gentiles.
G. What by diligence and what by perseverance, he overcame all
obstacles.
7. You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table.
8. Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there.
9. She behaves as if she were insane.
10. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now.
11. I know that he is lost.
The connectives in the sentences 3 to 11, inclusive, perform no
other office than to connect.
Connectives that perform no other office than to connect
are called Conjunctions.
Note.— 77ie word conjunction = con (together) + jungere (to join).
In sentences 3, 4, and 5, the parts connected are words of equal
rank; i. e., performing the same office, or in the same construction;
in 6 and 7, the parts connected are phrases of equal rank; in 8,
clauses.
Ijesson 755,
Coordinate Conjunctions.
Conjunctions that connect parts of the same rank, or
order, are called Coordinate Conjunctions.
Remark.— r/te -prefix co means with, or together.
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 167
Remark. — Parts of a sentence are of equal rank when they have the same
use, or construction.
A coordinate conjunction may join:
(1) Two or more substantive words in the same con-
struction; as,
(a) My father and I (two subjects) chopped wood all day.
(b) Mr. Foster is a mason and carpenter, (two attributes)
(c) You may have either coffee or tea. (two objects)
(2) Two or more verbs having the same subject; as,
We went to San Francisco and visited Golden Gate Park.
(3) Two or more adjectives, verbals, or adverbs modify-
ing the same word; as,
(a) He is an earnest and patient student, (two adjectives)
(b) We can stop at the hotel either going or returning, (two verbals)
(c) Try to work rapidly yet quietly, (two adverbs)
(4) Two or more phrases modifying the same word; as,
I am working for you as well as for myself.
(5) Two or more clauses modifying the same word; as,
I will visit you when the weather is warmer and when I have more
time.
(6) Two independent clauses; as,
The wheat is all cut and the mowers will leave in the morning.
(7) A word and a phrase, and sometimes a phrase and
a clause, if they both modify the same word; as,
(a) Keep your desks clean and in order, (a word and a phrase)
(b) Do not play in the street nor where I cannot see you. (a phrase
and a clause)
Remarks. — Tlie principal coordinate conjunctions are and, but, or,
nor, while, yet, as well as, neither. .nor, either. .or, whether.. or, as.
While, used to express time, is a conjtmctive adverb: as,
I will stay while you are away.
Used in the sense of and or but, it is a pure conjunction; as,
While he is interested in our work, he has not time to help us. While or
though he is merciful, he is also just.
As is frequently used to introduce an attribute of subject or object; as.
He was employed as clerk.
16$ CONJUNCTIONS.
J/esso/i /56,
Subordinate and Correlative Conjunctions.
Tn sentences 9, 10, and 11, Lesson 154, the clauses connected
are of unequal rank.
Conjunctions that connect clauses of unequal rank are
called Subordinate Conjunctions.
In sentence 11, the subordinate conjunction introduces a noun
clause.
Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there.
Diagrams.
Napoleon , was banished
V Elba
but \ ^—
i (Compound sentence. Coordinate
he would remain conjunction, connecting clauses.)
She behaves as if she were insane.
She ^ behaves
v
she were \ insane
/ know that he is lost.
that
(Subordinate conjunction, connect-
ing clauses of a complex sentence.)
I know . A
he is\lost (Object clause in a complex sentence.)
Conjunctions joining parts in the same line of thought,
showing addition, apposition, supposition, cause and effect,
or introducing a complementary part, are copulative ; as,
(a) She is both pious and intelligent. (Addition)
(b) It costs ten cents, or one dime. (Apposition)
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 169
(c) Ifl were a giant, I could lift that rock. (Supposition)
(d) If you try earnestly, you will succeed. (Cause and effect)
(e) I saw that she was injured. "(Introducing the complement)
Conjunctions connecting parts in different lines of thought,
that is, denoting separation or opposition, are adversative ;
as,
(a) The dog would not eat the oats himself nor let the horse have
them. (Separation)
(b) Henry is slow, but persevering. (Opposition)
Remark.— Two or more words taken together to perform one connective
office, form a compound conjunction: as if, as though, as well as. But
in sxich expressions as,
He is as well as ever,
well is an adjective and the first as is an adverb modifying well.
Some conjunctions and adverbs or adjectives are used in
pairs, sustaining a mutual relation and inclosing one of the
parts connected. Such words are called correlatives.
Thus, in the sentence,
You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table,
the correlative either-or connects the phrases in that box and upon
the table; the first phrase is between the parts of the correlative.
The first word of a correlative is usually an adverb or an
adjective; as,
He was so much interested in his book that he forgot the supper
hour.
He is not only handsome but also intelligent. ..---
His manners were such [manners] that genteel people would not
tolerate him.
He , was \ interested
, was \
*"' %^
'A
( That is the subordinate conjunc-
tion correlative of so.)
he , forgot , hour
170 CONJUNCTIONS.
Notice that words or phrases connected by a conjunction are always
of equal rank, and all together form a compound element in the
sentence. Clauses connected by a conjunction are sometimes of
unequal rank.
[Note to the Teacher.— 1. Words connected by conjunctions are of
equal rank, or in the same construction ; words connected by preposi-
tions, of unequal rank.
2. Let the pupils make an abstract of the preceding work upon con-
junctions and give a topical recitation, with original examples.]
Zesson /57.
Parsing Conjunctions.
In parsing a conjunction, (1) classify, (2) show the parts
connected J (3) give so much of the rule as is applicable, as
follows:
1. A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank.
2. A subordinate co»-junction connects clauses of unequal rank
or introduces a noun clause.
Remark. — A subordinate clause always limits, modifies, or completes
some part of the pHncipal clause; in this sense, all the noun clauses are sitb-
ordinate; i. e., subject and attribute clauses, as well as object clauses.
In parsing a correlative, show what the second part of
the correlative joins.
Model:
Sometimes people are so happy that they become selfish.
That is a subordinate conjunction connecting the subordinate clause
they become selfish to happy, through the correlative adverb so.
Rule.— ^^ A subordinate conjunction connects clauses of unequal rank."
Exercise :
Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences:
1. Ophelia was gentle and obedient, but her father was foolish and
tyrannical. 2. Seldom, if ever, could one find a truer friend or more
faithful counselor than Kent. 3. Though liCar had become insane, he
was not past recovery. 4. Othello was either insane or madly jealous.
5. Desdemona was neither false nor fickle. 6. Show me whether it can
be done or not. 7. That matter is as important as this. 8. That mat-
ter is not so important as this. 9. As you sow, so shall you reap. 10.
As six is to twelve, so is fifteen to thirty. 11. She is so industrious that
RULES AND CAUTIONS. 171
she must succeed. 12. She is not so industrious as to warrant success.
13. His behavior was such that we were all shocked. 14. His behavior
was such as to shock us all.
Note. — Behavior is understood after the 'pronominal such, and the sub-
ordinate conjunction as is used idiomatically to connect the infinitive phrase
to such,
behavior , was \ such
1 ' . ■
15. American students are required to learn other things besides
reading and spelling. 16. He would rather work than play. 17. Some
people never have learned and never will learn industry.
Zesson /58.
Rules and Cautions.
From the preceding sentences we deduce the following additional
niles and cautions :
I. In the choice of conjunctions, have regard to the rank
of the parts connected, as well as to their meaning. See
sentences 1, 2, and 3 in the preceding list.
II. Do not use conjunctions needlessly nor instead of
other parts of speech; as,
(a) When that she saw her mistake she was much confused. {That
is not needed.)
(b) Try and come, if possible. {To come is the object of try, and the
meaning is not that the person addressed is both to try and to come, but
to try to come.)
And denotes addition; hut, lest, while, and or, separation.
Or may connect terms in apposition ; as, We came to a small bay,
or inlet. The appositional term is set off by the comma.
172 CONJUNCTIONS.
If is used to express supposition, doubt, or concession ; though or
although, to express concession ; as,
Though she is a deaf mute, she is very intelligent.
That introduces noun clauses, and adverbial clauses of purpose
or result. It is frequently understood in a noun clause. Thus,
I heard [that] you were there. (Noun clause. That understood)
He behaves so strangely that people think him insane. (Adverbial
clause)
III. The following words are the proper correlatives; be
careful to give them the right place in the sentence, that there
may be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify and
connect.
Note. — When the correlative is coordinate, the first of the terms to be con-
nected, and nothing more nor less, should be placed between the two parts of
the correlative. See 4, -?^, and 15, below.
1. Either — or; as in sentence (4) last lesson, offering a choice.
2. Neither — nor; as in (5), denying a choice.
3. Whether — or; as in (6).
4. Both — and; as. He is both saving and industrious.
5. Though — yet; as. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him.
6. As — as; as in (7), with an adjective or an adverb, to affirm
equality.
7. So — as; as in (8), denying equality.
8. As — so; as in (9) and (10), affirming equality by means of
verbs.
9. So — as; to explain the degree ; as. How can one descend to
a thing so low as theft?
(This is abridged from the clause.)
10. So — that; as in (11), with a clause following to express result.
11. So — as; as in (12), with an infinitive following to show result.
12. Such — that; as in (13). •
13. Such — as; as in (14), the clause in (13) being changed to an
infinitive.
So~as and such— as, in these cases, are well established idioms of
our language, although exceptions to the rule that subordinate con-
junctions connect clauses of unequal rank. The infinitive phrase is,
however, abridged from a subordinate clause.
14. The — the; as. The sooner you come, the better for me.
EXERCISES, ffjy^ J "* * 1 73>;
15. A^oi onZ?/ — hut also; as, He mhent&S^^M^0[,mQ^ only fromrhis-
father, but also from his mother. ^^^5i*;^iX \>1 ,: . - "* .^"^
Remarks. — According to the best modern usage, not ispreferr^Tto no <o
modify a verb or a verbal after whetlier — or.
In poetry or — or is frequently used instead o/ either — or, and nor — nor,
instead of neither— nor.
I/essofi /59.
Exercise :
Study the above list, and use each pair of correlatives in
an original sentence.
\Lesso7i /60,
Exercise :
a. Fill the following with the proper connectives, and
give reasons:
1. He was not ashamed afraid. 2. My health is
[health] I can not accept the position. 3. She is gay a
lark. 4. three is to nine, is four to twelve. 5. He gave me
good words, assistance. 6. The work was diffi-
cult it discouraged him. 7. He tried very hard, he failed. 8. He
can play, sing. 9. the man is a knave, he has never
been arrested, 10. You must eat, you will die. 11. 1 paid fifty
cents, half a dollar, for it. 12. sooner, better. 13. Who
knows he is not industrious. 14. Tell me I must go not.
b. Most of the following sentences are incorrect. Tell
which are incorrect, give the reasons, and then give the
correct, form:
1. My business is such as I can not accept the office. 2. There will
not be as much this year as last. 3. Not only he gave me kind words,
but also assistance. 4. He will not either study or work. 5. She both
is careful and prudent. 6. Review frequently, so as that you may
strengthen your memory. 7. The work was as difficult as to discourage
him. 8. How do you know but what he may come. 9. Review fre-
quently that you may strengthen your memory. 10. Show me whether
you can do it or no. 11. As the tree falleth so it lieth. 12. There is no
earthly happiness so secure as it cannot be destroyed. 13. I must be
so honest to admit that I am ignorant. 14. We feared lest some acci-
dent had happened. 15. No one can deny but he is capable enough.
174 CONJUNCTIONS.
16. Is this book so useful as that one? 17. California climate, and which
is very temperate, has become world-renowned. 18. But matter is not
mind, is certain. 19. Neither women or children were to be seen upon
the streets. 20. She seldom or ever has her lessons.
[To the Teacher.— Hold the pupil responsible, in all recitations, oral
or written, for the application of all the rules of construction previously-
presented. In this way the study of grammar will cease to be a " mere
rattling of dry bones."]
Zesson /6*/.
Rules and Cautions.
IV. When two or more connected terms refer jointly to
another, each should make good sense with it; as,
" It never has and never can be done," is incorrect, for the terms
haB and can refer jointly to he done, and ytever has be done does not
make good sense. Complete the first term ; thus, It never has been
done and never can be [done].
V. After else, other, otherwise, rather, and all comparatives,
the latter term of comparison should be introduced by than^
unless something additional is meant; as,
He would rather work than play.
When something additional is meant, besides may be
used instead of than; as.
We have other lessons to learn besides this.
Exercise :
(a) From the following, choose suitable words to fill the
blanks in the sentences below, and give reasons for the
choice:
tban, as, so, besides, but.
1. I could not answer otherwise this. 2. The moon is nearer
the sun, not brilliant. 3. Such tricks are nothing else
knavery. 4. Truth is no sooner crushed to earth — - it rises again.
5. Man is something else flesh and blood. 6. Henry is as studious
his sister, he is not quick.
EXERCISES. 175
(b) Write two original sentences similar to each of the
above.
(c) Correct the following:
1. He could not do otherwise but apologize. 2. Wilton is more active
but not so persevering as his sister. 3. Such words are nothing else but
insults. 4. The school should give the pupil something else than mere
knowledge. 5. Man is no sooner forgiven but he sins again. 6. Vege-
table diet is not as strengthening but more cooling to the blood than
meat. 7. He has made alterations and additions to the work.
176 PREPOSITIONS.
CHAPTER VII.
PREPOSITIONS.
Zesson /62.
Review the definition of a preposition, in Lesson 50.
The ys'ovdi preposition = pre {before) and ponere {to place).
The preposition is generally placed before its object.
Exercise :
Point out the prepositions in these sentences:
1. Look at me. 2. Go to town. 3. He ran into the barn. 4. She rode
behind her brother. 5. You should come after me early.
The words connected by conjunctions, as you have learned, are
always in the same construction and of equal rank; but words con-
nected by prepositions are of unequal rank.
Diagrams. ■{
Conjunction ;
Preposition :
plays
2S^|
sings
She , plays
\
me
V
Some of the relations shown by prepositions are illustrated in
the following :
1. He is rowing toward the shore. (Direction)
2. She came /rom Canada. (Direction)
3. This is the home of a millionaire. (Possession)
4. Grace looks like her mother, and behaves like her, also. (Similar-
ity, or resemblance)
5. She is quite unlike her father. (Dissimilarity)
6. He walked m the park. (Place already within bounds or hmits)
7. He walked to the park. (Direction)
8. He walked into the park, (Position +direction=en trance with
regard to a place or with regard to a new condition)
( The boat touched at San Francisco. (Position at a point)
9. •] We live at Soquel. (Position without regard to its limits.
( At=nearness or presence)
OBJECT OF PREPOSITIONS. 177
10. Ella came with her father. (Accompaniment)
11. Frank was stung by a bee. (Agency)
12. She sits by her window. (Position)
[To the Teacher.— There are numerous other relations shown by
prepositions, but many of them require highly cultivated powers of
discrimination, to distinguish their differences clearly. This must be
a matter of growth. But since the choice of prepositions frequently
depends upon the relation intended, the pupil should begin to make
these distinctions as early as possible, and he should be led to observe
carefully the usage of good authors.]
Zesson /6S,
The Object of a Preposition.
The object of a preposition, as you have already seen in
analyzing the preceding sentences, is usually a noun^ a ]pro-
noun, or a pronominal adjective.
Exercise :
Give an example of each; then examine the following:
1. Is there any use of a man's using tobacco?
2. I was informed of your having taken that step.
3. We were talking about Mr. Black's having sold his handsome team.
In the above examples the object of the preposition is a verbal
phrase formed from the verbal in Ing.
Diagram.
I , was informed
p ^ing taken | step (Verbal phrase, object
of preposition.)
\^Q. \«
4. They have not spoken of why they did it.
5. There was much talk about who killed John Morgan.
In the above, why and who are interrogatives implying a question,
and the whole clause is the object of the preposition.
12-G
PREPOSITIONS.
Diagram.
they , did , it (Clause, object of
2 preposition.)
The following use is very rare:
6. He did nothing but laugh.
7. No way but to go on remains.
Here but = except. In No. 6 its object is the verbal (to) laugh,
in No. 7, to go on.
He , did , nothing
r7 \x laugh
Diagram. V^ |
Summary: A preposition, then, may have for its object
any substantive word, a phrase, or a clause.
Ijesson i6J^,
List of the Prepositions.
The following are the words generally used as prepositions :
Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or amidst,
among or amongst, around, at, athwart ;— Bating, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by ;— Concerft-
ing ;— Down, during ;— Ere, except, excepting ;— For, from ;— In, into ; — S
Mid or midst; — Notwithstanding; — Of, off, on, out-of, over, over-
thwart ; — Past, pending ; — Regarding, respecting, round ; — Since ; —
Through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards; — Under,
underneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — With, within, without.
Exercise :
Use each preposition in a good original sentence; consult
the dictionary freely, and be careful to place the preposi-
tional phrases where they will make the meaning clear.
Remarks.— (1) Like and near were formerly considered adjectives or
adverbs^ with to or unto understood after them; as,
VARIABLE USE. 179
She looks like [unto] her mother, and she behaves hke [unto] her.
The horse stands near [to] the brook.
But since to or unto is never expressed after like and near, it is thought
more reasonable to consider like and near the connecting words, like showing
the relation of resemblance, and near of position. This is also true of unlike.
(2) The word "worth often becomes a preposition, connecting a noun object
or a participle to the word that the phrase modifies, and shmving the relation
of value; as.
The book is wortli a dollar. My life is not worth preserving.
Lessofi /65.
Variable Uses of Prepositions.
Some words in the list given above may become conjunctions or
conjunctive adverbs, or even other parts of speech :
She went above me. (Preposition) Look above. (Adverb) The
above list. (Adjective)
They came after him. (Preposition) They came after he sang.
(Conjunctive adverb)
She stood before me. (Preposition) She went before he returned.
(Conjunctive adverb)
Since you are so repentant, I will forgive you. (Conjunction) We
have not heard since he went home. (Conjunctive adverb) We have
not heard since noon. (Preposition)
The chief difference between a preposition and a con-
junction or a conjunctive adverb is, that the preposition
shows a relation between a word which is its object and
some other word in the sentence, this object, if a declinable
pronoun, requiring the object form; while the conjunction
and the conjunctive adverb show no relations and therefore
have no objects.
Exercise :
See how many of the prepositions in the list given, you
can use as conjunctive adverbs. Remember that conjunc-
tive adverbs connect clauses and modify something in one
or in both. Make reasonable sentences.
180 PREPOSITIONS.
J/esso/i ^66,
There are no subdivisions of prepositions except the simple and
the compound and a few derived from verbs and still retaining their
verbal form. The compound prepositions are those composed of
two words.
Exercises :
a. Use the following compound prepositions in sentences:
Instead of, aboard of, as to, from among, from under, from
between, round about, as for, previous to.
b. Use the following, first as true verbals, then as prepo-
sitions:
Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, saving, touching.
c. Use the following as prepositions:
During, notwithstanding.
Remark.— During is from dure, to last (obs.), and notwithstanding
from withstand, but they are never used as verbals.
Remark. — But and save are now classed as prepositions, when equivalent
to except ; as,
There was no one in the wagon but him (not he).
Remark. — When the objective word after a preposition is omitted, there is
no relation shown, and the word, although usually a preposition, becomes, in
this case, an adverb ; as.
He rode by ; Come in. (Contracted from Come into)
Zesson i67.
Parsing Prepositions.
Exercise :
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences after
this formula; try to distinguish the relations, and notice
the position of each preposition:
Formula for parsing
a preposition.
' Classify,
Connecting its object
to the by showing
the relation of .
Rule.
)f
CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. 181
Model:
He stood by the river.
By is a simple preposition connecting its object, river, to the verb
stood, by showing the relation of position, or nearness.
Rule : A preposition connects its object to the word which the
phrase limits or modifies, and shows the relation between them.
1. Coftee was introduced into England by an East India merchant. 2.
He lives like a miser. 3. The town of Titipu is supposed to be located
in Japan, 4. We drove through the large gateway, up the gentle ascent,
to the door of the large mansion. 5. The pines at Pacific Grove are
decorated with a fringe of gray moss. 6. The thief ran down the road,
but finally threw his plunder down and escaped.
7. The stag at eve had drunk his fill.
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill,
And deep his midnight lair had made
In lone Glenartney's hazel shade.
^ Zesson /68.
The Choice of Prepositions.
■ Bule I. — Be careful to choose prepositions to express the
relation intended, and to express it in accordance with the
best usage.
Remarks. — "^ happy and discriminating use of prepositions can he
acquired only by an extended study of good authors.^' — Reed and Kellogg's
Grammar.
While this is certainly true, yet much may be done to direct that sttidy and
increase the habit of observation, by giving the student some of the most accu-
rate conclusions derived from the experience of others.
In the introduction to Worcester's Dictionary and in Campbell's ^^Hand-
book of Synonyms and Prepositions,^^ maybe found many useful suggestions.
The choice of a preposition is frequently determined, (1) by the word pre-
ceding it, (2) by the word following it, or (3) by both together.
The following suggestions may be of assistance in teaching a dis-
criminating use of prepositions :
Abide at a place.
Abide by a decision.
Abide with a person.
Accommodate yourself to circumstances.
Accommodate some one with a favor.
Agree to a plan or proposition.
182; PREPOSITIONS.
Agree with another person.
Angry at conduct.
Angry with a person.
Appoint to a position.
Appoint over another or others.
Compare to = liken to by way of illustration.
Compare with = to examine similar things with respect to quality.
Consists in a single thing.
Consists of two or more parts or things.
Die hy an instrumentality.
Die of a disease.
Different from.
Differ from in regard to qualities.
Differ with another in opinion. (Worcester.)
Differ from another in opinion. (Campbell.)
Disappointed in something obtained, but not satisfactory.
Disappointed of something desired, but not obtained.
Indulge in a habit; as, theater-going.
Indulge myself or himself with a single thing; as, a glass of wine.
Intrude into a place having bounds ; as, into your presence.
Intrude upon a person.
Joined to a thing ; as, to his idols.
Joined with another person in some plan or work.
Live at a point without regard to its boundaries— (smaU or foreign).
Live in a place having definite boundaries.
Matter with (not of). (Campbell.)
Need of.
Want of.
Part from another, each other, etc.
Part with certain possessions — your property or children.
Reconcile to— to make friendly.
Reconcile with — to make consistent.
Sank beneath that which covers — beneath the waves.
Sank in something already entered, but more deeply.
Sank into — from without — indicating entrance.
Smile at a cause for laughter.
Smile on a person to denote approval.
Similar to (not with).
Strive about a disputed matter.
Strive for something desired.
Strive with another.
Taste for some accomplishment, occupation, etc.
Taste of food, literally or figuratively.
Touch at a point; as, at San Francisco.
Touch on or upon a subject.
Worthy of.
position of phrases. 183
IjCSSOu /69,
Choice of Prepositions.
Composition Exercise :
Put each preposition, with the word preceding it, in Les-
son 168, into a sentence. Consult the dictionary freely and
make as great a variety of sentences as possible. Make
natural sentences.
Ijesson 770.
Position of Phrases.
Notice how many meanings can be given to each of these sen-
tences, and give the meaning really intended in each :
1. I met a woman in a carriage with a painted face. 2. We saw a
dog chasing a cock out of the yard on three legs. 3. The village has
forty houses and one hundred inhabitants of clay. 4. A man was seen
by a child at work upon the suspension bridge.
Rule II. — Place the prepositional phrase where there can
be no doubt as to what word it is to limit or modify. If
for emphasis, or for any other good reason, a phrase is vio-
lently transposed, set it off by the comma. Independent
phrases also should be set off by the comma.
Composition Exercise:
Fill the following blanks and give the reason for the
commas used:
1. A beautiful valley lies the two mountains. 2, She rode
Riverside Los Angeles. 3. Lincoln, the contrary, was a man of
sagacity. 4. the beginning of the present year, the outlook is
good California. 5. " Now there is Jerusalem, the sheep-
market, a pool." 6. " Parting day dies a dol})hin, which each pang
imbues with a new color." 7. This report is different the one we
heard the Post Office. 8. He was angry his father, and con-.
eluded to indulge himself a cigar to calm his spirits,
184 PREPOSITIONS.
JOesson /7/.
Choice and Position of Prepositions.
Exercise :
Correct the following sentences:
Model:
When we were to my son Henry's, we met the General.
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition to is here used
to express the relation of mere place, not direction, thus violating
the rule: ''Be careful to choose prepositions," etc. To properly
shows direction; at shows place.
Corrected: When we were at my son Henry's, we met the
General.
1. The dog sprang from the wharf in the water. 2. The cars arrived
to Sacramento early in the morning. 3. I am angry with your behavior.
4. I am angry at you. 5. He entered in their plan heartily. 6. I had
great need for friends. 7. His father died with the cholera. 8. Your
actions are very different to hers. 9. She wished a boat ride, but was
disappointed in it as no boat could be procured. 10. These trees differ
greatly with each other. 11. He lives in the bend of the river. 12.
What is the matter of your arm ? 13. The conduct of Lear's daughter
Cordelia threw him in a great rage. 14. She divided the property be-
tween her five children. 15. She lives at Chicago. 16. We went in the
museum. 17. The farmer was averse from the settlement. 18. He
stays to the store late. 19. The child has a strong resemblance of her
mother. 20. That small man is talking with a big nose. 21. The boy
was ridiculed for having been punished by his schoolmates.
Zessofi /72.
Use and Omission of Prepositions.
Study carefully the following explanations :
1. Julia has given to me a beautiful flower.
The object of has given isfloiver, and the pronoun me is the object
of the preposition to; but it is customary, for the sake of euphony,
to omit to, for, and of when the phrase is introduced by a preposi-
tion showing direction, and when it is placed before the object,
(See also Lesson 69.)
USE AND OMISSION. 185
Say,
Julia has given me a beautiful flower ;
Or,
Julia has given a beautiful flower to me.
In like manner correct these sentences :
1. Charley's father bought for him a new gun.
2, The examiners asked of the pupils many hard questions.
2. The chimpanzee often acts like unto a human being.
In this sentence unto is unnecessary, whether like is considered
a preposition or an adverb; for, if a preposition, like connects its
object, being, to acts; if an adverb, the unto is always understood,
never expressed. (See Lesson 164.)
3. I have a pony of three years old.
Of is unnecessary, because the noun years is used adverbially to
tell how old, and we have already learned (see Lesson 68) that
nouns used adverbially do not need a connecting preposition.
Rule III. — Do not use prepositions when they are not
necessary to give connection to the sentence.
Examine the following:
1. The insect was the length of a pin.
The expression the length of a pin is intended to describe a qual-
ity of the insect; but a noun used as the attribute shows the identity
or office of the subject, hence the use of the noun length as the attri-
bute of insect is incorrect. To express a quality of the subject, use
a prepositional phrase ; thus. The insect was of the length of a pin.
2. He is worthy your confidence.
Worthy is an adjective, and so can not connect the noun confi-
dence to the rest of the sentence. {Confidence is not used adverb-
ially, for it does not show the measure of worth.)
Corrected — He is worthy of your confidence.
Rule IV. — Do not omit prepositions except in those
phrases sanctioned by good usage.
Remark, — There are certain idioms in which usage has long omitted the
preposition, as after like and near ; thus,
He went home {not. He went to his home),
(ind other cases already mentioned,
186 PREPOSITIONS.
Rule V. — Do not use the preposition like instead of as, or
as if, to introduce a clause ; thus,
He acts as if he were sick, not He acts like he was sick.
Note to Teacher. — This error is so gross and so common as to demand
an earnest effort to eradicate it.
Lesson /7S.
Application of the last three Rules.
Exercise :
Correct the following sentences:
1. Napoleon was banished Europe by the allied powers. 2. At Santa
Cruz is a good place to get sea moss. 3. My uncle has bought for me a
horse and a phaeton, and the horse is nearly like to my cousin's. 4.
There is a tree at Felton of two hundred feet high. 6. Such actions are
unworthy the name of good manners. 6. He handed to her a beautiful
bouquet. 7. The board asked of me several hard questions. 8. Fred-
erick left home for to make his fortune. 9. From hence he drove to
Glasgow. 10. To what one are you going to give that medal to? II.
Nathan stood quite near to her when he tired the gun. 12. Wait a little
while before trying of that plan. 13. It looks like it was going to rain.
14. That plum is the size of an egg. 15. His farm is the south side of
the river. 16. I can't do it like she did. 17. We found him engaged in
clearing of his farm. 18. It seems like I can never learn this lesson.
19. Where is your book at? 20. I did it like he did. 21. It seems like
we must give it up entirely. 22. They saw him a trying to land at the
point.
Note. — A is a preposition in such constructions as a trying, a hunting,
etc., but it is unnecessary in the last sentence, as the verbal trying is the attri-
bute of the object Mm, and does not need a connecting word.
Lesson /74'
Application of Rules for Prepositions.
Exercise:
Correct the following sentences (three are now correct) :
[Direction : Change the first seven sentences, where necessary,
but retain the position of the objective pronoun.]
CORRECTION OF ERRORS, 187
1. I will give to her a book. 2. He will forward to you your parcel.
3. He purchased for me a horse. 4. I threw to the monkey an apple.
5. My friend has procured for me a situation. 6. I promised I would
write her a letter every week. 7. You should have told him the truth.
[Direction : Transpose each of the above seven sentences, placing
the objective pronoun after the object complement.]
8, This country abounds in swamps. 9. I will not confide on you. 10.
We went on yesterday. 11. I sympathize heartily for you. 12. She sat
near to the tree. 13. That crab-apple is the size of a large peach. 14.
Mrs. B. has naturally quite a taste of art. 15. Such men are unworthy
wives. IG. What use are such things to her? 17. He was exiled the
state. 18. There is not much hope in attempting of it. 19. The Queen's
message was received with a long preamble in dead silence. 20. We
sailed into a little bay down the river along the coast.
188 ' INTERJECTIONS. *
CHAPTER VIII.
INTERJECTIONS.
Jjesson /75.
Observe the italicized words in the following sentences :
1. Hurrah, hurrah! a single field hath turned the chance of war. 2.
Alack, alack! 'tis wonder that thy life and wits had not concluded all.
3. Ha! who comes here? 4. Bravo, little one, well done! 5. Ha, ha, ha!
who would have thought it? 6. Ah vie! I am forlorn.
These words and many others like them are used to express
strong or sudden emotion, and as they have no grammatical con-
nection with the rest of the sentence, they are called exclamations
or interjections. They express (1) joy, (2) grief, (3) surprise, (4)
approval, (5) merriment; and other emotions.
Rule I. — Interjections have no grammatical connection
with the rest of the sentence. They should generally be set
off from it by the exclamation point.
Remarks. — Other parts of speech freqxiently becovie interjections when
uttered with emotion. The frequent use of interjections indicates thought-
lessness, rather than feeling^ and should he avoided.
Rule II. — Use interjections adapted to the emotions
expressed.
Rule III. — The word 0, should always be a capital.
Remark. — is used by many writers chiefly in direct address, and has no
point between it and the noun; as,
O mother, forgive me!
Oh expresses sudden or strong pain, surprise, fear, etc.; as,
Oh ! oh ! I am bitten !
Exercises :
Make the following correct in all respects:
1. Alas i am forsaken. 2. Oh for the balmy breath of spring. 3. Ah
thou unlucky one. 4. Hark i hear their footsteps along the bank of the
river. 5. Avauntthis way. 6. Heigh-ho i am delighted. 7. Out of the
depths do I cry unto thee o Lord. 8. Ha ha I am undone.
Caution. — Avoid the use of such expressions as,
Goodness ! Gracious me ! My goodness ! Mercy on us ! Good
heavens! etc.
VERBS AND VERBALS -AUXILIARIES.
189 .
CHAPTER IX.
Verbs and Verbals.
Zesson 176,
In Part I. you learned the following facts :
1. A verb asserts (states, asks, or commands).
2. A verbal is derived from a verb, but it differs in that it does not
assert. It simply assumes what, as a verb, it would assert.
3. Complete verbs and verbals do not need anything besides them-
selves and their subjects to make good sense.
4. Incomplete verbs and verbals require either attribute or object
complements to make good sense.
Review all that is said about verbs and verbals in Part I.
Examine the following sentences :
1. I draw. 2. I drew. 3. I am drawing. 4. I have drawn.
See which of the four forms below you can insert instead of the
italicized part of the verb in 1 ; in 2 ; in 3 ; in 4 :
First form.
Second form.
Third form.
Fourth form.
Do,
did,
doing,
done.
Go,
went,
going,
gone.
Talk,
talked,
talking.
talked.
Eat,
ate.
eating,
eaten.
Drive,
drove.
driving,
driven.
Notice which of the forms of draw already given is in each of the
following :
Will draw. Can draw. Should draw. Had drawn. Has drawn. To
draw. To have drawn. To be drawing. Having drawn. Having been
drawn. Shall have been drawn. Can be drawn. To have been drawn.
Could have been drawn.
Here are fourteen different verbs and verbals, and still more
might be given, each of which makes use of one of the four princi-
pal forms of draw given at first.
These four forms are, therefore, called the Principal
Parts, because from them all the other forms are derived.
190 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Exercise :
See how many different forms you can make from the
four Principal Parts of do, go, talk, eat, and drive.
The Principal Parts are called:
First, present, or root, form;
Second, or past, form;
Third, or imperfect, form;
Fourth, or perfect, form.
Note. — The root form can always be obtained by dropping the suffix ing
from the third form; as, draw + ing, go + ing, do + ing, eat + ing.
Zesson /77*
Auxiliaries.
In the following expressions, notice which forms can be used
entirely alone to assert, and which need some other word or words
to help them in making the assertion :
They draw. They drew. They will draw. They can draw. They are
drawing. They were drawing. They can be drawing. They have drawn.
They had drawn. It is drawn. It can be drawn. We shall be drawing.
The words that accompany any of the principal parts to
help assert, are called helpers, or auxiliaries.
Rules.
I. The first form may be used to assert either alone or
with helpers; as,
I go. I will go. We did go. We draw. We can draw.
II. The second form should never be used with a helper.
III. The third fornfi, when it asserts, must be used with
some form of the verb he.
IV. The fourth form, when it asserts, is used only with
some form of have or he.
Remarks. — 1. The third and fourth forms used without auxiliaries are
verbals; as,
The child drawing that picture is but six years old. The picture
drawn by him is very fine.
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 191
2. The verbs commonly called auxiliaries are may, can, must, shall.
Will, be, do, and have, with their variations. Each auxiliary will he dis-
cussed again in its proper place.
3. Do, be, have, and will may he used as principal verbs also ;
Do, when it means to perform ; as,
We must do our duty ;
Be, when it means to exist or when it joins an attribute to its subject; as,
I am glad that 1 am;
Have, when it indicates to possess ; as,
We must have food ;
Will, when it means to resolve ; as,
We should will to do right.
Zesson /7S,
Strong and Weak Verbs.
Verbs are classified, according to the way the second and
the fourth forms are made, into weah (or regular) verbs and
strong (or irregular) verbs.
The strong verbs are those that make the second and the
fourth forms by changes within themselves; as, draw, drew.,
drawn; go., went, gone.
The weak verbs are those that add d or ed to make the
second and the fourth forms; as, walk, walked, walked; like,
liked, liked.
A few verbs have both the weak and the strong form; as,
awake, awoke or awaked. The strong form is usually prefer-
able.
Remarks. — 1. Verbs forming any of their principal parts in more than
one way, are called redundant verbs; as, (1) hang, (2) hung or hanged,
(3) hanging, (4) hung or hanged. {See list of strong verbs.)
2. Verbs lacking any of the principal parts are called defective verbs; as,
(i) may, {2) might, (3) , (4) , {wanting.) {See list of strong verbs.)
Jjesso7i j/79.
Direction. — Study the following list of strong verbs until you
can readily give the four forms of any verb in the list, and can use
each form in a good oral sentence. Take especial care in using
those marked N. B. Practice until you can make these sentences
rapidly.
192
VERBS AND VERBALS.
[To the Teacher.— Drill upon the correct use of strong verbs is the
most important part of the siibject of verbs. Train the memory here
in the rapid application of the different forms.]
List of strong (or irregular) verbs.
Present.
Abide,
Awake,
Past,
abode,
(awoke,
\awaked
was,
bore,
hare,
Bear, {to bring (bore
Be, or am,
Bear
[to carry) J
forth)
Beat,
Begin,
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,
Bet,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blend,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,
Burn,
Burst,
Buy,
\hare,
beat,
began,
(bent,
\hended,
(bereft,
{bereaved,
besought,
(bet,
{betted,
bade, bid,
bound,
bit,
bled,
( blent,
{blended,
(blest,
{blessed,
blew,
broke,
bred,
brought,
Jbuild,
{builded,
r burnt,
{burned,
burst,
bought.
Imp. Part,
abiding,
awaking,
being,
bearing,
bearing,
beating,
beginning,
bending,
bereaving,
beseeching,
betting,
bidding,
binding,
biting,
bleeding,
blending,
blessing,
blowing,
breaking,
breeding,
bringing,
building,
burning,
bursting,
buying.
Perfect Part.
abode,
(awoke.
{awaked.
been.
J borne.
(borne.
(bom.
beaten.
begun,
(bent.
{bended.
(bereft.
{bereaved.
besought,
(bet.
{betted.
bidden, bid.
bound.
bitten, bit.
bled,
(blent.
{blended.
j blest.
{blessed.
blown.
broken.
bred.
brought,
fbuilt.
^builded.
(burnt.
{burned.
burst.
bought.
LIST OF STRONG VERBS.
Present.
Past.
Imp. Part.
Perfect Part,
Can
could,
cast.
Cast,
casting.
cast.
Catch,
caught.
catching.
caught.
Chide,
chid.
chiding.
[chidden,
tchid.
Choose,
chose,
choosing.
chosen.
Cleave, (weak) cleaved,
cleaving,
cleaved.
(to adhere)
Cleave,
{to split)
(clove,
tcleft.
cleaving,
cloven.
\cleft.
Cling,
clung,
cUnging,
clung.
Clothe,
(clad,
{clothed.
clothing,
jclad.
{clothed.
(Be) Come,
came.
coming.
come.
Cost,
cost.
costing.
cost.
Creep,
crept.
creeping.
crept.
Crow,
("crew,
{crowed.
crowing,
crowed.
Cut,
cut,
cutting.
cut.
J)^Te,{intrans.)\^'''^^J
{dared,
daring.
dared.
Dare, {trans.)
dared,
daring.
dared.
Deal,
dealt.
dealing.
dealt.
Dig,
f(iug,
{digged.
digging,
(dug.
{digged.
Do,
did.
doing.
done.
Draw,
drew,
drawing.
drawn.
Dream,
[dreamt,
{dreamed.
dreaming.
(dreamt.
{dreamed.
Dress,
[drest,
{dressed.
dressing,
(drest.
{dressed.
Drink,
drank.
drinking.
(drunk.
\drank.
Drive,
drove,
driving.
driven.
Dwell,
("dwelt,
{dwelled,
dwelling.
(dwelt.
{dwelled.
Eat,
ate,
eating,
eaten.
(Be) Fall,
fell.
falling,
fallen.
Feed,
fed,
feeding.
fed.
13-G
193
194
VERBS AND VERBALS.
Present.
Past.
Imp. Part.
Perfect Part.
Feel,
felt,
feeling,
felt.
Fight,
fought,
fighting.
fought.
Find,
found,
finding.
found.
Flee,
fled.
fleeing.
fled.
Fling,
flung,
flinging,
flung.
Fly,
flew.
flying,
flown.
Forsake,
forsook,
forsaking.
forsaken.
Forbear,
forbore.
forbearing.
forborne.
Freeze,
froze.
freezing,
frozen.
(For)Get,
Got,
getting.
f.got.
(gotten.
Gild,
(gilt,
[gilded,
gilding.
jgilt.
[gilded.
Gird,
fgirt,
[girded.
girding.
(girt.
{girded.
(For) Give,
gave.
giving.
given.
Go,
went.
going.
gone.
(En)Grave,
graved,
graving.
(graven.
[graved.
ground.
Grind,
ground.
grinding.
Grow,
grew.
growing.
grown.
Hang,
(hung,
[hanged.
hanging.
(hung.
[hanged.
Have,
had,
having,
[auxiliary)
Have, {topossess) had.
having.
had.
Hear,
heard,
hearing.
heard.
Heave,
(hove,
[heaved.
heaving.
heaved.
Hew,
hewedf
hewing.
(hewn.
[hewed.
Hide,
hid.
hiding.
hidden, hid.
Hit,
hit.
hitting,
hit.
(Be)Hold,
held,
holding.
held.
Hurt,
hurt.
hurting.
hurt.
Keep,
kept.
keeping.
kept.
Kneel,
(knelt,
[kneeled.
kneeling.
(knelt.
[kneeled.
Knit,
(knit,
1 knitted.
knitting.
(knit.
[knitted.
Note. — Compare the forms
hung and hanged.
and meaning of flee, fly, flow ; got, have ;
LIST OF STRONG VERBS.
195
Present.
Past.
Know,
knew.
Lade, [to load) laded.
Lay, {to place
) laid.
Lead,
led,
Lean,
(leant,
\leaned,
Leap,
rieapt,
\leaped,
Learn,
learnt,
learned
Leave,
left,
Lend,
lent,
Let,
let.
IAq,. {to recline
. lay,
Light,
(lit,
[lighted,
Lose,
lost.
Make,
made,
May,
might,
Mean,
meant,
Meet,
met,
Mow,
mowed,
Must,
Ought,
Pass,
passed,
Pay,
paid,
Vqh, {to inclose]
{penned,
Put,
Quit,
Rap,
Read,
Rend,
Imp. Part,
knowing,
lading,
laying,
leading,
leaning,
leaping,
learning,
leaving,
lending,
letting,
lying,
lighting,
losing,
making.
meaning,
meeting,
mowing.
passing,
paying,
penning,
put, putting,
|1""; ^ quitting,
[quitted,
quoth,
{nearly obsolete)
rapped, rapping,
read, reading,
i^^^*' rending,
[rended.
Perfect Part.
known.
laded.
laid.
led.
(leant.
{leaned.
(leapt.
{leaped.
(learnt.
{learned.
left.
lent.
let.
lain,
flit.
{lighted.
lost.
made.
meant,
met.
{mown.
moived.
[past.
{passed.
paid,
(pent.
{penned.
put.
(quit.
{quitted.
rapped.
read,
[rent.
1 rended.
"Sote.— Compare lie, lay ; lose, loose.
196
VERBS AND VERBALS.
Present.
Past,
Imp. Part.
Perfect Part.
Rid,
rid,
ridding.
rid.
Ride,
rode.
riding.
ridden.
Ring,
rang.
ringing.
rung.
(A)Rise,
rose.
rising.
risen.
(Intransitive)
Rive,
rived,
riving.
riven.
rived.
Run,
ran.
running,
run.
Saw,
sawed,
sawing.
(sawn.
{sawed.
Say,
said.
saying,
said.
See,
saw,
seeing,
seen.
Seek,
sought.
seeking.
sought.
Seethe,
seethed,
seething.
sodden.
seethed. .
Sell,
sold,
selling.
sold.
Send,
sent,
sending,
sent.
*(Be) Set,
set.
setting.
set.
Shake,
shook.
shaking,
shaken.
Shall,
Shape,
should,
shaped.
shaping,
(shapen.
{shaped.
Shave,
shaved,
shaving,
(shaven.
{shaved.
Shear,
sheared,
shearing,
(shorn.
{sheared.
Shed,
shed,
shedding.
shed.
Shine,
(shone,
\shined,
shining.
(shone.
\shined.
Shoe,
shod,
shoeing.
shod.
Shoot,
shot.
shooting.
shot.
Show,
showed.
showing,
(shown.
{showed.
Shred,
shred,
shredding,
shred.
Shrink,
shrank.
shrinking.
(shrunk,
(shrunken.
Shut,
shut.
shutting,
shut.
*Set is properly transitive, meaning to place something, but it also ;
means to pass across space; as, The moon sets (appears to set). He set ]
out for town. The wind set m from the west. The tide set in, etc.
LIST OF STRONG VERBS.
197
Present.
Past.
Imp. Part.
Perfect Part.
Sing,
sang.
singing.
sung.
Sink,
sank.
sinking.
sunk.
Sit, {posture)
sat.
sitting.
sat.
Slay,
slew.
slaying.
slain.
Sleep,
slept.
sleeping,
slept.
Slide,
slid.
sliding.
Jslidden.
tslid.
Sling,
slung.
slinging.
slung.
Slink,
slunk.
slinking.
slunk.
sut.
[slit,
\slitled,
slitting,
[slit.
\sUtted.
Smell,
(smelt,
{smelled,
smelling.
[smelt.
{smelled.
Smite,
smote.
smiting,
smitten.
Sow,
sowedf
sowing,
sown.
sowed.
Speak,
spoke.
speaking.
spoken.
Speed,
sped.
speeding.
sped.
Spell,
[spelt,
{spelled,
spelling.
(spelt.
{spelled.
Spend,
spent.
spending.
spent.
Spill,
[spilt,
\spilled,
spilling.
J" spilt.
{spilled.
Spin,
spun.
spinning.
spun.
Spit,
spit.
spitting,
spit.
Split,
split.
splitting.
split.
Spoil,
[spoilt,
{spoiled,
spoiling.
spoilt.
spoiled.
Spread,
spread.
spreading.
spread.
Spring,
sprang.
springing.
sprung.
Stand,
stood.
standing,
stood.
Stave,
[stove,
{staved,
staving.
[stove.
{staved.
Stay,
[staid,
{stayed.
staying,
[staid.
\stayed.
Steal,
stole.
stealing.
stolen.
Stick,
stuck.
sticking,
stuck.
Sting,
stung.
stinging.
stung.
Stink,
stunk,
stinking.
stunk.
Note. — Compare sow and sew.
198
VERBS AND VERBALS.
Present.
Past.
Imp. Part.
Perfect Part
Stride,
strode,
striding,
stridden.
Strike,
struck,
striking.
[struck,
(stricken.
String,
strung.
stringing,
strung.
Strive,
strove,
striving.
striven.
Strow,
strowed,
strowing,
Jstrown.
{strowed.
Swear,
swore,
swearing.
sworn.
Sweat,
(sweat,
{sweated,
sweating.
j sweat,
{sweated.
Sweep,
swept,
sweeping.
swept.
Swell,
swelled.
swelling.
J swollen.
{swelled.
Swim,
swam,
swimming.
swum.
Swing,
swung,
swinging,
swung.
Take,
took,
taking,
taken.
Teach,
taught,
teaching,
taught.
Tear,
tore,
tearing.
torn.
Tell,
told.
telling,
told.
Think,
thought,
thinking.
thought.
Thrive,
[throve,
{thrived,
thriving,
[thriven.
{thrived.
Throw,
threw.
throwing.
thrown.
Thrust,
thrust.
thrusting.
thrust.
Tread,
trod.
treading.
[trod,
(trodden.
Wake,
[woke,
{waked,
waking.
waked.
Wax,
waxed.
waxing.
[waxen.
{waxed.
Wear,
wore,
wearing.
worn.
Weave,
wove.
weaving.
woven.
Weep,
wept,
weeping.
wept.
Wet,
wet,
wetted.
wetting.
[wet.
{wetted.
Will
■cunnlrl
VV 111,
Win,
VYUUIQ,
won.
winning,
won.
Wind,
wound.
winding.
wound.
Work,
[wrought,
{worked,
working,
(wrought.
{worked.
Note.-
-Compare ring and wring ; learn and teach.
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 199
Present. Past. Imp. Part. Perfect Part.
Wring, wrung, wringing, wrung.
Write, wrote, writing, written.
Zesson /80.
Improper Use of Weak and Strong Verbs.
Exercise :
Notice first the sense intended; then, the form or word
chosen, and correct the sentence:
1. I have saw it. 2. 1 seen it. 3. I see it yesterday. 4. You done
well. 5. Go and lay down, Fido. 6. Where did you lie your papers?
7. I sot the porcelain bowl carefully away. 8. Where was he setting
when you rung the bell? 9. Has the fire alarm bell rang? 10. She
wrang her hands and moaned. 11. Father has came; now he will learn
us how to do it. 12. My uncle has got himself a new carriage, and it
has got two seats. 13. A hot north wind blowed all day. 14. The con-
cert must have began before you come. 15. You should have came
earlier. 16. We had ate a few cherries. 17. The creek having over-
flown its banks, we lay some boards down to walk on. 18. Tom throwed
the ball too high. 19. Are the horses shoed ? 20. Not a word was spoke.
21. His nurse was learning him to manage his tricycle. 22. Miss A. has
teached her before. 23. The enemy became disheartened and flew. 24.
The swallows have flew away. 25. The dog raised up and howled. 26.
She knowed nothing about driving, and so she run the wheel against
the gate-post. 27. The river is raising.
Composition Exercises:
a. Fill the blanks with the correct form of sit^ set, or seat:
1. Did you three in a seat? 2. The usher me here. 3.
Where were you before? 4. We have things in order. 5.
He out for town. 6. A strong wind in from the west. 7.
I here last term. 8. They had there an hour. 9. Where
were they ?
b. Fill the blanks with correct forms of lie (to recline)
or lay (to place any thing) :
1. The Romans used to down to eat. 2. The lizard in
the sun. 3. the guitar upon the piano. 4. Where did he
his head? 5. The skeleton had evidently there a long time. 6.
The dog was on the porch. 7. Has the corner stone been ?
8. Thev were bricks for a new walk.
200 VERBS AND VERBALS.
c. Write a short story about a lost child, and try to weave
into the story all the forms oisit, set, seat, lie, and lay.
Zesson /c5'/.
What Verbs Assert and What Verbals Assume.
The horse eats hay, runs, and kicks. (Action asserted)
The" fish darting upward caught a fly. (Action assumed in dart-
ing, and asserted in caught)
As surely as I know that I am, I know that God is. (Existence
asserted)
The horse is strong.")
They are happy. |I^elation asserted.
Being ill, the child could ]
not accompany us. V Relation assumed.
We knew him to he ill. J
From the above examples it will be seen that verbs may
assert and verbals assume action, being (existence), or a
relation between an attribute and the word to which the
attribute belongs. By far the greater number, however,
assert or assume action.
Remark. — The actions asserted by verbs vary greatly in the amount of
activity asserted; as
He runs. He sits.
In the first the action is violent; in the second, hardly perceptible. Still,
it is better to call all verbs in this sense, active, except the verb to be in its
various forms. To be, as it asserts merely existence, is commonly called a
neuter verb. The verbs become, seems, appear, etc., are very closely allied
to the verb to be, but differ enough to make it best to call them all active
verbs.
Mention ten diff'erent actions, five of which you can perform
yourself.
If you perform the act of rising or of walking, and then the act
of tearing or of breaking, you will notice a remarkable difference
between them. You can not tear or break without having an object
to be torn or broken, and the word naming this thing is the object
of the verb. But when you tvalk, rise, or look, no object is required
to complete the sense.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 201
Here you see another classification of verbs — those
requiring an object and those which do not require an object.
The former are called transitive verbs; the latter intransi-
tive verbs.
Remarks.— i. Transitive means passing over, and these verbs are so
called because the action passes over to an object.
2. Some intransitive verbs become transitive when followed by an object
derived from the verb; as, He ran a race. He lived a happy life. He
sleeps the sleep of the just. This is sometimes called the cognate object.
3. Other intransitive verbs become transitive in another sense. In the
sentence, He runs, the verb runs is intransitive, but in the sentence. He runs
the engine, runs is transitive.
4- The object is not always expressed; it may be understood. If a verb
may have an object, it is transitive. If it takes an object in any sense, how-
ever restricted, as in the examples above, it is in that sense a transitive verb.
5. In the sentences I walk, I look, you observe that the sense is complete,
that is, no object is required. If I say I walk rapidly, I look carefully, an
adverbial modifier is used, but not an object. In the sentence. He came an
enemy and returned a friend, came and returned are intransitive, and
they are each followed by an attribute used as identical with the subject.
This construction is somewhat rare.
Exercise :
Examine the following verbs and see how many and
which of them may take objects, and are therefore transi-
tive verbs:
Note.— Do not mistake an adverb for an object; the former tells how,
where, when, or why ; the latter tells what.
Bite, see, come, expect, sigh, go, hammer, fire, breathe, hope, look,
wish, forsake, fence, walk, return, retire, subscribe, deliver, grow,
bear, ring, cough, blow, rap, lean, have, creep, burst, abide.
Zesson /82. .
Exercises:
a. Write sentences containing six examples of transitive
verbs with the object of the action named.
b. Six transitive, but having the object understood, not
expressed.
c. Six intransitive verbs expressing action.
d. Six that may have an object made from the verb.
202 VERBS AND VERBALS
e. Six that are usually intransitive, but may, in a certain
sense, become transitive.
Zesson /SS.
Forms of Verbs.
Both transitive and intransitive verbs may have more
than one form.
Examine the verbs in the following :
(A) (B)
I talk. I am talking.
I have talked. I have been talking.
I rise. I ani rising.
I rose. I was rising.
The (A) form is called the Simple form ; the (B) form is called the
Progressive form, because it denotes that the act is in progress.
Observe that the progressive form consists of some form
of he and the third form of the verb.
Change the following to the progressive form:
They cry. He went. You must write. I can ride. You might
have thought.
Remark.--- yb emphasize a verb having no auxiliaries, use do with the first
form to express a present event, and did with the first form to express a past
event; as, I write. I wrote. Emphasized: I do write. I did write. This
is called the Emphatic form. Do and did are not used elsewhere, because all
other verbs can be made emphatic by emphasizing an auxiliary already used.
Formation of Transitive Verbs and Verbals.
Tell why the following words are transitive :
Sawed, kill, bit, cutting, seeing, to do, to eat.
Notice the difference in the following constructions :
(a) Men kill the lower animals.
(b) The lower animals are killed by men.
(a) A gnat bit his horse.
(to) His horse was bitten by a gnat.
(a) Every animal eats something.
(b) Something is eaten by every animal.
In each pair of sentences, (b) tells the same thing as (a). But
when the actor is to be made prominent, the (a) form is used ; and
FORMS OF VERBS. 203
when the recipient of the action is to be made prominent, the (to)
form is used.
The (a) form is the active form.
The (b) form is the passive form.
Examine closely the above sentences, and notice in each whether
the subject names the actor or the recipient of the action. Notice
which is named by the object of the preposition hy in the passive
form. Compare the form of the italicized words in each pair.
Remark. — In the passive form, the prepositional phrase showing agency
is frequently omitted; as, The hotel was set on fire, [by somebody]
Conclusion: In changing from the active to the passive
form, the object complement of the active becomes the sub-
ject of the passive, and the subject of the active, if retained,
becomes the object of the preposition by. In this change
the fourth form of the transitive verb is used after some
form of the verb be.
Verbals may be changed in the same manner: in the
active form the assumed subject names the actor; in the
passive form it names the recipient ; thus.
Active : The distracted parents, having found their child, took him
home.
Passive : The child, having been found by his distracted parents, was
taken home.
Active: The captain ordered the sailors to lower the mainsail.
Passive : The captain ordered the mainsail to he lowered by the
sailors.
Remark. — Some grammarians reject the term ^' passive form" regarding
it merely as a combination of the copula be and an attribute consisting of
the fourth form of the verb; thus,
"Work , is \ done
\^ many
Jjesson W^.
Exercise :
Tell the form of each of the transitive verbs or verbals in
the following, and change to the opposite form :
204 VERBS AND VERBALS.
(Notice also the changes in form in the decUnable pronouns.)
1. She draws pictures. 2. Having written a letter to his parents, in
which he confessed his errors, his spirits rose. 3. A scandal-monger
should be avoided by every one. 4. My task having been accomplished,
I sat down to rest. 5. They were ashamed to be seen there by anybody.
6. My friend told me that the boy had been employed by her for a year.
7. Having returned the book to its place, I left the room. 8. Not a word
was spoken by any one present. 9. Sam's mother, having been accom-
panied to the train by her son, left town well pleased with her visit. 10.
I am determined to find help before evening.
When a transitive verb, in the active form, having an
object complement and an attributive object, is changed to
the passive form, the attribute of the object becomes the
attribute complement relating to the subject; thus,
(a) They called her Fairy-belle.
(b) She was called Fairy-belle.
(a) They knew him to be insane.
(b) He was known to be insane.
(The lines before the
phrase and before insane
slant toward the subject,
to which each belongs.)
Jjesso?t /S5,
Notes on Idiomatic Constructions.
I. (a) They gave me /ot(;ers. (The preposition to" unex-
pressed)
(b) Flowers were given to me. [by them] (True passive)
(c) I was giYQn flowers. (Idiomatic object)
Diagram.
I , was given [flowers] (Place the idiomatic object in brack-
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ets ; do not put a vertical line before it.)
This construction arises from taking the object of the preposition
She
, was
1 called
^
Diagrams.
Fairy-belle
He
, was
known
^
\o be \ insane
A
1
IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 205
to, in the active, for the subject of the passive, leaving, in the pred-
icate of the passive, the true object complement of the active. This
construction is condemned by some grammarians, but seems author-
ized by present usage, particularly to preserve euphony when the
true object of the active form is long; as,
(a) They told him that he would find his mother there.
Awkward : (b) That he would find his mother there was told to him.
Better : (c) He was told that he would find his mother there. (Idiomatic
object)
Exercise :
Change to the passive, using the italicized words for the
subject, and diagram:
1. Webb asked her if she knew anything about the matter.
2. The directors informed Mr. Ball that his services were no longer
needed.
II. Sometimes the object of a preposition (after the object
complen^ient) is taken for the subject in the passive, leaving
the object complement and preposition as part of the idiom.
(a) They took care of her.
(b) Care was taken of her. (True i)assive)
(c) She was taken care of. (Idiomatic passive)
Diagram.
She was taken care of ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^p^^^^^ ^^^ p^^^^ ^^ ^^
idiom.)
III. Again, the object of a preposition after an intransi-
tive verb is sometimes changed to the subject of an idio-
matic passive; as,
(a) They laughed at her.
(b) She was laughed at. (Was ridiculed)
Exercises :
a. Change the following to the passive in the way that
will make the most euphonious sentences:
1. People should not make fun of unfortunate children.
2. The neighbors often spoke of Harvey's bad habits.
206 VERBS AND VERBALS.
b. Make two original sentences under each of the above
three idiomatic constructions.
IV. When the fourth form of an intransitive verb is used
after is; as, Spring is come, It is flown, the verb or verbal
should be treated as an adjective. The meaning, of course,
is, Spring has come, or Spring is here ; It has flown, or It is
away.
V. All the- idiomatic constructions may be given to verb-
als, as well as to verbs; thus,
Idiomatic object : The man having been given fair warning.
Idiomatic passive : This matter having been spoken 0/ before.
Idiomatic passive : It was wrong for this matter to be spoken of then.
Idiomatic passive : The child having been taken care of, the doctor
rode off.
Idiomatic use of verb to be: The bird being flown, we gave up the
pursuit.
Ijesson /86.
Verbs and Verbals — Modifications.
Tense.
Fill each blank with an appropriate adverb showing when.
1. she laughs. 2. She is laughing . 3. She laughed .
4, She was laughing . 5. I shall laugh . 6. She will laugh .
How could you tell what adverb to choose?
Now fill the following blanks with appropriate forms of the verb
go or attend:
1.
He
- now.
2. He —
— school this term.
3.
He
yesterday.
4. He —
last term.
5.
She —
soon.
6. She -
next term.
Thus you see that the form of the verb and the idea of time
shown by the rest of the sentence must correspond.
This variation in the form of the verb to express the
time of the being, action, or state, is called Tense, from
tempus=time.
MODIFIC.
You notice here but three divisiong
and the future, as,
I went. I go. I shall go.
Real present time is but a point, moving forward, converting
future into past. The speaker may assume any length he pleases to
the period called the present, provided it includes the real present; as.
To-day we are happ5^ This century is a period of great advancement.
We may say :
1. I study my lessons now, — tliis term, — during this year. (Present)
2. I studied ray lessons yesterday,— or any time closing before the
present. (Past)
3. I shall stxidy my lessons to-morrow, — or any time in advance of the
present. (Future)
4. I /iave (now) s^Mfited my lessons. (Present)
5. I had (yesterday) studied my lessons. (Past)
6. I shall have (to-morrow) studied my lessons. (Future)
In the last three, notice that the act is completed, or perfected,
each time. In 4, perfected in the present ; in 5, perfected in the
past; in 6, perfected in the future. These tenses are therefore
called the perfect tenses, viz. : (4) present perfect, (5) past perfect,
(6) future perfect.
Exercise :
With the pronoun he, use the following verbs in the six
tenses:
Run, come, chose, shoot.
Zesson /87.
Modification of Verbs and Verbals.
Manner of Asserting.
Notice how the assertions are made by the following groups of
italicized words :
1. I am talking, )
Harry talked, V Assert a fact.
They have talked, )
Though Harry is talking, he is not noisy. (Admits or concedes a
supposition to be a fact)
208 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Assert by means of the auxiliary :
2. Harry may talk. (Possibility or permission)
Harry can talk. (Power)
Hurry should talk. (Duty)
"H-'drry must. talk. (Obligation or necessity)
Harry said, " I will talk." (Determination or promise)
3. If it be possible, my father will come. ) ^
it is necessary that she be industrious. [ ^ ^^ncl^tafnty "^^''''^ ''''
It is important that you be attentive. ;
If he were more studious, he would be better. (A mere supposi-
tion implying the contrary)
1 wish that I were more studious. I wish that he were more stu-
dious. (A mere wish implying the contrary)
4. Go at once. (Command)
Do let me. (Entreaty)
Be careful or you will fall. (Exhortation)
Come when you please. (Permission in the form of a command)
This difference in the manner of asserting is called Mode,
from moduSy manner.
(a) Verbs asserting a fact, as in Group 1, are in the
Indicative Mode.
(b) Verbs asserting, by means of an auxiliary, possibility,
permission, power, duty, obligation, necessity, determina-
tion, or promise, as in Group 2, are in the Potential Mode.
(c) Verbs in a subordinate clause, asserting a future con-
tingency, a mere supposition, or a mere wish, without vary-
ing their form to agree with the subject, as in Group 3, are
in the Subjunctive Mode.
(d) Verbs asserting a command, an entreaty, an exhor-
tation, or a permission in the form of a command, as in
Group 4, are in the Imperative Mode.
Remark. — Both the Indicative and Potential Modes may be used inter-
rogatively.
Exercise :
Make a definition of the Indicative Mode in accordance
with the preceding explanations. Give six examples.
MODES AND TENSES. 209
Zesson /88*
Modes and Tenses.
Indicative Mode.
[To the Teacher. — By turning to the tables of conjugation the pupil
will find abundant examples from which to deduce the following prin-
ciples.]
The Indicative Mode has six tenses, the time indicated
corresponding more nearly to the name of the tense, than
in any other mode.
There are three time tenses; i. e., those that show merely
the time of the being, action, or state, without regard to
completion; and three 'perfect tenses; i. e., those that show
the completion of the being, action, or state at some definite
point in the present, the past, or the future.
The simple Present Indicative expresses a present event,
or that which is true at all times. It uses the root form of
the verb, with changes to agree with the subject in the sec-
ond and third persons singular; as,
I see, Thou seest, He sees ;
We see, You see, They see.
The simple Past Indicative expresses a past event. It
uses the second form of the verb, and changes only in the
second person singular; as,
I saw, Thou sawest, He saw ;
We saw, You saw, They saw.
The simplest Future Indicative is always compound. It
expresses a future idea, and uses the root form of the verb
preceded by the auxiliary shall in the first person, and will
in the second and third persons; as,
I shall see, Thou wilt see, He will see ;
We shall see. You will see. They will see.
Remarks. — 1. Futicre ideas are often expressed in an idiomatic Present
Indicative ; as,
He goes to Europe next month, meaning He will go.
14-G
210 VERBS AND VERBALS.
2. Past and future events are often expressed in the Present Indicative by
the figure of Vision ; as,
{Past) While Bruce sits lamenting his fate, he sees a spider patiently
overcoming great obstacles.
3. The changes for person and number in all modes and tenses are made
in the auxiliary, if there is one, and in the first auxiliary, if there is more
than one.
The simplest Present Perfect Indicative expresses the
event as completed in the present, previous to the moment
of speaking. It uses the auxiliary have and the fourth form
of the verb; as,
I have seen it frequently.
E. KM ARKS. — 1. Here the speaker'' s whole past life is assumed as the present;
the real -present is the moment of speaking. The sentence means, I have seen
it frequently in my life, previous to the moment of making this statement.
We should not say, " I never did it yet,''^ but, " / never have done it yef^
2. Thus it will be seen that there are three classes of auxiliaries,
viz.: (1) Form auxiliaries, as do in the emphatic and be in the progressive
and passive; (2) mode auxiliaries, as shall and will when they denote
determination, and may, can, and must; {Z) tense auxiliaries, as have in
the perfect tenses, and shall and will when they denote mere futurity.
The simplest Past Perfect Indicative shows the comple-
tion of the event at or previous to some point mentioned in
past time; as,
Henry had seen the jewel before his mother sold it.
It uses had and the fourth form.
The simplest Future Perfect Indicative shows that an
event is to be completed at or previous to some point of
time mentioned in the future; as.
He will have seen his father before we meet again.
It uses shall have or will have (according to the person of
the subject) with the fourth form.
Ijesson /89,
Composition Exercise :
Use the verbs come, go, drive, hite, lie (to recline), and
sit (position) , in each of the tenses of the Indicative Mode.
MODES AND TENSES. 211
Make smooth sentences and use an adverbial modifier
(word, phrase, or clause) showing time in each.
Past
Tense.
Zesson /90.
Potential Mode.
Exercise :
Examine the explanation already given of the Potential
Mode, aiid make a good definition of it, remembering that
the power ^ possibility, etc., are always shown by the auxil-
iary.
By examining the tables of conjugation you will see that the
Potential Mode has but four tenses : the present, the past, the pres-
ent perfect, and the past perfect.
Present ("(a) He can see now. — (Present form with present idea)
Tense. 1(b) He can see next time. — (Present form with future idea)
r(c) He never could see that. — (Past form with past idea)
(d) He COULD see now, if he were here.— {Fast form with pres-
ent idea)
(e) He COULD see it to-morrow, if he would go.— (Past form
. with future idea)
Present Perfect, (f) I may have seen it often.
Past Perfect. (g) / might have seen it sooner.
Conclusion. — The tenses in the potential mode have the
same names as the tenses in the indicative mode, but they
may convey different ideas of time. They are named from
the form of the first auxiliary used, and not from their
meaning — future time being often shown by the present
potential or the past potential. See (b) and (e) above.
Notice that the present tense uses the present potential
auxiliary and the root form of the verb. See (a) and (b).
The past simply changes to the past potential auxiliary.
See (c), (d), and (e).
The present perfect uses the present potential auxiliary,
with have and the fourth form of the verb. See (f).
The past perfect uses the past potential auxiliary, with
have and the fourth form of the verb. See (g).
212 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Give the four tenses in the potential mode of / can ride ;
He may see; He must go. (Must has no past.)
Zessofi /P/.
Shall and Will.
[To the Teacher. — Perhaps in no other place in the English language
are so many and so gross errors made as in the use of the auxiliaries
shall and will. Below is a condensed view of their most important uses.
Pupils should be given much drill here.]
. o- 1 £ J. -i ^1 1* ((a) I think I s/iaZZ recover.
L Simple futurity or natural result. \,^x t ., • i
/7 J- J.- N ■< (b) 1 think you wiZZ recover.
(Indicative) \,[T^.^^t -n
^.(c) I think he ivill recover.
r (d) 1 will write = I promise to write.
2. Determination (©) You shall write = I compel you to write.
or compulsion. . . J n compel him to write.
(Potential) | (f) He shall write= ■! Something compels him to
I ( write.
Rule I. — (Indicative Mode.) In general, use shall with
the first person, (a), and will with the second or third, (b),
(c), to denote mere futurity or natural result.
Rule //.—(Potential Mode.) Use will with the first per-
son, (d), and shall with the second or third, (e), (f), to
denote determination or compulsion on the part of the
speaker or some external force.
Remark. — Will, emphatic, may be used in all three persons of the ■poten-
tial mode to denote determination on the part of the subject: 7 will not take
advice. You will not take advice, He will not take advice. (^Potential
Mode)
Interrogatively.
3. (g) Shall I?=Is it likely? or Do you wish it?
(h) Shall you?=Is it likely? or Do you intend?
(i) Shall he?=Do you wish him ?
(j) Will you?=Do you promise? or Are you determined?
(k) Will he?=Does he intend or promise?
Remark.— Will I ? is always incorrect.
Rule III. — In questions containing shall or will, use the
SHALL AND WILL. 213
auxiliary expected in the answer, except with the first per-
son; there always use shall.
Thus: Shalllf Answer: You shall.
Shall hef Answer: He shall.
Will you f Answer: Twill.
Zfesson 792,
Should and Would.
(Always Potential Past.)
I thought that I should do it.*
I. -j I thought that you would do it.
I thought that he would do it.
i We should be charitable.
II. Duty, -j You should be charitable.
( He should be charitable.
r If 1 should happen to try.
III. Supposition. \ If you should happen to try.
(if he should happen to try.
51 said I would not do it.
I said you should not do it,
I said he should not do it.
Rule IV. — Use should like shall, and also to express a
duty or a supposition in all three persons. Use would like
will.
Zesson i93.
Composition Exercises:
a. Write two original sentences under each person, to
illustrate Rules I. and II.
b. Under each illustration before Rule III.
c. Under each of the uses of should.
d. Under each of the uses of would.
Make oral illustrations of each of the above rapidly. Review
this frequently. *
*Note. — This, although potential in form, is obviously indicative in
idea. Emphasize should and the meaning is changed to duty.
214 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Exercise :
a. Tell why the italicized words are correct:
1. I believe I shall not live long. 2. I will sing if possible. 3. Will
you assist me ? 4, Shall 1 see you at Mrs. Crocker's ? 5. Mother, shall
Warren gather the cherries now ? 6. You s/iaZZ not play with bad chil-
dren if I can prevent it. 7. You should not jsita^/ with bad children, for
your parents would not ZzA^e it. 8. His parents said he should not play
with bad children, if they could prevent it. 9. He promised that he would
not play with bad children. 10. His parents said they would not let
him play with bad children. 11. Shall I call to see you to-morrow?
12. Will she be at home? 13. If I should try, would you help me? (Sup-
position) 14. If she s^owW ir^/, 5/iowW I not ^eZp her ? (Duty)
b. Fill the following blanks with shall, will, should, or
would:
1. If he receives me kindly, I ever esteem him a friend. 2. If
she were present, she be happy. 3. He told me he come if he
could. 4. He tells me he come if he can. 5. We suppose it
rain more in California. 6. I thought it likely I see you. 7.
we take the next three pages? 8. you be sorry if I fail?
9. I take the next one? 10. you help me? Certainly I .
11. I drown, nobody help me !
Ijessoii /,9^.
Subjunctive Mode.
Examine again the illustrations at the introduction to Mode.
Define the Subjunctive Mode.
Examining the conjugation on page 218, you will see that the
peculiarity of the Subjunctive lies chiefly in its form. The future
contingency is now frequently asserted by the idiomatic present
Indicative, as,
If it is possible, my father will come.
Or by the Potential ; as,
If it should be possible, my father will come.
It is necessary that she should be industrious.
The mere wish or the supposition contrary to the fact seem to
be the only places where the Subjunctive form is still positively
retained; as,
I wish I were studious, If he were studious.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE MODES. 215
The present Subjunctive uses the root form of the verb through-
out:
Singular. Plural.
1. That 1 be, That we be,
2. That thou be. That you be,
3. That he be; That we be.
The past Subjunctive uses the past plural form throughout :
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were, If we were,
2. If thou were or wert,* If you were,
3. If he were; If they were.
Remark.— When the plural auxiliary have is used with a stibject in the
second or the third singular, the form is subjunctive; as, If he have gone.
Lesson 795,
Imperative Mode.
Define the Imperative Mode.
Since in this Mode the verb is always in the present, or root,
form, it is said to be in the Present Tense, although the idea ex-
pressed may be either present or future; as,
Start now. (Present) Start to-morrow. (Future)
The subject is iliou or you, generally understood, and it may be
either singular or plural. The Imperative uses the root form of the
verb in both numbers ; as.
Be quiet, Nettie. Be quiet, girls.
Remark. — In poetry the subject of the Imperative is sometimes in the first
or in the third person; as,
Now move we on. Blessed be lie that blesseth thee.
But, unless the subject is thus a declinable pronoun in the nominative
form, it would be better to consider such expressions elliptical.
Be it known. This equals [Let] it [to] be known.
\« V
\ be known \ Be known
X I Let/ A . it or X . X/ A . it
*Note.— Compare this with the Indicative, and notice that the verb
varies shghtly, forming an exception to the general rule for subjunc-
tives,
216
VERBS AND VERBALS.
Ijessoii /96.
Conjugation.
By the Conjugation of a verb is meant a systematic
arrangement, in some given form (Simple, Progressive, or
Passive), of all its modes, tenses, persons, numbers, and
verbals. A Synopsis is the arrangement in but one person
and number throughout all its modes and tenses.
[To the Teacher.— The common fault in conjugating is that of mak-
ing the work a matter of mere memory, and not of understanding.
Let the pupil compare this table with the preceding explanations, and
conjugate intelligently. All through the conjugation the pupil should
be led to observe closely the changes, indicating person or number, that
take place in the root verb, or in any of the auxiliaries, noticing, in the
auxiliaries, that all changes are restricted to the first auxiliary.]
Conjugation of "Do." — Simple Form.
First.
Do.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Second.
Did.
Third.
Doing.
Fourth.
Done.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
(Uses first form.)
Singular.
Plural.
L ido,
We do,
2. Thou doest,
You do.
3. He does;
PAST TENSE.
(Uses second form.)
They do.
1. I did,
We did.
2. Thou didst,
You did,
3. He did;
They did.
FUTURE TENSE. Mere futurity or natural result.
(Uses first form after auxiliary.)
1. I shall do.
2. Ihou wilt do,
3. He will do;
We shall do.
You will do.
They will do.
CONJUGATION.
217
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
(Uses the tense auxiliary have, showing the tivie, and the fourth form,
showing completion.)
1. I have done. We have done,
2. Thou hast done, You have done,
3. He has done; They have done.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
(Changes present have to past had.)
1. I had done. We had done,
2. Thou hadst done, You had done,
3. He had done; Thev had done.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Mere futurity or natural result.
(Time shown by auxiliary shall or will.)
1. I shall have done,
Thou wilt have done.
He will have done;
We shall have done,
You will have done,
They will have done.
Zesso7i /97^
Potential Mode.
(Here showing x)Ower; auxiliary, can.)
Singular.
1. I can do,
2. Thou canst do,
3. He can do;
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Plural.
We can do.
You can do,
They can do.
(Changes can to could.)
1. I could do,
2. Thou couldst do,
3. He could do;
We could do.
You could do,
They could do.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE,
(Uses can have and fourth form.)
1. I can have done,
2. Thou canst have done,
3. He can have done:
We can have done.
You can have done,
They can have done.
218
VERBS AND VERBALS.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
(Changes present can to past could.)
1. I could have done,
2. Thou couldst have done,
3. He could have done:
We could have done.
You could have done,
They could have done.
Zesson 798.
Subjunctive Mode.
(No changes for person and number.)
PRESENT TENSE.
(Root form throughout.)
Singular.
1. (If) I do,
2. (If) thou do,
3. (If)hetZo;
Plural.
(If) we do,
(If) you do,
(If) they do.
Note. — It is only in the second and third persons singular that the Sub-
junctive form differs from the Indicative.
PAST TENSE.
(Second form throughout.)
1. (If) I did,
2. {li)tho\xdid,
3. (If) he did;
(If) we did,
(If) you did,
(If) they did.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
(Root form in both numbers.)
Singular.
Plural.
Do (thou) ;
VERBALS.
Do (you).
Present.
INFINITIVES.
Perfect.
To do;
PARTICIPLES.
To have done.
Imperfect.
Doing.
Perfect.
(Lacking except in
the passive.)
Compound Perfect.
Having done,
CONJUGATION.
219
Conjugation of "Do" — Emphatic Form,
indicative mode.
PRESENT TENSE.
(Auxiliary do with first form.)
Singular.
Plural.
1. I do do,
We do do,
2. Thou dost do*
You do do,
3. He does do;*
PAST TENSE.
They do do.
1. I did do,
We did do,
2. Thou didst do,
You did do.
3. He did do;
They did do.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
1. (If) I do do,
(If) we do do.
2. (If) thou do do.
(If) you do do.
3. (If) he dodo;
PAST TENSE.
(If) they do do.
1. (U) I did do,
(If) we did do,
2. (If) thou did do.
(If) you did do,
3. (If) he did do;
(If) they did do.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
Do (thou) do;
Do (you) do.
Note.— 7n </ie Potential Mode, use may, must, or will in place of can,
a7id might, would, or should in place o/ could.
Zesson 799,
Conjugation of " Be."
Simple copula, Progressive form, Passive form.
Direction. — For simple copula fill the blank at the right with an
attribute of the subject; for Progressive form, with the third form
of the verb; for the Passive, with the fourth form of a transitive
verb. For the third person use one of the three singular pronouns,
he, she, or it.
*Note.— Notice the difference between doest and dost, and between
doeth and doth.
220
VERBS AND VERBALS.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Singular.
1. I am
2. Thou art
3. She is —
1. I was ,
2. Thou wast
3. She was —
PRESENT TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Plural.
We are —
You are -
They are
We were -
You were
They were
1. I shall be
2. Thou wilt be
3. She will be —
FUTURE TENSE.
We shall be —
You will be —
They will be -
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have been
2. Thou hast been
3. She has been —
We have been ,
You have been ,
They have been .
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had been ,
2. Thou hadst been
3. She had been
We had been —
You had been -
They had been
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. 1 shall have been
2. Thou wilt have been
3. She will have been —
We shall have been ,
You will have been ,
They will have been .
Potential Mode. Showing possibility.
Singular.
1. I may be ,
2. Thou mayst be ,
3. She may be ;
PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.
We may be ,
You may be ,
They may be .
PAST TENSE.
(Change may to the past form.)
1. I might be , We might be —
2. Thou mightst be , You might be -
3. She might be ; They might be
CONJUGATION.
221
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have been ,
2. Thou mayst have been ,
3. She may have been ;
We may have been -
You may have been ■
They may have been
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
(Change may to the past form.)
1. I might have been ,
2. Thou mightst have been
3. She might have been
We might have been ,
You might have been
They might have been —
Ijesson 200,
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
(Root form.)
Singular. Plural.
1. (Though or that) I be —. — , (Though w that) we be ,
2. (Though or that) thou be , (Though or that) you be ,
3. (Though or that) she be ; (Though or that) they be .
PAST TENSE.
(Past plural form.)
1. (Though or that) I were ,
2. (Though or that) thou were or wert ,
3. (Though or that) she were ;
(Though or that) we were-
(Though or that) you %vere-
(Though or that) they u'ere-
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular.
Be (thou) ;
PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.
Be {you) .
VERBALS.
Present.
To be ;
INFINITIVES.
Perfect.
To have been .
PARTICIPLES.
Imperfect Perfect. Compound Perfect.
Being ; (Lacking, except in the passive.) Having been —
222 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Zesson 20/,
Exercise:
Conjugate think ^ try, and ride in the progressive form,
and see, whip, and lay (to place) in the passive form.
I/esson 202.
To give the Synopsis of a verb, arrange one person and
number of each mode and tense in either of the above
conjugations.
Synopsis of "Sit" in the Third, Singular.
Simple Form.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Sit. Sat. Sitting. Sat.
INDICATIVE, MODE.
Present, He sits. Present Perfect, He has sat
Past, He sat. Past Perfect, He had sat.
Future, He will sit. Future Perfect, He will have sat.
POTENTIAL MODE.
(Permission.)
Present, He may sit. Present Perfect, He may have sat.
Past, He might sit. Past Perfect, He might have sat.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present, (If ) lie sit. Past, (If ) he sat.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
(Has no Third Person.)
Zesson 203.
Exercise :
Give a synopsis of do in the Progressive Form, First, Sin-
gular; of write in the Passive, Third, Plural; of walk, Em-
phatic; of go, ring, come, and lie, in the Simple and the
EXERCISES IN MODE AND TENSE. 223
Progressive; of seat, punish, drive, and tear, in the Simple
Active and then in the Passive. Take the person and
number that will make the best sense.
Ijesson 204"
Mode and Tense.
Exercise
Give the mode and tense of the italicized words, and tell
what in the form helps you to decide each:
1. Though it is sumtner, it is still cold. 2. Were he more industrious,
he would succeed. 3. Come, if you wish. 4. Let us try. 5. We have been
recognized. 6. Thou hast a shadow on thy brow, art thou a friend ? 7.
Columbus thought he could reach the East Indies by sailing westward.
8. We will vote in spite of opposition. 9. She should not be allowed to
do that. 10. It is necessary that a student be systematic. 11. It is
necessary that a student should be systematic. 12. It is evident that
this student is systematic. 13. My advice to students is, "Be system-
atic in all you do." 14. If he has done wrong, he will confess it. {Has
done admits a fact and agrees with he.) 15. If he have done wrong, he
will confess it. {Have done does not agree with he.) 16. You may try, if
you choose. 17. Try, if you choose. 18. You might have done it sooner.
19. Is it possible that I can have made that mistake frequently ? 20. Is
it possible that I could have made that mistake yesterday ?
Zesson 205.
Rules and Cautions Derived from the Foregoing
Illustrations.
I. Verbs in the Indicative and Potential Modes only,
change to agree with the grammatical subject in person
and number; as,
I do, Thou doest, He does.
Remarks.— i. The second person singular in the solemn style is not used
except in prayer or in solemn poetry. With these exceptions, it has become an
idiom of our language to use the plural pronoun you with its plural verb,
when the noun represented is singular; as,
(Solemn style) Thou art the man. Thou doest well.
(Common style) You are the man. You do weU.
224 VERBS AND VERBALS.
2. From the above rule, it follows that errors in Number Forms are most
likely to arise in the indicative verb. Remember that the third, singular
indicative, except be, adds s or es when its subject is singular; as,
The horse trots, the kite flies.
3. The verb toe varies more frequently in form than any other. Learn
its forms from the conjugation, page 220.
^. Need and dare are exceptions to the rule for agreement with the subject.
He need not go, He dare not go,
are well authorized.
II. All the rules that apply to the agreement of pronouns
with their antecedents, apply to the agreement of indicative
verbs with their subjects.
Turn to Lessons 103, 104, and, in all the rules given, substitute
the word subject for the word antecedent, and the word verb for the
word pronoun. Read each rule, and notice the verbs in the sen-
tences given as illustrations under each.
Remark. — When subjects connected by or require different forms of the
verb, it is better to express the verb with each; as,
He is to blame or else I am.
Jjesso7z 206.
Exercise :
Tell why the Number Forms of the verbs in the following
are correct. To find the grammatical subject, make a short
analysis of each sentence:
1. That horse trots well. 2. Those horses trot well. 3. Richard,
where were you at that time? 4. Scissors is always in the plural num-
ber. (The word scissors) 5. Longfellow's poems are celebrated the
world over. 6. My copy of " Longfellow's Poems " was a gift. 7. Lord,
thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations.
8. Thou, Lord of life, whose tender care
Hath led us on till now.
9. O thou that rollest above,
Round as the shield of my fathers !
Whence are thy beams, sun!
Thy everlasting light?
10. Three-fourths of her illness is imaginary. (One quantity) 11.
Three-fourths of the diseases there are contagious. (A number of dis-
EXERCISES IN FORMS. 225
eases) 12. To love one's neighbor as one's self is often very difficult.
13. To promise and to do are two very different things. 14. That the
whole is greater than any of its parts, is a self-evident truth. 15. This
great scholar and statesman, Gladstone, is an indefatigable worker.
16. Neither the pastor nor his wife has returned yet. 17. The captain,
as well as the crew, was lost. 18. Either you were there or your sister
was. 19. Every man, woman, and child has been provided for. 20. The
merchant, and not his clerks, was to blame. 21. Lord's " Beacon
Lights " is a very interesting history. 22. Neither you are going nor I.
(Better than Neither you nor I am going.) 23. Each box and each barrel
is in its place. 24. I will rebuke him that is at fault. 25. I will rebuke
you that are at fault. 26. The committee are divided in sentiment.
27. The church has nothing but moral power with which to punish
offenders. 28. There is a herd of buffalo. 29. Art thou the man that
came from Judah?
Zesson 20 7 -
Exercise :
Fill the following blanks with verbs or auxiliaries in the
appropriate person and number forms:
1. Thou my friend, else I not trust thee. 2. He my
friend, else I not trust him. 3. You my friend, else he
not trust you. 4. you there ? 5. No one to be laughed at. 6.
The messengers returned. 7. This pen given to me. 8. My watch
stolen from me. 9. Both his sons run away. 10. Sixty days'
interest now due. 11. The nation out of debt. 12. "Agreed,"
I ; " no, no," he. 13. your mother or Miss Trench at
home? 14. There the children. 15. Two thirds of her hair
gray. 16. One half the infantry without shoes. 17. No trouble
and no expense too great. 18. Thou bark that with man,
haste, haste, to cleave the seas ! 19. Proof, and not assertion, what
required. 20. If the majority of the people otherwise, the
town will not be improved. 21. To be slandered by the envious and
persecuted by the wicked common trials of the good. 22. The
attorney and notary next door a large business. 23. May, with her
friends, always ready for a frolic. 24. The jury failed to agree, and
dismissed. 25. A stage or a wagon meet every train. 26.
Every leaf, every flower, and every blade of grass a wonder of cre-
ation. 27. Young's "Night Thoughts" a well-known poem. 28.
There a school of fish. 29. Either Will made a mistake or I
. 30. thou he that save Israel ? 31. All that present
applauded. 32. Then Jerry , " Where are you going ? " and we ,
" To town."
15-G
226 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Ijesson 208.
III. That which is true or false at all times should be
expressed in the indicative present.
IV. A future contingency or a future uncertainty is best
expressed in the subjunctive present; a mere supposition or
a mere wish, in the subjunctive past; but a supposition
admitted as a fact should be in the indicative mode.
Exercise :
Tell which of the above rules applies to each of the fol-
lowing sentences, and why some of the verbs do not agree
with the subject:
1. The lecturer told the class that water is composed of oxygen and
hydrogen. 2. He certainly will not learn to run unless he walk first.
3. If I were a millionaire, I would establish a hospital. 4, Victoria has
not much power, although she is queen of England. 5. I told you before
that I am eighteen to-day. 6. My father taught me that a true gentle-
man is always polite, and that no polite person ever smokes where it
could be offensive to others. 7. Oh that 1 were able to help all man-
kind ! 8. It is desirable that he be required to take an oath. 9. Were
she as talented as she considers herself, she would obtain a position
without difficulty. 10. Tell that child to be careful lest he fall. 11.
Though Napoleon was so persevering, yet his life was a failure. 12. I
told you once that the distance is one thousand miles, but E find I
was mistaken. 13. I learned yesterday that the distance is one thousand
miles. 14. Resolved: That the mayor be and is hereby requested to
appoint a suitable committee to investigate this matter. 15. If my
cousin was there, I did not see him.
Zesson 209.
V. In connecting words expressing time, the proper order
and fitness of time should be observed. Verbs that depend
upon each other must be put in corresponding tenses; as,
1. After I had left, he went away,
(Here the first action, that of leaving, was completed before the
other, that of going, was begun.)
2. I say that I will go (that is), if I he able, or if I can.
3. I said that I would go (that is), if I were able, or if I could.
EXERCISES. 227
4. Such things were formerly quite common. {Not had been)
{Formerly shows mere past time, not completion.)
5. He starts for New York next week. (Idiomatic indicative present)
Better : He will start for New York next week.
Exercise :
Fill the following blanks with appropriate verbs of one or
more words, according to the last three rules:
1. The army before the enemy came up. 2. If he might come,
he behave better. 3. The holidays in three days. 4. Pompey
is defeated and into Egypt. (Figure of Vision) 5. He let the glass
fall and it. 6. We learned that diphtheria contagious. 7. The
nurse said that one sign of fever thirst. 8. I wish 1 rich. 9.
The carriages that in use in those days were clumsy vehicles. 10.
Napoleon exiled once before he was sent to St. Helena. 11. If she
made of iron, she might endure it all. 12. Our hero at twenty-five
was pure and noble. He carefully trained by his mother in all
manly virtues. 13. When we looked out again, the ship beneath
the sea and nothing to be seen. 14. 1 Latin two years by the
end of this term. 15. She has never done it yet, but she it soon.
Jjesso7t 2/0.
Errors in Form, Mode, Tense, Person, and Number.
Exercise :
Correct the following and apply the formula given under
Nouns and Pronouns:
1. The house is building.
Remark. — This forvi is, perhaps, admissible, but as it seems to make the
house the actor, not the receiver, it is better to say, The house is being built.
2. If I was a man I would not sit idle. 3. Was you there when she
sang? 4. She that was idle, now seemed transformed into a model of
industry. 5. I did not do it yet. 6. I hope you got there in good sea-
son. 7. It is certain that he try hard. 8. It is necessary that he tries
hard. 9. If you was I, what would you do? 10. Can I take your fan?
11. He don't like music. 12. I wish that she was more polite. 13. I
hope he doesn't make that blunder again. 14. Should you marry
against your parents' wishes, if you was he? 15. Either he or thou art
troubled. 16. If she would do that accidentally, she would be very
careless. 17. This article stated that cholera existed only where there
228 VERBS AND VERBALS.
was filth. 18. I had company ever since last Friday, and haint got
my lesson. 19. Neither Dick nor George like the city. 20. 1 am not
acquainted with her long. 21. Four months' salary were received. 22.
Where be you, Charlie? 23. If he was ill, he could not walk. 24.
Though he be eighty, he is still hale and hearty. 25. Miss Lucy, can I
speak to you for a moment?
Ijesson ^//.
More About Verbals.
You have already learned that a verbal is a word derived from
a verb, but differing from it by assuming the action, being, etc.,
instead of asserting; that verbals are classified, like the verbs from
which they are derived, into weak and strong, transitive and
intransitive, active, passive, and neuter; that there are two kinds
of verbals, viz., infinitives and participles; and you have seen that
each may perform various offices, and that they differ from each
other chiefly in form.
It now remains to discover their other variations and what rules
control their use. In order to be prepared to understand these
clearly, review what is said of verbals in Part I, Lesson 41, and
remember what is said of verbals, in connection with verbs. Then
write ten sentences, giving as many different uses of verbals as
you can.
Uses of Infinitives.
Exercises :
a. Analyze each sentence and note the office of the
infinitive:
Substantive in Office.
I. To write with a short pencil cramps the hand. 2. To have written
better would have been impossible. 3. To be seen in such company is a
disgrace. 4. To have been seen there then would have been dangerous.
5. He intended to tell you. 6. She hoped to meet you there. 7. It is diffi-
cult to learn to paint. 8. She ought to he truthful. 9. She ought to have
been truthful before.
Adverbial in Office.
10. Sir Launfal went forth in his unscarred mail,
To search in all climes for the Holy Grail.
II. He looks honest enough to be trusted. 12. We were anxious to do
it well.
USES OF VERBALS. 229
Adjective in Office.
13. He is not a man to desert his friends. (Kind of man) 14. Is she
a woman to be honored ? 15. We saw the enemy fall. ( To understood —
Attribute of object) 16. The enemj'' were seen to fall. (Attribute of
the subject)
enemy , were seen \ /\
A
Independent in Office.
17. To tell you the truth, Laura is a much better scholar than Frank.
18. To put it in the form of a proverb, One definition made by the pupil
is worth a dozen learned.
Zesson 2/2,
b. Select the active, the passive, and the neuter infini-
tives in the above. Notice their forms. Compare to write
in (1) with to have written in (2).
Zesson 273.
Conclusions:
1. Infinitives may be used substantively, adverbially,
adjectively, or independently.
2. There are two tense forms, the Present and the Perfect;
as,
To write,
to have written;
To be,
to have been;
To be seen,
to have been seen.
3. The present active and the neuter infinitives consist of
the particle to and the root form of the verb; as, to writCy
to be.
4. The present passive infinitive consists of to be and the
fourth form of a transitive verb; as, to be seen, to be broken.
230 VERBS AND VERBALS.
5. The perfect active and the neuter infinitives consist of
to have and the fourth form of a verb; as, to have written, to
have been.
6. The perfect passive infinitive consists of to have been
and the fourth form of a transitive verb; as, to have been
seen, to have been broken.
Remark. — Infinitives, like verbs, may have a progressive form also; as,
to be doing, to have been doing, etc.
Zesson 2^Ji..
Rules for the Use of Infinitives.
RvXe I. — The present infinitive, not the perfect, should be
used after verbs or verbals expressing intention, desire, per-
mission, hope, etc., to express an idea relatively present or
future; thus,
He intended to he there, not to have been there.
I hoped you would permit us to see your present, not to have seen.
Remark.— TFi? may say, He ought to be and He ought to have been,
because ought has but one form.
Rule II. — After the active verbs bid, dare, hear, feel, let,
make, need, and see, and some of their equivalents, the par-
ticle to of the infinitive is omitted; as,
I made him try. I had him bring my book.
But after the passive form of these verbs and either form of other
verbs, the to should be expressed ; thus,
The boy was seen to leave the room. The beggar was bidden to eat
his fill.
Remark.— TVie To Be of the passive infinitive is frequently omitted after
make, feel, hear, and see ; thus,
I felt the house shaken by a severe earthquake. (To be shaken)
Ride III. — When two infinitives are joined in the same
construction, without any intervening words, the particle to
of the second infinitive may be omitted; as,
Try to do good and avoid evil.
USES AND FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. 231
Rule IV. — Do not use the particle to instead of the full
infinitive, unless the word or words omitted can be supplied
from the preceding verb or verbal.
Incorrect : I see you have not gone, but I heard you wished to [have
gone].
Corrected : I see you have not gone, but I heard you wished to go.
Zesson 2f5,
Composition Exercises :
a. Write original sentences illustrating each point in the
four preceding rules.
b. Fill each of the following blanks with one or more
words illustrating the rules for infinitives, and give reasons
for the words supplied:
1. I hoped you last week. 2. Bid the child in out of the cold.
3. He intended sooner than he . 4. Did you hear the woman
when the gun was fired ? 5. Children can be made the practi-
cal use of grammar. 6. A good teacher will make himself . 7. If
you wish to understand your lessons and them intelligently, make
yourself frequently with your eyes closed. 8. He has not sharp-
ened the pencil, but he proniised .
Zesson 2/6.
Uses and Forms op Participles.
The word 'participle means that which talces part. A
participle takes part in the nature of a verb and an adjec-
tive, or else in the nature of a verb and a noun. Some-
times the participle is used independently.
Exercise :
Analyze these sentences, noticing the offices of the parti-
ciples and their variations in form. Notice which are
active, which passive, and which neuter.
232 VERBS AND VERBALS.
Adjective in Office.
1. That tall officer waving the flag yonder is a colonel. 2. We met
two men carrying packs. 3. Hearing my name spoken, I paused to listen.
4. They found the vfSiter frozen. 5. Helen sat thinking deeply. (Attri-
bute of the subject)
\thinking
Helen , sat \
6. The city lay sleeping. 7. Having repaired the bridge, the troops passed
over. 8. The bridge having been repaired, the troops passed over. 9. The
house being built there belongs to Mr. Spencer.
Substantive in Office.
10. The crew attracted attention by waving the flag. 11. He was
accused of being unjust. 12. Your having made this slight mistake
need not discourage you.
Independent in Office.
13. Considering the difficulties, you have succeeded very well. 14.
Speaking of crystals, have you seen the large one that we found yester-
day? 15. Calculating roughly, it w'll cost five dollars. 16. Estimatiyig
it in centals, how large a crop of wheat shall you have ?
Remark. — A participle may become a real adjective; as,
The buzzing insect woke me ;
A real noun; as,
The buzzing of the bees awoke me ;
Or an adverb of degree; as,
The water is boiling hot.
Zesson 8/7.
Conclusions:
1. Participles may be used adjectively, substantively, or
independently.
2. Participles have three forms, or tenses — the Imperfect^
the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect^ or Preperfect. Ex-
amples: Writing, written, having written.
3. The imperfect participle expresses an event as incom-
USES AND FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. 233
plete at the time shown by the rest of the sentence. (See
sentences 1 and 2, last lesson.)
4. The perfect participle expresses an event as completed
at the time shown by the rest of the sentence. (See sen-
tence 4.)
5. The compound perfect participle expresses the com-
pletion of an event previous to the time shown by the rest
of the sentence. (See sentences 7 and 8.)
f Active, Writing, building, seeing.
Imperfect — i Neuter, Being.
\ Passive, Being written, being built, being seen.
Perfect — Passive, Written, built, seen.
{Active, Having written, having built.
Neuter, Having been.
Passive, Having been written, having been built.
6. The imperfect active or neuter participle is the third
form of the verb and is always simple.
7. The imperfect passive participle consists of being and
the fourth form of a transitive verb.
8. The perfect participle is always passive and always
simple. It is the fourth form of a transitive verb.
9. The compound perfect participle, active or neuter,
consists of .
10. The compound perfect passive participle consists
of .
[To the Teacher. — Let the pupil fill the blanks in 9 and 10, after he
has examined the preceding table.]
Jjesson 2/8,
Composition Exercise:
Compose or select sentences illustrating each kind of
participle and the different offices of participles, as shown
in the preceding work, observing the following rules :
ItvXe^ for the Use of Participles.
Rule I. — When a participial phrase is independent or is
234 VERBS AND VERBALS.
used as an adjective adjunct, but is not restrictive, set it off
by the comma; as. The children, gathering around the old
man, asked for a story. (Adjective Adjunct)
Remark. — Such a phrase is equal to a non-restrictive clause, i. e. : The
children, who gathered around the old man, asked for a story. In the
sentence, 1 mean the officer "waving the flag there, the phrase is restrictive,
equaling the clause, that is waving the flag, and showing the specific indi-
vidual; therefore it is not set off by the comma.
Rule 11. — When a participle is not independent, see that
it relates clearly to the true subject of the being, action, or
state of being.
Ambiguous : I saw a bunch of beautiful pinks, passing by a shop
window.
Transposed : Passing by a shop window, / saw a bunch of beautiful
pinks.
Remark. — It is more euphonious also, as well as clearer, to place the par-
ticipial phrase before the subject, particularly if the latter is a pronoun.
Rule III. — Wherever the use of the participle produces
awkwardness, ambiguity, or obscurity, use in its place a
common noun, an infinitive, a clause, or some other equiv-
alent.
One's utterly neglecting his own children is sinful. .
Substitute a noun :
An utter neglect of one's own children is sinful;
Or an infinitive :
To neglect one''s own children utterly is sinful.
Do you remember his sister's shooting several ducks ?
Change to a clause :
Do you remember that his sister shot several ducks f
Rule IV. — When a transitive verb or participle is fully
chaTiged into a verbal adjective, a preposition is needed to
govern that which was before the object of the verb or par-
ticiple; as.
That child's face is interesting me. (Progressive form, present tense)
That child's face is very interesting to me. (Verbal adjective, no
particular time, preposition inserted)
PARSING VERBALS. 235
Rule V. — When a verbal noun is derived from a transi-
tive participle, insert the preposition 0/ to govern that which
was before the object of the participle; as,
This governing of ourselves is an essential part of self-culture.
Zesson 2/9.
Exercise :
Correct the following by the first three rules:
1. I mean the woman, carrying that baby. 2. Being conscious of his
state, death seemed very near. 3. Sacrificing herself to her children is
a mother's nature. 4. Edith overwhelmed by a great breaker sank out
of sight. 5. Walking in the Park may be seen a large century plant.
6. It is careless sitting on the edge of a precipice. 7. 1 remember Susie's
sitting there once. 8. By requiring the children to express themselves
in writing frequently, they become accustomed to composition. 9. Suf-
fering needlessly is never a duty. 10. Piety is earnestly desiring to do
God's will, not our own. 11. Analysis is separating a sentence into its
parts. 12. He intends going in a few days.
Correct the following by the last two rules:
13. Synthesis is the building sentences. 14. That game is very
amusing me. 15. Have you any instructions for the raising that
money ? 16. That book is quite entertaining him.
Jjesson 220,
Parsing Verbals.
Models:
(a) Sir Thomas More refused to take the oath.
To take is a present, active, transitive infinitive, from take, took, tak-
ing, taken.
Conjugated: P^^«^"*'^^^«^^-
(. Perfect, to have taken.
Used substantively as the object of refused.
i^wfe.— Infinitives may be used substantively, adverbially, adjective-
ly, or independently.
(b) Having been forsaken by all her friends, she died in poverty
and obscurity.
Having been forsaken is a compound perfect passive participle, from
forsake, forsook, forsaking, forsaken.
2m VERBS AND VERBALS.
( Imperfect, being forsaken.
Conjugated : -j Perfect, forsaken. -^
( Compound Perfect, having been forsaken.
Used as an adjective adjunct of she.
i^wZe.— Participles may be used adjectively, substantively, or inde-
pendently.
Exercise :
a. Parse the verbals in the following sentencies according
to the above models :
1. They began to be frightened at the thunder, 2. She turned to see
who had spoken. 3. Having caught the thief, he hoped to be able to
prove his guilt. 4. He died loved by all. 5. There being many poison-
ous plants in the vicinity, the children were told not to play with any
plants.
b. Parse all the verbals in j Infinitives (Lesson 211).
the examples of ( Participles (Lesson 216).
SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 237
CHAPTER X.
Ijesson 22^ ,
Selections for Analysis.
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I
rejoice at it ; as he was vaUant, I honor him ; but as he was ambi-
tious, I slew him. There are tears for his love ; joy, for his fortune ;
honor, for his valor ; and death, for his ambition ! Who is here so
base that would be a bondman? If any, speak, for him have I
offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If
any, speak, for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will
not love his country? If any, speak, for him have I offended. I
pause for a reply. — Shakespeare.
The person by whose advice William appears to have been at
this time chiefly guided as to Scotch politics, was a Scotchman of
great abilities and attainments, Sir James Dalrymple of Stair, the
founder of a family eminently distinguished at the bar, on the
bench, in the senate, in diplomacy, in arms, and in letters, but
distinguished also by misfortunes and misdeeds which have fur-
nished poets and novelists with materials for the darkest and most
heart-rending tales. — Macauiay.
jDesson 222.
Selections for Analysis.
A nightingale, that all day long
Had cheered the village with his song.
Nor yet at eve his note suspended.
Nor yet when eventide was ended.
Began to feel, as well he might,
The keen demands of appetite ;
When, looking eagerly around.
He spied far off, upon the ground,
A something shining in the dark.
And knew the glow-worm by his spark ;
So, stooping down from hawthorn top,
He thought to put him in his crop.
The worm, aware of his intent,
Harangued him thus, right eloquent :
238 SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS
*' Did you admire my lamp," quoth he,
" As much as I your minstrelsy.
You would abhor to do me wrong,
As much as I to spoil your song ;
For 'twas the self-same Power divine
Taught you to sing, and me to shine ;
That you with music, I with light,
Might beautify and cheer the night."
— Cowper.
Zesson 223,
Selections for Analysis.
"VVe are the mariners, and God the Sea,
And though we make false reckonings, and run
Wide of a righteous course, and are undone,
Out of His deeps of love, we cannot be.
For by those heavy strokes we misname ill.
Through the fierce fire of sin, through tempering doubt.
Our natures more and more are beaten out
To perfecter reflections of His will !
— Alice, Carey.
It may be true that the men of good systems are worse than their
principles, and the mien of bad systems better than their principles ;
but, speaking of systems, and not of men, I am convinced that the
time has come when religion itself requires a vigorous protest
against this kind of religionism. — Hon. w. e. Gladstone.
Ijesson 224-.
Selections for Analysis.
Peace to the just man's memory ; let it grow
Greener with years, and blossom through the flight
Of ages ; let the mimic canvas show
His calm, benevolent features; let the light
Stream on his deeds of love, that shunned the sight
Of all but heaven, and in the book of fame
The glorious record of his virtues write
And hold it up to men, and bid them claim
A palm like his, and catch the hallowed flame.
— W. G. Bryant.
SELECTIONS FOR ANfSl^^S^^ YH^^
(ffr \!y K . , ,
Whether the idle prisoner through his gr^te
Watches the waving of the grass-tjift siiiall,
Which having colonized its rift i' thKii^aU,. ""
Takes its free risk of good or evil fate, "'^^^'»»>,. ^
And from the sky's just helmet draws its lot
Daily of shower or sunshine, cold or hot;
Whether the closer captive of a creed.
Cooped up from birth to grind out endless chaff.
Sees through his treadmill-bars the noon-day laugh,
And feels in vain his crumpled pinions breed;
Whether the Georgian slave look up and mark.
With bellying sails puffed full, the tall cloud-bark
Sink northward slowly, — thou alone seem'st good,
Fair only thou, Freedom, whose desire
Can light in muddiest souls quick seeds of fire
And strain life's chords to the old heroic mood.
— James R. Lowell
Jjesson 225.
Selections for Analysis.
As some poor wretch confined
In cells loud with meaningless laughter, whose mind
Wanders trackless amidst its own ruins, may hear
A voice heard long since, silenced many a year.
And now, 'mid mad ravings recaptured again.
Singing through the caged lattice a once well-known strain.
Which brings back his boyhood upon it, until
The mind's ruin'd crevices graciously fill
With music and memory, and, as it were.
The long-troubled spirit grows slowly aware
Of the mockery round it, and shrinks from each thing
It once sought, — the poor idiot who pass'd for a king.
Hard by, with his squalid straw crown, now confess'd
A madman more painfully mad than the rest, —
So the sound of her voice, as it there wander' d o'er
His echoing heart, seem'd in part to restore
The forces of thought : he recaptured the whole
Of his life by the light, which, in passing, her soul
Reflected on his : he appeared to awake
From a dream, and perceived he had dream'd a mistake :
240 SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.
His spirit was softened, yet troubled in him :
He felt his Ups falter, his eyesight grow dim.
—Owen Meredith (Lucile).
Jjesson 226.
Selections for Analysts;
Yet sets she not her soul so steadily
Above, that she forgets her ties to earth,
But her whole thought would almost seem to be
How to make glad one lowly human hearth ;
For with a gentle courage she doth strive
In thought and word and feeling so to live
As to make earth next heaven ; and her heart
Herein doth show its most exceeding worth,
That, bearing in our frailty her just part,
She hath not shrunk from evils of this life,
But hath gone calmly forth into the strife.
And all its sins and sorrows hath withstood
With lofty strength of patient womanhood :
For this I love her great soul more than all.
That, being bound, like us, with earthly thrall.
She walks so brightly and heaven-like therein, —
Too wise, too meek, too womanly, to sin.
— James B. Lowell.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 241
CHAPTER XI.
Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax.
[To the Teacher.— The fact is fully recognized, that, in presenting
errors of any kind, there is danger of teaching or propagating the
errors, rather than of correcting them. It is believed, however, that
an error presented as an error will be avoided rather than adopted. With
most of the expressions here presented, the child is already familiar
through the ear, but he may not recognize them as errors. Indeed, many
of them are often incorporated in his own language. This being true,
there is little danger of teaching incorrect language by the study of
common errors in syntax. On the contrary, the constant examination
and criticism of such errors must assist in eradicating them from the
language of the pupil. The exercises given below, taken largely from
the language of pupils in the higher grades of the public schools, are
given for this careful examination and criticism. In order to empha-
size the errors as errors, the incorrect portions of each sentence are ital-
icized. The pupil should be able to specify clearly what the error is,
and, if required, to apply the proper rule or caution. He should also
be encouraged to observe closely his own language and the language of
others, noting erroneous expressions, until, in the end, his ear detects
an error in language as readily as a trained ear detects a false note in a
familiar tune.]
Ijesson 227.
[To the Teacher.— In this lesson an effort is made to collect, for
constant observation, the most common errors found in the language
of the pupils in our schools, especially the graver errors, those that
show a great lack of discernment and culture. Most of these have been
noticed in former lessons, but are repeated here to emphasize them.
The pupil should be so continuously drilled upon the corrections of
these errors that they never escape his notice, in his own language or
in the language of others. The list might be greatly lengthened, but it
is hoped that teachers will themselves be on the alert to detect the
vagrants in our language and to do all in their power to drive them
out. First, though perhaps not strictly belonging here, are
Some School-Words Commonly Mispronounced.
Incorrtct.
Correct.
Incorrect.
Correct.
dee'strict
district
hecuz
because
rWcess
recess^
ketch
catch
masculine
masculine
kin
can
nomitive or nomnative
nominative
git
g§t
16-G
242
ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS.
Incorrect.
Correct.
Incorrect.
Correct.
artic
arctic
fur
for
antartic
antarctic
Toosday
Tuesday
are'a
a'rea
Febuary
February
construe'
con^strue
noos
news
Ttiisconstrue'
miscon-strue
drownded
drowned
Heven
eleven
kep
kept
jography
geography
ben
been
Errors in Grammatical Forms.
[Most of the errors given below, however gross they may seem, are
to be found in the language of a large majority of the pupils, and not a
few of the teachers, in our public schools.]
1. I done it, for I did it. 2. I done it like he did, for I did it as he did.
3. I seen him, for I saw him. 4, I hain't saw him to-day, for 1 haven't
seen him to-day. 5. We have went clean through the book, for we have
gone entirely through the book.
General Caution. — Use done, gone., and seen only with
some form of the helping verbs have or he; as,
It is done; it was done; it will be done; he has done his work; they
had done well.
When there is no helping verb, use did., saw, and went; as,
I did ; he saw ; we went ; etc.
Allied to these errors, and almost as common, are the
following:
Come for came ; as, I come to school this morning for I came, etc.
Run for ran, begun for began, sung /or sang, rung /or rang.
Apply caution as above.
With helping verbs use come, run, begun, sung, rung, etc.,
to express past time.
Without helping verbs use came, ran, began, sang, rang,
etc., to express past time.
The very common verbs sit and set, and also the verbs lie
and lay are constantly misused; as.
May I .tet here ? for May I sit here ? It laid there all night, for It lay
there all night. It has laid there an hour, for It has lain there an hour.
These errors can best be eradicated by fixing in the mind
ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 243
the meaning of each verb. To lie is to recHne, to lay is to
place.
He has lain there, means he has reclined there. He has
laid [something] there, means he h.?L8 placed something there.
Sit means to assume or retain a certain position.
Set means to place.
To set there means to place something, as a chair, or
stool, there.
This verb, however, has many different significations; as,
the sun set, the garment sets, etc. It can be mastered only
by a careful study, from the dictionary, of its various uses,
and a constant watchfulness to discriminate between it and
the verb sit.
[The ingenuity of the teacher should here suggest a multitude of
sentences in which the pupil is to use the verbs lie and lay, and sit and
set, until the correct use becomes a habit.]
The use of like for as, or of like for as if, is a very common
error in many localities; as,
Do it like I do, for Do it ow I do. It seems like it will never stop
raining, for It seems as if (or as though) it will, etc.
These errors are, to the cultivated ear, very obvious, and
grate harshly.
It should be fixed in mind that like may be a preposition
or an adverb, but never a conjunction. He acts like (prep.)
his brother, is correct. He acts like (conj.) his brother acts,
is incorrect.
The use of will and would in the first person to express
simple futurity is also very common; as.
Will we take the next lesson? for Shall we take the next lesson?
I fear we will have to do it, for I fear we shall have to do it.
Direction. — Use will and would in the first person when it is a mat-
ter determined by your own will. But to say, I think we will have rain,
when the will of the speaker has nothing to do with it, is absurd.
We promise or resolve with will, but foretell or conjecture with shall.
The use of the verb get (form got), after have or have not,
is also common; as,
244 ERRORS m THE USE OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
I have got my lesson, for I have my lesson ; He has got mumps, for
He has mumps.
When mere possession is sought to be expressed by have
got, omit got, as the idea is fully and better expressed by
the verb have. Got should be used only where obtained can
be used in its place. / have got to go home, is not nearly
so elegant as / have to go home, or I must go home.
The verb can in an interrogative sentence is almost inva-
riably misused in place of may; as,
Can I leave the room ? instead of May 1 leave the room ?
Use may to ask or assert permission; can to ask or to
assert ability or power.
Bad and badly are commonly interchanged; as,
I feel badly, for I feel bad; He looks badly, for He looks bad; He acts
bad, for He acts badly.
Use bad (adj.) to describe a person or an object; badly
(adv.) to describe the manner of performing an action.
[This list might be lengthened indefinitely, and the observant teac^ier
will not fail, to collect, in any locality, the errors of speech there preva-
lent, putting his own habitual errors at the head, and then, with a con-
tinuous effort try to eradicate them from his own language as well as
from the language of his pupils. To teach and to train the young to
use pure English is among the highest educational duties.]
I^esson 228,
Errors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns.
1. 'Who have they at their place for pastor now ? 2. I saw some one
who I took to be she. 3. Who is that book written by ? 4. Whomever
tries with his whole soul will succeed. 5. Whoever Miss B. has pro-
moted will be thorough. 6. The boys hurt theirselves running too fast.
7. This is the book what you asked for. 8. I know that was me. 9. They
will walk behind you and /. 10. I knew it was her. 11. Whom were
they ? 12. He took Walter and /out for a ride. 13. Them are nice apples.
14. It was me. 15. Give me the books, them on the desk. 16. Who did
she go with ? 17. Us girls will go. 18. Her and I saw them. 19. My
apple is hard. Is yournf 20. He said you and me could go. 21. May
Jennie go with Mary and If 22. Some one has lost their ribbon.
IN USE OF ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS. 245
Errors in the Use of Adjectives.
1. Tliose class of people are always the same. 2. It is awful good. 3.
Them are sailors. 4. She gave us an awful little bit. 5. The right and
left hand are not equally useful. 6. We had a lovely time. 7. It was
that long. 8. 1 brought them roses. 9. I did n't know it was that late.
10. This is my most often mistake. 11. She is a small little woman. 12.
The horse and the buggy that I drive is new. 13. The two first girls did
not keep step. 14. This house is commodious and new. 15. You make
less mistakes than I make.
jDesson 229.
Errors in the Use of Adverbs.
1. I feel finely this morning. 2. He came hack here again. 3. She
didn't give us no abstract. 4. It is not wrong I do nH think. 5. Does n't
she smg sweet? 6. I never did so poor in an examination before. 7. That
aiii't nothing nohow. 8. Most every one goes there. 9. 1 canH do nothing.
10. I didn't say no such a thing.. 11. Sing it over again. 12. I do not un-
derstand it quite. 13. I only have two or three. 14. I am not going to
put down none. 15. Herman feels very badly about his mistake. 16. I
do n't make any besides these here. 17. It wonH do no good to fret. 18. I
canH fix\d nothing . 19. ^nnd. \i out here. 20. It is mos< too far. 21. Most
everybody went. 22. He tried to quickly rectify the mistake. 23. It is so
horribly cold. 24, I only brought a dime. 25. I used to always think that
that was correct. 26. Do you know where that there book of designs is ?
27. It sounds queerly. 28. He reviewed up before school began. 29. Do n't
you wish you could write as nice as that? 30. I did n't teach good at all.
31. Redundancy is where too many words are used. 32. Homicide is
when a man takes another's life without just provocation. 33. Teach
him to do his work good. 34. I get tired of hearing people constantly
complain sometimes. 35. That is done pretty good, isn't it? It looks
good.
Zesso7i 230,
Errors in the Use of Conjunctions.
1. I feel like I was hungry. 2. This drawing did not look as neat as
the other. 3. It looks like as though it would rain. 4. I don't know as
I have anything to say. 5. She is a little woman like I am. 6. I cannot
believe but what he knows me. 7. I can 't say as I can come. 8. When
that my sister heard the news she looked like she would die. 9. I wished
to go where that I could get medical treatment,
246 ERRORS IN USE OF PREPOSITIONS, VERBS, VERBALS.
Errors in the Use of Prepositions.
1. We went /or to ride. 2. I saw him doing o/ it. 3. I don't remem-
ber of seeing it. 4. He will scold at you. 5. She went in room R and
found her book. 6. What is the matter o/you? 7. I am angry af you.
8. Where is my book at? 9. She has been trying of it a long time.
Zesson 23/.
Errors in the Use of Verbs and Verbals.
1. I never seen her. 2. Can I pass you this ? 3. I have did all my
work. 4. The orange do n't taste nicely. 5. I done it. 6. I wish I was in
your place. 7. Everybody has got one. 8. I seen him. 9. I have saw
larger ones than that. 10. I intended to have went Friday. 11. I guess I
will not go until Saturday. 12. She come last night. 13. Mr. P. and Mr.
S. is absent. 14. I ain't going. 15. Accidents is often caused by such
carelessness. 16. The bell has rang. 17. Hain't you got your map yet?
18. I know there was no cars there. 19. I won't want any. 20. Do you
remember the day we sung that song? 21. I have did all my work.
22. I went and said it before I thought. 23. We have to set there and do
nothing. 24. Them is beetles. 25. I wonder if any of them is going to
get left. 26. I begun drawing yesterday. 27. I ain't got time. 28. Bring
this up stairs when you go. 29. All these was known as the Alabama
claims. 30. You can include me, if you wish. 31. He don't speak cor-
rectly. 32. If I had have known it, 1 might have gone. 33. He give me
ninety-five. 34. It's feegfan to go. 35. lam froze. 36. What ?/;i^Z I draw ?
37. My pencil is broke. 38. You hadn't oxight to go. 39. Did you draw
it according to the map she give? 40. Are they any one who wish to put
their names on this paper? 41. Every one have me down for mistakes.
42. It makes no difference if there is two words. 43. The first thing I
know I was in the house. 44. I would like to have went. 45. My uncle set
down and began to talk. 46. Neither George nor Will were home. 47.
Father come home in the evening. 48. Gas has flown from a well there
for some time. 49. I intended to have called long ago. 50. She feared
offending her father. 51. I should liked to have seen the trained horses.
52. She was a reading of it to the neighbors. 53. Did you ever hear of
me being punished in school ? 54. Be sure and get your lessons. 55. You
never spoke to me about that, but you ought to. 56. I meant to have
told her about the exhibition, but I forgot to. 57. Stealing is to take what
belongs to another. 58. Try and find your book. 59. I have my pupils
to write out their work. 60. I could not get to go any earlier. 61. Frank,
help n\Qj>ack these bundles home. 62. You hadn't ought to be so care-
less. 63. We didn't go to do such mischief,
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 247
Topical Abstracts in Review.
[To the Teacher. — As a means of culture in oral expression and of
independent recitation, let the pupil, in review, recite each topic as
presented in the following abstracts, without questioning from the
teacher, explaining each consecutive step, or making definitions for
himself, and giving illustrations by means of examples already given,
or, what is much better, examples collected or constructed by himself.
The points are not, in all cases, arranged in the order in which they
were originally developed, but rather more in the order of topics for an
essay or lecture, in which the pupil is to make <;lear, concise, and log-
ically connected statements.
These abstracts may be used, at the discretion of the teacher, either
as a final review of the whole subject of Grammar, or at the close of
the respective chapters.]
248
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
Sentences. ^
CHAPTER XII.
Topical Abstracts in Review.
' 1. Language.
^ 1. Words.
2. Grouping of parts. < 2. Phrases.
t 3- Clauses.
( 1. Declarative. 1
2. Interrogative. S Exclamatory.
3. Signification. ^ 3. Imperative. )
I 4. Capitals and closing punctua-
t tion marks.
r 1. Simple. r 1. Principal, or Inde-
. j^ 2. Complex. { Clauses. \ „ P^^^'^^"*-
4. Form. ■{ ^ <~ ^^- ^ 2. Subordinate, or
I V. Dependent.
1. 3. Compound. { Clauses independent.
5. Analysis.
fl. Subject,
r 1. Principal. \ r 1. Always a verb. | ^^
2. Predicate.
ri. Office. J
02
o
a:
Complete.
Incomplete.
2. Complement. .
1. Object Com-
plement.
2. Attribute of
Subject.
3. Attribute of
Object.
1 2. Form.
2. Subordinate, or adjuncts. | ^- ^^Jective.
"' 1 2. Adverbial.
3. Independent.
il. Conjunction.
2. Connective Pronouii.
3. Connective Adverb.
' 1. Words. J Parts of Speech.
(1. Prepositional.
2. Verbal. | J" f^!*7'"^-
•^ I (2. Infinitive.
I 3. Absolute.
3. Clauses.
(^ (Any part may be compound.)
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
249
1. Classes of nouns
•U:
3
O
2. Modifications.
1. Person
2. Gender
3. Number
Common. { Collective.
Proper. {(Capital letters.)
1. First, Second, Third.
2. Changes of form in i)ro
nouns only.
1. Masculine, Feminine,
Neuter.
2. Ways of distinguish- f ^•
ing, in nouns. j ^'
3. Gender forms of pro-
nouns
1. Singular.
( 1. General Rulfs.
2. Plural. J 2. Special Rules.
f 3. ExceptiuDS, etc.
1. Subject.
2. Object.
3. Object of Preposition.
C 1. Possessive
4. Possessive I of Nouns,
adjunct. 1 2. Possessive
[ ofPronouns.
5. Attribute of Subject.
6. Attribute of Object.
7. Appositional.
8. Adverbial.
9. Independent.
[ 10. Rules and Cautions.
3. Connected possessives. \ Apostrophe repeated.
(Apostrophe but once.
4. Relation,
or Office.
250
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
1. Meaning of word.
2. Antecedent.
fl. Personal:
3. Classes..
>{■;
1. List.
•1. Simple. -\ 2. Declension, fl- First form— Use.
~ ves.
, Second form — Use.
( 1. List. { Singular and Plural.
2. Compound. J ri. Emphasis.
(■'^•^^^^•t'i.Retlexively.
ri.List.
/■a a,'^v^ip ] 2. Declension.
" I 3. Diiferent uses of each.
^'^. That preferred. J Rules.
2. Connective.
i 2. Double. { What
[" 1 . Expanded.
I 2. Different offices as a
•j pronoun.
I 3. As other parts of
t speech.
1. List.
.3. Compound.^ 2. Declension.
(, 3. Rule for whoever.
(1. List.
13. Interrogative.! 2. Declension.
I 3. Always simple.
1 4. Always in third person.
4. Modifications. 5 Same as nouns.
5. Rules and Cautions. I ^ ^f «««^«f * ^i^h antecedent.
2. Choice of pronoiuis, etc.
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
1. Defiuite.
251
(l. Article.
'1. Limiting.'
1. Classes..
2. Indefinite.! Rules.
2. Numerals.
M.List.
3. Pronominals.^; 2. Same decline.l.
^ 2. Descriptive. -
1. Uses
V 3. Same compared.
{1. Adjunct.
2. Attribute.
3. Substantive.
1. Common.
- 2. Classes
4
2. Proper.
i 3. Compound.
I 4. Verbal.
3.
{1. Positive.
2. Comparative.
3. Superlative.
Comparison. J 2 Rules. \^- ^'' ^"^ ^^'•
(2. More and most, less and least.
3. Irregular.
4. Certain adjectives not compared.
Rules and Cautions.
Adverbs,
ri. Simple.
1. Use. j 2. Interrogative.
[3. Connective, or Conjunctive.
1. Classes. J fl- Time.
2. Place.
3. Degree.
. 2. Meaning. -^ 4. Cause.
5. Manner.
6. Exclusion.
7. Addition, etc.
2. Modification. (Comparison,— but few.
3. Rules and Cautions.
252 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
' 1. Meaning of word.
2. Connect what.
3. Rank of parts connected. ] o « v, H' t
4. Meaning of parts connected.
r 1. Simple.
5. Form. < 2. Compound. ^
(3. Correlative. \^ Z\es.
, 6. General Rules and cautions.
c
.2
o
o
O
OQ
J
o
P.
1. Meaning of word.
( 1. Position.
I 2. Possession.
2. Some of the relations shown. \ 3. Agency.
4, Accompaniment.
r 1. Word.
3. The object. ] 2. Phrase.
(_ 3, Clause (rarely).
( 1. Common.
4. Kinds. ^ 2. Compound. ^
V 3. Ending in ing.
5. Choice depends upon what.
1 6. Rules and cautions.
^5. Resemblance, etc.
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
(1. First form.
2.Secondform.{Rule.
3. Third form.
4. Fourth form.
ri. As to form. /a. Weak.
253
(M
■■{
L2. As to meaning.
b. Strong, i ^- Redundant,
l 2. Defective.
( 1. Intransitive.
'a. Complete.^ 2. Neuter(whenexpressingmerely
plete
■ \
I existence)
fl. Transitive
{■
I
t 2. Intransitive.
>
C
a
>
Active.
Passive. (Rules and
Idioms.)
AcUve. (May become
transitive when.)
Neuter (when used as
3. Forms of use.
I. a copula),
fl. Simple.
2. Emphatic and interrogative.
3. Progressive.
4. Passive.
( 1. Present,
f 1. Time tenses. < 2. Past.
1. Tense. is. Future.
Modifications
of verbs.
U.
Perfect tenses
•s
1. Indicative.
1. Ideas,
2. Six tenses
{•
o -r» X J.. 1 r 1- Auxiliaries
2. Potential. )
\ 2. Four tenses
3. Subjunctive.
2. Past.
3. Future.
1. Form of each.
2. Time auxiliaries
in four.
Ideas.
2. Uses of shall and
will.
1. Form of each.
2. Kamed how.
f 1. Ideas.
2. Differs how from Indicative
and Potential.
Form of first.
3. Two tenses. •< 2. Form of sec-
{'
r^'
f
,4. Imperative.^ ^-^"^'j,^^*
^ ^ ond T)
3. Person.
^4. Number.
Rules and cautions.
■Sec- fl. Singular,
ond person. ( 2. Plural.
1 3. Present Tense (root form).
264
TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW.
1. InfinitiveB.
e3
1. Classed like (^- I^egular and Irregular,
verbs. |2 Active, Passive, Neuter, etc.
2. Differ from Participles.
3. The sign to understood after
4. The sign to be understood after j 2. .
13. .
1. Active and Neuter.
5. Tenses.
1. Present, Form of -
2. Perfect, Form of jj- Active and Neuter.
/ 2. Passive.
r 1. Substantively,
J 2. Adverbially.
6. Used i 3 Adjectively.
I 4. Independently.
.7. Rules and cautions.
1. Classed like U- Regular and Irregular,
verbs. (2. Active, Passive, Neuter, etc.
1. Pure Noun.
2 Mav become^ ^- ^''''^ Adjective.
Z. May become^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^
1^ 4. Pure Preposition.
.2. Participles.^
3. Tenses.
1. Imperfect.! Form ofl '• ^""^^ '^^ ^""*^'-
(2. Passive.
2. Perfect. { Always Passive.
( Active and Neu-
3. Compound Perfect. < te r.
1. Adjectively.
(Passive.
4. Used \ 2. Substantively.
1 3. Independently.
i.5. Rules and cautions.
REVIEW qUESTION^-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 255
CHAPTER XIII.
Zesson 2S2.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
Chapters I. and II. — Nouns and Pronouns.
1 . Name all the Parts of Speech. Define each. 2. In this defi-
nition of a noun, ^'A noun is a name word/^ there are six words.
Make a definition containing five words. 3. Define nouns by using
three words : Nouns . 4. Define a pronoun in two ways.
5. Name the two great classes of nouns. 6. Which kind should
always begin with a capital? 7. When should a noun partly com-
mon in sense, begin with a capital?
8. When does a collective noun require a plural verb or pronoun?
9. Pluralize the following nouns and give the reason for each: allyj
alley, book, scissors, 5, torch, talisman, Frenchman, sheep, goose-quill,
man-servant, solo, tomato.
10. What two parts of speech are sometimes changed in form by
the modification called person f Give examples. 11. Name the
persons in grammar. Illustrate each.
12. Name the genders. 13. In how many ways may the mascu-
line be distinguished from the feminine ? Illustrate. 14. Give the
three gender pronouns. 15. What pronoun is preferred when the
sex of the person meant is not specified? Illustrate.
,16. Give examples of the following : (a) Noun used as a subject.
Cb) Noun used as an object, (c) As an attribute of the subject,
(d) In apposition with the subject, (e) In apposition with the ob-
ject, (f) As the object of a preposition, (g) In apposition with the
object of a preposition, (h) As attribute of the object. (1) Used
independently by address. (J) Used independently in an absolute
phrase. (Is.) Used adverbially without a preposition. 17. Use a
pronoun in each of the above ways.
18. (a) Give an example of a noun used to limit another noun
meaning the same person or thing, (b) Of a pronoun used to limit
a noun, (c) Of a noun in apposition with a possessive. 19. (a)
Give the rule for forming the possessive singular of nouns, (b) For
forming the possessive plural of nouns. 20. What caution should
be observed in forming the possessive of pronouns? 21. Name all
the possessive pronouns ending in s. 22. Name four places where
256 REVIEW QUESTIONS— PRONOUNS.
a possessive noun should be written without the apostrophe. 23.
Give the rule for connective nouns showing separate possession.
Illustrate. 24. For what purpose does a possessive noun or pronoun
ever limit a participle? Illustrate.
25. Name the declinable pronouns. 26. Give three rules for their
form. Example of each. 27. Decline /, he, who, whoever, it. 28.
Use each of these pronouns as the object of an unexpressed prepo-
sition, before the object complement.
29. What is analyzing? 30. What is parsing? 31. What is dia-
graming? 32. Write the formula for parsing nouns. 33. Write the
formula for correcting nouns or pronouns having a form not corre-
sponding to their office.
Zesson 23S.
Chapter III. — Pronouns.
1. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 2. (a) Give an example
of a noun antecedent, (b) A pronoun used as an antecedent, (c)
A phrase used as an antecedent, (d) A clause used as an antece-
dent, (e) What is most frequently used as the antecedent? 3.
Give examples of an antecedent understood.
4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. Name all the simple personal
pronouns. 6. Decline them. 7. Select all the possessive forms of
the personal pronouns. 8. When are my, your, etc., used? Illus-
trate. 9. When are rnine, yours, etc., used? Illustrate. 10. Give
an example in which mine equals two words. 11. What does the
expression, This is a friend of mine, equal? 12. What is the
meaning of the expression. This friend of mine was very true to
met 13. Explain the expressions, Tliis heart of mine; That
head of thine, etc.
14. Name the compound personal pronouns. 15. How are they
formed? 16. Give the plural of each. 17. What form is always
lacking? 18. What is the chief use of compound personal pronouns ?
19. (a) Give an example of myself used in apposition, (b) Used
reflexively after a verb, (c) After a preposition. 20. (a) Give an
example of himself, used merely for emphasis, (b) Of thyself, used
reflexively. 21 . For what modification do the compound personal
pronouns fchange their form? 22. Give the rule for the agreement
of personal pronouns.
23. What is a connective pronoun? 24. Name the simple con-
nective pronouns. 25. Use each in a sentence and show what sub-
REVIEW QUESTIONS-ADJECTIVES. 257
Btantive office the connective pronoun performs in the adjective
clause. 26, DecUne the simple connective pronouns. 27. Write
the fonnula for parsing personal pronouns. 28. The formula for
parsing simple connective pronouns. 29. Use what as a connective
pronoun, then expand the sentence and tell to which clause the
antecedent part of what belongs. 30. What other word in the sen-
tence is frequently affected by the person and number of the con-
nective pronoun? Illustrate. 31. What other parts of speech may
whathe^. Illustrate each. 32. What other parts of speech may f/ia«
be? Illustrate. 33. Give examples of but used as three different
parts of speech besides a connective pronoun. 34. (a) Use as as a
connective pronoun, (b) As a connective adverb, (c) As an intro-
ductory conjunction.
35. Name and decline the compound connective pronouns. 36.
Upon what does the form of whoever depend? 37. (a) Use whoever
in the nominative form, (b) In the objective, (c) Prove by anal-
ysis that you have used them correctly. 38. Write the formula for
parsing double and compound connective pronouns.
39. Give all the rules and cautions for the agreement of pro-
nouns having antecedents connected by and. 40. All the rules for
pronouns having antecedents connected by or or nor. 41. For those
having collective antecedents. 42. Three other rules for the use of
personal pronouns. 43. Name and illustrate eight constructions in
which that is preferred to who or which. 44. Five additional rules
for the use of connective pronouns. 45. Give an example of a con-
nective pronoun understood.
46. Define an interrogative pronoun. 47. (a) Give an example
of an interrogative pronoun that asks a question, (b) One that im-
plies a question. 48. Why can not the gender and number of an
interrogative pronoun be determined? 49. Interrogative pronouns
are always in which person? Why? 50. How is the interrogative
who declined? 51. Give examples in sentences of each of its forms.
1/esson 23^,
Chapter IV. — Adjectives.
1. What is an adjective? 2. (a) Give an example of a limiting
adjective, (b) Of a descriptive adjective that both limits and
describes, (c) Of a limiting adjective that numbers, (d) Of the
before a plural noun, (e) Of an before a word beginning with the
17-G
258 REVIEW QUESTIONS— ADJECTIVES.
aspirate sound of /<-. 3. Name twelve pronominal adjectives; use
each one in a sentence and then change it to an ordinary limiting
adjective. 4. Give the plural of the following adjectives: this, that,
one, other. 5. Give the possessive of one, other, others, another.
6. (a) Use which as an interrogative adjective asking a question,
(b) As an interrogative adjective implying a question. 7. (a) Use
what as an adjective asking a question, (b) Implying a question.
8. (a) Use a descriptive adjective as an adjective adjunct, (b) As
an attribute of the subject, (c) As an attribute of the object,
(d) Substantively. 9. (a) Use a proper adjective, (b) A com-
pound, (c) A verbal.
10. (a) Define comparison, (b) Name the forms of comparison.
11. (a) What does the comparative show? (b) The superlative?
Illustrate in sentences. 12. What adjectives of two syllables are
compared by affixing er and est f 13. Give examples of dissyllables
compared by prefixing more and most. 14. Dissyllables compared
so as to express diminution. 15. Give an example of a limiting
adjective that can be compared. 16. Of a descriptive adjective that
can not be compared. 17. Of an adjective compared irregularly, or
by a complete change of the word. 18. Compare good, little, bad,
well, far, late, many, near, top.
19. Write the form for parsing adjectives. 20. Give the rules for
choosing between the use of an and a. Illustrate. 21. For con-
nected adjectives describing different things. Illustrate. 22. For
connected adjectives describing the same thing. Illustrate. 23.
Give the rule for articles used with connective nouns. Illustrate.
24. Mention and illustrate seven cases where an article before a noun
would be incorrect. 25. (a) Rule for the distinction between few
and little, (b) Between /(^w and a /ew;. (c) Between little and a
little. Illustrate each. 26. In expressing a comparison with than,
when should each noun have an article ? Illustrate. 27. Give the
rule with regard to the number form of adjectives. 28. Why is it
correct to say " a five-cent piece?" 29. Name five nouns that are
singular when used with numerals, but that otherwise add s. 30.
(a) Either and neither should refer to how many things? (b) Each
other f (c) One another f Illustrate each.
31. When adjectives are of the same rank, which should be placed
first? 32. What conjunctions connect terms of the same rank?
33. What should be used when the conjunction is omitted? 34.
Give and illustrate the rule for a series of adjectives of different
rank. 35. Why is it not correct to say, "I have a horrible coldf"
REVIEW QUESTIONS-ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 259
36. (a) Give and illustrate the rule for contrasting this and that.
(b) The one and the other. 37. Rule for the position of adjectives.
38. For double comparison. 39. When should the latter term of
comparison exclude the former? Illustrate. 40. When include
the former? Illustrate. 41. Rule for the use of adverbs of degree
with adjectives that can not be compared.
I/esso7i 2S5,
Chapter V.^ — Adverbs.
1. What does the word adverb mean? 2. Name and illustrate all
the different parts of speech and other expressions that adverbs
may modify. 3. What is an interrogative adverb? 4. (a) Give an
example of an adverb asking a question, (b) Of one implying a
question. Diagram each sentence. 5. Name all the adverbs that
can be used interrogatively. 6. What is a connective adverb?
7. Give an example of a connective adverb that can be expanded
into two phrases, and diagram the sentence. 8. Give an example
of a connective adverb that can be expanded into but one phrase.
Diagram. 9. Name seven things that adverbs may show. Illus-
trate each. 10. Use the following in sentences, first as adverbs,
then as adjectives : Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, low,
fast. 11. How are those adverbs that admit of comparison varied?
12. Give an example of an adverb of place modifying a word under-
stood. 13. An adverb of time modifying a word understood. 14.
Give the caution with regard to the position of adverbs. 15. Choice
of no and not. 16. Choice of how and that. 17. Choice of that and
so. 18. Caution about prefixing prepositions to adverbs. 19. Give
all the remaining cautions under adverbs.
Jjesso7i 236,
. Chapter VI. — Conjunctions.
1. What are words that perform no other office than to connect?
Illustrate. 2. What does coordinate mean? 3. Illustrate five dif-
ferent kinds of elements that may be joined by coordinate conjunc-
tions. 4. (a) Give an example of while used as a conjunctive ad-
verb, (b) As a coordinate conjunction. 5. What is a subordinate
conjunction? Illustrate. 6. (a) What is the meaning given in the
260 REVIEW QUESTIONS- PREPOSITIONS.
dictionary for the word correlative? (b) How does this meaning
apply to correlative conjunctions ? 7. Give examples of (a) conjunct
tions denoting addition, (b) cause and effect, (c) supposition, (d) a
conjunction introducing a subject clause, (e) one denoting separation
or opposition, (f ) denoting a choice. 8. Write out the form for pars-
ing conjunctions. 9. Give an example of an idiomatic subordinate
conjunction connecting an infinitive to some other word. 10. Give
and illustrate the uses of either — or, neither — nor, as — as, so — as,
as — so, so — that, such — that, such — as. 11. (a) An example of as
used to introduce an attribute of the object, (b) Of the subject.
12. Give the rule for connected terms referring jointly to another.
13. What conjunction should follow comparatives? 14. When may
the preposition besides follow else, more, etc.?
Zesson 237.
Chapter VII. — Prepositions.
1. What part of speech connects words of different rank? 2. Illus-
trate five different relations shown by prepositions. 3. Name the
different forms of expression that may be used as the object of a
preposition, and illustrate each. 4. What parts of speech are most
frequently used as the object of a preposition ? 5. (a) Give an ex-
ample of Ziifce as a preposition ; (b) near; (c) worth; {6.) hut; (e) dur-
ing; (f) notwithstanding. 6. Use the following, first as prepositions,
then as conjunctions, then as conjunctive adverbs, if possible : after,
since, for, until, before. 7. Use the following, first as prepositions,
then as simple adverbs : up, down, below, past, by, in, near. 8. Give
four examples of compound prepositions. 9. (a) Name four prepo-
sitions ending in ing that are each equivalent to about, (b) Use
them as verbals also.
10. Write the form for parsing prepositions. 11. Give the rule
for choice of prepositions, and illustrate. 12. Rule and illustration
for the position of prepositional phrases. 13. Illustrate three un-
necessary uses of the preposition, and show why the preposition
is not needed. 14. In the sentence. It was the size of a walnut,
where is a preposition needed, and why? 15. T\Taich is correct —
He acts like her, or He acts like she does f 16. If the subordinate
clause in the last sentence is retained, what change should be
made? 17. Insert the proper connective, and tell what part of
speech it is : (a) It looks he were guilty, (b) He behaved
a madman would have behaved.
REVIFAV QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS. 261
Chapter VIII. — Interjections.
1. What is an interjection? 2. Illustrate interjections expressing
four different emotions. 3, Give the three rules for interjections
and illustrate each. 4. Give the caution.
Zesson 2S8,
Chapter IX. — Verbs and Verbals.
1. What does a verb do? Illustrate. 2. How do verbals differ
from verbs? 3. (a) Give an example of a complete verb, (to) A
complete verbal, (c) An incomplete verbal, (d) An attribute com-
plement, (e) An object complement. 4. Name the four Principal
Parts of a verb. 5. How can the first form be obtained? 6. (a)
Give the four forms of lie, sit, ring, come, do, set, lay, fall, flee, fly,
flow, (b) Use each form in a sentence. 7. Give the four rules for
the use of the Principal Parts. 8. What are strong verbs. Illus-
trate. 9. (a) Give an example of a redundant verb, (b) Of a
defective verb, (c) Of a verb asserting action, (d) A verb assert-
ing being, (e) Of a verb asserting a relation between an attribute
and the subject.
10. What is the meaning of the word transitive? 11. (a) Name
two actions that are naturally transitive, (b) Two intransitive.
12. Use runs as a transitive verb. 13. Tell which of the following
verbs are naturally transitive: Bite, tear, lie (to recline), set (to
place), sit, lay (to place), set out, fly, govern, am. 14. Use the fol-
lowing in sentences, first transitively, second intransitively: Turn,
burn, sing, speak, walk. 15. (a) Describe the progressive form.
(b) The emphatic. 16. When a transitive verb or verbal is in the
active form, what names the recipient of the act? What names
the actor? Illustrate. 17. In the passive form, of what is the
verb or verbal composed? What then names the recipient of the
action? 18. What verbs can not have the passive form? Why?
19. When a sentence in which the object has an attribute is
changed to the passive, what becomes the office of that attribute?
Illustrate. 20. (a) Give an example of an idiomatic object, (b)
Of three different kinds of idiomatic passives.
21. (a) How long is the real present tense? (b) The assumed
present tense? 22. (a) Name the perfect tenses and illustrate each.
(b) Why are they called perfect ?
262 REVIEW QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS.
Zesson 239,
Chapter IX. — Continued.
23. What is mode? 24. What mode asserts a fact? Illustrate.
25. What mode admits or concedes a fact? Illustrate. 26. What
mode always uses an auxiliary? 27. What mode uses the root form
of the verb throughout the present tense, and the plural form
throughput the past tense? 28. What mode is found nowhere
except in a subordinate clause? 29. What other modes may be in
a subordinate clause? 30. What is the chief peculiarity of the
subjunctive mode? Illustrate by comparing with the indicative.
31. (a) Give an example of a potential expressing permission, (b)
Of an imperative expressing permission. How do they differ?
32. What mode has the tenses in their most natural order? 33.
How many has it? 34. What is the form of the simple present
indicative? 35. Describe the form of the remaining five tenses in
the simple indicative, and illustrate each. 36. (a) How many tenses
in the potential mode? (b) Name, describe, and illustrate each.
37. Are the potential tenses named from their form or from their
meaning? 38. Name, describe, and illustrate the tenses of the sub-
junctive mode. 39. What form of the verb is used with both singu-
lar and plural subjects, in the imperative? 49. Give the rules for
the use of 8}iall, will, should, and would, and illustrate each.
Zesson 24^0.
Chapter IX. — Continued.
41. In modern English, where are the only variations of form for
person and number? Describe each. 42. What is the difference
between a conjugation and a synopsis? 43. Conjugate swim in the
simple form of construction. 44. Give a synopsis of swim in the
third person singular. 45. Write the form for parsing verbs. 46.
In which modes do verbs vary their form for the person and num-
ber of the subject? 47. Give all the rules for verbs that can be
made from the rules for the agreement of pronouns. Illustrate each.
48. Give the two rules in Lesson 208, and the one in Lesson 209.
Illustrate each.
49. (a) Give an example of an infinitive used substantively, (b)
Adverbially, (c) Adjectively. (d) Independently. 50. Describe
the form of the present active and the neuter infinitive.
REVIEW QUESTIONS-VERBS AND VERBALS 263
51. (a) Describe the present passive infinitive, (b) The perfect
infinitives. 52. Give the rule for the present infinitive after intend-
ing, hoping, etc. 53. (a) Give the rules for the omission of the
particle to. (b) When should the particle to not be omitted?
54. (a) Give an example of a participle that is part verb and part
adjective, (b) Of a participle part verb and part noun, (c) One
independent in office. 55. Name the three tense forms of participles.
56." Describe each in the active construction. 57. What tense is
wanting in the active construction of participles? 58. Describe each
tense in the passive form. Illustrate each. 59. What participle is
always simple and always passive? 60. Write the form for pars-
ing verbals. 61. Give the rules and cautions pertaining to the use
of participles, illustrating each by an original example.
264 PUNCTUA TION.
CHAPTER XIV.
Jyesso?i 24^/,
Punctuation.
Notice the position and use of the comma and of the
period in the following sentences. Analyze the sentences,
and place the punctuation marks in the diagrams.
Note. — Punctuation must he learned by practice. Pupils should write sen-
tences similar to those given in these Lessons, and have them read and cor-
rected in the cla^s.
1. Mary, please give me your book, your slate and your pencil.
2. Mary, please take your seat, study your geography, and learn
the lesson.
3. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly.
4. I have known Wallace, even though naturally smart, to have
very poor lessons.
5. You will surely fail, unless you do better.
6. If you do your best, you will certainly succeed.
7. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do
right, are characteristics of good pupils.
8. Carelessness and inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder,
slovenliness and disobedience, are faults of poor pupils.
9. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on the
15th of April, 1865.
10. Johnson, who had been elected vice-president, acted as presi-
dent after Lincoln's death.
11. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne.
12. Cruel in disposition and immoral in character, the prince
astonished everybody by becoming a good king.
In the sentences above, find the following ten uses of the
comma:
1. To set off — separate from the rest of the sentence — the name
of a person addressed.
2. To indicate the omission of a conjunction.
3. To set off a modifying clause, when not closely connected.
4. To separate words connected by a conjunction, but modified by
different phrases.
COMMA, SEMICOLON, PERIOD. 265
5. To separate from the verb the last of several successive sub-
jects, when the subjects have modifying phrases.
6. To set off words in pairs, when the words of each pair are con-
nected by a conjunction.
7. To set off an explanatory modifier with its own modifiers.
8. To set off the name of the year in a date.
9. To set off an independent phrase.
10. To set off modifiers that are themselves modified by phrases.
Lesso7i 2S-2,
The Comma, Semicolon, and Period.
Let us put the sentences of the last lesson together, two
and two. See whether the same ideas are expressed; and
notice the new words used, those omitted or changed, and
the additional punctuation needed:
a. Mary, please give me your book, your slate, and your pencil;
then take your seat, study your geography, and learn the lesson.
b. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly; hut I have
known /im, even though naturally smart, to have very poor lessons.
c. You will surely fail, unless you do better; though if you do
your best, you will certainly succeed.
d. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do
right, are characteristics of good pupils ; while carelessness and
inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder, slovenliness and disobe-
dience, are faults of poor pupils.
e. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on
the 15th of April, 1865; and Johnson, who had been elected vice-
president, acted as president after Lincoln's death.
f. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne ; and,
though cruel in disposition and immoral in character, he astonished
everybody by becoming a good king.
Analyze the sentences a to f, and compare their dia-
grams with those of the sentences of the previous lesson.
Place the punctuation marks in all the diagrams.
You find but one use of the semicolon in the sentences
of this lesson, and that is to separate independent clauses
266 PUNCTUATION.
in which commas are used. Independent clauses in which
no commas are used, should be separated by the comma,
as in the last sentence.
The Comma, Semicolon, Colon, and Pekiod.
Study the following sentences carefully; notice the posi-
tion and use of the different punctuation marks; and
observe what new words or expressions are used, when the
simple sentences are combined to form compound sen-
tences. Observe a particular use of the period in sentences
6 and b.
1. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the
principal grain food of man.
2. Beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison, fish and fowl supply the
principal animal food of man.
3. Asparagus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas,
string beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form
the principal vegetable food of man.
a. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the
principal grain food of man ; and beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison,
fish and fowl supply the principal animal food of man ; while aspara-
gus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas, string
beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form Ms
principal vegetable food.
^ 4. Oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits
•^""^ grow abundantly in many parts of California.
5. California produces great quantities of apples, pears, peaches,
plums, and other fruits common to the temperate zone.
6. California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North,
has great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its
valleys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to
enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world.
b. Oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits
grow abundantly in many parts of California; and this state pro-
duces also great quantities of apples, pears, peaches, plums, and
other fruits common to the temperate zone: so it is found that
California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North, has
COMMA, SEMICOLON, COLON, PERIOD. 267
great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its val-
leys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to
enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world.
7. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer.
8. Our roads are frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes
impassable, in winter.
9. The travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in
any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains.
10. The pleasantest time to travel in all the different parts of
California is either soon after the last rains in the spring, or imme-
diately after the first rains in the fall.
c. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer; and they are
frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes impassable, in winter;
hut the travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in
any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains : so, all
things considered, the pleasantest time to travel in all the different
parts of California is either soon after the last rains in the spring,
or immediately after the first rains in the fall.
11. ^ome soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and
others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak.
12. In the soils that are deep, dry, warm, etc., fruits and vege-
tables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed ; while in the
soils that are shallow, wet, cold, etc., fruits and vegetables grow, if
they grow at all, small, insipid, few, and ill-shaped.
V d. Some soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and
-Others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak : in the former,
fruits and vegetables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed;
while in the latter, they grow, if they grow at all, small, insipid, few,
and ill-shaped.
In this Lesson yoii find the colon as well as the semicolon
used to separate the independent clauses. Compare a with
b and c. Notice that the semicolon separates independent
clauses of the same kind, while the colon sets ofi' an inde-
pendent clause that contains a more general thought inferred
from the preceding clauses. In d the colon separates two
compound sentences in which semicolons are used. Why
is d preferable to 11 and 12? In 7 and 8 the comma is used
to set ofit' phrases separated from the words they qualify.
In 4 and 5 see examples of the 4th direction in Lesson 241.
268 ' PUNCTUATION.
And in the directions of that Lesson, see another use of the
colon to separate nunabered phrases or clauses from the
statement that introduces them.
Jjesson 2J^A,
Sometimes the adjectives modifying a noun need to be
separated by commas, while in other cases the commas
are not needed.
See if you can determine, by the following examples, when it is
that commas are needed, and when not:
1. James is a bad, ungrateful, dissipated fellow ; but his sister Ellen
is a good, refined, beautiful girl.
2. The Governor lives in a splendid large three-story mansion, and
he drives a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses.
a. James is a bad fellow, an ungrateful fellow, a dissipated fellow ;
but his sister Ellen is a good girl, a refined girl, a beautiful girl.
b. The Governor lives in a stone mansion, a three-story stone man-
sion, a large three-story stone mansion, a splendid large three-story
stone mansion ; and he drives a pair of iron-gray horses, a pair of large
iron-gray horses, a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses.
Comparing 1 with a, notice that each adjective modifies the noun
only; but comparing 2 with b, notice that the last adjective modi-
fies the noun, that the next adjective preceding modifies the adjec-
tive and noun following, and that each one back to the first modifies
all that follow.
For the use of the comma in punctuating Relative Clauses, see
examples Lesson 107.
The connective pronoun thai,^ with its clause, should not
be set off by the comma; but who and which, when they
mean and it, and they, etc., should, with their clauses, be set
off by the comma.
Have you observed that the comma is used for the simplest
punctuation, that the semicolon is used to indicate a greater change
in the sentence than that shown by the comma, and that the colon
is used to indicate a still greater change in the sentence? And
have you noticed that the period is used to indicate the end of a
completed sentence, and that it is also used to complete an abbrevi-
ation?
INTERROGATION, EXCLAMATION, BRACKET. 269
Jjesson 2J^5,
The Interrogation, Exclamation, and Bracket.
Notice how each is used, and for what purpose. Here and far-
ther on, note two uses of the apostropiie.
Nellie. Who is that coming with May ?
Russell. Don't you know?
Nellie. Is it brother Charley ? Why, it is, sure enough ! Oh ! oh !
oh ! how glad I am ! [Clapping her hands, and jumping up and down.]
Russell. Be quiet, Nell ! Do n't get excited, or you '11 have everybody
staring at you.
. Nellie. O Charley, haveji>«— ceoiie at last! [Hugging him tight,
[tightlj'] with her arms-^ntmnd his neck.]
In the following sentences, see how a question may become an
exclamation :
1. My boy, what- are you doing up in that tree?
2. You young rascal, what are you doing up in that tree!
3. Well, Jack, old horse, where are you going now?
4. Whoa, Jack, you old villain, where are you going now !
5. My dear little brother, what is the matter with you?
6. You little nuisance, what is the matter with you !
The interrogation point is placed at the end of each sen-
tence that is a question simply.
The exclamation point is placed after exclamations of
one word, of several words, or of a whole sentence. Ex-
clamatory expressions may have the form of a question;
but if the sentences 1 to 6 are properly read, you will notice
how much the exclamations differ from the questions.
Brackets are used (1) to inclose a description of some
action not otherwise spoken of, and (2) to inclose a correc-
tion of an error in language.
Jjesson 2^6,
Quotations, Etc.
Such statements may be made in four ways, three of them quota-
tions in proper form. Observe the change in the punctuation, and
in the words preceding the quoted remark.
270 PUNCTUATION.
1. The boy answered, asking whether they thought he was a fool.
2. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool?"
3. The boy's answer was: " Do you think I am a fool?"
4. The boy answered thus : " Do you think I am a fool?'
5. The boy answered, demanding whether they thought he was a
fool!
6. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool !"
7. The boy's answer was : " Do you think I am a fool !"
3. The boy answered thus: " Do you think I am a fool!"
9. The martyr Stephen died while praying that the Lord Jesus would
receive his spirit.
10. The martyr Stephen died while praying, " Lord Jesus, receive my
spirit"
11. The martyr Stephen died while offering the prayer : " Lord Jesus,
receive my spirit."
12. The martyr Stephen died while ofltering this prayer : " Lord
Jesus, receive my spirit."
Single quotation marks indicate a quotation within a
quotation,
13. " Let us sing," said the preacher, " the familiar hymn, * When
I can read my title clear,' found on page 94."
14. The stranger approached the sentinel, whispering, " Don't shoot :
the password is 'New York;' or it was an hour ago."
15. " Clifford says, ' seven and three are eleven,' " came in a " squeaky"
voice through the open door.
Notice that the quotation marks are used to show the
exact words that have been spoken or written by some one,
or to show that some word is used in a pecuhar way.
Notice (1) that the comma sets off each quotation that is
a subject clause, or an object clause not formally intro-
duced; (2) that the colon precedes each quotation formally
introduced.
Zesson 2^7-
The Dash, Apostrophe, and Marks of Parenthesis.
Here are three ways to arrange and punctuate a paren-
thetical expression:
DASH, APOSTROPHE, PARENTHESIS 271
1. Father's barn was burned, so they say, at ten o'clock, Monday
evening.
2. Father's barn was burned — ^-it was told us in town — at ten
o'clock, Monday evening.
3. Father's barn was burned (Mr. Martin sent us word) at ten
o'clock Monday evening.
4. All our magazines, the bound as well as the unbound, were
injured by yesterday's rain.
5. All our magazines — some bound and some unbound — were
injured by yesterday's rain.
(). All our magazines (some of them were bound, and some were
unbound) were injured by yesterday's rain.
The following show a particular use of the parenthesis:
7. The speaker remarked as follows :
(Here follows the address of the speaker in his own words.)
8. The speaker* remarked that, (Here follow the thoughts of the
speaker in the language of the reporter.)
Here is another use of the dash :
9. '* Fred went fishing, Harry went hunting, and Bertie — I don't
know where he is."
10. "I am well, thank you, mother's health is good, and the
children are — Why, child, what makes you so uneasy?"
1. The comma is used to set off a parenthetical expres-
sion when it is the least formal — makes the least break in
the sentence; 2. The dash is used when the expression is
more formal ; 3. The parenthesis mark is used when the
expression is the most formal.
In 7 and 8 the parenthesis marks are used to inclose
directions in regard to what should be placed where the
directions are given.
In 9 and 10 the dash indicates a change from one remark
to another before the first is completed. The dash is also
used to set off a definition or explanation, as in the sentence
following 10, and in Lessons 241 and 248.
The apostrophe is used (1) to help complete the posses-
sive form, and (2) to indicate a letter or letters omitted.
272 • PUNCTUATION.
Lesson 2J^8.
The Hyphen — Yes and No.
Observe in the following sentences how the hyphen may
be used :
1. They were ill-featured, ill-formed, coarse-looking fellows.
2. That was a go-as-you-please race.
3. The word ** contumely" should be divided into four syllables,
thus; con-tu-me-ly.
4. One of the words frequently misspelled is s-e-p-a-r-a-t-e.
Yes and No.
Teacher. Edward, have you completed your work?
Edward. No, sir: it is not quite done.
Teacher. Stephen, is yours done yet?
Stephen. Yes : I have just finished.
Edward. Can you give me ten minutes more, sir?
Teacher. No : it is time to call the next class. George, is your
work done ?
George. Yes, sir: all done.
The hyphen is used to form compound words of two or
more simple words ; also to separate a word into syllables,
or into letters.
Another common use is at the end of the line, when part
of a word — one or more syllables — is written or printed on
the next line below. In manuscript it helps the eye in
reading rapidly to have the hyphen written with each part
of the word, especially when the page is wide; and it would
be well to make the hyphen double ( = ) to make it more
distinct.
Yes or No, when used with or without the name or title
of some one addressed, should, when equivalent to a sen-
tence, be set off by the colon. In the answer of Edward,
*'No, sir:" is equivalent to "I have not completed it,
sir."
EXAMPLES-R ULES. '273
Zesson MJD. :.
Examples, Remarh^&:m:s,
In the following sentences determinei
meanings each sentence may have, according to the position
of the commas you can use:
1. The name of one firm is Howard Blake & Co.; and the other
is styled Abram Thomas Johns & Co.
2. The boys' names are Charles Dexter Henry George Spencer
Clifford Percy Jackson Martin Thomas Perry. (From 4 to 11
names, according to the punctuation.) ^
3. Father went there on Tuesday he took Sam's gun and shot
and killed the deer.
4. We went to their cabin frequently visiting the young folks
making shakes of the logs and bolts to haul them down to the val-
ley.
Remarks. — Wh^^n we talk, the tones of the voice help to make our words
convey the meaning intended; hut when we write, the punctuaiion must take
the place of the voice, and, in some degree, make our meaning clear to those
who read. If written or printed matter is properly composed and punctuated,
one who understands how to read well can easily convey to others the intended
m,eaning by speaking the sentences as given.
Punctuation, then, is nothing more than the art of pointing off our sen-
tences with the marks in common use, so as to make our written words con-
vey to others the meaning we desire to give. This can be done after consid-
erable practice, if care is taken to have the words, phrases, and clauses properly
arranged.
Rule I. — ^When punctuation marks are needed in a simple
or complex sentence — some exceptions — use the comma;
also use the comma to separate the parts of a compound
sentence, when no comma is used in any part; otherwise
use the semicolon.
Rule II. — Use the colon to separate compound sentences
in one or both of which a semicolon is used; also to indicate
a greater change in a sentence than that shown by the semi-
colon.
Rule III. — At the end of every completed sentence place
a period, unless an interrogation point or an exclamation
point is needed.
18-G
274 . PUNCTUATION.
Rule IV. — Use such punctuation marks as will make each
sentence clear, and use only those marks that are needed.
Zesson 250.
Capital Letters.
You have already learned that the proper nouns, the pro-
noun I, and the exclamation O, as well as the first word of
every sentence, should be written with a capital letter. In
the sentences already given, notice the use of capital letters
in the questions, exclamations, and quotations.
Study the following sentences and determine, if you can,
why the capital letters are used: .
1. In the "Life of Napoleon " by Scott, we learn that the Great
Emperor was sometimes called " Little Corporal" by his soldiers.
2. I have heard boys called by the nicknames: Tubby, Chug,
Pokey, and Doctor.
3. The God of the Bible is called Heavenly Father, Creator,
Almighty, I Am ; and the Savior is called Immanuel, Prince of
Peace, Redeemer, and Son of God.
4. Mid trials and troubles be cheerful,
Not tearful —
Go forth with a heart full of song;
Yea, be strong
'Gainst wrong, and in favor of right,
In the light
That shines from the Book divine.
If it is necessary to make a common word conspicuous, it is usually
done by making the initial letter a capital; but a word may also be
made conspicuous in any one of the following ways : Banner^ indicating
in Italics; banner, indicating in small capitals; BANNER, indicating
in large capitals.
Rule. — All names of persons however used, titles of books,
the principal words used as names of the Deity, and the
first word of every line of poetry, should begin with capital
letters.
LETTER WRITING.
275
CHAPTER XV.
Letter Writing.
[To the Teacher. — Very few of the pupils of the grammar schools
will ever attend any school of a higher grade. Their equipment for the
duties of life, so far as given in a school education, must be completed
here. The subject of Letter Writing is usually presented in Rhetoric,
which is beyond the range of grammar school studies. As all persons
find occasion to write letters, it seems desirable that some specific
instruction should be given in this important subject, in connection
with grammar. The more important points are, therefore, here pre-
sented, and such examples, comments, and instruction given as seem
necessary to prepare the pupU to do his letter writing in after life cred-
itably.]
The 'Envelope.
Notice (1) the position of the outside address, (2) the
capitalization and punctuation of each line, and (3) the
position of the postage stamp.
(To a country address.)
Mrs. C. H. Gordon,
Plainview,
Rock Co.,
Wisconsin.
Box 108.
276 LETTER WRITING.
(To a city address.)
Miss Alice Gary,
1189 Fifth Ave.
New York,
N. Y.
The Outside Address should consist of the titUj nmne,
and residence of the person addressed.
The Residence consists of the post-office, the county, and
the state. If the person addressed lives in a large, well-
known city, the number and street should be given, but the
county may be omitted.
The name should be a little below the middle of the
envelope, and should be written so that the two ends shall
be about equally distant from the right and left edges.
The other parts should be arranged below, each a little
farther to the right than the preceding line, so as to pro-
duce a uniform slope at the left. Be careful to have
straight lines, but do not scratch or rule them.
Begin every word with a capital.
Place a comma after each item except the last.
If a title is written after the surname, put a comma
between the name and the title.
Remark. — The period used after an abbreviation is not a punctuation
mark, but is a part of the abbreviation; therefore if a punctuation mark
should be used after the whole word, it should be used after the abbreviation.
THE ENVELOPE. Til
When an abbreviation occurs at the end of a sentence or address, however,
but one period is used.
Place the postage stamp right end up, upon the upper right hand carrier,
as it is placed on stamped government envelopes, a slight distance from the
corner, but with the edges of the stamp parallel with the edges of the envelope.
Remarks and Cautions. — A letter sent by the hand of a messenger needs
no stamp. Politeness requires that the bearer'' s name be written upon the out-
side of the envelope, preceded by the words '• Politeness of" or^* Kindness
of." This is usually placed in the lower left hand corner.
A letter of introduction to be delivered by the person introduced should be
left unsealed, and, in general, courtesy requires that any letter carried by an
unpaid messenger should be left unsealed.
Never forget to inclose a stamp when sending a letter requesting an answer
solely for your own information. When sending such a letter to an entire
stranger, it is better to inclose an envelope also, directed to your own address.
Special Caution.— TVie majority of letters that fail to reach tlie persons
for whom they are intended, are lost through some error or omission in the
direction of the envelope, or because they have not the necessary stamp. Learn
to use great care in attending to these particulars.
Examples of Addressed Envelopes.
If not called for in 10 days, return to
Robert J. Tracy,
412 Filbert St.,
San Francisco, California.
Miss Jean McCormick,
Milford,
Jefferson Co.,
Wisconsin.
/o Mr. E. T. Marsh.
JTOte,— TTie mark {/q]is a business abbreviation for in care Of.
278
LETTER WRITING.
Rev. J. H. Mendon,
London,
England.
15 Chilworth St.,
Hyde Park.
Remark. — In directing foreigri letters, and in cases where the direction is
long, put in the body of the direction only the items necessary for the infor-
mation of postmasters in sending the letter to the right town or city. The
points needed only by the messenger to deliver the letter, may be placed in the
lower left hand corner. The name of the county is sometimes written in the
same position.
James A. Warner, Esq.,
Pres. of the Board of Education,
Baltimore,
Md.
Introducing
Miss Lilli
Fox.
THE ENVELOPE. 279
His Excellency,
Governor Geo. B. Anderson,
Boston,
Mass.
Politeness of Capt. John Taylor.
Exercise :
a. Address two envelopes to friends living in the country
or in small towns.
b. Address two envelopes to persons living in San Fran-
cisco or some other large city in the United States.
c. Address a letter to a person in Paris.
d. Address a letter to your County Superintendent, intro-
ducing one of your classmates.
e. Direct a letter to some one residing outside of Califor-
nia, in such a manner that it will be returned to you if the
owner is not found.
280 LETTER WRITING.
The Letter.
Direction. — Examine the different parts of the following
model of a letter on ordinary note paper. Notice the posi-
tion, capitalization, and punctuation of each item:
t^i-^o-iyyyi- ■i^-at^' '^^-t^-if ■a.-t «?■ i^i^iA^'Od- ■i--yve--e.-ti'^yv^
t^ K^^-o^t^e-
-e-^?// -^e-^W^ fyn- 'i'/vi^d tJf/^*^ ^liyt.-n.i
THE LETTER.
281
The figures in the following abstract correspond to the
parts of the preceding letter, as numbered on the margin.
Learn the names of the different parts of a letter so that
you can readily apply them to the model.
' Envelope.
Address.
Stamp.
^ Heading.
ft
Place.
2. Date.
Introduction.
( Name.
3. Address, j (v.o.
(^ Residence. < Co.
(state.
4. Salutation.
Letters. -^
Part^ J. I ^- Beginning.
^^^^^'U. Body.^ Margin.
7. Paragraph.
Conclusion.
^. Complimentary close.
). Signature.
Address, if not in the introduction.
Punctuation of each part.
Folding.
r Friendship.
f Social, i^''"'"^;,..
Congratulation.
I Condolence, etc.
. Kinds of Letters. ■{
f Mercantile.
-J, . J Application and Answer.
] Recommendation.
I Introduction, etc.
I. The Heading.
Begin the heading on the first ruled line of note paper,
and a little to the left of the middle of the page, so that the
words need not be crowded. If short, the heading may oc-
cupy but one line. If two lines are needed, the date should
be placed on the second, and should begin farther to the
right than the name of the place. In writing from a city
where there is a free mail delivery, give the door number,
282 LETTER WRITING.
the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If
hving in a hotel or other large building, give the name of
the building and number of the room. Begin each impor-
tant word with a capital, set off each item by the comma,
and close the heading with a period. The door number, the
day of the month, and the year are the only items in a let-
ter that should be written in figures, except, in some cases,
a sum of money.
Exercise :
a. Write the following headings according to the above
model and directions:
1. 1796 pacific St. portland Oregon July 4 1885.
2. Commercial hotel Chicago ill. Aug 9 1880.
3. Koom 27 Russ house san francisco cal aug 7. 1876.
b. Write three headings of your own from different places.
II. The Introduction.
L Address. — A title of courtesy, such as Mr., Mrs., Miss,
or Esq., and professional, literary, or military titles, such as
Dr., Prof., A.M., and Col, should be given in the address.
Two of such titles should not be joined to one name. Mr.
Henry Sawyer, Esq., is incorrect.
Remark. — In addressing a clergyman, the double title Rev. Mr. may be
used, the Mr. being a substitute for the Christian name, when not known.
The husband's title is sometimes written after the title Mrs.; as, Mrs. Dr.
Cross.
When two literary or professional titles are added to one
name, one must not include the other. The higher title
implies the lower. Why is the following incorrect? Rev.
Dr. Morse, D.D.
Begin the address on the next line or the second below
the heading, on the left side of the page, at the marginal
line.* It may occupy two or three lines, each lower line
*Note. — The width of the margin should be from one fourth of an
inch (on narrow note paper) to one inch (on large letter paper).
INTRODUCTION— INVITATION. 283
beginning a little farther to the right than the previous one.
Capitalize and punctuate the items and abbreviations in
the same manner as the heading, closing with a period.
In all ordinary business letters not official, the address
should be the same in substance as that upon the envelope,
and should be placed at the top of the letter, but in family
letters and letters to intimate friends, the address may be
placed at the left, on the next line below the signature, and
in official letters should always be written there.
2. Salutation. — The style of salutation depends upon the
station of the person addressed, the writer's relative posi-
tion, and the degree of intimacy existing between them.
Dear Sir^ Dear Madam, Dear Miss,
are used in mere business letters or in addressing ordinary
acquaintances;
My dear Sir, My dear Miss Rider, etc.,
in addressing friends;
My dear Sister, Dear Alice, Dearest Brother,
near relatives and dear friends.
Begin the salutation a little to the right of the marginal
line, under the first letter of the second line, if the address
occupies three lines; if but two lines, about an inch farther
to the right than the beginning of the second line; and if
but one, about an inch to the right of the marginal line.
The first word of the salutation and every noun in it.
should begin with a capital.
The salutation should be followed by the comma; or, if
the body of the letter begins on the same line, by the comma
and the dash. In more formal letters, a colon may be used.
Exercise:
Observe the following models, and then arrange the
remaining introductions;
284 LETTER WRITING.
Model 1: J. H. Wilson, Esq.,
667 Broadway,
New York.
Dear Sir, — Your favor, etc.
Model 2: Messrs. Walter Moffatt & Sons,
Rochester, Minnesota.
Gentlemen,— I am requested, etc.
Model B: Miss Winifred Norton,
Dear Madam,
Accept my sincere thanks for
the basket of lovely flowers, etc.
1. Hon. D. D. Goodall 893 F street Sacramento Cal. Dear Sir
The goods shipped upon, etc.
2. Mrs. Eliza Mason Trenton N. J. My dear Friend.
3. Master Willie Tubbs Dear Willie I was greatly pleased to
receive your interesting account of the, etc.
4. Write three other introductions, of your own, to letters of
friendship or to business letters.
Very formal letters, such as invitations and their answers,
announcements, etc., are in the third person, and have no
introduction. When short, they should begin below the
first ruled line, or, so as to occupy, when finished, the mid-
dle of the page.
Invitation.
Mr. and Mrs. Hall request the pleasure of Mr. Wright's company
at a social gathering, on Tuesday evening, at eight o^cloch.
1210 Elm Ave., Nov. 8.
Accepting the Invitation.
Mr. Wright accepts with much pleasure the kind invitation of Mr.
and Mrs. Hall to he present at their residence next Tuesday evening.
Declining the Invitation.
Mr. Wright presents his compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Hall, with
regrets that it will be impossible, by reason of a previous engagement,
to accept their kind invitation for Tuesday evening.
HI. The Body of the Letter.
This should generally begin on the line under the saluta-
tion, just at the right, or, when the address is long, on th^
THE CONCLUSION. 285
same line, with a dash between the first word and the end
of the salutation. (See Models 1 and 2 above.)
The body of the letter should begin with a capital, should
be neatly and clearly written, and should be divided into
paragraphs. There should always be a narrow margin at
the left of each page, but not at the right.
No blots are allowable.
Remark. — A paragraph contains one sentence or a group of connected
sentences in the same line of thought. The beginning of a new subject or a
new line of thought should be indicated by a new paragraph. Avoid, how-
ever, dividing a letter into more paragraphs than are necessary.
Exercise :
Write a letter to your teacher giving an account of the
manner in which you spent your last birthday. Write a
full heading and a full introduction, and have at least two
paragraphs in the body of the letter.
IV. The Conclusion.
The conclusion should contain the complimentary close
and the signature.
The complimentary close should be written on the next
line below the end of the body of the letter. If long, it
may occupy more than one line. It should begin with a
capital and end with a comma. Generally the writer's
signature, in full, should be written on the next line below
the complimentary close, near the right hand edge of the
sheet. It should end with a period.
Remark. — When the address is not in the introduction nor in the body of
a formal letter, it should be written below the signature, at the left.
Like the forms of salutation, the forms of complimentary
close vary with the style of letter, the degree of intimacy
or formality, etc. The following are a few of the forms:
Social Letters. — Your friend, Your sincere friend, Your loving
daughter, Lovingly yours, Yours heartily and aflfectionately, Now
and ever yours, etc.
286 LETTER WRITING.
Note. — Let your good sense and your feelings dictate the choice of forms.
Do not capitalize any word hut the first and the word Sir, when used. See
below.
Business Letters. — Yours respectfully, Yours truly, Very truly
yours, etc.
Official. — I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Charles D. Babcock.
Very respectfully.
Your most obedient servant,
Frank Warner.
The signature should consist of the writer's full name or
of the initials of the Christian name and the whole of the
surname. When a lady addresses a stranger, she should,
in parenthesis, prefix her title (Mrs. or Miss) to the sig-
nature; thus,
(Miss) Ellen E. Jones.
The close and signature should be arranged like the
heading and introduction, so as to present a regular down-
ward slope toward the right.
Exercise :
Arrange the following conclusions properly:
1. Believe me, dear girl ever your sincere friend Helen L. Gibson.
2. I am Sir yours very respectfully Waldo Thompson.
3. Your loving daughter Gertrude Miller.
4. Very sincerely, your friend Robert Hunt.
5. Write a suitable conclusion for a letter to your father or mother,
another to your teacher, and one to an intimate friend or a school-
mate.
Folding the Letter.
The envelope should be of a size to match the paper. If
the envelope is square, with note paper to match (twice the
size of the envelope), but one folding is necessary- — to bring
the top and the bottom together, with the heading inside.
If the length of the paper is more than twice the width
of the envelope, and the width of the paper less than the
LETTER FORMS. 287
length of the envelope, fold the bottom edge up about one
third of the length of the sheet, then turn the top down in
the same manner and press the folds neatly.
Sometimes it is necessary to fold the sheet lengthwise,
but in all cases care should be taken to make the folds
straight and the edges even.
The letter should be folded and inserted in the envelope
in such a manner that when taken out and unfolded, it will
bring the heading up and the first page before the reader's
eye.
Exercises :
a. Practice folding and inserting the letters you have
already written, or blank sheets of paper.
b. Write a complete letter covering not less than two
pages of note paper, to some absent relative or friend,
describing your day's work at. school. After it has been
criticised by your teacher, put it in an envelope directed
properly, place a stamp on, the envelope, and send the letter
to the post office.
Cautions. — Business letters should be short and to the point.
In writing to a stranger, give your address in full.
Business Letter.
Trenton, N. J., Dec. 4, 1886.
Messrs. Brooks & Stevens,
149 Park Place, N. Y.
Dear Sirs, — Please send by mail, as soon as con-
venient, the following :
1 copy Scribner's Writing Book, No. 3, $ .10
2 copies Whittier's Poems, Household Ed., cloth, 4.
1 copy Dickens' Barnaby Rudge, Globe Ed., cloth, 1.
Total amount, at prices named in your catalogue — five
dollars and ten cents, for which amount find P. 0. order
inclosed.
Respectfully yours,
Geo. R. Woodman.
288 . LETTER WRITING.
Letter of Introduction.
Los Angeles, May 20, 1887.
My dear Clara, — It gives me great f^leasure to introduce
to you my friend and fellow townswoman, Mrs. Ellen
Walters, who is an earnest and highly esteemed member of
the C. L. S. C. of this city. Mrs. Walters visits your city
in pursuit of health and recreation, but she will be glad
to make the acquaintance of a few persons of culture and
refinement. Any attention you may show her will be
esteemed as a personal favor by
Your old friend,
Annie L. Field.
Miss Clara Owens,
Santa Cruz, Cal.
INDEX.
289
II^DEX.
{The references are to pages.)
Absolute phrase, 52, 102.
Abstracts, topical, Adjectives, 251;
Adverbs, 251 ; Conjugations, 252;
Mouns, 249; Prepositions, 252;
Pronouns, 249, 250; Sentences,
248 ; Verbals, 253, 254 ; Verbs, 253.
Adjectives, defined, 35, 68; com-
parison of, 139 ; descriptive, 134 ;
uses of, 137; interrogative, 128,
136; limiting, 134; pronominal,
135; verbal, 138; form for pars-
ing, 143.
Adjective adjuncts, 35, 36, 42.
Adjuncts, defined, 13; adjective,
word, 35, 43 ; phrase, 36 ; clause,
36; adverbial, word, 32, 41;
phrase, 33; clause, 33; of a
phrase or a clause, 102.
Adverbs, defined, 32, 41, 68 ; classes
of, 157 ; comparison of, 158 ; con-
nective, 47, 155; interrogative,
128, 155 ; nouns used as, 86, 101 ;
form for parsing, 158, 162; va-
rious uses of, 153.
Adverbial modifiers, 32, 33, 41.
Afllrmative sentence, 11.
Analysis of sentences, defined, 20,
95 ; form for simple sentence, 58 ;
form for complex sentence, 58;
form for compound sentence, 58.
Antecedents, 106.
Apostrophe, uses of the, 78, 91, 271.
Apposition, nouns and pronouns
in, 85, 100; phrase in, 99; clause
in, 99, 100.
19-G
Articles, 143.
As, idiomatic use of, 99; variable
uses of, 117.
Attribute, adjuncts of, 37 ; form of,
95; introduced by as, 99; of sub-
ject, a word, 27, 28 ; diagram, 29 ;
a phrase, 28; diagram, 59; a
clause, 28; diagram, 61; com-
pound, diagram, 29; of object, a
noun or a pronoun, 87; an ad-
jective, 98 ; a phrase, 98.
Auxiliaries, 190.
But, variable uses of, 117.
Bracket, uses of the, 269.
Capitals, uses of, 11, 21, 72, 128,274.
"Case," 84.
Clause, defined, 8, 9 ; as attribute,
28; as object, 24; as subject, 16;
restrictive, 124; dependent and
independent, 39.
Colon, uses of the, 266, 273.
Comma, uses of the, 12, 19, 34, 81,
100, 128, 183, 264, 265, 266, 273.
Comparison of adjectives, 139; of
adverbs, 158.
Complement, defined, 22; an attri-
bute, 27 ; diagram, 29 ; an object,
23 ; diagram, 29.
Complex sentence, 39, 53 ; form for
analysis of, 58.
Compound attribute, diagram, 29.
Compound object, 24; diagram, 29.
Compound predicate, 18, 24; dia-
gram, 29.
Compound subject, 19; diagram, 29.
290
INDEX.
Compound sentence, 39,54; form
for analysis of, 58.
Conjugation, 216.
Conjunctions, defined, 50, 68,166;
classes and uses of, 166. 168 • form
for parsing, 170.
Construction of words, 95.
Correlatives, defined, 169; list of,
172.
Dash, uses of the, 271.
Declarative sentence, 10.
Declension, 94; practical applica-
tion of, 110.
Diagraming, defined, 29, 95.
Ellipsis, diagrams, 100.
Entire predicate, 13.
Entire subject, 15.
Errors in the use of adjectives, 147,
150, 165, 245; adverbs, 162, 165,
245; articles, 145 ; conjunctions,
173, 175, 245; nouns and pro-
nouns, 97, 126, 244 ; prepositions,
184, 186, 246 ; possessives, 93 ; pro-
nouns, 123. 126, 132 ; verbals, 235,
246 ; verbs, 199, 227, 246 ; miscel-
laneous, 241.
Etymology of words, 69.
Exclamation point, uses of the, 12,
269.
Exclamatory sentence, 10.
Gender, 82,
Hyphen, uses of the, 272,
Idioms, defined, 101.
Idiomatic phrases, 102; use of as,
99; use of it, 108; use of verbs,
204.
Imperative sentence, 10.
Independent parts, 50; diagrams,
60, 61.
Infinitive phrase, 45.
Infinitives, defined, 45; uses and
forms of, 228 ; form for parsing,
235.
Interjections, defined, 51, 68, 188;
use of, 188.
Interrogation point, use of the, 12,
269.
Interrogative sentence, 10.
Interrogatives, 128
Letter writing, 275.
Mode, imperative, 208, 215; indica-
tive, 208, 209; potential, 208, 211;
subjunctive, 208, 214.
Negative sentence, 11.
Nominative form of nouns, 91 ; of
declinable pronouns, 95.
Nouns, defined, 16, 68; common
and proper, 71; collective, 80;
gender of, 82; number of, 73;
office of, 84 ; person of, 81 ; form
for parsing, 96.
Number, 73; rules for formation, 74.
Object, a word, 23, 24, 84 ; diagram,
29; a phrase, 24; diagram, 60; a
clause, 24; diagram, 62; com-
pound, 24; diagram, 29; ad-
juncts of, 35 ; of a preposition, 43 ;
of a preposition not expressed,
86, 184, 204.
Objective form of nouns, 92 ; of de-
clinable pronouns, 95.
Office of nouns and pronouns, ap-
position, 85 ; attribute of object,
87; noun used adverbially, 86;
object of preposition not ex-
pressed, 86, 184, 204 ; possessives,
89; subject and object, 84.
Parenthesis, use of the, 271.
Parsing, defined, 95.
Participial phrase, 44.
Participles, defined, 46, 231; uses
and forms of, 231 ; form for pars-
ing, 235.
Parts of speech, how to tell the,
69 ; definitions of the, 68.
Period, uses of the, 11, 264, 265, 266,
273.
Person, 81.
Phrase, defined, 8 ; absolute, 52 ; as
attribute, 28; as object, 24; as
INDEX.
291
subject, 16; prepositional, 42;
position of, 183 ; verbal, 44.
Plurals, formation of, 74.
Possessives, 89; rules for forming,
91.
Possessive pronouns, 109.
Predicate, word, 13; diagram, 29;
entire, 13 ; compound, 18, 24 ; di-
agram, 29 ; modifiers of the, '32.
Prepositional phrase, 42; position
of, 183.
Prepositions, defined, 43, 68, 176;
choice of, 181; list of, 178; not
expressed, 86, 184, 204 ; object of
(word, phrase, or clause), 177;
form for parsing, 180; relations
shown by, 176 ; variable uses of,
179.
Principal parts of a sentence, 31 ;
of a verb, 189.
Pronouns, defined, 16, 68; antece-
dents of, 106; connective, 46, 113;
compound connective, 118; per-
sonal, 107; compound personal,
llXi declinable, 93; form of, 95; in-
terrogative, 128, 131 ; possessive,
109; gender of, 82; number of,
73; office of, 84; person of, 81;
form for parsing personal, 113;
form for parsing simple connec-
tive, 115 ; form for parsing what
and compound connective, 120.
Punctuation, 19, 34, 264.
Questions, in review, Part I., 55;
Part II., adjectives, 257 ; adverbs,
259; conjunctions, 259; interjec-
tions, 261; nouns and pronouns,
255; prepositions, 260; pronouns,
256 ; verbs and verbals, 261.
Quotations, direct and indirect,
128 ; punctuation of, 128, 269.
Rules of Syntax and Cautions.—
Adjectives, 146; adverbs, 160;
articles, 143 ; conjunctions, 171 ;
infinitives, 230; nouns, nomina-
tive form of, 91; nouns, pos-
sessive form of, 91; participles,
233; prepositions, 181, 183, 185;
pronouns, agreement with ante-
cedents, 113, 120; pronouns, coiv:^
nective, 123; pronouns, declina-
ble, form of, 95 ; pronoui^^orm
whoever, 119 ; verbs, 22^; verbs,
auxiliaries, 190; verbs, use of
shall and will, 212.
Semicolon, uses of the, 265, 266, 273.
Sentence-building, 52.
Sentence, defined, 8, 9; classified
according to form, 38 ; classified
according to meaning, 10; prin-
cipal parts of, 31.
Shall and -will, uses of, 212.
Simple sentence, 39, 52; form for
analysis of, 58.
Subject, word, 15, 84; diagram, 29;
entire, 15 ; a phrase, 16 ; diagram,
59; a clause, 16; diagram, 61;
compound, 18; diagram, 29; ad-
juncts of the, 35 ; position of the,
17.
Substantive, defined, 17.
Synopsis, 222.
Syntax of words, 70.
Tense, 206.
That, variable uses of, 117; when
preferred to who or xvhich, 124.
Verbal adjectives, 138.
Verbal phrase, 44.
Verbals, defined, 44, 68, 189; form
for parsing, 235 ; limited by pos-
sessives, 89; infinitives, 228 ; par-
ticiples, 231.
Verbs, defined, 13, 68, 189; classi-
fied: active and neuter, 200;
complete and incomplete, 22,
189 ; strong (irregular) and weak
(regular), 191; redundant and
defective, 191; transitive and
intransitive, 24, 201; principal
292
INDEX.
parts of, 189 ; form of : active and
passive, 202; emphatic, 202 ; sim-
ple and progressive, 202 ; auxili-
aries, 190 ; mode, 207 ; tense, 206
conjugation, 216; synopsis, 222
idiomatic constructions, 204
shall and will, uses of, 212.
What, double relation of, 116; va-
riable uses of, 117.
While, variable uses of, 167.
Word-predicate, 13.
Word-subject, 15.
Words, introductory, 52; ways of
grouping, 7.
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