-NRLF CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OF SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. ENGLISH GRAMMAR This book is designed to aid in giving the pupil a culture that will enable him to understand, appreciate, and therefore enjoy, good language, and chiefly in this way, to lead him to acquire the habit of using good language himself. COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THK STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. sacramento. california. Printed at the State Printing Office. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by the STATE OF CALIFORNIA, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, (^h 6) (p '--> Diagram System copyrighted by Alonzo Reed and Beainerd Kellogg, in 1868, 1877, 1878, 1885, and 1887. / in ITnTTEODTJCTION. kv\ fi\ I Part I. of this book is made to be used in the schools of this State, with pupils of from 11 to 14 years of age — the class that is about concluding the Second Reader, of the State Series. I It is designed to give the pupil aid in clearly understanding the English sentence, and at the same time the ability to write sen- tences with ease and accuracy. Believing that the sentence is the language-unit, and that there- fore it is more interesting as well as more profitable to begin with the study of sentences, the subject has been thus introduced. An effort has been made to introduce technical grammar with very little technicality. In the grammar school there is an abundance of time for the study of language as here presented. The work should never be crowded. On the contrary, to secure all the culture there is in the study of language, it must be taken slowly, and if so studied, instead of being uninteresting and distasteful, the subject will increase in interest from day to day. It is fully understood that the child must first have ideas and thoughts before he can express them, and that much of the work of the school must be devoted to leading him to observe, judge, and think for himself. But it is also true that one's language reacts upon his thoughts. While, in one sense, " we speak as we think," there is another sense in which " we think as we speak." Accuracy of language begets accuracy of thought, and coarse or slovenly lan- guage may be both the cause and the result of the same kind of thought. The mastery of a new word, or of a new form of expres- sion, means the conception of a new idea, or a new thought or shade of thought. 4 INTRODUCTION. It is said, " Give a child something to say, and he will find a way in which to say it." This is probably true. He will find a way, but to find an acceptable way, or the best way, he needs guidance and culture. These a book on Grammar should give. By a special arrangement made with Messrs. Reed and Kellogg, authors of Reed and Kellogg' s "Graded Lessons in English" and "Higher Lessons in English," we are permitted to use the system of diagraming owned exclusively by them — a system that commends itself for its simplicity and expressiveness. We are confident that this will be acceptable to the teachers of the State, as the Reed and Kellogg Grammars are so widely used and are giving such excellent satisfaction. CONTENTS-PART I. PAGE. Ways of Grouping "Words, 7 Sentence, Clause, and Phrase, 8 Kinds of Sentences, 10 The Predicate, 12 The Subject, • 15 Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects, 16 Phrase SuDJects and Clause Subjects, 16 Position of the Subject, 17 Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates, 18 Analysis of Sentences, 20 The Object Complement, 23 Analysis of Sentences, 25 The Attribute Complement, 27 Diagrams, 29 Analysis of Sentences, 30 Modifiers of the Predicate, 31 Adverbial Modifiers — Phrase and Clause, 33 Adjuncts of the Subject and Object, 35 Adjective Adjuncts — Phrase and Clause, 36 Adjective Adjuncts of the Attribute, 37 Composition and Analysis — Expanding Sentences, 38 The Form of Sentences — Simple, Complex, and Compound, ... 38 More About Adverbial Modifiers, 41 Prepositional Phrases, 42 Verbal Phrases, 44 The Clause — Connective Pronouns, 46 The Clause— Connective Adverbs, 47 Conjunctions, 48 Independent Parts, 50 Sentence Building, 52, 54 Review Questions, 55 Forms for Analysis, and Diagrams, 58, 61 Sentences for Analysis, 62 PART IT. Chapter 1.— Review of Parts of Speech. Definitions, * 68 How to Tell the Parts of Speech, 69 Chapter II. — Nouns and Pronouns. Kinds of Nouns, 71 Number, 73 Collective Nouns, 80 Person, 81 Gender, 82 Office (Case), 84 Rules and Cautions, 91, 95 Declinable Pronouns, 93 Errors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns, 97 Analysis and Diagrams, 99 6 CONTENTS. Chapter III. — Pronouns. page. Antecedents, 106 Personal Pronouns, 107 Compound Personal Pronouns, Ill Connective (Relative) Pronouns, 113 Compound Connective Pronouns, 118 Rules and Cautions, 120, 126 Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns, 126 Interrogatives, 128 Chapter IV. — Adjectives. Classes of Adjectives, 131 Changes in Form (Comparison), 139 Rules and Cautions, 143, 149 Errors in the Use of Adjectives, 145, 147 Chapter Y.— Adverbs. Uses of Adverbs, 153 Classes of Adverbs, 157 Comparison, 158 Rules and Cautions, 160, 164 Errors in the Use of Adverbs, 162 Chapter VI. — Conjunctions. Classes of Conjunctions, 166 Rules and Cautions, 171, 174 Chapter VII.— Prepositions. Objects of Prepositions, . . { 177 Variable Uses of Prepositions, 179 Choice of Prepositions, 181, 186 Rules, 181, 186 Position of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases, 183 Chapter VIII. — Interjections. Interjections, 188 Chapter IX. — Verbs and Verbals. Principal Parts 189 Auxiliaries, 190 Strong and Weak Verbs, 191 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 201 Forms of Verbs — Simple, Progressive, Emphatic, Active, and Passive, 202 Idiomatic Constructions, 204 Tense 206 Mode 207 Conjugation, 216 Rules and Cautions, 223 Errors in the Use of Verbs, 224 Uses and Forms of Infinitives, 227 Rules for the Use of Infinitives, 230 Uses and Forms of Participles, 231 Rules for the Use of Participles, 233 Chapter X. — Selections for Analysis, 237 Chapter 'Kl.— Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax, 241 Chapter XII. — Topical Abstracts in Review 248 Chapter XIII.— i^mew Questions, 255 Chapter XIY.— Punctuation 264 Chapter XY.— Letter Writing 275 Index 289 OALTFOE:SriA SERIES. ENGLISH GRAMMAR jDesson /. Ways of Grouping Words. When we wish to express our thoughts, either by speak- ing or writing, we use words. If we know how to use words well, we can express our thoughts in a variety of ways, and in each so as to be clearly understood. This expression of thoughts by the use of words is called Language. The study of Grammar is designed to teach us: (1) to under- stand language, and (2) to use it well. By examining the following groups of words, we shall find that they are put together in four quite different ways: 1. Little fast a under garden saw. 3. When the boy came home. 2. Running down the street. 4. Henry lost his ball. In the first, although each word, alone, means something, the words taken together mean nothing. In the second, there is a meaning, but the thought is not fully expressed. In the third, there is a thought expressed, but it does not seem complete. In the fourth, the thought is fully expressed. Examine the following groups of words, comparing them with the four examples given above, and arrange them in four divisions, writing those like the first example in one division; those like the second example in another, and so on: 8 OROUPINQ WORDS. 1. Jennie fed her birds. 2. (When) the hunter saw the fire. 3. In that little cup. 4. The farmer is tired. 5. Letter long a writing inter- esting. 6. A poor man once had a parrot. 7. (Which) the child found. 8. To read aloud well. 9. As a lion was lying asleep. 10. The tall oak was once a small acorn. 11. Speaking very kindly. 12. An old pine tree stood by the house. 13. (While) the wind is blowing. 14. Not were kind these always men. 15. To reach home soon. 16. The two base ball clubs played a game. 17. (If) James is a brave boy. 18. (After) the men had eaten supper. 19. Little Frank has been playing with Rover. 20. Under the spreading branches. 21. The high hills rose on all sides. 22. Overhead we flying which saw swiftly. 23. Three sisters once lived here. 24. Waving his arms and shouting aloud. 25. The men were catching fish. 26. Flying through the air. Note.— Where the parenthesis is used, note the difference between the group of words with and without the inclosed word. Jjesson 2. Composition Exercises: a. Arrange the words in number 5, so as to form a group under example two. b. Arrange the words in, number 14, so as to form a group under example jour. c. Arrange the words in number 22, so as to form a group under example three. d. Select a part of number 12 that is a group under example two. e. Write three examples each, like two., three., and /oitr. Zesson 3. Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. A group of words arranged like those in example jonr^ Lesson 1, is called a Sentence ; like those in example three is called a Clause ; and like those in example two is called a Phrase. As the groups like example one do not express thoughts, they do not belong to the study of language, and have no general name. SENTENCE, CLAUSE, AND PHRASE. 9 Definition. A Sentence is a complete statement, a question, or a" com- mand. When a sentence contains two or more statements, ques- tions, • commands, each of these is called a Clause. Notije that a phrase alone can not make a statement, ask a question , or express a command. a. Classify the following as sentences, clauses, or phrases: 1. Unless the weather is pleasant. 2. A few days ago. 3. Carl and Andrew are spinning their tops. 4. That he has no money. 5. Walk- ing along the street, 0. The ships coming in. 7. The ships are coming in. 8. In the woods. 9. While we were in the woods. 10. The sun set while we were in the woods. 11. Though we must start to-morrow. 12. Of credit and renown. 13. John Gilpin was a citizen of credit and renown. 14. A family of crows lived in an old pine tree. 15. Where he once hunted the deer. 16. Just in time. 17. Which could be seen through the fog. 18, Not far away. 19. Not far away rose three high peaks which could be seen through the fog. 20. Here is a loaf of bread. 21. To see my brother daily. 22. For he had sprained his ankle. 23. When the horse grows old. . 24. Sugar is imported from the Sandwich Islands. 25. A new steamer has been built. 26. In twenty minutes. 27. I will start. b. From the preceding select seven clauses which will become sentences when the first word in each is dropped. c. Select four phrases that form parts of clauses or sentences. d. Select five phrases, five clauses, and five sentences from the last lesson that you read in your Reader. Jjesson ^. Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. Composition Exercise: a. Copy four clauses from the list in Lesson 3, adding enough words to form a sentence of each. b. Copy four phrases, adding enough words to form a sentence of each. 10 KINDS OF SENTENCES. c. Write four sentences, four clauses, and four phrases, of your own composition. Ijesson J. Kinds of Sentences. Examine the four examples given below, and observe the change in thought, and in the way the thought is ex- pressed : Susan plays. Susan, play. Does Susan play ? How Susan plays. The first sentence states, or declares; the second asks a question; the third commands; the fourth exclaims and also declares. Exercise : In the same way, classify the following sentences: 1. Where is the hunter going ? 2. Whatahappy boy heis! 3. Boys, finish your work. 4. What is the largest river in South America? 5. Name the largest river in South America. 6. The Amazon is the largest river in South America. 7. The train has left the station. 8. The train has not left the station. 9. How fast the horse runs! 10. When will your brother return? 11. Neither a lender nor a borrower be. 12. Polly, put the kettle on. Definitions. A sentence that states, or declares, is called a Declara- tive sentence. A sentence that asks a question, or interrogates, is called an Interrogative sentence. A sentence that commands, is called an Imperative sentence. When any one of the above is used to express strong or sudden feeling, it becomes an Exclamatory sentence. A declarative sentence may become exclamatory; as, We are lost! An interrogative sentence may become exclamatory; as, Whatl shall we desert our friends I KINDS OF SENTENCES. 11 An imperative sentence may become exclamatory; as, Run! run for your lives! By comparing numbers seven and eight of the above sentences, you will see that a declarative sentence may declare either by affirming, as in number seven, or by denying, as in number eight. Remark. — A sentence that affirms is called an affirmative sentence. A sentence that denies is called a negative sentence. Interrogative or imperative sentences may have the negative foi-m; as, Did you not spend the money ? Do not leave the room. JOesson 6. Kinds of Sentences. Exercise : a. Classify the following sentences as Declarative, Inter- rogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory: 1. Boys, do not throw stones at that poor cow. 2. Joseph was the son of Jacob. 3. Alas, we are left alone ! 4. Did you ever hear of the emperor Nero ? 5. I have found a place where the sun shines. 6. How anxious was the poor sailor then I 7. Are you not ready yet, Thomas? 8. A little old woman went slowly down the street. 9. He asked when we would be ready to go. 10. When shall you be ready to go ? 11. Love your enemies. 12. Merrily goes the swing, under the old oak tree. 13. How sweet the answer Echo makes to music at night. 14. What have you been searching for? 15. What a good time we have had ! b. Find in your Reader, four Declarative sentences; four Imperative; four Interrogative; and four Exclamatory. Jjesson 7. Composition — Kinds of Sentences. [To the Teacher.— This lesson may be divided into sections accord- ing to the ability of the class. In all written work hereafter the pupil should be held responsible for the following directions.] 1. Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 2. Put a period at the end of each declarative sentence and each imperative sentence. 12 KINDS OF SENTENCES. 3. Put an interrogation point at the close of each inter- rogative sentence. 4. Put an exclamation point at the close of each exclama- tory sentence. 5. When the name or the title of the person addressed is used simply to call his attention or to point out the person meant, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma; thus, " Frank, come and help us." " Harry, you and Louis may get some water." " 1 think, sir, that you are mistaken." Exercises: a. Compose and write four declarative sentences; four imperative; four interrogative; and four exclamatory, ob- serving carefully the directions given for punctuation. b. Write three declarative sentences and change them, first, to interrogative; second, to imperative; third, to ex- clamatory. c. If the three declarative sentences just written are affirmative, change them to negative; if negative, change them to affirmative. d. Write an interrogative sentence in the negative form. e. Write an imperative sentence in the negative form. f. Change number six in Lesson 6 to an interrogative sentence. g. Change number twelve to an interrogative sentence. h. Change number eight to an interrogative sentence. i. Change number fifteen to a declarative sentence. Jjesson 8, The Predicate. Examine closely the sentences and clauses already given you to classify, and you will find, in each, one or more words that make the assertion. Thus, in the sentence, Henry lost his ball, lost is the THE PREDICATM W A'! .13 asserting word; in the clause, WheriHhd boy came home, CAME is the asserting word ; in the sentence, The farmer is tired, is is the asserting word. The asserting word in the following sentences is itali- cized : 1. Charles lives on a farm. 3. The child sings for joy. 2. 1 see ten geese. 4. The horses are in the stable. 5. Men often hunt with dogs. Exercise : Find all the asserting words in the examples given in Lesson 3. The word that asserts is the most important word in a sentence or a clause; for, without it, neither a sentence nor a clause can be formed ; while some sentences, as Go; Come; March; are complete without any other word expressed. If you have looked carefully through the examples in Lesson 3, you have discovered that every sentence and every clause contains an asserting word, but that a phrase does not contain any such word. The asserting word has various names. It is called the Word-Predicate, Grammatical Predicate, or Verb {predi- cate meaning that which states, and verb meaning merely the word, so called because it is the chief word). The verb with all the words that modify its meaning is called the Entire Predicate, or the Logical Predicate. Thus, in the sentences above, the entire predicates are, lives on a farm; see ten geese; sings for joy; are in the stable; often hunt with dogs; while the word-predicates are, lives, see, sings, are, hunt. Remark. — Words joined to other words to modify or limit their mean- ing are called adjuncts, The word adjunct means joined to. 14 THE PREDICATE— COMPOSITION. Jyesson 9. The Predicate. Exercise : In the examples given in Lessons 3 and 5, give the entire "predicate of each clause or sentence, then select the word- predicate. As you have seen in the examples already studied, the word-predicate, or verb, is sometimes made up of two or more words of nearly equal importance. Examples : 1. A lion was lying asleep. 2. The wind is blowing. 3. The men had eaten supper. 4. Little Frank has been playing with Rover. 5. The men were catching fish. 6. Do not go too near. 7. May I go to school? 8. The sun has just set. 9. The poor man has lost his hat. 10. The river can not be seen. Zesson W. Composition Exercise — The Predicate. a. Write sentences, in which the following shall be used as word-predicates, making six declarative sentences, six interrogative, four imperative, and four exclamatory, using the required predicates in any order that you choose : Look, lost, sent, builds, swam, knew, escaped, have met, will send, were dismissed, had been writing, has suffered, will raise, was seen, has hurt, came, were, grow, took, are. b. Compose five sentences in which the word-predicate shall be made up of two or more words, and underline the words of which it is formed. c. Select the word-predicates from your last reading lesson. [Note to Teacher.— These composition exercises, though included in one lesson, should occupy from four to six recitations.] THE SUBJECT. 15 JOesso7i //. The Subject. Examine again the sentences and clauses in which you have selected the predicates, and you will find in each another very important word. This word names the per- son or the thing about which something is asserted. Thus, in the sentence, Henry lost his hall, Henry is the name of the person about whom the predicate, lost his bally makes an assertion. We may change the sentence, and write it, The ball was lost by Henry. In this sentence, ball is the name of the thing about which the predicate, was lost by Henry, makes an assertion. In the clause, while the wind is blowing, wind is the name of the thing about which the predicate, is blowing, makes an assertion. The name of the person or thing about which the predi- cate asserts something, is called the Word-Subject or the Grammatical Subject. The Word-Subject, with all its adjuncts, is called the Entire Subject or the Logical Subject. In the following examples, one line is drawn under the entire subject, and two lines under the word-subject. Examples : 1. An hour soon passes. 2. This man is shooting ducks. 3. The Indian's hut is made of bark, 4. The fence has been broken by the cows. 5. A little robin has built her nest in this tree. Exercise a. Rewrite number two, expressing the same thought, but making dMcJcs the subject; number three, making Indian the subject; number three again, making bark the subject; 16 NOUN SUBJECTS AND PRONOUN SUBJECTS. number/oitr, making cows the subject; number five, making nest the subject. b. Give the entire subject, then the word subject, of the sentences and clauses used as examples in Lessons 1 and 3. Lesson /2, Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects. The word-subject is generally a name, or noun {noun meaning name) . In some sentences, as numbers four, nine, eleven, and some others, in Lesson 3, the word-subject is not a noun, but is a word used instead of a noun. Such a word is called a Pronoun. Examples : 1. Here we are. 2. He is always cheerful. 3. I think they are going. Exercise : a. Write in one column all the noun subjects, and in another the pronoun subjects in the sentences given in Les- son 3. b. Write four sentences with noun subjects and four with pronoun subjects. Lesson /J. Phrase Subjects and Clause Subjects. Exercise: After selecting the predicate in eacli of the following sentences, carefully examine the subject : 1. To write well is a valuable accomplishment. . 2. Sliding on the ice made him tired. 3. To work with a will is a remedy for sadness. 1. Where he went is not known. 2. That we shall succeed is certain. 3. Where are you going? is the question. The subject of each of the first three of the preceding PHRASE SUBJECTS AND CLAUSE SUBJECTS 17 sentences is a phrase. The subject of each of the next three is a clause. It will be seen, therefore, that the subject of a sentence may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. Remark. — As nouns are, in a more general way, called substantives; words, phrases, or clauses used as nouns are substantive in office. Exercise ; a. Copy the following sentences, then draw two lines under each entire predicate, and one line under each entire subject. b. Select the word-predicate, and state whether the sub- ject is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 1. Amidst the storms they sang. 2. I do not know where he is. 3. Why he returned was not told. 4. This is the cat that killed the rat. 5. To learn a language well is difficult. 6. To plan well is of great im- portance. 7. There eternal Summer dwells. 8. To see you happy sat- isfies me. 9. That I have helped you, is proof of my friendship. 10. Around the fire, one wintry night, the farmer's rosy children sat. c. Write three sentences with phrase subjects, and three with clause subjects, underlining as directed above. JOesson /^. Position op the Subject. In most of the examples studied so far, the subject is placed hejore the predicate. In some sentences, however, the subject is placed ajter the predicate, and in some sentences it is placed between the words that form the predicate. Examples : 1. Here is the man. (After.) 2. There sat the king. 3. Do you see that tree? (Between.) 4. Loud blew the mnd. 5. Has the mowe^/ been found ? In an imperative sentence, and often in an interrogative sentence, the name of the person addressed, although it at 18 POSITION OF SUBJECT. first seems to be the subject, is used simply to point out the person meant, or to call his attention; and because it has no connection with the other words in the sentence, it is set off by the comma. The subject of an imperative sentence is always you^ ye, or thou, and is generally understood but not expressed. Exercise : a. Select first the entire predicate, then the entire subject in each of the following* sentences. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation: 1. Where have you been? 2. Wind the clock. 3. Found he the peace he sought? 4. Friends, give me your hands. 5. Ill fares the land. 6. Lucy, where have you been ? "b. Select the entire subject, then the word-subject, in each of the sentences given as examples in Lessons 5 and 6. c. Write five sentences in which the subject shall be placed after the predicate or between the words that form the predicate, underlining the predicate, or its parts, twice, and the subject once. J^esson /cJ. Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates. Exercise : Select the word-predicates and the word-subjects in the following : 1. The horse jumped and ran. 2. I ate my breakfast and started for school. 3. The children laughed, danced, and shouted. 4. Jennie and Lucy are feeding their pets. 5. The cows, the horses, and the chickens have been fed. 6. The old hen and her brood started for the water. 7. William and his father dug the holes and set the posts. 8. Lizzie, Nellie, and Frank picked the peas and shelled them for dinner. From these sentences it will be seen: 1. That two or more predicates may have the same sub- COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND COMPOUND PREDICATES 19 ject, as in numbers one, two, and three; in this case, the predicate is compound. 2. That one predicate may have two or more subjects, as in numbers four, jive, and six; in this case, the subject is compound. 8. That two or more predicates may have two or more subjects, as in numbers seven and eight; in this case, the subject and the predicate are both compound. Remark. — Such sentences are classified as simple sentences, (2) vnth a compound subject, or (2) a compound predicate, or {S) with both. Direction for Punctuation. — When a compound subject or a compound predicate is made up of more than two parts, the parts should be separated by the comma; as, The trees, the bushes, the fences, and the houses were covered with snow. We encamped by the river, pitched our tent, and prepared our evening meal. Composition Exercise : Form sentences, using the following compound subjects and compound predicates : Apples, pears, peaches. Books, papers, magazines. Lincoln, Grant, Garfield. Bellows, anvdl, hammer, iron. Mother, father, sisters, brothers. "Were watching, were working, were waiting. Go, tell, come. Will study, will learn, will improve. Said, started. Are written, are published. Zesson /6. Predicate and Subject. Exercise : Select the word-predicates in the following stories, and give the word-subject of each predicate: Two travelers were going along a dangerous road, and they prom- ised to stand by one another to the last. By-and-by they entered a wood, and were alarmed at seeing a huge bear coming in their direo 20 PREDICATE AND SUBJECT—EXERCISES. tion at full speed. The younger man quickly climbed a tree, and left his companion to shift for himself. The other man fell and lay per- ^fectly still, as if dead. Soon the savage beast came up, snifted all around, and as the man lay breathless, it walked away, supposing him to be dead, and left him unharmed. The younger man now descended from the tree where he had been watching, and jestingly asked, "What did the bear whisper in your ear?" "He told me," replied the other, " never again to believe or trust a man like you." A horse was drawing a heavy load of timber along one of the crowded thoroughfares of a large city, lately, and being unable, with its heavy load, to turn quick enough to please its driver, he, in a fit of bad temper, began to beat it severely. This only made the animal stupid, and at last it stood quite still, and refused to move another step. He whipped the horse again and again, but it only reared and kicked, and then again stubbornly stood still. A passer-by, who knew the horse well, and knew how to treat it, went up to its head, spoke gently to the trembling animal, patted it on the neck, and then said, " Come along, Bob." The horse looked at him with its great eyes, as much as to say, "I would do anything for you, because you speak kindly to me." Then it exerted all its great strength, and the heavy load was once more moving along the street. A poor old blind soldier used to earn a scanty living by playing his violin every night in one of the public gardens in Vienna. His little dog sat beside him, holding its master's hat for the few coppers that passers-by occasionally dropped in. One night the old man was in great trouble. No one stopped to listen to his music, and he had not received a single coin that day. Hungry and weary and grieved, the poor soldier at last fairly broke down and wept. A stranger, seeing his distress, came up to him, put a coin in the hat, and said kindly, " Lend me your violin, and I will play while you collect." He tuned the fiddle carefully, and then played so well that a great crowd soon gathered to listen. The hat quickly filled, not with copper only, but with silver, also. The stranger, who so nobly came to the help of a poor, broken- down soldier, was one of the finest violin players in the world. The old man wept tears of joy as he blessed his benefactor, and as the latter walked away the crowd heartily cheered him for his kindness. Jjesson 17 * Analysis op Sentences. To analyze a sentence is to separate it into its parts and to give the office of each part. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21 Exercise : Classify the following sentences, as in Lesson 5; give yie entire predicate, the word-predicate, and the entire subject of each; state whether the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. Note. — In the analysis of a sentence, it is better to select the predicate first. Models : 1. "The general sent a message." A declarative sentence, because it contains a statement; Entire predicate — sent a message; Word-predicate — scjit; Entire subject — the general; Word-subject — general — a noun. 2. "Is climbing the mountain difficult ? " An interrogative sentence, because it asks a question ; Entire pred- icate — is difficult; Word-predicate — is; Subject — climbing the mountain — a phrase. 1. I met a little cottage girl. 2. Where did you find that pretty stone? .3. Lookatme. (Subject not expressed) 4. Which book did you ask for? 5. Go thy way for this time. 6. Did you and May go to school yester- day ? 7. The wizard opened a drawer and took from it a lovely necklace. 8. What a delightful time you must have had ! 9. Come in, poor child, and warm yourself. 10. Eating unripe fruit will make you sick. 11. The doctor had seldom seen a more patient child. 12. That a mistake had been made, was quite evident. 13. " We shall see," was his only answer. 14. Children, can we not learn something from this story? 15. In his arm-chair sits dear old grandpa. 16. The parrot dragged the doll down and hid it. 17. Where the robber concealed his treasures, has never been discovered. 18. To leap down upon the pavement below would be instant death. 19. A little word in kindness spoken, A motion, or a tear. Has often healed the heart that's broken, And made a friend sincere. 20. Under a spreading chestnut tree, the village smithy stands. Jjesson 78, Composition in Review. 1. Write the words / and as capitals. 2. Begin with a capital, (a) every sentence, (b) every 22 ' COMPOSITION— REVIEW. particular name of a person or a place, (c) all names of the Deity. Look in your Readers for examples of each. Exercises : a. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi- cate. b. Write an interrogative sentence with a compound subject. c. Write an exclamatory sentence with a pronoun as the subject. d. Write a declarative sentence with a clause as the subject. e. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi- cate, and with a compound subject made up of two pro- nouns. f. Write a declarative sentence with a phrase as the subject. g. Write an imperative sentence with a compound predi- cate consisting of three verbs. h. Write an interrogative sentence with a phrase as the subject. i. Write an affirmative sentence. j. Write a negative sentence. Jjesson /9. The Complement. In some of the sentences already studied, the word-predi- cate and the subject together do not make the sense com- plete. One of the other words seems to be needed. Thus, John lost, James is, men were, your answer was, are in- complete in sense; but when we add something to each, and say, John lost his hall, James is a hrave youth, men were catching fish, your answer was right, the meaning of each is complete. These additional words are called com- plements, because they complete the sense of the predicate, THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 23 Remark. — Verbs requiring complements are called incomplete verbs. The Object Complement. Examine the complement of the predicate in the follow- ing sentences from Lessons 1 and 3: 1. Jennie fed he r bird. 2. The hunter saw the fire. 3. The two base- ball clubs played a game. 4. The men had eaten supper. 5. Carl and Andrew are spinning their tops. 6. He once hunted the deer. 7. He had sprained his ankle. [Note to Teacher.— In the first three sentences, the object is under- lined. In the other sentences let the pupil find it for himself.] In each of these sentences, the complement is a noun, naming something upon which the action asserted by the predicate is performed ; thus, bird is the name of the ani- mal that Jennie fed; fire is the name of the thing that the hunter saw, etc. Such a complement is called an Object complement, or Object. Exercise: ^ . a. In the folk) wing sentences, select the verbs that have objects ,^nd give the object of each : romas built this house. 2. I saw a man by the roadside. 3. found shelter in a large oak tree. 4. With our money we books. 5. Choose your friend with care. 6. Frank lit the fire, sister cooked the dinner. 7. Joseph had a coat of many colors. 8. Select from this basket the largest apple. 9. Do you remember the man who built this house? 10. But when he caught the measure wild, the old man raised his head and smiled. b. Use the verbs in the first column in sentences, select- ing, from the second column, a suitable object for each verb. read vase ate book are driving baby burn picture gave friends has broken breakfast hold oxen am drawing story forsook table made ' dress 24 THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. Jjesson 20, The Object Complement. Examine the objects in the following sentences : 1. My friend surprised me. 2. We expect hiin to-morrow. 3. Did the stick strike you^ 4. The President expects to he there. 5. Fred enjoys sliding on the ice. 6. Your brother hopes to see you. 7. Your brother hopes that he shall see you. 8. 1 do not know when we shall return. 9. The teacher said, '^ Study your lessonJ" In the first three sentences, the object is a pronoun; in the next three, the object is a phrase; in the last three, the object is a clause. It will be seen, then, that the object, like the subject, is either a noun, a pronoun, or one or more words used as a noun. In other words, the object is always substantive in office. A verb may have two or more objects; as, 10. My mother called Lucy and me. 11. The horse eats hay, oats, and barley. 12. He intends to come here to-day and to go there to-morrow. Two or more verbs may have the same object; as, 13. The merchant buys and sells country produce. 14. We picked, prepared, and ate the fruit. Two or more verbs may have two or more objects; as, 15. We fought and conquered our enemies and our oppressors. 16. I found and rescued my books, my pictures, and my papers. Remark. — A verb having an object complement is called a Transitive Verb. Exercise : In the stories in Lesson 16 select the transitive verbs, and tell whether their objects are nouns or pronouns. jLesson 27 . The Object Complement. Exercises : a. In the following sentences select the verbs that have ANALYSIS. 25 objects, and state whether the object is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause: 1. He took no notice, but looked as if he had not heard the words. 2. The men who do the greatest things do them by steady, unremitting toil. 3. I hope to find my friend much better 4. He knows where we are going. 5. The janitor forgot to ring the bell. 6. I had never before seen such swimming. 7. You know that I do not want money. 8. "What can be the matter?" exclaimed Mr. Brown. 9. The warrior bowed his crested head and tamed his heart of tire. 10. He appointed the moon for seasons ; the sun knoweth his going down. b. Select and classify the objects in the first four para- graphs of your last reading lesson. JOesson 22. Analysis of Sentences. Exercise : Classify the following sentences as in Lesson 17; give the predicate, the subject, and the object in each sentence and clause, and state whether the subjects and objects are nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses: Model : " I do not know where my brother put the book." This is a declarative sentence, containing two statements : Entire predicate — do not know where my brother put the book; Word-predi- cate — do know ; Subject — T, a pronoun ; Object — where my brother put the book, a clause ; Entire predicate of object clause — put the book where ; Word-predicate — put ; Entire subject of object clause — my brother; Word-subject — brother, a noun; Object — book, a noun. 1. Galileo taught that the earth revolves. 2. The owl kills mice and eats them. 3. Regulus lost his life, bat kept his word. 4. Did you have a good time ? 5. " Good morning," said the young frog. 6. Columbus thought he had reached an island near Asia. 7. Ladies and gentlemen, you will now elect your officers. 8. That we had succeeded, pleased and encouraged him. 9. Jack marched up, took the rope in his teeth, and rang the bell again. 10. Go ring the bells, and fire the guns, And fling the starry banner out, 26 COMPOSITION-REVIEW. 11. What a pleasant picture of an evening home scene the poet Cowper draws ! 12. The Spaniards now resolved to make their way to Cuba. 13. Now, I propose that we build a wharf. 11. What do you say, lads ? Shall we do it ? 15. With slow tread and still tread, He scans the tented line, And he counts the battery guns By the gaunt and shadowy pine. Zesson 2S, Composition in Review. After writing the following sentences, underline the entire predicate twice and the entire subject once; put the objects in brackets, and indicate the word-predicate by a dagger (f ), and word, phrase, or clause subject, by a double dagger (j). Example : t t t t When our friends return, Mary and I will invite [them] to supper . Exercises : a. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a pronoun and the object a phrase. b. Write an interrogative sentence in which there is a compound predicate and a noun object. c. Write an exclamatory sentence in which both the sub- ject and the object are nouns. d. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a pronoun, and the object a phrase. e. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a clause, and the object a pronoun. f. Write an imperative sentence in which the object is a phrase. g. Write a sentence which shall have a noun as the sub- ject and a noun as the object. h. Write an interrogative sentence in which the object is a clause. ATTRIBUTE COMPLeJJBJ^ 2 ' ' 27 i. Write an interrogative sentence in Winch the subject is a noun and the predicate has two objects. j. Answer the question that you have just made by a negative sentence in which the subject is a pronoun. Jjesson 2J^. The Attribute Complement. We will now return to the phrases and sentences given in Lessons 1 and 3, and examine some of those that have another kind of complement. 1. The farmer is tired. 2. Unless the weather is pleasant. 3. When the horse grows old. 1. The tall oak was once a small acorn. 2. If James is a brave boy, 3. John Gilpin was a citizen. In the first three, the complement is a word describing the subject; that is, giving some quality of the real thing which the subject names; thus, pleasant weather ; tired farmer ; old horse. In the next three, the complement is a noun giving an- other name to, or identifying, the subject. Such complements as the above are called attributes of the subject, because they either describe or identify the subject. Remark. — An attribute is any property, or quality, of the person or thing. Exercise: Select the attributes in the following sentences, and in the sentences of Lessons 5 and 6. 1. Harold is industrious. 2, This child's face is interesting. 3. Is hje brave f 4. Be brave, children. (Notice the use of the word children.) 5, He is S'Jiian- 6, Is he a soldier? 28 ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. Jjesson 25, The Attribute Complement. Exercise : a. Give the predicate and the subject of each of the fol- lowing sentences, and examine carefully the office and form of the italicized attributes : 1. The children are happy. 2. Henry is in trouble. (= troubled) 3. The patient seems to be better. 4, Everything shall be as you wish. 6. This rose is beautiful. 6. The doctor is at work. (= working) The above attributes all describe the subjects, but have different forms. In numbers one and five, the attribute is a WORD describing the subject; in two^ three ^ and six, the attribute is a phrase describing the subject; in Jour, the attribute is a clause describing the subject. b. In the same manner, examine the following sentences: 1. It is sAe. 2. Our amusement was j)tet/twgrcrogtte^ 3. The question is, what to do with it. 4. The fact is, he stole the money. 5, James is my brother. 6. My hope was, that we should arrive before sunset. 7. The trouble is to answer your question. 8. My wish is, that you should dine with me. In these sentences, each attribute identifies the subject, that is, tells who or what the subject is. In numbers one and five, the attribute is a word identifying the subject; in numbers two, three, and seven, the attribute is a phrase identifying the subject; in numbers foii^r, six, and eight, the attribute is a clause identifying the subject. From these examples, you will see : (1) That, inform, the attribute is either a word, a phrase, or a clause. (2) That the office of an attribute is either to describe or to identify the subject. Exercise : a. Select and classify the attributes in the following sen- teuQes ; DIAGRAMS. 29 1. This book is a present, 2. The pudding is too sweet. 3. The chil- dren were at play. 4. Your child is in danger. 5. My intention is to complete the work to-day. 6. Her work was sewing on buttons. 7. Jennie appears to be satisfied. 8. The subject of debate is, Which is the best plan ? Ijesson 26. Diagrams. It is often convenient to show the relations of the different parts of a sentence so that they may be recognized at a glance. When this is done by the use of lines, dots, and position, it is called diagraming. Notice how the relations are shown in the following sentences: (Subject.) (Predicate.) Dogs hark. Dogs ■ bark Cats catch mice. Cats (Object complement.) , catch mice Gold is yellow. Wolves and dogs bark. Gold (Comj < ■ Gold (Attribute complement.) 1 is \ yellow )Ound subject.) Wolves "^.l.^^f'L. Dogs hark and bite. logs., -^ 1 (Compound predicate.) bark Gold is bright and yellow 1 N§j bite (Compound attribute.) bright 1 '^ \^ Cats t— "*V| yellow Cats catch rats and mice. (Compound object.) rats . catch , ^h prin- cipal clause and one line under each dependent clause. (j) Write a complex sentence having a subject clause. (Is.) Write a complex sentence having an object clause. (1) Write a complex sentence having an attribute clause. Zesson 39. More About Adverbial Modifiers. Analyze the following sentences; that is, name the prin- cipal parts, then the dependent words, or modifiers. Examine carefully the italicized words, and try to deter- mine their use. 1. We walked very slowly. 2. The weather is delightfully cool. 3. Very few men would have been so brave. 4. My teacher spoke more kindly than I deserved. 5. Many more flowers can be found. It will be seen that each of the italicized words modifies •some other word that is itself a modifier or adjunct of one of the principal parts. Thus slowly modifies the word- predicate walked, and very modifies slowly by telling how slowly; cool qualifies the subject weather, and delightfully modifies cool by telling how cool. In number one and number four, the italicized modifier belongs to an adverb ; in number two, number three, and number ^t^e, to an adjective. A word that modifies an adjective or an adverb is called an adverb. Remark.— Thus it is seen that an adverb may modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Exercise : a. Select the modifiers of adjectives or adverbs in the fol- lowing, telling what they modify, and how ; also tell what the word that they modify does in the sentence. 42 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. ' Diagram the sentences thus: We , walked This is \ day 1. She was too happy to speak. 2. The evening is quite cool. 3. This lot is not so large as ours. 4. It rains more frequently in that country. 5. You came too late to see the procession. 6. The house is too old for service. 7. It was thought very strange. 8. This is an un- usually cold day. 9. Henry rises very early. 10. Henry is a very early b. Compose and analyze five sentences containing modi- fiers of adjectives or adverbs, underlining the modified adjective or adverb once, and its modifier twice. J^esson 4^- Prepositional Phrases. Let us now examine more closely some of the phrases that have been used as principal parts or as adjuncts: 1. We will go into the house. 2. The house on the hill was hurned. 3. I laid a book on the table. 4. Give the book to me. 5. The gardener picked a box of apples. 6. The boy beside me asked a question. You will see that each italicized phrase is made up of a noun or a pronoun, and a word which connects this noun or pronoun to the word which the phrase modifies or limits. Thus, in the first sentence, the phrase, into the house, is an adverbial adjunct modifying the verb will go, by telling where. Into connects the noun house to the verb will go. In the second sentence, the phrase, on the hill, is an ad- jective adjunct limiting the noun house. On connects the noun hill to the subject house. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 43 In the same way, analyze the phrases in the remaining sentences. The connecting word in each of these phrases is called a preposition, because it is placed before the noun or pronoun, the word 'preposition meaning placed before. The noun or pronoun that the preposition connects to some other word in the sentence, is called the object of the preposition. Note. — The word to which the noun or pronoun is connected is of more importance, of higher rank in the sentence, than the object of the preposition. Exercise : Name the objects of the prepositions in the above sen- tences. Remark. — The term object is applied in thi^ ca^e because of the form that the pronoun takes when it has this office. Thus, we say by me, and not by I ; to Wm, and not to he. The object of the preposition may be described or limited by adjuncts: thus, 1. We will go into the brown house, 2. The barn on that high green hill was burned. Diagramed : These additional words, however, are not essential parts of the phrase. Phrases that are introduced by prepositions are called prepositional phrases. Exercise : a. Name the prepositional phrases in the sentences at the beginning of this lesson. b. Select and analyze the prepositional phrases in the fol- lowing: 44 VERBAL PHRASES. Model: Lay your books on the table. On the table is a prepositional phrase in form and adverbial in oflBce, modifying the verb lay by telling where. The preposition on connects its object table to lay. Table is limited by the adjective adjunct the. 1. A seed of the beautiful mistletoe was separated from its parent. 2. At the age of twelve, Franklin was apprenticed to his brother James, who was a printer. 3. A large number of monkeys will sometimes get together in the morning, in the woods. 4. After dinner we will walk to town. 5. School opened on Monday, at 9 o'clock a. m. 6. In all the surrounding fields there grew fine crops of wheat and barley. 7. The long, slender boughs of the willow are the favorite resort of the oriole. 8. Long ago, in a castle in the heart of the German forest, lived a proud nobleman, who, on one particular Sunday morning, took it into his head to go hunting. 9. And little brown bird in the sycamore tree, You have sung pretty songs all day to me ; Now go to your rest. In your nice soft nest; I shall see you again in the morning light. 10. A small remnant of cheese was divided among the famished children. Diagram 1, 3, 4, and 7. Jjesson ^/. Verbal Phrases. In the sentences studied in preceding lessons, we have also had a second class of phrases, such as the following : 1. Jumping rope is good exercise. 2. We saw Henry eating an apple. 3. I found the horse tied fast. In these phrases, the principal words, jumping^ eating, tied, are words very much like verhs, but they do not assert, and, therefore, are not verbs. Thus, / am jumping, Henry was eating, the horse was tied, are assertions; but, I jump- ing, Henry eating. Horse tied, are not assertions. Words which come from and resemble verbs, and yet do not assert, are called verbals. VERBAL PHRASES. 45 A phrase in which the principal word is a verbal, is called a verbal phrase. Some verbal phrases have another form, as in the fol- lowing : 1. 1 hope to see you. 2. To earn my living is my ambition. In such cases, the verbal is made up of two words — to see, to earn. In a verbal phrase, the verbal may be modified by some other word; as, to write well ; running fast ; or it may have an object; as. To see you eating an apple ; or an attribute complement; as, Being rich ; to be rich. N f^ing, apple \ eat , apple \ ing \ rich \ be \ rich There are, then, two classes of phrases; namely, preposi- tional phrases, of which the principal words are a preposi- tion and its object, and verbal phrases, of which the principal part is a verbal, with its complement, if there be one. The introductory word in a phrase is called the leader. In a prepositional phrase, the leader is a preposition; in a verbal phrase, the leader is a verbal. Remark. — A verbal introduced by to is called an infinitive. T?ie to of the infinitive is sometimes understood; as Who saw her eat the apple ? = [to] eat. She was seen to eat the apple. (Expressed.) Analysis. — To eat the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the leader is the infinitive to eat, and its object is the noun ajjple. 46 THE CLAUSE— CONNECTIVES. Remark. — A verbal not having to either expressed or understood is called a participle. Having eaten the apple, she counted the seeds. Having eaten the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the leader is the participle having eaten and its object the noun apple. Exercise : Select, classify, and give the office of the phrases in the following sentences; then analyze each phrase, according to the model last given: 1. The boys are swimming in the river. 2. The books to be studied next are these. 3. Get a box of apples, x 4. I hope to see you. 5. The man sitting there is a lawyer. 6. To write well is a valuable accomplish- ment. 7. 1 enjoy watching the bathers. 8. I came to ask you. 9. We saw the men mowing grass. 10. John came limping along. 11. Into the street the piper stepped. 12. The hat on the table is yours. 13. My wish is to receive instruction. J^esson 4^2. The Clause — Connective Pronouns. Let us now return to some of the sentences already studied, and examine more closely the clauses used as modi- fiers, observing especially the office of the introductory word in the clauae. The pupil who was industrious, won the prize that his teacher offered. In this sentence, the subject pupil is limited by the clause, who was industrious. The clause is connected to pupil by the pronoun who. The predicate of the dependent clause is was industrious; the subject of the dependent clause is the pronoun who. It will thus be seen that the pronoun who has a double office; first, as a connective, connecting the dependent clause to the word which the clause limits; second, as the subject of the dependent clause. Again, the object prize is limited by the clause, that his teacher offered. The clause is con- nected to prize by the pronoun that. In the dependent CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 47 clause, offered is the predicate, teacher is the subject, and that is the object. Therefore that has a double office in the sentence ; first, as a connective; second, as the object in the dependent clause. A pronoun that connects a dependent clause to the word which the clause limits, and, at the same time, performs some substantive office in the dependent clause, is called a connective pronoun. remark , did please ^ me "% \ \ he , made . that Exercises : a. You may now take the sentences that you made as a composition exercise in Lesson 36, and select the clauses that are introduced by connective pronouns. Tell what word each clause limits, and give the two offices of the con- nective pronoun. b. Do the same with the following sentences: 1. The only man whom I was acquainted with was absent. 2, The remark that he made did not please me. 3. Learn the lesson that was given to you yesterday. 4. Learn the lesson that I gave to you yester- day. 5. Jack was an idle fellow, who would not work. 6. The house that stood on the hill was burned. 7. The soldier whose wound was so severe recovered. 8. I expect to find the book that you lost. 9. This is the person whom you wished to see. 10. He spoke of my brother, who was then absent. Lesson ^S. The Clause — Connective Adverbs. There is a second class of words which connect depend- ent clauses to the words which the clauses modify, and, at the same time, perform another office. I found my book where I left it. ^ 48 CONNECTIVE ADVERBS. In this sentence, where I left it is an adverbial clause modifying the verb found. Where connects the dependent clause to found. It also modifies the verbs found and left by showing place, and is, therefore, an adverb. We shall ride "when the wind goes down.' When connects the dependent clause, when the wind goes down, to the verb shall ride. It also modifies the verbs shall and goes, and so is adverbial in office. A word that connects a clause to the word that the clause modifies, and, at the same time, performs the office of an adverb, is called a connective adverb. I I found I book ■"t^'^^T^^^^T' (Here where equals in the place in \<^ N^ which. The first phrase modifies ^ \®, found, the second modifies left.) I I left I it Exercise : In the following sentences, select the clauses which are introduced by connective adverbs. Tell what word the clause modifies, and give the two offices of the connective adverb. Diagram each sentence: 1. A plant sprang up where we had planted the seed. 2. "We will start whenever you are ready. 3. Do good while you can. 4. I did as you requested. 5. My dog foLows me wherever I go. 6. The sun set while we were in the woods. 7. Do as I do. 8. When the cat is away, the mice will play. Jjesson ^4" Conjunctions. We have now selected and studied three kinds of con- nectives : First, the preposition, which connects its object to the word which the prepositional phrase limits or modifies; -Second, the connective pronoun^ which connects a depend- CONJUNCTIONS, 49 ent clause to the word which the clause limits, and, at the same time, has some substantive office in the dependent clause; Third, the connective adverb, which connects a dependent clause to the word which the clause modifies, and, at the same time, itself modifies one or more verbs. There is one other class of connectives which connect, but have no other office. Sometimes connectives of this class connect words; as, 1. Jennie and I go to school. 3. My teacher is kind but firm. 2. Bring me a hook or a slate. 4. Go and find your hat. 5. They fought like brave men long and well Jennie firm teacher ■ is J IS ^ ^^j door Zesson SO. Composition — Sentence Building. A Simple Sentence Expanded. In each of the following sentences, tell what adjunct or adjuncts have been added to the preceding sentence to form the new sentence, and give the office of each adjunct: SENTENCE BUILDING. 53 1. A man called. 2. A poor old man called. 3. A poor old man called at our house. 4. A poor old man called at our house one morn- ing. 5. A poor old fnan called at our house one chilly morning in the spring. 6. A poor old man, tired and hungry, called at our house one chilly morning in the spring, to ask for a cup of coffee. Remark. — Notice that number six, though very much longer than num- ber one, is still a simple sentence. Exercise : In the same way, expand the following sentences, mak- ing at least five new simple sentences from each: 1. These children went. 2. A friend had money. 3. Our teacher saw us. 4. A bee lighted. 5. Sparrows built. Jjesson 4^7, Composition — Sentence Building. A Complex Sentence Built. 1. Brother planted trees. 2. My brother planted trees last winter. 3. My brother planted peach and apple trees in our garden last winter. 4. My brother planted twenty peach trees and thirty apple trees in our garden last winter. 5. My brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty peach trees and thirty apple trees in our garden last winter. 6. My brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty peach trees and thirty apple trees in our garden last winter, when he came to visit us. Exercises : a. Which of the above sentences are simple ? Which are complex? Name the independent clauses and the depend- ent clauses in the complex sentences. Select the phrase adjuncts in the last sentence, and tell what they limit or modify. b. Change sentence number six in Lesson 46 to a com- plex sentence. c. Expand the following according to the above plan, making five new sentences from each, three simple and two complex: 1. Jennie found a bird. 2. A farmer had a horse. 3. Fishes swim. 4. The boys were riding. 54 REVIEW QUESTIONS. Ijesson 4^8. Sentence Building. A Compound Sentence Built. 1. The boys had built a boat. 2. The boys of our school had built a large boat. 3. The boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat. 4. The boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat, in which they often sailed on the lake. 5. The boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat, and in it they often sailed on the lake. 6. The boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat, which they painted red ; and in it they often sailed on the lake near which the school house stood. Exercises : a. Select the simple sentences, the complex sentences, and the compound sentences, from the above. Give the independent clauses and the dependent clauses in the com- plex sentences; also in the compound sentences. Select all the phrase adjuncts and tell what they limit or modify. b. Make six new sentences from each of the following, the first two simple, the next two complex, and the last two compound. 1. The soldiers marched. 2. Night came. 3. The prisoner thought. REVIEW QUESTIONS, 55 Review Questions. [To the Teacher. — As a test of what the pupil has learned, of his com- prehension of what has been x^resented, and of his ability to use the knowledge acquired, the following questions are inserted. Many of them are fully answered in the text, but there are others requiring the exercise of the judgment and understanding before they can be answered. These are far the most valuable. In the text, few defini- tions are given, because one definition made is worth ten learned. The first is the training of the power of discernment and discrimination, the second, of the memory only. Tlie answers to these questions should be in complete sentences, and if the pupil is taught to weave the question into his answer it gives a good training in the use of language.] 1. For what do we use words? 2. Why should we study words and their uses? 3. What is language? 4. What is the purpose of studying grammar? 5. What is a sentence? A phrase? A clause? Illustrate each by several examples. 6. What is the diflference between a phrase and a clause? B etweg fl^sente nce and a clause ? 7. Name the diflferent kinds of sentences, niive examples ot each. 8. What is the diflference between a declarative sentence and an interrogative sentence? 9. What is the diflference in the way they are written? 10. What is the diflference between an imperative sentence and a declarative sentence? 11. How can you change the following declarative sentences into imperative sentences? Boys play quietly. Children go to school. 12. Rewrite the following, changing them to interrogative sentences, and notice how the change is made : Henry may go out to play. William has fouiid his knife. Julia writes very neatly. 13. How is a declarative sentence changed to an interrogative sentence? 14. Give the rule for beginning a sentence. 15. Should words in columns begin with capital letters? 16. Give the rule for ending a declarative sentence ; an interroga- tive sentence ; an imperative sentence ; an exclamatory sentence. 17. When do we use exclamatory sentences? Show that an inter- rogative sentence may become exclamatory: that a declarative sen- tence may become exclamatory. 18. How can you tell a negative sentence ? 19. How can you change an affirmative sentence to a negative sentence? Change the following to negative sentences: The soldiers have returned. It rained yesterday. Take that booh. Is he ready f 20. What is the complement of a verb? 21. Show the diflference between a complete and an incomplete verb, 22. What kind of verbs 56 REVIEW QUESTIONS. take complements? 23. What kind take object complements? 24. When a transitive verb takes a complement, what is the comple- ment called? 25. What besides a noun may be the object comple- ment? Give examples of each. 26. Give two sentences each containing a verb having two or more object complements ; of two or more verbs with the same object ; of two or more verbs with more than one object complement. 27. What is the subject of a declara- tive sentence ? of an imperative sentence ? of an interrogative sen- tence? (Notice that the interrogative sentence may have for its subject the person or thing of whom or about whom the question is asked.) 28. What is the predicate of a declarative sentence? Of an im- perative sentence? Of an interrogative sentence? 29. In the sen- tence, The boy is happy, what word completes the verb is? What word does happy describe? 30. What are such complements called? 31. Do these complements ever do anything but describe the sub- ject? What else do they do? Illustrate. 32. Take the following words and put into the brace as many different kinds of comple- ments as you can think of, and, as far as you can, tell what each one does. (Those that you can not fully understand, you will hereafter study further.) Horses are -j 33. What is the attribute in a sentence? 34. Do all attributes describe the subject? 35. If not, what else do they do? 36. Give an example of a clause attribute ; of a phrase attribute ; of a pronoun used as an attribute. 37. Give an example of an attribute used be- fore the subject. 38. What words qualify or limit nouns? 39. What words modify verbs ? 40. What words besides verbs do adverbs mod- ify ? 41. W^hat are the principal parts of a sentence ? 42. What are words called that qualify or limit the subject, the object, or the noun attribute? 43. What do adverbial modifiers generally show? 44. Name some adverbial modifiers that show how; when; where; why. 45. When adverbial clauses are set before the clauses that they mod- ify, how are they separated from them? 46. What are adjective adjuncts? 47. Give examples of word adjuncts, phrase adjuncts, and clause adjuncts, used adjectively. 48. Notice how a phrase maybe expanded into a clause. Expand the italicized phrases into clauses: I saw a stone rolling down hill. A bird in the hand, is worth two in the bush. The work to be accomplished is difficult. 49. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 57 Of what is a prepositional phrase composed ? Of what is a verbal phrase composed? 50. How many kinds of verbal phrases are there ? Give an example of a verbal phrase having an infinitive as its leader ; one having a participle as its leader. 51. (a) Give an example of an infinitive having an object. (To) Give an example of a participle having an object. (c) Give an example of an infinitive having an attribute. (d) Give an example of a participle having an attribute. (e) Give an example of an infinitive having an adverbial modifier. (f) Give an example of a participle having an adverbial modifier. (g) Give an example of an infinitive with the to understood, (h) Use an infinitive phrase as the subject of a sentence. (i) Use an infinitive phrase as an attribute. (j) Use an infinitive phrase as an object. (k) Give an example of an infinitive phrase used as an adverbial modifier. (1) Give an example of a participial phrase used as an adjective adjunct. (m) Give an example of a prepositional phrase used as an attri- bute of the subject. 52. How many and what diflferent kinds of connectives may con- nect subordinate clauses to the rest of the sentence? Give examples of each. 53. What is the difference between a connective pronoun and a connective adverb? 54. What is the difference between a connective pronoun and a conjunction? 55. (a) Give an example of a conjunction connecting words. (b) Give an example of a conjunction connecting phrases. (c) Give an example of a conjunction connecting independent clauses. 56. When words are connected by conjunctions, what can you say of the office of the words? 57. What is a word or a phrase hav- ing no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence called? 58. Give examples of an exclamatory word; of an absolute phrase. Of the name of the person addressed. 59. How should they be punctuated? 60. Expand each italicized word or phrase into a clause, and tell what kind of clause it is: (a) The boy yonder is industrious. (b) The man sitting by the roadside is a cripple. (c) Seeing the difficulty, we abandoned the undertaking. (d) Having finished his task, the prisoner was given a frugal repast. 58 FORMS OF ANALYSIS. Additional Work in Analysis. Form for Analysis of a Simple Sentence. I. Classify the Sentence: \1. According to form. \2. According to meaning. II. Point out the Asserting Words. Modified or completed by : Adverbial adjunct. Attribute or Object Complement. Which may be Word. Phrase=Prin. part. I Adjunct. c. Clause. Showing — III. Principal Part of Subject. Qualified by .^^ j^ ^1^^ g^^^^^^^ (2. In the Predicate (Attribute). Adjective Adjunct: Which may be a. Word. b. Phrase=Prin. part. I Adjunct. c. Clause. Showing . Form for Complex and Compound Sentences. 1. Analyze the principal clause or clauses first. 2. Classify the subordinate clauses as adjuncts, and then analyze as above. (See form for simple sentence.) 3. Point out the connectives. Model : The chair of solid oak in which Van Twiller sat was very heavy. A complex declarative sentence. Principal clause : The chair of solid oak was very heavy, of which v)as is the asserting word, completed by heavy, an attribute word showing weight. Heavy is modified by very, an adverbial word- adjunct showing degree. The principal part of the subject is chair, limited by the, an adjective word-adjunct pointing out, and by of solid oak, an adjective prepositional phrase showing material. Of oak is the principal part, and oak is limited by solid, an adjective word-adjunct showing kind. Chair is also limited by in which Van Twiller sat, an adjective clause showing which chair. Of this gubordin9,te clause, sat is the asserting word, modified by in whichj DIAGRAMS. 59 an adverbial prepositional phrase of place. Van Twiller is the subject. The subordinate clause is connected to chair by which. . ^ Diagram. chair , was \ heavy To the Teacher.— The diagram is much shorter than the analysis, but diagraming does not train the pupil in the ready use of oral lan- guage. Phrases and Clauses. Analyze, and notice the diagrams : 1. Subject phrase, prepositional. For every one to succeed is impossible. one "^^ \<^. V succeed A H ^ is \ impossible 2. Attribute phrase, prepositional : Bertha is in trouble. (Condition.) V \ trouble Bertha , is \ A 3. Subject and attribute phrases, verbal : To analyze a sentence is to separa,te it into its parts. DIAGRAMS. ■^ V o analyze | sentence \ separate | it V) parts IS \ A ^W 4. Object phrase, verbal : / mean to he punctual. Vo \ be \ punctual 5. Independent phrase, prepositional : In fact, she has no money. \ fact she , has , money 6. Independent phrase, verbal : To tell the truth, she has no money. \ tell , truth ^ she , has , money 7. Object phrase, verbal: lean not prevent his making trouble. (Making, part verb and part noun.) DIAGRAMS. mak T I can prevent ^ A 8. Independent phrase, verbal: Putting it plainly, he is a villain. V voting I i t From the foregoing exercises you have learned that : A Noun is a name. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. An Adjective is a word limiting or describing a noun or a pronoun. , [Note to the Teacher.— The pupil should be led to see that a-qualify- iug adjective really describes the thing named rather than the noun which names the thing, but as the above definition is brief, and the one in general use, it is thought best to retain it here.] A Verb is a word that asserts (tells, asks, or commands). A Verbal is a word derived from a verb, and is generally used to assume something instead of to assert. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a verbal, an ad- jective, or an adverb, to modify its meaning. A Preposition is a word connecting its object to the word that the prepositional phrase limits or modifies. A Conjunction is a word connecting words, phrases, or clauses, and having no other office. An Interjection is a word expressing strong or sudden feel- ing, and having no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. [Note to the Teacher.— Additional exercises in telling parts of speech should be given from lessons hi the First and Second Readers. Let children bring in original sentences, in which the class name the parts of speech.] PARTS OF SPEECH. 69 Ijesson J/. How TO TELL THE PaRTS OF SPEECH. Exercise Give the part of speech of each italicized word in the following : 1. I saw a hlack swallow fly fast. 2. Did the little boy swallow a fly? 3. The boys hlack their boots. 4. That light went out. 5. The light that you put in the window went out. 6. Write the word that on the board. 7. Light the lamp so that the room may be light. 8. Little Harry is afraid of the dark, but his sister cares little if the room is dark. 9. / forgot to dot the i in the word in. 10. Your book is in the house. From the sentences already studied, it will be seen that there are three methods of classification by which we may determine what part of speech any given word is : First, and least important, every word, spoken of merely as a word, is a name, or noun; thus, Write go on your slate. Last is often mispronounced. You have not spelled great correctly. He could not say no. Cross the t in then. Look for whom in the dictionary. Second, most words are, in their derivation and general use, some particular part of speech; thus. Good is usually an adjective : This is a good apple. IIoTne is usually a noun : He lives at home. Above is usually a preposition : The clouds are above our heads. But is usually a conjunction : The day is cloudy but warm. This is called the etymology^ or etymological classification of words. Third, and most important, the use of a word in any- given sentence determines its part of speech in that sen- tence; thus. Good may be used as a noun : He tried to do good. Home may be used as an adverb : Let us go home. Above may be used as an adjective ; I refer to the above statement. But may be used as a preposition : All are gone but me. 70 PARTS OF SPEECH. This is called the grammatical classification, or the syn- tax of words, and it is the classification with which, in the study of grammar, we are especially concerned. Lesson 52, Exercises: a. Write sentences containing the following words used as directed: lie as a verb, lie as a noun, dry as a verb, dry as an adjective, clean as a verb, clean as an adjective, striking as a verb, striking as an adjective, striking as a noun, well as a noun, well as an adjective, well as an adverb, well as an interjection, enough as an adverb, enough as an adjective, right as a nonv. right as an adjective, fire as a verb. brick as a noun, brick as an adjective, pick as a 7ioun. pick as a verb, outside as a wo?tn. outside as an adjective, sound as a noun, sound as an adjective, sound as a t^erfe. made as a wrft. made as a verbal, reading as a yiown. reading as a verbal, safe as an adjective, safe as a wortw. stranger as a norm. stranger as an adjective, fire as a no?(n. b. Select five words for yourself, each of which may be used as two or more different parts of speech, and use them as such in sentences. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 71 CHAPTER II. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Zf ess 071 J.?. Kinds of Nouns. We have seen from the foregoing that words are classified in syn- tax as different parts of speech, not from their etymology, but from their meaning and use in the sentence. But some of these classes have subdivisions, and changes of form, which we study in order to understand language clearly and to use it correctly. Let us first examine the nouns in the following : I met a c/a7d. Which child? Harry. He was from the city. What city? Los Angeles. The hoys are happy. What boys ? Ned and Tom. We will go some day. What day ? Tuesday. Saddle the horse. Which horse ? Fleetfoot. We climbed a unountain. What mountain? Mt. Shasta. In the first column, each italicized noun may be applied to any one or to all of that class of objects. Hence Such nouns are called common nouns. Most things belong to some class, and can have a general or class name. But we sometimes wish to show more clearly which one of a class is meant, and therefore we must use a particular or special name, such as those in the third column. Such names are called proper nouns. People, countries, cities, rivers, and sometimes horses, dogs, etc., have both kinds of names. Exercises : a. Give a suitable proper noun instead of each of the fol- lowing common nouns: Brother, sister, mountain, cousin, dog, city, lake, mother, book, president, ocean, doctor. 72 KINDS OF NOUNS. b. Give the common or class name for each of the fol- lowing proper nouns: British America, Susie, Cape Horn, Mr. Black, Dash, Tecumseh, Fourth of July, Stockton, Oeneral Grant, Robinson Crusoe. Notice (1) That some proper nouns are single words; as, Susie, Dash, Stockton; and that some are made up of two or more words ; as, British America, Cape Horn, Fourth of July. In the latter case all the words together make the noun, because all are required to name the thing clearly. Notice (2) That every proper noun and, usually, every word of a proper noun, begins with a capital letter. c. Write a list of six common nouns, using three of them in sentences. d. Write a list of six proper nouns composed of one word each, using three of them in sentences. e. Write six proper nouns, of two or more words each, using capitals properly. Remark. — Wheyi a proper name, as Clark, Milton, becomes partly com- mon by applying it to more than one individual, it still retains its capital; as, The three Miss Clarks. There are not many Miltons. He was a new Milton {meaning such a poet as Milton). When an object is personified, that is, spoken of or spoken to as an individual, the noun becomes proper, and is written with a capital; as, ^^Thou hast all seasons for thine own, Death." Lesso7i 54^, Kinds of Nouns. Exercise In the following sentences, select the common nouns and the proper nouns, and show why they are thus classified : 1. We quote from Professor Swett's " School Elocution." 2. There are maidens in Scotland, more lovely by far. That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar. 3. Then hail the banner of the free The starry Flower of Liberty ! 4. Here, Tim, tell Ned Saunders he can 't have the mare. Neighbor Derby wants her. 5. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight. NUMBER. i). " I came from Westminster Hall," replied the miller ; " my name is ]\ratthew Hale; I am Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench." 7. Whence are thy beams, O Sun ! thy everlasting light? 8. Love and tears for the Blue ; Tears and love for the Gray. 9. Judge not the Lord by feeble sense, But trust him for his grace ; Behind a frowning Providence, He hides a smiling face. 10. In one of Hans Christian Andersen's " Wonder Stories," entitled " The Ugly Duckling," he has written, in allegory, his own history. JOesson 55. Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. Some parts of speech change their relations and their form much more than other parts of speech, and sometimes a change in the office or form of one word requires a change in the form of one or more other words in the sentence. It is necessary to understand these modifications, in order to use the correct form, and to make the diflferent parts of speech agree with one another. [Note to the Teacher.— It is thought best, for purposes of brevity and for greater clearness, to teach the modifications of nouns and pronouns at the same time.] Modification by Number. 1. This nut is good. 3. That boy hopped and / saw him. 2. These nuts are good. 4, Those boys hopped and we saw them. Select the nouns and the pronouns in the above sentences, and tell whether each of them means one or more than one. Compare number 2 with number 1, and number 4 with number 3, and notice that other words besides the nouns and pronouns are changed. This modification of the noun or pronoun by which it changes its form to denote more than one, is called Num- ber. As there are two forms, there are two numbers. The Singular Number denotes one; as, man, tree, she, it. The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, men, trees, they. 74 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Zesson 56, Formation of Plurals. 1.3 the noun -pen singular or plural? Pronounce the last sound in the word 'pen. The last in pens. Join the two sounds. Now pro- nounce pens. Do the same with tree, desk, boot, table. Pronounce box. See if you can add the sound of s easily. What would be easier to pronounce? Why? In the same way try bush, fence (silent e), church. Rule I. — Nouns ending in a sound that will easily unite with the sound of s, form their plurals by adding s only; but if the last sound of the singular will not easily unite with that of s, then es is added. Exercises: a. Spell the plurals of the following and give the part of the rule that applies to each: Sea, path, gas, lace (drop silent e and add es), chief, loss, fox, barge, ear, perch. b. Write twelve nouns under each part of the rule. c. Reconstruct the following sentences, changing the itali- cized words to the opposite number, and change any other words necessary to make the sentences sound well: 1. The dog is barking. 2. This horse is a noble animal. 3. Til at bush has grown rapidly. 4. Where were the children? 5. I want a yard of cloth, 6. The boys have lost their hats. [Note to the Teacher.— The first rule is developed in full as a guide. Each succeeding rule should be developed by exercises of the same character. Drill exercises similar to those under Rules I. and II. should be given after each rule is developed.] Rule II. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a con- sonant change y to i and add es; but when the y is pre- ceded by a vowel, s only is added; as. NUMBER. /5 Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. fly flies key keys pony ponies valley valleys mercy mercies boy boys Exercises: a. Pluralize the following, giving the rule for each: Story, sky, turkey, spy, toy, donkey, colloquy, lady, tray. Remark.— r/ig letter u folloiving q is always a consonant, having the sound of w. b. Write six examples of your own under each part of the rule. Select three from each list, and use them in sen- tences; then change the words used to the plural form, aiid rewrite the sentences. Ijesson 57^ Formation of Plurals. Rvle 111. — (a) Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plurals regularly by adding s ; as, folio folios ratio ratios trio trios cameo cameos cuckoo cuckoos embryo embryos (b) Common English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es; as, cargo cargoes motto mottoes hero heroes echo echoes potato potatoes buffalo buffaloes (c) Foreign nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add s only; as, halo halos piano pianos octavo octavos lasso lassos solo solos memento mementos Some of this last class are spelled differently by different authorities; as, Webster. Worcester. grottoes grottos porticoes porticos dominoes or dominos dominos quartos quartos or quartoes 76 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Rule IV. — (a) Compound nouns generally pluralize the most important part; as, mouse-trap mouse-traps court-martial courts-martial wagon-load wagon-loads spoonful spoonfuls sister-in-law sisters-in-law cupful cupfuls Remark.— She drank two cupfuls, means one cup filled twice, or an amount equal to that. She has two cups full means two cups, each filled. In cupfuls the chief idea is the filling. (b) Some compounds pluralize both parts; as, man-singer men-singers Knight-Templar Knights-Templars woman-servant women-servants man-child men-children (c) Some pluralize the last word without regard to the most important part; as, forget-me-not forget-me-nots jack-a-lantern jack-a-lanterns piano-forte piano-fortes tete-a-tete tete-a-tetes Ijesson 58. Formation of Plurals. 'Rule V. — (a) Proper nouns, when pluralized, add s or es and are generally preceded by the definite article; as, The Crawfords ; the Bushes. Remark. — Proper nouns thus pluralized, as they apply to classes, are generally classified as common nouns. (b) When two or more persons of the same name and the same title are mentioned together, the best usage pluralizes the name and not the title, particularly if it is accompanied by an adjective of number; as, The Miss Clarks; the three Mr. Hales. (c) But when the names are different and the title the same, or when different Christian names are expressed, the title is pluralized and not the name; as, NUMBER. .77 Generals Howard and Sheridan; Messrs. Wells and Hatch; the Misses Eva and Frances Moody Rule VI. — The plurals of names of nations and societies should have the article prefixed; as, The Germans ; the Odd Fellows ; the Masons. Ijessofi 59, Formation of Plurals. Rule VII. — Foreign nouns, when anglicized, or made English, take plurals according to the English rules ; other foreign nouns retain the plurals which they have in the original language; some, however, have both plural forms. A few examples of foreign nouns in common use are given. The plurals of others may be found by referring to the dictionary: Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Alumnus alumni Genus genera Amanuensi! 3 amanuenses Gymnasium gymnasiums or gym- Analysis analyses nasia Apex apexes or ap''ices Hypothesis hypotheses Axis axes Ignis-fatuus ignes-fatui Appendix appendixes or ap- Larva larvae pendices Monsieur messieurs Beau beaus or beaux Memorandum memorandums or Basis bases memoranda Bandit bandits or banditti Nebula nebulae Cherub cherubs or cherubim Nucleus nuclei Chrysalis chrysalides Oasis oases Crisis crises Parenthesis parentheses Datum data Phenomenon phenomena Ellipsis ellipses Radius radii Emphasis emphases Stamen stamens or stamina Erratum errata Stratum stratums or strata Formula formulas or formulae Thesis theses Focus focuses or foci Vertebra vertebrae Fungus funguses or fungi Vortex vortexes or vortices 78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Jjesson 60. Formation of Plurals. Rule VIII. — Letters, marks, figures, etc., form- their plurals by adding the apostrophe and s; as, Dot your i's and cross your t's. The 4's and the I's are not made carefuJjy. Irregular Plurals. (a) Some nouns and pronouns change the word to form the plural. NOUNS. Sing. Plu. man men woman women foot feet goose geese tooth teeth louse lice mouse mice ox oxen chUd children PB Sing. tONOUNS. Plu. I we mine ours me us thou you thee you it they he they she they (b) Some are alike in both numbers; as. Sheep, deer, swine, vermin, grouse, salmon, trout, apparatus, series, alms (generally plural), bellows, cannon, means, odds, species, amends, pains (care). Apparatus and cannon have also a regular plural. (c) Some are always plural; as. Annals, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, eaves, hose, hysterics, nuptials, pinchers, riches, remains, scissors, shears, snuffers, statistics, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, tweezers, victuals, vitals. Dregs, embers, lun^s, oats, stairs, though used chiefly in the plural have also a singular form. (d) Some are always singular; such as the names of Metals; as, gold, copper: Virtues; as, kindness, honesty: Vices; as, intemperance, dishonesty: Arts; as, painting j sculpture: Sciences ; as, chemistry, physics: Abstract quali- ties; as, hardness, elasticity: Names of substances; as, sugar, oil, etc, NUMBER. But nouns denoting different kin be pluralized; as, The wines, grapes, and fruits of the New Wd Jjesson 6/. Formation of Plurals. (e) Some nouns ending in/or/e change /to -y and add s or as. calf calves wife wives beef beeves knife knives elf elves half halves loaf loaves leaf leaves life lives shelf shelves self selves sheaf sheaves wharf wharfs or wharves wolf wolves thief thieves Others ending in/ add s only; as •> dwarf dwarfs scarf scarfs reef reefs brief briefs chief chiefs grief griefs handkerchief handkerchiefs gulf gulfs safe safes fife fifes strife strifes proof proofs hoof hoofs reproof reproofs muff muffs flagstaff flagstaflfs (f) When other parts of speech become nouns, if they take a plural, it is formed regularly; as, At sixes and sevens. The ifs and the buts. (g) Some nouns have two plurals of different meanings; as. Singular. Regular Plural. brother brothers (of a family) die dies (stamps for coining) genius geniuses (men of genius) head heads (parts of the body) index indexes (tables of contents) pea peas (distinct grains) penny pennies (distinct coins) sail sails (pieces of canvas) Irregular Plural. brethren (of a society) dice (cubes for gaming) genii (spirits) head (of cattle) indices (algebraic exponents) pease (taken in bulk) pence (an amount of monejO sail (vessels) Caution. — Nouns ending in man, when not compounds, should be plu- ralized regularly; as, Germans, Mussulmans, talismans. 80 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. J/esson 62. Collective Nouns. I saw a flock of birds, a band of sheep, a drove of horses. The words flock, hand, and drove are singular, for there may be two or more Jiocks, bands, or droves; yet each of these words, in its singular form, expresses the idea of a number of individuals. So, such words as audience, assembly, committee, express an idea of many, though singular in form. Such nouns are called collective nouns. Therefore : A Collective Noun is a noun that, in its singular form, names a collection of persons or things. (h) When the individuals are spoken of together, as a whole, the collective noun is singular, but it may also take a regular plural; as, The audience is large. The lecturer drew large audiences. (i) When a collective noun of the singular form is taken in a distributive sense, that is, when the individuals are thought of separately, it is plural in meaning, and its verb or pronoun must also have the plural form ; as. The audience were not able to agree upon a committee, so the chair- man appointed one that suited them, all. The committee were divided in their opinions. I/esson OS, Exercises : a. Tell whether each of the following is singular or plu- ral, give the opposite number, when there is one, and state the rule for forming each: Path, sugar, geniuses, valley, 9, mice, box, potato, sisters-in-law, policies, apparatus, spoonful, Messrs., measles, idleness, milk, engrav- ing, beau, brother, gooseberry, solo, way, oases, genus, postoflfices, Mr. Cook, men-servants, chief, angels, mother-in-law, Frances Hart and Nellie Hart (different form). Miss Hart and her sister (different form), tea, proof, kingdom, mathematics, tomato, morning, thej', gentlemen, leaves, pianos, bridge, genii, chimneys, wives, axes, money, and, clothes. PERSON. 81 b. Use the words ^ocA:, hand, drove, correctly, with a sin- gular verb or pronoun. Also with a plural verb or pronoun. Ijessoii 6J^. Modification by Person. In the sentence, / study my lesson, I and my represent the speaker of the sentence. In the sentence, James, study your lesson, James and your represent the person spoken to. In the sentence, He studies his lesson, he and his represent the person spoken of. Exercises : a. Take the sentences in Lesson 54, and tell the person of each noun and pronoun used, calling of the first person^ all that represent the speaker, of the second person, all that represent the person or thing spoken to, and of the third person, all that represent the person or thing spoken of. Notice (1) that nearly all nouns are in the third person. When a noun does occur in the second person ; as, Geoege, come here, it is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma, and is an independent word. Nouns are sometimes used in the first person, in legal forms; as, "/, James Smith, being of sound mind," and in the Bible ; as, "I, Paul, beseech you." Notice (2) that most pronouns use different words to show the different persons; as, we, you, they, while nouns remain the same in all persons. Were it not that the person of the noun sometimes affects the pronoun and the verb ; as, Henry do your work, Henry does his work, it would be unnecessary to say anything about the person of nouns. 6-G 82 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. b. Give the person of the nouns and of the pronouns in the following: 1. My teacher asked me to hand this book to you. 2. Now, Preston, show your father the letter you have written. 3. I am but a servant; you are the master. 4. We pupils have little hope of understanding that which puzzles our teacher. 5. I, John, saw these things. Jjessofi 65. Modification by Gender. The husband, instead of the wife, should do the heavy work, for lie is stronger than she. I saw a lion and a lioness; lie was looking at Ms mate, and she was fondling her cubs. Examine the words husband and wife; lion and lioness; also the pronouns representing these nouns. The distinction you observe here, is called gender. Gender, then, is that modification of nouns and pronouns which shows the sex of the animate object named. As there are two sexes, male and female, there are two corresponding genders, masculine and feminine. Most nouns and some pronouns; as, tree, book, fence, it, etc, show that the object represented has no sex. These words, for convenience, are commonly said to be of the neuter gender, because they have neither gender. This, however, except in the case of the pronoun it, is not a mod- ification, but rather the absence of a change of form. To these three genders there are three corresponding pro- nouns, — masculine he, feminine she, neuter it. In the study of language, the only purpose in determin- ing the gender of a noun is to decide what pronoun to use to represent the noun. Remark. — 1. The singular pronouns of the first and of the second person, as they represent, respectively, the speaker and the person spoken to {both supposed to be present), have no modification of gender. 2. The plural pronouns, as they may represent persons of either gender, have no gender form. With these are classed such nouns as parent, chil- GENDER. 83 dren, cattle, birds, etc., for these words, although they represent animate objects, having sex, have in themselves nothing to determine their gender. They have sometimes been called of the common gender, but there being no corresponding pronoun the distinction seems unnecessary. Either say noth- ing about the gender, or say that it can not be determined. There are three chief ways of distinguishing the mascu- Hne gender from the feminine gender: (1) By different words. man woman nephew niece earl countess (2) By different terminations. tiger tigress prince princess hero heroine (3) By prefixing or affixing words to distinguish the sex. landlord landlady man-servant maid-servant gentleman gentlewoman Remakk. — Many of the feminine forms ending in ess are becoming obsolete. He is the mascuHne pronoun, and she the feminine. When a noun is appHcable to either sex, the masculine pronoun is employed, unless there is something else to indi- cate that the female sex is meant; as, Every passenger must now pay his fare. In a nunnery every one must do her duty. When objects possessing no sex are personified or given the characteristics of either sex, they take the correspond- ing pronoun; things noted for power j strength, etc., the masculine; those noted for grace ^ beauty^ productiveness, etc., the feminine; as, The sun sheds Ms beams upon all. (power) The moon sheds her silver light, (beauty) Small animals and young children are generally repre- sented by the pronoun it. Lesson 66. Modification by Gender. Exercises a. Give the gender of the following, and name the noun or the pronoun, if any, of the opposite gender: 84 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Nephew, songstress, widow, count, friend, him, lord, qneen, duke, nun, bridegroom, hero, wife, actor, witch, mountain, tiger, daughter, heiress, male descendant. b. Write sentences containing the following: 1. A pronoun in the third, person, singular number, feminine gender. 2. A proper noun in the third person, masculine gender. 3. A pronoun in the first person, plural number. 4. A common noun in the third person, plural number, feminine gender. 5. A proper noun, second person, feminine gender. Ijesson 67, The Office of Nouns and Pronouns. (Commonly called Case.) Subject and Object. Take the words Stanley; the hear; chased; and see if you can tell which chased the other, Stanley or the bear. Which is the subject and which the object? Arrange them so that you can tell. How do you know now? By the form of the noun, or by its posi- tion? Change the position, and what becomes the subject? Now make a sentence with the pronouns he and them and the verb chased. Which is the subject? Could the other pronoun be the subject? Why not? How do you know? By the form of the pronoun, or by its posi- tion? Again, take " Awhile the stranger eyed the maid," what is the subject? '' Awhile the maid eyed the stranger," now what is the subject? Conclusion: The subjective and the objective relations of nouns are shown by their 'position. The office, or relation, of most pronouns is shown by their Jorm^ as well as by their position. OFFICE-SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 85 Exercises: a. Analyze these sentences and tell the office of each noun: 1. The boy grew rapidly. 2. 1 met the boy. 3. That is the boy I met. 4. That one, the boy in blue, is he. 5. I am talking about that boy. 6. T am talking about that one, the boy in blue. 7. The boy's coat is blue. Notice that the noun hoy performs a different office in each of the foregoing sentences, but it does not change its form, except in (7). Substitute the plural of hoy, and you have the same result, except that (7) stands thus : The hoys' coats are blue. Now substitute a pronoun for the singular noun hoy, and you have he, him, his. Make the pronoun plural, and you have they, their, them. From this you see that these pronouns change their form with each change in office, while nouns change their form only in the possessive relation. It follows, therefore, that while few errors can be made in the use of nouns, great care must be taken in the use of pronouns. b. Give the office of each noun and pronoun in the fol- lowing: 1. I thank you for helping me. 2. Did you see us sliding down that hill? 3. He thinks you are the person who has done the mischief. 4. The messenger whom we sent yesterday has returned with our letters. 5. There goes my brother. Call him back, for he has started too early. 6. This garden is Frank's greatest delight. Ijesson 68, Office of Nouns and Pronouns. Apposition. 1. Mr. Howard, the book-seller, died last night. Bobk-seller is used to show which Mr. Howard. Mr. Howard (book-seller) died. (Explanatory word in \Smc/i expressions as court house, city police, etc., have been so long in use that the apostrophe has been worn out, and is no longer ex-' pressed. See also idiomatic possessives in Lesson 9^, RULES OF SYNTAX. 91 Zesson 73, Rules of Syntax, and Cautions. Nouns and Pronouns. L All nouns not used adjectively to indicate possession are in the nominative, or name, form; as, The dog is here, (subject) I saw a dog. (object) See also the noun T>oy in sentences 1-7, Lesson 67. II. A noun or a pronoun used adjectively to limit a noun or a verbal, by indicating possession, origin, etc., is in the possessive form; as, Henry's top. My top. Our going. III. The possessive singular of nouns is formed by add- ing an apostrophe and s; as, girl, girVs; the possessive plural by adding an apostrophe only; as, girls\ except in irregular plurals not ending in s, which are then formed like the singular possessive; as, men, men^s. Exception.— Even singular nouns sometimes omit the s after the apostroi)he, when there would be an unpleasant repetition of hissing rounds ; as, The Princess* slippers. IV. The possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe, but change the word; as, he, his; I, my; it, its; who, whose. V. When one possessive is in apposition with another, give the possessive form to the one nearest the noun they limit; as, I found it at Smith, the Jeweler's, store. Remark. — Sonie prefer to give tJie sign to the first of the possessives in apposition, particularly when the second has many adjuncts; as, I read an essay of Bacon's, the most eminent English philosopher. VI. When connected nouns show joint possession of the same thing or set of things, the possessive sign should be ^iven to the one only that is nearest the noun they limit; as, Wheeler ^nd Wilson' 5 sewing machine, 92 NOUm AND PRONOUNS. V II. Connected nouns showing separate possession should have the sign given to each; as, Duncan's money and not Frank's. Note. — Notice that when you can repeat the noun limited, you should repeat tlie possessive sign; _^ otherwise, use but one sign. The above equals Duncan's money and not Frank's money. VIII. A noun or a pronoun used to limit a verbal should have the possessive form; as, There is no use of your swearing or of any man's swearing. Remark. — Compound nouns, and some groups of words equivalent to compounds, have the possessive sign given to the part nearest the word limited; as, father-in-law's house; the king of Burmah's jewels; nobody else's things, or, as preferred by some grammarians, nobody's else things. Jjessoii 7^. Possessive Forms. Singular. Plural. Nominative form, baby babies Possessive form, baby's babies' Nominative form, wife wives Possessive form, wife's wives' Remark. — The objective form of nouns is the same as the nominative. Exercise : In the same way, (1) write the Nominative form and the Possessive form of each of the following, (2) give the reason for writing each Possessive as you do, and (3) use the Pos- sessives in sentences: Brother, morning, child, fox, chief, lady, kingdom, sister-in-law, mouse, gentlemen. Ijesson 7^. Possessive Forms. Exercises a. In the following tell what each expression means, and show why the possessive is formed as it is: DECLENSION. 93 1. George the IV's temper. 2. The children's father has come. 3. You will find it at Willard's, Hale's, or Cook's. (Three stores) 4. You will find it at Smith and Tyler's. (Store) 5. The Mayor of New York's influence is great. 6. 1 should like somebody else's opinion. 7. Was Peter's occupation the same as Andrew's? 8. Do you use Brown's grammar or Reed and Kellogg's? 9. This piece of land is Mr. Jones's. 10. The governor of California's term of office is four years. 11. Do this for conscience's sake if not for honor's. 12. The places of her two brothers-in-law were both flooded. b. Change as many as you can of the possessives in the above sentences to some equivalent expression, without pro- ducing awkwardness. J^esso7i 76, Possessive Forms. Exercises: a. Correct the following, and state the rule for each: 1. Do you use Robinson or Ray's arithmetic? 2. Mr. Hart is the childrens' friend. 3. My book's are better than her's. 4. The general's servants came on before them. (Two generals) 5. Was Cain's and Abel's mother there ? G. I intended to meet you at Mr. Welch's the bookseller's store. b. Change to more elegant forms: 1. Lazarus's sister. 2. Robert's wife's mother's sorrow. 3. An ac- count of the proceedings of the Teachers' Association of the State of California. 4. That house's windows. 5. For conscience's sake. 6. The city's police. 7. The county's jail. JOesson 77. Declinable Pronouns. We say: I am seen. We are seen. Hty hook, Our hooks. William sees me. William sees us. Here you see the diflferent forms of the pronoun I corresponding to the different offices it performs. 94 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Sing. Plu. Nominative, I we Possessive, my our Objective, m^e us There are a few pronouns, seven only, that change their form in this way. When these changes are arranged as above, so as to show conveniently what form is used, the process is called declension, and the pronouns that change their form thus are called declinable pronouns. The declinable pronouns are 7, thou, he, she, it, who, and whoever. Some pronouns do not change; as, which, that, etc. Declension. Sing. Plu. Nominative, thou ye or you Possessive, thy or th ine your or yours Objective, thee you Nominative, he they Possessive, his their or theirs Objective, him them Nominative, she they Possessive, her or hers their or theirs Objective, her them Nominative, it they Possessive, its their or theirs Objective, it them Sing, or Plu. Nominative, who Possessive, whose Objective, whom Nominative, whoever or whosoever Possessive, whosesoever or whosever Objective, whomsoever or whomever Note. — The rvords whosever and whomever, though not given in stand- ard dictionaries, are sanctioned by good usage. RULES FOR PRONOUNS. . 95 Jjcsson 78, Rules of Syntax. Pronoiiiis. IX. A declinable pronoun used, (1) as the subject of a verb, (2) as attribute of the subject, or (3) in apposition with any of these, is in the nominative form; as, (1) We are going. (2) It is I. (3) Mr. French, lie who helped us yes- terday, is president of the society. X. A declinable pronoun used independently is in the nominative form; as, Oh, happy we ! He being absent, we came away. XI. A declinable pronoun used, (1) objectively, or (2) as attribute of an object, or (3) 'in apposition with any of these, is in the objective form; as, (1) Let us go. (2) He thought the stranger to be me. (3) I mean Joseph, Mm whom Pharaoh promoted. Remark. — It will be seen that an attribute noun or pronoun is generally in the same form as the word to which it refers, but such sentences as the following appear to be exceptions, for here the attribute after a verbal refers to a possessive and yet is in the nominative form: I have no doubt of its being he. (He refers to possessive its.) To say, I have no doubt of its being Ms conveys an entirely different thought. [Note to the Teacher.— Naming and describing in full the relations of the different parts of a sentence to one another is called analyzing. Indicating these relations by lines and position'is called diagraming. Naming the parts of speech and giving their variations of form, and at the same time designating the relation of each to other words is called parsing. To give the part of speech of a word and its relation, with the gov- ernment and agreement, if there be an5^ is to construe a word, or to give its construction {i. (Idiomatic phrase used adverbially.' 1 Sin has , tools Sin has a great many tools. (Idiomatic phrase used adverb- ially.) An adjunct may modify a whole phrase or a whole asser- tion. You are always in trouble. You are That the man is an impostor being clearly demonstrated, we should be foolish to trust him again. we . should be > foolish (A verbal limiting a whole clause used as a noun.) ANALYSIS. 103 Note. — Place the absolute phrase below the predicate should be foolisli, because it logically modifies the predicate, being abridged from an adveibial clause of reason. But as the conjunction ha^ been dropped, there is no grammatical connection. J^esson 86. Sentences for Analysis and Diagrams. 1. I thought the man a friend. (Attribute of the object) 2. They pronounced her insane. 3. I felt my fingers becoming numb. 4. You knew her to be unfortunate. 5. They christened the child Judith. 6. You will find her to be a kind and loving mother. 7. He is employed as book-keeper at Smith's. 8. Smith employs him as book-keeper. 9. It is evident that he served as captain in the Mexican War. (Explana- tory clause) 10. To argue down a vice is not the way to correct it. 11. The grammatical predicate, or word-predicate, is always a verb. 12. Hurrah, hurrah for Ivry and Henry of Navarre ! (Consider hurrah a verb here.) 13. What matter if you fall? (Supply the ellipsis.) 14. What though upon her speech there hung The accents of the mountain tongue ? 15. Wilton was not so foolish as that. 16. "A stranger I," the huntsman said, Advancing from the hazel shade. (Parts transposed) Zesson 87* Analysis and Diagrams. 1. Hand me the boat-hook, boys. ( To understood) 2. That branch is six inches longer than it was last week; so rapid is the semi-tropical growth in California. 3. Now, man to man, and steel to steel, A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel. 4. A boy is always in a hurry to become a man. {Always modifies the whole phrase in a hurry.) 5. The brain is constantly at work. (=constantly working) 6. Charles Lamb was seldom in earnest. 7. What by work and what by economy, he has succeeded in amassing quite a fortune. 8. This fact having been announced, the messenger withdrew. 9. The fact that they could not have a holiday having been announced, the messenger withdrew. 10. Now it was, you observe, that the kettle began to spend the evening. 11. There was all the excitement of a race. 12. There being no law to the contrary, the cattle were allowed to graze on the common. {There is an expletive used to intro- 104 ANALYSIS AND PRONOUNS. duce the absolute phrase. There being no law to the contrary=no law to the contrary existing.) There I law W contrary y^ing Zesson 88. Analysis and Diagrams. Saint Augustine ! well hast thou said, That of our vices we can frame A ladder, if we will but tread Beneath our feet each deed of shame ! All common things, each day's events That with the hour begin and end, Our pleasures and our discontents, Are rounds by which we may ascend. Notice that there are several appositional terms in this stanza. We have not wings, we cannot soar ; But we have feet to scale and climb, By slow degrees, by more and more. The cloudy summits of our time. To scale and climb is a verbal phrase, compound adjunct of feet. we , have , feet The heights by great men reached and kept Were not attained by sudden flight, But they, while their companions slept Were toiling upward in the night. Standing on what too long we bore With shoulders bent and downcast eyes, ANALYSIS. 105 We may discern— unseen before — A path to higher destinies. Nor deem the irrevocable Past As wholly wasted, wholly vain, If, rising on its wrecks, at last To something nobler we attain. — //. W. Longfellow. as wasted 106 PRONOUNS. CHAPTER III. PRONOUNS. Jjesson 89. Antecedents. [To the Teacher.— The topics of Pronouns and Verbs are the two most difficult and most instructive in the whole subject of English Grammar, because these parts of speech undergo many changes in signification, use, and form ; and even when there is no change in the form of the pronoun, there is often a change in meaning that needs to be clearly linderstood by the pupil, in order that he muy have a correct appreciation of language. And some of these changes, as in the num- ber and person of the pronouns who and that, affect, not the form of the pronoun, but the form of the verb following; as, I who write. Thou that writest. He that writes. They that write. There is no better field than this for the training of the power of discrimination.] Show what each italicized pronoun in the following sentences represents : 1. General Grant completed his book before he died. 2. This hat that looks so shabby was good enough when it w^as bought. 3. To be kind to one's neighbor is right, but it is not the whole duty of man. 4. That Cortez conquered Mexico is true, but it is sometimes doubted. 5. The man who thinks himself w^isest is the most ignorant. The preceding substantive word, phrase, or clause for which the pronoun stands is called its antecedent, from ante=heiore-\-cedere=ib go. Exercise: In the following sentences point out the pronouns and their antecedents, and notice what are most frequently used as antecedents: 1. Among the Jews, education was restricted to the familj'', in which the father was the principal teacher. 2. The ocean is not the idle creature that it seems, with its vast and lazy length stretched between the continents. 3. It is my living sentiment, and it shall be my dying sentiment: independence now, and independence forever. f PERSONAL PRONOU]!iff.rj\> ^ *. 107 4. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, Sleep the sleep that knows not 5. The song that is the sweetest is the song thar^^au^r ^f^k-U^ ' "There," said the Indian, addressing the officer, "are your countrymen ; there is the enemy who waits to give us battle. Remember that I have saved your life." 7. Yet this is Rome, That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne Of beauty ruled the world ! 8. The branches of a pair of antlers served as hooks on whicli to hang hats and spurs. 9. There sat the very man for whom the captain and his men had searched far and near. 10. The aunt, who was one of the best tellers of ghost-stories in all Germany, had just been recount- ing one of her longest, and had fallen asleep in the very midst of it. Jjesso?i 90, Personal Pronouns. In some sentences, as in the following, the pronoun has no ante- cedent expressed. Point out the pronouns : 1. 1 am learning to think. 2. Why are you doing it? 3. Where is he going now ? 4. Get it for yourself, not for me. 5. She despised herself for her cowardice. Give the person of each pronoun in the above sentences. You see that it is not always necessary to have the antecedent expressed in order to tell the person of pronouns. But when the antecedent is expressed, the pronoun must be so chosen as to repre- sent it correctly. (a) I who write this do it freely. (b) You who write this do it freely. (c) He who writes this does it freely. In (a) who represents the first person ; in (b) the second person ; in (c) the third person. It will be seen, therefore, that some pronouns do not show by their form of what person they are. Which pronouns do show by their form of what person they are? See Lesson 77. Person, as here used, means, not an individual, bid the grammatical mod- ification called person. 108 PRONOUNS. These pronouns are, therefore, called personal pronouns, because each shows its person by its form. The personal pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and it, with their different forms and compounds. Remark, — The personal pronouns have also a distinct form for number. Singular, he; plural, they. The pronoun It is often used without a true antecedent, and may have a phrase or a clause which explains it, and which, coming after, is really its subsequent; as, It is very easy to find fault. If the sentence be re-arranged it may mean very nearly the same thing, and the it disappears. Thus: To find fault is very easy. In the above construction it seems to be an expletive. As this use comes under no rule of language, being merely a peculiarity of expression attending this word, it is called an idiom, and the expression is idiomatic. Another idiomatic use of the same word is found in such expressions as: It rains. It is very cold. There is no definite word for which the pronoun, if it is indeed a pro- noun here, stands. The construction, aside from its agreement, is very simple, and of agreement nothing, in this case, need be said. Lesson 9/, Hxercises : a. Review the declension of each of the simple personal pronouns, Lesson 77. b. Make sentences, using the following forms of the per- sonal pronouns: 1. First person, singular, nominative. 2. First, singular, objective. 3. Third, masculine, singular, nominative. 1. Third, masculine, singular, possessive. 5. Second, singular, possessive. (5. First, plural, objective. 7. Third, feminine, objective. 8. First, singular, possessive. 9. Third, masculine, plural, nominative. 10. Second, plural, objective. c. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, and see how POSSESSIVES. 109 many different pronouns you can find that might be cor- rectly used in each blank: 1. They sent Mary and to school. 2. Let John and go home. 3. May, Willie, and study grammar. 4. They all left but and . 5. pupils are studying language. 6. The teacher told boys to use our common sense. 7. The difference between you and is. you study the theory of language while 1 practice it. 8. Who tore my book? . 9. John is taller than . 10. • expect to be present. 11. expects and to be present. 12. Who is there ? . 13. That book is . 14. hats lie on table. Zesson 92, Possessive Pronouns. By the declension of the personal pronouns, Lesson 77, you see that there are two forms for all the possessives except hu and it^, the third singular, masculine, and neuter. Examine these sentences and notice how the i)OSse8sives are used, calling fny, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their, the first form, and mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, the second form : 1. My father was a soldier. 2. Henry found your ball. 3. Honor thy father and thy mother. 4. We should obey our parents. 5. The child has lost its rattle. 6. I will use Henry's ball, and he may use mine. 7. Have you found yours? 8. Theirs is much better than ours. 9. Your failure, not hers, is the cause of my anxiety. 10. Thine is the glory. Rule. — Use the first form of the possessive pronouns when the noun limited is expressed after the possessive, and the second when the noun is. not expressed after the possessive. Exercise : Make sentences of your own, using both forms of all the possessive personal pronouns. The second form of the possessive generally equals the possessive and the noun it limits, as in the sentences: 110 PRONOtlNS. I will ride your horse, and you may ride mine, (my horse) She stole your purse, but has she theirs? (their purse) Remark. — In solemn style, mine and thine are frequently used before words beginning with a vocal sound; as, mine eyes ; thine enemies. Exceptions. — The expression, that letter of mine equals that letter of my letters or that one of my letters, hut this friend of mine can not be expanded in the first way, for this friend of my friends tneans something quite different from this one of my friends. This heart of mine, That mouth of thine, are still more idiomatic and can not be expanded with sense, for a person has but one heart and but one mouth. Zesson 93, Composition Exercise — Quick Oral Work. [Note to the Teacher. — The following is the practical application of declension. If done rapidly it will be very profitable, and will be enjoyed by the pupils.] Give sentences containing the personal pronouns, as fol- lows: 1. First form, first person, singular. 2. First form, second person, plural. 3. Third person, masculine, singular. 4. Third persoUj neuter, singular. 5. Third person, feminine, singular. * 6. First form, third person, plural. 7. Second form, third person, plural. 8. Second form, first person, plural. 9. Second form, second person, plural. 10. First form, second person, singular, solemn style. Miscellaneous. 11. Nominative, singular, third person, masculine. 12. .First person, nominative, singular. 13. First person, objective, singular. 14. First person, nominative, plural. 15. First person, possessive, plural, first form. 16. Second person, solemn style, nominative, singular. 17. Third person, masculine, possessive, singular. 18. Second person, common style, nominative, singular. 19. Third person, masculine, possessive, plural, first form. I COMPOUND PEftSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill 20. Second person, common style, possessive, plural, second form. 21. Second person, objective, plural. 22. Third person, neuter, objective, singular. 23. Second person, solemn style, objective, singular. 24. First person, plural, objective. 25. Third person, feminine, singular, objective. 26. Third person, feminine, singular, nominative. 27. Third person, plural, neuter, objective. 28. Third person, singular, masculine, objective. 29. Third person, singular, neuter, nominative. Ijesson 94" Compound Personal Pronouns. The compound personal pronouns are as follows : Singular. Plural. my-j-self our-}-selves thyself yourselves yourself yourselves himself themselves herself themselves itself themselves What suffix is added to form the singular? What suffix is added to form the plural? To what form of the personal pronoun is this suffix added in the first three singular compounds ? To what in the first three phiral compounds? In what persons are these com- pounds? In what persons are the remaining compounds? To what form is the suffix added in the last three, singular and plural? Rule. — To form the compound personal pronouns add self for the singular and selves for the plural to the •first form of the possessive in the first and second person, but to the objective in the third person. Ca.ution. —Hisself and theirselves are errors arising from not observing the last point of the above rule, viz.: The compound personal pronoun in the third person is formed by adding the suffix to the objective form. Use of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 1. I will do that myself. (Emphasizes 7) 2. She told Joseph himself. (Emphasizes Joseph) 3. You 2/owrse?/ made a mistake. (Emphasizes yow) 112 PRONOUNS. In the foregoing cases the compounds are used simply for emphasis. 4. He hurt himself. 5. We injure ourselves when we neglect a duty. 6. He talks to himself. 7. You wronged yourself to write in such a case. In these examples the verb is transitive, the action ter- minating on the actor. This is called a reflexive use, from re = again or hack-{-flectere, to bend; the action being bent back, and received by the actor. When used reflexively these pronouns serve the purpose of distinguishing the person or thing receiving the action. These words may be used reflexively after prepositions also; as, I did it for myself. We can do it among ourselves. In the above, notice: 1. The compound personal pronouns change their form for number only. 2. They may sustain either the nominative or the object- ive relation, but never the possessive. Remark. — When we wish to emphasize the possessive, we use the adjective own ; as, She likes her own home best. Jjesson 95, Exercises : a. Give the plurals of my, myself; thy, thyself; him, himself ; her, herself; it, itself. b^ Use each singular compound in a sentence for emphasis. Same with each plural. Use each singular reflexively. Same with each plural. c. Fill the following blanks with words used for empha- sis, or used reflexively, and distinguish the use of each: 1. It is cowardly for a man to kill . 2. A wise woman will attend to her affairs, 3. I saw Charles instead of his friend, and he gave me his opinion. 4. I know it is true, for General Grant told it. 5. Be careful, or you will betray . 6. We have many great men in America who have raised from poverty and obscurity by their industry. Form for parsing a personal pronoun COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 113 Jjesson 96, Agreement. Rule. — A personal pronoun should agree with its antece- dent in person, number, and gender. ' Classify. Decline. r Person. Antecedent, ! Number. if present, j Gender, if any. L Rule for agreement. Form. Rule. Remark. — When the antecedent is not expressed, no rule for agreement is given, and the Person, Number, and Gender can be determined only by the form of the pronoun. Exercise : Parse the personal pronouns, both simple and compound, in the following: 1. As soon as the little silkworms are hatched, they begin to devour the leaves of the mulberry trees on which they find themselves. 2. " I know why George will not go," said Rob ; " he is afraid he will fall down and hurt himself." 3. The raging storm grew faint and breathed its last. The restless clouds fretted themselves to atoms. 4. The tree stood again in loveliness ; she was dressed in more than her former beauty. 5. A wounded serpent will sometimes bite itself. 6. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up To such a sudden flood of mutiny. They that have done this deed are honorable. 7. If you '11 step in one moment, dear, you shall behold yourself. 8. I seated myself in a recess of a large bow-window. 9. Our arrival being announced, the Squire came out to meet us. 10. For ourselves, therefore, it is comparatively of but little importance whether England does us justice or not ; it is, perhaps, of far more importance to herself. Zesson 9 7. Connective Pronouns. Exercise Point out the adjective clauses in each of the following 8-G 114 PRONOUNS. complex sentences, analyze the adjective clause, point out the connective, and notice what other office each connective performs in the subordinate clause: 1. People that do not like grammar think it a useless study. 2. The boats that they, had seen were not large. 3. General Grant, who had been an inveterate smoker, died in the prime of life from the effects of the poisonous nicotine. 4. Virtue, which is always its own reward, sometimes receives the condemnation of the world. A pronoun that connects to the antecedent the adjective clause in which the pronoun performs a substantive office, is called a Connective Pronoun. liE^AnK.— Connective pronouns have usually been called Relative pro- nouns, hut as personal pronouns also relate, the name seems inappropriate. Exercise : Point out the connective pronouns in the following, after this model: Model: The berries that she gathered were ripe. That connects the adjective clause that she gathered to the antecedeni berries and is the object of gathered; therefore a connective pronoun. 1. Humboldt, whom you have heard so often mentioned here, was a great traveler. 2. The people and the animals that he met were new to him. '^Tx.,. , were x new animals ^j/ \ H— he . met i ^ him that 3. Wheat, which is the most important cereal, grows abundantly ir India. 4. Livingstone, who explored vast regions in Africa, tried alsc to convert the savages. 5. Such savages as became Christians wen baptized. 6. As many people as could be seated heard the lecture. 7 I have more land than I want. 8. There is no sane man but might dc better if he would try. CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 115 man \but , might do V% Remark. — In this sentence the meaning is: There is no sane man "who might not do better if he would try. The word but fills the office of both who and not. Jjesson 98, The simple connective pronouns are who^ which, that, as, and rarely but and than. Remark. — The connective pronouns agree in sense with their antecedents in person and number, b xitdo not change in foi'm to show this agreerrw nt. Exercise : Parse the connective pronouns in the following sentences according to this formula: ( Classify. Decline, if declinable. Show what it connects. (Person. Form for parsing simple connective pronouns. Agrees with antecedent :-s (Number. Syntax and form. . Rule. 1. They also serve who only stand and wait. 2. He is a man in whom we can confide. 3. He who would thrive must rise at five. 4. Mr. Thome is the farmer whose barn was burned last week. 5. He whom thou lovest is sick. ^^ '^ Remark.— Who and which m^y also be used in asking questions; as, Who brought itf Which did he fiudf Whom did you send? Which may also limit a noun and become an adjective: as. Which horse is itf Answer. The brown one. In such cases, who and which are not connective pi-onouns but interrogatives. Jyesson 99, Connective Pronouns. What: She bought what she needed. 116 PRONOUNS. This sentence equals, She bought that which she needed; or, She bought the thing which she needed; or. She bought those things which she needed. Hence what is a connective pronoun,, having a double relation, and equals the antecedent that or those and the connective pronoun which. Exercise : Expand these sentences and give the construction of what, tell what it equals, naming the office (subjective or objective) of each part. » Model: She bought what she needed. What equals that which. The antecedent that is the object of the verb bought. The connective pronoun which is the object of the verb needed. She , bought , X ^t Diagram: she , needed , wh X Note. — The first {X) to indicate the first part, that, understood, and the second (x) the second part, which. Put tog ether =wha.t. 1. He did what was required. 2. She hkes to see what is passing. 3. He was not thinking of what he said. 4. What is mine is also yours. Composition Exercise : a. Use the connective pronoun what in as many other constructions as you can, in every case giving the office of each part. In sentences like the following, the word what has its antecedent after it, and equals an adjective and connective pronoun: He carries in his snuff-box what money he needs = He carries in Adj. Antecedent. Pro. his snuflf-box all the money that he needs. CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 117 b. Make six sentences illustrating this use of what. Try to get a variety. c. Analyze, showing the different uses of the connective: 1. That tall lady whom you saw is the very one that did it. 2. The horses that ran away were frightened by the windmill. 3. All that came were pleased. 4. As many as can be seated will be welcome. 5. These ducks, which I shot, are large ones. That, as, but, and what may have other uses than as connective pro- nouns, and thus become other parts of speech, as seen in the following table: That. 1. I gave all that 1 had. (Connective pronoun) 2. Parse the word that. (Noun) 3. That leaf is torn. (Adjective) 4. That is a sad story. (Pronominal adjective) 5. I am very sorry that you went. (Conjunction) As. 1. As is a very small word. (Noun) 2. I bought asi much a^s I could find. (1. Adverb; 2. Connective pronoun) 3. He was sent as surgeon. (Conjunction) 4. And the river became as blood (=like). (Preposition) Note. — As a preposition as is very uncommon. But 1. But has only three letters. (Noun) 2. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair. (Connective pronoun) 3. He went, but he could not stay. (Conjunction) 4. They are all gone but me (= except). (Preposition) 5. It is but right to pay your debts. (Adverb) 6. He is but a man. (Adjective) What. 1. Parse what. (Noun) 2. She got what she deserved. (Connective pronoun) 3. What is it? (Interrogative pronoun) 4. TF/mf tree is it ? (Interrogative adjective) 5. What! is that all? (Interjection) ^ 6. What fun this is ! (Emphatic adjective) 7. FTia^ miserable work ! (Emphatic adverb) 118 PRONOUNS. 8. What by patience and what by perseverance you will win (=partly). (Adverb) This use is very rare. Diagram: you I will win I \ and \ > \^> K perseverance JOesson WO. Connective Pronouns. Exercise Determine what part of speech each italicized word is, by its use, or office in the sentence, in all cases giving the office first: 1. What have you in that hand? 2. What is what in that sentence? 3. There is nobody here hut me; hut we are safe. 4. Butter brings hut twenty cents a pound now. 5. The antecedent of what is not usually expressed. 6. The committee said that that that that that boy wrote was not so good as that. 7. But, as, that, and what may each be used as several different parts of speech. 8. I think it is hut just that you should make the confession. 9. I think it hut justice that you should be required to pay for the damage. 10. What! do you think it is so late as four o'clock ? 11. There is no boy hut can do this if he tries. 12. I am as brave a^ you, but I do not want to go as a soldief. 13, What a hand- some man he is ! but what a voice he has ! Zesson W^. \ Compound Connective Pronouns. Examine whoever, whichever, and whatever. The suffix ever is derived from the adverb ever, or the adjective every, coming from the same Anglo-Saxon root aefre, meaning all; hence its effect is to give the pronoun a broad meaning. COMPOUND CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 119 Thus: Whoever means all who, or every person ivho, or he who. Whatever means all things which, or everything which. The compound connectives, then, expand Hke what, into antecedent and connective pronoun. Whoever is the only one declinable, and it changes the first part like the simple connective pronouns. The plural is like the singular. Singular and Plural. Nominative, whoever or whosoever Possessive, whosesoever or whose ver Objective, whomsoever or whomever Remark. — Sometimes the compound is used for emphasis; as, Take it, whosesover it may be. (Partly independent) Tell whomsoever you meet= Tell [every one \ whom] you meet. The antecedent every one is the object of tell; the connective pro- noun whom is the object of meet. Whomsoever has the objective form. I will punish whoever did that=I will -punish [the one \ who] did that. The antecedent the one is the object of will punish. The connect- ive pronoun who is the subject of did. The compound has the nominative form. Hence the Rule. — The form of the compound whoever depends upon the office of the connective part. I , will punish | one who , did , that Composition Exercise : Write six sentences containing compound connective pronouns; let two have whoever in the nominative form and two in the objective form. Aim at variety. Analyze each. Zesson /02, Exercise : a. Analyze the following and parse the italicized words according to this forrn: and the compound i connective pronouns. 120 PRONOUNS. ( Classify. I Decline, if declinable. ( Antecedent part. Form for parsing what I Expand mtorj^^^^^^^^.^^ p^^^ The connective agrees with J Person. the antecedent in : (Number. Syntax of antecedent part, Rule. I Syntax of connective part, Rule. 1. The court favors whomsoever it chooses (to favor). 2. He sold what he could spare. 3. What she did was good. 4. Whichever yon bring will please me. 5. The Emperor commanded w;/iomsoet;er he pleased (to com- mand) to enter the army. 6. People talk of what interests them most. 7. Whatever our visitors wish is at their disposal. 8. Whoever finds the horse may have my watch. b. Fill the blanks with the proper compounds: 1. desires may join the excursion. 2. Thie chairman will appoint the committee recommends. 3. he appoints will serve for one year. c. Correct the following sentences: 1. Whoever the children choose shall be queen. 2. We shall give the medal to whomever deserves it most. ' 3. Whoever we wait for must pay a fine. 4. Whomever rides in a carriage must pay for it. After correcting the above, diagram each. Zesson /OS. Rules and Cautions for the use of Pronouns. Examine the pronouns in the following sentences, tell their per- son, number, and gender, and notice their antecedents : Every man who thinks himself perfect is greatly mistaken. Queen Bess resembles her father more than he did his; her temper was so violent that it often alarmed even her favorites. I. Personal pronouns must agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender. Connectives, only in per- son and number. Exercise : Correct the following: RULES AND CAUTIONS. 121 I. If there be any one to help, let them come now. 2. Each woman brought their work with them. 3. The sun is a father to us, and we should love it. 4. We gave the horse oats, but it would not eat it. 5. Have you ever seen a lioness rave when its young were taken from it ? 6. Every boy should study for themselves. 7. Each moment is a treasure, and we should guard them well. 8. My teacher and friend gave me their advice. (One person) II. TvTO or more antecedents meaning different things and connected by and^ require a plural pronoun; as, Mr. and Mrs. Curtis have returned from their wedding journey. III. Two or more antecedents connected by and^ but describing the same person or thing, require a singular pronoun; as, This great lawyer and statesman has gone to his rest. IV. Two singular antecedents connected by and^ but emphatically distinguished from each other, require a singular pronoun; as, The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward. Remark. — In this construction the words and and too have the same force that as well as would have. V. Antecedents connected by and, but limited by each, every ^ or no, require a singular pronoun; as, Every book, every ruler, and every pencil should have its place. Ijesso7i WZ^. Rules for the Use of Pronouns. VI. Singular antecedents connected by or or nor require a singular pronoun; as. One or the other must take back his (not their) word. Remark.— TTt/.s rxde applies to antecedents connected by as well as, and to antecedents one affirmative and the other negative. In the latter case, the pronoun agrees with the affirmative and not with the negative; as, The baker, as well as the grocer, has lowered his prices. Lucius, 122 PRONOUNS. and not Claude, is expected to bring his horse. The boys, and not the father, should give up their seats. VII. When the antecedent is a collective noun taken dis- tributively, the pronoun should be plural; as, The jury could not agree, and so they were discharged. VIII. A collective antecedent conveying the idea of unity requires a singular pronoun; as. The Board of Education has its trials also. IX. Do not use pronouns needlessly; avoid repetition except for great emphasis. Henry he left her book here. Incorrect. Omit he. X. Do not use both the solemn and the common style of the pronoun you in the same sentence. Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. Incor- rect. Change thou to you, or you to thee. XI. For politeness, the speaker should mention himself last, except when confessing a fault; as, FoiA^nd I. XII. A pronoun should not be used to represent an adjec- tive, or in any place where reference to its antecedent would not be clear. Substitute a noun, use a direct quotation, or reconstruct the sentence. Incorrect: Be virtuous, which is more valuable than diamonds. Corrected: Be virtuous, for virtue is more valuable than dia- monds. Incorrect because not clear: Johnson told "Williams that he would not be noticed, because he was so commonplace. Corrected: Johnson told Williams that he, Williams, would not be noticed, etc.; or, Johnson said to Williams, "You will not be noticed, because you ^re so commonplace," RULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 123 Ijesson /05. Work, under Rules for Use of Pronouns. Exercise : Correct the following: 1. The committee were divided in opinion, so it referred the business to the society. 2. The crowd was so great that we could scarcely make our way through them. 3. Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter; it will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship. 4. My mother she thinks I am too young. 5. Either James or Milton has lost their cap. 6. This poet and philosopher had their little weaknesses. (One person) 7. Now, ray friend, I am going to help thee and lend you some money. 8. I and James and you will succeed, never fear. 9. Every soldier and every citizen should be ready to do their duty. 10. The rich man, and the poor man, too, is accountable for the use of their means. Composition Exercise : Write one original sentence under each of the rules for the agreement of pronouns in Lessons 103 and 104, and underline the word illustrating the rule. Be ready to assign the reason for the form of each pronoun used. Z/esson 100, Rules for Connective Pronouns. From an examination of all the sentences previously given upon the subject of connective pronouns, we deduce the following: RuleB for Connective Pronouns. T. Who is used to represent persons and also animals and things personified; which to represent animals and things; that to represent persons, animals, and things, together or separately. II. That is preferred to who or ivhich in the following places, except when euphony forbids; 124 PRONOUNS. (a) When having joint reference to persons and things; as, The men and the horses that were in the lot were blown across the valley. (b) In a restrictive clause after an adjective expressing the highest degree of quality or quantity; as, He is the wisest man that I know. Remark, — A restrictive clause is one that limits to a specific person, object, or class the application of what is said. (c) In a restrictive clause after an antecedent otherwise unlimited; as, People that have honor will not trifle with it. (d) After the antecedent who; as, Who that saw her could believe her guilty? (e) After all, very, or same; as. He is the very one that I met. (f) After the indefinite pronoun 1^ ; as, It is you that did it. (g) To avoid ambiguity: as, He sent his boy to a school that did him good. Remark. — To say " which did him good " might seem to mean the send- ing did him good, instead of the school. (h) Whenever the propriety of using who or which is doubtful; as. The little babe that lies in its cradle. Remark. — A babe can scarcely be called a person, and be represented by who, or an animal or an inanimate thirig, and be represented by which. III. Use who or which, not that, when a clause is not restrictive, but can be introduced by and he, and it; as, Garfield, whowas [and he was] a self-made man, rose to the high- est position in our country. Remark. — The non-restrictive clause should be set off by the comma. RULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 125 Jjesson W7. Rules for Connective Pronouns. Examine the following sentences, and notice the differ- ence in meaning: 1. All the man's friends, who are very anxious, think he must be dead. 2. All the man's friends that are very anxious, think he must he dead. 3. All our sheep, which were on the mountain, did well. 4. All our sheep that were on the mountain, did well. 5. The parlor stove, which we never liked, was sold to-day. 6. The parlor stove that we never liked, was sold to-day. Exercise : Construct six sentences similar to these, and explain the difference in meaning caused by using ihai^ instead of who or which. Remark. — The connective pronoun that should not follow a preposition. When that is the object of a preposition, the preposition must end the clause; as, This is a duty that all will attend to = This is a duty to which all will attend. As 18 sometimes used as a connective pronoun, instead of that. He cut down such trees ow were not needed. He cut down the trees that were not needed. I will give you such as I have. I will give you those that I have. Whose is the only possessive form of the connective pronouns, and it is used to represent persons, animals, or things. This is the man whose horse was stolen. This is the horse whose mane was trimmed. This is the mane whose shape is neatest. Here is a watch whose works need cleaning. Remark. — The use of whose to represent a thing, can be and in many cases should be avoided by the use of a pi-epositional phrase; as, Here is a watch, the works of which need cleaning. Ijesso?i i08. Rules for Connective Pronouns. TV. To prevent ambiguity, place the connective pronoun as near its antecedent as possible: 126 PRONOUNS. Incorrect: He is like a straw in the current of the Amazon that has no will. Corrected: He that has no will is like, etc. V. When several connective pronouns relate jointly to the same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each clause; as, The things that Madam de Forest brought from Paris and that were burned in the fire yesterday, were very costly. VI. A proper name taken merely as a name or in a sense not strictly personal, should be represented by which, not by who; as, Arnold, which is only another name for traitor, died a miserable death. VII. What should not be used instead of the conjunction that nor after an expressed antecedent; thus. You do not know but what you can do it, should be You do not know that you can not do it, or, possibly, You do not know tout that you can do it. Jjesson /09. Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns. Exercise : Correct the following: 1. The lady which she mentioned is an heiress. 2. This is the warm- est weather which we have had yet. 3. The boys and the dogs which are romping on the common make great merriment. 4. General George "Washington, that was our first president, was also an excellent farmer. 5. People who knew. him intimately say he was very systematic. 6. Who who is not systematic could he a successful farmer? 7. She saw in a window a bunch of beautiful flowers that she wanted greatly. 8. Do not call a child Nero, who is simph^ a name for cruelty. 9. This is the very plant which is described there. 10. It is strange what she did. 11. People who believe in ghosts and that are always believing wonder- ful stories, must be very credulous. 12. How do we know but what they are insane? 13. The two men what were seen were Germans. 14. Who is he who dare insult a king? 15. Mr. Fox, which was very hungry, EXERCISES. 127 thought he would hold an interview with Mistress Hen. 16. The sequoia is the tallest tree which grows. 17. Sun-bonnets, that are very useful articles, are not as fashionable as they used to be. (Observe the comma.) 18. Sun-bonnets that are generally made of light, cool material are the most useful articles of ladies' attire. 19. John Muir, that has written so many interesting descriptions of California glaciers, discovered the Little Yosemite. 20. The people and the animals which he saw on the journey were wild and savage. 21. Mrs. A. gave Mrs. B. for her son the dozen new handkerchiefs which she said she had hemmed for him. 22. That is the same bear which I tracked yesterday. 23. Men that work over hot quicksilver and who do not muffle their mouths, will not live long. 24. He is very avaricious, which makes any one become a miser. Lesson iW. The connective pronoun used as the ohject of a verb may- be understood, but as the subject must always be expressed; as, 1. The picture you gave is a fine one. (Tliat you gave) 2. The friends that help us are those that tell us our failings. Exercise : Some of the sentences in Lesson 109 do not need the con- nective expressed. Rewrite them, omitting the connective, and state why it may be omitted. Composition Exercise : Construct a sentence under each of the seven rules in Lessons 106 and 108. Examine the following sentences, and notice that the third explains the first and second : 1. All thertf escaped. 2. All the people there escaped. 3. All the people that were there escaped. 1. Many in town did not know it. 2. Many children in town did not know it. 3. Many children that were in town did not know it. In the first, there is part of a clause modifying all, as seen by the third. 128 PRONOUNS. In the first one of the second set, in town is part of a clause lim- iting many. Adverbial expressions are frequently parts, or fragments, of clauses that belong to some noun as adjective adjuncts. Zesson ///. Interrogatives. Notice the kind of sentences: mio found it? Where^ Whenf Howf Which house is it? Whose f Row do you know? What man did you mean? What did you say ? Why f Each italicized word asks a question, and is, therefore, an interrogative word. Some are pronouns; as, who: some, adjectives; as, which: some, adverbs; as, why. (a) He said, ''l^7io are you?" (b) He said, " P^7iere are you?" (c) He said, ''Tf7tic/i one are you?" These three sentences are declarative, but each contains a direct quotation tbat is interrogative; who (a) being an interrogative pronoun, where (b) an interrogative adverb, and which (c) an interrogative adjective. Remark. — A direct quotation is the repetition of the exact words used by another person. An indirect quotation is a repetition of the thought with a change in one or more words. Direct quotation: He said, " I will go." Indirect quotation: He said that lie would go. « Remark. — A direct quotation introduced into a sentence by the words said, replied, answered, etc., should be (1) set off by the comma, (2) be begun with a capital, and {3) be inclosed in quotation marks. Diagrams. (Interrogative pronoun asking :) you . are \ Who INTERROGA TI VES. 1 29 (Interrogative pronoun in a you , are \ Who direct quotation ; object clause :) He , said , Remark.— TVo connective is needed for a quotation, or for a question used as a noun clause. you , are \ who (Interrogative in an indirect \^ know / \ quotation ; object clause :) j He , wished , X I I saw [ man (A connective pronoun belong-' [ \,^ ing to an adjective clause :) y& who ■ found | it (d) He asks who you are. you | are \ who He I asks [ 1 (e) He asks where you are. / yQJ^ [ are He , asks , A X*© (f) He asks which one you are. you , are \ one He I asks , /\ \ ^ These last three sentences express the same thoughts as (a) , (b) , and (c) . The direct quotations have been changed to indirect, but they still imply the same question, and the italicized words are still interrogatives. Notice that a question is implied in each of the following, also: 9-G 130 PRONOUNS. (g) He said, "Tell me who you are." (li) I do not know who she is. (i) I have found out where you got it. (J) You can guess which horse won. Diagram. horse . won You , can guess , \^ Zesson //^. Interrogatives. « Definition. An interrogative, then, is a word that asks or implies a question, and may be a pronoun, an adjective, or an adverb. Exercises : a. Fill the blanks, and tell whether you have inserted an interrogative pronoun, an interrogative adjective, or an interrogative adverb: 1. found Moses in the river? 2. did it happen ? 3. woman did the princess appoint as his nurse? 4. had his mother hidden him ? 5. was his sister's name? Do these five sentences a^l, questions, or im'ply them? b. Fill the following blank sand notice whether the words ask or imply: 1. Guess Moses was put into the ark of bulrushes. 2. Tell in country it happened. 3. Do you know his father was ? 4. I have heard you like best. INTERROGA TIVES. 131 Zesson //J*. Interrogatives. c. Point out the interrogative pronouns: Who are they? Of which did you speak? To what do you allude now? Give me a hint as to who they are. Who am I? Who are you? Who is he? Who are we? What am I? What are you? What is he? What is she? Notice that the interrogative pronoun does not change, whether the question is about one or more, or about naale or female. As the question is always about some person or thing, the interrogative pronouns are always of the third person. When asking about a person, however, we use who; as. Who is it? If the question is about a thing. What is it? There being no true antecedent, the gender and number can not be determined, as they are not shown in the form. Exercise : Analyze and diagram, noticing the ofl&ce and form of each interrogative: 1. W^ho comes yonder? (Nominative— subject) 2. Who are they? (Nominative— attribute) 3. Whose hat is this? (Possessive — limiting) 4. Whom did Peter strike ? (Object) 5. Of whom were they speaking? (Object) Jjesson //^. Interrogatives. Composition Exercise: a. The declinable interrogative pronoun who has a nom- inative, an objective, and a possessive form. Construct two original sentences illustrating each form. b. Construct two sentences illustrating implied interrog- atives. Change each to a direct quotation and punctuate properly. 132 PRONOUNS. c. Parse the interrogatives in the five sentences of Lesson 113, using the formula for nouns, Lesson 79. [To the Teacher.— There is no particular gain to be derived from drilling on the interrogatives which and what, except to cultivate the power of discrimination.; but drill on these can be added here if thought desirable.] Zesson //J. Errors in the Use op Pronouns. Exercise : Correct the following according to the formula already given: 1. Who did you buy that for? 2. Who did you see in town? 3. Whom is expected to-morrow ? 4. Susie is the friend who I expected. 5. No one can tell what trials may await them to-morrow. 6. Sam and Fred, get yourself ready for school. 7. Who should I find there but he ? 8. You have mine, and I have thine. 9. I have a new book, which, when I have read, you may have it. 10. My father, and not a stranger, shall give me their advice. 11. The scissors have been taken from its place. 12. You have written this three times, which was not necessary. 13. The rotation of the earth on its axis, it causes day and night. 14. The com- mittee has reported favorably on the matter that they considered yes- terday. 15. Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 16. I and father and mother went to see the panorama. 17. How do you know but what Mars is inhabited ? 18. When a dish is set on this table, it should be wiped first. 19. Whom do you think has arrived? 20. Who, I ask, who sees me now, can doubt my story? 21. Mother and father, they do not want me to go to sea. Zesson //6, Errors in the Use of Pronouns. Exercise : Correct as in Lesson 115. 22. The grocer told the baker that his horse had run away. 23. My brother is not so slow as me. 24. It is you who need to be temperate. 25. Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a stranger to thy heart. 26. Dudley, that was here to-day, is president of our society. 27. This is the best which can be had. 28. The merchant bought a suit of clothes INTERROGATIVES. 133 and gave them to the poor boy. 29. He is not the same man which he once was. 30. The boiler can not be tested to-day that has just been finished. 31. In every movement self-possession and grace showed itself. 32. The moon shed his silvery beams over the landscape. 33. Dr. Blake sent his patient to a climate which helped him. 34. You may invite whomever will be the best company. 35. He was the wisest man whom 1 ever knew. 36. He is as foolish as a little child who reaches out to grasp the moon. 37. The passengers and baggage which had arrived were taken to the hotel. 38. The father and guide of your childhood will prove themselves the friend of your riper years. 39. Let him be who he may, I will not obey such an unjust command. Z€SS07l /^7. Errors in the Use op Pronouns. Exercise : Correct as in Lessons 115 and 116. 40. The friends whom I hoped to meet, and that had promised to wait for me, were not at the station. 41. We were surprised to see Lucius talking with Andrew, because we knew that he was his enemy. 42. The committee separated to go to its dinner. 43. These apples, if they had been sorted sooner, they would not have spoiled so rapidly. 44. That bright star set at si:3£ o'clock this morning which we saw rise last night. 45. The soldiers dispersed the crowd who had gathered. 46. Get me the red and black ink ; they will both be useful. 47. Parliament overtaxed the American colonies, which caused the Revolution. 48. Animals which live upon plants are called herbivorous. 49. Every team and every steamer is loaded to their utmost capacity. 50. The same person is both policeman and sheriff and they are kei>t very busy. 51. It was Fred, and not Henry, that hurt themselves with a knife. 52. The company have disbanded because it could not agree. 53. He did not say but what we were welcome. 54. The man should first count the cost who attempts to oppose nature. 55. It is in poor taste for any one to praise themselves. 56. If my aunt or my sister comes, tell them I will be back soon. 57. He needs no book that can not see. 58. You are as tall as her. 134 ADJECTIVES. CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES. Zesson //8, Classes of Adjectives. Limiting — Descriptive. Review the definition of an adjective in Lesson 50. 1. Boys are playing. Here the noun hoys can mean any boys and any number of boys. 2. The hoys are playing. Some particular boys, therefore the limits or narrows the meaning. 3. Five hoys are playing. Five limits by telling number. 4. Each hoy plays. Each limits by applying the noun to the indi- viduals separately. 5. My eyes are blue. The possessive pronoun my limits to particular eyes ; hlue describes them. 6. Platinum is hard. The adjective hard describes the platinum by telling quality. 7. That sick child will die. That limits by pointing out, and sick describes by showing condition. 8. He is in an upper room. Upper describes room by showing its position. Thus you see that there are two classes of adjectives — limiting and descriptive. Limiting adjectives do not describe, but descriptive adjec- tives often limit as well as describe. By examining the sentences above, you will see that limiting adjectives show how far the meaning of the noun extends, by pointing out, numbering, separating, etc., and that descriptive adjectives describe the real person or thing by showing quality, position, condition, etc. 1. The horse is a noble animal. 2. Hand me a7i orange. 3. Every star is a sun. These limiting adjectives — a or an and the — are often called articles. The points out some particular thing or I CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 135 Bet of things, and a or an limits to one, but not any par- ticular one. Remark.— A arid an are different forms of the same word, from the Anglo-Saxon root an meaning one ; for euphony tlie n is dropped before sub- vocal ar aspirate sounds. The is occasionalhi an adverb; as, The more haste the less speed. A is sometimes, though rarely, used as a preposition; as, He went a fish- ing (on fishing). Zesso7i //^. Classes of Adjectives. Pronominal. Examine the italicized words below : Some people are happy, other people are not. Some and other are limiting adjectives. By leaving out the noun people we can say, Some are happy, others are not. Few men are wholly bad. Few are wholly bad. The tirst five (pupils) recited well. This has a good fiavor=This (peach or apple). ^ Each should do his duty = Each (person). When limiting adjectives are used instead of the nouns that they limit, they are called pronominal adjectives, (something like pronouns). They are, however, not pro- nouns, because the nouns for which they stand, though not expressed, are understood, and if supplied, would follow these adjectives. When the nouns are expressed with such adjectives, the latter are then simply liraiting adjectives, no longer pro- nominal. Remark. — Most limiting adjectives, except the articles, may become pi-o-^ nominal. Exercise : Point out the pronominal adjectives, and tell what noun is understood : 136 ADJECTIVES. 1. This is a good apple; these are all ripe. 2. Don't take that on the upper shelf ; those in the fruit basket are better. 3. This one of the two girls is a mute. 4. The other is blind. 5. The other's vision is de- fective. 6. He pointed to the others. 7. Some people have money, I have not much ; perhaps you have more, but doubtless she has the most. By examining the above you will see In 1 and 2 that this and that have plurals ; In 4-5-6 that some other pronominals also have plurals and pos- sessives, like nouns ; In 7 that some undergo another change of form, used to express degree, as, much, more, viost; few, fewer, fewest. Remark. — This last change of form is called comparison. This is applied to objects near by; its plural is these. That is applied to objects at a distance; its plural is those. Singular. Plural. Nominative form, other. others. Possessive, other's, others'. Nominative form, one, ones. Possessive, one's, ones'. The possessive of another is another^s, and it has no plu- ral, the prefix an meaning one. Composition Exercise: • Write a sentence for each of the forms of this, that one, other, another. J^esso?i 720, Classes of Adjectives. Interrogative Adjectives. What trees were burned? (Asking a question) . trees , were burned 2. Guess wTa.B,t trees were burned f (Implying a question] CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 187 X , Guess trees were burned \ _J\ Exercise : % Write two sentences using which, and two using what as interrogative adjectives. Descriptive Adjectives. Descriptive adjectives may be used: 1. To limit a noun; as, A warm day will start the young grass. 2. As the attribute of subject or object; as, The sunshine is warm. The furnace made the room warm, 3. They may also be used substantively; as, The rich do not always oppress the poor. Diagrams. 1. dav 2. sunshine , is \ warm 3. furnace , \ made / warm , house fa- rich , do oppress , poor ' 4.- b. X ■ \ , do oppress , poor N. B. — The noun may be e upplied. ~^. 138 ADJECTIVES. Rk^ark.— Such descriptive adjectives as rich, poor, wise, good, beau- tiful, etc., when used substantively representing a whole class, have virtually become nouns, generally plural, and when plural, though singular in form, they require plural verbs and pronouns; as, The good are not always happy, though they deserve to be. The purely descriptive Adjective expresses 1. Quality; as, An industrious man. 2. Condition, or state; as, A sick man. 3. Position; as, An upper room. There are others, like the following: 1. A German university, A Shakespearian sonnet, called Proper Adjectives, derived from proper names, and always capitalized. 2. An unheard-of event, A two-foot rule, called compound and written with the hyphen. 3. Trying weather, Murmuring sea, A forgotten face, A forsaken wife, derived from verbals, and called Verbal Adjectives. Verbal adjectives differ from true verbals in having lost the idea of special time. They express a general charac- teristic of the person or thing to which they belong. Illustration. — A bird singing beneath my window atvoke me. In this sentence, the verbal singing expresses an act as going on at that particular time — the time it awoke me. The nightingale is a singing bird, but the blue jay is not. Here singing expresses an act as a general characteristic belong- ing to the bird at one time as much as at another, and is, therefore, a purely descriptive adjective. Remark. — Nonns may become adjectives; as, An iron spoo7i. The city police. Zesson /^/. Classes of Adjectives. Exercise : Point out and classify the descriptive adjectives: CHANGES IN FORM. 139 1. The fragrant breezes fanned his burning brow. 2. We met a blue-eyed maiden among the romantic ruins. 3. It was in an upper chamber, the inner walls of which were hung with rotting tapestry. 4. The Italian government has undergone many im- portant changes. 5. The closing speech was made by the retiring president. 6. The child is well now, but he has been very ill. Composition Exercises: a. Write six seijtences containing compound adjectives. b. Write six sentences containing proper adjectives. c. Write six sentences containing verbal adjectives. Ijesson /22, Changes in Form. As you have seen, descriptive adjectives may show qnal- ity, condition, or position, of the real things. 1. Walter is large for his age, but his brother Louis is larger. Large and larger express the same quality, s/2;e, but larger shows that one of the boys possesses this quality in a greater degree than the other. 2. Alva is the largest one of the four brothers. Largest shows that Alva has the greatest degree of size of all the persons compared. Notice, then, that this adjective has three forms — large, larger, largest. Name two other adjectives that can have this change in form. This change in the form of the adjective to express differ- ent degrees of the same quality is called comparison. It would be very burdensome to our language to have a different form of the adjective for each of these degrees. Usage has settled upon three forms, for many adjectives, called the common, or posi- tive, form, the comparative, and the superlative form. With some there is a diminutive form, as yellowis/i, saltish. Many variations of degree are shown by joining an adverb to the adjectives ; as, more healthful, most healthful, less healthful, least healthful. Examine : large, larger, largest. 140 ADJECTIVES, strong, stronger, strongest. . ^ ( more amiable, miost amiable. ' I less amiable, least amiable. Exercise : Use the above adjectives in sentences. Large, strong, amiable, yellow, are in the common, or simplest, form. (Usually called the positive) Examine these sentences; notice, (1) what things are compared, and (2) how many at a time : Ned is tall, but Will is taller. The mother is more amiable than her daughter is [amiable]. Miss G's desks are smaller than Miss H's. The second book is less interesting than the others. The italicized adjectives used above are in the comparative form. The comparative form shows that two things, or sets of things, have been compared with regard to a certain quality, and that the one described by the comparative has more or less of the quality than the other. Examine these in the same way : He is the tallest boy in school, and the best scholar in his class. She is the youngest of four children. The three sisters have each a pony, but Susie's is the smallest. Of all the books I have read, this is the least interesting. This form is called the superlative. It shows that more than two things, or sets of things, have been compared in regard to a certain quality, and that the one described has the most or the least of that quality. Exercise : Write out the comparison of the adjectives in the four sentences above, in this form: Simplest form. Comparative. Superlative. wide, wider, widest. jbappy, "j merry, happier. happiest. merrier, merriest. CHANGES IN FORM. 141 timplest Form. Cumparatice. Superlative. (able, (gentle. abler. ablest. gentler. gentlest. (narrow, (shallow. narrower, narrowest. shallower, shallowest. excitable. (more excitable, (less excitable. (most excitable, (least excitable. healthful, more (or less) healthful, most (or least) healthful. Zesso?i 723, Changes in Form. Directions for Comparison. I. Most adjectives of one syllable, and those of two syl- lables accented on the last, or ending in y, le, ow, are com- pared by adding er to form the comparative, and est to form the superlative. In forming these different degrees, observe the rules for spelling. II. Other adjectives of two syllables, and those of more than two syllables, are usually compared by prefixing more and most for increase, and less and least for decrease. Remark. — More and most, less and least, may be construed either as adverbs or as a part of the adjective, expressing a degree of comparison. Note. — The choice of modes of comparison is often a matter of sound. Choose that which is most agreeable to the ear, if in accordance with good usage. III. Some adjectives are compared by a radical change in the word: Good, better, best. Irregular Comparison. 'imple Form. Comparative. Superlative. ^ft, after. aftermost. bad, ■ evil, worse. worst. ill, far. farther, farthest or 142 Simplest Form. fore, (Forth,) Good, Hind, (In),. Late, Late, Little, (Many, (Much, Near, Old, Out, Under, (Up), Top, Remark. — The words inclosed in parentheses are adverbs. Most limiting adjectives are not compared, though some expressing number or quantity may admit of comparison. Descriptive adjectives expressing qualities that can exist in one degree only, or are already in the highest degree, are not com- pared; as, round, dead, level, perfect. We may say more nearly perfect, etc.; and the comparative and superlative forms are frequently used in that sense. ADJECTIVES. Comparative. former. Superlative. foremost or first. further. (furthest or (furthermost. better. best. hinder. [hindmost or (hindermost. inner. [ inmost or (innermost. later. latest. latter. last. less. least. more. most. nearer, [nearest, (next. [older, (elder, (oldest, (eldest. [outer, (utter. outermost. - utmost, [uttermost. undermost, [upmost, (uppermost. upper. topmost. Ijesso7i 724-^ Changes in Form. Exercise : a. Compare according to the above rules or exceptions: Wise, lovely, intelligent, much, lazy, pretty, graceful, hot, cold, capable, well, good, honorable, peaceful, hard, horizontal, eloquent, ill, sallow, tender, handsome, idle. RULES AND C^9^f>N8.r)^ . ,£f5 •- Some of these may be compar4l^ hf 'irfea-ns of suflfixes ch* 6i prefixes; look in the dictionary when^iJ/doubt. ^, ..^- ,- b. Sum up your knowledge of the siJ^^j^i^^^lii^tives by rapid parsing, after this form: 1. Classify. C Simplest Form. ^ 2. Compare : < Comparative Form. (. Superlative Form. 3. Give Form. 4. Give Use. 5. Rule: "Adjectives limit or describe nouns or pronouns." Model: That boy is tall. ' Common descriptive adjective. fTall. Compared : < Taller. Tall<; [Tallest. Simplest form. Used as an attribute describing hoy. Rule. — Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns. Zesson ^25, Rules and Cautions. The Articles. I. Use a or an to indicate one, but no particular one; the •to point out a particular thing or class. II. For euphony, use a before words beginning with a sub- vocal or an aspirate sound and an before a vocal sound; as a ball, an apricot, a task. Exception.— Ji5 is considered good usage to use an before the aspirate sound of h when the word is accented on the second syllable; as, An historian; an hypothesis. FvV.'M AUK.— Subvocals, vocals, and aspirates, are sounds and not letters. We say an hour because h is silent and the word begins with the vocal sound of on. 144 ADJECTIVES. III. When two or more connected adjectives describe different things, use the article before each adjective; as, We found a hot and a cold spring. (One spring could not be both hot and cold.) IV. When two or more connected adjectives describe one thing or set of things jointly, use the article before the first adjective only; as, A black and white shawl. (One shawl, but two colors) N. B. — A repetition of the article implies a repetition of the noun. Lesson /26. Rules and Cautions. V. Connected nouns emphatically distinguished from each other have the article before each; as, In choosing a friend, we should consider the character rather than the social standing. VI. Do not use the article before the names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences, taken in a general sense; before titles or words mentioned merely as words; or before a proper name in the singular; as, Milton thinks love is a virtue and anger a vice. They gave her the title of M.D. Hill comes from the same root as column — not A hill comes, etc. Few expresses number, and little — quantity. VII. Use a few and a little when meaning some; feio when meaning not many, and little, not much; as, I am content wdth a few friends and a little money. (Meaning some friends, and some money.) Note.— A few and a little mean more than few and little. yill. In expressing a comparison with than, if both nouns refer to the same person or thing, use but one article; otherwise, repeat the article; as, EXERCISES. 145 Mr. S. is a better carpenter than blacksmith. (He is a better carpenter than he is a blacksmith.) Mr, S. is a better carpenter than a blacksmith. (He is a better carpenter than a blacksmith would be.) J^esson /27. Composition Exercise : Write a correct sentence illustrating each of the eight rules and cautions, Lessons 125 and 126. Zesson /28. Errors in the Use of Articles. Exercise : Correct the sentences below by the following Model : He was an wise man. Incorrect : Because an is here used before the word wise, begin- ning with a subvocal sound, thus violating the rule: ".1 should be used before words beginning with a subvocal or an aspirate sound." Corrected: He was a wise man. 1. They found an hornet's nest, but were rescued by an young man in an uniform like that of a soldier. 2. Hattie has a elegant new dress. 3. Is she a honest girl? 4. We staid a hour, an whole hour. 5. A frac- tion is one of the equal parts of an unit. 6. Kow we are studying not the noun but adjective. 7. Imitate the virtues, as well as manners, of your neighbors. 8. The hard and soft maple require very different soil. 9. The east and west boundary are a mile apart. 10. Ellen's aunt gave her two new handkerchiefs, a linen and silk. IL The honesty is always the best policy. 12. She wrote another and a colder letter. 13. What is the original meaning of a memorandum? 14. Howard was always partial to the mathematics. 15. Wilson had a few friends because he was so surly. 16. As the waves were rolling high, but a little of the cargo and a few passengers were rescued. 17. You sent me less books than ordered. 18. Little (something) can be accomplished in so short a time, but not enough. 19. Few Japanese come to this country to study, because they wish to learn our manners and customs. 10-G 146 ADJECTIVES. Zesson /29. Rules and Cautions. IX. Whenever the adjective has a form to denote one or more than one, the adjective and noun should agree in number; as, TJiis kind, these kinds, twenty pounds. But we may say a five-dollar piece, or a ten-foot pole, when the singular noun helps to form th6 compound adjective. The following nouns are singular in form when used with numer- als, but add s in other cases : Brace, couple, pair, yoke, score, hundred, thousand, etc. Two pair of shoes. They marched in pairs. X. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs for adjectives; as. His face looks cross. (Not crossly) Diagram. I scolded him well. (Not good) XI. Do not use the pronoun them as an adjective; say, Those scissors, not them scissors. XII. Use either and neither with reference to two things only; any and none with reference to more than two; as, Any of the six. Neither of these two. Zesson /SO. Rules and Cautions. XIII. Use the reciprocal expression each other Yf\i\i refer- ence to two; and one another with reference to more than two; as, That couple are very devoted to each other. Neighbors should be kind to one another. XIV. When adjectives are of the same rank, and joined to one noun, they should generally be arranged in order of length, the shortest first; as, George is both honest and industrious. EXERCISES. 147 Remark. — Terms are of the same rank when connected by and, or, or nor, expressed or understood. When in a series of adjectives of the same rank, one or more of the conjunctions is omitted, the adjectives must be sep- arated from one another by the comma. XV. In a series of adjectives of different rank, place nearest the noun the one expressing the most distinguishing quality of it, or most closely limiting it; as. An intelligent young lady. lady It would not sound correct to say, "An intelligent and young lady ;" there- fore no comma, and the adjectives need not be in order of length. XVI. Be careful in the choice of adjectives; do not exag- gerate the idea, or repeat it; thus. Do not say, *' I have a horrible cold." (Look up the meaning of the word horrible.) Severe would be better, "He is wise and intelligent,^^ repeats the idea. Zesson 737. Errors in the Use op Adjectives. Exercises: a. Correct the following hy model under Lesson 128: 1. It is impossible for me to like those kind of peaches. 2. That tree is sixty foot high. 3. He walked very gentle. 4. She appeared beauti- fully that evening. 5. I have not seen Jane this five daj'S. 6. It is uncommon foggy this morning. 7. What do you think of them sugar tongs? 8. Pass me those molasses. 9. None of you two can do this. 10. Here are four horses, but neither will do. 11. Twins are generally very much like one another. 12. Richard is an intelligent and full- grown young man. 13. Members of the same school should recognize each other on the street. 14. The three last verses are the best. 15. I have taken an awful cold. 16. The house is large and roomy. 17. It is beastly weather. 18. These sort of people are always quarrelsome. b. After correction, parse the adjectives in the above. 148 ADJECTIVES. Zesson /32. Composition Exercise: Make a correct sentence under each of the rules and cautions in Lessons 129 and 130. Give a good reason for each adjective that you use. Zesso?i /SS, Rules and Cautions. XVII. When this and that^ these and those are contrasted, this and these should refer to the latter of the two things mentioned, and that and those to the former; as, There was once a marked difference between the Spartans and the Athenians, these being noted for their hardihood, those for their culture. (For the true meaning, change the position of the terms, Athenians and Spartans.) XVIII. When the one and the other are contrasted, the one should refer to the former term mentioned and the other to the latter; as, The two brothers, George and Milton, were a striking contrast; the one was fair and amiable ; the other dark and fiery. XIX. Place adjectives so that they will clearly limit or describe the word intended; as, A box of fresh grapes, not A fresh box of grapes, unless a different thought is intended. XX. The comparative degree is generally used with reference to two objects, or sets of objects, and the superla- tive, to more than two; as, The Mississippi is longer than the Ohio. It is the largest river in the United States. Remark. — The superlative form is often used by good writers in compari- son of two things, particularly if there are only two in all. {His right hand is the largest) RULES AND CAUTIONS, 149 Zesson /SJ^, Rules and Cautions. XXI. Avoid double comparatives and double superla- tives; as, This was the most unkindest cut of all. (Omit moii.) XXII. When the comparative form is used, the latter term of comparison should exclude the former; as, My new horse is better than any I have ever had, should be than any I have had before. Remark. — The comparative is usually followed by than, the superlative is preceded by the and followed by of. A comparative preceded by the may be followed by of; as, He was the wiser of the two. Some words implying the comparative are followed by to; as, superior to, preferable to, etc. XXIII. When the superlative form is used, the latter term of comparison should include the former; as, He was the best-natured boy in his class. The latter term class includes the former term he. He was the best-natured of his asso- ciates is incorrect, because he could not be one of his own associ- ates — the latter term does not include the former. Therefore the superlative should not be used. XXIV. Do not use comparative terminations or adverbs of degree with adjectives that do not admit of comparison, and avoid comparing a thing with itself ; as, A more universal opinion, should be An opinion more nearly universal, or more common. Zesson /S5. Exercises Under the Rules in Lessons 133 and 134. a. Fill the blanks: Superlative. Which of the three brothers is the ? Comparative. That picture is any you have had . He was the abler man of . 150 ADJECTIVES. b. Correct the following: 1. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should not therefore account those happy and these miserable. 2. Bring a new can of milk. 3. She was the most miserablest creature in exist- ence. 4. Mrs. Hayes was the most plainly dressed of any other lady present. 5. The most superior article can be obtained there. 6. Wheat is more nutritious than any grain. 7. Wycliffe should be called the father of English prose, if Chaucer is called the father of English poetr3^ The one was the courtly student, the other, the vigorous preacher. 8. This is the taller of the three trees. 9. A baked dish of pork and beans. 10. The ignorant and the wise should live side bj'' side ; then when these get into trouble, those could help them out. 11. Which of them two flowers is the prettiest? 12. I know a more preferable way. (Prefer- able implies a comparison of two.) 13. The most principal rules should be learned thoroughly. 14. The use of tobacco is, of all other extrava- gant habits, the most disgustingly selfish. 15. There is no vice so costly and degrading as drunkenness. 16. China is more populous than any country in the world. 17. The tower of Paris will be the tallest of all the other towers since Babel. Zesson iS6. Composition Exercises. a. Write two sentences, using the comparative form. b. Write two sentences, using the superlative form. c. Write two sentences, using adjectives that can not be compared. d. Write two sentences, contrasting ih,%% and thai. e. Place a suitable noun after each of the following ad- jectives: Great, wise, high, long, bright, roaring, sleeping, fifteen, awful, terrible, pale, delicious, frosty, ripe, wet, a few, lean, natural, gay, these, those, that, persevering, stooping. Jjesson /37. Composition Exercises. f. Prefix an adjective to each of the following, without using the same adjective twice: Peer, child, goose, hero, negro, work, fence, fear, delay, vices, EXERCISES. 151 actions, story, porch, judge, mountain, woman, leaf, actor, traitor, wolf, attorney, body. g. Insert the definite article: Henry Eighth, reasons most obvious, man of means, new books, better way, first and last, high and low, three graces, how great provocation, all modern writers. h. Insert the indefinite article: Such power, open window, what incident, too great variety, uni- versal opinion, so great joke, uniform course, few dollars, little hope. i. Arrange each set of words so as to form a good sen- tence: (1) Good, one, is, man, better, a, community, for, than, hundred, ones, a, bad. (2) Gives, Earth, Spring, green, shroud, to, soft, beautiful, deli- cate, of, moss, a. (3) Round-faced, that, who, is carrying, boy, box, a, large, peaches, rosy-cheeked, of, has, a cheerful, heart, honest. (4) Hundreds, ferns, tall, of, graceful, wave green plumes, their, the, rocks, over, gray. j. Name all the parts of speech in the sentences you have arranged from the above. Parse the adjectives in the sen- tences you have made. Have you used the comma correctly? Zesson /38, Composition Exercises. k. Make six sentences, each of which shall contain three adjectives, one from each of these lists. Be careful about the comma: 1. 2. 3. A long blue the dark sunny those tall meddlesome this lazy purple every blue-eyed warm a few sweet- •tempered tender 152 ADJECTIVES. Notice whether the adjectives are of the same rank or of differ- ent ranks. 1. Write a sentence comparing the horse and the ox, with regard to height. 2. Write a sentence expressing a comparison between the horse and all other animals. 3. Write a sentence comparing the sea lion and the whale, with regard to any quality. 4. Compare the story you heard last with all you have ever heard. 5. Compare with one another three flowers that you have seen. ADVERBS. 153 CHAPTER V. ADVERBS. Zesson /S9. Uses of Adverbs. The word adverb means added to a verb. You have aheady learned that adverbs may be added also to adjectives and to other adverbs. Let us examine some of their other uses. Notice what the italicized words modify and what they show: 1. The boat approached rapidly. 2. We saw a boat approaching rapidly. 3. The officer ordered the small boat to approach rapidly. What does rapidly modify in (2) and (3) ? 4. That is exactly right. 5. It lies exactly opposite the town. 6. We have gone partly through the book. We , have gone book 7. He stood just under the bridge. 8. She is seldom seen. 9. She is seldom at work. 10. Some are always in a hurry. Some , are \ "^ A 154 ADVERBS. 11. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. Notice that (9) means seldom working, (10) means always hurrying, (11) means in perpetual motion; but (5), (6), and (7) can not be changed in this way. In these sentences, exactly (5), partly (6), Siud just (7), modify the preposition following; but seldom (9), always (10), and perpetual (11), modify whole phrases. Next examine the following: 1. Yes, that is my brother. that I is \ brother 2. No, you can not have it. 3. Perhaps he is the one. 4. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. The italicized adverbs modify the whole assertion, and it is doubtful whether they should be construed as modifying any particular word in the assertion. Remark. — As these adverbs do not modify any particular word in the sentence, some grammarians call them independent. ' Yes and no are called, also,responsives, because they can answer a question alone; as, Are you going? Yes. = Yes, I am going. Summary: Adverbs, then, may modify verbs, verbals, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, whole phrases, or whole assertions. They most frequently, however, modify verbs or verbals, and, as verbals were formerly considered a class of verbs, the name adverb ( ad -f verb) was appropriate. Adverbs having no other use are sometimes called simple adverbs. USES OF ADVERBS 155 Exercise : Write two sentences illustrating each of the above uses of adverbs. Ijesson ^4.0, Uses of Adverbs. Interrogative Adverbs. Besides these uses, adverbs may modify by asking or implying questions, and are then called interrogative ad- verbs; as, Where did he find it? Guess where he found it. When did you come? How can you tell? Show me how you tell. (See, under pronouns, the lessons on interrogatives.) Conjunctive Adverbs. Analyze and diagram the two following sentences: 1. Come when you are ready. 2, I go where I choose. What is the connective in each sentence ? What does the con- nective show? These are called connective (or conjunctive) adverbs, be- cause they join a subordinate clause to the word modified. A conjunctive adverb connects a subordinate clause to the principal, and modifies some part of either or both clauses. Many adverbs are abridged phrases. We can generally tell what word or words a conjunctive adverb modifies, by expanding it into one or two phrases, and then seeing to what each phrase would belong; as, Come when you are ready. Expanded : Come at the time at whicli you are ready. 156 ADVERBS. Diagram of Expanded Sentence. ■X , Come Y^ tim e (^^ i^^^ ^^/^^ modifies come . \ \ \ ^ and at which modifies ready; you are \ ready \ \ hence, when modifies a word ' \ \ ^ in each clause.) V which Diagram of Sentence not Expanded. X . Come you are \ ready But in the sentence, / saw the field where he was shot, The conjunctive adverb where equals only one phrase, viz.: on which. The expanded sentence is, I saw the field on wMch he was shot. The phrase on which modifies shot only. Diagram of Expanded Sentence. I , saw , field he , was shot \ V^ \ which Diagram of Sentence not Expanded. 1 . saw field he was shot CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 157 jLesson /^/. Conjunctive Adverbs. Composition Exercise : Write sentences containing the conjunctive adverbs because, until, before, as, where, and when; then change the adverbs to phrases, and determine what each adverb mod- ifies. Wesson ^4-2, Exercise : Review all the sentences given in the last three lessons, and notice again what each adverb shows; then what each in the following shows: 1. Speak now. He wrote yesterday. I will do it soon. WJien will he come? (Time) 2. Come here. Look upward. Where did you find that knife ? {Direction or place) 3. She could scarcely speak. You are very kind. Lizzie is quite amiable. {Degree) 4. Miss N. speaks distinctly. They came somehow. Do not act foolishly. {Manner) 5. Wliy did he save the child? We can not go out in the boat because the wind is too high. [Cause) 6. I was only joking. Robert has but one hand. She plays only, she does not sing. [Exclusion) 7. She plays, and sings also. The baby sang, too. {Addition) Hence adverbs may be divided into the several classes, adverbs of time, place, degree, manner, cause, exclusion, addi- tion, etc. Remarks. — 1. Most adverbs of manner are derived from adjectives by adding ly ; as, Wise, wisely ; sweet, sweetly ; slow, slowly. 2. Adverbs of exclusion and of addition are classed by some as adverbs of degree. 3. Some adverbs are used merely for emphasis; as, Yes, indeed, it is very line ; no, indeed, you must not go. 158 ADVERBS. 4. Adverbs of time have various shades of meaning interesting to notice, hut perhaps not absolutely necessary; namely, time present, past, future, rel- ative, absolute, repeated, and order of time. 5. Many words may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs; as, Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, low, fast. Composition Exercise: Write two sentences under each kind of adverb, using words not given above, if possible. Lesson /^J". Parsing Adverbs. Exercise : Classify the adverbs by telling whether simple, interrog- ative, or conjunctive, whether of time, place, degree, etc., and tell what they modify, according to the following Models: 1. Have the men arrived yet? Yet is a simple adverb of time, modifying the verb arrived. 2. They will wait until the wind goes down. Until is a conjunctive adverb of time connecting the subordinate clause, the wind goes down, to will wait, and modifying both will wait and goes. ( Until=until the time at which.) 3. Where did you see them? Where is an interrogative adverb of place modifying did see. 4. The fire went out while Susan was dreaming. 5. They told her the news again, but she seemed scarcely to realize it, for she was nearly crazed. 6. Speak gently to the erring. 7. But wherefore do you droop, why look you so sad ? 8. The mail comes but once a day. 9. Poor Lear became stark mad. 10. The affrighted people ran hither and thither, up and down. 11. Andrew is too particular. 12. Who comes oftener than I ? 13. Come earlier next time. Lesson /^^. Comparison of Adverbs. Examining the last three sentences in the preceding les- son, you will notice that some adverbs admit of comparison like adjectives. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 159 Foolishly, more foolishly, most foolishly. (Using the adverbs more and most) Often, oftener, oftenest. {Addition of er aiid est) Far, farther, farthest. {Somewhat irregular) Forth, further, furthest. {Somewhat irregular) Badly or ill, worse, worst. {Irregular) Well, better, best. {Irregular) Little, less, least. {Irregular) Much, more, most. {Irregular) There are not many adverbs that admit of comparison, but a few vary their form to express degree, in the same manner as adjectives. Exercises : a. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of the following: Patiently, comfortably, easily, earnestly, economically, profit- ably, secretly. b. Prefix the comparative adverbs of decrease to each of the above. Jjesson /z^J'. Notice the following: Hence, get thee gone ! [Go] hence. Away to the meadows, away ! [Come] away. Dovm, soothless insulter ! [Get] down. Once more unto the breach, dear friends ! [Advance] unto the breach. The italicized adverbs modify verbs understood, as shown by the words in brackets. The omission of the verb gives greater strength and animation to the sentences. Exercise : Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and see if you can strengthen the sentences by omitting one or more of the words: 160 ADVERBS. 1. Come here, my boy, take this bottle to the druggist for your mother's medicine. Run quick I she may die. 2. Go hence, go home, you idle creatures! 3. "Step forward, march! Adverbs, being more concise than their equivalent phrases, add strength to the language ; thus, Where is he ?=At what place is he ? Whyf=For what reason? Wisely = In a wise manner. Exercise : Write ten sentences containing adverbs, and then change the adverbs to phrases, where possible. \ Jjesson /J^O. Rules for the Use of Adverbs, and Cautions. I. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs when quality, not manner, is meant. II. Do not repeat or exaggerate the idea. III. The rules under adjectives, relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives, apply also to adverbs. IV. Be careful to place adverbs where they will make the meaning clear and the sentence smooth. Remark. — ''''For the placing of adverbs no definite rules can be given.'''' — Goold Brown. (i) Those that modify adjectives or adverbs, prepositions, or whole phrases, almost always imraedlately precede them. {2) But those that modify compound verbs, generally follow the first part of the verb. (3) Good usage does not allow the placing of an adverb between to and the rest of the verbal. Examples : A very clear sky. Quite slowly. Half-way around the grounds. He may not have done wrong. Merely to speak {not to merely speak). {4) -Sw< adverbs are frequently transposed for the sake of emphasis: I have to-day seen ten sea-lions. To-day I have seen ten sea-lions. EXERCISES. 161 Composition Exercise : From the following list select a suitable word for each blank in the sentences: Sweet, firmly, badly, sad, harshly, harsh, firm, sweetly, bad, sadly. 1. The man spoke to the child. 2. Such expressions sound . 3. The soldiers stood- at their post. 4. This red rose smelfs very /^ ^ /-^ }<^'t 5. My friend spoke ■ ^ <' ^^ ' ' of her loss. 6. The work is v-ii:^^-^ (ione. ..^'" 7. Your canary sings -/i-'^-*;^-^'*^^.^ 8. He is a brave man who - ' ■ ' '^ ^ refuses to yield to temptation. 9. How • ^ ■ ' "* ■ she must feel. IQ. I feel '• to-day. a. Use the following correctly in sentences: proud clear angry prompt bashful proudly clearly angrily promptly bashfully b. Explain what each of the following sentences means, and name the adjectives and the adverbs: 1. She looks graceful in that dress. 2. The platform was gracefully draped. 3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 4. Slow and sad was the music she played. 5. Have you talked with Herbert? No, I have only written to him. 6. I only have written to Herbert. 7. I wrote to Herbert only, yesterday. 8. I wrote to Herbert, only yesterday. 9. I wrote to Herbert yesterday only. 10. Nellie has only heard of this book. c. Rewrite the last sentence, changing the position of only as many times as possible, and tell what each new sentence means. ll-G . 162 ADVERBS. Zesson /4^8. Errors in the Use of Adverbs. Exercise : Correct according to the following Model: Petunias smell very sweetly at nightfall. This sentence is incorrect, because sweetly, which is used to express quality of the petunias, not the manner of smelling, has the adverbial form, violating the caution: "Do not use adverbs when quality, not manner, is to be expressed." The adjective is sweet. Corrected: Petu- nias smell very sweet at nightfall. 1. Such sentences sound awkwardly to me. 2. Some things are easier done than others. 3. This here knife is awfully sharp. 4. Which of those five horses runs the faster? 5. Miss C. sang gorgeously; she always sings better than any one I ever heard. 6. I can't do that there example. 7. She reads the most distinctly of any other member of the club. 8. Some children are in trouble always. 9. River valleys are more productive often than great plains. 10. We know very little of her life previously to this time. 11. I like this fruit better than any I have ever tasted. 12. Miss N. thought Mr. Simpson's the most prefer- able advice. Wesson /^^. Parsing Adverbs. Exercise : After correcting the sentences in the preceding lesson, parse all the adjectives and adverbs, using the same formula for both. Write out the first six in the form of an abstract^ thus: That is done more easily. ' Simple adverb of manner. {easily, more easily, most easily. Comparative form. Modifies verb is done. Rule. — "Adverbs modify verbs, verbals, adjectives, I. adverbs, prepositions, phrases, or whole assertions. " More easily RULES AND CAUTIONS. 168 Note.— in rapid parsing, it is better to repeat only the part of the rule that is applicable to the word parsed; thus, in the preceding sentence, "Ad- verbs modify verbs." J^esson 750. Rules and Cautions. 1. It is not pleasant to-day, I don't think. This sentence is intended to express a negative, but the second negative denies the first. "I don't think it is very pleasant to- day," is illogical. Say, " I think it is not very pleasant to-day." V. To express one negation employ but one negative, placing the negative in the clause to which it really belongs. Remark. — Neither-nor are virtually but one negative, as they always accompany each other. "He is neither wise nor brilliant "="He is not either tvise or brilliant." Exercise: Write four negative sentences. 2. I do not know whether to start or no. Supply the ellipsis and see what no modifies. No may be an adjective; as, She has no friends. It may modify a comparative ; as. No sooner said than done. Or it may answer a question , as, No, he has not returned. But it is not in accordance with the best usage to have no modify a verb or a verbal. Substitute not; as, I do not know whether to start or not [to start]. VI. Do not use no instead of not to modify a verb or a verbal. 3. He said how the boy could not resist temptation. Analyze the sentence. Notice the object of said. What is the connective ? How is an adverb of manner. The proper connective for an object clause, if any is needed, is the conjunction that. 164 ADVERBS. VII. Do not use the adverb how as a connective or with the conjunction that. 4. I did not think it would grow that large. My father is that tall he can reach the ceiling. He has a pencil that long. Each of the above sentences, and all like them, would be better if so were used in place of that. While some of them may be barely admissible in conversation, it will be far better for you to observe the following : VIII. Never use that as an adverb of degree. 5. Most adverbs are contracted phrases. Thus : Thence means from that place. Whence means from what place. Hence means /rom this place or from this reasoning. There- fore it is unnecessary to put the preposition from before any of these words. Where means at what place or to what place; therefore to Bay, ''Where is it at?" is to use the word at incorrectly. IX. Do not prefix the preposition from to the adverb hence, whence, or thence, or any other preposition to adverbs that already contain the idea conveyed by the preposition. Exercises : a. Correct the following: 1. That poor child hasn't no father. 2. Have you inquired whether the tide will be high to-morrow or no? 3. I was told how that it would be high tide at six p. m. 4. It was that cold that the fowls' combs were all frozen. 5. From hence we deduce the following rule. 6. Where is that policeman going to? 7. He is not very happy, I don't think. 8. If you have not neither dictionary nor reader, how do you expect to learn? 9. From thence they journeyed to Spain. 10. Mr. P. remarked how that his son was becoming unmanageable, but he had not got any bad habits, neither. 11. I know that much, at least, whether any more or no. 12. I never had nobody's knife nor nothing. b. After correcting the above, parse each adverb. Zesson /^/. Composition Exercises — Adverbs. a. Use the following adverbs in sentences, observing the rules already given: EXERCISES. 165 Even, nevertheless, besides, withal, herein, thereat, afterward, till, almost, twice, hence, already, no, yes. b. Use three adverbs to tell how a baby cries; two to tell how a good boy studies; four to describe the roaring of the sea; one to tell how much you like music. c. Expand into phrases the adverbs in the sentences just made. d. Make sentences in which some of the following adverbs shall modify adjectives and some shall modify adverbs: Very, somewhat, almost, too, generally, only, remarkablj^ nearly, e. Make two sentences for each of the following words, using each first as an adjective; secondly, as an adverb: Hard, most, but, what, no, less, early, long, much, most, only. f. Change these adjectives to adverbs: Perfect, square, good, slow, easy, smooth, harsh, much, gentle, bad, eloquent, faithful, pretty, whole, patient. Ijesso7i /5S, Miscellaneous Exercises for Correction under Adjec- tives AND Adverbs. Correct by the full formula, or simply quote the rule vio- lated; then give the corrected form: 1. She is a small little girl. 2. The then monarch was tyrannical and vain. 3. Such a harsh course will produce nothing but evil. 4. That molasses isn't good for nothing. 5. The proud and the humble are often brought into contact; those form the door-mat upon which these condescend to wipe their feet. 6. The disputants grew excitedly and behaved very bad. 7. Try it over again, or she will scold you good. 8. Your garden looks some better now, but it needs watering most every day. 9. She was dreadful glad I came, but I only saw her once. 10. Helen nearly rowed across the river. 11. You are to only come when 1 call. 12. 1 can do it easier than you can. 13. Henry was awful glad to meet the Portuguese sailor, who knew more about fishing than any man he ever saw. 14. The two sisters enjoyed one another's society. 15. Wilkins was an idle and an ignorant man. 166 CONJUNCTIONS. CHAPTER VI. CONJUNCTIONS. Ijesson 754-^ Analyze these sentences and notice what office besides that of connectives is filled by that and when: 1. People that live in glass houses should not throw stones. 2. The services were nearly over when we reached the church. Notice the use of the italicized words in the following : 3. How sweet and solemn is this scene ! 4. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my heart and my hand to this vote. 5. Not Peter, but Paul, was the apostle to the Gentiles. G. What by diligence and what by perseverance, he overcame all obstacles. 7. You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table. 8. Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there. 9. She behaves as if she were insane. 10. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 11. I know that he is lost. The connectives in the sentences 3 to 11, inclusive, perform no other office than to connect. Connectives that perform no other office than to connect are called Conjunctions. Note.— 77ie word conjunction = con (together) + jungere (to join). In sentences 3, 4, and 5, the parts connected are words of equal rank; i. e., performing the same office, or in the same construction; in 6 and 7, the parts connected are phrases of equal rank; in 8, clauses. Ijesson 755, Coordinate Conjunctions. Conjunctions that connect parts of the same rank, or order, are called Coordinate Conjunctions. Remark.— r/te -prefix co means with, or together. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 167 Remark. — Parts of a sentence are of equal rank when they have the same use, or construction. A coordinate conjunction may join: (1) Two or more substantive words in the same con- struction; as, (a) My father and I (two subjects) chopped wood all day. (b) Mr. Foster is a mason and carpenter, (two attributes) (c) You may have either coffee or tea. (two objects) (2) Two or more verbs having the same subject; as, We went to San Francisco and visited Golden Gate Park. (3) Two or more adjectives, verbals, or adverbs modify- ing the same word; as, (a) He is an earnest and patient student, (two adjectives) (b) We can stop at the hotel either going or returning, (two verbals) (c) Try to work rapidly yet quietly, (two adverbs) (4) Two or more phrases modifying the same word; as, I am working for you as well as for myself. (5) Two or more clauses modifying the same word; as, I will visit you when the weather is warmer and when I have more time. (6) Two independent clauses; as, The wheat is all cut and the mowers will leave in the morning. (7) A word and a phrase, and sometimes a phrase and a clause, if they both modify the same word; as, (a) Keep your desks clean and in order, (a word and a phrase) (b) Do not play in the street nor where I cannot see you. (a phrase and a clause) Remarks. — Tlie principal coordinate conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, while, yet, as well as, neither. .nor, either. .or, whether.. or, as. While, used to express time, is a conjtmctive adverb: as, I will stay while you are away. Used in the sense of and or but, it is a pure conjunction; as, While he is interested in our work, he has not time to help us. While or though he is merciful, he is also just. As is frequently used to introduce an attribute of subject or object; as. He was employed as clerk. 16$ CONJUNCTIONS. J/esso/i /56, Subordinate and Correlative Conjunctions. Tn sentences 9, 10, and 11, Lesson 154, the clauses connected are of unequal rank. Conjunctions that connect clauses of unequal rank are called Subordinate Conjunctions. In sentence 11, the subordinate conjunction introduces a noun clause. Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there. Diagrams. Napoleon , was banished V Elba but \ ^— i (Compound sentence. Coordinate he would remain conjunction, connecting clauses.) She behaves as if she were insane. She ^ behaves v she were \ insane / know that he is lost. that (Subordinate conjunction, connect- ing clauses of a complex sentence.) I know . A he is\lost (Object clause in a complex sentence.) Conjunctions joining parts in the same line of thought, showing addition, apposition, supposition, cause and effect, or introducing a complementary part, are copulative ; as, (a) She is both pious and intelligent. (Addition) (b) It costs ten cents, or one dime. (Apposition) SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 169 (c) Ifl were a giant, I could lift that rock. (Supposition) (d) If you try earnestly, you will succeed. (Cause and effect) (e) I saw that she was injured. "(Introducing the complement) Conjunctions connecting parts in different lines of thought, that is, denoting separation or opposition, are adversative ; as, (a) The dog would not eat the oats himself nor let the horse have them. (Separation) (b) Henry is slow, but persevering. (Opposition) Remark.— Two or more words taken together to perform one connective office, form a compound conjunction: as if, as though, as well as. But in sxich expressions as, He is as well as ever, well is an adjective and the first as is an adverb modifying well. Some conjunctions and adverbs or adjectives are used in pairs, sustaining a mutual relation and inclosing one of the parts connected. Such words are called correlatives. Thus, in the sentence, You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table, the correlative either-or connects the phrases in that box and upon the table; the first phrase is between the parts of the correlative. The first word of a correlative is usually an adverb or an adjective; as, He was so much interested in his book that he forgot the supper hour. He is not only handsome but also intelligent. ..--- His manners were such [manners] that genteel people would not tolerate him. He , was \ interested , was \ *"' %^ 'A ( That is the subordinate conjunc- tion correlative of so.) he , forgot , hour 170 CONJUNCTIONS. Notice that words or phrases connected by a conjunction are always of equal rank, and all together form a compound element in the sentence. Clauses connected by a conjunction are sometimes of unequal rank. [Note to the Teacher.— 1. Words connected by conjunctions are of equal rank, or in the same construction ; words connected by preposi- tions, of unequal rank. 2. Let the pupils make an abstract of the preceding work upon con- junctions and give a topical recitation, with original examples.] Zesson /57. Parsing Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction, (1) classify, (2) show the parts connected J (3) give so much of the rule as is applicable, as follows: 1. A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank. 2. A subordinate co»-junction connects clauses of unequal rank or introduces a noun clause. Remark. — A subordinate clause always limits, modifies, or completes some part of the pHncipal clause; in this sense, all the noun clauses are sitb- ordinate; i. e., subject and attribute clauses, as well as object clauses. In parsing a correlative, show what the second part of the correlative joins. Model: Sometimes people are so happy that they become selfish. That is a subordinate conjunction connecting the subordinate clause they become selfish to happy, through the correlative adverb so. Rule.— ^^ A subordinate conjunction connects clauses of unequal rank." Exercise : Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences: 1. Ophelia was gentle and obedient, but her father was foolish and tyrannical. 2. Seldom, if ever, could one find a truer friend or more faithful counselor than Kent. 3. Though liCar had become insane, he was not past recovery. 4. Othello was either insane or madly jealous. 5. Desdemona was neither false nor fickle. 6. Show me whether it can be done or not. 7. That matter is as important as this. 8. That mat- ter is not so important as this. 9. As you sow, so shall you reap. 10. As six is to twelve, so is fifteen to thirty. 11. She is so industrious that RULES AND CAUTIONS. 171 she must succeed. 12. She is not so industrious as to warrant success. 13. His behavior was such that we were all shocked. 14. His behavior was such as to shock us all. Note. — Behavior is understood after the 'pronominal such, and the sub- ordinate conjunction as is used idiomatically to connect the infinitive phrase to such, behavior , was \ such 1 ' . ■ 15. American students are required to learn other things besides reading and spelling. 16. He would rather work than play. 17. Some people never have learned and never will learn industry. Zesson /58. Rules and Cautions. From the preceding sentences we deduce the following additional niles and cautions : I. In the choice of conjunctions, have regard to the rank of the parts connected, as well as to their meaning. See sentences 1, 2, and 3 in the preceding list. II. Do not use conjunctions needlessly nor instead of other parts of speech; as, (a) When that she saw her mistake she was much confused. {That is not needed.) (b) Try and come, if possible. {To come is the object of try, and the meaning is not that the person addressed is both to try and to come, but to try to come.) And denotes addition; hut, lest, while, and or, separation. Or may connect terms in apposition ; as, We came to a small bay, or inlet. The appositional term is set off by the comma. 172 CONJUNCTIONS. If is used to express supposition, doubt, or concession ; though or although, to express concession ; as, Though she is a deaf mute, she is very intelligent. That introduces noun clauses, and adverbial clauses of purpose or result. It is frequently understood in a noun clause. Thus, I heard [that] you were there. (Noun clause. That understood) He behaves so strangely that people think him insane. (Adverbial clause) III. The following words are the proper correlatives; be careful to give them the right place in the sentence, that there may be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify and connect. Note. — When the correlative is coordinate, the first of the terms to be con- nected, and nothing more nor less, should be placed between the two parts of the correlative. See 4, -?^, and 15, below. 1. Either — or; as in sentence (4) last lesson, offering a choice. 2. Neither — nor; as in (5), denying a choice. 3. Whether — or; as in (6). 4. Both — and; as. He is both saving and industrious. 5. Though — yet; as. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 6. As — as; as in (7), with an adjective or an adverb, to affirm equality. 7. So — as; as in (8), denying equality. 8. As — so; as in (9) and (10), affirming equality by means of verbs. 9. So — as; to explain the degree ; as. How can one descend to a thing so low as theft? (This is abridged from the clause.) 10. So — that; as in (11), with a clause following to express result. 11. So — as; as in (12), with an infinitive following to show result. 12. Such — that; as in (13). • 13. Such — as; as in (14), the clause in (13) being changed to an infinitive. So~as and such— as, in these cases, are well established idioms of our language, although exceptions to the rule that subordinate con- junctions connect clauses of unequal rank. The infinitive phrase is, however, abridged from a subordinate clause. 14. The — the; as. The sooner you come, the better for me. EXERCISES, ffjy^ J "* * 1 73>; 15. A^oi onZ?/ — hut also; as, He mhent&S^^M^0[,mQ^ only fromrhis- father, but also from his mother. ^^^5i*;^iX \>1 ,: . - "* .^"^ Remarks. — According to the best modern usage, not ispreferr^Tto no ,. ^ And from the sky's just helmet draws its lot Daily of shower or sunshine, cold or hot; Whether the closer captive of a creed. Cooped up from birth to grind out endless chaff. Sees through his treadmill-bars the noon-day laugh, And feels in vain his crumpled pinions breed; Whether the Georgian slave look up and mark. With bellying sails puffed full, the tall cloud-bark Sink northward slowly, — thou alone seem'st good, Fair only thou, Freedom, whose desire Can light in muddiest souls quick seeds of fire And strain life's chords to the old heroic mood. — James R. Lowell Jjesson 225. Selections for Analysis. As some poor wretch confined In cells loud with meaningless laughter, whose mind Wanders trackless amidst its own ruins, may hear A voice heard long since, silenced many a year. And now, 'mid mad ravings recaptured again. Singing through the caged lattice a once well-known strain. Which brings back his boyhood upon it, until The mind's ruin'd crevices graciously fill With music and memory, and, as it were. The long-troubled spirit grows slowly aware Of the mockery round it, and shrinks from each thing It once sought, — the poor idiot who pass'd for a king. Hard by, with his squalid straw crown, now confess'd A madman more painfully mad than the rest, — So the sound of her voice, as it there wander' d o'er His echoing heart, seem'd in part to restore The forces of thought : he recaptured the whole Of his life by the light, which, in passing, her soul Reflected on his : he appeared to awake From a dream, and perceived he had dream'd a mistake : 240 SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. His spirit was softened, yet troubled in him : He felt his Ups falter, his eyesight grow dim. —Owen Meredith (Lucile). Jjesson 226. Selections for Analysts; Yet sets she not her soul so steadily Above, that she forgets her ties to earth, But her whole thought would almost seem to be How to make glad one lowly human hearth ; For with a gentle courage she doth strive In thought and word and feeling so to live As to make earth next heaven ; and her heart Herein doth show its most exceeding worth, That, bearing in our frailty her just part, She hath not shrunk from evils of this life, But hath gone calmly forth into the strife. And all its sins and sorrows hath withstood With lofty strength of patient womanhood : For this I love her great soul more than all. That, being bound, like us, with earthly thrall. She walks so brightly and heaven-like therein, — Too wise, too meek, too womanly, to sin. — James B. Lowell. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 241 CHAPTER XI. Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax. [To the Teacher.— The fact is fully recognized, that, in presenting errors of any kind, there is danger of teaching or propagating the errors, rather than of correcting them. It is believed, however, that an error presented as an error will be avoided rather than adopted. With most of the expressions here presented, the child is already familiar through the ear, but he may not recognize them as errors. Indeed, many of them are often incorporated in his own language. This being true, there is little danger of teaching incorrect language by the study of common errors in syntax. On the contrary, the constant examination and criticism of such errors must assist in eradicating them from the language of the pupil. The exercises given below, taken largely from the language of pupils in the higher grades of the public schools, are given for this careful examination and criticism. In order to empha- size the errors as errors, the incorrect portions of each sentence are ital- icized. The pupil should be able to specify clearly what the error is, and, if required, to apply the proper rule or caution. He should also be encouraged to observe closely his own language and the language of others, noting erroneous expressions, until, in the end, his ear detects an error in language as readily as a trained ear detects a false note in a familiar tune.] Ijesson 227. [To the Teacher.— In this lesson an effort is made to collect, for constant observation, the most common errors found in the language of the pupils in our schools, especially the graver errors, those that show a great lack of discernment and culture. Most of these have been noticed in former lessons, but are repeated here to emphasize them. The pupil should be so continuously drilled upon the corrections of these errors that they never escape his notice, in his own language or in the language of others. The list might be greatly lengthened, but it is hoped that teachers will themselves be on the alert to detect the vagrants in our language and to do all in their power to drive them out. First, though perhaps not strictly belonging here, are Some School-Words Commonly Mispronounced. Incorrtct. Correct. Incorrect. Correct. dee'strict district hecuz because rWcess recess^ ketch catch masculine masculine kin can nomitive or nomnative nominative git g§t 16-G 242 ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS. Incorrect. Correct. Incorrect. Correct. artic arctic fur for antartic antarctic Toosday Tuesday are'a a'rea Febuary February construe' con^strue noos news Ttiisconstrue' miscon-strue drownded drowned Heven eleven kep kept jography geography ben been Errors in Grammatical Forms. [Most of the errors given below, however gross they may seem, are to be found in the language of a large majority of the pupils, and not a few of the teachers, in our public schools.] 1. I done it, for I did it. 2. I done it like he did, for I did it as he did. 3. I seen him, for I saw him. 4, I hain't saw him to-day, for 1 haven't seen him to-day. 5. We have went clean through the book, for we have gone entirely through the book. General Caution. — Use done, gone., and seen only with some form of the helping verbs have or he; as, It is done; it was done; it will be done; he has done his work; they had done well. When there is no helping verb, use did., saw, and went; as, I did ; he saw ; we went ; etc. Allied to these errors, and almost as common, are the following: Come for came ; as, I come to school this morning for I came, etc. Run for ran, begun for began, sung /or sang, rung /or rang. Apply caution as above. With helping verbs use come, run, begun, sung, rung, etc., to express past time. Without helping verbs use came, ran, began, sang, rang, etc., to express past time. The very common verbs sit and set, and also the verbs lie and lay are constantly misused; as. May I .tet here ? for May I sit here ? It laid there all night, for It lay there all night. It has laid there an hour, for It has lain there an hour. These errors can best be eradicated by fixing in the mind ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 243 the meaning of each verb. To lie is to recHne, to lay is to place. He has lain there, means he has reclined there. He has laid [something] there, means he h.?L8 placed something there. Sit means to assume or retain a certain position. Set means to place. To set there means to place something, as a chair, or stool, there. This verb, however, has many different significations; as, the sun set, the garment sets, etc. It can be mastered only by a careful study, from the dictionary, of its various uses, and a constant watchfulness to discriminate between it and the verb sit. [The ingenuity of the teacher should here suggest a multitude of sentences in which the pupil is to use the verbs lie and lay, and sit and set, until the correct use becomes a habit.] The use of like for as, or of like for as if, is a very common error in many localities; as, Do it like I do, for Do it ow I do. It seems like it will never stop raining, for It seems as if (or as though) it will, etc. These errors are, to the cultivated ear, very obvious, and grate harshly. It should be fixed in mind that like may be a preposition or an adverb, but never a conjunction. He acts like (prep.) his brother, is correct. He acts like (conj.) his brother acts, is incorrect. The use of will and would in the first person to express simple futurity is also very common; as. Will we take the next lesson? for Shall we take the next lesson? I fear we will have to do it, for I fear we shall have to do it. Direction. — Use will and would in the first person when it is a mat- ter determined by your own will. But to say, I think we will have rain, when the will of the speaker has nothing to do with it, is absurd. We promise or resolve with will, but foretell or conjecture with shall. The use of the verb get (form got), after have or have not, is also common; as, 244 ERRORS m THE USE OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS I have got my lesson, for I have my lesson ; He has got mumps, for He has mumps. When mere possession is sought to be expressed by have got, omit got, as the idea is fully and better expressed by the verb have. Got should be used only where obtained can be used in its place. / have got to go home, is not nearly so elegant as / have to go home, or I must go home. The verb can in an interrogative sentence is almost inva- riably misused in place of may; as, Can I leave the room ? instead of May 1 leave the room ? Use may to ask or assert permission; can to ask or to assert ability or power. Bad and badly are commonly interchanged; as, I feel badly, for I feel bad; He looks badly, for He looks bad; He acts bad, for He acts badly. Use bad (adj.) to describe a person or an object; badly (adv.) to describe the manner of performing an action. [This list might be lengthened indefinitely, and the observant teac^ier will not fail, to collect, in any locality, the errors of speech there preva- lent, putting his own habitual errors at the head, and then, with a con- tinuous effort try to eradicate them from his own language as well as from the language of his pupils. To teach and to train the young to use pure English is among the highest educational duties.] I^esson 228, Errors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns. 1. 'Who have they at their place for pastor now ? 2. I saw some one who I took to be she. 3. Who is that book written by ? 4. Whomever tries with his whole soul will succeed. 5. Whoever Miss B. has pro- moted will be thorough. 6. The boys hurt theirselves running too fast. 7. This is the book what you asked for. 8. I know that was me. 9. They will walk behind you and /. 10. I knew it was her. 11. Whom were they ? 12. He took Walter and /out for a ride. 13. Them are nice apples. 14. It was me. 15. Give me the books, them on the desk. 16. Who did she go with ? 17. Us girls will go. 18. Her and I saw them. 19. My apple is hard. Is yournf 20. He said you and me could go. 21. May Jennie go with Mary and If 22. Some one has lost their ribbon. IN USE OF ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS. 245 Errors in the Use of Adjectives. 1. Tliose class of people are always the same. 2. It is awful good. 3. Them are sailors. 4. She gave us an awful little bit. 5. The right and left hand are not equally useful. 6. We had a lovely time. 7. It was that long. 8. 1 brought them roses. 9. I did n't know it was that late. 10. This is my most often mistake. 11. She is a small little woman. 12. The horse and the buggy that I drive is new. 13. The two first girls did not keep step. 14. This house is commodious and new. 15. You make less mistakes than I make. jDesson 229. Errors in the Use of Adverbs. 1. I feel finely this morning. 2. He came hack here again. 3. She didn't give us no abstract. 4. It is not wrong I do nH think. 5. Does n't she smg sweet? 6. I never did so poor in an examination before. 7. That aiii't nothing nohow. 8. Most every one goes there. 9. 1 canH do nothing. 10. I didn't say no such a thing.. 11. Sing it over again. 12. I do not un- derstand it quite. 13. I only have two or three. 14. I am not going to put down none. 15. Herman feels very badly about his mistake. 16. I do n't make any besides these here. 17. It wonH do no good to fret. 18. I canH fix\d nothing . 19. ^nnd. \i out here. 20. It is mos< too far. 21. Most everybody went. 22. He tried to quickly rectify the mistake. 23. It is so horribly cold. 24, I only brought a dime. 25. I used to always think that that was correct. 26. Do you know where that there book of designs is ? 27. It sounds queerly. 28. He reviewed up before school began. 29. Do n't you wish you could write as nice as that? 30. I did n't teach good at all. 31. Redundancy is where too many words are used. 32. Homicide is when a man takes another's life without just provocation. 33. Teach him to do his work good. 34. I get tired of hearing people constantly complain sometimes. 35. That is done pretty good, isn't it? It looks good. Zesso7i 230, Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. 1. I feel like I was hungry. 2. This drawing did not look as neat as the other. 3. It looks like as though it would rain. 4. I don't know as I have anything to say. 5. She is a little woman like I am. 6. I cannot believe but what he knows me. 7. I can 't say as I can come. 8. When that my sister heard the news she looked like she would die. 9. I wished to go where that I could get medical treatment, 246 ERRORS IN USE OF PREPOSITIONS, VERBS, VERBALS. Errors in the Use of Prepositions. 1. We went /or to ride. 2. I saw him doing o/ it. 3. I don't remem- ber of seeing it. 4. He will scold at you. 5. She went in room R and found her book. 6. What is the matter o/you? 7. I am angry af you. 8. Where is my book at? 9. She has been trying of it a long time. Zesson 23/. Errors in the Use of Verbs and Verbals. 1. I never seen her. 2. Can I pass you this ? 3. I have did all my work. 4. The orange do n't taste nicely. 5. I done it. 6. I wish I was in your place. 7. Everybody has got one. 8. I seen him. 9. I have saw larger ones than that. 10. I intended to have went Friday. 11. I guess I will not go until Saturday. 12. She come last night. 13. Mr. P. and Mr. S. is absent. 14. I ain't going. 15. Accidents is often caused by such carelessness. 16. The bell has rang. 17. Hain't you got your map yet? 18. I know there was no cars there. 19. I won't want any. 20. Do you remember the day we sung that song? 21. I have did all my work. 22. I went and said it before I thought. 23. We have to set there and do nothing. 24. Them is beetles. 25. I wonder if any of them is going to get left. 26. I begun drawing yesterday. 27. I ain't got time. 28. Bring this up stairs when you go. 29. All these was known as the Alabama claims. 30. You can include me, if you wish. 31. He don't speak cor- rectly. 32. If I had have known it, 1 might have gone. 33. He give me ninety-five. 34. It's feegfan to go. 35. lam froze. 36. What ?/;i^Z I draw ? 37. My pencil is broke. 38. You hadn't oxight to go. 39. Did you draw it according to the map she give? 40. Are they any one who wish to put their names on this paper? 41. Every one have me down for mistakes. 42. It makes no difference if there is two words. 43. The first thing I know I was in the house. 44. I would like to have went. 45. My uncle set down and began to talk. 46. Neither George nor Will were home. 47. Father come home in the evening. 48. Gas has flown from a well there for some time. 49. I intended to have called long ago. 50. She feared offending her father. 51. I should liked to have seen the trained horses. 52. She was a reading of it to the neighbors. 53. Did you ever hear of me being punished in school ? 54. Be sure and get your lessons. 55. You never spoke to me about that, but you ought to. 56. I meant to have told her about the exhibition, but I forgot to. 57. Stealing is to take what belongs to another. 58. Try and find your book. 59. I have my pupils to write out their work. 60. I could not get to go any earlier. 61. Frank, help n\Qj>ack these bundles home. 62. You hadn't ought to be so care- less. 63. We didn't go to do such mischief, TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 247 Topical Abstracts in Review. [To the Teacher. — As a means of culture in oral expression and of independent recitation, let the pupil, in review, recite each topic as presented in the following abstracts, without questioning from the teacher, explaining each consecutive step, or making definitions for himself, and giving illustrations by means of examples already given, or, what is much better, examples collected or constructed by himself. The points are not, in all cases, arranged in the order in which they were originally developed, but rather more in the order of topics for an essay or lecture, in which the pupil is to make <;lear, concise, and log- ically connected statements. These abstracts may be used, at the discretion of the teacher, either as a final review of the whole subject of Grammar, or at the close of the respective chapters.] 248 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. Sentences. ^ CHAPTER XII. Topical Abstracts in Review. ' 1. Language. ^ 1. Words. 2. Grouping of parts. < 2. Phrases. t 3- Clauses. ( 1. Declarative. 1 2. Interrogative. S Exclamatory. 3. Signification. ^ 3. Imperative. ) I 4. Capitals and closing punctua- t tion marks. r 1. Simple. r 1. Principal, or Inde- . j^ 2. Complex. { Clauses. \ „ P^^^'^^"*- 4. Form. ■{ ^ <~ ^^- ^ 2. Subordinate, or I V. Dependent. 1. 3. Compound. { Clauses independent. 5. Analysis. fl. Subject, r 1. Principal. \ r 1. Always a verb. | ^^ 2. Predicate. ri. Office. J 02 o a: Complete. Incomplete. 2. Complement. . 1. Object Com- plement. 2. Attribute of Subject. 3. Attribute of Object. 1 2. Form. 2. Subordinate, or adjuncts. | ^- ^^Jective. "' 1 2. Adverbial. 3. Independent. il. Conjunction. 2. Connective Pronouii. 3. Connective Adverb. ' 1. Words. J Parts of Speech. (1. Prepositional. 2. Verbal. | J" f^!*7'"^- •^ I (2. Infinitive. I 3. Absolute. 3. Clauses. (^ (Any part may be compound.) TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 249 1. Classes of nouns •U: 3 O 2. Modifications. 1. Person 2. Gender 3. Number Common. { Collective. Proper. {(Capital letters.) 1. First, Second, Third. 2. Changes of form in i)ro nouns only. 1. Masculine, Feminine, Neuter. 2. Ways of distinguish- f ^• ing, in nouns. j ^' 3. Gender forms of pro- nouns 1. Singular. ( 1. General Rulfs. 2. Plural. J 2. Special Rules. f 3. ExceptiuDS, etc. 1. Subject. 2. Object. 3. Object of Preposition. C 1. Possessive 4. Possessive I of Nouns, adjunct. 1 2. Possessive [ ofPronouns. 5. Attribute of Subject. 6. Attribute of Object. 7. Appositional. 8. Adverbial. 9. Independent. [ 10. Rules and Cautions. 3. Connected possessives. \ Apostrophe repeated. (Apostrophe but once. 4. Relation, or Office. 250 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 1. Meaning of word. 2. Antecedent. fl. Personal: 3. Classes.. >{■; 1. List. •1. Simple. -\ 2. Declension, fl- First form— Use. ~ ves. , Second form — Use. ( 1. List. { Singular and Plural. 2. Compound. J ri. Emphasis. (■'^•^^^^•t'i.Retlexively. ri.List. /■a a,'^v^ip ] 2. Declension. " I 3. Diiferent uses of each. ^'^. That preferred. J Rules. 2. Connective. i 2. Double. { What [" 1 . Expanded. I 2. Different offices as a •j pronoun. I 3. As other parts of t speech. 1. List. .3. Compound.^ 2. Declension. (, 3. Rule for whoever. (1. List. 13. Interrogative.! 2. Declension. I 3. Always simple. 1 4. Always in third person. 4. Modifications. 5 Same as nouns. 5. Rules and Cautions. I ^ ^f «««^«f * ^i^h antecedent. 2. Choice of pronoiuis, etc. TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 1. Defiuite. 251 (l. Article. '1. Limiting.' 1. Classes.. 2. Indefinite.! Rules. 2. Numerals. M.List. 3. Pronominals.^; 2. Same decline.l. ^ 2. Descriptive. - 1. Uses V 3. Same compared. {1. Adjunct. 2. Attribute. 3. Substantive. 1. Common. - 2. Classes 4 2. Proper. i 3. Compound. I 4. Verbal. 3. {1. Positive. 2. Comparative. 3. Superlative. Comparison. J 2 Rules. \^- ^'' ^"^ ^^'• (2. More and most, less and least. 3. Irregular. 4. Certain adjectives not compared. Rules and Cautions. Adverbs, ri. Simple. 1. Use. j 2. Interrogative. [3. Connective, or Conjunctive. 1. Classes. J fl- Time. 2. Place. 3. Degree. . 2. Meaning. -^ 4. Cause. 5. Manner. 6. Exclusion. 7. Addition, etc. 2. Modification. (Comparison,— but few. 3. Rules and Cautions. 252 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. ' 1. Meaning of word. 2. Connect what. 3. Rank of parts connected. ] o « v, H' t 4. Meaning of parts connected. r 1. Simple. 5. Form. < 2. Compound. ^ (3. Correlative. \^ Z\es. , 6. General Rules and cautions. c .2 o o O OQ J o P. 1. Meaning of word. ( 1. Position. I 2. Possession. 2. Some of the relations shown. \ 3. Agency. 4, Accompaniment. r 1. Word. 3. The object. ] 2. Phrase. (_ 3, Clause (rarely). ( 1. Common. 4. Kinds. ^ 2. Compound. ^ V 3. Ending in ing. 5. Choice depends upon what. 1 6. Rules and cautions. ^5. Resemblance, etc. TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. (1. First form. 2.Secondform.{Rule. 3. Third form. 4. Fourth form. ri. As to form. /a. Weak. 253 (M ■■{ L2. As to meaning. b. Strong, i ^- Redundant, l 2. Defective. ( 1. Intransitive. 'a. Complete.^ 2. Neuter(whenexpressingmerely plete ■ \ I existence) fl. Transitive {■ I t 2. Intransitive. > C a > Active. Passive. (Rules and Idioms.) AcUve. (May become transitive when.) Neuter (when used as 3. Forms of use. I. a copula), fl. Simple. 2. Emphatic and interrogative. 3. Progressive. 4. Passive. ( 1. Present, f 1. Time tenses. < 2. Past. 1. Tense. is. Future. Modifications of verbs. U. Perfect tenses •s 1. Indicative. 1. Ideas, 2. Six tenses {• o -r» X J.. 1 r 1- Auxiliaries 2. Potential. ) \ 2. Four tenses 3. Subjunctive. 2. Past. 3. Future. 1. Form of each. 2. Time auxiliaries in four. Ideas. 2. Uses of shall and will. 1. Form of each. 2. Kamed how. f 1. Ideas. 2. Differs how from Indicative and Potential. Form of first. 3. Two tenses. •< 2. Form of sec- {' r^' f ,4. Imperative.^ ^-^"^'j,^^* ^ ^ ond T) 3. Person. ^4. Number. Rules and cautions. ■Sec- fl. Singular, ond person. ( 2. Plural. 1 3. Present Tense (root form). 264 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 1. InfinitiveB. e3 1. Classed like (^- I^egular and Irregular, verbs. |2 Active, Passive, Neuter, etc. 2. Differ from Participles. 3. The sign to understood after 4. The sign to be understood after j 2. . 13. . 1. Active and Neuter. 5. Tenses. 1. Present, Form of - 2. Perfect, Form of jj- Active and Neuter. / 2. Passive. r 1. Substantively, J 2. Adverbially. 6. Used i 3 Adjectively. I 4. Independently. .7. Rules and cautions. 1. Classed like U- Regular and Irregular, verbs. (2. Active, Passive, Neuter, etc. 1. Pure Noun. 2 Mav become^ ^- ^''''^ Adjective. Z. May become^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ 1^ 4. Pure Preposition. .2. Participles.^ 3. Tenses. 1. Imperfect.! Form ofl '• ^""^^ '^^ ^""*^'- (2. Passive. 2. Perfect. { Always Passive. ( Active and Neu- 3. Compound Perfect. < te r. 1. Adjectively. (Passive. 4. Used \ 2. Substantively. 1 3. Independently. i.5. Rules and cautions. REVIEW qUESTION^-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 255 CHAPTER XIII. Zesson 2S2. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Chapters I. and II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 1 . Name all the Parts of Speech. Define each. 2. In this defi- nition of a noun, ^'A noun is a name word/^ there are six words. Make a definition containing five words. 3. Define nouns by using three words : Nouns . 4. Define a pronoun in two ways. 5. Name the two great classes of nouns. 6. Which kind should always begin with a capital? 7. When should a noun partly com- mon in sense, begin with a capital? 8. When does a collective noun require a plural verb or pronoun? 9. Pluralize the following nouns and give the reason for each: allyj alley, book, scissors, 5, torch, talisman, Frenchman, sheep, goose-quill, man-servant, solo, tomato. 10. What two parts of speech are sometimes changed in form by the modification called person f Give examples. 11. Name the persons in grammar. Illustrate each. 12. Name the genders. 13. In how many ways may the mascu- line be distinguished from the feminine ? Illustrate. 14. Give the three gender pronouns. 15. What pronoun is preferred when the sex of the person meant is not specified? Illustrate. ,16. Give examples of the following : (a) Noun used as a subject. Cb) Noun used as an object, (c) As an attribute of the subject, (d) In apposition with the subject, (e) In apposition with the ob- ject, (f) As the object of a preposition, (g) In apposition with the object of a preposition, (h) As attribute of the object. (1) Used independently by address. (J) Used independently in an absolute phrase. (Is.) Used adverbially without a preposition. 17. Use a pronoun in each of the above ways. 18. (a) Give an example of a noun used to limit another noun meaning the same person or thing, (b) Of a pronoun used to limit a noun, (c) Of a noun in apposition with a possessive. 19. (a) Give the rule for forming the possessive singular of nouns, (b) For forming the possessive plural of nouns. 20. What caution should be observed in forming the possessive of pronouns? 21. Name all the possessive pronouns ending in s. 22. Name four places where 256 REVIEW QUESTIONS— PRONOUNS. a possessive noun should be written without the apostrophe. 23. Give the rule for connective nouns showing separate possession. Illustrate. 24. For what purpose does a possessive noun or pronoun ever limit a participle? Illustrate. 25. Name the declinable pronouns. 26. Give three rules for their form. Example of each. 27. Decline /, he, who, whoever, it. 28. Use each of these pronouns as the object of an unexpressed prepo- sition, before the object complement. 29. What is analyzing? 30. What is parsing? 31. What is dia- graming? 32. Write the formula for parsing nouns. 33. Write the formula for correcting nouns or pronouns having a form not corre- sponding to their office. Zesson 23S. Chapter III. — Pronouns. 1. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 2. (a) Give an example of a noun antecedent, (b) A pronoun used as an antecedent, (c) A phrase used as an antecedent, (d) A clause used as an antece- dent, (e) What is most frequently used as the antecedent? 3. Give examples of an antecedent understood. 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. Name all the simple personal pronouns. 6. Decline them. 7. Select all the possessive forms of the personal pronouns. 8. When are my, your, etc., used? Illus- trate. 9. When are rnine, yours, etc., used? Illustrate. 10. Give an example in which mine equals two words. 11. What does the expression, This is a friend of mine, equal? 12. What is the meaning of the expression. This friend of mine was very true to met 13. Explain the expressions, Tliis heart of mine; That head of thine, etc. 14. Name the compound personal pronouns. 15. How are they formed? 16. Give the plural of each. 17. What form is always lacking? 18. What is the chief use of compound personal pronouns ? 19. (a) Give an example of myself used in apposition, (b) Used reflexively after a verb, (c) After a preposition. 20. (a) Give an example of himself, used merely for emphasis, (b) Of thyself, used reflexively. 21 . For what modification do the compound personal pronouns fchange their form? 22. Give the rule for the agreement of personal pronouns. 23. What is a connective pronoun? 24. Name the simple con- nective pronouns. 25. Use each in a sentence and show what sub- REVIEW QUESTIONS-ADJECTIVES. 257 Btantive office the connective pronoun performs in the adjective clause. 26, DecUne the simple connective pronouns. 27. Write the fonnula for parsing personal pronouns. 28. The formula for parsing simple connective pronouns. 29. Use what as a connective pronoun, then expand the sentence and tell to which clause the antecedent part of what belongs. 30. What other word in the sen- tence is frequently affected by the person and number of the con- nective pronoun? Illustrate. 31. What other parts of speech may whathe^. Illustrate each. 32. What other parts of speech may f/ia« be? Illustrate. 33. Give examples of but used as three different parts of speech besides a connective pronoun. 34. (a) Use as as a connective pronoun, (b) As a connective adverb, (c) As an intro- ductory conjunction. 35. Name and decline the compound connective pronouns. 36. Upon what does the form of whoever depend? 37. (a) Use whoever in the nominative form, (b) In the objective, (c) Prove by anal- ysis that you have used them correctly. 38. Write the formula for parsing double and compound connective pronouns. 39. Give all the rules and cautions for the agreement of pro- nouns having antecedents connected by and. 40. All the rules for pronouns having antecedents connected by or or nor. 41. For those having collective antecedents. 42. Three other rules for the use of personal pronouns. 43. Name and illustrate eight constructions in which that is preferred to who or which. 44. Five additional rules for the use of connective pronouns. 45. Give an example of a con- nective pronoun understood. 46. Define an interrogative pronoun. 47. (a) Give an example of an interrogative pronoun that asks a question, (b) One that im- plies a question. 48. Why can not the gender and number of an interrogative pronoun be determined? 49. Interrogative pronouns are always in which person? Why? 50. How is the interrogative who declined? 51. Give examples in sentences of each of its forms. 1/esson 23^, Chapter IV. — Adjectives. 1. What is an adjective? 2. (a) Give an example of a limiting adjective, (b) Of a descriptive adjective that both limits and describes, (c) Of a limiting adjective that numbers, (d) Of the before a plural noun, (e) Of an before a word beginning with the 17-G 258 REVIEW QUESTIONS— ADJECTIVES. aspirate sound of /<-. 3. Name twelve pronominal adjectives; use each one in a sentence and then change it to an ordinary limiting adjective. 4. Give the plural of the following adjectives: this, that, one, other. 5. Give the possessive of one, other, others, another. 6. (a) Use which as an interrogative adjective asking a question, (b) As an interrogative adjective implying a question. 7. (a) Use what as an adjective asking a question, (b) Implying a question. 8. (a) Use a descriptive adjective as an adjective adjunct, (b) As an attribute of the subject, (c) As an attribute of the object, (d) Substantively. 9. (a) Use a proper adjective, (b) A com- pound, (c) A verbal. 10. (a) Define comparison, (b) Name the forms of comparison. 11. (a) What does the comparative show? (b) The superlative? Illustrate in sentences. 12. What adjectives of two syllables are compared by affixing er and est f 13. Give examples of dissyllables compared by prefixing more and most. 14. Dissyllables compared so as to express diminution. 15. Give an example of a limiting adjective that can be compared. 16. Of a descriptive adjective that can not be compared. 17. Of an adjective compared irregularly, or by a complete change of the word. 18. Compare good, little, bad, well, far, late, many, near, top. 19. Write the form for parsing adjectives. 20. Give the rules for choosing between the use of an and a. Illustrate. 21. For con- nected adjectives describing different things. Illustrate. 22. For connected adjectives describing the same thing. Illustrate. 23. Give the rule for articles used with connective nouns. Illustrate. 24. Mention and illustrate seven cases where an article before a noun would be incorrect. 25. (a) Rule for the distinction between few and little, (b) Between /(^w and a /ew;. (c) Between little and a little. Illustrate each. 26. In expressing a comparison with than, when should each noun have an article ? Illustrate. 27. Give the rule with regard to the number form of adjectives. 28. Why is it correct to say " a five-cent piece?" 29. Name five nouns that are singular when used with numerals, but that otherwise add s. 30. (a) Either and neither should refer to how many things? (b) Each other f (c) One another f Illustrate each. 31. When adjectives are of the same rank, which should be placed first? 32. What conjunctions connect terms of the same rank? 33. What should be used when the conjunction is omitted? 34. Give and illustrate the rule for a series of adjectives of different rank. 35. Why is it not correct to say, "I have a horrible coldf" REVIEW QUESTIONS-ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 259 36. (a) Give and illustrate the rule for contrasting this and that. (b) The one and the other. 37. Rule for the position of adjectives. 38. For double comparison. 39. When should the latter term of comparison exclude the former? Illustrate. 40. When include the former? Illustrate. 41. Rule for the use of adverbs of degree with adjectives that can not be compared. I/esso7i 2S5, Chapter V.^ — Adverbs. 1. What does the word adverb mean? 2. Name and illustrate all the different parts of speech and other expressions that adverbs may modify. 3. What is an interrogative adverb? 4. (a) Give an example of an adverb asking a question, (b) Of one implying a question. Diagram each sentence. 5. Name all the adverbs that can be used interrogatively. 6. What is a connective adverb? 7. Give an example of a connective adverb that can be expanded into two phrases, and diagram the sentence. 8. Give an example of a connective adverb that can be expanded into but one phrase. Diagram. 9. Name seven things that adverbs may show. Illus- trate each. 10. Use the following in sentences, first as adverbs, then as adjectives : Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, low, fast. 11. How are those adverbs that admit of comparison varied? 12. Give an example of an adverb of place modifying a word under- stood. 13. An adverb of time modifying a word understood. 14. Give the caution with regard to the position of adverbs. 15. Choice of no and not. 16. Choice of how and that. 17. Choice of that and so. 18. Caution about prefixing prepositions to adverbs. 19. Give all the remaining cautions under adverbs. Jjesso7i 236, . Chapter VI. — Conjunctions. 1. What are words that perform no other office than to connect? Illustrate. 2. What does coordinate mean? 3. Illustrate five dif- ferent kinds of elements that may be joined by coordinate conjunc- tions. 4. (a) Give an example of while used as a conjunctive ad- verb, (b) As a coordinate conjunction. 5. What is a subordinate conjunction? Illustrate. 6. (a) What is the meaning given in the 260 REVIEW QUESTIONS- PREPOSITIONS. dictionary for the word correlative? (b) How does this meaning apply to correlative conjunctions ? 7. Give examples of (a) conjunct tions denoting addition, (b) cause and effect, (c) supposition, (d) a conjunction introducing a subject clause, (e) one denoting separation or opposition, (f ) denoting a choice. 8. Write out the form for pars- ing conjunctions. 9. Give an example of an idiomatic subordinate conjunction connecting an infinitive to some other word. 10. Give and illustrate the uses of either — or, neither — nor, as — as, so — as, as — so, so — that, such — that, such — as. 11. (a) An example of as used to introduce an attribute of the object, (b) Of the subject. 12. Give the rule for connected terms referring jointly to another. 13. What conjunction should follow comparatives? 14. When may the preposition besides follow else, more, etc.? Zesson 237. Chapter VII. — Prepositions. 1. What part of speech connects words of different rank? 2. Illus- trate five different relations shown by prepositions. 3. Name the different forms of expression that may be used as the object of a preposition, and illustrate each. 4. What parts of speech are most frequently used as the object of a preposition ? 5. (a) Give an ex- ample of Ziifce as a preposition ; (b) near; (c) worth; {6.) hut; (e) dur- ing; (f) notwithstanding. 6. Use the following, first as prepositions, then as conjunctions, then as conjunctive adverbs, if possible : after, since, for, until, before. 7. Use the following, first as prepositions, then as simple adverbs : up, down, below, past, by, in, near. 8. Give four examples of compound prepositions. 9. (a) Name four prepo- sitions ending in ing that are each equivalent to about, (b) Use them as verbals also. 10. Write the form for parsing prepositions. 11. Give the rule for choice of prepositions, and illustrate. 12. Rule and illustration for the position of prepositional phrases. 13. Illustrate three un- necessary uses of the preposition, and show why the preposition is not needed. 14. In the sentence. It was the size of a walnut, where is a preposition needed, and why? 15. T\Taich is correct — He acts like her, or He acts like she does f 16. If the subordinate clause in the last sentence is retained, what change should be made? 17. Insert the proper connective, and tell what part of speech it is : (a) It looks he were guilty, (b) He behaved a madman would have behaved. REVIFAV QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS. 261 Chapter VIII. — Interjections. 1. What is an interjection? 2. Illustrate interjections expressing four different emotions. 3, Give the three rules for interjections and illustrate each. 4. Give the caution. Zesson 2S8, Chapter IX. — Verbs and Verbals. 1. What does a verb do? Illustrate. 2. How do verbals differ from verbs? 3. (a) Give an example of a complete verb, (to) A complete verbal, (c) An incomplete verbal, (d) An attribute com- plement, (e) An object complement. 4. Name the four Principal Parts of a verb. 5. How can the first form be obtained? 6. (a) Give the four forms of lie, sit, ring, come, do, set, lay, fall, flee, fly, flow, (b) Use each form in a sentence. 7. Give the four rules for the use of the Principal Parts. 8. What are strong verbs. Illus- trate. 9. (a) Give an example of a redundant verb, (b) Of a defective verb, (c) Of a verb asserting action, (d) A verb assert- ing being, (e) Of a verb asserting a relation between an attribute and the subject. 10. What is the meaning of the word transitive? 11. (a) Name two actions that are naturally transitive, (b) Two intransitive. 12. Use runs as a transitive verb. 13. Tell which of the following verbs are naturally transitive: Bite, tear, lie (to recline), set (to place), sit, lay (to place), set out, fly, govern, am. 14. Use the fol- lowing in sentences, first transitively, second intransitively: Turn, burn, sing, speak, walk. 15. (a) Describe the progressive form. (b) The emphatic. 16. When a transitive verb or verbal is in the active form, what names the recipient of the act? What names the actor? Illustrate. 17. In the passive form, of what is the verb or verbal composed? What then names the recipient of the action? 18. What verbs can not have the passive form? Why? 19. When a sentence in which the object has an attribute is changed to the passive, what becomes the office of that attribute? Illustrate. 20. (a) Give an example of an idiomatic object, (b) Of three different kinds of idiomatic passives. 21. (a) How long is the real present tense? (b) The assumed present tense? 22. (a) Name the perfect tenses and illustrate each. (b) Why are they called perfect ? 262 REVIEW QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS. Zesson 239, Chapter IX. — Continued. 23. What is mode? 24. What mode asserts a fact? Illustrate. 25. What mode admits or concedes a fact? Illustrate. 26. What mode always uses an auxiliary? 27. What mode uses the root form of the verb throughout the present tense, and the plural form throughput the past tense? 28. What mode is found nowhere except in a subordinate clause? 29. What other modes may be in a subordinate clause? 30. What is the chief peculiarity of the subjunctive mode? Illustrate by comparing with the indicative. 31. (a) Give an example of a potential expressing permission, (b) Of an imperative expressing permission. How do they differ? 32. What mode has the tenses in their most natural order? 33. How many has it? 34. What is the form of the simple present indicative? 35. Describe the form of the remaining five tenses in the simple indicative, and illustrate each. 36. (a) How many tenses in the potential mode? (b) Name, describe, and illustrate each. 37. Are the potential tenses named from their form or from their meaning? 38. Name, describe, and illustrate the tenses of the sub- junctive mode. 39. What form of the verb is used with both singu- lar and plural subjects, in the imperative? 49. Give the rules for the use of 8}iall, will, should, and would, and illustrate each. Zesson 24^0. Chapter IX. — Continued. 41. In modern English, where are the only variations of form for person and number? Describe each. 42. What is the difference between a conjugation and a synopsis? 43. Conjugate swim in the simple form of construction. 44. Give a synopsis of swim in the third person singular. 45. Write the form for parsing verbs. 46. In which modes do verbs vary their form for the person and num- ber of the subject? 47. Give all the rules for verbs that can be made from the rules for the agreement of pronouns. Illustrate each. 48. Give the two rules in Lesson 208, and the one in Lesson 209. Illustrate each. 49. (a) Give an example of an infinitive used substantively, (b) Adverbially, (c) Adjectively. (d) Independently. 50. Describe the form of the present active and the neuter infinitive. REVIEW QUESTIONS-VERBS AND VERBALS 263 51. (a) Describe the present passive infinitive, (b) The perfect infinitives. 52. Give the rule for the present infinitive after intend- ing, hoping, etc. 53. (a) Give the rules for the omission of the particle to. (b) When should the particle to not be omitted? 54. (a) Give an example of a participle that is part verb and part adjective, (b) Of a participle part verb and part noun, (c) One independent in office. 55. Name the three tense forms of participles. 56." Describe each in the active construction. 57. What tense is wanting in the active construction of participles? 58. Describe each tense in the passive form. Illustrate each. 59. What participle is always simple and always passive? 60. Write the form for pars- ing verbals. 61. Give the rules and cautions pertaining to the use of participles, illustrating each by an original example. 264 PUNCTUA TION. CHAPTER XIV. Jyesso?i 24^/, Punctuation. Notice the position and use of the comma and of the period in the following sentences. Analyze the sentences, and place the punctuation marks in the diagrams. Note. — Punctuation must he learned by practice. Pupils should write sen- tences similar to those given in these Lessons, and have them read and cor- rected in the cla^s. 1. Mary, please give me your book, your slate and your pencil. 2. Mary, please take your seat, study your geography, and learn the lesson. 3. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly. 4. I have known Wallace, even though naturally smart, to have very poor lessons. 5. You will surely fail, unless you do better. 6. If you do your best, you will certainly succeed. 7. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do right, are characteristics of good pupils. 8. Carelessness and inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder, slovenliness and disobedience, are faults of poor pupils. 9. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on the 15th of April, 1865. 10. Johnson, who had been elected vice-president, acted as presi- dent after Lincoln's death. 11. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne. 12. Cruel in disposition and immoral in character, the prince astonished everybody by becoming a good king. In the sentences above, find the following ten uses of the comma: 1. To set off — separate from the rest of the sentence — the name of a person addressed. 2. To indicate the omission of a conjunction. 3. To set off a modifying clause, when not closely connected. 4. To separate words connected by a conjunction, but modified by different phrases. COMMA, SEMICOLON, PERIOD. 265 5. To separate from the verb the last of several successive sub- jects, when the subjects have modifying phrases. 6. To set off words in pairs, when the words of each pair are con- nected by a conjunction. 7. To set off an explanatory modifier with its own modifiers. 8. To set off the name of the year in a date. 9. To set off an independent phrase. 10. To set off modifiers that are themselves modified by phrases. Lesso7i 2S-2, The Comma, Semicolon, and Period. Let us put the sentences of the last lesson together, two and two. See whether the same ideas are expressed; and notice the new words used, those omitted or changed, and the additional punctuation needed: a. Mary, please give me your book, your slate, and your pencil; then take your seat, study your geography, and learn the lesson. b. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly; hut I have known /im, even though naturally smart, to have very poor lessons. c. You will surely fail, unless you do better; though if you do your best, you will certainly succeed. d. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do right, are characteristics of good pupils ; while carelessness and inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder, slovenliness and disobe- dience, are faults of poor pupils. e. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on the 15th of April, 1865; and Johnson, who had been elected vice- president, acted as president after Lincoln's death. f. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne ; and, though cruel in disposition and immoral in character, he astonished everybody by becoming a good king. Analyze the sentences a to f, and compare their dia- grams with those of the sentences of the previous lesson. Place the punctuation marks in all the diagrams. You find but one use of the semicolon in the sentences of this lesson, and that is to separate independent clauses 266 PUNCTUATION. in which commas are used. Independent clauses in which no commas are used, should be separated by the comma, as in the last sentence. The Comma, Semicolon, Colon, and Pekiod. Study the following sentences carefully; notice the posi- tion and use of the different punctuation marks; and observe what new words or expressions are used, when the simple sentences are combined to form compound sen- tences. Observe a particular use of the period in sentences 6 and b. 1. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the principal grain food of man. 2. Beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison, fish and fowl supply the principal animal food of man. 3. Asparagus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas, string beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form the principal vegetable food of man. a. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the principal grain food of man ; and beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison, fish and fowl supply the principal animal food of man ; while aspara- gus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas, string beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form Ms principal vegetable food. ^ 4. Oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits •^""^ grow abundantly in many parts of California. 5. California produces great quantities of apples, pears, peaches, plums, and other fruits common to the temperate zone. 6. California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North, has great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its valleys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world. b. Oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits grow abundantly in many parts of California; and this state pro- duces also great quantities of apples, pears, peaches, plums, and other fruits common to the temperate zone: so it is found that California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North, has COMMA, SEMICOLON, COLON, PERIOD. 267 great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its val- leys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world. 7. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer. 8. Our roads are frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes impassable, in winter. 9. The travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains. 10. The pleasantest time to travel in all the different parts of California is either soon after the last rains in the spring, or imme- diately after the first rains in the fall. c. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer; and they are frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes impassable, in winter; hut the travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains : so, all things considered, the pleasantest time to travel in all the different parts of California is either soon after the last rains in the spring, or immediately after the first rains in the fall. 11. ^ome soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak. 12. In the soils that are deep, dry, warm, etc., fruits and vege- tables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed ; while in the soils that are shallow, wet, cold, etc., fruits and vegetables grow, if they grow at all, small, insipid, few, and ill-shaped. V d. Some soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and -Others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak : in the former, fruits and vegetables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed; while in the latter, they grow, if they grow at all, small, insipid, few, and ill-shaped. In this Lesson yoii find the colon as well as the semicolon used to separate the independent clauses. Compare a with b and c. Notice that the semicolon separates independent clauses of the same kind, while the colon sets ofi' an inde- pendent clause that contains a more general thought inferred from the preceding clauses. In d the colon separates two compound sentences in which semicolons are used. Why is d preferable to 11 and 12? In 7 and 8 the comma is used to set ofit' phrases separated from the words they qualify. In 4 and 5 see examples of the 4th direction in Lesson 241. 268 ' PUNCTUATION. And in the directions of that Lesson, see another use of the colon to separate nunabered phrases or clauses from the statement that introduces them. Jjesson 2J^A, Sometimes the adjectives modifying a noun need to be separated by commas, while in other cases the commas are not needed. See if you can determine, by the following examples, when it is that commas are needed, and when not: 1. James is a bad, ungrateful, dissipated fellow ; but his sister Ellen is a good, refined, beautiful girl. 2. The Governor lives in a splendid large three-story mansion, and he drives a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses. a. James is a bad fellow, an ungrateful fellow, a dissipated fellow ; but his sister Ellen is a good girl, a refined girl, a beautiful girl. b. The Governor lives in a stone mansion, a three-story stone man- sion, a large three-story stone mansion, a splendid large three-story stone mansion ; and he drives a pair of iron-gray horses, a pair of large iron-gray horses, a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses. Comparing 1 with a, notice that each adjective modifies the noun only; but comparing 2 with b, notice that the last adjective modi- fies the noun, that the next adjective preceding modifies the adjec- tive and noun following, and that each one back to the first modifies all that follow. For the use of the comma in punctuating Relative Clauses, see examples Lesson 107. The connective pronoun thai,^ with its clause, should not be set off by the comma; but who and which, when they mean and it, and they, etc., should, with their clauses, be set off by the comma. Have you observed that the comma is used for the simplest punctuation, that the semicolon is used to indicate a greater change in the sentence than that shown by the comma, and that the colon is used to indicate a still greater change in the sentence? And have you noticed that the period is used to indicate the end of a completed sentence, and that it is also used to complete an abbrevi- ation? INTERROGATION, EXCLAMATION, BRACKET. 269 Jjesson 2J^5, The Interrogation, Exclamation, and Bracket. Notice how each is used, and for what purpose. Here and far- ther on, note two uses of the apostropiie. Nellie. Who is that coming with May ? Russell. Don't you know? Nellie. Is it brother Charley ? Why, it is, sure enough ! Oh ! oh ! oh ! how glad I am ! [Clapping her hands, and jumping up and down.] Russell. Be quiet, Nell ! Do n't get excited, or you '11 have everybody staring at you. . Nellie. O Charley, haveji>«— ceoiie at last! [Hugging him tight, [tightlj'] with her arms-^ntmnd his neck.] In the following sentences, see how a question may become an exclamation : 1. My boy, what- are you doing up in that tree? 2. You young rascal, what are you doing up in that tree! 3. Well, Jack, old horse, where are you going now? 4. Whoa, Jack, you old villain, where are you going now ! 5. My dear little brother, what is the matter with you? 6. You little nuisance, what is the matter with you ! The interrogation point is placed at the end of each sen- tence that is a question simply. The exclamation point is placed after exclamations of one word, of several words, or of a whole sentence. Ex- clamatory expressions may have the form of a question; but if the sentences 1 to 6 are properly read, you will notice how much the exclamations differ from the questions. Brackets are used (1) to inclose a description of some action not otherwise spoken of, and (2) to inclose a correc- tion of an error in language. Jjesson 2^6, Quotations, Etc. Such statements may be made in four ways, three of them quota- tions in proper form. Observe the change in the punctuation, and in the words preceding the quoted remark. 270 PUNCTUATION. 1. The boy answered, asking whether they thought he was a fool. 2. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool?" 3. The boy's answer was: " Do you think I am a fool?" 4. The boy answered thus : " Do you think I am a fool?' 5. The boy answered, demanding whether they thought he was a fool! 6. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool !" 7. The boy's answer was : " Do you think I am a fool !" 3. The boy answered thus: " Do you think I am a fool!" 9. The martyr Stephen died while praying that the Lord Jesus would receive his spirit. 10. The martyr Stephen died while praying, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit" 11. The martyr Stephen died while offering the prayer : " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." 12. The martyr Stephen died while ofltering this prayer : " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." Single quotation marks indicate a quotation within a quotation, 13. " Let us sing," said the preacher, " the familiar hymn, * When I can read my title clear,' found on page 94." 14. The stranger approached the sentinel, whispering, " Don't shoot : the password is 'New York;' or it was an hour ago." 15. " Clifford says, ' seven and three are eleven,' " came in a " squeaky" voice through the open door. Notice that the quotation marks are used to show the exact words that have been spoken or written by some one, or to show that some word is used in a pecuhar way. Notice (1) that the comma sets off each quotation that is a subject clause, or an object clause not formally intro- duced; (2) that the colon precedes each quotation formally introduced. Zesson 2^7- The Dash, Apostrophe, and Marks of Parenthesis. Here are three ways to arrange and punctuate a paren- thetical expression: DASH, APOSTROPHE, PARENTHESIS 271 1. Father's barn was burned, so they say, at ten o'clock, Monday evening. 2. Father's barn was burned — ^-it was told us in town — at ten o'clock, Monday evening. 3. Father's barn was burned (Mr. Martin sent us word) at ten o'clock Monday evening. 4. All our magazines, the bound as well as the unbound, were injured by yesterday's rain. 5. All our magazines — some bound and some unbound — were injured by yesterday's rain. (). All our magazines (some of them were bound, and some were unbound) were injured by yesterday's rain. The following show a particular use of the parenthesis: 7. The speaker remarked as follows : (Here follows the address of the speaker in his own words.) 8. The speaker* remarked that, (Here follow the thoughts of the speaker in the language of the reporter.) Here is another use of the dash : 9. '* Fred went fishing, Harry went hunting, and Bertie — I don't know where he is." 10. "I am well, thank you, mother's health is good, and the children are — Why, child, what makes you so uneasy?" 1. The comma is used to set off a parenthetical expres- sion when it is the least formal — makes the least break in the sentence; 2. The dash is used when the expression is more formal ; 3. The parenthesis mark is used when the expression is the most formal. In 7 and 8 the parenthesis marks are used to inclose directions in regard to what should be placed where the directions are given. In 9 and 10 the dash indicates a change from one remark to another before the first is completed. The dash is also used to set off a definition or explanation, as in the sentence following 10, and in Lessons 241 and 248. The apostrophe is used (1) to help complete the posses- sive form, and (2) to indicate a letter or letters omitted. 272 • PUNCTUATION. Lesson 2J^8. The Hyphen — Yes and No. Observe in the following sentences how the hyphen may be used : 1. They were ill-featured, ill-formed, coarse-looking fellows. 2. That was a go-as-you-please race. 3. The word ** contumely" should be divided into four syllables, thus; con-tu-me-ly. 4. One of the words frequently misspelled is s-e-p-a-r-a-t-e. Yes and No. Teacher. Edward, have you completed your work? Edward. No, sir: it is not quite done. Teacher. Stephen, is yours done yet? Stephen. Yes : I have just finished. Edward. Can you give me ten minutes more, sir? Teacher. No : it is time to call the next class. George, is your work done ? George. Yes, sir: all done. The hyphen is used to form compound words of two or more simple words ; also to separate a word into syllables, or into letters. Another common use is at the end of the line, when part of a word — one or more syllables — is written or printed on the next line below. In manuscript it helps the eye in reading rapidly to have the hyphen written with each part of the word, especially when the page is wide; and it would be well to make the hyphen double ( = ) to make it more distinct. Yes or No, when used with or without the name or title of some one addressed, should, when equivalent to a sen- tence, be set off by the colon. In the answer of Edward, *'No, sir:" is equivalent to "I have not completed it, sir." EXAMPLES-R ULES. '273 Zesson MJD. :. Examples, Remarh^&:m:s, In the following sentences determinei meanings each sentence may have, according to the position of the commas you can use: 1. The name of one firm is Howard Blake & Co.; and the other is styled Abram Thomas Johns & Co. 2. The boys' names are Charles Dexter Henry George Spencer Clifford Percy Jackson Martin Thomas Perry. (From 4 to 11 names, according to the punctuation.) ^ 3. Father went there on Tuesday he took Sam's gun and shot and killed the deer. 4. We went to their cabin frequently visiting the young folks making shakes of the logs and bolts to haul them down to the val- ley. Remarks. — Wh^^n we talk, the tones of the voice help to make our words convey the meaning intended; hut when we write, the punctuaiion must take the place of the voice, and, in some degree, make our meaning clear to those who read. If written or printed matter is properly composed and punctuated, one who understands how to read well can easily convey to others the intended m,eaning by speaking the sentences as given. Punctuation, then, is nothing more than the art of pointing off our sen- tences with the marks in common use, so as to make our written words con- vey to others the meaning we desire to give. This can be done after consid- erable practice, if care is taken to have the words, phrases, and clauses properly arranged. Rule I. — ^When punctuation marks are needed in a simple or complex sentence — some exceptions — use the comma; also use the comma to separate the parts of a compound sentence, when no comma is used in any part; otherwise use the semicolon. Rule II. — Use the colon to separate compound sentences in one or both of which a semicolon is used; also to indicate a greater change in a sentence than that shown by the semi- colon. Rule III. — At the end of every completed sentence place a period, unless an interrogation point or an exclamation point is needed. 18-G 274 . PUNCTUATION. Rule IV. — Use such punctuation marks as will make each sentence clear, and use only those marks that are needed. Zesson 250. Capital Letters. You have already learned that the proper nouns, the pro- noun I, and the exclamation O, as well as the first word of every sentence, should be written with a capital letter. In the sentences already given, notice the use of capital letters in the questions, exclamations, and quotations. Study the following sentences and determine, if you can, why the capital letters are used: . 1. In the "Life of Napoleon " by Scott, we learn that the Great Emperor was sometimes called " Little Corporal" by his soldiers. 2. I have heard boys called by the nicknames: Tubby, Chug, Pokey, and Doctor. 3. The God of the Bible is called Heavenly Father, Creator, Almighty, I Am ; and the Savior is called Immanuel, Prince of Peace, Redeemer, and Son of God. 4. Mid trials and troubles be cheerful, Not tearful — Go forth with a heart full of song; Yea, be strong 'Gainst wrong, and in favor of right, In the light That shines from the Book divine. If it is necessary to make a common word conspicuous, it is usually done by making the initial letter a capital; but a word may also be made conspicuous in any one of the following ways : Banner^ indicating in Italics; banner, indicating in small capitals; BANNER, indicating in large capitals. Rule. — All names of persons however used, titles of books, the principal words used as names of the Deity, and the first word of every line of poetry, should begin with capital letters. LETTER WRITING. 275 CHAPTER XV. Letter Writing. [To the Teacher. — Very few of the pupils of the grammar schools will ever attend any school of a higher grade. Their equipment for the duties of life, so far as given in a school education, must be completed here. The subject of Letter Writing is usually presented in Rhetoric, which is beyond the range of grammar school studies. As all persons find occasion to write letters, it seems desirable that some specific instruction should be given in this important subject, in connection with grammar. The more important points are, therefore, here pre- sented, and such examples, comments, and instruction given as seem necessary to prepare the pupU to do his letter writing in after life cred- itably.] The 'Envelope. Notice (1) the position of the outside address, (2) the capitalization and punctuation of each line, and (3) the position of the postage stamp. (To a country address.) Mrs. C. H. Gordon, Plainview, Rock Co., Wisconsin. Box 108. 276 LETTER WRITING. (To a city address.) Miss Alice Gary, 1189 Fifth Ave. New York, N. Y. The Outside Address should consist of the titUj nmne, and residence of the person addressed. The Residence consists of the post-office, the county, and the state. If the person addressed lives in a large, well- known city, the number and street should be given, but the county may be omitted. The name should be a little below the middle of the envelope, and should be written so that the two ends shall be about equally distant from the right and left edges. The other parts should be arranged below, each a little farther to the right than the preceding line, so as to pro- duce a uniform slope at the left. Be careful to have straight lines, but do not scratch or rule them. Begin every word with a capital. Place a comma after each item except the last. If a title is written after the surname, put a comma between the name and the title. Remark. — The period used after an abbreviation is not a punctuation mark, but is a part of the abbreviation; therefore if a punctuation mark should be used after the whole word, it should be used after the abbreviation. THE ENVELOPE. Til When an abbreviation occurs at the end of a sentence or address, however, but one period is used. Place the postage stamp right end up, upon the upper right hand carrier, as it is placed on stamped government envelopes, a slight distance from the corner, but with the edges of the stamp parallel with the edges of the envelope. Remarks and Cautions. — A letter sent by the hand of a messenger needs no stamp. Politeness requires that the bearer'' s name be written upon the out- side of the envelope, preceded by the words '• Politeness of" or^* Kindness of." This is usually placed in the lower left hand corner. A letter of introduction to be delivered by the person introduced should be left unsealed, and, in general, courtesy requires that any letter carried by an unpaid messenger should be left unsealed. Never forget to inclose a stamp when sending a letter requesting an answer solely for your own information. When sending such a letter to an entire stranger, it is better to inclose an envelope also, directed to your own address. Special Caution.— TVie majority of letters that fail to reach tlie persons for whom they are intended, are lost through some error or omission in the direction of the envelope, or because they have not the necessary stamp. Learn to use great care in attending to these particulars. Examples of Addressed Envelopes. If not called for in 10 days, return to Robert J. Tracy, 412 Filbert St., San Francisco, California. Miss Jean McCormick, Milford, Jefferson Co., Wisconsin. /o Mr. E. T. Marsh. JTOte,— TTie mark {/q]is a business abbreviation for in care Of. 278 LETTER WRITING. Rev. J. H. Mendon, London, England. 15 Chilworth St., Hyde Park. Remark. — In directing foreigri letters, and in cases where the direction is long, put in the body of the direction only the items necessary for the infor- mation of postmasters in sending the letter to the right town or city. The points needed only by the messenger to deliver the letter, may be placed in the lower left hand corner. The name of the county is sometimes written in the same position. James A. Warner, Esq., Pres. of the Board of Education, Baltimore, Md. Introducing Miss Lilli Fox. THE ENVELOPE. 279 His Excellency, Governor Geo. B. Anderson, Boston, Mass. Politeness of Capt. John Taylor. Exercise : a. Address two envelopes to friends living in the country or in small towns. b. Address two envelopes to persons living in San Fran- cisco or some other large city in the United States. c. Address a letter to a person in Paris. d. Address a letter to your County Superintendent, intro- ducing one of your classmates. e. Direct a letter to some one residing outside of Califor- nia, in such a manner that it will be returned to you if the owner is not found. 280 LETTER WRITING. The Letter. Direction. — Examine the different parts of the following model of a letter on ordinary note paper. Notice the posi- tion, capitalization, and punctuation of each item: t^i-^o-iyyyi- ■i^-at^' '^^-t^-if ■a.-t «?■ i^i^iA^'Od- ■i--yve--e.-ti'^yv^ t^ K^^-o^t^e- -e-^?// -^e-^W^ fyn- 'i'/vi^d tJf/^*^ ^liyt.-n.i THE LETTER. 281 The figures in the following abstract correspond to the parts of the preceding letter, as numbered on the margin. Learn the names of the different parts of a letter so that you can readily apply them to the model. ' Envelope. Address. Stamp. ^ Heading. ft Place. 2. Date. Introduction. ( Name. 3. Address, j (v.o. (^ Residence. < Co. (state. 4. Salutation. Letters. -^ Part^ J. I ^- Beginning. ^^^^^'U. Body.^ Margin. 7. Paragraph. Conclusion. ^. Complimentary close. ). Signature. Address, if not in the introduction. Punctuation of each part. Folding. r Friendship. f Social, i^''"'"^;,.. Congratulation. I Condolence, etc. . Kinds of Letters. ■{ f Mercantile. -J, . J Application and Answer. ] Recommendation. I Introduction, etc. I. The Heading. Begin the heading on the first ruled line of note paper, and a little to the left of the middle of the page, so that the words need not be crowded. If short, the heading may oc- cupy but one line. If two lines are needed, the date should be placed on the second, and should begin farther to the right than the name of the place. In writing from a city where there is a free mail delivery, give the door number, 282 LETTER WRITING. the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If hving in a hotel or other large building, give the name of the building and number of the room. Begin each impor- tant word with a capital, set off each item by the comma, and close the heading with a period. The door number, the day of the month, and the year are the only items in a let- ter that should be written in figures, except, in some cases, a sum of money. Exercise : a. Write the following headings according to the above model and directions: 1. 1796 pacific St. portland Oregon July 4 1885. 2. Commercial hotel Chicago ill. Aug 9 1880. 3. Koom 27 Russ house san francisco cal aug 7. 1876. b. Write three headings of your own from different places. II. The Introduction. L Address. — A title of courtesy, such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Esq., and professional, literary, or military titles, such as Dr., Prof., A.M., and Col, should be given in the address. Two of such titles should not be joined to one name. Mr. Henry Sawyer, Esq., is incorrect. Remark. — In addressing a clergyman, the double title Rev. Mr. may be used, the Mr. being a substitute for the Christian name, when not known. The husband's title is sometimes written after the title Mrs.; as, Mrs. Dr. Cross. When two literary or professional titles are added to one name, one must not include the other. The higher title implies the lower. Why is the following incorrect? Rev. Dr. Morse, D.D. Begin the address on the next line or the second below the heading, on the left side of the page, at the marginal line.* It may occupy two or three lines, each lower line *Note. — The width of the margin should be from one fourth of an inch (on narrow note paper) to one inch (on large letter paper). INTRODUCTION— INVITATION. 283 beginning a little farther to the right than the previous one. Capitalize and punctuate the items and abbreviations in the same manner as the heading, closing with a period. In all ordinary business letters not official, the address should be the same in substance as that upon the envelope, and should be placed at the top of the letter, but in family letters and letters to intimate friends, the address may be placed at the left, on the next line below the signature, and in official letters should always be written there. 2. Salutation. — The style of salutation depends upon the station of the person addressed, the writer's relative posi- tion, and the degree of intimacy existing between them. Dear Sir^ Dear Madam, Dear Miss, are used in mere business letters or in addressing ordinary acquaintances; My dear Sir, My dear Miss Rider, etc., in addressing friends; My dear Sister, Dear Alice, Dearest Brother, near relatives and dear friends. Begin the salutation a little to the right of the marginal line, under the first letter of the second line, if the address occupies three lines; if but two lines, about an inch farther to the right than the beginning of the second line; and if but one, about an inch to the right of the marginal line. The first word of the salutation and every noun in it. should begin with a capital. The salutation should be followed by the comma; or, if the body of the letter begins on the same line, by the comma and the dash. In more formal letters, a colon may be used. Exercise: Observe the following models, and then arrange the remaining introductions; 284 LETTER WRITING. Model 1: J. H. Wilson, Esq., 667 Broadway, New York. Dear Sir, — Your favor, etc. Model 2: Messrs. Walter Moffatt & Sons, Rochester, Minnesota. Gentlemen,— I am requested, etc. Model B: Miss Winifred Norton, Dear Madam, Accept my sincere thanks for the basket of lovely flowers, etc. 1. Hon. D. D. Goodall 893 F street Sacramento Cal. Dear Sir The goods shipped upon, etc. 2. Mrs. Eliza Mason Trenton N. J. My dear Friend. 3. Master Willie Tubbs Dear Willie I was greatly pleased to receive your interesting account of the, etc. 4. Write three other introductions, of your own, to letters of friendship or to business letters. Very formal letters, such as invitations and their answers, announcements, etc., are in the third person, and have no introduction. When short, they should begin below the first ruled line, or, so as to occupy, when finished, the mid- dle of the page. Invitation. Mr. and Mrs. Hall request the pleasure of Mr. Wright's company at a social gathering, on Tuesday evening, at eight o^cloch. 1210 Elm Ave., Nov. 8. Accepting the Invitation. Mr. Wright accepts with much pleasure the kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Hall to he present at their residence next Tuesday evening. Declining the Invitation. Mr. Wright presents his compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Hall, with regrets that it will be impossible, by reason of a previous engagement, to accept their kind invitation for Tuesday evening. HI. The Body of the Letter. This should generally begin on the line under the saluta- tion, just at the right, or, when the address is long, on th^ THE CONCLUSION. 285 same line, with a dash between the first word and the end of the salutation. (See Models 1 and 2 above.) The body of the letter should begin with a capital, should be neatly and clearly written, and should be divided into paragraphs. There should always be a narrow margin at the left of each page, but not at the right. No blots are allowable. Remark. — A paragraph contains one sentence or a group of connected sentences in the same line of thought. The beginning of a new subject or a new line of thought should be indicated by a new paragraph. Avoid, how- ever, dividing a letter into more paragraphs than are necessary. Exercise : Write a letter to your teacher giving an account of the manner in which you spent your last birthday. Write a full heading and a full introduction, and have at least two paragraphs in the body of the letter. IV. The Conclusion. The conclusion should contain the complimentary close and the signature. The complimentary close should be written on the next line below the end of the body of the letter. If long, it may occupy more than one line. It should begin with a capital and end with a comma. Generally the writer's signature, in full, should be written on the next line below the complimentary close, near the right hand edge of the sheet. It should end with a period. Remark. — When the address is not in the introduction nor in the body of a formal letter, it should be written below the signature, at the left. Like the forms of salutation, the forms of complimentary close vary with the style of letter, the degree of intimacy or formality, etc. The following are a few of the forms: Social Letters. — Your friend, Your sincere friend, Your loving daughter, Lovingly yours, Yours heartily and aflfectionately, Now and ever yours, etc. 286 LETTER WRITING. Note. — Let your good sense and your feelings dictate the choice of forms. Do not capitalize any word hut the first and the word Sir, when used. See below. Business Letters. — Yours respectfully, Yours truly, Very truly yours, etc. Official. — I have the honor to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, Charles D. Babcock. Very respectfully. Your most obedient servant, Frank Warner. The signature should consist of the writer's full name or of the initials of the Christian name and the whole of the surname. When a lady addresses a stranger, she should, in parenthesis, prefix her title (Mrs. or Miss) to the sig- nature; thus, (Miss) Ellen E. Jones. The close and signature should be arranged like the heading and introduction, so as to present a regular down- ward slope toward the right. Exercise : Arrange the following conclusions properly: 1. Believe me, dear girl ever your sincere friend Helen L. Gibson. 2. I am Sir yours very respectfully Waldo Thompson. 3. Your loving daughter Gertrude Miller. 4. Very sincerely, your friend Robert Hunt. 5. Write a suitable conclusion for a letter to your father or mother, another to your teacher, and one to an intimate friend or a school- mate. Folding the Letter. The envelope should be of a size to match the paper. If the envelope is square, with note paper to match (twice the size of the envelope), but one folding is necessary- — to bring the top and the bottom together, with the heading inside. If the length of the paper is more than twice the width of the envelope, and the width of the paper less than the LETTER FORMS. 287 length of the envelope, fold the bottom edge up about one third of the length of the sheet, then turn the top down in the same manner and press the folds neatly. Sometimes it is necessary to fold the sheet lengthwise, but in all cases care should be taken to make the folds straight and the edges even. The letter should be folded and inserted in the envelope in such a manner that when taken out and unfolded, it will bring the heading up and the first page before the reader's eye. Exercises : a. Practice folding and inserting the letters you have already written, or blank sheets of paper. b. Write a complete letter covering not less than two pages of note paper, to some absent relative or friend, describing your day's work at. school. After it has been criticised by your teacher, put it in an envelope directed properly, place a stamp on, the envelope, and send the letter to the post office. Cautions. — Business letters should be short and to the point. In writing to a stranger, give your address in full. Business Letter. Trenton, N. J., Dec. 4, 1886. Messrs. Brooks & Stevens, 149 Park Place, N. Y. Dear Sirs, — Please send by mail, as soon as con- venient, the following : 1 copy Scribner's Writing Book, No. 3, $ .10 2 copies Whittier's Poems, Household Ed., cloth, 4. 1 copy Dickens' Barnaby Rudge, Globe Ed., cloth, 1. Total amount, at prices named in your catalogue — five dollars and ten cents, for which amount find P. 0. order inclosed. Respectfully yours, Geo. R. Woodman. 288 . LETTER WRITING. Letter of Introduction. Los Angeles, May 20, 1887. My dear Clara, — It gives me great f^leasure to introduce to you my friend and fellow townswoman, Mrs. Ellen Walters, who is an earnest and highly esteemed member of the C. L. S. C. of this city. Mrs. Walters visits your city in pursuit of health and recreation, but she will be glad to make the acquaintance of a few persons of culture and refinement. Any attention you may show her will be esteemed as a personal favor by Your old friend, Annie L. Field. Miss Clara Owens, Santa Cruz, Cal. INDEX. 289 II^DEX. {The references are to pages.) Absolute phrase, 52, 102. Abstracts, topical, Adjectives, 251; Adverbs, 251 ; Conjugations, 252; Mouns, 249; Prepositions, 252; Pronouns, 249, 250; Sentences, 248 ; Verbals, 253, 254 ; Verbs, 253. Adjectives, defined, 35, 68; com- parison of, 139 ; descriptive, 134 ; uses of, 137; interrogative, 128, 136; limiting, 134; pronominal, 135; verbal, 138; form for pars- ing, 143. Adjective adjuncts, 35, 36, 42. Adjuncts, defined, 13; adjective, word, 35, 43 ; phrase, 36 ; clause, 36; adverbial, word, 32, 41; phrase, 33; clause, 33; of a phrase or a clause, 102. Adverbs, defined, 32, 41, 68 ; classes of, 157 ; comparison of, 158 ; con- nective, 47, 155; interrogative, 128, 155 ; nouns used as, 86, 101 ; form for parsing, 158, 162; va- rious uses of, 153. Adverbial modifiers, 32, 33, 41. Afllrmative sentence, 11. Analysis of sentences, defined, 20, 95 ; form for simple sentence, 58 ; form for complex sentence, 58; form for compound sentence, 58. Antecedents, 106. Apostrophe, uses of the, 78, 91, 271. Apposition, nouns and pronouns in, 85, 100; phrase in, 99; clause in, 99, 100. 19-G Articles, 143. As, idiomatic use of, 99; variable uses of, 117. Attribute, adjuncts of, 37 ; form of, 95; introduced by as, 99; of sub- ject, a word, 27, 28 ; diagram, 29 ; a phrase, 28; diagram, 59; a clause, 28; diagram, 61; com- pound, diagram, 29; of object, a noun or a pronoun, 87; an ad- jective, 98 ; a phrase, 98. Auxiliaries, 190. But, variable uses of, 117. Bracket, uses of the, 269. Capitals, uses of, 11, 21, 72, 128,274. "Case," 84. Clause, defined, 8, 9 ; as attribute, 28; as object, 24; as subject, 16; restrictive, 124; dependent and independent, 39. Colon, uses of the, 266, 273. Comma, uses of the, 12, 19, 34, 81, 100, 128, 183, 264, 265, 266, 273. Comparison of adjectives, 139; of adverbs, 158. Complement, defined, 22; an attri- bute, 27 ; diagram, 29 ; an object, 23 ; diagram, 29. Complex sentence, 39, 53 ; form for analysis of, 58. Compound attribute, diagram, 29. Compound object, 24; diagram, 29. Compound predicate, 18, 24; dia- gram, 29. Compound subject, 19; diagram, 29. 290 INDEX. Compound sentence, 39,54; form for analysis of, 58. Conjugation, 216. Conjunctions, defined, 50, 68,166; classes and uses of, 166. 168 • form for parsing, 170. Construction of words, 95. Correlatives, defined, 169; list of, 172. Dash, uses of the, 271. Declarative sentence, 10. Declension, 94; practical applica- tion of, 110. Diagraming, defined, 29, 95. Ellipsis, diagrams, 100. Entire predicate, 13. Entire subject, 15. Errors in the use of adjectives, 147, 150, 165, 245; adverbs, 162, 165, 245; articles, 145 ; conjunctions, 173, 175, 245; nouns and pro- nouns, 97, 126, 244 ; prepositions, 184, 186, 246 ; possessives, 93 ; pro- nouns, 123. 126, 132 ; verbals, 235, 246 ; verbs, 199, 227, 246 ; miscel- laneous, 241. Etymology of words, 69. Exclamation point, uses of the, 12, 269. Exclamatory sentence, 10. Gender, 82, Hyphen, uses of the, 272, Idioms, defined, 101. Idiomatic phrases, 102; use of as, 99; use of it, 108; use of verbs, 204. Imperative sentence, 10. Independent parts, 50; diagrams, 60, 61. Infinitive phrase, 45. Infinitives, defined, 45; uses and forms of, 228 ; form for parsing, 235. Interjections, defined, 51, 68, 188; use of, 188. Interrogation point, use of the, 12, 269. Interrogative sentence, 10. Interrogatives, 128 Letter writing, 275. Mode, imperative, 208, 215; indica- tive, 208, 209; potential, 208, 211; subjunctive, 208, 214. Negative sentence, 11. Nominative form of nouns, 91 ; of declinable pronouns, 95. Nouns, defined, 16, 68; common and proper, 71; collective, 80; gender of, 82; number of, 73; office of, 84 ; person of, 81 ; form for parsing, 96. Number, 73; rules for formation, 74. Object, a word, 23, 24, 84 ; diagram, 29; a phrase, 24; diagram, 60; a clause, 24; diagram, 62; com- pound, 24; diagram, 29; ad- juncts of, 35 ; of a preposition, 43 ; of a preposition not expressed, 86, 184, 204. Objective form of nouns, 92 ; of de- clinable pronouns, 95. Office of nouns and pronouns, ap- position, 85 ; attribute of object, 87; noun used adverbially, 86; object of preposition not ex- pressed, 86, 184, 204 ; possessives, 89; subject and object, 84. Parenthesis, use of the, 271. Parsing, defined, 95. Participial phrase, 44. Participles, defined, 46, 231; uses and forms of, 231 ; form for pars- ing, 235. Parts of speech, how to tell the, 69 ; definitions of the, 68. Period, uses of the, 11, 264, 265, 266, 273. Person, 81. Phrase, defined, 8 ; absolute, 52 ; as attribute, 28; as object, 24; as INDEX. 291 subject, 16; prepositional, 42; position of, 183 ; verbal, 44. Plurals, formation of, 74. Possessives, 89; rules for forming, 91. Possessive pronouns, 109. Predicate, word, 13; diagram, 29; entire, 13 ; compound, 18, 24 ; di- agram, 29 ; modifiers of the, '32. Prepositional phrase, 42; position of, 183. Prepositions, defined, 43, 68, 176; choice of, 181; list of, 178; not expressed, 86, 184, 204 ; object of (word, phrase, or clause), 177; form for parsing, 180; relations shown by, 176 ; variable uses of, 179. Principal parts of a sentence, 31 ; of a verb, 189. Pronouns, defined, 16, 68; antece- dents of, 106; connective, 46, 113; compound connective, 118; per- sonal, 107; compound personal, llXi declinable, 93; form of, 95; in- terrogative, 128, 131 ; possessive, 109; gender of, 82; number of, 73; office of, 84; person of, 81; form for parsing personal, 113; form for parsing simple connec- tive, 115 ; form for parsing what and compound connective, 120. Punctuation, 19, 34, 264. Questions, in review, Part I., 55; Part II., adjectives, 257 ; adverbs, 259; conjunctions, 259; interjec- tions, 261; nouns and pronouns, 255; prepositions, 260; pronouns, 256 ; verbs and verbals, 261. Quotations, direct and indirect, 128 ; punctuation of, 128, 269. Rules of Syntax and Cautions.— Adjectives, 146; adverbs, 160; articles, 143 ; conjunctions, 171 ; infinitives, 230; nouns, nomina- tive form of, 91; nouns, pos- sessive form of, 91; participles, 233; prepositions, 181, 183, 185; pronouns, agreement with ante- cedents, 113, 120; pronouns, coiv:^ nective, 123; pronouns, declina- ble, form of, 95 ; pronoui^^orm whoever, 119 ; verbs, 22^; verbs, auxiliaries, 190; verbs, use of shall and will, 212. Semicolon, uses of the, 265, 266, 273. Sentence-building, 52. Sentence, defined, 8, 9; classified according to form, 38 ; classified according to meaning, 10; prin- cipal parts of, 31. Shall and -will, uses of, 212. Simple sentence, 39, 52; form for analysis of, 58. Subject, word, 15, 84; diagram, 29; entire, 15 ; a phrase, 16 ; diagram, 59; a clause, 16; diagram, 61; compound, 18; diagram, 29; ad- juncts of the, 35 ; position of the, 17. Substantive, defined, 17. Synopsis, 222. Syntax of words, 70. Tense, 206. That, variable uses of, 117; when preferred to who or xvhich, 124. Verbal adjectives, 138. Verbal phrase, 44. Verbals, defined, 44, 68, 189; form for parsing, 235 ; limited by pos- sessives, 89; infinitives, 228 ; par- ticiples, 231. Verbs, defined, 13, 68, 189; classi- fied: active and neuter, 200; complete and incomplete, 22, 189 ; strong (irregular) and weak (regular), 191; redundant and defective, 191; transitive and intransitive, 24, 201; principal 292 INDEX. parts of, 189 ; form of : active and passive, 202; emphatic, 202 ; sim- ple and progressive, 202 ; auxili- aries, 190 ; mode, 207 ; tense, 206 conjugation, 216; synopsis, 222 idiomatic constructions, 204 shall and will, uses of, 212. What, double relation of, 116; va- riable uses of, 117. While, variable uses of, 167. Word-predicate, 13. Word-subject, 15. Words, introductory, 52; ways of grouping, 7. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. SEP 2 1932 m 30 1934 MAY 8 1934 SEP 15 1934 » MAR 25 1935 Vv^^ ^^' ,^^"1 SEP 26 1939 OCT 16 1946 l6kl5lGR 28Feb'55"«5 FEB 16 1956 L« FEB 7 m fiCT 141983 BECCHLOCrlS V JAN 4 1988 AUTO. DISC. JAN 5 1988 "C- BE BWLEV UBmin <-0040t50tM / 366<^3 • UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY