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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF "■-■■■ 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 MENTAL LIFE.
 
 LONDON : PRINTED BT 
 
 SP0TTI8W00DE AND CO., NEW-STREBT SQUARH 
 
 AND PARLIAMENT STREET
 
 THE PHYSICAL BASIS 
 
 OF MENTAL LIFE. 
 
 A POPULAR ESSAY. 
 
 15Y 
 
 E. E. XOEL. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO 
 
 1873. 
 
 All riolilx resfiffil.
 
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 A CONSIDERABLE PART of the following essay formed 
 the subject-matter of a lecture delivered in Leicester 
 last November to the members of the Literary and 
 Philosophical Society, and the public generally of that 
 city. 
 
 The time appears to me opportune for an appeal in 
 brief form to a still larger public in favour of princi- 
 ples of mental science, of the truth of which a long 
 course of observations, extending over the best years 
 of my life, has rendered me fully convinced. As these 
 years have been chiefly passed in Germany and Austria, 
 the German language and literature have become more 
 familiar to me than those of my father-land. It has 
 been in those countries, moreover, that my collection 
 of casts of the heads of eminent men, criminals, 
 suicides, &c., jind of national and other skulls has
 
 vi Preface 
 
 been formed. These circumstances are mentioned in 
 explanation of the references in the following pages 
 to German authorities in anatomy and physiology, 
 and to German heads in illustration of the text. 
 
 R. R. N. 
 
 April, 1873.
 
 Jr" le . 1. 
 
 PLATE 1. 
 
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 ou 
 
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 Lonair.aXiS Green & C° 
 
 Xell Bro^ Liili Louio
 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 AND 
 
 EXPLAXATIOX OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 Fig. I . The brain, its coveriugs having been removed — viewed from 
 above. 
 
 AA. The two hemispheres, with their convolutions; a, the frontal 
 lobe, a', the middle lobe, o", the posterior lobe. 
 
 1. The occipital bone; 1', suture between the occipital and 
 
 parietal bones. 
 
 2. The parietal bone; 2', suture between the parietal and 
 
 frontal bones. 
 •S. The frontal bone ; 3', the frontal sinuses. 
 
 Fig. 2. The basis of the brain viewed from below. 
 
 A A, (I, a', a", same as in fig. 1. a", the sylvian fissure, separating 
 
 the frontal from the temporal lobe. 
 BB. The cerebellum, with its two hemispheres and convolutions. 
 C. The medulla oblongata, showing the median (li\isi()n into two 
 lateral halves: nearest to the fissure are the corpora pyraniidalia, 
 containing anterior fibres of the spinal cord ; then come tl)« 
 corpora olivaria, containing lateral fibres ; and behind these lie 
 the corpora restiformia, containing posterior fibres of the spinal 
 cord. 
 1). The Pons \' arolii, the system of fibres connecting the cerebrum 
 .-ukI tlie cerebellum, 
 
 h. Tlie olfactory nerve and its bulb. 
 <• 'J'lie optic nerve. 
 fl. The auditory nerve. 
 
 e. The nerve belonging i<\ the sense of taste, ((■ilopsn-phnryn- 
 geua).
 
 viii List of Plates, etc. 
 
 PLATE 11. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2. Two skulls cut opeu horizontally, their basilar parts 
 viewed from above. 
 
 A. The anterior fossa, seat of the frontal lobe. 
 
 B. The middle fossa, seat of the temporal lobe. 
 
 C. The posterior fossa, seat of the cerebellum, 
 
 D. The large occipital hole (foramen magnum), through which 
 the spinal cord enters into the brain. 
 
 a. The frontal bone. 
 «'. The zygomatic arch. 
 &. The sphenoid bone. 
 
 c. The temporal bone. 
 
 d. The petrous portion of the temporal bone, separating the 
 
 middle and posterior fosste of the skull. Within the os 
 petrosum lie the auditory nerves and apparatuses for the 
 conveyance of sound. 
 
 e. The occipital bone. 
 
 /. The clivus, the part of the basilar bone on which the 
 medulla oblongata and pons varolii repose. 
 
 N.B. Fig. 1. The basilar portion of the skull of a man of narrow 
 intellect, though entirely removed from cretinism or idiocy. He was 
 convicted in Saxony of arson, but on account of defective understand- 
 ing, condemned to loss of liberty only. lie was seen by me before 
 his trial, and, after his death in the house of detention, I procured this 
 drawing of his skull. The cast of his head is in my possession. 
 
 Fig. 2. The basilar portion of the skull of a man of average intellectual 
 capacity. The supra-orbital plates of these skulls show a remarkable 
 difference as to their size ; whereas the other fossae of the skulls are 
 nearly similar. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 Fig. 1. Brain of the celebrated German mathematician, Gauss. 
 
 J'iG. 2. Brain of a German handworker. The drawings are from a 
 German work, 'Das Leib d(!s Menschen,' by Professor Reclam. They 
 show a great difference in respect to the number and arrangements of 
 the convolutions.
 
 Fi^. 1 
 
 PLATE 11. 
 
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 Longmajis Green & C° 
 
 KenBro^Licli.Li.
 
 R§. 1. 
 
 PLATE 111. 
 
 
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 Lon^rasLTis Green 8c C° 
 
 Ivtiil Bro^ LitVi Lontion
 
 iig 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 
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 ^18 
 
 4. 
 
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 ^// 
 
 
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 Fig. 5. 
 
 Longmans Green & C° 
 
 Kell Bro^ Lioh, London
 
 List of Plates, etc. ix 
 
 Fig. 3. Drawing from a cast of the head of Professor B. von Cotta, a 
 distinguished geologist, and man of great intellectual capacity. 
 
 Fig. 4. Drawing from a post-mortem cast of the head of a Saxon book- 
 binder, and a suicide. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2. Front and side views of the skull of a cretin from the 
 Alps. 
 
 Fig. 3. Side view of the skull of Schiller (the great German poet), from 
 an original cast in my possession. The asterisk in the side view of the 
 skull of the cretin, and the central one in that of Schiller, mark re- 
 spectively the inward extension of the supra-orbital plates. The two 
 other asterisks in the skull of Schiller mark the points of ossification 
 in the frontal and parietal bones. 
 
 Fig. 4. Cast of the head (taken from life) of Dr. von Ammon, a very 
 eminent theologian, writer and preacher. He was at the head of the 
 protestant church in Saxony. His theological works are particularly 
 remarkable for their highly humane and moral tone. 
 
 Fig. 5. Post-mortem cast from the head of Vetter, an incorrigible 
 thief. Being condemned to the House of Correction for the seventh 
 time — and this time for a very long period — he committed suicide by 
 hanging. 
 
 N.B. With the exception of the views of the brains of Professor Gauss, 
 the German handworker, and of the head of a suicide (plate III. fig. 4), 
 the illustrations have been copied from drawings in my German 
 work, ' Grundziige der Phrenologie.' The original drawings were made 
 on stone by a portrait painter and lithographer of great repute, Ilerrn 
 Weinhold of Dresden. Whenever comparisons of two or more heads 
 or skidls have been purposed, the proportions of the same have been 
 mathematically maintained.
 
 THE 
 
 PHYSICAL BASIS OF MENTAL LIFE 
 
 The doctrines of the schools called ' Mental Philoso- 
 sophy,' ' Psychology,' and ' Mental Science,' are 
 based chiefly ou more or less partial experiences, on 
 speculation and abstract reasoning. Very few mental 
 philosophers have been students of nature, careful 
 observers of phenomena, and investigators of their 
 efficient causes ; still fewer have been physiologists. 
 Their observations have indeed had more of a sub- 
 jective than objective character ; have had more 
 reference to the self-consciousness of individual 
 thinkers, than to their fitness to solve the problems 
 of the human mind in general. Moreover, such 
 objective experiences as have been included in 
 systems of psychology have been explained in agree- 
 ment with preconceived theories of a spiritual mind, 
 of an abstract entity. These modes of proceeding 
 are very far from sound. To gain practical insight 
 into the luiman mind, we must not only take cog- 
 
 B
 
 2 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 nisance of our own emotions, volitions, &c. — which, 
 I allow, may be of value if our self-introspection be 
 acute and free from the delusive influences of self-love 
 — but of all those psychological facts of which we have 
 historical evidence, as well as actual experience. 
 And all manifestations of the mind require to be 
 studied in connection with their organic conditions ; 
 for psychology, in its usually received sense, as 
 treating of the human mind in especial, cannot be 
 thoroughly understood unless considered as a part 
 of anthropology, or the science of man. 
 
 In great contrast to the metaphysical doctrines 
 alluded to, are the teachings of Dr. Gall respecting 
 the faculties of the mind. Gifted with unusual 
 powers of observation and reflection, the differences 
 in the characters and capabilities of his companions 
 struck him whilst still a boy at school ; and at the 
 same time he remarked certain coincidences in the 
 forms of their heads. There are so many works in 
 the English language — notably those of the late 
 Georo;e Combe — which contain an account of Gall's 
 youthful experiences and subsequent researches, that 
 I shall not dwell on this subject. Neither shall I 
 take up time by mentioning the names of those who — 
 dating from very early periods of history — have paid 
 attention to the forms of the head, and — however 
 vague their observations and ideas about the mind — 
 have believed that particular powers were located in
 
 Dr. GaWs Researches 3 
 
 tliat part of the body. In a certain sense, therefore, 
 Gall may be said to have had precursors. But his 
 turn for observation, and fondness for natural 
 history, having led him to choose the medical pro- 
 fession, instead of that of the Church — for which his 
 father had destined him — he was the first to perceive 
 that the form of the head can have no physiological 
 value unless it agrees with the development of the 
 brain, and throws light on the functions of that 
 organ, to which he devoted his full attention. It 
 was indeed mainly through his labours that the old 
 erroneous way of studying the anatomy of the brain 
 by cutting off successive slices from the top, and 
 noting the parts and appearances thus presented to 
 view — to which strange names, from their foncied 
 resemblances, were given — was abolished, and the 
 physiologically sound method of investigating the 
 fibrous structure of that organ, by commencing at 
 the bottom, at its connection with the spinal cord, 
 became generally adopted. iVs regards insight into 
 the fibrous structure of the brain, however, Gall 
 likewise had precursors, particularly Yarol ; and 
 our AYillis, in the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 deserves mention for having called attention to the 
 convolutions and their covering of grey matter. 
 But tliat the teachings of the schools on the anatomy 
 of the brain were mainly reformed through Gall's 
 labours, I have been assured by eminent pliysiologists 
 
 15 2
 
 4 Physical Basis of Me?ital Life 
 
 in Germany. Modern researches into the anatomy 
 of the brain, whilst they have increased our knowledge 
 of that organ, especially of its development-history, 
 are, as will be shown, nowise opposed to the general 
 principle of its functions as taught by Dr. Gall. 
 
 I must now more fully explain Avhat it is that Gall 
 did to place the study of the human mind on the basis 
 of natural history and physiological experience. Al- 
 though before him the brain had been often regarded 
 by physiologists, naturalists, and students of human 
 nature, to be the material instrument by means of 
 which certain mental powers are manifested, yet 
 these powers themselves were held to belong to an 
 immaterial mind or soul, and to be subjects of con- 
 ception and demonstration quite independently of 
 the body. I here must allude, however, to the fact, 
 that, practically, many great poets and dramatists — 
 Shakespear in particular— in their delineations of 
 human nature, have used the terms mind and brain 
 as equivalent or convertible, and that in the sayings 
 and proverbs of every civilised people there are 
 many allusions to the head, to its size and shape, as 
 indicative of mental qualities. 
 
 The German language is especially rich in such 
 allusions, several of which, moreover, in connecting 
 particular dispositions and talents with particular 
 forms of the head, very nearly coincide with Gall's 
 experiences. However, it belonged, in his days, I
 
 Poiucrs of the Mind 5 
 
 repeat, to the doctrines of the schools of mental phi- 
 losophy, that the human mind — not, I must emphati- 
 cally state, an abstract conception of mind or spirit 
 per se — could be studied apart from matter, and that 
 its attributes or powers are something essentially 
 different from all those physical actions which are 
 known to be functions of bodily organs. Thus it 
 belonged to the doctrines of the schools that ' mem- 
 ory,' 'judgment,' ' imagination,' ' consciousness,' 'sym- 
 pathy,' 'attention,' 'the will,' &c. are powers or 
 faculties of the mind — for these terms have been, 
 and indeed still are, used indiscriminately — and Gall 
 was the first to show, by appealing to experiences 
 and historical data, that such so-called powers are 
 only general abstractions, giving no insight into the 
 concrete, into particular kinds of memory, imagina- 
 tion, volition, &c. and the special capacities for 
 the same in different human beings. For example, 
 following out the lessons of his youth, the experi- 
 ences he had gauied amongst his schoolfellows of 
 their individual aptitudes and dispositions, he called 
 attention to such facts as that a man may have a line 
 perception and vivid consciousness of musical sounds 
 and their combinations, great memory, judgment and 
 imagination concerning them, yet have a poor per- 
 ception, memory, &;c. in regard to the external forms 
 or configurations of objects, wliicli in aiiotlier man 
 may be powerful. To such extent, in fact, do these
 
 6 Physica I Basis of Men tal L ife 
 
 natural gifts of perception, memory, &c. vary, that 
 the one man may be born a genius for music, the 
 other for plastic art. In like manner, he pointed 
 out tliat memory, judgment, &c. are connected with 
 capacities for languages, for mathematics, mechanics, 
 or other branches of science which, whenever success- 
 full}^ pursued, are usually regarded as special talents. 
 And not only were intellectual powers closely ob- 
 served and investigated by Gall, with reference to 
 tlieir elementary nature and organic conditions ; but 
 all strong manifestations of natural dispositions, 
 passions, propensities, &c. were studied by him in a 
 similar way. Gall was an uncompromising hater of 
 mere theorisers and systematisers ^ — ideologists, as he 
 called them ; and it was well it was so, for had he 
 been imbued with the doctrines of any particular 
 school of psychology, he could not have been the 
 acute and unbiassed observer he proved himself to be. 
 Instead of regarding the human mmd from a tran- 
 scendental point of view, he boldly adopted the 
 natural-liistory method of investigation, upheld the 
 principle of man's connection with the animal world 
 in general, and sought insight into the lower and 
 simpler forms of mental life, before extending his 
 researches into the higher and more complex. As he 
 
 ^ '■ Je suis plus glorieiix de la d^couTerte de la plus mince v^ritd que 
 de rinvention du plus biillant pysteme.' — Gall, Sur les fonctions da 
 cerveau, etc. torn. vi. p. 502.
 
 Ftiudamental Facilities 7 
 
 likewise carefully noted tlie form of the head in every 
 instance of prominent talents, dispositions, &c. that 
 came under his observation — and, whenever possible, 
 procured plaster casts of remarkable heads, the skulls 
 of murderers, suicides, &c. — his researches through- 
 out maintained an objective character, unobscured 
 by subjective speculations based on inward conscious- 
 ness, such as naturally have given rise to great 
 variety of doctrine and frequent controversies in 
 the schools of mental philosophy. Thus, by degrees, 
 as his experiences accumulated, and by the induc- 
 tive method of reasoning, he gained insight mto 
 faculties of the mmd which he called primitive or 
 fundamental — the main sources of human actions — 
 and into their connection with particular forms of 
 brain-development. Many of these faculties. Gall, 
 by referring to natural history, to the instincts, pro- 
 pensities, &c. of animals, showed to be possessed by 
 them as well as man ; others, as the power of arti- 
 culate language, to belong to man alone ; others, 
 agaiu, as the power of abstract reasoning, and the 
 moral sense, if not to be altogether denied to some 
 of the higher animals, yet to exist in them only in a 
 rudimentary state. These views he further found 
 coniirmed by the comparative anatomy of the brain. 
 Gall's teachings respecting man's moral nature 
 have given more offence to metaphysicians and tlieo- 
 loirians than his views about man's intellectual
 
 8 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 powers. Yet close attention to facts will show the 
 one category of mental life to be as dependent on 
 organic conditions as the other. As bearing on this 
 point, I cannot refrain from quoting the words of a 
 great observer of human nature, of the great poet of 
 Germany, who in his ' Wilhelm Meister ' makes Natalie, 
 one of the characters in the tale, relate the following 
 of another, the abb6 : ' He asserts that activity is the 
 chief thing in man, and that we can do nothing with- 
 out the capacity for it, without the mstinct which 
 impels us to it. It is acknowledged, he says, that 
 poets are born ; and in respect to every art a similar 
 admission is made, because it is unavoidable, and 
 because these results of human activity can, even in 
 semblance, scarcely be imitated. But if we examine 
 the matter closely, even the smallest capacity is 
 inborn, and there is no such thing as an indefinite 
 capacity.' 
 
 It is necessary to explain more distinctly what is 
 meant by ' fundamental or primitive faculties,' and 
 to state that, in view of the now much mooted 
 question of the origin of species, including man, I 
 use the terms primitive and fundamental in a re- 
 stricted sense, as applying to historical data only. 
 
 Fundamental faculties, according to Gall, are those 
 inborn and inherited dispositions to particular forms 
 of mental activity (emotions, passions, propensities, 
 talents, &c.) which display an instinctive character ;
 
 Psychical Rcflcx-actions 9 
 
 •u'hicli belong to the manifestations of the mind from 
 infoncy upwards ; are displa3'ed as so-called psychical 
 reflex-actions (from then* analogy to the more auto- 
 matic reflex-actions emanating from the spinal cord) ; 
 and whicli, in adults, are most easily studied by 
 observing the actions of savages, and of the more 
 impulsive individuals in civilized communities. The 
 infant, as is well known, seeks its nourishment 
 instinctively; if smiled upon and caressed, it will 
 smile in return ; whereas frowns, harshness in voice 
 or looks will affect it depressingiy, and cause even 
 terror in its young soul. As the child grows up, 
 various dispositions and psychical reflex-actions will 
 be manifested. It will glow with pleasure when 
 praised, blush or become angry when blamed, turn pale 
 with fear at the approach of danger, respond to affec- 
 tion, show a tendency to greediness, to falsehood and 
 cunning, to passion, or to despondency on the slightest 
 check to its desires ; or, on the other hand, natural 
 amiability, so-called kindness of heart, and readiness 
 to sympathise with the joys and pains of others, 
 truthfulness, &c. will be displayed. AVe see various 
 reactions on impressions from without which disclose 
 individual tendencies, and, on the whole, likewise 
 show the activity of faculties common to humanity. 
 Throughout the life of every individual, moreover, 
 may be observed, more or less prominently, tenden- 
 cies to psychical rellex-actioHB, even in instances
 
 I o Physical Basis of Menta I Life 
 
 where superior education, and the cultivation of the 
 understanding have developed the power of self- 
 control, which power, again, can be shown to have 
 likewise its organic conditions. Some men are 
 habitually proud and grasping ; some truthful, some 
 false ; others are vain, and constant courters of 
 admiration ; some, again, are inordinately sensual ; 
 some over sensitive, or cowardly ; others bold, rash, 
 cruel, or vindictive ; and there are many other signs 
 of the natural disposition unnecessary to enumerate. 
 
 On the one hand, man is said to be the creature 
 of circumstances ; an admirable German proverb, on 
 the other hand, says, ' An ounce from the mother is 
 more worth than a pound from the school.' ^ If we 
 look to individual character, the latter view is un- 
 doubtedly the sounder. But there is truth likewise 
 in the former, especially when we consider the 
 development-history of the human species, and the 
 different branches or races now inhabitino; different 
 parts of the globe. 
 
 The natural disposition of a man, as shown in 
 early life, I may add, does not radically alter, though 
 
 ^ The Irish have an analogous saying, viz. ' A pound of mother wit is 
 better than a ton of learning.' It is significant that in the sayings of 
 both that country and Germany, the mother is alluded to as the fountain 
 head of natural gifts. Although special talents, as for mathematics, 
 mechanics, music, &c. are frequently seen to be inherited from the 
 father, yet, according to general observations, and in many instances 
 known to me, mental power appears more frequently to come from 
 the mother than from the father. Nearly all great men have had 
 healthy, energetic, and intelligent mothers.
 
 Phrenology i r 
 
 circumstances, age, and experiences greatly modify 
 the activity even of very prominent faculties. 
 Indeed, whenever the natural character of any one 
 is well known, it is easy to foresee what his or her 
 conduct under particular circumstances will be. 
 
 It was, as already mentioned, by lookiug for 
 striking instances of natural character, talents, &c. 
 and by negative as well as positive evidences ; by 
 examining a vast number of heads and skulls, that 
 Gall at last believed himself able to point out the 
 existence of at least twenty-seven fundamental or 
 special faculties in the mind, and to their seats or 
 organs — if they may be so called — in the brain. 
 His views have subsequently been further developed 
 by his disciples and followers, and worked up into a 
 ' system of phrenology,' of which I shall presently 
 speak. I will here only observe that ' phrenology ' — 
 doctrine of the mind — is not an appropriate name 
 for Gall's psycho-physical researches and cranio- 
 scopical experiences ; and to his two great works in 
 the French language in which he made them known 
 to the world, he prefixed respectively the titles : 
 ' Anatomic et physiologic du S3^steme nerveux en 
 general et du cerveau en particulier,' and ' Sur les 
 fonctions du cerveau et sur celles de chacunc de ses 
 parties.' One of his disciples. Dr. Forstcr, was tlic 
 first to apply \\\^ word plu'cnology to designate tlic 
 principles of menial science, viewed as a whole,
 
 't ? 
 
 12 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 resulting from Dr. Gall's investigations. It was 
 adopted by Dr. Spurzheim, and as it was mainly in 
 consequence of the travels, lectures and writings of 
 the latter in this country that Dr. Gall's experiences 
 became known to us, the word phrenology came into 
 general use. If, however, objection be taken to this 
 word, we may reflect that there are other sciences, 
 or departments of human knowledge, not appro- 
 priately named — geology for instance ; and even the 
 science of physiology is not exactly what the 
 etymology of the word would indicate. As long as 
 there is a correct understanding of the basis, the 
 aim and the scope of phrenology, it appears to me 
 now not worth while to reject a word which has, so 
 to speak, received the riglits of citizenship amongst 
 us. 
 
 In the first instance, it must be allowed, GaU 
 named the innate faculties he believed he had dis- 
 covered in an empirical and narrow way, and thus 
 he offered a ready handle to his opponents to accuse 
 him of coarse materialism, and of breaking up the 
 mind into fragments, whereby a sin was committed 
 against its unity. Having observed in the heads of 
 murderers and persons of an unusually cruel dis- 
 position a part of the temporal bone particularly 
 prominent, and a corresponding development in the 
 sculls of the carnivora, Gall — abstaining from theoriz- 
 ing, and in agreement with his experiences — called
 
 The Propensity to Kill i •' 
 
 o 
 
 the })art of the brain beneath the prominence aUuded 
 to, the seat of a sense or mstinct for killing and 
 for mnrdermg ('instinct carnassier ; penchant au 
 meurtre '). An outcry was forthwith raised against 
 him for teaching that man is born to be a murderer, 
 and irresponsible for one of the very worst of his 
 actions ; and this misconception of his views has 
 lasted to the present day. AVliat Gall taught was 
 simply — that a particular part of the brain, when 
 abnormally developed, and not having its action 
 modified by other faculties, moral and intellectual, 
 frequently leads to the committal of murder. In 
 his Avork on the functions of the brain, Gall gives 
 the natural history of the faculty in question, and, 
 by a vast array of historical data, particularly the 
 records of crime, he shows that there is in man a 
 natural disposition to shed blood, and not only to 
 kill whatever creatures he requires for food, but 
 generally those that come in his way, whether in- 
 jurious to him or not. In extreme cases, he adds, 
 positive pleasure is taken in slaughtering, even in 
 acts of cruelty and torturing, as many nun-derers, 
 when on the scaffold, have acknowledged. 
 
 Spurzheim, Yimont, ]>rousais, Felix Voisin,' 
 G. Combe, myself, and other follo'wers of Gall, have 
 added many facts to those enumerated by him, and 
 
 > ' Do riiomme animal.' I'aris, 1830. A wurk particularly valuable, 
 as showing the cunncction of niau with lowur auiniald.
 
 14 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 have entered fully into the different forms of activity 
 of a faculty of ' destructiveness/ as the one in question 
 now is called, and into its influence on human conduct 
 in general. The facts and arguments of the named 
 writers are worthy of earnest consideration, parti- 
 cularly as they off*er a more natural and satisfactory 
 explanation than any theories of metaphysicians and 
 moralists have done, of the undeniable and terrible 
 instances of man's bloodthirstiness and cruelty with 
 which history abounds. Murderers, I may add, 
 when their passions are calm, have frequently found 
 themselves unable to give any other explanation of 
 their horrible deeds than in saying they were com- 
 mitted at the ' instigation of the devil ! ' 
 
 Facts, psychological and cerebro-morphological, 
 and inductive reasonings, similar to those used by 
 Gall in proof of an inborn faculty for destroying- 
 life, are brought forward by him to shovf that there 
 are other animal faculties in the mind of man. As 
 my chief aim, however, in this essay, is to establish the 
 general principle of localisation of mental faculties, I 
 must content myself with referring to Gall's works, 
 and those of his followers, for the data on which the 
 conclusions alluded to have been arrived at. And 
 with regard to the works of Dr. Gall, I must express 
 my opinion that they have been almost entirely 
 ignored in this countrj^ With the exception of my 
 late friends Dr. EUiotson and George Combe, and
 
 jSIcntal States Complex 1 5 
 
 ^Ir. Charles Bray amongst the living, I have never 
 met with any Englishman who had read them. In- 
 deed, the chief opponents of phrenology — those who 
 liave made themselves the most conspicuous for the 
 tone of apodictical certainty and contempt with 
 which tlie}^ repudiate its principles — have, at the 
 same time, plainly disclosed their ignorance of the 
 labours and teachings of Dr. Gall. 
 
 It is not to be inferred from what has been said 
 concernino' ' fundamental faculties ' that Gall was so 
 wanting in insight into the phenomena of mental life 
 as a whole, as to imagine that any particular faculty 
 could be observed in an isolated state of activity. 
 Xeither did he fancy that he had discovered a suffi- 
 cient number of faculties to account for all human 
 actions. All mental states are more or less complex, 
 display the associated activity of various faculties, 
 intellectual and emotional, together with the results 
 of their education, not to speak here of other circum- 
 stances, physiological and pathological, as the general 
 constitution, and the state of the blood and the 
 viscera, their action and reaction on the brain, and 
 consequent influence on mental life. However 
 necessary, therefore, for the full comprehension of the 
 latter in its more intricate forms and phases, to take 
 into consideration all the circumstances nllndc 1 to, 
 nevertheless, in human actions some particular Im- 
 pulse or motive may be seen to predominate ; and it
 
 f 6 Physica I Basis of Mental L ife 
 
 was, I repeat, the observation of strong impulses, under 
 great variety of inward and outward circumstances, 
 and of the coincidences in the forms of the head, 
 which guided Gall in his studies of human nature. 
 
 It is quite unnecessary at the present day to cite 
 authorities in physiology in proof that the brain is 
 regarded as the organ of the mind ; or, as some 
 physiologists still prefer to express it, as ' the 
 material substratum for the manifestation of men- 
 tal actions.' A celebrated German physiologist, 
 Johannes Muller, has declared that, in view of the 
 differences in the mental life of human beings, a 
 friori^ nothing can be said against the general prin- 
 ciple of Gall's system.'^ He rejects Gall's 'organ- 
 ology,' however, for several reasons, one of which is, 
 that ' no province of the brain can be shown to be 
 the seat of memory, imagination, &c.' Undoubtedly, 
 as I have pointed out, it must be so ; and the other 
 psychological objections to Gall's teachings are based 
 by Muller on his conception of the human mind as a 
 metaphysical entity.^ 
 
 A later German physiologist, Valentin, has, how- 
 ever, declared it to be theoretically necessary that 
 
 * ' Handbucla der Physiologie des Menschen.' Coblenz, 1844, vol. i. 
 p. 730. (I cite this edition of Miiller's work, as it is later than the one 
 translated into English.) 
 
 ^ In my German work * Grundziige der Phrenologie,' 2nd edition, I 
 have spoken fully of Miiller's objections to * Gall's system.'
 
 R. Wagner on the Brain i 7 
 
 mental faculties should be localised ; ^ and another 
 physiologist, Rudolph Wagner, says : ' Investigations 
 appear to have had the remarkable result, that the 
 mechanical apparatuses (the brain) for the manifest- 
 ation of mental actions (Seelenthiitigkeiten) in 
 different human beings, already in their fundamental 
 and embryonic developments, display positive sexual 
 and individual peculiarities, which have a decided 
 influence on the form (Ausbildung) of the mind in 
 later life. AYith a certain limitation, it may therefore 
 be said that anatomically genius and idiocy are 
 innate, as the development-history of brains shows.' ^ 
 
 This statement of an eminent physiologist, wlio 
 certainly cannot be said to have belonged to a ma- 
 terialistic school of philosophy, entirely upholds the 
 main principle of phrenology, for the law which 
 applies to extreme cases must necessarily apply to 
 intermediate ; and every human being has an inborn 
 character, an individuality, however little remarkable 
 it may be, especially to superficial observers. 
 
 By the term ' individuality,' I do not imply homo- 
 geneousness. The human mind displays ' variety in 
 unity,' a ' unity of opposites ' — to borrow a phrase 
 from German psychologists ; and the striking alter- 
 nations of feeling, the antithetical nature of the 
 
 * ' Lohrbuch der Physiologie dcs Meusclicn.' Brunswick, 1814, vol. 
 ii. p. 810. 
 
 * 'Gottingen gelehrton NachricLtcn,' 1801, No. xxii. p. 892.
 
 1 8 Physic a I Basis of Men tal Life 
 
 passions "which one man may display, not only in 
 different periods of his life, but in different moments 
 of one day, can again be cited in proof that the mhid 
 is a congeries of faculties, each of which — as the brain 
 is the acknowledo'ed oro-an of the mind — must be 
 specially located in it. Were it otherwise, and were 
 all parts of the brain equally active in all states of 
 mind, it would be inexplicable that very opposite 
 feelings, for instance, those of love and hatred, can 
 be manifested by the same person often in quick 
 succession ; each feeling, moreover, in the expression 
 of the eyes, the face, the voice, and gestures, mani- 
 festing itself as a psj^chical reflex-action independently 
 of the will. Such reflex-actions indeed are frequently 
 conjemned by the judgment, not only when their 
 exciting causes are past, and the feelings become 
 calm, but in the very moments when we are conscious 
 of, and deplore, the betrayal of our emotions to 
 others. 
 
 In further support of the principle of a plurality of 
 faculties, I may add, that savages and men whose 
 mental life on the whole must be considered inferior 
 are not in all respects wanting in power. Certain 
 passions and aptitudes may be more vigorous in them 
 than in persons more generally gifted. And the 
 latter, on the other hand, may possess one or more 
 faculties in a mere rudimentary state. Men who 
 have left their stamp on history have been wanting
 
 Heads of the in'o Sexes 1 9 
 
 in a sense for music, for poetry, arithmetic, &:c., not 
 to speak of glaring deficiencies of the moral character, 
 of which Xapoleon I. was a striking instance. 
 
 And the deficiencies in capacity or character, to 
 which I have alluded, may, as a rule, be shown to 
 be innate, and not the mere consequences of neglected 
 or one-sided education. Indeed, the greatest efforts, 
 as is well known, are generall}^ found inadequate to 
 elicit talents or moral qualities ; whereas, on the other 
 hand, when they are naturally strong, unfavourable 
 circumstances are powerless to prevent their display. 
 
 The heads of the two sexes, likewise, agree with 
 the phrenological principles. Those of men generally 
 are lare^er, and their brains heavier, than is the case 
 with women ;^ and there are particular differences in 
 the forms of the heads of the two sexes which agree 
 with the generally acknowledged differences in their 
 natural characters. The emotional cate^'orv of mental 
 life is relatively more prominent in women. This 
 coincides with the relatively larger development 
 of the coronal region of their heads. But it is now 
 the fashion to attribute the differences in tlie cha- 
 racters and capabilities of the sexes to ' man's 
 tyranny,' and according to the views of some of the 
 
 ' A German physiologist, Dr. Weisbncli, who has much occupiodhim- 
 eelf in studyinf^ female and male .sIcuIIp, fiivos as tlie result of Iiis iuvesti- 
 gations the cubic contents of the skulls of Germnn women to be to that 
 of German men as 878 : 1000. (' Archiv fiir Anthropologie/ vol. iii. p. 
 50, and fol.) 
 
 c 2
 
 20 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 advocates of ' women's rights,' great changes soon 
 will take place. It may be so, but this will not 
 affect the conclusions drawn from historical data, and 
 from what may now be observed. 
 
 Dreams, likewise, their very diverse and bizarre 
 nature, yet on the whole showing agreement with 
 our inherited dispositions, as well as with the par- 
 ticular incidents and experiences of our lives, iind an 
 explanation in a plurality of faculties, in the activity 
 of some in sleep, whilst others are in a state of com- 
 plete or comparative repose. 
 
 Monomania, hallucinations, and icUes fixes ^ display- 
 ing certain faculties in a morbid state of activity, 
 may also be cited in support of the principles of 
 Phrenology. 
 
 From early periods of history attempts have been 
 made to find a key to the intelligence of animals in the 
 size and weight of their brains, in the relationship of 
 the latter to the size of their bodies on the whole, or 
 to the amount of their nerves in particular. All such 
 attempts have failed in yielding satisfactory results. 
 Neither absolutely, nor relatively to his body or 
 nerves, has man the largest brain. Elephants, and 
 some of the marine mammalia, have larger brains 
 than man. Birds generally have larger brains in pro- 
 portion to their bodies; apes, dolphins, and many birds 
 have larger brains in proportion to their nerves. It is 
 only by the study of embryology, of the growth of the
 
 Gradual increase of Bram-development 2 1 
 
 brain and the convolutions on its surface — to which 
 special attention will be presently directed — that the 
 pre-eminence of man anatomically becomes apparent. 
 Beginning with the lowest vertebrates, fishes, and 
 ascending to man, there is found to be a gradual 
 increase in the development of the brain, in har- 
 mony with the gradual increase of mental life. The 
 elementary parts of the brain, the continuation of 
 the spinal cord, the trunk of the brain, and the 
 several centro-basilar ffanoiiform bodies — as also 
 the brain cavities or ventricles — are very similar 
 in all human beings, and corresponding parts are 
 generally recognizable in the vertebrates, par- 
 ticularly the higher. The elementary parts be- 
 come gradually covered, and more and more as we 
 approach to man, until in him they are completely 
 covered by a new and peculiar system of cells and 
 fibres, called the mantle of the brain (Pallium). It 
 is this peculiar, elevated and finely arched system 
 which is likewise called the cerebrum, and wliich 
 forms five-sixths of the entire contents of the human 
 skull. It is divided into two, generally equal, por- 
 tions, called hemispheres, by an anterior and posterior 
 median fissure ; the two halves, however, are greatly 
 connected, mainly by a large commissure, or system 
 of transverse fibres (corpus callosum). The superficial 
 parts of the brain are also distinguished as lobes 
 and convolutions, of which more will presently be
 
 2 2 Physic a I Basis of Men tal Life 
 
 said.^ The brains of the Catarrine apes of tlie Old 
 World most nearly resemble those of man. Micro- 
 ceplialic idiots have foetal brains, showing arrested 
 development, and absence of the secondary or sup- 
 plementary convolutions. In several respects they are 
 inferior to the brains of the higher apes. 
 
 It would not be in agreement with the purpose of 
 this essa}' to enter fully into the anatomy of the brain 
 and nervous S3'stem in general. I must confine my- 
 self to a few observations, and chiefly such as have a 
 special Ijearing on the main principle of phrenology, 
 viz. the localisation of mental faculties. 
 
 For the special consideration of the nervous system, 
 anatomists distinguish three groups of organs ; viz. 
 the groups of the central organs (cerebro-spinal 
 sj'Stem) ; those of the peripheral conducting organs — 
 including all the accumulations of grey substance, 
 or ganglia, therewith, connected ; and the group of 
 the peripheral end-organs. 
 
 There are two kinds of nerve substance, the 
 fibrous and the cellular ; the one for the most part 
 white, the other mostly grey. Fibres resemble the 
 finest threads or filaments of different degrees of 
 thickness, but all extremely minute, many requiring to 
 be magnified 400 to 500 times to render them clearly 
 visible. Every nerve fibre consists of at least two 
 elements, the so-called primitive or axis cylinder, and 
 
 ^ Views of the Brain, Plate I.
 
 Nerve-Jibres 2-^ 
 
 o 
 
 a delicate membranous slieatli (neurilemma). The 
 slenderest nerve fibres, belonging chiefly to the 
 cerebro-spinal system, display this composition, 
 thoujxh the stron^-er fibres are found to have another 
 substance (nervenmark) between the primitive 
 cylinders and their sheaths. Xerve fibres generally 
 are held to be conducting media. In the spinal cord 
 and its peripheral extensions there are systems of 
 centripetal or sensory, and centrifugal or motory 
 fibres, to which fibres of the ganglionic or sympathetic 
 system are added. The latter being mainly con- 
 nected with vegetative functions, the nourishment of 
 the body, and only indirectly with mental life, I shall 
 not take tliem into special consideration. 
 
 The motory fibres form the anterior, the sensory 
 the posterior columns of the spinal cord.^ The first 
 are somewhat thicker than the latter. There is like- 
 wise a division into lateral columns, in which both mo- 
 tory and sensory fibres are represented, but chiefly the 
 first. At intervals many millions of primitive fil)res 
 issue from the spinal cord, and are collected together 
 in bundles (fasciculi), and run in sheaths to all parts 
 of the body, remaining, however, distinct and isolated 
 throughout their courses. They are further connected 
 
 ' I use tlio word columns for the divisions of the si)inal cord, as I find 
 it thus used iu ICnglish finatomical works. The (leruian anatomists 
 more correctly call those divisions tlio anterior, posterior, and lateral 
 cords (Striinge), and etill use the term spinal marrow (Kiickonmark) for 
 the whole contents of the vertebral column.
 
 24 Physical Basis of Maital L ife 
 
 at intervals, and intermingled with grey cells, form- 
 ing highly complicated knots or ganglia. Bundles of 
 primitive fibres are what are commonly called nerves. 
 In appearance they are compared to the bundles of 
 delicate feathers, glass threads, or fibrils made by 
 glass blowers. The fibres of the motory and sensory 
 systems, when running in apposition in the same 
 sheaths, are known by experiments to have different 
 conductor-functions, though, absolutely speaking, 
 boundary lines of the different sets of fibres are not 
 distinguishable. 
 
 The centripetal or sensory nerve fibres convey im- 
 pressions (received through the instrumentality of the 
 peripheral organs of sense) to central organs in the 
 spinal cord, at the basis and interior parts of the 
 brain, and further on to the grey substances in the 
 superficies of that organ. The centrifugal or motory 
 fibres convey from central organs impulses to the 
 muscles, whether of the more simple, automatic and 
 reflex character proceeding from the grey cells of the 
 spinal cord, or of an instinctive and psychical reflex 
 nature, and of the conscious will, which, as previously 
 mentioned, proceed from the convolutions on the sur- 
 face of the brain ; the minute grey cells and fibres so 
 richly abounding therein being now generally re- 
 garded as the most important elements of psychical 
 life. It is these superficial parts of the brain, more- 
 over, which are the most plentifully supplied with
 
 Nerve-cells 2 5 
 
 blood by a complicated network of the most delicate 
 vessels. 
 
 The nerves of special sense, several of which, as for 
 hearing, sight, smell, and taste, belong to the head 
 only, are, like all other nerves, composed of primitive 
 fibres. They are connected, as is well known, with 
 external apparatuses (the eye, ear, &c. in which are 
 cells), specially adapted for the reception of different 
 kinds of impressions, called their ' adequate stimuli ' 
 (waves of light, of sound, &c.), which they conduct to 
 gangliform bodies in the centro-basilar parts of the 
 brain, and further on to the convolutions on its surface. 
 As all conscious perception, memory, &c., are con- 
 nected therewith, it is unnecessary to say more of the 
 nerves of so-called ' special sense,' and their conductor- 
 functions, both innate and developed by exercise. 
 
 Nerve-cells are of different forms and sizes, some 
 globular, some pear or club-like, and others very 
 irregular in their shape. But the globular form is 
 held to be the primal or fundamental, and it greatly 
 abounds in the convolutions of the brain. Accumu- 
 lations or knots of nerve-cells, intermingled with 
 primitive and still more delicate fibres, or fibrils — 
 the latter appearing to grow out of the cells — are, as 
 stated, called ganglia. Peripheral ganglia are dis- 
 tinguished as belonging to the cerebro-spinal system, 
 and likewise as forming the so-called sympathetic or 
 ganglionic system. They may be hkened to minor
 
 2 6 Physical Basis of Mental L ife 
 
 stations for the reception and further transmission 
 of impressions from within and without — for tlie 
 formation, from the cells, of nerve-fibres. They 
 appear to act, too, as repositories or reservoirs of the 
 * nervous principle ; ' and the ganglia of the sympa- 
 thetic system to have other vital functions. But 
 although the centralization of the nervous system 
 is found not to be absolute, yet it is taught that ' all 
 other collections of nerve-cells besides the brain not 
 only possess a very limited sphere of function, but 
 are in many ways connected with the brain by bands 
 of dependence.'^ 
 
 The development-history of the spinal marrow 
 (medulla spinalis) shows that the formation of the 
 grey kernel, or interior, precedes that of the white 
 exterior part. The latter becomes subsequently 
 attached to the grey substance, not from the first 
 as a connected covering, but in two separate masses : 
 one posterior and smaller, which in the end forms 
 the posterior column of the spinal cord, and another 
 larger, which forms the common basis of its anterior 
 and lateral columns. 
 
 When fully developed the spinal cord displays 
 two longitudinal fissures, one in the centre of its 
 anterior, the other in that of its posterior portion ; 
 and thus it is divided into two symmetrical lateral 
 
 ^ * Lehrbuch der Anatomie, etc., dea Menschen,' by Prof. Dr. Aeby. 
 Leipzig, 1371, p. 813.
 
 The Spinal Cord 27 
 
 halves, -which are connected by a transverse com- 
 missure. From each of these halves, along then* 
 whole lengths, the roots of the peripheral nerves 
 issue horizontallv. 
 
 All the "white fibres of the spinal cord extend 
 towards the brain. In the part directly connecting 
 the brain and spine, the medulla oblongata, the 
 fibres become rearranged and then branch oft in 
 difi'erent directions. Fibres of the anterior column — 
 which are stronger than those of the posterior — 
 enter the cerebellum and the corpora quadrigemina, 
 and thence pass into the frontal lobe of the brain. 
 The fibres of the posterior column enter chiefly into 
 the part of the brain nearest to it, viz., into the 
 posterior lobe. But both in the cerebrum and the 
 cerebellum all the fibres of the spinal cord are 
 represented. It is noteworthy that whereas the grey 
 ccHular substance forms the interior part of the 
 spinal cord, in tlie brain it is chiefly on the surface. 
 
 Cells, generally speaking, have been considered to 
 be the organic element. But in a physiological 
 sense they are no longer thus regarded, for they are 
 now held to be particular organisms. Protoplasm, 
 found within cells, has likewise been considered as 
 the elementary substance of organisms. But this, 
 again, is said by many authorities on anatomy not to 
 be a simple, but a complex substance. Whatever 
 further investigations may bring to light respecting
 
 28 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 the ultimate element of organisms, nerve-cells are un- 
 doubtedly of the greatest importance for all the higher 
 manifestations of life. Embryology teaches that not 
 only in the spinal cord, but in the nervous system 
 generally, the cellular formation precedes the fibrous, 
 which latter is said to have its orio;in in the former. 
 It is taught too that ' spontaneous motion on inward 
 impulse, or the power of itself to change its form, 
 is the inherited quality of all cells,' which, moreover, 
 increase in number by division. It is even said that, 
 ' in certain circumstances, after a cell has been artifi- 
 cially divided, the separate parts display the same 
 phenomena of life as the entire cell, viz. breathing, 
 motion, nutrition, and increase in number.'^ 
 
 I have said enough to show the importance of 
 nerve-cells, and we will now glance at the develop- 
 ment-history of the brain, for further insight into 
 their relation to that organ. 
 
 Researches into the embryonic development of the 
 brain have shown that it begins as a bladder-like 
 swelling on the upper, completed end of the cylin- 
 drical spinal tube. At first uniform, it soon receives 
 two indentations crossways, and thus falls into three 
 particular, but connected parts, which are the ground- 
 work of that number of typical divisions of the brain. 
 
 ^ Address of Professor Preyer of Jena, ' On the luvestigation of Life,' 
 at the 60 years' Jubilee of the annual assembling of German Natural- 
 ists (Naturforscher), &c., 1872.
 
 Developniciit-history of the Brain 29 
 
 called the front brain (prosencephalon), the middle 
 brain (mesencephalon), and the hind brain (ephen- 
 cephalon). Of the three named bladders, the middle 
 one alone maintains a simple character, the front 
 and the hinder becoming greatly extended by their 
 anterior ends, bag-like, rising upwards and turning 
 backwards ; and thus to the original bladder-like 
 formation a supplementary one is added, which, as 
 in course of time it grows into a particular part of 
 the brain, must be regarded as a further typical 
 division of the first formation. Both supplementary 
 bladders are at first small and inconsiderable, but 
 they soon sprout over the original bladders to which 
 they belong to such an extent that only a small 
 portion of them, namely, the ground (Boden), 
 remains uncovered. In this way the so-called mantle 
 of the brain, in contrast to its trunk, is formed, which, 
 besides the front and hind brains, draws the whole 
 middle brain into its department. 
 
 The further development shows this peculiarity 
 for the original bladders, that the frontal and hinder 
 have their central surface rent asunder longitudinally, 
 producing a considerable opening of the hitherto 
 closed inner ventricles.^ 
 
 In addition to the median division into hemispheres 
 already mentioned, in the course of the foetal life of 
 
 » Op. cit., p. 822.
 
 30 Physical Basis of Me?ital Life 
 
 the brain many indentations or fissures are formed 
 on its entire surface. Many of the earher of tliese 
 are but of a temporary nature, and disappear. In 
 the ninth month of gestation, however, the human 
 brain is said to present a scheme or picture of 
 fissures (sulci) and convohitions (gyri) which is 
 particularly instructive as regards subsequently dis- 
 tinguishing those which are typical or primary from 
 those which are supplementary or secondary. The 
 convolutions are regarded as foldings of the super- 
 ficies of the brain — to which, in man, they give a 
 twelve-fold increase. They are smaller and more 
 closely packed in the frontal lobe than in any other 
 equal portion of the brain superficies. Convolutions, 
 generally, are presumed to be owing to the growth 
 of the hemispheres being more rapid than that of the 
 bones of the skull, a check to expansion naturally 
 causing foldings. This view especially applies to 
 the secondary convolutions formed after the skull- 
 bones have come into contact, attained consistency, 
 and several of them become firmly united. ' The 
 growth of the different parts of the mantle is re- 
 lative ' — to quote the words of an anatomist who has 
 specially studied the development-history of the 
 brain, ^ and this means, they are not developed 
 simultaneously, nor in equal degrees. 
 
 ' ' Archiv fur Anthropologie,' vol. iii. p. 245.
 
 The Ccrcbclhon 31 
 
 It is an undoubted fact, of which I have had con- 
 siderable experience, that the brains of men who 
 have been distinguished for mental power display 
 more numerous andasymmetricaP convolutions, with 
 deeper fissures between them, than do the brains of 
 men of ordinary capacity. There is, in fact, a con- 
 siderable diiference in the hand and the head- working 
 classes in European countries, not only shown in the 
 more numerous convolutions of the latter, but in the 
 relatively larger development of the frontal lobe.^ 
 (See Plate III., figs. 1 and 2.) 
 
 I have spoken hitherto of the cerebrum only, but 
 the cerebellum, or little brain, requires a brief con- 
 sideration. Like the large brain, it consists of two 
 hemispheres of lobes and convolutions, which, how- 
 ever, are very different in form, and more sj-mme- 
 trical on both sides than is the case in the cerebrum. 
 The surface of the cerebellum is grey, and the colour 
 
 ' The convolutions in the brains of infants and some Negroes are said 
 to be symmetrical in each liemisphcre. Todd's ' Encycloptcdia of Ana- 
 tomy and rhysiolojzy,' vol. iii. p. G97. 
 
 2 The views of those political enthusiasts wlio fancy that hy brealiin<; 
 with the past, and introducing thoroughly novel institutions, not only 
 general happiness, but equality of mental gifts would bo the speedy out- 
 come, arc not .snpporled by physiology. Eqnality in mental life does 
 not, and probably never can exist. However, the descendants of men of 
 ordinary calibre, even of the mental sluggards of to-day, if through a 
 eeries of generations their mental faculties have been duly cultivated, 
 mav in course of time have l)rain3 as well developed as tlioso of our 
 present liead-workers; and tlie descendants of tlio latter, particularly 
 of those whose brains have been over-taxed, may become inferior to tlio 
 descendants of the former.
 
 3 2 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 deepens somewhat towards the mterior. It possesses 
 fibres from all parts of the medulla oblongata — the 
 connection of the spinal cord Avith the brain — has 
 its own system of more delicate fibres, and cells of 
 different sizes. The two brains are likewise closely 
 connected by a system of fibres (pons varolii) ex- 
 tending round the frontal and upper portion of the 
 medulla oblongata. (See Plate I., 6.). 
 
 Professor Aeby says : ' At present, neither the 
 morphological nor physiological import of the cere- 
 bellum is known.' ^ It is said, however, by many 
 authorities in physiology not to be connected with 
 intelligence, but to be the ' co-ordinator of muscular 
 movements.' From its complicated structure many 
 special functions may be inferred, one of which, I am 
 convinced, is connected with sexual love. Its seat 
 in the lowest cavity (fossa) of the occipital vertebra 
 being well marked, and its general size easily esti- 
 mated, I have found by extensive experiences, positive 
 and negative, that, as Gall taught, the instinct of 
 sexual desire ('instinct de la propagation, instinct 
 venerien,' &c.) is undoubtedly a function of the cere- 
 bellum. 
 
 It appears to be likewise a regulator of locomotive 
 movements in general. As bearing on this point, I 
 may add that muscular exercises in youth belong to 
 
 » Op. cit., p. 840.
 
 Functions of the Cerebellum 33 
 
 the best known means of checking a too early activity 
 of sexual desires ; and that in adults their gratifi- 
 cation in excess frequently ends in muscular weak- 
 ness and inability to regulate the movements of the 
 limbs. But the spinal cord is likcAvise active in 
 sexual relationships, and suffers too from excesses. 
 Althouo-h in either sex, love in its hio:her forms 
 displays more or less of the whole mental character, 
 yet its fundamental element must be sought in a 
 special mstinct or cerebral function. A psychical 
 reflex-action of strong amativeness is shown, more- 
 over, in the peculiar expression in the eyes of those 
 in love. The optic nerve roots in the cerebral bodies 
 — corpus geniculatum and the neighbouring optic 
 thalami and corpus quadrigeminum. As the last 
 named body receives numerous nerve-fibres from the 
 continuation of the anterior, or motory column of the 
 spinal cord, and from the cerebellum, the peculiar 
 expression in the eyes of lovers, when gazing at one 
 another, may thus perhaps be anatomically explained. 
 Havins: read all that has been advanced in German 
 works in opposition to Gall's views on the chief 
 function of the cerebellum, I must add that I liave 
 not found any facts adduced sufficient to convict him 
 of error .^ 
 
 ^ In an essay intended for the perusal of both sexes, I cannot enter 
 more fully into the above subjects, nor refer to my special experi- 
 ences. A work by Dr. Andrew Combe and George Combe, 'On the
 
 3 4 Physic a I Basis of Men tal Life 
 
 It is now necessary to say a few words on the 
 general agreement in the configuration of the brain, 
 with that of the skull \ for unless this agreement be 
 established, Gall's method of ascertaining the psy- 
 chical functions of the former must lose its validity. 
 This general correspondence is acknowledged by the 
 best authorities in human anatomy. Professor Aeby 
 says : * The brain fills the interior of the skull 
 almost entirely, and therefore its external form may, 
 on the whole, be regarded as a cast taken from the 
 interior of the latter.' There are numerous impres- 
 sions on the inner surface of the skull, caused by the 
 action of the brain-convolutions and the blood-vessels, 
 showing their influence on the bones, the usually 
 supposed rigidity of Avhich is, in fact, a relative 
 matter only. 
 
 All development is from within outwardly, and in 
 a normal state of bone growth, the skull follows and 
 adapts itself to the growth of the brain. The skull, 
 exclusive of the facial bones, is said by many ana- 
 tomists to consist of three vertebra3 (so called from 
 their real or fancied analogy with the spinal verte- 
 
 Functions of tbe Cerebellum, by Gall, Vimont, and Broussais,' Long-- 
 nians & Co., 1838, contains valuable information. 
 
 In a German work : 'tjber die Funktion des Kleiuen Geliirns,' by Dr. 
 Liedbeck, Carlsruhe, 1846, the views of Gall and those of his chief oppo- 
 nent, Flourens, are reconciled. According to Dr. Liedbeck's researches, 
 and his survey of the experiments and pathological experiences of differ- 
 ent physiologists, he finds the grey surface parts of the cerebellum to be 
 chiefly connected with sexual desires, whereas the deeper lying parts are 
 the regulators of locomotive and muscular movements in general.
 
 The Bones of the Skull 35 
 
 bras^) comprising seven different bones, not inchiding 
 the Wormian (ossaintercalaria). At birth the bones 
 are comparatively soft, and several are connected 
 only by elastic membranes. Some of the bones 
 gradually close entirely, and become united after 
 birth, others remain connected by sutures, which 
 enable the brain skull more readily to expand. 
 In old age again, when the brain sinks, the skull 
 gradually follows and decreases in size and elevation, 
 Cases of hydrocephalus, abnormal bone developments, 
 and bone diseases excepted, the skull, therefore, on 
 the whole, indicates in all periods of life, the surface- 
 form of the brain. The skull, however, must like- 
 wise be regarded from a mechanical point of view. 
 There are certain parts of the skull invariably 
 thicker than others— the points of ossification, for 
 instance, and the processes or prominences to which 
 the large muscles of the face and neck are affixed. 
 Partly through the action of facial muscles, the tempo- 
 ral bone is always much thinner than the other bones. 
 There is likewise an absence of exact parallelism in 
 the two plates of which the skull is composed, that 
 of the frontal sinus being the most conspicuous. In 
 short, a special study of the bones of the skull in the 
 
 ^ This idea was first started by Oken, and was likewirfe held by 
 Goethe. Carus subsequently based upon it his so-called * Scientific 
 Cranioscopy/ but he connected the so-called temporal vertebra of the 
 skull -with the corpora quadrigemini, which he held to be mainly tho 
 eeat of emotional life. 
 
 D 2
 
 
 
 6 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 principal stages of life, is necessary before the de- 
 velopment-form of the brain can be correctly estim- 
 ated by inspection of the head. Viewed on the 
 whole and in general, childhood, youth, maturity, 
 and old age, have each their typical forms of the 
 skull, though in every concrete case, individual 
 peculiarities of development are likewise apparent. 
 The relative depth and elevation of the central and 
 frontal fossa? of the skull also demand attention, as 
 these circumstances are connected with mental life. 
 
 The difficulties just referred to in the way of 
 obtaining perfectly accurate knowledge of the de- 
 velopment-forms of the brain, by an examination of 
 the head, taken together with what has previously 
 been said of brains themselves, in respect to the 
 varying character of their convolutions and their 
 amount of grey cells and fibres, must naturally 
 appear greatly to qualify the value of Dr. Gall's 
 localisation of faculties from morphological experi- 
 ences. As a rule, however, all parts of the brain 
 partake of the same general constitution ; and as 
 regards power or energy of mental life on the whole, 
 neither Gall nor any of his enlightened followers, 
 have ever held that these can be measured by size or 
 Cjuantity alone. Quality of brain, in so far as it can 
 be estimated by the study of the general physio- 
 logical constitution, or the so-called temperaments, 
 is always considered along with the law of quantity.
 
 The Law of Size 37 
 
 In respect to the brain, as to every other bodily 
 organ, size, ceteris paribus^ is held to be a measure 
 of power. For the purpose, however, of establishing 
 the principle that mental faculties are localised m 
 the brain, the law of quantity, as will presently be 
 shown, may be viewed alone. In general, it may be 
 presumed that where there is great deficiency of 
 nervous energy — of the so-called nervous principle — 
 and when morbid conditions of the viscera and blood 
 lower the action of the brain, all parts of that organ 
 will be affected, and the skull will, neither on the 
 whole nor in particular directions, have much ca- 
 pacity of expansion. In opposite cases, however, 
 where the general health is good and the nervous 
 energy great, the parts of the brain hemispheres in- 
 herently the largest will have the greater tendency to 
 activity, and, by the law of growth through exercise, 
 to further increase in size. Under all circumstances, 
 therefore, the relative size of different parts of the 
 head will give the key to the relative strength of 
 different categories of mental life. It is this relative 
 not absolute character of the experiences gained 
 respecting localisation of faculties, to which, again, 
 I must emphatically direct attention. 
 
 The converse of what has been advanced likewise 
 holds good. Unfavourjible circumstances, want of 
 stimuli, disuse of the organ of the mind, will diminish 
 its size on the whole, or in particular directions.
 
 ^ 8 Physical Basis of Mental L ife 
 
 J 
 
 This may be seen on a large scale in nations deprived 
 of liberty, especially if reduced to slavery, ' Dimin- 
 uti cauitis,' as the Roman law said in reference to 
 Roman slaves. 
 
 In the way indicated, some branches or races of 
 tlie human species, under very favourable geographi- 
 cal, climatical, and other circumstances, sexual selec- 
 tion, &c., have in the course of ages come to have 
 larger and better formed brains and skulls than other 
 branches. 
 
 As regards size and weight of the whole brain, 
 experiences have been gained showing that eminent 
 men, those who have manifested force of character, 
 as well as of intellect, have had very large brains. In 
 such instances, however, the brains liave been found 
 well proportioned, the different lobes fully developed. 
 If mere size and wei2:ht of brain on the whole, with- 
 out reference to its form, were held to give a large 
 amount of mental activity in all directions, how is to 
 be explained, it may be asked, that many low and 
 criminal natures, whose heads are large in general, 
 are yet found to be inherently deficient in moral and 
 intellectual power ? The answer is plain. Although 
 their heads on the whole are large, their great size is 
 owing to an abnormal development of the basilar and 
 occipital regions; whereas the frontal and coronal are 
 relatively, and often absolutely, very small. Thus 
 the deficiencies mentioned are readily explained.
 
 EtJmological Craniovietry 39 
 
 However, the value of size and weight of brain on 
 the whole, i.e. of an average or normal size, for the 
 display of general mental activity, becomes apparent 
 when we look to the brains of idiots. Whenever the 
 adult human head is less than thirteen inches in cir- 
 cumference, idiocy is the invariable concomitant.^ 
 
 In the conviction that on the whole, and in general 
 the form of the skull is the same as that of the brain, 
 and that the latter is the organ of the mind, physio- 
 logists and members of anthropological and ethno- 
 looical societies in different countries, have of late 
 years more than ever busied themselves with mea- 
 suring skulls, ascertaining their cubic contents by 
 weighing shot or other substances with which they 
 have been filled, in studying the relative develop- 
 ment of the different skull bones, &c. Such proceed- 
 ings would have little meaning, unless they had 
 reference to characteristics of mental life ; and this, 
 indeed is shown to some extent to be the case, especi- 
 ally in regard to the different races of men, and the 
 somewhat differing mental qualities of the two sexes. 
 
 1 Of the braius of eminent men weigbed after death, that of Cuvier was 
 found to be 4 lbs. 11 oz. 20 grains — of Dupuytren, 4 lbs. 10 oz., whereas 
 the brain of an idiot fifty years old was only 1 lb. 8 oz. ; and of another 
 forty years of age, only 1 lb, 11 oz. The mean weight of brains is said 
 to be 3 lbs. to 3 lbs. 11 oz.* Professor Lusclika states the weight of the 
 brains of adult microcephalic idiots to be only cne-third of that of ordi- 
 nary adults.t 
 
 • R. E, Noel. ' Grundziige der Phrenologie,' p, 51. 
 t ' Archiv fiir Anthopologie,' vol, v. p, 407.
 
 40 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 The classification of heads, however, as dolichocephalic, 
 and brachicephalic (long heads and short heads), 
 now so much the fashion, throws but little light on 
 the characters of races, and still less on the disposi- 
 tions and capabilities of individuals ; and Professor 
 Aeby has well remarked that it would be better to 
 classify heads of human races as steno = and euryce- 
 phalic (narrow and wide heads), than m the way 
 just mentioned.^ This observation of a distinguished 
 anatomist agrees with my experiences respecting 
 European heads, for I have found more striking 
 differences in the natural character connected with 
 narrow and wide heads, than with long and short. 
 I have known some long-headed men to be very 
 stupid, and others very clever, and have gained 
 similar experiences in regard to short heads. Indeed 
 the longest head I have ever measured is that of a 
 Saxon suicide, who was remarkably deficient in under- 
 standing — using the word as including reflective 
 power. (See plate iii. fig. 4). The great length of 
 his skull,^ is owing to an abnormally large occipital 
 region, whereas the frontal region is extremely re- 
 treating, narrow, and shallow — and what I mean by 
 the latter term will presently be explained. But the 
 great attention now bestowed by anthropological 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 250. 
 
 "^ I have measured the skiill, •which -was preserved in the Anatomical 
 Museum of Dresden (now removed to Leipzig), as well as the head soon 
 after death. The length of the latter was 8| Eng. inches.
 
 Basilar Skull-Bones 41 
 
 associations on cranioscopy, although as yet more 
 with reference to the anatomical characteristics in the 
 skulls of different races of men, than to the mental 
 hfe of the latter, may in the end prove of much value. 
 The special observations of the basilar bones of the 
 skull, and their relationship to the facial bones, have 
 shown that there is a well-marked difference, besides 
 prognathism, in the skulls of negroes and those of 
 civilized Europeans ; for in the former the position of 
 the large occipital hole (foramen magnum) on the 
 atlas — the uppermost of the spinal vertebro3 — displays 
 a nearer approach to the skulls of the lower vertebrates 
 than it does in the skulls of the latter.^ 
 
 With reference to the bones at the base of the 
 skull, I may mention here that a German professor 
 who has written a popular work on human physio- 
 logy,^ considers cretinism to be owing to the too 
 early closing of those three parts which form the 
 basilar bone {os hasilaris)^ and the obliteration 
 of its sutures. This bone is compared to the 
 keystone of an arch, whose form necessarily has 
 an influence on that of the whole structure. A 
 too early closing and thickening of skull bones, as 
 likewise particular bone diseases, may undoubtedly 
 to some extent impede the development of the brain ; 
 
 ^ ' Archiv fiir Antbropologie,' vol. iv., p. 287. 
 
 ^ ' Das Leib des Menschen,' von Prof. C. Reclani. Stuttgart, 1870, 
 p, 7G and foL
 
 4 2 PJiysical Basis of Mental L ife 
 
 but as regards the skulls of cretins, many other 
 circumstances besides the early closing of the basilar 
 bones must be taken into consideration in seeking an 
 explanation of this form of idiocy. In cretins generally 
 there is a great and inherited want of constitutional 
 vigour, the result of an accumulation, through many 
 generations, of circumstances most unfavourable for 
 general health, and particularly for that of the brain 
 and nervous system. In the Alps cretins are 
 generally found in low, confined, or morassy situa- 
 tions, often in narrow valleys, deprived to a great 
 extent of sunshine. Isolation, want of mental exer- 
 cise, coarse and chiefly fat -generating food, and 
 drinking ^vater, often greatly impregnated with lime 
 — which in the constitutionally feeble may have an 
 influence in the hardening of bones, must be included 
 amongst the causes of cretinism. Professor Keclam 
 confounds cause and efi'ect, and has paid no attention 
 to the remarkably deficient and shallow develop- 
 ment of the frontal bone in the skulls of cretins, 
 which extensive observations in districts where they 
 abound have shown me to have been an invariable 
 characteristic with these miserable cripples — both 
 bodily and mentally. (See plate iv. fig. 2). 
 
 I have dwelt so long on this subject, because not only 
 the abnormal skulls of cretins, but many other forms 
 of the skull and facial bones, are now held to be mainly 
 owing to peculiar developments of the basilar bones.
 
 Modern Ei wop can Heads 43 
 
 In their theories of skull-formations, it appears 
 indeed, as if many craniologists omitted the brain, 
 and its formative energy from consideration. They 
 appear, likewise, to pay little regard to other centres 
 of bone -growth — for instance, the points of ossi- 
 fication in the frontal and parietal bones, besides 
 those at the base of the skull. 
 
 In those European countries with which I am 
 more or less well acquainted, I have observed long 
 heads and short heads, w^ide heads and narrow heads, 
 though in each country, on the whole, I have seen 
 the one or the other shape to preponderate. For 
 instance, I have observed that generally the heads of 
 northern Frenchmen, Italians, Celts, and Slavonic 
 peoples, are longer and narrower than those of the 
 modern Germans. The heads of the latter are 
 generally very wdde and high, as well as short. In 
 every country, however, where I have examined the 
 heads of the living — to whichsoever classification 
 of craniologists they may have belonged — I have 
 invariably found the relative development of the 
 different regions of the head, to which I have called 
 attention, to be in agreement with well ascertained 
 facts of individual character. 
 
 I must now explain the term shallow used above, 
 in reference to the frontal bones of the skull, and 
 this will give an opportunity to call particular at- 
 tention to a well-marked and easily observed differ-
 
 44 Physic a I Basis of Men fa I Life 
 
 ence in skulls, and in the heads of the living, which 
 coincides with an equally well-marked difference in 
 respect to one category of mental life — the intel- 
 lectual. What I am about to advance will suffice to 
 demonstrate the truth of that principle which Dr. 
 Gall devoted his life to expounding: viz. that dif- 
 ferent mental functions are located in different parts 
 of the brain. 
 
 In a general way, the brain, exclusive of the 
 cerebellum, is said by anatomists to display four 
 lobes — the frontal, the temporal, the parietal, and 
 the occipital. To these a fifth, but very small, lobe 
 is reckoned (lobus centralis), which, as, in fully 
 developed human brains, it lies in the cavity of Sylvius 
 (fossa Sylvii), and is not visible on the surface of 
 the brain, I need not take into special considera- 
 tion. Of the four first-named lobes, the frontal is 
 the one most distinctly marked, and the most easily 
 distinguishable from its neighbours — the cavity and 
 fissure of Sylvius separating it at its central basis, 
 and laterally, for a considerable extent upwards, 
 from the temporal lobe. This fissure is the first 
 formed in the embryo, and remains through life the 
 largest of the permanent divisions (exclusive of 
 the longitudinal division into hemispheres) on the 
 surface of the brain. The seat of the frontal lobe in 
 the skull is likewise distinctly marked. If a skull be 
 cut open horizontally, the basis of this lobe will be
 
 The Scat of the Frontal Lobe 45 
 
 seen to lie on a kind of upper platform, the supra- 
 orbital plate of what is called the frontal vertebra, 
 viz. those parts of the frontal and sphenoid bones 
 which form the roofs of the orbits. 
 
 This plate is, in general, considerably higher than 
 the cavity i^fossa^ in which the temporal lobe rests. 
 The inward extent of the supra-orbital plate, though 
 quite apparent in open skulls, can only be known in 
 intact skulls, and in the heads of living persons, by 
 the following method of observation. In skulls a 
 kind of indentation will be seen on either side, at the 
 lower ends of the coronal suture, at the points where 
 this suture touches upon the sphenoid bones, the 
 greatest depression in which generally corresponds 
 with the lateral division of the brain into frontal and 
 basilar lobes. In living heads it is not difficult to 
 feel this indentation, and there is another circum- 
 stance which will assist in ascertaining its position. 
 If a vertical line be taken upwards from the most 
 prominent and central point of that part of the cheek 
 bones called the zygomatic arch ; it will be found 
 very nearly to coincide with the inward extension of 
 the supra-orbital plate, and consequently of the frontal 
 lobe of the brain. The width and height of the 
 latter — in the living, of the forehead — are easily 
 perceptible. But many foreheads, viewed only in 
 front, may appear both broad and high, and yet the 
 intellectual region may be extremely shallow. To
 
 46 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 estimate correctly the intellectual capacity, it is even 
 more necessary to ascertain the depth of the frontal 
 lobe towards the ears, than to measure its breadth 
 and height. In this respect the old saying ' shallow- 
 pated,' applied to stupid men, is not without its 
 point.^ 
 
 The frontal lobe of the brain, moreover, is the last 
 to attain its full size, and this fact agrees with our 
 experience, that the intellect is developed much later 
 than are the feelino-s. The bones of the skull, too, 
 ' show a greater effort towards freedom,' to quote the 
 words of an anatomist, in the anterior superior parts 
 of the head, than they do in the posterior and 
 basilar. 
 
 Whatever difficulty there may be theoretically to 
 give a perfectly clear definition of intellect, in contra- 
 distinction to feeling, j^et practically, a difference is 
 always admitted — as the usage of language in every 
 civilised country plainly shows. The heart is 
 vulgarly supposed to be the seat of all emotions, 
 Avhilst the brain is held to be exclusively the organ 
 of thought. But this opinion is not supported by 
 physiology ; the brain being now generally acknow- 
 ledged to be the organ of the whole mind, it is un- 
 necessary for me to do more than again call attention 
 to the fact, that we frequently hear men classified as 
 
 ^ Compare Plate II. figs. 1 & 2, Plate III. figs. 3 k 4, and Plate IV. 
 figs. 2, 3, 4, k 5,
 
 Thinking and Feeling 47 
 
 ' men of feeling,' and ' men of intellect,' and that 
 instances of strong passions combined with weak 
 intellects, and vice versd, are often met with. 
 
 As bearing on this point, I appeal to general ex- 
 perience, that the act of thinking, though usually 
 calm and unaccompanied by any particular excite- 
 ment of the viscera, often leads to strong emotions 
 and bodily disturbance. For instance, wdien we are 
 unoccupied, and ideas (pictures and incidences of 
 our lives, &c.) involuntarily flit through the mind — 
 to use a common expression — the thought of some 
 experienced or expected pain or joy — as of an insult 
 received, or of an approaching meeting Avith one we 
 dearly love — will arise. Suddenly — especially in 
 those naturally disposed to pride or affection — the 
 heart will beat violently, the face become flushed, 
 and some time will elapse before the flow of ideas 
 resumes its normally calm course. Although in 
 thinking and feeling, the mechanical, chemical 
 changes in the complexes of nerve-cells and fibres 
 in the brain are unknown, yet those who carefully 
 interro-Oiate nature cannot doubt that such mental 
 states are physical, and that their order of succession 
 and association is according to fixed laws. The 
 differences, the different effects on bodily organs, 
 moreover, apparent in the processes of thinking and 
 feeling, point theoretically to functional activities 
 of different portions of the brain hemispheres. And
 
 48 Physical Basis of Mejital Life 
 
 we have the broad fact in support of this view, that 
 men, the frontal lobes of whose brains are small, 
 consciously think and reflect much less, and act more 
 impulsively, than do men whose foreheads are re- 
 latively large. 
 
 For the purpose, therefore, of testing the principle 
 of size with reference to functions of the brain, we 
 must extend our observations over a large social 
 area, and carefully note a very great number of 
 cases. If we will do this, and view our experiences 
 as a great whole, we may abstract the principle of 
 quality of brain, and the development of the frontal 
 lobe, in its relation to the other lobes of the brain — 
 estimated in the way I have indicated — will be found 
 to be in agreement with the relative amount of 
 intellectual capacity. Without pausing here to con- 
 sider particular forms of that capacity, as special 
 aptitudes and talents, let men be classified in a 
 general way as clever and dull. If we then compare 
 the foreheads of statesmen, lawyers, physicians, men 
 of science, merchants, manufacturers, &c., who have 
 attained eminence in their several pursuits, with the 
 foreheads of men of generally acknowledged mediocrity 
 of intellect, the fact of differences in the frontal part 
 of their heads, to which I have directed attention, 
 will become apparent. Further, if the foreheads of 
 the two classes of men be measured, the measure- 
 ments being taken over the brow from the lines of
 
 TJic Principle of Size Tested 49 
 
 indentation in the sphenoid bones on either side — 
 and the mean of a irreat number of such measure- 
 ments be compared, the principle that in respect to 
 the intellect, size is a measure of power, will be ma- 
 thematically established. 
 
 Moreover, in viewing, in the bulk, measurements 
 of the two classes of men, taken in the way indicated, 
 not only may the law of quality be left out of considera- 
 tion, but Xh^ measurements require only to be very 
 numerous, and of both classes equally so to render 
 the disturbing consequences of inequalities in the 
 thickness of the bones of the forehead, and of their 
 divergence from parallelism (the frontal sinus), as 
 also of any little inaccuracies in the manner of taking 
 measurements themselves, of small account. Accord- 
 ing to the law of equivalents, the sum of disturbing 
 causes on the one side, will be compensated by a like 
 sum on the other. 
 
 A similar method of testing tlie principle of relative 
 size may be applied to other parts of the head. It is 
 my fall conviction, the result of extensive observation, 
 that two other categories of mental life — the so-called 
 animal and moral — arc likewise connected with two 
 other regions of the head ; the first with the temporal 
 and basilar region, the second with the coronal. 
 
 By the term animal category, I allude to those 
 faculties for the most part common to man and 
 animals, and which are the chief sources in man of 
 
 E
 
 5 o Physica I Basis of Men ta I L ije 
 
 what in especial is called his ' selfish nature.' The moral 
 category includes man's higher social dispositions, 
 the sources of his benevolence and sympathy, his 
 feelings of reverence and piety, and his sense of duty. 
 If we compare the most ancient skulls found in 
 Europe, those of the ' Troglodyte race of men,' or 
 ' primitive Spelsean people,' — to use the term applied 
 by Ilichard Owen to the ancient people whose skulls 
 have been discovered of late years in caverns along 
 with the bones of extinct mammals, flint implements, 
 &c. — with the average European skull; further, if we 
 compare the heads of modern savages of the lowest 
 type, and of the brutal and ruffianly natures, still to 
 be met with in highly civilised communities, with the 
 heads of men distinguished for intellectual and moral 
 qualities, wherein are the differences found to con- 
 sist ? They are in the relatively greater development 
 in the heads of the average European, and still more 
 palpabl}^ in those of eminently moral and intellectual 
 men, of the frontal and coronal regions ; in that ex- 
 tension and elevation of the mantle of the brain, 
 to which I have previously called attention. In the 
 skulls of the 'primitive Spela3an people,' of modern 
 savages, and of the lowest and most brutal class of 
 European populations — displaying the so-called crimi- 
 nal type of head — the parts just mentioned are low 
 and imperfectly developed, whereas the basilo-central 
 and posterior parts are relatively, and often absolutely, 
 extremely large. (Plate iii. fig. 4, and Plate iv. fig. 5).
 
 The En gist ha I Skull 5 1 
 
 And here, in alluding to ancient skulls, found in 
 European caverns, I must mention a singular state- 
 ment of Professor Huxley's. In his work ' Man's 
 Place in Nature,' he says of the Engisthal skull, 
 ' it might have belonged to a philosopher, or 
 might have covered the brains of a thoughtless 
 savage.' This dictum of an eminent physiologist and 
 craniometrist has, I confess, much surprised me. If 
 we could assume that such a thing as philosophy 
 could have been possible in the age and land to which 
 the possessor of the Engisthal skull probably belonged, 
 nevertheless I can confidently assert that no man 
 possessing large reflective power and philosophical 
 acumen, can anywhere be found with a head shaped 
 like the skull in question — -judging it according to 
 the description and drawings in Professor Huxley's 
 book. But apart from this particular skull, where, I 
 may ask, is the skull of a savage to be seen of a shape 
 and proportions such as would allow the inference 
 that it might have contained the brain of a philo- 
 sopher? Apparently Professor Huxley has not ob- 
 served the importance, for intellectual life, of a 
 relatively large development of the frontal lobe of 
 tlie brain, and of its seat in the skull. ^ 
 
 ^ In the autumn of 1871, I saw in the private museum of Mr. Lukis, 
 at St. I'eter'a Port, GuornEcy, several skulls and portions of skulls, par- 
 ticularly frontal vertebrai — of an ancient Celtic people, ^vllicll had been 
 found in or near the cromlechs of that and the other Channel Islands. 
 These skulls are probably about 4,000 years old. They are remarkable 
 
 ]■: 2
 
 5 2 Physical Basis of Mc7ital Life 
 
 In further specialisation of mental faculties, con- 
 nected with particular forms of the head : very be- 
 nevolent and very unfeeling, so-called kind and hard- 
 hearted men should be contrasted. In the heads of 
 the first, the frontal curve of the crown will be 
 found to be relatively prominent; in the second the 
 reverse. The latter class of men, moreover, — par- 
 ticularly those who are generally designated as very 
 selfish — are eurycephalic, i.e. the basilo-lateral parts 
 of the temporal lobe in them are mde and protruding. 
 The first — particularly generous natures — on the 
 other hand, are generally stenocephalic, i.e. the 
 parts just mentioned do not protrude, the heads 
 are narrow. Further, very proud and haught}', 
 and very humble and modest natures, may be con- 
 trasted. Of these two classes, the heads of the first 
 
 for the thickness and coarse texture of the bones, for the great size of the 
 occipital and temporal vertebra, and for the very small development of 
 the frontal. The foreheads in all of them are singularly flat, narrow, 
 and retreating. But for the absence of counter-pressure on the occipital 
 bone, they would resemble the skulls of the Avaren, found in Hun- 
 gary, of a section of the ancient inhabitants of Peru, and of the 'Flat 
 heads ' of America, all of whose foreheads appear to have been cramped 
 and flattened artificially. 
 
 The skulls in Mr. Lukis's interesting archaeological museum are in- 
 structive, as adding to our experiences that the direction of the brain- 
 development accompanying progress in civilisation is shown to be in the 
 increasing extension and elevation of the frontal and coronal parts of the 
 so-called mantle. 
 
 An account of the firmly-seated teeth in these ancient skulls, in 
 several specimens of lower human jaws, and of a great number of 
 human teeth found separately — all of which are remarkable for their 
 great size and strong enamel — has been communicated by me to the 
 'British Journal of Dental Science,' May, No. 101, 1872.
 
 D iff Client Forms of the Forehead 53 
 
 will show the posterior curve of the coronal region to 
 be prominent, whereas the contrary will be the case 
 in the second. Very cautious and wary, and very 
 incautious and rash characters may also be contrasted 
 with reference to coincidences in the forms of their 
 heads, and morphological evidences pointing to locali- 
 sation of faculties will again be obtained. In the in- 
 stances referred to, and others that could be mentioned, 
 the evidences are negative as well as positive, and 
 therefore carry with them the greater weight. 
 
 To consider, again, the frontal lobe of the brain as 
 specially the seat of intellectual faculties. Differences 
 are observable in the foreheads of great painters and 
 great musicians, of great poets and great mathemati- 
 cians, of very observing, matter-of-fact men and of 
 those fond of theoretical speculation, and abstract 
 reasoning. I have never seen a great historical or 
 portrait painter, the lower central part of whose brow 
 was not prominent, the eyes rather wide apart ; nor 
 have I seen a great musician whose forehead was not 
 prominent above the outer angle of the eyebrow. Dif- 
 ferences in the development of the upper and of the 
 lower parts of the forehead will generally be found to 
 coincide with well-marked differences in the direction 
 of the intellectual capacity above alluded to. Althougli 
 the frontal sinus, the greatest divergence from 
 parallelism in the plates of the skull, renders the 
 development of the brain lying immediately behind
 
 54 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 the lower central portion of tlie brow, difficult to 
 estimate, and, therefore, throws doubt on the localisa- 
 tion of several phrenological f^iculties ; yet the inward 
 extension of the frontal lobe, its width and height, 
 are easily observable. Development in either direc- 
 tion, viewed on the whole, will be found to be con- 
 nected with a particular direction of the intellectual 
 capacity. Whenever the frontal lobe is both deep 
 and wide, it is generally a sign of considerable ob- 
 serving power ; whereas great reflection, that which 
 Humboldt so well designates ' combining understand- 
 ing,' I have never seen unless the upper portion of 
 the forehead be likewise prominent. 
 
 I have ground, too, for inferring that conscious- 
 ness, in so far as this word implies reflection on 
 outward impressions and inward sensations, is mainly 
 connected with the central and superior parts of the 
 forehead. Consciousness, however, in its full sense, 
 as I have previously observed, must greatly dejDend 
 on tl^e nature or quality of our sensations, which 
 again depend on special faculties ; for a person, I 
 repeat, without capacity to perceive all the primitive 
 and complementary colours, or all musical cadencies, 
 can have no full consciousness of harmony, either in 
 colouring or music. 
 
 As for self-consciousness — which plays so con- 
 spicuous a part in psychological theories — as far as 
 the sense of individuality is concerned, it has its
 
 Consciousness 5 5 
 
 gradual, historical growth. The child begins by 
 speaking of itself in the third person, and learns to 
 know itself objectively, before a subjective conscious- 
 ness is acquired. This latter, when developed, must 
 naturally reflect the colouring of the prominent, 
 inborn dispositions, as well as of the special experi- 
 ences of our lives. Mere knowledge of self, however, 
 like every other form of acquired knowledge, can be 
 lost by brain disease, as is frequently observed in 
 the insane. In dreaming, too, we sometimes imagine 
 ourselves to be someone else than we really are. 
 Drunken men, moreover, appear temporarily deprived 
 of self-consciousness, though their knowledge of 
 outward objects is but little obscured, and their 
 feelings and flow of ideas may be over-active. 
 
 Facts and arguments, similar to those showing that 
 consciousness is not a simple, not a fundamental 
 faculty — in the sense in which Gall used the term — 
 could be brought forward to show that other powers 
 of the psychologists, as imagination, sympathy, atten- 
 tion, judgment, the will, &c., are only such in a 
 general and abstract sense, and that when viewed in 
 the concrete, such j^owers disclose the activity and 
 couibination of different innate faculties, inherited 
 dispositions, and the influences of education. 
 
 To prove the correctness of what has just been 
 advanced, a separate essay would be required. I 
 offer here, however, a few observations on ' the will,'
 
 56 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 as this term is used by writers on the mind in a- very 
 vague and general way. 
 
 For the sake of distinctness, we must consider the 
 will under the aspects of — 1, impulses, volitions ; 
 2, energy of character in general ; and 3, the higher 
 or so-called moral will. 
 
 Our volitions are as various and numerous as are 
 our desires, and these are the outcome of our inborn 
 dispositions or special faculties — animal, moral, and 
 intellectual. Each faculty, sui generis^ contributes its 
 quota to the manifestation of volition. The sensualist 
 will seek the gratification of his particular desires ; 
 the acquisitive, grasping man will display volition in 
 striving for wealth, and in hoarding money ; and 
 different, again, are the volitions of the ambitious, 
 the benevolent, the religious, as well as of those 
 possessed of intellectual gifts, such as talents for 
 languages, for music, painting, mechanics, &c. 
 
 But apart from particular dispositions, desires, 
 capacities, tastes, talents, &c., men are usually, and 
 not incorrectly, classified as strong and weak, with 
 reference to their characters in general ; and the 
 differences thus referred to are, to some extent, con- 
 nected with the physiological constitution on the 
 whole. Men of feeble constitutions, and of very 
 nervous temperament, are generally seen to possess 
 less will than the energetic and robust. Many 
 pathological circumstances, even temporary illnesses,
 
 The Will 57 
 
 as a severe cold in the head, may deprive us, as is 
 well known, of strong volition for a time. 
 
 But in viewing the will in general, and on the 
 whole, we may leave aside the bodily circumstances 
 just referred to, and not only will special sources 
 of volition and the influence of the understanding be 
 apparent, but something in addition will be seen, 
 usually called firmness, determination, consistency, 
 &c. in carrying out our resolves. By close attention 
 to the mental life of men usually distinguished as 
 strong and weak characters. Gall believed that he 
 had discovered a particular faculty, which he called 
 ' firmness,' and that this faculty, together with 
 'self-esteem,' contributed to give force to volitions 
 and to the decisions of the understanding. When- 
 ever he remarked the faculty of firmness in a person 
 of a generally low, animal type, he found determina- 
 tion displayed in purely coarse, selfish ways, in 
 strong self-will and obstinacy. When, on the other 
 hand, he observed character shown in a moral way, 
 truthfulness, sense of duty, and regard for the claims 
 of others — he found that the whole frontal and 
 coronal reorions of the head — includinti; the seat of 
 firmness — Avere relatively very prominent. 
 
 That will is not purely an intellectual power, as 
 some thinkers suppose, may further be inferred from 
 expressions in general use concerning ' confiicts in 
 the mind,' ' contending impulses,' and the ' dictates
 
 5 8 Physical Basis of Menta I Life 
 
 of the understanding", and of reason,' being too fre- 
 quently disregarded. In too many instances the 
 strongest impulse or motive, independently of the 
 judgment, decides the action. 
 
 Many very intellectually gifted men, moreover, 
 especially poetical natures, are noted for weakness of 
 character. 
 
 Facts such as I have alluded to would be inexplic- 
 able if the human mind were homogeneous, and the 
 principle of localisation of faculties unfounded. Gall's 
 experiences concerning that particular element of 
 will, called firmness, have been confirmed by his 
 followers ; and the theory — based on empirical obser- 
 vations — of volition in its various forms, and of will 
 in the sense of character, w^hether of a low, or a 
 moral kind, affords more insight, and of a concrete 
 nature, into these phenomena of the mind, than can be 
 derived from the abstract teachings of those philoso- 
 phers who view ' the will ' as a special, unified faculty. 
 
 As another instance of speculative generalisation 
 on an insufificient basis of observation, I will add a 
 few words here on a psychological theory which has 
 been generally accepted by German physiologists. 
 It is the theory whereby all mental actions (Seelen- 
 thatigkeiten) are resolved into conceptions (Vorstel- 
 lungen). The senses being regarded as apparatuses 
 for receiving and conducting impressions — their so- 
 called ' adequate stimuli,' and the brain held to be
 
 The Theory of Conceptions 59 
 
 the seat of actual sensations, and of the conceptions 
 and impulses which follow on them, the process of 
 mental actions is said to be threefold, viz. 1, sensa- 
 tion, 2, conception, 3, impulse (Empfindung; Vorstel- 
 lung ; Streben) ; and, inasmuch, it is said, as the 
 conception to which a sensation necessarily gives 
 birth determines the action, all mental life is resolv- 
 able into conceptions. The process of mental evolu- 
 tion in this theory is correctly described. Never- 
 theless, as psychical reflex-actions on outward 
 impressions are ever varying, are never exactly 
 alike in any two human beings, it is necessary to 
 account for their individual character. This is 
 found by the theorists alluded to, to depend on the 
 amount of conceptions which each person has treasured 
 up in his brain. But this view will not explain the 
 overwhelming force of particular feelmgs and passions, 
 which we not unfrecjuently experience, and manifest 
 to others, quite in opposition to the promptings of 
 the understanding, that is to say, of the conceptions, 
 or knowledge, derived from experience. Feelings 
 and passions, moreover, may be long enduring and 
 obstinate; and frecjuently no conceptions of their 
 folly or even of their immorality, are found adequate 
 to restrain their activity. The inborn disposition, 
 as I have already sufficiently explained, is more 
 distinctly prc^nounced in psychical reflex-actions — 
 which are generally the immediate outcome of very
 
 6o Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 strong impressions — tlian are the conceptions of the 
 wisdom or unwisdom of our actions. 
 
 I have noticed this German theory chiefly because 
 it shows the fascination thinkers find in trying to 
 reduce mental phenomena to a system, and in 
 estabUshing a formula for their general explanation. 
 
 In mental operations, however, it is not possible, 
 I allow, enth'ely to dissociate subjective and objective 
 impressions, and their correlative conceptions. The 
 theory of Locke, rejecting innate ideas, requires con- 
 siderable modification. Conceptions, or at least the 
 germs of conceptions, are innate in animals and man, 
 and mfluence their actions. They come into the 
 world with the analogues of individually acquired 
 memories and habits. Instinctively the new-born 
 babe and young mammalia generally apply their lips 
 to the teats of their mothers ; instinctively puppies 
 will display destructive tendencies at the first sight 
 of certain creatures ; they will hunt and worry mice, 
 &c., without having been taught by their parents, or 
 man, so to do. It is the same with kittens, who 
 instinctively crouch and spring at their prey. The 
 young of certain breeds of dogs, show reactions of 
 the brain on outward impressions, in the form of 
 pointing at game, retrieving, &c. These dispositions 
 are ' born in them,' as I have heard game-keepers 
 say. Similarly in man, various innate emotions and 
 impulses, tastes, likmgs, and dislikings, &c., follow
 
 A bnormal Mental Phenomena 6 1 
 
 spontaneously on impressions on tlie senses caused, 
 by particular outward objects. ^'^ery abnormal 
 psychical phenomena of this kind are called idiosyn- 
 crasies, and generally die out with the individuals 
 who have displayed them. I allude, by way of 
 example, to the repugnance of James I. of England 
 to the sight of naked steel. Many mental peculiari- 
 ties however, in whatever circumstances their genesis 
 may be sought, become permanent in families and 
 races. The observation of this fact induced Lady 
 Mary Wortley Montagu to declare that ' God had 
 created men, women and Ilarveys.' Gipsies, too, 
 who have continued generation after generation to 
 lead a vagabond life in the midst of civilised com- 
 munities, appear to have inherited this propensity 
 from a migratory tribe of Hindostan, from which 
 ethnologists and philologists now fully believe them 
 to be descended.^ 
 
 The anatomy of the brain, in so far as its compli- 
 cated structure lias been unravelled, shows an in- 
 tricate interlacement of all its parts, whereby the 
 associations of conceptions and feelings, as displayed 
 in particular tastes, habits, &c., inherited and ac- 
 quired, may find an explanation. 
 
 In regard to what has been said on the develop- 
 ment forms of the head, as indications of the more 
 
 * ' Arcbiv fiir Anthropologie,' vd. v. p. 2G9 and fol.
 
 6 2 Physic a I Basis of Men tal Life 
 
 general and prominent mental dispositions, it may 
 j^erliaps be objected that the morphological and 
 psychological experiences referred to, have no claim 
 to be considered as more than mere coincidences ! 
 But if such coincidences be general, and if, viewed in 
 the bulk, they establish a rule, no denial of their 
 truth, and the inferences deducible from them, can 
 have any value unless supported by counter experi- 
 ences, which I, for one, deny the possibility of 
 producing. Moreover, as already stated, the ne- 
 gative evidences of the localisation of faculties are as 
 numerous as the positive, and as they are the more 
 easy of observation, they are the more instructive. 
 
 We must bear in mind, further, the agreement of 
 the doctrine of speciality in regard to functions of 
 the brain, with the principles of physiology in 
 general, which teach that in the animal world there 
 is increase of parts and functions, differentiation and 
 specialisation of organs — more division of labour, so 
 to speak, the higher the creatures stand in the scale 
 of animal life. In the lowest forms, different func- 
 tions, as excretion, motion, breathing, digestion, 
 propagation, &c., are performed by the same organ. 
 Mr. Darwin says : ' A naturalist justly considers 
 differentiation and specialisation as the test of per- 
 fection.' 
 
 In offering a few observations on physiognomy, 
 and its agreement with Dr. Gall's doctrines, I must
 
 Pathognomy 63 
 
 state that I do not allude to the facial bones, or the 
 features only — which, however, as indicating pecu- 
 liarities of race, have some connection with the 
 historical growth and form of the human brain — but 
 that I confine myself to pathognomy, or the natural 
 language of particular fjiculties. The expression of 
 the emotions, the passions, the intellectual operations, 
 displayed as reflex-actions — or as conscious mimickry 
 and pantomime — in the eyes, the voice, the move- 
 ments of the face, limbs, &c., is of highest interest. 
 Every positive emotion has its characteristic signs, 
 which, to some extent, confirm the position in the 
 head of several of the special faculties, and show their 
 influence on the facial expression and automatic 
 movements of the body. For instance, it has been 
 generally remarked that habitually proud and 
 haughty men carry themselves erect and stiffly ; and 
 that in supreme moments of their egotism, they 
 throw their heads backwards. ' Er tragt die Nase 
 hoch,' (He carries his nose high) as a German 
 proverb says of a proud man. This coincides with 
 the position of a large faculty of ' self-esteem,' located 
 in the backward bend of the crown of the head. 
 Very benevolent, and very thoughtful men, on the 
 other hand, incline their heads forwards. Very 
 cautious men sway their heads gently from side to 
 side, to wliich fact, probal)ly, the term circumspect 
 (from circumspicere) came to be applied to them.
 
 64 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 Very cunning', false men, carry their heads obliquely. 
 Their eyes, too, have an unsteady fox-like expression; 
 they can seldom look anyone full in the face. These 
 natural signs of character agree with the position of 
 the faculties respectively alluded to. Of course very 
 intellectually astute men have great power of re- 
 pressing or disguising the natural expression of 
 falsehood, as well as of their thoughts and feelings 
 in general. It is in cliildren and impulsive adults 
 that pathognomy is most easily studied. It is re- 
 markable, however, that children and dogs are often 
 better judges of the natural dispositions, than highly 
 educated adults. The more value we attach to ar- 
 ticulate and conventional language, the less attention 
 we pay to so-called naturnl language. I have fre- 
 quently seen those who have no natural liking for 
 children, try to flatter their parents by caressing 
 them. The latter may be deceived ; the little ones 
 not. In such cases, a two-fold expression may be 
 observed ; the one form true, beyond the power of 
 control, the other, strained and false. These few re- 
 marks on a much -embracing subject, must here suffice. 
 
 If all be true, that I have advanced, how comes it, 
 it may be asked, that the main principles of so-called 
 phrenology meet with so little acknowledgment ; 
 that anatomists and medical men generally, that 
 psychologists, even of an ' objective reality ' school,
 
 Causes of the Opposition to Phre7wlogy 65 
 
 do not allow them to have any scientific value ? 
 Further, how comes it that believers in these prin- 
 ciples are generally looked upon as dreamers, fools, 
 or charlatans ? The causes of the opposition to 
 phrenology are manifold. I will point to a few that 
 appear to me most prominent. 
 
 Firstly. The mapping of the head into so many 
 separate organs of various forms and sizes, now 
 round, now oblong, &c., with positive boundary 
 lines, has done much to discredit phrenology. But 
 Dr. Gall, as already stated, is not answerable for 
 this. He merely marked little circles on skulls 
 indicating the parts he had observed to be prominent 
 in unusual instances of predominant dispositions, 
 talents, &c. 
 
 The vulgar notion, too, that the followers of Dr. 
 Gall examine heads to find out little protuberances 
 — 'bumps,' as they are called in derision by small 
 wits — has assisted in throwing ridicule on the 
 subject of their inquiry. But Dr. Gall's method of 
 observing heads actually excluded attention to minor 
 points of skull development. His words are : 
 'Jamais je n'ai prctendu distingucr des modifications 
 peu prononcees des formes du crane, ou des legeres 
 nuances du caractere.' ^ 
 
 I have confined myself to calling attention to 
 
 ^ Gall, ' Sur le.s Fonctions du Cerveau,' torn. iii. p. 41. 
 
 F
 
 66 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 promment forms of the head ; to the different 
 directions in which the brain hemispheres may be 
 seen to be developed ; to regions of the head, and 
 some subdivisions or seats of particuLar faculties. 
 And even in regard to these, I confess myself unable 
 to mark out absolutely boundary lines. The know- 
 ledge which has been acquired of the seats of faculties 
 can be said at present to be only estimative, approxi- 
 mative ; similar to that of the medical j)ractitioner, 
 when he estimates the size of internal organs of the 
 body which he can neither weigh nor measure. 
 Anatomists in particular repudiate phrenology, 
 because of the inability to distinguish separate 
 organs in the hemispheres of the brain. But such 
 an objection to the principle of localisation of mental 
 faculties applies likewise, I repeat, to the nervous 
 system in general. Although it is well known by 
 experiments, reflex-actions, &c., that complexes of 
 nerve-fibres running in the same sheaths subserve 
 difi'erent purposes, yet, absolutely speaking, boundary 
 lines of the different sets of nerves are not at present 
 distinguishable. In respect, however, to the possi- 
 bility of distinguishing anatomically separate organs 
 in the brain hemispheres, a late discovery of a 
 distinguished English pliysiologist is of the greatest 
 importance. Dr. W. B. Richardson has discovered 
 in a dried human brain that numerous small portions 
 of the convolutions are separated from one another
 
 Dr. TV. B. Richardso7i on the Brain 67 
 
 by a delicate membrane (the pia mater), so that he 
 can take them out and put them together again — as 
 he expressed himself to me — ^ like a Chinese puzzle ' ! 
 I have been favoured with the view of a slice from 
 a- dried brain-hemisphere, and the fact is as described. 
 Dr. Richardson, further, has given his views of the 
 brain in the following words : ' It appears to me as 
 though the brain were not made up of portions of 
 the same matter all united into one organism, but 
 as though it were distinctly mapped out into insular 
 divisions, each well separated from its neighbour, 
 and having its own duties.'^ 
 
 Secondly. Physiologists generally have uncritically 
 accepted the metaphysical doctrines of mental 
 philosophers. They have thus, so to speak^ put 
 themselves out of court as witnesses respecting the 
 localisation of mental faculties in the brain of a 
 character, as I have explained, so totally ditFerent 
 to those of the philosophers. Moreover, as regards 
 insight into the anatomy and functions of the ])rain, 
 I will quote the words of a distinguished anatomist. 
 Professor Aeby says : ' For the full understanding of 
 the functions of the nerves of tlie peripheral sys- 
 tem, the closely interlaced nets of the nerve- trunks 
 often offer insurmountable difficulties, not to speak 
 
 ' ' Memoir of Dr. Conolly,' by Sir .Tamos Clark, p. 71. In the sixth 
 chapter of tliis valuable work, from wliicli the above passage lias been 
 extracted, are many sound arguments in support of the principles of 
 phrenology. 
 
 V 2
 
 68 Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 of the central organs, whose complicated courses of 
 cells and fibres in their interrelationships, defy all 
 efforts to unravel. To gain knowledge of the interior 
 construction, and consequently insight into the true 
 nature ( Wesen) of the nerve-apparatuses, we are 
 reduced almost exclusively to hypothesis guided by 
 physiological experiment.' ^ Anatomically, therefore, 
 nothing is known about the brain at all opposed to 
 the principles of phrenology. To experiment on the 
 convolutions of the brain, in the hope thereby to 
 gain insight into the operations of the mind, is next 
 to impossible. Vivisections have thrown scarcely 
 any light on the subject. It is plain that when a 
 poor dog has his skull cut open and slices of his 
 brain hemispheres cut away, suffering from pain, 
 fear, and loss of blood, he is unable to reveal to his 
 persecutors whether their knives have deprived him 
 of his instinct for hunting, or of that for loving his 
 master! Birds, rabbits, and other creatures when 
 deprived altogether of their brain hemispheres, may 
 continue to live some time if artificially fed. But 
 their existence is simply vegetative ; all instincts are 
 gone ; they fall into a state of stupor or somnolency. 
 Pathological conditions of the brain hemispheres, 
 whenever medical men shall know what to look for, 
 will, in the end, it may be anticipated, throw light 
 
 1 Op. cit. p. 813.
 
 Loss of La7ig7iage 69 
 
 on the localisation of faculties. I have been present 
 at dissections of brains where portions of the hemi- 
 spheres have been found to be diseased, and in such 
 instances, I have ascertained by inquiry of the 
 relatives of the deceased, that changes in their 
 mental life, previous to their last illnesses, had taken 
 place, in agreement with the lesions in the seats of 
 particular faculties. Medical men are chiefly atten- 
 tive to loss of lano'uao:e in connection with brain 
 disease, which now is attributed to hemiphlegia 
 (partial laming) of the one hemisphere, now of the 
 other. Probably, in cases where the faculty of 
 language is lost — a loss, in mental life, by the way, 
 the most readily noted — other faculties may have 
 been lost likewise, though facts of this kind would 
 not necessarily be kno"s^^l to medical attendants on a 
 sick bed. 
 
 Whether the seats of mental faculties are double 
 or not, is by many considered a moot question. The 
 analogy of the duplex nature of the organs of sense, 
 and many pathological experiences, led Dr. Gall to 
 believe that the mental faculties are double : the 
 same — though in different degrees of size and 
 energy^ — in either hemisphere of the brain. If it 
 be so, as there are many grounds for inferring, 
 lesions in one hemisphere only would not necessarily 
 
 ■ In general, 1 have observed the left heniispherc to be the larger one.
 
 JO Physical Basis of Mental Life 
 
 (excepting sympathetically) be found injurious to 
 mental life — no more so than injury to one eye 
 prevents vision with the other. 
 
 Thirdly. The phrenological naming of the mental 
 faculties is in many instances objectionable. Such 
 terms as ' marvellousness,' ' concentrativeness,' ' ideal- 
 ity,' ' wit,' are neither psychologically simple and 
 clear, nor suited to designate fundamental faculties. 
 The classification too of ' the feelings,' as, 'genus 1, 
 propensities,' and 'genus 11, sentiments,' is far from 
 sound. ' Destractiveness ' is classified as a ' propen- 
 sity ; ' and when large its functional activity is said 
 to be shown in the force and violence exercised in 
 overcoming impediments, in hatred of opponents, 
 in slaying, murdering, &c. Its normal or medium 
 function, however, is said to be more passive — to 
 cause inward feehno-s of ano'er and dislike, which 
 may not inaptly be called sentiments ; ' benevolence,' 
 on the other hand, is classed amona'st the ' senti- 
 ments,' though when relatively very strongly pro- 
 nounced this faculty is said to impel, i.e. give rise 
 to a propensity to perform acts of beneficence and 
 charity ! Dr. Gall designated all the special faculties, 
 the seats of which in the brain he believed he had 
 discovered, 'instincts,' or 'inner senses,' e.g. 'an 
 instinct of cunning ; ' ' a sense of colour ; ' ' a sense 
 of musical sounds,' &c. Phrenologists generally, 
 moreover, commit the error of seeming to personify
 
 ApplicatioH of Phrenological Principles 71 
 
 faculties, by saying, ' Destructiveness does this,' 
 ' Love of approbation does that,' &c., thus conveying 
 the impression of want of correhition or combined 
 activity in the faculties of the mind. 
 
 Fourthly. Professional phrenologists deal largely 
 in generalities, and pronounce too many and too 
 positive opinions on the heads of ordinary, or weak 
 characters, concerning whom very little can be said ; 
 for it is just such characters that are most easily 
 swayed by circumstances, and whose heads must not 
 be looked to in confirmation of the principle of 
 localisation of faculties, except in a negative way. 
 
 There are undoubtedly numerous cases where it 
 is difficult, and only possible with certain limitations, 
 to apply the phrenological principles. It is therefore 
 one thing to prove the localisation of faculties by 
 adducing striking cases, positive and negative, from 
 the great fields of natural history and social life ; 
 and quite another thing to apply the knowledge thus 
 obtained to all concrete cases. The late Professor 
 Dr. Elliotson has stated it to be the result of his 
 experiences that : — 1st. In cases where he had seen 
 great talents and other very prominent mental 
 qualities manifested, he invariably found a corre- 
 sponding development of the head. 2nd. Whenever 
 he observed particular deficiencies in the form of the 
 latter, he always became assured of corresponding 
 deficiencies in the mental faculties of the individuals.
 
 7 2 Physic a I Basis of Menta I Life 
 
 Such negative evidence of the localisation of facul- 
 ties I have likewise in general found the most satis- 
 factory. 
 
 To include the ' odium theologicum ' amongst the 
 causes of the opposition to phrenology — although it 
 has operated powerfully in this direction — is now 
 scarcely necessary. The teachings of Darwin, 
 Maudsley, Huxley, and others in this country have 
 rendered the theological objection to the phrenological 
 view of the mind of little account. 
 
 I have mentioned that Dr. Gall considered he had 
 established the seats of twenty-seven special faculties 
 in the brain. To these Spurzheim and his disciples 
 have added eight more, the chart of which on their 
 model heads fills up the whole of its surface.^ 
 American phrenologists, I understand, have subdi- 
 vided many of Dr. Spurzheim's organs, and added 
 a great many more. But whether their proceedmgs 
 have been based on very numerous and accurate ob- 
 servations and correct psychological insight, I much 
 doubt. It is not that I object to an extension of the 
 principle of localisation of faculties. In view of the 
 great variety of inborn aptitudes, and other mental 
 characteristics, specialisation in mental life appears to 
 have an extensive range, and probably the localisation 
 of ficulties — or centres of brain fibres and cells — may 
 
 ^ It was not so in the slfulls marked by Dr, Gall. He left many parts 
 unoccupied by organs.
 
 Present Claims of Phrenology jT) 
 
 extend mncli further than anyone as yet has even 
 imagmed. ]>ut minute portions of the brain con- 
 volutions cannot singly have influence on the form 
 of the head ; therefore, whatever psychological facts 
 may have been brought forward by Americans, I can 
 have little faith in their evidences of new faculties, 
 if based on minute morphological observations 
 of the head. Regions of the head, or groups of 
 correlated faculties — I mean correlated in reference 
 to their genesis, historical development and analogy 
 of character — is about all that forty years of observa- 
 tion, for the purpose of testing the principles of 
 phrenology, has confirmed to my mind. It is my 
 firm conviction, however, that no one who will care- 
 fully, extensively, and without prejudice observe 
 nature for himself can fail to become convinced of 
 the physical basis of mental life, and further, that 
 diiFerent classes of faculties are located in different 
 parts of the head. 
 
 Phrenology at present cannot claim to offer a 
 complete scheme of the functions of the brain, nor a 
 perfect system, of mental phenomena. In connect- 
 injr naan, however, with the rest of the animal 
 kingdom ; in distinguishing primary, and compara- 
 tively simple faculties — the so-called animal faculties 
 or instincts — from the secondary and more complex 
 of an intellectual and moral nature, it marks out the 
 true method of investigating mental life, and affords 
 
 G
 
 74 Pkysica I Basis of Men ta I Life 
 
 valuable standpoints for further progress. The 
 objective method of investigation, moreover, by 
 checking indulgence in subjective speculation, and 
 in the pleasures of systematising, to which thinkers 
 are so prone — is the only one on which a sound and 
 consistent theory of psychology can ever be arrived 
 at. ' It is not good,' says a German proverb, ' to 
 turn the child into the gutter along with the water 
 of its bath.' Neither is it good to continue to ignore, 
 as men of science and thinkers do, the broad basis of 
 truth in phrenology, because of the stigma which 
 imperfectly educated and superficial manipulators of 
 heads may have cast on the subject. 
 
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 INDEX. 
 
 Acton's Modem Cookery 40 
 
 Aird's Blackstone Economised 39 
 
 ^/r)'j Hebrew Scriptures 29 
 
 Alpine Club Map of Switzerland 34 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 34 
 
 Ames's Jurisprudence 10 
 
 Primer of the Constitution 10 
 
 Anderson's Strength of Materials 20 
 
 ^r;;w/;v;/o-'j- Organic Chemistry 20 
 
 Arnold's (Dr.) Christian Life 29 
 
 Lectures on Modern History 2 
 
 Miscellaneous Works 13 
 
 School Sermons 29 
 
 Sermons 29 
 
 (T. ) Manual of English Literature 1 2 
 
 Atherstone Priory 36 
 
 Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson ... 14 
 
 ./^//-/j Treasury of Bible Knowledge 39 
 
 ^i;co«'j- Essays, by IVhaicly 11 
 
 Life and Letters, by Spcddiiig ... 11 
 
 Works 10 
 
 Bai/i's Mental and Moral Science 12 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 12 
 
 ■ Emotions and Will 12 
 
 Baker's Two \\'orks on Ceylon 34 
 
 Ball's Guide to the Central Alps 34 
 
 Guide to the Western Alps 35 
 
 Guide to the Eastern Alps 34 
 
 Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific 23 
 
 Barry on Railway Appliances 20 
 
 Becker's Charicles and Gallus 35 
 
 ^/rtC/t'j Treatise on Brewing 40 
 
 Blackley s German-English Dictionary 16 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports 37 
 
 Bloxam's Metals 20 
 
 Boultbee on 39 Articles 29 
 
 Bourne's Catechism of the Steam Engine . 27 
 
 Handbook of Steam I'^ngine 27 
 
 Treatise on the Steam Engine ... 27 
 
 Improvements in the same 27 
 
 Bowdler's I'amily Skakspeare 37 
 
 Bramley-Muore s Six Sisters of the Valley . 36 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 23 
 
 Brinkley s A.'iironomy 12 
 
 Browne's Exposition of the 39 Articles 29 
 
 Buckle's History of Civilisation 3 
 
 Posthumous Remains 12 
 
 Buckton's Health in the House 24 
 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers 4° 
 
 Maternal Management of Children. 40 
 
 Burgomaster's Family (I he) 34 
 
 Burkes Rise of Great Families 8 
 
 Burke's Vicissitudes of Families 8 
 
 Busk's Folk-lore of Rome 35 
 
 Valleys of Tirol 33 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 40 
 
 Campbell's Norway 35 
 
 Gates' s Biographical Dictionary 8 
 
 and Woodward' sY.nQ.yc\o\i7e.^\'X ... 5 
 
 Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths ... 14 
 
 Clusney s Indian Polity 3 
 
 Modern Military Biography 4 
 
 Waterloo Campaign 3 
 
 Codrlngton s Life and Letters 7 
 
 Colcnso on Moabite Stone &c 32 
 
 's Pentateuch and Book of Joshua. 32 
 
 Collier's Demosthenes on the Crown 13 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country, by A. K. H. B 14 
 
 Comte's Positive Polity 8 
 
 Congrez'c's F'ssays 9 
 
 Politics of Aristotle 11 
 
 Conington's Translation of Virgil's JE.ne\(l 37 
 
 Miscellaneous Writings 13 
 
 C«//(Z;;j««'j Two French Dictionaries ... 15 
 Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles 
 
 of St. Paul 30 
 
 Coriieillc s Le Cid 36 
 
 Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit.,. 14 
 
 Cox's (G. W.) Aryan Mythology 4 
 
 Crusades 6 
 
 H'story of Greece 4 
 
 d jneral History of Greece 4 
 
 School ditto 4 
 
 Tale of the Great Persian 
 
 War 4 
 
 Tales of Ancient Greece ... 36 
 
 Crawley's Thucydides 4 
 
 Crcighton's Age of ]'",lizabeth 6 
 
 Cresy's Encyclop;tdia of Civil Engineering 27 
 
 Critical Essays of a Country Parson 14 
 
 Crw.ir/j Cliemical Analysis 25 
 
 Dyeing and Calico-printing 28 
 
 Culley's Handbook of Telegraphy 27 
 
 Davidson's Introduction to the New Tes- 
 tament V- 
 
 D'Anbigne's Reformation 
 
 De Caisne and I.c Maout's Botany 24 
 
 ZJ<r A/i'/-^(///'.r Paradoxes 13 
 
 De Tor]/ ue7'i lie's Democracy in .Xmcrija... 9 
 
 Disraeli's Lord George pjcntinck 8 
 
 AG
 
 42 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED EY LONGMANS & CO. 
 
 Z)/jn7(7/'j Novels and Tales 35 
 
 Dobson on the Q>\ 38 
 
 Dove's Law of Storms 18 
 
 Doyle's [R.) Fairyland 25 
 
 Eastldkc's Hints on Household Taste 26 
 
 Ed-wards' s Rambles among the Dolomites 34 
 
 Nile 32 
 
 Elements of Botany 23 
 
 Ellicott's Commentary on Ephesians 30 
 
 Galatians 30 
 
 Pastoral Epist. 30 
 
 Philippians,&c. 30 
 
 Thessalonians . 30 
 
 Lectures on Life of Christ 29 
 
 Elsa : a Tale of the Tyrolean Alps 36 
 
 Evans' (J.) Ancient Stone Implements ... 23 
 
 • (A. J.) Bosnia 33 
 
 Eivald's History of Israel 30 
 
 Antiquities of Israel 31 
 
 Fairlairn's Application of Cast and 
 
 Wrought Iron to Building... 27 
 
 Information for Engineers 27 
 
 Life 7 
 
 Treatise on Mills and Millwork 27 
 
 Farrar's Chapters on Language 13 
 
 Families of Speech 13 
 
 Fiiz-ivygrain on Horses and Stables 38 
 
 Forbcs's Two Years in Fiji 33 
 
 Francis's I'ishing Book 37 
 
 7^/rt'OT(7;/' J Historical Geography of Europe 6 
 
 Frcs/if eld's IivlWoxi iWps 33 
 
 /•>c'«^.Vj English in Ireland 2 
 
 History of England 2 
 
 • Short Studies 12 
 
 Gairdner's Houses of Lancaster and York 6 
 
 Ganot's Elementary Physics 20 
 
 Natural Philosophy 19 
 
 Gardiner's Buckingham and Charles 3 
 
 • Thirty Years' War 6 
 
 <7d;^-XT«'.f Church and State 10 
 
 German Home Life 13 
 
 Gibson's Religion and Science 29 
 
 Gilbert b' ChurchiU's Dolomites 34 
 
 Girdlestone s Bible Synon}Tns 29 
 
 Coodcve' s Mechanics 20 
 
 . Mechanism 20 
 
 Grant's Ethics of Aristotle 11 
 
 Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 14 
 
 Greville s ']ovii\\v\ 2 
 
 Griffin's Algebra and Trigonometry 20 
 
 Grohmau's Tyrol and the Tyrolese 32 
 
 Gro-ve (Sir ^^■. R.) on Correlation of Phy- 
 sical Forces 19 
 
 (F. C. ) The Frosty Caucasus 32 
 
 GiL'ilt's EncyclopEedia of Architecture 26 
 
 Harrison's Order and Progress 9 
 
 Hartley on X\\e A\r 19 
 
 hart-wig's Aerial World 22 
 
 Polar World 22 
 
 Hartwig's Sea and its Living Wonders ... 22 
 
 Subterranean World 22 
 
 Tropical World 22 
 
 Hai/gktoii's Animal Mechanics 20 
 
 Hayward's Biographical and Critical Essays 7 
 
 Heathcotc sY&nKnAWexQ. 28 
 
 Heine's Life and Works, by Stigand 7 
 
 Helmholtz on Tone 23 
 
 Hehnhollz s Scientific Lectures 19 
 
 Helnislcy's Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous 
 
 Plants 24 
 
 //tv^r/zc/' J- Outlines of Astronomy i3 
 
 Hinchliff's Over the Sea and Far Away ... 33 
 
 //<'//(z;/(7''j Fragmentary Papers 21 
 
 Holms on the Army 4 
 
 Hullak's History of Modern Music 23 
 
 Transition Period 23 
 
 Hume'sKssays 12 
 
 Treatise on Human Nature 12 
 
 Ihne' s History of Rome 5 
 
 Indian Alps 32 
 
 Iiigclow's Poems 37 
 
 yameson s Legends of Saints and Martyrs . 26 
 
 Legends of the Madonna 26 
 
 Legends of the Monastic Orders 26 
 
 Legends of the Saviour 26 
 
 y</^ on Confession 30 
 
 yev/^/w'j Electricity and Magnetism 20 
 
 yt'rrtfw'j Lycidas of Milton 35 
 
 yerrohfs Life of Napoleon 2 
 
 yohnston' s Geographical Dictionary 17 
 
 y^/f(?/i' Types of Genesis 31 
 
 on Second Death 31 
 
 KaliscJi s Commentary on the Bible 30 
 
 Keith' s Evidence of Prophecy 30 
 
 Kcrl's Metallurgy, by Crookes and Rohrig. 27 
 
 A7//f'j/(n''i' American Lectures 13 
 
 Kirby and Spence' s Entomology 21 
 
 Kirkman s Philosophy 11 
 
 Knatchhiill- Htigcsscii s Whispers from 
 
 Fairy-Land ... 35 
 Higgledy-piggledy 35 
 
 Zrf7«a;V/«e'i' Toussaint Louverture 36 
 
 Landscapes, Churches, &c. by A. K. H. B. 14 
 
 Lang's Ballads and Lyrics 36 
 
 Latham' s English Dictionary 15 
 
 ■ — • Handbook of the English Lan- 
 
 gi-iage 15 
 
 Laughton's Nautical Surveying 19 
 
 Laivi-enee on Rocks 22 
 
 Lecky's Histor}' of European Morals 5 
 
 Rationalism 5 
 
 Leaders of Public Opinion 8 
 
 Lee's Kesslerloch 22 
 
 Lefroy's Bermudas 3j 
 
 Leisure Hours in Town, by .A. K. H. B 14 
 
 Lessons of Middle Age, by A. K. H. B.... 14 
 
 Lewes' s Biographical History of Philosophy 6
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS & CO. 
 
 Z<^i'/.f on Authority 12 
 
 L/JJf//and Scoii's Greek-English Lexicons 16 
 
 Lindky and Moore's Treasury of Botany... 23 
 
 Lloyd's Magnetism 21 
 
 Wave-Theory of Light 21 
 
 Longman's [F. W.) Cliess Openings 40 
 
 German Dictionary ... 15 
 
 ^^\■.] Edward the Third...! 2 
 
 Lectures on History of 
 
 England 2 
 
 Old and New St. Paul's 26 
 
 Loudon's Encycloposdia of Agriculture ... 28 
 
 — — Gardening 28 
 
 Plants 24 
 
 Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation 22 
 
 L}Ta Germanica 32 
 
 Macaulay s (Lord) Essays i 
 
 History of England •- i 
 
 Lays of Ancient Rome 25, 36 
 
 Life and Letters 7 
 
 Miscellaneous Writings 12 
 
 Speeches 12 
 
 Works 2 
 
 McCulloch' s Dictionary of Commerce 16 
 
 Maclcod's Principles of Economical Philo- 
 sophy 10 
 
 Theory and Practice of Banking 39 
 
 Elements of Banking 39 
 
 Mademoiselle Mori 36 
 
 JI/<7/f/'j Annals of the Road 37 
 
 A/a//«c)«'5 Genoese Studies 3 
 
 Native States of India 3 
 
 Marshall's Physiology 25 
 
 Marshmaii's History of India 3 
 
 Life of Havelock 8 
 
 Martincau's Christian Life 32 
 
 Hymns 31 
 
 Maunder s Biographical Treasury 39 
 
 Geographical Treasury 39 
 
 Historical Treasury 39 
 
 Scientific and Literary Treasury 39 
 
 Treasury of Knowledge 39 
 
 Treasury of Natural History ... 39 
 
 Ma.x-ifcll's Theory of Heat 20 
 
 Alay's History of Democracy 2 
 
 History of England 2 
 
 Melville's Digby Grand 36 
 
 General Bounce 36 
 
 Gladiators 36 
 
 Good for Nothing 36 
 
 Ilolmby House 36 
 
 Interpreter 36 
 
 Kate Coventry 36 
 
 Queens Maries 36 
 
 Menzics' Forest Trees and Woodland 
 
 Scenery 24 
 
 Mcrivale's Fall of the Roman Republic ... 5 
 
 General History of Rome 4 
 
 Romans under tlie Emjjire 4 
 
 Jl/i?;-r//7c/i/'j Arithmetic and Mensuration... 20 
 
 Miles on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing 38 
 
 on Horse's Teeth and Stables 38 
 
 Mill (J.) on the Mind 10 
 
 (J. S.) on Liljcrty 9 
 
 on Representative Government 9 
 
 Utilitarianism 9 
 
 Autobiogra[)liy 7 
 
 .l//7/'j Dissertations and Discussions 9 
 
 Essays on Religion &c 29 
 
 Hamilton's Philosophy 9 
 
 System of Logic 9 
 
 Political Economy 9 
 
 Unsettled Questions 9 
 
 J////<:;-'j Elements of Chemistry 24 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry 20 
 
 Minto's (Lord) Life and Letters 7 
 
 Mitchell's Manual of Assaying 28 
 
 Modern Novelist's Library 36 
 
 iJ/ofz/jtV/'j ' Spiritual Songs ' 32 
 
 .^l/fwr'j Irish Melodies, illustrated 26 
 
 Moraut' s Q>-A.x\\Q Preservers 22 
 
 MorcU's Elements of Psychology 11 
 
 Mental Philosophy ir 
 
 Aliiller s Chips from a German Workshop. 13 
 
 Science of Language 13 
 
 Science of Religion 5 
 
 Ncisoii on the Moon 18 
 
 New Reformation, by Thcodorus 4 
 
 New Testament, Illustrated Edition 25 
 
 A"tvV//a'//'j' Lathes and Turning 26 
 
 0'CiS>«(?r' J Commentary on Hebrews 31 
 
 Romans 31 
 
 St. John 31 
 
 Owen's Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
 logy of Vertebrate Animals 21 
 
 Pcry^c'j Guide to the PjTcnees 35 
 
 Pagct's Naval Powers 28 
 
 Pattison's Casaubon 7 
 
 Paycn's Industrial Chemistry 26 
 
 Pt-w/z/tv-'j Comprehensive Specifier .:;o 
 
 Pierce's Chess Problems 40 
 
 Plunket's Travels in the Alps 33 
 
 Pole's Game of Whist 40 
 
 Preccc & Siveivrighf s'Y€[Q^XK\i\\\ 20 
 
 Prendcrgast' s Mastery of Langu;iges 16 
 
 Present-Day Thoughts, by A. K. H. B. ... 14 
 
 /^;-<76-/'fci;-'j Astronomical Essays 17 
 
 Moon 17 
 
 Orbs around Us 18 
 
 Other Worlds than Ours 18 
 
 Saturn 17 
 
 Scientific Essays (New Series) ... 21 
 
 Sun 17 
 
 Transits of Venus 17 
 
 Two Star Atlases 18 
 
 Universe 17 
 
 Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geograjiliy 1 7 
 
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