UC-NRLF ^B 73b fl5t. r^ f ,x^ ( y UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES HISTORY lA UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES HISTORY lA H. MORSE STEPHENS Price 2S Cents 31679G History 1a LECTURE 1 Palaeolithic Man Palethnology is the study of the origin and development of man before his history can be traced in written documents, in inscriptions or in traditions. Palethnology is a nineteenth century study. Division of the early history of mankind into the Age of Stone, the Age of Bronze, the Age of Iron; the Roman poet, Lucretius; eighteenth century writers. The geologists of the nineteenth century; the archaeologists: Boucher de Perthes; Lyell's Antiquity of Man, published 1863; the work and views of the last half-century. Broca's division: Prehistoric Man, the man of the Stone Age; Proto- historic Man, the man of the Metal Ages. Division of Prehistoric Man into Eolithic, Palaeolithic and Neolithic Man. The question of Eolithic Man, or of the existence of man in the Tertiary Period of the geologists. Palaeolithic Man, or man of the Quaternary Period of the geologists. Divisions of Palaeolithic Man: 1. Lartet's division: Epoch of the Aurochs. Epoch of the Reindeer. Epoch of the Mammoth. Epoch of the Cave bear. 2. Mortillet's division: Age of chipped flint. Age of polished flint. Palaeolithic Man: Evidences of epochs: 1. From skulls and skeletons: the Neanderthal skeleton, 1856. 2. From dwelling places: the river drift: the cave. 3. From occupations: flint implements: animal bones. Possible Age of Wood: disappearance of evidence. Occupations of Palaeolithic Man: climber; hunter; artizan; artist. Flint implements: arrow heads. Bone implements: harpoons; scrapers; needles. Early art: reindeer bones; carving; painting. Early food; control of fire; middens; shells; domesticated animals. Early manners and customs; promiscuity; mating. History 1a Length of palaeolithic era: vagueness. Mortillet's estimate: Chellean, or before the ice age, 78,000 years. Mousterian, or ice age, 100,000 *' Solutrean, 11,000 '' Magdalenian, 33,000 '* 222,000 " Length of neolithic, bronze and iron era about 10,000 years. Eecorded history 6,000 years. Palaeolithic Man existed in both hemispheres; the Calaveras skull. LECTUKE 2 Neolithic Man: Bronze and Iron Ages Palaeolithic Man was a hunter; he was therefore a nomad and followed his game; his only domesticated animal seems to have been the dog, so far as the examination of the kitchen-middens goes; he lived in temporary habitations by the rivers and the sea, or in caves. Neolithic Man lived in villages; importance of this change in the history of civilization; the change was accomplished gradually. Palaeolithic Man can be proved to have existed in Asia, especially in India, in Africa and in America, but the change from the chipped to the polished flint cannot be shown everywhere; it can be shown in Europe in the relics of the lake dwellings of Switzerland. Theories of two races from the two shapes of skulls found in the neolithic remains, the long-skulled or dolichocephalic type, and the broad- skulled or brachycephalic type; possible invasion of Europe from Asia by the latter. The civilization of Neolithic Man; his lake dwellings, built on piles; grain; domesticated animals; goat, sheep and hog from Asia; question of cattle and horses; pottery; polished flint axes and lances. Treatment of the dead and its evidence of advancement in civiliza- tion; grottos; the megalithic monuments; Stonehenge; the menhirs and dolmens. Disappearance of Palaeolithic art: new forms of ornaments; shells, teeth; rings and combs. Gradual merging of prehistoric into protohistoric age in Europe: the characteristic of protohistoric man, the use of metals. Discovery of the use of metals: legends of the first metal workers: Tubal Cain; the craft or mystery of the smiths; relics in Africa and Asia of the working of metals. 3 History 1a ■ Copper the earliest metal worked for the service of man; its softness; discovery of the hardening power of an alloy with tin; the Age of Bronze; characteristics of the Bronze Age: weapons of war; implements; ornamentation; Egypt, India, China. Proofs from the lake dwellings of Switzerland of the gradual passing from Neolithic to Bronze civilization; other lake dwellings; Ireland: the terra-mare of North Italy; the pile dwellings on land. All civilization does not seem to have passed through the Bronze Age; sometimes it moved directly from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, as in Africa. The Iron Age; softness of iron; smelting; wrought iron; steel harden- ing in Homeric times; superiority of iron over bronze; difference of dates of the bronze passing into the iron age. Estimated duration of the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron ages in Europe about 10.000 years; absence of an iron age in America, and only scattered traces of a copper age in North America, and of a soft bronze in parts of Mexico; knowledge of iron introduced from Europe; the mound-builders and the cliff-dwellers of America. The imagination of modern writers stirred by the gradual development of knowledge of prehistoric and protohistoric man; Stanley Waterloo's Story of Ah, Jack London's Before Adam, Gouverneur Morris' The Pagan Progress. Kipling's story of The Knife and the Naked Chalk in Rewards and Fairies; his poems of Neolithic man and interest in prehistoric art. LECTUEE 3 Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylon Impossibility of fixing dates for the Stone, the Bronze and the Iron ages; in some parts of the world these ages overlapped each other; con- tinued existence of peoples in early stages of civilization. The three stages of savagery: Morgan's classification. 1. The arboreal stage: life in the trees; fruit and nuts; speech. 2. Eishing stage: control of fire; discovery of the bow and arrow; Australians. 3. Hunting stage: some savages in North and South America still in this stage; the dog. Passage to barbarism the invention of pottery. The three stages of barbarism: 1. Pottery; the domestication of animals; the pastoral stage in Europe, Asia and Africa; not in America, except in Peru. 2 Agricultural stage; in North America, corn; in Peru, the potato; in 4 History 1a Asia wheat and barley; adobe bricks for building; the lake dwellings; later neolithic man; villages; pictographs. 3. Metals: the bronze and early iron ages; industries. Organization; the family and the tribe; the mother age; marriage. Eeligion: treatment of the dead. Beginning of recorded history; Chaldaea; Egypt. The importance of Chaldaea in the history of civilization: wheat and barley: irrigation: the use of brick in building: aggregation into cities; cuneiform inscriptions. Organization of Chaldaean society; larger units than the tribe; the city; the empire of Sargon, about 3800 B.C. Eeligion; Chaldaean literature; clay bricks; astronomy; the month; the week of seven days with the day of rest; the day with its twenty-four hours; the hour with its sixty minutes; worship of the dead; worship of God. The Chaldaean Age; 5000 B.C. to 3800 B.C.; later period, 3800 to 2400; Babylon; commerce; civilization; organized life; law; the Code of Ham- murabi about 2250; its discovery in 1901. The Empire of Assyria; first stage, 1800 to 1100; Nineveh; Tiglath Pileser I extends to the Mediterranean; Tiglath Pileser II, 745; Sargon and the ten tribes of Israel, 722; Sennacherib; conquest of Egypt, 672. Civilization: the oriental despot; the palace; the temple; the warrior; war for the control of trade; use of stone in building; the Assyrian in- scriptions; monstrous figures; cruel religions. The Empire of Babylonia, 625-538; destruction of Nineveh, 606; Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561; Jews in captivity, 586; fall of Babylon, 538. The civilization of Babylon; the greatness of the city; oriental civilization. The appearance of the pastoral peoples, 850; the Scythian nomads; the Persians; Cyrus the Great; their overthrow of Babylonia. Early civilization in India and China. LECTUEE 4 Egypt— TO 525 B.C. The geography of Egypt: the river Nile; irrigation; comparison with Chaldaea. The Stone Age in Egypt. The population of Egypt; continuity of race; the question of race; abandonment of theory of pure races; Aryans, Semites, Hamites, Turanians. 5 History 1a Egyptian civilization; its slow development; Egyptian chronology; the year and the month. Egyptian records; inscriptions; hieroglyphics; the beginning of re- corded history; the thirty dynasties of Manetho. The earliest known date 4241 B.C.; importance of chronology; the calendar; Julius Caesar. The Nile valley and the Delta; the ''Two lands"; amalgamation under Menes, about 8400 B.C. 1. The ''Old Kingdom" at Memphis; 2980 to 2475 B.C.; the ruler as God; the Pyramid builders; the god Ee. 2. The Theban kingdom; 2160-1788 B.C.; the temples; the priest- hoods; landed nobility. 3. The Hyksos, foreign usurpers, 1788-1580; possibly Arabs. 4. The Egyptian Empire, 1580-1350 B.C.; its military basis; disap- pearance of landed nobility; the god Amon; extent of the empire; Syria and Phoenicia conquered by Thothmes, lost by Ikhnaton; victories of Assyria. 5. The Second Empire, 1350-1150. Eamses II, 1292-1225; probable date of the Exodus of the Jews. 6. The Decadence, 1150-670; final loss of Syria and Phoenicia. 7. The Assyrian Supremacy, 670-662; Esar-haddon. 8. The Saite period, 663-525; the Greeks in Egypt; the cities of the Delta. 9. The Persian conquest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. Egyptian society; the family; reverence for ancestors. Importance of agriculture in ancient Egypt; basis of society and administration. Egyptian administration; bureaucratic government; feudal govern- ment; the land and its cultivators; industries; strikes; commerce; trade with Punt; trade with Phoenicia; the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Egyptian religion; reverence for the dead; nature worship; the Book of the Dead; Ee and Amon; the religious revolt of Ikhnaton, 1375-1358; the worship of Aton, the All-Father. Egyptian art; architecture; decoration; the Pyramids; the temples. Could they be traced in detail, similar should be the results of investi- gations in China and India; absence of influence of China and India on Mediterranean civilization. LECTUEE 5 Crete, Phoenicia, Judaea The agricultural civilization of Chaldaea and Egypt; the need and expense of irrigation works makes an organization, in which the State 6 History 1a owns the land, inevitable; the need of elaborate laws and many ofl&cials creates a bureaucracy; the power of the State concentrated in or typified by an absolute ruler; effect on religious ideas; the Pharaoh as God, or son of God. Industrial civilization the outcome of prosperous agricultural civiliza- tion; the organization of industry; individualism; combination. The spread of commerce from the demand for commodities produced elsewhere; the exchange of commodities created foreign trade; organiza- tion of trade. The trade routes; the Egyptian trade routes; southeast Africa and Syria; the caravan trade routes from India to the Mediterranean; their influence on Assyria and Babylonia. The Mediterranean; sea borne commerce; importance of the history of the Mediterranean. The island of Crete the first known center of Mediterranean com- merce; importance of the Cretan explorations, 1900-1910; their result. The history of Crete; its neolithic age, 10,000 to 3000 B.C.; its con- nection with the ''Old Kingdom" of Egypt, 3000 to 2400 B.C. The thousand years of Minoan civilization, 2400 to 1400 B.C.; the adoption of the word Minoan; the extent of Minoan trade; the Aegean Sea; Troy and Mycenae; Minoan sea power; Minoan government and religion; the palace at Knossos; Minoan society; dress and fashions; bull fights; Minoan legends in Greek literature; the Minoan people. The history of the alphabet; Minoan writing; contrast with cuneiform and hieroglyphic writing. The fall of the Minoan civilization; destruction of Knossos, about 1400 B.C. Importance of Syria and Phoenicia for the Mediterranean trade; the Egyptian conquest and occupation, 1580-1380; the Hittite Empire; cam- paigns of Eamses II; conquest by Assyria, about 1100 B.C. The rise of Phoenician sea power after the fall of the Minoans; extent of Phoenician trade; settlements in the islands of the Aegean, Sicily, North Africa, Spain; the settlement at Cadiz; the foundation of Carth- age; the demand for tin at the opening of the Bronze Age; voyages to the Black Sea and to Cornwall in Britain; wealth of Tyre and Sidon. The Phoenicians modify and spread the alphabet. The Jews; an Arab people; their residence in Egypt from about 1700 to 1300 B.C.; occupation of Palestine about 1300; their wars with the Philistines, possibly a Minoan people. The Hebrew kingdom; greatness of Solomon as controller of the trade routes, 1015-975. The Jewish religion; growth of monotheism. Conquest of the Ten Tribes of Israel by Sargon II of Assyria, 722; 7 History 1a the captivity; conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 B.C.; the Babylonian captivity; the Jews allowed to return by the Persians and Cyrus, 537 B.C. The importance of the Jewish religion and literature. LECTUEE 6 The Homeric Age The overthrow of the Minoan civilization; destruction of Knossos, 1400 B.C.; the Minoan settlements in the Aegean; Troy and Mycenae; destruction of the Homeric Troy, about 1200 B.C. Many centuries occupied in the overthrow of the Minoans by the Greeks; comparison with the overthrow of the Eoman Empire by the barbarians; the society of the Greeks of the conquest depicted in the Homeric poems. The Homeric poems; their gradual composition; their various elements; their mythology. The Iliad and the Odyssey, the epic poems of war and travel; elements of different ages and beliefs in their stories and descriptions. The society of the Homeric Age as depicted in the poems; delight in war, and in the sea; simplicity of life; small farms; village life; absence of organized industry and trade; contrast with Egyptian, Chaldaean, Assyrian, Minoan and Phoenician civilization; the Homeric chieftain; tribal government; the king, the council, the people; the family and the tribe; the position of woman; Andromache and Nausicaa; the chief, the warrior, the sea captain; Agamemnon, Achilles, Hector, Ajax, Odysseus, Nestor; Homeric religion; the burning instead of the burial of the dead. The origin of the Greeks; development from bronze to iron; the evi- dence from weapons and shields; the fair-haired Achaeans; invaders from the North; land and sea warfare; comparison with the Vikings; apparent retrogression from Minoan civilization. The lonians and the Dorians; later invaders of the same Greek race; the lonians in Attica, the Aegean islands and western Asia Minor; the Dorians in the Peloponnesus; period from 1100 B.C. to 800 B.C.; the first recorded Olympiad, 776 B.C.; the Greek invasions cover from 1600 to 800. Development of Greek civilization; the Greeks, especially the lonians, take to trade and compete with the Phoenicians; the Greek trading settle- ments; the Greek colonies, 800-600. Changes in government; the Greek city states; during their expansion the Age of the Tyrants, 700 to 500. The Dorian type of civilization; Sparta; Lycurgus. The Ionian civilization; wealth of the Ionic cities; Ionic literature; 8 History 1a the lyric poets; the philosophers; the Lydian state; Croesus, 560; the islands of the Aegean; Sappho. Athens; its early history; Draco, 624 B.C.; Solon, 594-593; a constitu- tion; a code of laws. Peisistratus, tyrant of Athens, 560-527; the nature of his government. The Persian Empire; Cyrus, 558-529; overthrow of Lydia; attacks on the Ionic cities. During the age of Peisistratus, the Homeric poems were reduced to their present form; the seven birth places of Homer; the controversies as to the existence of Homer and of unity in the Homeric poems. Homeric literature and Hebrew literature. LECTUEE 7 The Persian Wars; Sicn.Y The Medes and Persians; hardy tribesmen from the highlands lying to the east of the Mesopotamian river basin; the pastoral character of the highlanders; the care of flocks and herds brings about a different type of civilization from agriculture based on irrigation, with different individual character and different government; also different type of warrior based on individual efficiency of the soldier as against an organized army; com- parison between the Greek conquerors of the Minoans and the Persian conquerors of Babylonia and Egypt. The first appearance of the Medes and Persians; their repulse of the Scythians, 650-625 B.C.; the Medes take Nineveh, 606 B.C. The Persian Empire; Cyrus the Great, 558-529 B.C.; capture of Babylon, 558 B.C.; conquest of Lydia and of Croesus, 560 B.C.; conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, 525 B.C.; conquest of Afghanistan and northwest India; extent of the Persian Empire. The government of the Persian Empire; the first government of an empire by a military aristocracy; comparison with the Eoman Empire, the Moors in Spain, the Pranks in Gaul, the Normans in England; con- querors and rulers from military efficiency, not colonists, like the Greeks and the Phoenicians. The organization of the Persian Empire; Darius the Great, 521-485; the satrapies, as contrasted with the tributary kingdoms of the Assyrian, Babylonian and Egyptian empires; the post roads; comparison of the Persian satraps with the Eoman proconsuls and the Turkish pashas. The Persian religion; Zoroaster, 1000 B.C.; the double principle; wor- ship of the Sun and of fire; the Magians. The Greeks at the establishment of the Persian Empire; the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor; Hellas; the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily. 9 History 1a Dramatic character of the struggle between the Greeks and the Persian Empire; Persian organization against Greek individualism; independence of the Greek city states; attempts at federation; the Greek soldiers. Conquest of the Greek cities in Ionia by Cyrus; their revolt about 500 B.C.; aid sent to them by Athens. The Persian Wars; the history by Herodotus (484-402); its importance and characteristics. The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.; death of Darius, 485; the invasion by Xerxes, 480; Thermopylae and Salamis, 480; Plataea and Mycale, 479. Eesult of the Persian wars on Greek politics and character; the rise of Athens as a naval power; Themistocles. Struggle of the Greek colonies in the western Mediterranean against Carthage contemporary with the Persian wars. The Tyrrhenians or Etruscans, perhaps Minoans. The Greeks in southern Italy; Croton and Sybaris; Milo and Pytha- goras; Sicily; its early history; the Sikels; growth and development in Sicily of Greek drama, poetry, history, rhetoric, and philosophy; Sicily the key of the western Mediterranean. Agrigentum and Syracuse, 739 B.C.; the city states of Sicily; the troubles of the Sicilian city state; the oligarchies and the tyrants; Phalaris and Gelon. Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse; his defeat of the Tyrrhenians; Simonides at Hiero 's court; Pindar and Aeschylus. The Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean; foundation of Carth- age, 850 B.C.; its independence; its trade; its organization; the Phoeni- cians in Sicily; Palermo. The battle of the Himera; victory of the Sicilian Greeks, 481 B.C.; development of Greek Sicily. The Greek soldier and sailor, as contrasted with the Egyptian agri- culturist and the Phoenician trader; individualism against socialism; the expedition and retreat of the Ten Thousand, 401 B.C.; Xenophon; indi- cation of the future triumph of Alexander the Great. LECTURE 8 The Athenian Empire The village community as the unit of primitive agricultural life; India; Russia; contrast with the pastoral life of the horde. The Greek village in the Homeric period; the village fort. The city in lands of irrigated agriculture, the center of government and exchange; the cities of Egypt and Babylonia. The city and trade; the city and industrial organization; the city and foreign commerce; the cities of Phoenicia; Carthage; the cities of Ionia 10 History 1a and Sicily; Miletus and Syracuse; the Greek city state, and trade and indus- try; the trading settlements and colonies; the government of the Greek city state; traces of the family and the village; Athens. Athens and Attica ; the vine and the olive ; legends ; Solon and his consti- tution; the assembly of the people; the Areopagus; the archons. Peisistratus, 560-527; the growth of trade; immigrants; the growth of industry; the art industry; slaves; the mines of Laurium; the democracy of Athens. The effect of the Persian wars on Athens; pride of patriotism; Athens as a naval power; the Long Walls to the Peiraeus; the fleet and trade; Themistocles. Athens and the Ionian cities; the confederacy of Delos, 478 B.C.; Aristides; growth of the Athenian Empire; the trade of Athens; the grain trade of the Black Sea; importance of peace for trade; the Athenian fleet in control of the Aegean; population of Attica about 250,000, of which 100,000 were citizens, perhaps 35,000 men; the mines; the tribute; the payment of citizens; contrast with modern democracy. The Age of Pericles, 461-429 B.C.; the Athenian democracy; the foreign traders; the slaves. Greek society as pictured in Athenian society; the treatment of slaves; the artisan class; the position of women; politics; law; education; athletics. Greek religion in the Age of Pericles; distinction between religion and morality; the worship of the gods; ethics. Greek art; the beautification of Athens; the Acropolis; the Parthenon; history of Greek art; the architecture of Greek temples; Greek sculpture; Pheidias; the human form; athletics; influence of the Homeric poems. Greek literature; the Athenian period; the development of rhetoric; Gorgias; oratory; history; Herodotus; Thucydides; Xenophon. The Greek drama; the development of tragedy at Athens; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; comedy; Aristophanes. The Greek theatre; its place in Athenian life. Greek philosophy; the lonians; Thales; the Sicilians; Empedocles; the contribution of Athens; Socrates; Plato. Characteristics of Greek thought; our terminology of politics, art, liter- ature, and philosophy derived from the Greeks. LECTURE 9 The Peloponnesian War The conditions in Hellas, as opposed to those in Ionia and Sicily; the Peloponnese; the cities of the Peloponnese; Argos; its school of art; Corinth ; its trade and trading settlements or colonies ; Olympia ; Belplu • Baeotia and Thebes. 11 History 1a The Dorian civilization; its extreme type in Sparta; Dorian influence in Athens; the Doric column; the Doric temple. Sparta; its situation; its government; its history; its civilization; a military aristocracy; its influence on Hellas and on Greek ideals; its part in the Persian Wars; absence of intellectual development. Hellas and the Athenian Empire; rivalry between Sparta and Athens; difference of ideals of life and government. The Peloponnesian War, 431 to 404 B.C.; Thucydides; his political bias; his picture of Pericles; the funeral speech of Pericles; the self -con- sciousness of Athens; the attitude of Sparta; the Spartan army and the Athenian navy. Characteristics of military history; its technical character. The death of Pericles; the plague at Athens; the Athenian democracy; Cleon, Alcibiades and"Nicias; the plays of Aristophanes; the break up of the Athenian Empire. The Athenian expedition to Sicily, 415-413, the turning point of the war; Sicily under Hiero of Syracuse, 478-466; his defeat of the Tyrr- henians or Etruscans; Magna Graecia; Cumae; the Dorian supremacy in Sicily and end of the tyrants ; Ducetius and the Sikels ; the policies of Pericles and Alcibiades; the failure of the Athenian expedition, 413 B.C. Eevival of the Carthaginian power in Sicily; capture of Akragas or Agrigentum, 406 B.C. Last years of the Peloponnesian War; defeat of the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami, 405 B.C.; capture of Athens, 404, and destruction of the Long Walls; end of the Athenian Empire. Death of Socrates, 399 B.C.; the Dialogues of Plato; the Memorabilia of Xenophon. LECTUEE 10 Philip of Macedon The situation of the Greek world after the fall of Akragas or Agri- gentum in Sicily, 406 B.C., and the fall of Athens in 404 B.C. The Carthaginians in Sicily; Dionysius of Syracuse, 405-367; his rela- tions with Plato; a citizen of Athens, 368; at the Olympian games. The Spartan supremacy in Hellas, 404 B.C.-371; the revival of Athens; Conon's victory at Cnidus, 394; rebuilding of the Long Walls, 393 B.C.; the military reforms of Iphicrates, the Athenian. The Persian Empire; the Greek attitude wdth regard to Persia; the march of the Ten Thousand, 401 B.C.; Xenophon, the Athenian. The Theban supremacy, 371 B.C. to 362 B.C.; Epaminondas; Leuctra to Mantinea; the Theban phalanx. 12 History 1a Importance of the history of the art of war; the equation of the offen- sive and the defensive; the professional soldier as against the citizen soldier; the Persian, the Athenian, and the Spartan soldier; the Greek mercenaries. The Greeks in Sicily; Dionysius II and Dion, 367 to 344; Timoleon, 344; the defeat of the Carthaginians at the Crimisiis, 339; Carthaginian and Syracusan mercenaries; death of Timoleon, 336. Philip of Macedon, b, 382, 359-336; the tribes of Macedonia; their organization into a military power; the Macedonian phalanx; Macedonian cavalry; the light armed troops; Macedonian artillery. Philip of Macedon and Hellas; his policy with regard to the Greek city states; the opposition of Demosthenes; the battle of Chaeronea, 338; recog- nition of Philip as chief of Hellas, 336; establishment of the Macedonian power. Development of Greek culture; Demosthenes and oratory, 385-322; Xenophon, 445-355. Plato, 429-347; the Dialogues ; his idealism; the Academy. Aristotle, 384-322, the friend of Philip, the tutor of Alexander; his works; his importance; the Lyceum. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, uses the military power created by his father to conquer Asia, and makes possible the extension of Greek culture in the East. LECTURE 11 Alexander the Great Alexander the Great, 356-323; son of Philip of Macedon and pupil of Aristotle; succeeded his father, 336 B.C.; his personality. The conquest of Hellas; destruction of Thebes. The conquest of the Persian Empire; the army of Alexander; thirty thousand infantry, of whom twelve thousand were Macedonian; five thou- sand cavalry, including fifteen hundred Macedonians, Battle of the Granicus, 334; conquest of Asia Minor; battle of Issus, 333 B.C; conquest of the Mediterranean coast; capture of Damascus and Tyre; sea power; march through Palestine; conquest of Egypt; foundation of Alexandria. The march into Persia; breakdown of the Persian military organization; defeat of Darius at Arbela, 331 B.C. The march to India; conquest of the Punjab; the voyage of Nearchus. Death of Alexander at Babylon, 323 B.C. The work of Alexander; the Hellenization of western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. Greek civilization works towards the East, and leaves the western Medi- terranean to Carthage and Eome. 13 History 1a Effect on Asia and on Greece of Alexander's conquests. Alexander's government; the provinces; immigration of Greeks into Asia; Alexander's cities; the satrapies and dynasties. Alexander and Amon; effect of Egyptian and Asiatic religion upon Alexander. Extent and persistence of Alexander's influence; effect on the imagi- nation of the world. Alexander and humanity; extension and infusion of Greek civiliaztion. LECTURE 12 Alexander's Empire The century after Alexander's death (323 B.C.) to the conquest of Sicily by the Romans (212 B.C.) ; Hellenism. The governments in Alexander's Empire; the loss of the Punjab in India by the incursions of the Parthians; the struggle for the balance of power between various kingdoms, leagues, and cities; the conquest of the Greek cities in Italy by Rome; the war between Pyrrhus and the Roman Republic, 280-275 B.C.; the Romans in Sicily; effect of the Punic wars on Alexander's Empire. The incursion of the Gauls, 278 B.C. The kingdom of Syria; its wealth and importance; Antioch; the dynasty of Seleucus. The Age of the Ptolemies -in Egypt; their administration and conquests. Commerce and industry in the Hellenistic world; the wealth of the cities; the mass of the people. The centers of Hellenism. Athens and philosophy; the Academy; Epicurus (337-270) and Zeno (308-260) ; Epicureans and Stoics. Rhodes and Pergamum; art; Greek sculpture from Pheidias, through Praxiteles and Lysippus, to the Colossus of Rhodes; the art of Pergamum; Rhodes and oratory; painting. Science and Alexandria; the library of Alexandria; the Museum; geom- etry and trigonometry ; Euclid ; Hipparchus ; astronomy ; geography ; Era- tosthenes (276-196); mechanics; Archimedes, 287-212; Hero. Literature in the 3rd century B.C.; grammar; literary criticism; the new comedy; Menander (342-290) ; the new poetry; Theocritus (295-240); the new history; Timaeus (352-256) and Theopompus (378-305) ; the prose romance. Attempts at federal government in Hellas; the Achaean League, 280- 221 B.C. The Greeks in Sicily; the struggle with the Carthaginians; Agathocles (361-289); Pyrrhus in Sicily, 278-276 B.C.; the Romans in Sicily; the 14 History 1a first Punic war, 263-241; the capture of Syracuse by the Eomans under Marcellus, 212 B.C. After the Punic wars, the Eoman EepuDlic turns east to the conquest of Alexander's Empire. LECTUEE 13 EoME AND Italy Importance of Eome in the history of Europe; its situation. The geography and early history of Italy; the Neolithic Age in Italy and Sicily; the terra -mare dwellings of north Italy; traces of different peoples in Italy; the Celtic settlements in north Italy; the Etruscans; the Sikels. The Etruscans and their civilization. The Greeks in Italy and Sicily; the Greek cities of south Italy; Sybaris; Croton; Tarentum; the Greek cities of Sicily; their wars with the Tyr- rhenian pirates or Etruscans; the battle of Cumae, 474, won by Hiero of Syracuse over the Carthaginians and Etruscans. The grain trade of central Italy; supplies from northern Italy and from Sicily; the introduction of the vine and olive; Sicily supplies the Eoman market; the worship of Ceres. The fabulous character of the early history of Eome; the theories of Pais; the influence of the Sicilian Greek historians; early Eoman history invented by Greeks; parallels between Eome and Syracuse. Debt of Eome to Greek civilization; the story of the Twelve Tables; the Etruscan period of Eoman history; struggle with the Etruscan cities; Eome Greek rather than Etruscan; its religion, trade, institutions, and legends. Importance of the legendary early history of Eome; significance of legendary history; the tales of the kings and of the struggles between the patricians and plebeians; Niebuhr's theory of early ballads. Beginning of authentic Eoman history with the destruction of Eome by the Gauls, 390 B.C.; acknowledged destruction of all records; allusions to Eome in the Sicilian Greek historians. Development of Eome in Italy from 390 to the first Punic war, 264 B.C. While Philip of Macedon was becoming champion of Hellas, 356-336; and Alexander was founding the Greek empire in the eastern Mediterranean, 336-323, Eome was becoming the controlling power in central Italy; first Samnite war and the Latin war, 343-338; the second and third Samnite wars, 326-290. Extension of Eoman power north to the Eubicon, 266 B.C. Eoman conquest of Campania and its effect on Eoman civilization. 15 History 1a Kome and the Greek cities of southern Italy; the wars with Pyrrhus, 280-275. Change in the economic situation of Rome as a result of these conquests; development of wealth and civilization. The government of Rome: legends; contrast between the development of the Roman city state and the Greek city states; the Roman army; the legion and the phalanx; Roman oflScials; the official aristocracy; consuls, praetors, and ediles; tribunes of the people; the dictatorship a proof of Roman political efficiency; the Roman Senate; legends of the Roman city democracy. The Roman State; the Roman dominion. The religion of Rome; its civic character; its imported elements. The development of law at Rome. The conditions of Rome and the history of its extension in Italy devel- oped political, legal, and military efficiency and patriotism; when Rome engaged in the Punic wars, 264 B.C., and began to extend her power to Sicily, the struggle began for the control of the western Mediterranean, at the time when the Greek control of the eastern Mediterranean was already established and had ceased to expand to the west. LECTURE 14 The Punic Wars The struggle for the control of the western Mediterranean; the three Punic wars; the war for Sicily, 264-241, completed by the capture of Syracuse, 212 B.C.; the war for Spain, 218-201 B.C.; the war for Africa, 149-146 B.C. Rome and Italy; nature of Roman supremacy in Italy; the municipia of the Italian cities; the agriculture of Italy; the importation of grain into Rome; the cattle ranches; silver first coined at Rome, 268 B.C.; the official aristocracy of Rome; the Roman army and the Italian people; the Roman colonies in Italy; the Via Appia. The empire of Carthage; its mercantile aristocracy; the nature of its trade; its army of mercenaries or professional soldiers; its sea power; its dominion in Spain; the family of Barca. The first Punic war, 264-241; Rome becomes a sea power; the conquest of Sicily. The extension of Roman power between the first and second Punic wars; the conquest of Sardinia and Corsica, 238 B.C.; the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, 225-222; the Via Flaminia; control of the Adriatic, 229. Changes in Rome; the development of wealth by commerce and the 16 History 1a exploitation of conquered countries; the trade of Sicily; the interests of Eome and Italy. Problems of government presented by the extension of Eoman power; the Eoman officials; the Eoman provinces; the Senate; the army tends to become professional, but remains Italian. Carthage between the first and second Punic wars; the revolt of the mercenaries; Flaubert's Salammbo ; the development of Carthaginian Spain by the Barcas; the early history of Spain. The second Punic War, 218-201 B.C.; Hannibal, 246-183; Hannibal in Italy, 216-202; the battle of Cannae, 216; the campaigns of Fabius; the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, 212 ; the war in Spain ; the battle of the Metaurus, 208 ; Scipio, 234-183 ; the battle of Zama, 202 B.C. Changes brought about by the defeat of Carthage; extension of Eoman trade to east and west; increase of wealth; growth of trade; Italy culti- vated by slaves; the trading center at Delos; the profits of war and admin- istration; the aristocracy of wealth; the equites. Development to the north and west; the Via Emilia; colonies founded; Bologna, Modena, Parma, Lucca, Aquileia; the settlement of the valley of the Po; the coast road to Spain; the Greek colony of Massilia; the conquest and settlement of Spain; Viriathus, 147-140 B.C. The anti-imperialist party in Eome; Scipio Africanus; Emilius Paulus, 229-160; Metellus. The policy and character of Cato the Elder, 232-147. Extension of Eoman power to the east; the condition and attitude of the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean; the three Macedonian wars, 215-205; 200-193; 171-167; the war with Syria; defeat of Antiochus by Scipio Asiaticus at Magnesia, 190 B.C.; the policy of protectorates. The problems of imperialism; the increase of slave labor in Italy; the growth of Eome; the extension of trade; the demand for profits and mar- kets; the difficulties of administration; the demand for provinces and direct government; Scipio Emilianus, 185-129 B.C.; the historian Polybius, 210- 128. Greek influence in Eome and on Eoman education; Asiatic ideas and religions in Eome. Destruction of Corinth and creation of the province of Macedonia, 146 B.C.; the bequest of Pergamum and creation of the province of Asia, 133; the ruin of Ehodes; protectorate over Syria; the wars of the Maccabees, 167-137 B.C. The third Punic war, 149-146 B.C. ; capture and destruction of Carthage, 146; the province of Africa. Contrast between Eoman policy in the western and the eastern Mediter- ranean; effect of the growth of empire on Italy and on Eome. 17 History 1a LECTUEE 15 The Extension of the Eoman Eepublic The process of economic, social, and administrative adjustment; revo- lutions are desperate efforts at such adjustment. The administrative machine; politics; the difficulties of imperialism. Absence of knowledge of details of revolutions and attempted revolu- tions before Eoman history. The problems of imperialism became more acute after the destruction of Corinth and Carthage in 146 B.C. The effect on Italy of the extension of the Eoman Eepublic ; the economic difficulty; Ferrero's description; slave labor in the rural districts; the problem of the public land; the Italian city communities, and their share in the new empire; the growth of Eome. The effect on the government of the Eepublic; the plutocracy; the bureaucracy; the Senate; the assemblies of the Eoman people; absence of any attempt at representative government. The effect on the people of the Mediterranean countries; comparison of Eoman imperialism with Egyptian, Persian, and Alexandrian imperialism; its effect on political, administrative, and material prosperity and efficiency. The solutions proposed; re-establishment of small landholders; return to the simple life; attack on race suicide; Scipio; Gracchus; Metellus. The attempts of the Gracchi to meet the situation; their political and economic reforms; Tiberius Gracchus, 131; Caius Gracchus, 121. Dangers threatening the new empire; the campaigns in Spain; in north Africa against Jugurtha; against the German tribes; against Mithridates of Pontus. The need of a new army for imperial service; the first professional Eoman general, Marius; his victories over the Cimbri and Teutones, 102; Ms military reforms; the cohorts and the legion; the professional soldiers; the professional soldier in politics; Marius and the democratic party in Eome; nature of the democratic party; the three elements in Eoman poli- tics: aristocracy of office, wealth, and populace. Eome and Italy; the Social War, 91-88; extension of Eoman citizenship. Sulla, the professional general of the aristocracy; civil war in Eome, 88 B.C.; Sulla's campaigns against Mithridates; Sulla permanent dictator, 81-78; restoration of order; the Senate. The Italian nation takes the place of the Eoman city state. The slave wars in Sicily and Italy; Spartacus. Eapid economic revolution in Italy, 80-40 B.C.; vineyards and olive orchards take the place of cattle ranches; development of agriculture; Varro; change in the character and position of slaves; extension of Greek 18 History 1a and Asiatic ideas in intellectual, agricultural, industrial, and commercial life; politics abandoned to the inhabitants of Kome. The new imperialism; Sertorius in Spain; Pompey; Lucullus and his campaigns against Mithridates; Crassus; Julius Caesar. Pompey and the democratic party; Pompey and Crassus consuls, 70 B.C. Marcus Tullius Cicero; his speeches against Verres; oratory at Eome; the civilian in politics as against the professional soldier; the Eoman lawyers; Hortensius. Introduction of the use of mortgages, and its effects; the wealth of Crassus. The recall of Lucullus, 67 B.C.; importance of his work in the East; Ferrero's comparison between him and Napoleon. Pompey 's campaign against the pirates of the Mediterranean and in the East, 67-62 B.C.; the Lex Manilla. The conspiracy of Catiline, 63 B.C.; Cicero. The return of Pompey and the formation of the first ''triumvirate" of Pompey, Julius Caesar and Crassus, B.C. 59. Caesar the leader of the new democracy; the opening of a new era, inspired by a man who understood the situation. LECTUEE 16 Julius Caesar The situation in the Mediterranean world in 59 B.C.; contrast between the eastern and western Mediterranean; effect of the campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey; the provinces of Asia and Syria; the situation in Egypt. The situation at Eome and in Italy; the so-called ''triumvirate" of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar; the new imperialism; the new democracy; the breakdown of the Senate; Cicero. The economic situation; difficulty of adjustment; the "age of debts"; the feeding of Eome; the Eoman populace; wealth and slaves. Pompey and his military force. Crassus and his wealth. Cicero and his reputation. Caius Julius Caesar, born 102 or 100 B.C.; his family; nephew of Marius; his education; his personality; his study and absorption of Greek ideas; his eloquence; his entrance into public life; quaestor 68; edile 66; praetor 62; Pontifex Maximus; consul 59; his knowledge of the east, the west, and Italy; his organization of the Eoman democracy; his under- standing of the situation; Caesar an opportunist; the views of Mommsen, Froude, and Ferrero; Caesar and his contemporaries. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58-49 B.C.; his expulsion of the Germans; 19 History 1a the Gallic civilization; the expeditions to Britain, 55, 54, B.C.; organization of Gaul as a Eoraan province; importance of the conquest of Gaul. The situation in Eome and in the East during Caesar's campaigns in Gaul; the Parthians; expedition and death of Crassus, 53 B.C.; defeat of Carrhae. The duel between Caesar and Pompey:; Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 49 B.C.; Caesar master of Rome and Italy; the campaign in Spain; the army of Caesar; Caesar dictator; the battle of Pharsalia, 9 August 48 B.C.; the death of Pompey. Caesar in Egypt; Cleopatra; Caesar in Asia Minor; final overthrow of the senatorial party in Africa; suicide of Cato the Younger. Economic conditions in Italy; the export of oil; the rise of industry; the collegia of the artisans; the bourgeoisie of Italy; spread of education; the financial situation; credit; Caesar's measures on debts. Caesar at Rome, 46-44 B.C.; his administrative measures; impossibility of restoring the old system; interference with interest charges; the Julian calendar. Caesar " imperator ' ^ ; his rank as a destroyer or a constructor; views of modern historians; admission of new citizens; admission of Gauls to the Senate ; his moderation after the civil war ; his imperialism ; the Persian war policy. Assassination of Julius Caesar, 15 March 44; his place in history. LECTURE 17 The Roman Empire: Augustus The critical period, which followed the assassination of Julius Caesar; the economic problem; need of peace and good administration; the polit- ical problem; need for a united and consolidated Mediterranean civiliza- tion; the contrast between the Greek eastern Mediterran.ean and the Latin western Mediterranean; difficulty of consolidating them under one gov- ernment. Need of adjustment of Roman ideas and experience of administration for the management of an empire; Roman administrators, financiers, law- yers, engineers; the imperialism of Julius Caesar; his plans for the conqviest of Persia. Impossibility of restoring the Roman aristocracy or the Roman democ- racy; their unsuitability for imperial administration. The ideas and policy of Brutus and Cassius; the position and ideas of Cicero; the army of Caesar; the populace of Rome; Italy; the provinces. The triumvirate of Antony (83-30 B.C.), Octavius (63 B.C., 14 A.D), and Lepidus (85-13 B.C.) formed in 43 B.C.; the reign of terror; the murder of Cicero; defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, 42 B.C. 20 History 1a The policy of Antony in the East; the idea of the Persian war; the policy of Cleopatra, 69-30 B.C.; the scheme of an Egyptian empire; possi- bility of its success; the importance of Egypt in the Mediterranean world; the views of Ferrero. The policy of Octavius in Italy; the war with Sextus Pompeius; the soldiers of Caesar; militarism; the results of the civil war; the end of the Koman aristocracy and democracy; Agrippa and Macenas. The war between east and west; the battle of Actium, 31 B.C.; the death of Antony; Egypt made a Roman possession; Eome established as the capital of the Mediterranean world. The principate of Augustus, 27 B.C.-14 A.D. - The reconstruction of the Eoman state, 27 B.C.; Octavius given the title of Augustus; beginning of an age of peace; the use of the treasure of Egypt in restoring economic efficiency in Italy; maintenance or restor- ation of historic republican forms; the Senate; the assemblies of the people; the officials; senatorial and imperial provinces; exceptional posi- tion of Egypt; reorganization of Eome; Augustus consul, proconsul, and imperator; the need of continuous command for the army; continuity in administration; the new bureaucracy; the Eoman Eepublic of Augustus; Augustus, perpetual president and commander-in-chief. Changes during the principate of Augustus; attempt to restore the efficiency of the Senate; need of continuity in executive control and in foreign policy; the dual principate of Augustus and Agrippa, B.C. 19-12. The imperialism of Augustus; withdrawal from the idea of indefinite extension; the protectorate over Armenia and treaty with Parthia; aban- donment of the policy of Julius Caesar and Antony; the importance of Herod the Great; the expedition to Arabia; the policy pursued in Egypt and north Africa; Spain and the conquest of the northwest; Gaul and the making of roads; the attempt to find a strategic frontier; the line of the Danube; the provinces of Moesia and Pannonia; the campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius against the Germans; the Germans and the Eoman empire; the defeat of Varus by Arminius or Hermann, A.D. 9. The attempt of Augustus to reform Eoman society and to restore religion. The personality of Augustus; contrast with Julius Caesar; Livia; his family misfortunes; the misconduct of Julia; the deaths of Marcellus, Lucius Caesar, Caius Caesar, and Drusus; Augustus and his stepson, Tibe- rius Claudius. Effect on the world of the forty years' principate of Augustus, 27 B.C.- 14 A.D.; the Eoman empire and its beginning; Italy; Gaul and Spain; the East; contrast with Alexander's Empire. Latin literature; the early authors; Ennius; Plautus. The literature of the revolutionary period; the writings of Cicero; Sallust; the poets Lucretius and Catullus. 21 History 1a The literature of the Augustan Age; the creation of the legend of Eome; Livy; Virgil's Aeneid. The poets of Eome; Virgil; the Eclogues and the Georgics; Horace; the Satires, Odes, and Epistles; the Carmen Saeculare; Propertius, Tibullus, Ovid. Science at Eome: philosophy; law; architecture, the Pantheon; Vitru- \ius; art. Death of Herod the Great (B.C. 4) ; petition of the Jews that Palestine should be made a Eoman province; the division of the kingdom of Herod between Archaelaus, Philip, and Herod Antipas; Judaea a Eoman province 6 A.D. Birth of Jesus Christ, B.C. 4. LECTUEE 18 The Eoman Empire: Tiberius to Nero Effect of the forty years' principate of Augustus on the Eoman world; the material results of peace and continuity of administration. The spirit of the principate; divus Julius and divus Augustus; the Greek and the Latin attitude toward government. The administration of the empire; the maxims of Augustus; continuance of the theory of Eome and the Eepublic; actual position of the Senate; demand for a trained bureaucracy of officials; the household of the prin- ceps; jealousy of the Senate; the needs of the army; the pretorian cohorts. The question of the frontiers; the policy of Tiberius in Germany; the frontier of the Ehine and Danube; the organization of Gaul; the invasion of Britain and formation of a new province there by Claudius. The history of the Julian Caesars; the influence of Tacitus and Sue- tonius ; the reaction against considering the lives of the emperors the history of the empire; Mommsen. The principate of Tiberius, 14-37 A.D.; his training for empire, 41 B.C.-14; different views of his personality; reaction against Tacitus and Suetonius; the adherence of Tiberius to the policy of Augustus; Tiberius and the Senate; Tiberius and the army; Tiberius and the provinces; Tibe- rius and Eome; the story of Sejanus, 31 A.D. ; the law and interpretation of majestas. The events of the principate of Tiberius; the German wars, 14-17 A.D.; the death of Arminius, 21 A.D. ; death of Germanicus (B.C. 15-A.D. 19); ''princes are mortal, the Eepublic is eternal"; the campaigns on the frontiers; Syria; Africa; Tiberius at Capri, 26-37 A.D, Events in Judaea; the dynasty of Herod the Great; extent of self- government left to the Jews in Judaea; the Jewish communities in the Mediterranean cities; Pontius Pilatus procurator of Judaea, A.D. 27-37; 22 History 1a crucifixion of Jesus Christ, A,D. 29; the Christian community at Jerusalem. The principate of Caligula, 37-41 A.D.; the son of Germanicus, born 12 A.D. ; the influence of Herod Agrippa; assumption of oriental despotism; assassination of Caligula, 41 A.D, The principate of Claudius, 41-54 A.D.; the brother of Germanicus, born 10 B.C.; made princeps by the praetorian guards; his character and training; his good administration and great engineering works; his atti- tude towards the provinces; founder of Cologne; the situation in Judaea; the officials of Claudius; his household; the freedmen; absence of a bureau- cratic class; the conquest of south Britain, 43-51 A.D.; the death of Mes- salina, 48 A.D.; the death of Claudius, 54 A.D. The crisis in the history of Christianity during the principate of Clau- dius; Saint Paul at Antioch, 44 A.D.; the missionary journeys of Saint Paul; the question of Jews and Gentiles; importance of the settlement of this question; the further missions of Saint Paul; the episode with Gallio at Corinth, 55 A.D.; the beginning of the statement of Christian dogma in the Epistles of Saint Paul. The principate of Nero, 54-68 A.D.; the son of Agrippina the Younger, daughter of Germanicus, born 37 A.D. ; his education and early training; Seneca and Burrus, 54-62 ; the good admanistration of the provinces ; the campaigns of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain, 59-61 A.D.; the revolt of Boadicea. The personality of Nero; Tacitus and Suetonius; modern attempts at defense; his Greek attitude and devotion to Greek literature; the disease of empire; Nero and Eome; comparison with Caligula; the great fire at Eome, 64 A.D.; the rebuilding of Eome; the persecution of the Christians at Eome; the deaths of Seneca and Lucan, 65 A.D., and of Petronius, 66 A.D. ; their place in literature; Nero in Greece, 66-67 A.D,; revolt of the armies in Gaul and Spain; the praetorian guards; the death of Nero, 68 A.D,; popularity of Nero in Eome, The spread of Christianity during the principate of Nero; Saint Paul at Ephesus, 57-60 A,D.; the Epistles of S.aint Paul and their importance; St. Paul at Jerusalem; his appeal to Caesar; the Christians at Eome; the question of Pomponia Graecina; tradition of the execution of St. Paul and St, Peter at Eome, 64 B,C.; influence of Christian tradition. LECTUEE 19 The Eoman Empire: The Flavian Caesars After a century of peace and prosperity for the Mediterranean world, during which a frontier policy was developed, a central administration with varied relations to the provinces and subject kingdoms of the empire was established, and a working theory of government was evolved, followed, 23 History 1a after the death of Nero, a sudden awakening to the fact that the whole structure depended upon the army of the principate. The Eoman peace; opportunity afforded by it for the development of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and for the diffusion of Christianity. The army of the principate; the legions: their permanent, camps; number varied from twenty-five to twenty-nine; their frontier service; the building of roads, bridges, and cities; the colonies; the veterans; the pro- fessionalism of a standing army; contrast between the Eoman army of the principate and the armies of the Eoman Eepublic and of Alexander and his successors in the Greek world; army traditions; organization, equipment, and discipline; recruiting; ofl&cers and soldiers; the praetorian guards; the auxiliary cohorts; their number and organization; army officers as admin- istrators. The year of the four emperors, 68-69 A.D.; the revolt of Vindex in Gaul; the death of Nero, 9 June 68 A.D.; Galba and the legions of Spain; the praetorian guards declare for Galba; the Senate recognizes Galba as princeps; Otho declared emperor by the praetorian guards, death of Galba, and recognition of Otho by the Senate, 15 January 69 A.D.; Vitellius de- clared emperor by the legions on the German frontier; defeat and death of Otho, 15, 17 April 69; Vespasian declared emperor by the legions in Syria; defeat of the Vitellians at Bedriacum; capture of Eome, burning of the Capitol, death of Vitellius, and recognition of Vespasian as princeps, 21 December 69. Consternation of the peaceful Mediterranean world at these events; its effect on the Christians, when added to their persecution at Eome by Nero; apocalyptic literature; the Apocalypse or Booh of Revelations ; the sybilline books. The principate of Vespasian, 69-79 A.D.; his origin and character; impossibility of maintaining the fiction of the Eoman Eepublic except in name; the name of Eome; the rebuilding of the Capitol; the Colosseum; Vespasian and the army; army reform; Vespasian and provincial adminis- tration; Vespasian and the treasury; Vespasian and the Senate; Vespasian and the hereditary principle; his sons, Titus and Domitian; Vespasian and Eoman society. The Jewish war; the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A.D.; Judea a Eoman province; Flavius Josephus (35-95 A.D.). The revolt of Civilis; the Batavian cohorts; significance of this move- ment of auxiliary troops; the empire of the Gauls; importance of Cologne and of Treves or Trier; suppression of the revolt of Civilis; the German frontiers. Vespasian inaugurates another century of the Eoman peace; his work and position compared with that of Augustus. The principate of Titus, June 79-September 81 A.D.; the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, August 23, 24, 79 A.D. 24 History 1a The principate of Domitian, 81-96 A.D.; comparison with the principate of Tiberius; his contempt for the Senate; his nomination of all officials; his autocracy; his attitude towards the army; murder of Domitian, 96 A.D. ; the attitude of Tacitus and Suetonius towards the Flavian Caesars, and the effect of their writings; revival of majestas. Domitian and the extension and defense of the empire; the campaigns of Agricola in Britain, 79-85 A.D.; Hibernia and Caledonia; the battle of the Mons Graupius; the importance of Eboracum (York), Glevum (Glou- cester), and Castra (Chester) ; Domitian and the frontier line between the Rhine and the Danube; the Limes Germanicus; its importance for south Germany; the line of the Danube; Domitian and the Dacians; importance of Vindobona (Vienna). The buildings of the Flavian Caesars; the Colosseum; the arch of Titus; the Thermae or Baths; art under the Flavians. Literature under the Flavian Caesars; Vespasian's foundation of pro- fessorships; Quintilian (35-105); the poets Martial (40-102), Statins (45-96), and Silius Italicus (25-101); the elder Pliny (23-79 A.D.) ; his Natural History. Christianity under the Flavians; recovery from the consternation caused by the persecution of Nero; the two branches of Christianity, the Jewish and the Gentile; the double communities in the eastern Mediterranean; Syrian and Greek Christianity; Christianity at Antioch and Ephesus; late appearance of Christianity in Egypt; the teachings of Philo. Christianity at Rome under the Flavians; the interest of the Flavians in Judaism; Berenice and Josephus; the Jews in Rome; Christianity in the Flavian family; Clemens and Domitilla; the first catacombs at Rome. The composition of the Gospels; the Hebrew gospel; the Ebionites; the Gospel of St. Mark, 76 A.D. ; of St. Matthew, 85 A.D. ; of St. Luke, 94 A.D. ; their influence upon the history of civilization. LECTURE 20 The Roman Empire: Trajan and Hadrian General characteristics of the period of the five good emperors, 96-180 A.D. ; the peace of Rome; prosperity of the Mediterranean world; disap- pearance of nationalism and particularism in the Roman Empire; cosmo- politanism; spread of education; the roads and the post; imperial unity contrasted with diversity of population. The problems of military defense of the frontiers and of good admin- istration in Rome, Italy, and the provinces. Theory of government; respect paid to the Senate with diminution of its power; revival of the ideals of the Roman Republic; "princeps ac im- 25 History 1a perator" in the second century as compared with the first century; increase in the real authority of the emperors. The attitude taken by Tacitus; correction of his views by the collection and interpretation of inscriptions; sources of knowledge of the Eoman empire in the second century. The principate of Nerva, 96-98 A.D. The principate of Trajan, 98-117 A.D,; his character and administration. Extension of the empire under Trajan; his campaigns on the Danube; the province of Dacia; the column of Trajan; his campaigns in Asia; the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Arabia; foundation of Palmyra; the Parthians. The principate of Hadrian, 117-138 A.D.; his personality; his cosmo- politanism; his imperialism; his progresses through the empire; his Greek ideals; his buildings at Athens and at Eome; his villa at Tibur (Tivoli) ; the story of Antinous. The frontier policy of Trajan and Hadrian; reform of the army; the new equipment and tactics; the frontier posts; the Wall of Hadrian in Britain; the frontier line in Germany; the annexation and settlement of Eoman Germany; the colonies of Augsburg and Eegensburg (Eatisbon) ; the line of the Danube; Dacia; the empire in Asia; Cappodocia; Arrian; the line of the Euphrates; Arabia; North Africa; Timgad and Lambessa; the military colonies. The administrative policy of Trajan and Hadrian; the senatorial order; the knights; development of knights as imperial secretaries and central officials, taking the place of the imperial freedmen of Caesar's household; creation of a civil service apart from the military service by Hadrian; the imperial fisc or treasury; the imperial post; Italy and Eome assimilated with the provinces; the praetorian prefect at Eome. Development of an imperial judiciary; the system of Eoman law; the praetor's edict reduced to a definite form and given the force of a definite law (131 A.D.) ; the responsa prudentum or replies of the jurists; the tendencies of the Eoman law; growth of the legal profession; the Insti- tutes of Gains, 161 A.D. Legislation in the second century; the imperial edicts; the senatus consulta. Executive government; the nomination of officials; end of even nominal election; the development of the imperial council. Local government in the Eoman empire; the civitates; the municipia; vigor of local government; election of local officials; local questions; the government of Pliny the Younger in Bithynia; the prevalence of city life; the problems of rural life and of agriculture; the coloni; farm adminis- tration; the imperial domain; tendency towards serfdom. The working classes in the Eoman empire; the collegia or guilds; atti- 26 History 1a tude and legislation of Trajan, and of Hadrian; the slaves and the f reed- men. Eome, Italy, and the empire; the population of Eome about 1,600,000, of which 900,000 were slaves; the freedmen; the foreigners; social life and customs; business; the feeding and amusement of the city populations; the Italian cities; the Italian countryside; the country life of Hadrian and Pliny. Education in the second century; schools and universities; imperial aid. Literature under Trajan and Hadrian; the Satires of Juvenal, 55-135; Tacitus, the historian, 54-120; Pliny the Younger, 61-115; Plutarch, 46- 121; Arrian; Suetonius, 75-160; Hadrian and the Athenaeum. Art under Trajan and Hadrian; the column of Trajan; the Temple of Zeus at Athens; the tomb of Hadrian at Eome. Christianity under Trajan and Hadrian; the official attitude of the imperial administration; the Christians considered as ''enemies of the human race"; sacrilege. St. Clement at Eome, 30-100 A.D.; his Epistle; organization of the Christian Church; union of the disciples of St. Peter and St. Paul; pres- byters; beginning of the episcopate; the Acts of the Apostles by St. Luke; St. John at Ephesus; the Syrian sects; Antioch; martyrdom of St. Ignatius, 107 A.D.; the Christians of Alexandria; Greek philosophy and Christianity; the Fourth Gospel (126 A.D.). Distinction made between Jews and Christians; race and religion; the Jewish revolts of 107-118, 131-138; final separation of church and syna- gogue. Eeligious toleration in the Eoman empire of the second century; dis- tinction between w^orship and belief, between ritual and creed, between local gods and universal truths; the gods of the home and family; the worship of the Emperor; the State as a unifying force. LECTUEE 21 The Eoman Empire: The Antonines Peace and prosperity of the Eoman world under the Antonines; view set forth by Gibbon that it was the happiest time in the history of civil- ization; the condition of the masses of the people; development of humani- tarian principles; charity to orphans and the poor; kinder treatment of slaves; humane direction of the law with regard to them. Contradiction presented by the passion for gladiatorial games; origin in funeral ceremonies; their extension and popularity; the schools of gladi- ators; attitude of Marcus Aurelius. Eesemblances and contrasts between the Age of Antonines and modern times; widespread extension of business; ease and popularity of travel; 27 History 1a restlessness and curiosity; education; Eome, Athens, and the provincial schools of learning and universities; the modern tone of Lucian, 125-185 A.D. ; ignorance of economic laws; lack of general military training for defense; exclusion of the mass of the people from political or social re- sponsibility. Philosophy and religion; universal interest among the educated classes; the Epicureans; the Cynics; the Stoics; Epictetus; Arrian; Marcus Aure- lius; expulsion of philosophers from Eome by Domitian; their return and dominance in the second century ; the popular force of religion ; paganism ; the worship of Isis, of the Mighty Mother, of Mithra; extension of Mith- raism through the army; Judaism and monotheism; the popular aversion to Christianity; its appeal to the poor and unhappy; the promise of eternal life. The principate of Antoninus Pius, 138-161 A.D. ; his personality; his administration, economy, and interest in law and education; the mainte- nance of the frontiers; inclusion of southern Scotland in the Eoman Empire; the wall of Antoninus, 142 A.D. The principate of Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 A.D.; the Emperor phil- osof>her; the Thoughts or Meditations of Marcus Aurelius; his fidelity to the ritual of the old Eoman religion, while a philosopher; Faustina. The events of the principate of Marcus Aurelius; the two Augusti, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus; further development of central govern- ment; the nomination of senators; the council of the empire; the under- secretaries; the grading of the civil service; the curatores reipublicae; the development of the law in the direction of humanity. The Parthian War, 162-166 A.D. ; its success. The Marcomannic War, 166-179 A.D.; the pressure of the German tribes on the Danube frontier; the invasion of Italy; the projected provinces of Sarmatia and Marcomannia; the campaigns of Marcus Aurelius; the death of Lucius Verus, 169 A.D.; the settlement of German barbarians within the limits of the Empire; the military colonate; death of Marcus Aurelius at Vienna, 180 A.D. The great plague or pestilence of 166 A.D,; its economic and moral effect; the profession of medicine in the second century; Greek physicians and the influence and tradition of Hippocrates; Egyptian and Syrian physicians; the temples and worship of Aesculapius; Epidaurus; the life and work of Galen, 131-200 A.D. Literature under the Antonines; Lucian of Samosata, 125-185 A.D. ; his modern touch; the geographer and astronomer Ptolemy; Appian the his- torian; Arrian; Apuleius and the Golden Ass; Aulus Gellius. Philosophy under the Antonines; earnestness of the philosophers; aban- donment of physical and metaphysical speculation; influence of the Stoic philosophy; Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; their search for a moral phil- osophy. 28 History 1a Eeligion under the Antonines; demand for a less arid reply to the great questions than that of the philosophers; scepticism; superstition; the long- ing for an emotional religion; the idea of immortality. Dispersion of the Jews after their last outbreak under Hadrian; perse- cution; their refuge in Parthia; their communities in the cities of the Antonines; their devotion to the Law; composition of the Talmud; their effect on the religious ideas of the second century through Christianity; the Jewish race and the Jewish religion. Christianity under the Antonines; the beginnings of a Christian the- ology; the age of Apologies; Justin Martyr; Celsus; need of a theology; the uncertainty of Christian doctrine; the Ebionites; the Gnostics; the Marcionites; the apocryphal gospels and other Christian literature of the second century; the Pastor of Hermas; the evolution of Catholic doctrine at Eome; recognition of the four canonical gospels, about 180 A.D. The popular attitude towards Christianity; accusations of immorality, treason, and atheism; the excitement of Montanism; the Christian desire for martyrdom; the martyrdom of Polycarp, 155 A.D.; Justin, 168; and of the martyrs of Lyons, 177. Signs of decay in the Age of the Antonines; depopulation following the great plague of 166 A.D.; settlement of barbarians within the Empire; economic breakdown and the contrasts of wealth and poverty; disappear- ance of precious metals; the discovery of the monsoon (A.D. 50) and the drain to India; bad financial system; need for labor and lack of slaves for the slave market; the reduction of the rural w^orkers to serfdom; large accumulations of capital and landed estates; lack of military efficiency behind the armies of the frontiers; absorption of administrative duty by the central government; disappearance of political life and political respons- ibility among the people of the Eoman Empire. Social and spiritual unrest at the close of the second century A.D.; Lucian's writings; Pater's Marius the Epicurean. LECTUEE 22 The Eoman Empire in the Third Century: Commodus to Diocletian Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire; the circumstances under which it was written; Gibbon's point of view; Gibbon's sources; changes in point of view since the time of Gibbon; greater attention paid to the economic decline and social changes, due to the great pestilences of 166-182 A.D., and 250-258 A.D., and to the competition of religions in the 3rd century; the new sources of knowledge. The principate of Commodus, 180-193 A.D. The age of the ''barrack" emperors, 193-284 A.D.; the power of the 29 History 1a army; desperate defense of the frontiers; increase of centralization in administration; breakdown of local administration. Septimius Severus, 193-211 A.D. ; importance of Ms reign; army reform; reorganization of the government; frontier policy. Caracalla, 211-217 A.D. ; the decree of 212 A.D., extending Eoman citizenship; its administrative and financial significance; its legal signifi- cance; the tendency of Eoman law; equality before the law; Papinian. Alexander Severus, 222-235 A.D.; the Syrian influence in government; fall of the Parthian Empire and establishment of the Persian kingdom of the Sassanids, 227 A.D.; Ulpian. The breakdown of the imperial frontiers in the middle of the 3rd cen- tury; invasions of the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Persians; the rise of Palmyra; efforts of the ''barrack emperors"; Decius, 249-257; the pesti- lence of 250-258. Restoration of the Roman empire and the Roman peace; the Emperor Aurelian, 270-275 A.D. ; abandonment of Dacia; overthrow of Palmyra and its queen, Zenobia, 272; the triumph of Aurelian, 274; the new walls of Rome; establishment of military despotism. The reign of Diocletian, 284-305 A.D.; the reforms which preserved the Roman Empire for another century; Asiatic character of the new em- pire; the reorganization of the empire into prefectures, dioceses, and provinces; the military reforms; change in frontier policy and in the army; the new bureaucracy; the division of the empire; the abdication of Diocle- tian, 305 A.D. The competition of religions during the 3rd century ; the demand for a state religion and a common faith; the inadequacy of philosophy; the demand for a worship and a priesthood; the idea of immortality. The worship of Isis; its priesthood; its mythology; its nature worship; its attitude towards immortality; its relation to the old Egyptian worship; its popularity in Italy; Commodus. The worship of the Mighty Mother; its priesthood; its attitude towards immortality; its ceremonies; the tau.robolium; its Asiatic and emotional ceremonies; the Syrian emperors. The worship of Mithra; its Persian origin; the purity of its ideals; its popularity among the soldiers; its wide extension in the 3rd century; its ceremonies; its degrees and organization; its democratic character; the beauty of its symbolism; its recognition of other religions; its value as a state religion; its adoption by Aurelian; the Temple of the Sun at Rome; Diocletian and the worship of Mithra; its relation to Christianity; the recovery of Mithraism and its importance, through the work of Cumont. Christianity as a competing religion in the 3rd century; its appeal to the hope of personal immortality; growth of the churches; its unwarlike character; attitude of the emperors; the passion for martyrdom; the perse- 30 History 1a cutions under Decius and Diocletian ; the number of the martyrs ; the martyr- dom of St. Cyprian of Carthage, 256 A.D. The organization of the Christian Church in the 3rd century; its liturgy; its priesthood; its bishops; the strength of its community organization; the church councils in the provinces; Christianity an urban religion as opposed to Mithraism, a military religion; its organization stronger than that of its competitors; its recognition and employment of women in its organization. The development of Christian theology; exegetical literature takes the place of apologetics; its headquarters at Alexandria; St. Clement of Alex- andria, 150-215; Origen, 185-254; the Latin theologians; Tertullian, 160- 240; St. Cyprian, 200-256; the question of the lapsi. The revival of Greek philosophy; the Neo-platonism of Alexandria; Plotinus, 205-270 A.D.; Porphyry, 233-304 A.D. The importance of the reforms of Diocletian; his work supplemented by that of Constantino and by the recognition of Christianity by Constan- tino; the Eoman Empire continued for another century. LECTUEE 23 The Eoman Empire in the Fourth Century: From Constantine to the Battle of Adrianople Effect of the reorganization under Diocletian upon the Eoman Empire; the stiffening of class organization; the development of great wealth and great estates and of desperate poverty; the decline of the middle class; the breakdown of municipal government; the curiales; growth of serfdom in the rural districts; the rising of the Bagaudae in Gaul and Spain. Economic conditions in the Mediterranean world; disappearance of specie; payments in kind; rise of prices; the edict of Diocletian fixing maximum prices; the weight of taxation; badness of the financial system. Depopulation of the Mediterranean world; the predominance of urban life; the great pestilences; famine; the earthquakes of 365 A.D.; decrease of marriages. Settlement of barbarians within the Eoman Empire; their attitude to- wards the Empire; their importance in the army. The state of the Empire under Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius and Constantius; the recovery of Britain by Constantius after the revolt of Carausius, 296 A.D.; the new capitals at Nicomedia, Milan, and Trier (Treves). The civil wars after the abdication .of Diocletian; Constantine acknowl- edged as Caesar, 306 A.D.; the battle of the Milvian Bridge, 312; the edict of Milan, 313; the empire reunited under Constantine, 324. The reign of the Emperor Constantine, 324-337 A.D.; his personality. 31 History 1a Development of the administrative reforms of Diocletian by Constan- tino ; the patricians; the ministers; the civil officials; the lawyers; the profession of law; further development of the field army; the domestics or household troops; the garrisons; the frontier troops; dukes and counts; the household of the Emperor; the legal position of the Emperor, The foundation of Constantinople; the new capital of the Empire, 324-330. The recognition of Christianity by the edict of Milan, 313 A.D. ; edict of toleration, 324; attitude of the population of the empire; paganism; local religions; philosophies; oriental religions; Christians perhaps one- tenth of the population. The value of organized Christianity to the government; the bishops; the clergy; their services; advantage over other religions. Heresies within the Christian church; Arianism; Arius, 280-336; the council of Nicaea, 325 A.D.; the action of Constantine; Bishop Hosius of Cordova, 256-357 A.D. ; the Nicene creed; the life and work of St. Atha- nasius; importance of the struggle betw^een the Arians and the Catholics; the progress of Christian theology; the early fathers; St. Basil, 331-379; St. Gregory of Nazianzus, 330-390; Trinitarianism. Civil wars between the sons of Constantine; 337-353; Constantius, sole emperor, 353-361; wars with the Sarmatians and the Persians. The support of the Arians by Constantius; the church councils of Eimini, Aries, and Milan ; Athanasius ' ' contra mundum ' ' ; the persecution of the Trinitarians; the Greek church and the Latin church; Athanasius sup- ported by Eome; the exile of Pope Liberius; the church in Gaul; St. Hilary of Poitiers, 310-366. The theology of Alexandria and Antioch; St. Athanasius, 295-373; the hermits and monks of Egypt; St. Antony; St. Pachomius, The reign of the Emperor Julian (b. 331); his education; declared Caesar, 355; his campaigns on the Khine frontier; battle of Strasburg, 357; his administration of Gaul; Paris; declared emperor, 360; his atti- tude with regard to religion; paganism; Christianity; his campaign aganst the Persians; death, 363. The reaction after the death of Julian; division of the Eastern and Western Empire between Valens and Valentinian, 364; the attacks of the barbarians; death of Valentinian, 375. The Goths; their settlement within the Empire; their conversion to Arianism; Ulphilas, 311-381; the Gothic incursion of 375; battle of Ad- rianople, and death of Valens, 378. The triumph of Trinitarianism within the Empire, 380; the Catholic Church; Pope Damasus at Eome, 366-384; the penetration of monasticism into the Latin w^orld; St. Martin of Tours, 316-396; St. Paulinus of Nola, 353-431. 32 History 1a Difference of the struggle between the Arians and the Trinitarians within the Empire in the 4th century and the struggle between the Catholic Empire and the Arian tribes and kingdoms in the 5th and 6th centuries. LECTUEE 24 Theodosius the Great to Attila: The Empires of the East and West The age of the barbarian invasions; contrast with previous invasions; the breakdov\n of the system of frontier defense; numbers of the invaders comparatively small; they settle with their own organization and laws, but accept the theory of the Eoman Empire and titles from the Emperor; their chiefs take the place of the Eoman patricians and great landholders; their acceptance by the mass of the population; the testimony of Orosius; their Arian Christianity. The shock caused by the battle of Adrianople, 378 ; Gratian, the suc- cessor of Valentinian, appoints Theodosius to the command of the East, 379 A.D. ; overthrow of Gratian by Maximus, 383 ; and of Maximus by Theodosius, 388; Theodosius the last real ruler of the whole Eoman Empire. Theodosius the Great (346-395 A.D.) ; absolutism of his government; his punishment of Antioch, 387, and of Thessalonica, 390; his Catholicism; end of Arianism in the Empire; Council of Constantinople, 381; destruction of paganism; closing of heathen temples; the Serapeum at Alexandria; the paganism of Eome; dispute on the matter of the altar of Victory in the Senate, 384-392; legislation against heresy, St. Ambrose (340-397 A.D.), the first great Christian churchman; Bishop of Milan, 374; his power in the State; his relations with Gratian and Theodosius; power of the Church and bishops increasing as the power of the Empire and its officials diminish; development of the organization of the Church; its liturgy; the hymns of St. Ambrose. Division of the Eoman Empire into the Empires of the East and the West, 395 A.D. Arcadius, Emperor of the East, 395-408; Theodosius II, 408-450; the influence of Pulcheria and Eudocia; the Theodosian Code. Honorius, Emperor of the West, 395-423; the capital moved from Milan to Eavenna, 404; Valentinian III, 425-455 A.D.; the adventures and per- sonality of Galla Placidia, 395-450. The church in the West; Milan and Eome; the church in Africa; the Donatists; the church in Spain; the Priscillianists ; execution of Priscillian, 385; the ardour of Spanish Catholics; martyrs and relics; the hymns of Prudentius, 348-410; the church in Gaul; St. Martin of Tours, 376-396; the church in Italy; St. Paulinus of Nola, 353-431. St. Jerome, 340-420 A.D. ; his services to Christianity and the Church; his erudition; St. Jerome in the desert, 377-382; at Eome, 382-386; Pope 33 History 1a Damasiis and the Catacombs; St. Jerome at Bethlehem, 386-420; St. Paula; the Vulgate. St. Augustine, 354-430; his baptism by St. Ambrose, 387; bishop of Hippo, 395; his services to Catholic theology. The church in the East; St. John Chrysostom, 344-407; at Antioch, 386-398; at Constantinople, 398-404; development of Christian preaching and Christian ethics. Eome at the beginning of the 5th century; its pagan and Christian society; Symmachus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Claudian, Macrobius; decline in its population and importance; abolition of gladiatorial games, 404. The capture of Eome by Alaric, King of the Visigoths, 410 ; effect on public opinion; St. Augustine writes TJie City of God, 413-423; Orosius. Establishment of barbarian states within the Empire; the Suevi, Alans, and Vandals in Spain; the Vandals in Africa, 428; the capture of Hippo, 430, and of Carthage, 439; the Burgundians in eastern Gaul; the Visi- gothic kingdom in southern Gaul and Spain; the kingdom of Theodoric, 419-451; the Arian faith of these peoples; their attitude to the Eomanized population; exaggeration of their numbers and excesses; Ausonius and Orosius; decline of the cities. Withdrawal of the legions from Britain, 406-409; the attacks of the Irish and Saxon pirates; the settlements of the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes in Britain, As the Empire becomes weaker the Church becomes stronger; the services of the bishops and the clergy to the people ; organization of charity ; the relations of church and state; the destruction of paganism; the perse- cution of heresy. The Nestorian heresy in the East; condemned by the Pope at Eome; the campaign against it conducted by St. Cyril of Alexandria, Patriarch, 412-444; the last efforts of Alexandrian philosophy; murder of Hypatia, 415. The Pelagian heresy in the West; Pelagius; the writings of St. Augus- tine; the school of Lerins; St. Germanus of Auxerre, 380-448. The spread of Christianity beyond the limits of the Empire; Armenia; India; the work of St. Patrick, 385-461 A.D.; his preaching in Ireland, 431-461 A.D. The Huns; contrast with the Christian Vandals and Goths; the Huns in Asia; the Tartar hordes; the controversy as to the Hunnish race; the Huns driven back from China, 3rd century B.C.; the Great Wall of China; the Huns and the Scythians ; the Huns in Europe in the 4th century A.D. Attila, King of the Huns, 433-453; his relations with the Empires of the East and the West; the Huns in Persia; Attila and Theodosius II; Attila in Gaul, 451; the consternation caused by his crossing the Ehine; St. Genevieve at Paris, 422-512; the Patrician Aetius and Theodoric 34 History 1a king of the Visigoths; the battle of Chalons, 451; exaggeration of its importance; Attila in Italy, 452; the foundation of Venice; Attila and Pope Leo the Great; death of Attila, 453. Continued belief in both east and west in the Eoman Empire; the fascination and tradition of Eome. LECTURE 25 Pope Leo the Great: Theodoric: St. Benedict Rome in the 5th century; effect of the transference of the capital of the Empire to Constantinople; and of the capital of the West and of Italy to Milan, and then to Ravenna. Rome as the ecclesiastical capital of the Latin world; the rise of the papacy; the bishops of Rome in the 4th century; their connection with the churches of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Africa; the relics of the saints and martyrs; Pope Damasus I; their influence on Latin theology; their support of Athanasius, Cyril, and Augustine; the idea of the Catholic Church. The churches and theology of the Greek east; the Patriarchs of Alex- andria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Constantinople; their relations with the Empire, with Rome, and with each other. The career and importance of Pope Leo the Great, 440-461; his edu- cation and diplomatic missions under Celestine I and Sixtus III, 422-440; elected Pope, 440; his advocacy of the idea of ecclesiastical unity and papal primacy; his influence in saving Rome from Attila, 453, and Genseric, 455. Italy from 453 to 493 ; the shadows of imperial power ; the plundering of Rome by Genseric, 455; the control of Italy by barbarian generals; Rikimer, 456-472; Orestes, 472-476; Odovaker, 476-489; the struggle be- tween Odovaker and Theodoric, 489-493; surrender of the form of a West- ern Empire, 476 A.D. Gaul in the 5th century; the settlement of the Burgundians and the Visigoths; Euric, king of the Visigoths, 466-484; the relations between them and the Gallic people; Sidonius Apollinaris, 430-479; the Salian and Ripuarian Pranks; the career of Clovis, king of the Salian Pranks, 467-512; his conquest of Syagrius, 486; his baptism as a Catholic Christian, 496; St. Remy; St. Clotilda; his conquest of the Burgundians and the Visigoths of Aquitaine; made proconsul by the Emperor, 510; the realm of Clovis; the Franks a military nobility not a large element of the population. The Arian Visigoths in Spain; Euric. The Arian Vandals in Africa; their persecution of the Catholics; Gen- seric, 427-477. 35 History 1a The Empire in the 5th century; the reigns of Leo, 457-474; Zeno, 474-491, and Anastasius, 491-518; the extinction of Arianism in the Greek empire; relations of the Empire with the Latin West; failure of their attack upon the Vandals; attitude towards the Arian kingdoms. Theodoric (Dietrich) the Ostrogoth, 455-526; his education at Con- stantinople; his rank as Patrician; his career within the Empire, 475-487; his mission to Italy; the war with Odovaker, 489-493. The reign of Theodoric, 493-526; his capital at Eavenna; his settle- ment of the Ostrogoths as a military nobility in Italy; his administration; Cassiodorus; Boethius; prosperity of Italy; his religious tolerance; the Catholics; the Jews; his relations with the Franks, Visigoths, and Vandals; his marriage to the sister of Clovis, 495; marriage of his daughters to the the kings of the Burgundians and the Visigoths and of his sister to the king of the Vandals; the extent of the influence of Theodoric. The personality of Theodoric; his place in the popular imagination and in romance; the Nibelungenlied. Art and literature during the reign of Theodoric; Verona; Eavenna; mosaics; the works of Cassiodorus; Boethius; his translations from Aris- totle; the Consolations of Philosophy. The need of a new force to preserve the civilization of the Graeco- Eoman world into the new world of the Western barbarian kingdoms; the influence of the clergy; exaggeration of the tales of destruction; Chris- tianity and public assistance or charity. The development of monasticism in the west; scattered communities of monks; St. Martin at Liguge; Lerins; Cassiodorus; multiplicity and variety of monasteries. The life and work of St. Benedict of Nursia, 480-543; his education at Eome; his hermit life at Subiaco, 497-500; the success of his preaching; the gathering of monks around him; the foundation of Monte Cassino, 527; the Eule of St. Benedict, 529; ''ora et labora"; the effect of the work of St. Benedict; St. Scholastica. The eventual spread of the Benedictine rule beyond Italy and beyond the frontiers of the old empire; monasticism in Ireland; St. Bridget of Kildare; monasticism in the Greek east; the hermits; continued influence of the example of St. Antony in Egypt. LECTUEE 26 Justinian: the Eoman Law The situation in Europe in the sixth century; continuance of the idea and the theory of the Eoman Empire and the Eoman peace; the barbarian kingdoms consider themselves within the Empire; evidence from their titles and coins; but the Eoman peace has really gone with the lines of 36 History 1a imperial frontier defence in Western Europe; loss of Eoman Britain^ which was gradually conquered by the heathen Angles, Saxons and Jutes, With the Roman peace has gone the security of trade in the western Mediterranean; the Vandal fleet; decrease of the prosperity of the cities in the West, due to depopulation and decline of trade; condition of the agricultural classes under the barbarian kingdoms; equivalent taxation and rent paid, but it goes to the maintenance of a local military nobility of barbarians, instead of to the defence of the frontiers. Continued prosperity of the eastern Mediterranean to the middle of the sixth century; the maintenance of the line of the Danube; the Persian Sassanid kingdom has to defend itself against the Huns and Tartars. Maintenance of the Eoman peace in the Eastern Mediterranean by the Emperors Leo, Zeno, and Anastasius, 457-518; their military policy; study of the art of war; they begin to raise troops within the Empire instead of depending on barbarians; the Isaurians; the importance of Constantinople; its growth as a capital; concentration of commerce; its wealth and population. The reign of the Emperor Justin I, 519-527. The reign of the Emperor Justinian, 527-565; the education and per- sonality of Justinian; the last of the Eoman Emperors from certain points of view; his administration; his belief in unity and uniformity; his foreign policy; his religious policy; his law reforms; ''one state, one religion, one law. ' ' The Empress Theodora, 500-548; the slanders of Procopius. Constantinople during the reign of Justinian; the Nika riots, 532; his buildings; Santa Sophia. The wars of Justinian; wars with Persia; the reign of Nushirvan or Chosroes in Persia, 531-579; conquest of the Vandal kingdom in Africa by Belisarius, 533-535; extension of Justinian's empire to the cities of southeastern and southern Spain; overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy by Belisarius, 535-540; the career of Totila in Italy, 541-552; overthrow of Totila and conquest of Italy by Narses, 552-553; the Exarchates of Africa and Eavenna. The great plague of 542; its depopulation of the eastern Mediter- ranean cities; earthquakes; destruction of Antioch. The unity of the state under Justinian; abolition of the consulship, 549. The unity of religion under Justinian; the interest of Justinian in theology; withdrawal of the Henoticon of Zeno; acceptance of the views of Pope Leo the Great; his zeal for orthodoxy; persecution of the Jews, Samaritans and heretics; intolerance; Church and State; interference with bishops; the Emperor's consent needed for the election of Popes; arrest and imprisonment or exile of Popes Silverius and Vigilius; sup- pression of the teaching of philosophy at Athens, 531. 37 History 1a The unity of the law; the later history of Eoman jurisprudence; the fixing of the praetor's edict by Hadrian; the jurisconsults; Papinian, Ulpian; the complexity and bulk of Eoman law; the work of codification and consolidation undertaken by Justinian; the Code, 528-529; the Insti- tutes and the Digest or Pandects, 533; the Novels, 534 to 565; importance of this work; Tribonian. Justinian the last native Latin-speaking Emperor; his legislation in Latin, though most of his empire was Greek; his attitude towards the Eoman Empire and towards Eome; the continued theory of unity. LECTUEE 27 Pope Gregory the Great After the death of Justinian, the tendency towards a separation of interests between the eastern and western parts of the Empire becomes more obvious; the empire tends to become Byzantine and the west to become Latin Christendom; the Papacy and the Empire; Eome and Con- stantinople. The successors of Justinian; Justin II, 565-578, Tiberius II, 578-582, Maurice, 582-602; Phocas, 602-610, Heraclius, 610-641; attacks on Con- stantinople by the Slavs and the Avars; the great war with Persia; the battle of Nineveh, 627; peace between the Empire and Persia, 628. The formation of united Latin Christendom by Pope Gregory the Great, 590-604; revival of the Papacy after the death of Justinian; the traditions of Pope Leo the Great. The career of Gregory the Great; born at Eome, 540; his education and public life; his monastic life; the Benedictine Eule; deacon and agent of the Papacy at Constantinople, 582-585; abbot, 585; his desire to convert the English; elected Pope, 590. The Papacy of Gregory the Great; his attitude towards the Empire; laid the foundations of the Catholic Latin church and of the political power of the Papacy. Gregory the Great and the Greek churches of Syria and Egypt; Gregory and St. Anastasius, Patriarch of Antioch, 559-599, and St. Eulogius of Alexandria, 580-607. Gregory the Great and Italy; the Lombards in Italy, 568; the Lom- bard kingdom and the Lombard duchies; contrast between the Lombards and the Ostrogoths; the Lombards in the valley of the Po; Lombardy; Pavia, the Lombard capital; the cities of Italy; the reign of Agilulf, 590-616; the Lombards become Catholic. The Exarchate of Eavenna and the imperial possessions in Italy; Gregory the Great and the Exarchs. 38 Historij 1a Gregory the Great and Spain; the Visigothic kingdom in Spain; its extent; its inclusion of south-eastern France; the reign of Leovigild, 538- 585; the conversion of the Suevi from Arianism by St. Martin of Braga by 580; the annexation of the Suevic kingdom; the conversion of the Visigoths; St. Leander, archbishop of Seville, 504-601; the struggle be- tween Leovigild and Hermangild; the acceptance of Catholicism by Eecared, 587; St. Isidore of Seville, archbishop, 601-636; his learning and influence; the reconquest of the cities taken by Justinian, 623; the per- secution of the Jews; relations between Pope Gregory the Great and the archbishops Leander and Isidore. Gregory the Great and Gaul; the Burgundians become Catholic under the teachings of St. Avitus, archbishop of Vienne, 490-525; the Merov- ingian kingdoms of the sixth and seventh centuries; Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy; Brunhilda, 534-414, and Gregory the Great; monasticism in France; the conversion of the rural districts; the great bishops; St. Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, 580-641; St. Eloi, Bishop of Noyon, 588-659; St. Ouen, 608-683; who had been Merovingian officials; St. Gregory of Tours, 538-594; his History of the FranJcs. Monasticism in Ireland in the sixth century; Ireland the isle of saints and of learning ; the Irish ' ' universities ' ' ; Clonmacnoise ; the missionary spirit of the Irish; St. Columba, 521-597, and the conversion of the Picts; lona; St. Columban, 540-614; his monastery at Luxeuil, 590-610; the spirit of Irish monasticism; his disputes with the French bishops, with Brunhilda and with Gregory the Great; his wanderings, 610-614; Bobbio; the work of St. Gall in Switzerland. Gregory the Great and his direct interest in Christian missions; the mission to England; St. Augustine of Canterbury, and his work, 597- 604; the British church and its attitude towards the Angles and the Saxons; St. David of Wales, 530-601; the connection with Brittany; by its conversion to Christianity England comes into Latin Christendom. Gregory the Great as a doctor of the church; ranked with Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo; his works; his Moralia; an expounder of morality rather than of subtle theology; his Pastoral Eule, expounding the duties of bishops and priests; his Sacramentarium or reform of the liturgy; Gregorian music. Gregory the Great as administrator; head of Latin Christendom and of the Catholic Church; his Letters; his relations w^ith the Emperor Maurice. Gregory the Great as a man and a saint; his Dialogues; his belief in miracles; his attachment to the monastic life and to the memory of St. Benedict; his attitude towards Eome; legends about St. Gregory the Great. Position of the Empire and of Latin Christendom, when Muham- madanism became an aggressive power. 39 History 1a LECTUEE 28 Muhammad: the Early Caliphate The situation of Mediterranean civilization, when Islam burst forth upon it in the seventh century; the Empire under Heraclius, 610-641; the final defeat of the Sassanid kingdom of Persia; gradual recovery of the eastern Mediterranean from the pestilence of the time of Justinian; the Exarchate of Africa; Latin Christendom; the Lombards in Italy and the Exarchate of Ravenna; the Visigoths in Spain; the Merovingians in France and western Germany; the sea power of the Empire unchecked in the Mediterranean. Muhammad, 570-632; his education, early career and marriage with Kadija; declaration of his mission, 609; the Hegira, 622; the battle of Beder, 623; conquest of Mecca, 630, and of Arabia; death of Muhammad, 632. The elements of Islam; the religion of Arabia; influence of Judaism and of Ebionite Christianity; the Koran; the book both of religion and law; the simplicity of Islam; the enthusiasm produced by Islam. The militant force of Islam; readiness of the eastern Mediterranean world to accept it; the effect of the persecution of the Jews and the heretics by Justinian and his successors; weight of taxation on Egypt and Syria, The first Caliphs: Abu Bekr, 632-634; Omar, 634-644; Othman, 644- 655; Ali, 655-660. The rapid victories of Islam; invasion and conquest of Persia, 632- 651; invasion of Syria, 632; capture of Damascus, 634, of Jerusalem, 637, of Antioch, 638; conquest of Egypt and capture of Alexandria, 639-641; conquest of Cyrene and Tripoli, 647. The composition of the Saracen armies; the proportion of Arabs; their administration of conquered countries; their attitude towards Jews and Christians. The great schism among the Muhammadans; the Shiahs and the Sunnis; the murders of Ali, Hassan and Hosein; the establishment of the Omayyad Caliphate, 660. The Saracens build a fleet and become a sea power, 652; end of the peace of the Mediterranean. The resistance of the Empire to the Saracens; reorganization of what was left of it by Constans II, 641-668; Asia Minor; the Slavs; the situation in Italy; the Lombards and the arrest and exile of Pope Mar- tin I; Constans II in Italy and Sicily, 662-668; his visit to Eome, 663. The reign of Constantine Pogonatus, 668-685; successful defence of Constantinople against the Muhammadans, 673; the settlement of the Bulgarians between the Danube and the Balkans. 40 History 1a Development and extension of the power of Islam; capture of Carth- age, 698; conversion of the Berbers; the Saracen fleet; conquest of Sardinia, 711; conquest of Spain, 711-713. Easy overthrow of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain; the Spanish people acept the Muhammadans; Arabs, Syrians and Moors; small number of the Muhammadan conquerors and settlers; they take the place of the Visigoths as a '' military nobility." Eesults of the Muhammadan conquest; end of the Eoman peace in the Mediterranean; diminution of the Empire; Africa and Asia, except Asia Minor, pass to the new religion; decrease of the importance of the Greek world; three powers, the Greek or Byzantine Empire, Islam, and Latin Christendom, take the place of the Eoman Empire. LECTUEE 29 The Byzantine Empire The progress of Islam was checked in the eighth century by the Byzantine Empire in the East and by Austrasian Mayors of the Palace in the West; it lost its unity by the overthrow of the Omayyad Caliphate in the East by the Abbassides and by the establishment of an independent Omayyad Emirate in the West. Former misapprehension of the services of the Byzantine Empire to Europe and to Christianity; the influence of the views of Gibbon. The Empire after Justinian had become restricted in fact, though not in theory, to the Greek-speaking people of the Eastern Mediterranean; this was more marked in the seventh century during the dynasty of Heraclius, and the conquests of the Saracens had reduced it to south- eastern Europe and Asia Minor; the loss of Alexandria and Antioch, of Egypt and Syria, emphasized the importance of Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, the central point of the diminished empire. The Byzantine Empire in the eighth century; its revival; adminis- trative efficiency; military reorganization; Asiatic type of court; dis- appearance of serfdom and organization of free labor and village com- munities; Constantinople; the great plague of 746-747. The Isaurian dynasty and its services to Christendom; Leo III, the Isaurian, 717-740; the great siege of Constantinople, 717-718; defeat of the most dangerous effort of the Muhammadans to enter Europe by the southeast; defeat of the Arabs and defense of Asia Minor, 738; the Code of Justinian adapted to the Greeks of the Byzantine Empire. Constantino V, 740-775; his wars with the Saracens and Bulgarians; his organization of the Slavs; the line of the Balkans. Leo IV, 775-780; Constantine VI, 780-797; the influence of the 41 History 1a Empress Irene; breakdown of the Isaurian administration; defeats in- flicted by the Bulgarians and by the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid; the usurpation and government of Irene; end of the Isaurian dynasty; its services to civilization. The Saracens in the eighth century; end of the unity of Islam; decline in its military enthusiasm and efficiency; overthrow of the Omayyad Caliphate of Damascus, 750; establishment of the Abbassid Caliphate in the East; its capital at Bagdad; influence of the Persians; the reign of Haroun-al-Easchid, 786-809. The Muhammadans in Spain declare themselves independent of the Caliphate under the Omayyad Abdur-Rahman, 755; his capital at Cordova, 757; his descendant takes the title of Caliph, 929; independent emirates established in Africa at Kairouan and Fez. The struggle about the worship of images in the Byzantine Empire; its origin; influence of Islam; it brings about the separation between Greek and Latin Christendom. The Emperor Leo the Isaurian, also known as the Iconoclast; his edict against the worship of images, 726; resistance in Italy, headed by the Pope; resistance in Greece; the Council of Constantinople, 753, and its decrees; persecution of the image worshippers; opposition of the populace and of the monks; monasticism in the Byzantine Empire and at Constantinople; St. John of Damascus, the last of the Greek fathers; restoration of image worship by the Empress Irene and the Council of Nicaea, 787. Excitement caused in Italy and in Rome by the controversy about images; Pope Gregory II (715-731) condemns the edict of the Emperor Leo in a Council at Rome, 729; supported by the Italian people and the Lombards; failure of Leo's attack on Ravenna, 732; Pope Gregory III, 731-741; his attitude towards the Emperor, whom he condemns, but not the idea of Roman Empire; claim for the independence of the Church, and especially of Roine; opposition of Pope Gregory to the creation of an Empire of the West. The Lombards in Italy; Liutprand, 712-743; his conquest of the Ex- archate, except the city of Ravenna, 732; his attack on Rome; Gregory III appeals to Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace, and names him Patrician, 738; the temporal power of the Papacy; the city of Rome; the ' * Roman duchy. ' ' Separation of Latin Christendom from the Byzantine Empire indicated by the events of the eighth century; the official relation of the Popes to the Emperors; while nominally faithful to the idea of the Roman Empire, the Popes, pressed by the Lombards, begin to look north of the Alps for support. 42 History 1a LECTUEE 30 Charles Martel: Pippin In the eighth century, while Islam was extending from Persia to Spain, and the Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian emperors was reorganizing and defending Constantinople and Asia Minor against the Muhammadans, Latin Christendom, as consolidated by Pope Gregory the Great, was breaking away from Greek Christendom and the Byzantine Empire on the question of images, and the Papacy, harassed by the Lombards, began to look to the Franks for aid and support. The Franks under the Merovingians: Neustria: Austrasia; the con- quered or allied states: Burgundy; Aries (Septimania) ; Aquitaine; Ala- mannia; Bavaria: the boundaries of Austrasia; the peoples beyond; the Frisians; the Hessians; the Thuringians; the Saxons; pressure of "the Slavs and the Avars. The government of the Merovingians: the dukes and counts; the sub- ject kings; the military force; the officers of state; the bishops; develop- ment of the Mayors of the Palace. Pippin of Landen, or Pippin the Old, Mayor of the Palace of Aus- trasia, 614-639; his relations with St. Arnulf, Bishop of Metz; failure of his son, Grimoald, to become king of Austrasia, 656; Ebroin, Mayor of the Palace of Neustria, 657-681; the battle of Testry, 687; Pippin of Heristhal, or Pippin the Young, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, 687-714; he establishes the power of the Aus- trasian Franks over the West Frisians, the Eastern Alamanni or Swabians and re-establishes it over the Bavarians. Extension of civilization and Christianity in Austrasia and among the Germans; St. Omer, 595-668; St. Amand, Bishop of Maestricht, 589- 679; St. Willibrord, 657-738, and the conversion of the West Frisians; the bishopric of Utrecht, 696; St. Kupert and the Bavarians; the bishopric of Salzburg, 696; the missionary preaching of St. Suidbert among the Hessians and of St. Kilian among the Thuringians. Charles Martel, 687-741; Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, 717, of Neustria and Burgundy, 719; his building up of the Frank kingdom; his wars with the Saracens in southern France, 725-739; with the Frisians, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians; incorporation of Aquitaine and Prov- ence in the Frank kingdom; victory at Tours, or rather Poitiers, over the Saracens, 732; his relations with the Lombards, the Pope and the Byzan- tine Empire; his attitude towards the Church; his services to Latin Christendom. Carloman, Mayor of Austrasia, Swabia and Thuringia; Pippin the Short, Mayor of Neustria, Burgundy and Provence; the councils of the Prankish church, 745-747; abdication of Carloman, 747. 43 History 1a Pippin the Short, advised by Pope Zacharias, declared King of the Franks, 751, and anointed king by St. Boniface, 752. The reign of Pippin, 752-768; the situation in Italy; Aistulf, King of the Lombards, takes Eavenna, 752, and threatens Eome; Pope Stephen II appeals to the Byzantine Emperor and then to Pippin; his visit to France and coronation of Pippin, 754; the two campaigns of Pippin in Italy, 754, 756; the ''Donation of Pippin," the foundation of the tem- poral power of the Papacy. Pippin's campaigns in France and Germany; his conquest of Nar- bonne and of Septimania from the Saracens, 759; final reduction of Aquitaine, which is broken up into counties; his campaigns against the Saxons of Westphalia. The importance of Pippin in the history of Latin Christendom; his relations with the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and with the Abbassid Caliphate. Extension and organization of Latin Christendom; the church in England; the synod of Whitby and the triumph of Eoman over Irish Christianity; Christianity in England passes from the missionary to the settled stage; Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, 669-694; church councils in England. Eeorganization of the church in France; need of reform among the bishops and clergy; decline of the Prankish church under Charles Martel; the church councils of Austrasia, 742, 743, of Neustria, 744, of the whole Prankish Church, 745, 747; services of St. Boniface. Extension of Christianity into Germany; the English missionaries; life and career of St. Boniface, 680-755; first missionary work among the Frisians and Thuringians; interest taken by Popes Gregory II and III in the conversion of the Germans; Boniface consecrated bishop, 722; foundation of monasteries and nunneries; success of the missionaries; Boniface archbishop, 732. Organization of the German church; Bavaria; the bishoprics of Salzburg, Eatisbon, Passau and Freisingen; central Germany; Hesse and Thuringia; foundation of the bishoprics of Biiraburg, afterwards Pad- erborn, Erfurt, afterwards Halberstadt, Wiirtzburg and Eichstadt; example of Gregory the Great and Augustine in England followed by Gregory III and Boniface in converting the Germans and organizing their church; foundation of the abbey of Fulda, 744. St. Boniface, archbishop of Mayence or Mainz, 745-754; his anointing of Pippin, 752; his martyrdom by the East Frisians, 755. By the work of St. Boniface, Latin Christendom passed the boundaries of the Eoman Empire; the devotion of Boniface to the Papacy and to Eome; his work as significant in its way as the work of Pippin in per- petuating the idea of Eoman unity in Latin and Western Christendom. 44 History 1a LECTUEE 31 Charlemagne New Eome and old Eome: the Byzantine Greek Empire and the Latin Eoman church; diminution of the territorial extent of both by the triumphs of Islam; relations between them broken off by the quarrel over image worship; the question of Italy. The division of the Kingdom of the Franks between the two sons of Pippin, 768; death of Carloman, 771; Charles sole King of the Franks. Charlemagne, 742-814; he carries on the work of his father, and of his ancestors, the Mayors of the Palace, in consolidating and extending the Prankish kingdom; the heir of old policies rather than the originator of new policies. Charlemagne and Germany; his extension of the Frankish kingdom to the east; his conquest and christianization of the Saxons, 772-804; Witikind; foundation of the bishoprics of Bremen, Miinster and Pader- born, 804-806; the line of the Elbe; Bavaria broken up among counts. Charlemagne and the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder, and in Bohemia; Charlemagne and the Avars in Pannonia. Charlemagne and Spain: the March of the Ebro; Eoncesvalles, 778; capture of Barcelona, 801; Tarragona, 809; Tortosa, 811; relations with the Muhammadan Emirs of Cordova and the Christian Kings of Oviedo or the Asturias. Charlemagne and England; his correspondence with Offa, King of Mereia; Egbert of Wessex at his court, 786; Egbert, overlord of England, 802-839. Charlemagne and Italy; King of the Lombards, 774; his sons. Pippin and Lewis, anointed Kings of Italy and Aquitaine by Pope Hadrian I, 781. Charlemagne and France; his campaigns in Aquitaine and against the Bretons. Charlemagne and the Church; his councils; the Council of 809 and the "Filioque" decision; his efforts to reform the morals of priests and bishops, and to improve the liturgy in the Frankish dominions. Charlemagne and the Papacy; Pope Hadrian I, 772-795; confirmation of the grant of the Exarchate made by Pippin to the Pope; the ''ducatus Eomanus"; restoration of the Patrimony of St. Peter or the estates of the Papacy in Italy and elsewhere; confusion between sovereignty and estate ownership; influence of the '^Donation of Constantino," forged about 774, The situation in Eome; the election of Pope fixed in the clergy of Eome, 769; resistance of the "exercitus Eomanus" and its chiefs; the 45 History 1a two parties; election of Leo III, 795; assault upon him, 798; Ms appeal to Charlemagne; Charlemagne at Eome. Charlemagne crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III, December 25, 800; significance of this act; relation between the Papacy and the new Empire; Charlemagne crowns his son Louis Emperor at Aachen (Aix-la- Chapelle), 813. Charlemagne and the Byzantine Empire; proposition of marriage between Constantino VI and Charlemagne's daughter; Irene and Charle- magne; Charlemagne recognized as Emperor by the Byzantine Emperor Michael I, 813. Charlemagne and the Muhammadans; relations with the Emir of Cor- dova; relations with Haroun-al-Easchid, Caliph of Bagdad; embassies, 802, 807; the keys of Jerusalem. The administration of Charlemagne; his activity; dukes and counts; his use of bishops and abbots; the Missi Dominici. Charlemagne and legislation: the idea of personal law as against the universality of the Eoman Law; the Capitularies. Charlemagne's army; the large proportion of infantry; the nature of the levy; the strength of fortified cities; the siege of Pavia, 773-774. Charlemagne and sea power; his neglect to prepare for the assaults of the Viking and Saracen sea-rovers; his building of a fleet to resist the Danes, 810-811. Extent of the Frankish Empire at the death of Charlemagne, 814; his successor his only surviving son, Louis the Pious, 814-840. Charlemagne and his family; his wives and children. The capital of Charlemagne, Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) ; his buildings there. Charlemagne and the revival of learning in the Prankish Empire; the palace school and the monastic schools; his learned friends; Alcuin; Angilbert; Paulus Diaconus; Eginhard or Einhardt. The personality of Charlemagne. Charlemagne as the hero of mediaeval romance; the Chanson de Eoland. LECTUEE 32 The Vikings The attack on Latin Christendom, as represented by the Papacy and the Empire of the Franks, and on Greek Christendom, as represented by the Byzantine Empire, by the Vikings in the northern and western seas, and by the Saracens in the Mediterranean; supplemented by the attacks of the Bulgarians and, towards the end of the ninth century, of the Hungarians or Magyars. 46 History 1a From the nature of these attacks no effective resistance could be offered by levies of infantry or by open cities; need of adjustment to new conditions; development of professional cavalry or knights, and of walled cities and castles. The political outcome of these conditions; independent local units of government, counties and cities, in the west of Europe; breakdown of the Empire of the Franks; the Byzantine Empire held together from its sea power in the Eastern Mediterranean, but lost Sicily. Islam in North Africa broken into different states. The Vikings: the Scandinavian peoples; the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes; their sea power; their destructive force; their heathenism; con- trast with the barbarians, who broke down the Eoman Empire of the West. The Norsemen in the West; ravaging of Ireland and destruction of its Celtic civilization, 795-845; settlement in the Hebrides, Orkneys, and Iceland; voyage to Vinland; Leif Ericson; the Norse cities in Ireland. The Norsemen or Danes in England, 789-879; the wars of King Alfred; the treaty of Wedmore, 879, and settlement of the Danelaw; conquest of the Danelaw by 925, and consolidation of the English Kingdom. The Vikings control the Baltic; their invasion of Eussia; foundation of Novgorod by Rurik, 862, and of Kiev; their three attacks on Constan- tinople, 860-911; the Varangian guards. The Vikings in Germany: the great attack of 882, in which Cologne and Aachen were destroyed. The Vikings in France: sack of Rouen, Nantes, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Paris; the art of defence learned; siege of Paris, 885-886. The Vikings in Spain: attacks on Lisbon, Cadiz and Seville, 844, 850. The Vikings in the Mediterranean; but here in the contest for plunder met by the Saracen sea-rovers. The Saracens in the Mediterranean: the pirate kingdoms of North Africa; the capture of Crete, 825; conquest of Sicily, 827-877; in southern Italy, 840-872; beaten off by Pope Leo IV, 849; driven out of South Italy by the Byzantines, 875; in Provence, 888. The Hungarians or Magyars in central Europe; their invasions of Italy and Germany, 899-917. The forces of resistance; the Byzantine Empire holds together; the Bulgarian wars; the Amorian dynasty, Iconoclastic, 820-867; foundation of the Basilian or Macedonian dynasty by the Emperor Basil I, 867. Breakdown of the Prankish Empire under the Carlo vingian or Carol- ingian descendants of Charlemagne; the weakness of the Empire in the ninth century; Louis the Pious, 814-840; Lothair, 840-855; Louis II, 855- 875; Charles the Fat, 876-888. Treaty of Verdun, 843, and separation of Germany, France and Lothar- ingia (Lorraine). 47 History 1a Germany after the breakdown of the Frankish Empire; the great duchies, Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria; the Emperor Arnulf, 888- 899; the kings, Louis the Child, 899-911, Conrad of Franconia, 911-918; the invasions of the Magyars. France under Charles the Bald, 843-877; the Edict of Pistres on cavalry and fortifications, 864; Hincmar, Archbishop of Kheims, 845-882; Odo or Eudes, Count of Paris, 885-898; Charles the Simple, 898-929, gives Eollo the Norseman the northern district of France, which became Nor- mandy, in 911. Italy and the Frankish Empire; the vigorous government of Louis II, 844-875; disappearance of all effective power to keep the peace after his death. The Papacy in the ninth century; recognition of its right to crown emperors and of the right of emperors to confirm popes; the constitution of 824; the Eomans, clergy and laymen, to elect, the emperor to confirm; vigorous papacy of Leo IV, 847-855; his defeat of the Saracens; building of the Leonine city to include St. Peter's and the Vatican. Pope Nicholas I, 858-867; his attitude towards the Franklin Empire, the temporal power, the archbishops and provincial councils; his assertion of legislative and judicial power; the ''False Decretals." Final separation of Greek and Latin Christendom, after the Council of Constantinople, 866, which condemned the celibacy of the clergy and the ''Filioque" decision of 809. Sudden decline of the Papacy with the disappearance of the Carol- ingian Empire; control of the Eoman nobles over the election of Pope; the influence of Theodora and Marozia. Out of the new military needs to resist the Vikings and Saracens grew the military side of feudalism and the independence of the walled cities. LECTUEE 33 The Three Ottos The adjustment of Latin Christendom to the new conditions created by the attacks of the Vikings in the ninth century. Feudalism and feudal civilization; the economic side of feudalism; feudal land tenure in Western and Central Europe the outcome of rural conditions in the later Eoman Empire; the great estates or latifundia; the coloni; serfdom; commendation and the settlement to agriculture of newly civilized peoples; the free and serf village communities; comparison with conditions in the Byzantine Empire. The legal aspects of feudalism; personal and territorial law; contrast between feudal and Eoman law; customary law and written law; the jurisdiction of the land owner and the jurisdiction of the State. 48 History 1a The political side of feudalism; rise and efficiency of the feudal barons and counts; weakness of the central authority; the feudal unit of the city. The military side of feudalism; efficiency of the knight, the castle and the walled city. The feudalization of the Church; the bishops and abbots as feudal barons and counts; infringements by the lay barons and counts; support given to the central authority by the feudal church, and by the central authority to the Church; St. Dunstan and the Witan under King Edgar in England; the Capetian monarchs in France; the Saxon emperors in Germany. Germany in the tenth century; the four great duchies, Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, Saxony; the attitude of Lotharingia or Lorraine; Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, king of the Germans, 919-936; his wars with the Magyars and the Slavs; his organization of frontier marks; his colonics and burgs east of the Elbe. Otto the Great, 936-973; his first wife Edith, sister of Athelstan of England; crowned king at Aachen; his campaigns against the Wends, Czechs, other Slavs and Hungarians or Magyars; the battle of Lechfeld, near Augsburg, 955; homage of Bohemia, 950; the creation of frontier marks; among them Brandenburg, Meissen, Austria; the christianization of the frontier; foundation of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, 968. Otto the Great and feudal Germany; break up or absorption of the great duchies; the aid of the Church; the great feudal bishoprics and abbeys. Otto the Great and Italy; first expedition and marriage to Adelaide; king of Italy, 951; the condition of Italy in the tenth century; the Saracens and Byzantines. Otto the Great crowned Emperor, 962; ''the Eoman Empire of the German Nation"; situation of the Papacy; the Eoman nobility and its cliques; the house of Crescentius; Otto decrees that no Pope shall be consecrated before swearing fealty to the Emperor. Otto the Great and the Byzantine Empire; marriage of his son, Otto II, to Theophano, daughter of the Emperor Eomanus II. The Emperor Otto II, 973-983. The Emperor Otto III, 983-1002; the regency of Theophano, 983-991; his personality and dream of making the Empire a reality; his Popes; his cousin Bruno, Pope Gregory V, 996-999; Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II, 999-1003. Europe during the period of the Ottos; England; Athelstan 's victory at Brunanburh, 937; administration of St. Dunstan, 959-988; organized attack of the Danes; Knut, King of Denmark, Norway and England, 1017. Victory of Brian Boru over the Norsemen at Clontarf, 1014. • 49 History 1a Development of feudalism in France; the duchy of Normandy; Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, Duke of the French, married to Hedwiga, sister of Otto che Great, a king-maker, 923-956; his son, Hugh Capet, King of France, 987-996; the great feudatories, ecclesiastical and lay; Adalberon, archbishop of Kheims; Gerbert; Eobert II, King of France, 996-1031, forced to put away his wife Bertha by Pope Gregory V. Extension of Latin Christianity during the period of the Ottos; the small kingdoms in the north of Spain gradually extend at the expense of the Muhammadans; Gallicia, Leon, Navarre, Castille; the county of Barcelona, and its relation with southeastern France; flourishing con- dition of the Emirate of Cordova under Abdur Eahman III, who takes the title of Caliph, 929. Extension of Latin Christianity to the east; the Magyars; Hungary, a kingdom (1000) under St. Stephen, 979-1038; its church organized under the independent archbishopric of Gran; the Czechs in Bohemia; contest between Greek and Latin Christianity; the bishopric of Prague, 973; work of St. Adalbert; Poland, a kingdom under Boleslas I (1000); the archbishopric of Gnesen; the significance of the recognition of these three states as independent of the German State and Church by Otto III and Sylvester II. The heathen Prussians; preaching and death of St. Adalbert, 997. Extension of Latin Christianity to the north; the work of St. Ansgar, Archbishop of Hamburg, 832-865; progress of Christian missionaries in Scandinavia; the work of St. Olaf, King of Norway, 996-1030. The Byzantine Empire in the tenth century; the Basilian or Mace- donian dynasty; wars against the Saracens; reconquest of Crete, 960, and of Antioch, 969; the Byzantine navy; wars with the Slavs and Bulgarians; the Slavs in Croatia, Epirus and Greece; the greatness of the Bulgarian power, 811-963; overthrown by the Emperor Basil, 1018; defeat of a Eussian attack by sea, 941, and invasion by land, 972. Byzantine trade in the tenth century; prosperity of the Empire; trade relations with Muhammadan Spain; absence of feudalism, which was not needed where milit£lry power was successfully concentrated; Byzantine literature; greatness and prosperity of Constantinople. Extension of Greek Christianity; the work of Cyrillus and Methodius among the Slavs, especially in Moravia; the Slavonic alphabet; con- version of the Bulgarians and organization of a Greek church, 870; con- version of the Eussians, 989; the life and reign of St. Vladimir, the first Tsar, 980-1015. Separation of Eastern and Western Europe influenced by history more than race; difference between Latin and Greek Christendom emphasized by the conversion of the Eussians. 50 History 1a LECTUEE 34 The Normans Feudalism crystallized in the eleventh century; its military efl&ciency, of the mailed knight on horseback, of the castle and of the walled city, proved; its legal basis shows signs of developing into a system of feudal law; its economic side was the manor with its agricultural customs; its administrative distinction from the officialism of the Eoman Empire; its political effect in breaking up Europe into small units; advantages and disadvantages; grandeur of unity, quickened activity of localism. Feudalism typified in the Normans; their great services to Latin Christendom, the conquest of Sicily from the Saracens and formation of Norman south Italy, and the overthrow of the possibility of a Danish empire by the conquest of England. Efficiency of the Norman knight; the mailed horse soldier triumphant over German infantry in Italy and English infantry at the battle of Hastings. Development of Normandy; the Norman dukes from Eollo to Eichard the Good, 911-1027; their relations with the kingdom of France, with Brittany and with Flanders; Duke Eobert the Devil, 1028-1035; William the Bastard; his victory at Val-es-dunes, 1041; Norman influence in England during the reign of Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066. The Normans in the Mediterranean; pilgrims; their victories over the Byzantines and the Lombard dukes in South Italy, 1016-1046; counts of Apulia; the career of Eobert Guiscard; the battle of Civitate, 1053; relations of the Normans with the Papacy; Eobert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, 1057-1085; the school of medicine at Salerno; the republic of Amalfi. The importance of Sicily; the Saracens in Sicily, 877-1061; conquest of Sicily by the Normans under Eoger, brother of Eobert Guiscard, 1061- 1072; capture of Palermo, 1072; feudalism in Sicily. The formation of the Danish Christian empire of the north; Svend, king of Denmark, and his conquests in England; Knut or Canute, king of the English, 1017, of Denmark, 1018, and, after conquering St. Olaf, of Norway, 1030; the characteristics of Danish civilization and govern- ment, sea power, trade, individual as against legal institutions; the Danish jarls or earls; attitude towards the Church and Christianity; death of Canute, 1035. Contest between Danish and Norman ideas in England under Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066; Earl Godwin and Harold; defeat of Harold by William the Bastard at Senlac or Hastings, 1066; the triumph of feudal- ism in England under William the Conqueror, 1066-1087; feudal law and 51 History 1a government; the triumph of the Church in England; Lanfranc, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, 1070-1088; the Normans as churchmen and lawyers. The Norman attitude towards art; Norman architecture; the Bayeux tapestry; Norman influence on music and poetry. The Latin church in the tenth and eleventh centuries; influence of feudalism on its organization and ideals; the feudal bishops and abbots. The spiritual movement in the Church; the new fervor of monasticism; St. Odo, 879-942, abbot of Cluny and the Cluniac reform; St. Eomuald of Ravenna, and the order of Camaldoli; the order of Vallombrosa; the abbey of Bee in Normandy. The intellectual movement in the Church; the representative figure, Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II, 950-1003; the schools of Eheims, Chartres, Cologne and Fulda; the monasteries of Saint Gall, Eeichenau and Bee; the city schools of Italy; Salerno and Bologna; Lanfranc, Prior of Bee, 1045-1066, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1070-1089. Systematic feudalism, whether in war, law, government or religion tended towards an orderly hierarchy in state and church; differences between theory and practice; contrast between William the Conqueror's Gemot at Salisbury, 1086, and the feudal conditions in Prance and Ger- many; the theory of the Catholic Latin church and the Papacy; the Cluniac attitude; St. Odo. The German imperial attitude towards unity culminated in the Emperor Henry III, and the Papal attitude in Hildebrand. LECTURE 35 The Emperor Henry III Advantages of feudalism; decentralization; the king first among his peers; the great feudatories and the barons; the barons and the knights; individualism; the lord of the manor and the manorial courts. The problem of adjustment; how to preserve the advantages of decen- tralization and of centralization; contrast between the administration of the ancient Egyptian and Persian empires and the more modern Roman and Byzantine empires, and the feudal administration. The question of hereditary succession to oflBlce; its advantages and disadvantages; bureaucratic administration under a central government and hereditary office; heredity and feudalism. The tendency towards heredity in church offices; the question of the marriage of the clergy. Feudalism in England; the policy of Edward the Confessor and of William the Conqueror. Feudalism in France under the early Capetians; Robert II, 996-1031; 52 History 1a Henry I, 1031-1060, who married Anne, daughter of Jaroslav of Kiev in Eussia, 1051; Philip I, 1060-1108; the great feudatories of France. Feudalism in Germany; reaction against the imperial policy of Otto III and his neglect of German interests; election of Henry, Duke of Bavaria, as king, 1002; crowned king of Italy, 1004; his efforts for internal peace; his wars with Poland; crowned Emperor as Henry II at Eome, 1014; the Empire and the Papacy as against the feudalism of the German Church and feudatories; St. Henry and St. Cunegunda; the bishopric of Bamberg; support given by Henry to the Cluniac ideals and reforms. The Emperor Conrad II, 1024-1039; extension of feudalism in Italy; establishment of the hereditary principle there by Conrad, 1037; the kingdom of Burgundy (Aries) united, 1033; wars with Poland and Hungary. The Emperor Henry III, 1039-1056; married first to Gunhilda, daughter of Canute the Great, and second, to Agnes, daughter of the Count of Poitiers; extension of his German policy; Denmark, Poland, Bohemia, and, for a time, Hungary, made to do homage. His feudal policy in Germany; absorption and reallotment of the great duchies; the margraviates; recognition of the minor counts and barons as direct feudatories of the Empire; increase of the authority of the central government and promotion of local authority by the substitu- tion of many small barons for a few great dukes; reality of the power of Henry III in Germany; the evil of private war. Henry III and the German Church; his control over the election of bishops and abbots. Henry III and Italy; his strife with Aribert, Archbishop of Milan; the rise of the Lombard cities; the Italian feudatories. Henry III and the Papacy; after the deaths of Otto III and Pope Sylvester II the election of Popes had again fallen to Eoman political factions; the power of the counts of Tusculum; renewed degradation of the Papacy; indignation of Latin Christendom; claims to independence of the Spanish Church under the Archbishop of Santiago, of the German Church under the Archbishop of Mainz, and of the Galilean Church under the Archbishop of Eheims; monasticism, under the influence of the Cluniac reforms, demands the supremacy of Eome and the purification of the Papacy. Henry III deposes three rival Popes, and appoints a series of German Popes; crowned Emperor at Eome, 1046; the Papacy of St. Leo IX, 1046- 1054; his reforms; his great church councils; condemnation of simony and of the marriage of the clergy; exaltation of the Church and its authority; claims of the Papacy; beginning of the influence of Hildebrand. The Emperor Henry III represents the height of the power of mediaeval Emperors; the prospect of a contest with the Church, which sets forth its claims to supreme authority. 53 History 1a LECTUEE 36 Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand.) The idea of the unity of Latin Christendom in the Catholic Church and of the supremacy of the Pope insisted upon as indispensable for civilization against the feudal theory of the State as responsible for peace and good government during the reign of the Emperors Conrad I and Henry III; the influence of the Cluniac reforms. The Pope not merely the bishop of Eome to be chosen by the Eomans^ but the head of Christendom, in the selection of whom all Latin Christians are interested. The intervention of the Emperor Henry III, 1046; his nomination of four successive German Popes; comparison of his policy with that of the Ottos. Pope Leo IX, 1048-1054, employs the services of Hildebrand, whom he met at Cluny. Hildebrand, 1023-1085; his career; his personality; the Hildebrandine ideas in Church and State; his ascendency over successive popes; Popes Victor II, 1054-1057, Stephen IX, 1057-1058, and Nicholas II, 1059-1061. The Lateran Council, 1059, and the election of Popes fixed in the College of Cardinals. The elective idea in the middle ages as opposed to the hereditary feudal idea; the election of kings, especially of ''Kings of the Eomans" as the German rulers were called until they were crowned Emperors by the Pope at Eome. The election of Pope Alexander II, 1061; opposition of the German and Lombard bishops, who elect an antipope; the question of the need for the Emperor's confirmation; the conservative as opposed to the Hilde- brandine view. Hildebrand elected Pope as Gregory VII, 1073. Henry IV; his minority, 1056-1072; the great German bishops and lay feudatories; Henry's imperial theories; his first campaigns. The Synod of Eome, 1076; condemnation of the marriage of the clergy, simony and lay investiture of bishops and abbots. The contest over investitures; its importance to Church and State. Gregory VII and Italy; supported by the Countess Matilda of Tuscany and Eobert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Apulia. Henry IV at Canossa, 1077; humiliation of the Emperor and of the imperial idea. Eival kings set up in Germany, Eudolph of Swabia and Herman of Luxemburg; an antipope, Clement III, elected by German and Italian bishops at Brixen; Henry IV crowned Emperor at Eome by Clement, 1084. 54 History 1a Sack of Eome by the Normans, 1084; death of Gregory VII, 1085. Effect of the papacy of Gregory VII; attitude of France and England; his policy in Spain, Denmark, Poland and Hungary. Appeal of the Byzantine Emperor for aid against the Turks. The successors of Gregory VII and conclusion of the struggle over investitures; Pope Urban II, 1088-1099; the Councils at Piacenza, Clermont and Bari; Pope Paschal II, 1099-1118; the compromise of St. Anselm settles the controversy in England, 1107; the coronation of the Emperor Henry V and temporary surrender of the Papal claim by Paschal, 1111; Pope Calixtus II, 1119-1124; the investiture question settled by the Concordat of Worms, 1122. Seeming triumph of the Hildebrandine ideal of unity and supremacy, but actually the question was compromised; the unity of Latin Christen- dom was to be shown more clearly in the Crusades, which began at this time. LECTURE 37 The First Crusade During the contest over investitures, the unity of Latin Christendom and of Latin Christian civilization was proved by the general enthusiasm created by the preaching of the First Crusade against the Muhammadans. At the very time when the Hildebrandine ideals were being opposed by the representatives of the feudal ideals of the State, the barons and knights of Western Christendom in France, Germany and England volun- teered for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Christian warriors in Spain steadily drove back the Muhammadans; the leadership of the Normans. The rise of the Seljuk Turks; the break-up of the Eastern Caliphate; conquest of Bagdad by the Turks, 1055; Turkish invasion of Asia Minor; battle of Manzikert, 1071, and capture of the Byzantine Emperor, Romanus IV; Turkish conquest of Palestine and capture of Jerusalem, 1076. The Byzantine Empire in the eleventh century; end of the Basilian or Macedonian dynasty, 1057; decline of Byzantine sea power and trade in the Mediterranean with the loss of Sicily; final overthrow of Byzantine power in South Italy by Robert Guiscard, 1071; rise of the Italian trading cities; Venice and its relations with the Byzantine Empire; Amalfi; Pisa; decline of the sea power of Islam in the Mediterranean; the Catalans. The Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Comnenus, 1081-1118; his administra- tion; his army; his war with Robert Guiscard, 1081-1085; appe^?! to the Pope for aid against the Turks. 55 ' History 1a Latin Christendom and the eastern Mediterranean; trade and pilgrim- age; the Turks and the pilgrims; the trade of Egypt and the Levant. Pope Urban II preaches the Crusade at the Council of Clermont, 1095; the preaching of Peter the Hermit. The appeal not heeded by the rulers of Latin Christendom, the Emperor Henry IV, Philip I of France or William Eufus of England, but by many of their barons and knights. The leaders of the First Crusade; Godfrey '^of Bouillon," duke of Lower Lorraine; Robert, duke of Normandy; Hugh, count of Vermandois; Robert, count of Flanders; Stephen, count of Blois; Raymond, count of Toulouse; Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard; Tancred. The Crusaders at Constantinople, 1096; the attitude of Alexius Com- nenus; the battle of Dorylaeum, 1097; capture of Antioch, 1098, and of Jerusalem, 1099. Organization of the feudal crusader states; the kingdom of Jerusalem, the principality of Antioch, the counties of Tripoli and Edessa; the Assize of Jerusalem, Immediate effect of the First Crusade the passing of the trade of the Eastern Mediterranean to the Italian trading cities of Venice, Pisa and Genoa; attitude of Alexius Comnenus; his grant of trading privileges to the Pisans. The crusading spirit in Spain and the advance of Latin Christendom in the Iberian Peninsula; end of the Ommayad Caliphate of Cordova, 1028, and establishment of independent Muhammadan dynasties; advance of the northern Christian kingdoms; Alfonso VI, king of Leon, Castille and Gallicia, 1073; capture of Toledo, 1085. The Almoravid dynasty comes over from Africa to recover Spain for Islam and to unite the Muhammadans; battle of Zalaca, 1086; appeal to Christendom; Count Raymond of Toulouse and County Henry of Bur- gundy; the career of the Cid; his conquest of Valencia, 1094; formation of the county of Portugal, 1095; the kingdom of Aragon; capture of Saragossa by Alfonso I, 1118; the county of Barcelona; the Catalan sailors and traders. The crusading spirit typical of the Hildebrandine ideal in the Latin Church, of the revival of Christian enthusiasm, foreshadowed by the Cluniac reforms and the missionary age, of the rising prosperity of the cities, especially in Italy, due to the opening of wider trade, and of the aggressive spirit of feudalism. 56 History 1a LECTURE 38 St. Bernard Latin Christendom in the 12th century; material prosperity and increase of population shown in the growth of cities; the cities of Italy, France, and Germany; beginnings of municipal freedom; the merchant and craft guilds; city architecture in the 12th century; Gothic cathedrals. Intellectual development in the 12th century; the writings of St. An- selm, 1053-1109; his philosophy and theology; rapid advance in thought; Abelard, 1079-1142; beginnings of the schools, which later in the century became the University of Paris, The revival of the study of the Eoman or Civil law; Irnerius; attitude of the civil lawyers in favor of the claims of the Emperor; beginning of canon law; the Becretum of Gratian; the University of Bologna. Religious development in the 12th century; the secular clergy and canons; the regular or Augustinian canons; St. Norbert, 1080-1134; the Premonstratensians; Archbishop of Magdeburg, 1126; misisonary work; the archbishopric of Lund at the head of the Scandinavian church, 1104. Development of monasticism; St. Bruno and the Carthusians; founda- tion of the Grande Chartreuse or Charterhouse; the Cistercians or white monks; foundation of Citeaux, 1098; Stephen Harding; the Cistercian or- ganization, 1119. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, 1091-1153, the master spirit of his time; his personality; abbot of Clairvaux, 1115; his refusal to take ofiice; his belief in the mission of Christendom; his ardor for the Church; his controversies with Abelard and Arnold of Brescia; his attack on heretics; appearance of the Albigensian heresy. St. Bernard and the Papacy; his adherence to Hildebrandine ideals; the influences at Rome" against peaceful election of the Pope by the cardinals; the family of Erangipani; the election of Honorius II, 1124; the double election of Innocent II and Anacletus II, 1130 ; intervention of St. Bernard, 1131-2, 1138. Clash of interests between the city of Rome and the Papacy; the Com- mune of Rome, 1143; death of Pope Lucius II, 1145; Pope Eugenius III, the friend of St. Bernard, 1145-1154, driven from Rome; the preaching of Arnold of Brescia, advocating the poverty of the clergy; his view that Rome should be a free municipality under the Emperor. Development of the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany; the republic of Venice; the Normans in Sicily and South Italy united under Roger I, 1127; his attitude towards the Papacy; King of Sicily; his conquest of Malta, Tripoli, and Tunis; excellence of the Sicilian fleet; sea power in the Medi- terranean. 57 History 1a St. Bernard and France; his influence over the kings, Louis VI, 1100- 1137, and Louis VII, and over Suger, abbot of St. Denis, the royal admin- istrator. The life and work of Suger, 1082-1152; his effort to build up royal authority; his encouragement of agriculture, and work against serfdom; the beginning of the ''Communes" of France. St. Bernard and Henry I of England; whom he persuaded to recognize Pope Innocent II, 1130. St. Bernard and Germany; he persuaded Lothar II, ''King of the Eo- mans," 1125-1137, to establish Innocent II at Korae and to be crowned Emperor by him. St. Bernard preaches the crusade at Vezelai, 1146; both Louis VII of France, and Conrad III of Hohenstaufen, "King of the Eomans," 1137- 1152, take the cross at his bidding and go on the crusade. Condition of the Latin feudal states in Palestine; foundation of the military orders of the Knights Templar, 1118, for whom St. Bernard drew up the rule, 1128, and of the Knights of St. John of the Hospital, 1130; capture of Edessa by the Turks, 1144. Failure of the Second Crusade, 1147-1148. Foundation of the kingdom of Portugal by Affonso Henriques, 1139; capture of Lisbon by English crusaders, 1147. Death of St. Bernard, 1153; his unique position in the history of Latin Christendom. LECTUEE 39 Frederick Barbarossa Pope Gregory VII had emphasized the unity of Latin Christendom in the Church under the direction of the Papacy and St. Bernard held up this ideal, which was fostered by the crusading spirit; Frederick of Hohen- staufen, called Barbarossa, elected "King of the Eomans, " 1152, empha- sized the unity of Latin Christendom in the State under the Empire, which under him was first called officially the "Holy Eoman Empire." Hopes entertained in the 12th century of the union of the Greek with the Latin church; the Byzantine Empire manifested its weakness by calling in the aid of Latin Christendom against the Turks; the Comneni Emperors; their attitude towards the Latin states in Syria and Palestine. The conception of the Holy Eoman Empire; supported by the lawyers. Change in the feudal Latin world due to the acceptance of the hered- itary principle; opposition to it in the idea of the State; growth of the monarchical idea in France under Louis VI and Louis VII; the twelve peers of France; protest of feudalism in England in the election of Stephen, 1135; the elected ruler in Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, and Denmark; prac- tice of crowning the heir in elective monarchies. 58 History 1a Election of the king in Germany maintained with the heredity of the great and small fiefs; election, appointment, and confirmation; the bishop- rics and abbeys; the prince electors. Eivalry of north and south Germany, of the houses of Welf and Waib- lingen, the Guelfs and Ghibellines. Frederick and Germany; Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg; extension of Christianity and of German influence; Austria made a duchy, 1156, and Bohemia a kingdom, 1158; sometimes general and sometimes partial support given to Frederick by the Germans in his struggle with the Italian cities and with the Papacy. Frederick and the Baltic states; Waldemar the Great, 1157-1182, and Canute VI, 1182-1202, kings of Denmark; Frederick's attempt to establish suzerainty over them; the foundation of Liibeck and Dantzig; conversion of the Pomeranians to Christianity; foundation of the Teutonic Knights, 1191. Frederick crowned King of Burgundy at Aries, 1178. Frederick and the Italian cities; their submission, 1154; destruction of Milan, 1162; the Lombard League, 1167, and building of Alessandria, 1168; defeat of Frederick at Legnano, 1176; Peace of Constance, 1183; power and wealth of the Italian cities; their attitude between Pope and Emperor; Guelfs and Ghibellines. Frederick and the Papacy; crowned Emperor at Eome, 1155; attitude of Pope Hadrian IV, 1154-1159; execution of Arnold of Brescia, 1155; Pope Alexander III, 1159-1181; the anti-popes set up by Frederick Bar- barossa; the reconciliation at Venice, 1177; inevitable conflict between Papal and Imperialist ideals; Church and State; coronation of Henry, son of Frederick, as King of the Komans, 1169. France during the reign of Frederick Barbarossa; Louis VII, 1137- 1180; preponderance in France of Henry II of England, 1154-1189, in Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, and, after his marriage to Eleanor, in Guienne; rise of the French communes; independence and wealth of southern France; accession of Philip Augustus, 1180. Henry II of England, the most powerful ruler in Europe next to Fred- erick Barbarossa; his organization of the State and struggle with feudal- ism; granted Ireland by Pope Hadrian IV; his attitude towards the Church and the Papacy; the Constitutions of Clarendon, 1166; murder of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1170 ; accession of Eichard, 1189. The situation of the crusading states in Syria and Palestine; rise of the power of Salah-ed-din, or Saladin; overthrow of the Fatimite Shiah caliphs of Egypt; capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, 1187. The Third Crusade, 1188-1192; contrast with the previous crusades; led by Frederick Barbarossa, Eichard of England, and Philip Augustus 59 History 1a of France; sea power in the Mediterranean; the Italians and Sicilians; capture of Cyprus, 1190, and Acre, 1191; rivalry of the crusading leaders before Acre; death of Frederick Barbarossa in Asia Minor, 1190; death of Saladin, 1193. Frederick Barbarossa, the type of German kingship in the Middle Ages; the universality of the Holy Eoman Empire never admitted in Latin Christendom; contrast with the idea of the Holy Catholic Church. LECTUEE 40 Pope Innocent III Attempts at realizing the plan of Imperial supremacy over Latin Chris- tendom of Frederick Barbarossa made by his eldest son and successor, Henry VI, who had been crowned King of the Romans, 1169, and had married Constance, the heiress to the Norman kingdom of south Italy and Sicily, in 1186. Efforts of Henry VI to make the Empire hereditary; crowned Emperor at Rome by Pope Celestine III, 1191; his policy in Germany and Italy. Richard I of England, who had been taken prisoner by Duke Leopold of Austria on his way back from the crusade, forced to recognize the feudal suzerainty of Henry VI, 1194; relationship of Richard with the Guelphs; death of Henry the Lion, 1195. Conquest of the Norman kingdom; Henry VI crowned king of Sicily, 1194; Henry's brother Philip made Marquis of Tuscany; Henry's control of the Papal states and alliance with the Roman Senate. Henry's plan for an hereditary empire recognized at Wiirzburg, 1196; his son, Frederick, aged two years, elected King of the Romans; general recognition of his power; his muster for a crusade; death of Henry VI, 1197; end of the possibility of a universal and hereditary empire in the house of Hohenstaufen. Election of Innocent III as Pope, 1198; his family and early training; his personality; he carries out the Hildebrandine ideals and makes the Papacy supreme in Latin Christendom. Innocent III and Rome; he overcomes the Senate and the Imperial Prefect*. Innocent III and Italy; he drives the Germans out of the Patrimony of St. Peter, the Romagna, and the March of Ancona; made guardian of Frederick II on the death of Constance in Sicily; drives Philip from Tuscany, and forms leagues of all the Tuscan cities, except Pisa. Innocent III and Germany; Philip of Swabia, brother of Henry VI, crowned King of the Romans at Mainz, and Otto, duke of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion and nephew of Richard I of England, crowned at Aachen, 60 History 1a 1198; Pope Innocent III arbiter; coronation of Otto IV as Emperor at Eome, 1209; Guelfs and Ghibellines. Continuance of civil war in Germany; Frederick II of Sicily, ward of Pope Innocent III, elected King of the Eomans, 1211; crowned at Mainz, 1212; his grant to the Papacy of Tuscany and of all royal control over the election of bishops; defeat of Otto IV at Bouvines, 1214; his death and end of the Guelf power in Germany, 1218. Innocent III and France; the wars of Philip Augustus and Eichard I of England; interdict placed on France, 1200; submission of Philip Augus- tus; his conquest of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Poitou from King John of England, 1204-1206; his victory at Bouvines, 1214; extension of his power in southern France after the crusade against the Albigenses; his alliance with Innocent after the interdict; growth of the French monarchy. Innocent III and England; he makes Stephen Langton archbishop of Canterbury, 1206; England under an interdict, 1208; excommunication of John, 1209; surrender of England to the Papacy, 1213; defeat of Bouvines, 1214; Magna Carta, 1215; death of John, 1216, and influence of the Papacy in England during the minority of Henry III. Innocent III and Scandinavia; his relations with Canute VI and Walde- mar II of Denmark; archbishop Absalon of Lund; his condemnation of Swerrer, King of Norway; his relations with Eric X of Norway. Innocent recognizes the kingdom of Bohemia, 1202; his arbitration sought in Hungary; John of Bulgaria asks him for royal title. Innocent III and Spain; Pedro of Aragon recognizes his suzerainty, 1204; his orders obeyed in Navarre, Leon, and Castille; his stern enforce- ment of the matrimonial regulations of the Church, Innocent III and Portugal; the struggle with Sancho I and the Chan- cellor Julian; Portugal under an interdict; submission of Sancho, 1210. Innocent III and the Muhammadans in Spain; the Almohades rule Muhammadan Spain. from Morocco and recover many cities; their victory at Alarcos, 1185; foundation of the Spanish military orders of Calatrava, Alcantara, and Santiago; the Pope urges crusaders to Spain; the victory of Navas de Tolosa, 1212. Innocent III and the Byzantine Empire; weakness of the Byzantine Empire; the Comneni and the Angeli; commercial development of the Italian cities, especially Venice and Genoa, in the East; assembly of a crusading army at Venice, 1201; the Fourth Crusade; capture of Constan- tinople, 1203, and establishment of the Latin Empire of the East, 1204. Effect of the Fourth Crusade; disappointment of Innocent III at its failure to recover Jerusalem; establishment of the Latin church at Constan- tinople; his hope for a union with the Greek church. Innocent III and the Crusade against the Albigenses; the civilization of southern France; Languedoc and Provence; the troubadours; the Albi- gensian heresy; the preaching of St. Dominic; a crusade preached, 1208; 61 History 1a Sinjon de Montfort; the battle of Muret, 1213; development of the medie- val Inquisition; end of the separate Provencal civilization; tendency of Innocent III towards leniency. Innocent III and the Lateran Council of 1215; condemnation of heresy; encouragement of education; abolition of trial by battle, and of the ordeal; general attempt to reform the Church. The religious fervor of Innocent III; establishment of the Dominicans or Black Friars. Stirring in Europe of a feeling of the duty owed to the poor and afflicted and unfortunate; St. Francis of Assisi; establishment of the Franciscans or Friars Minor. Death of Innocent III, 1216; unity of Latin Christendom under him; the Papacy at the height of its power; grand conception of its duty to humanity; culmination of the political and religious ideals of the Middle Ages; starting of a new social ideal with the teaching of St. Francis. 1 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES HISTORY IB UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES HISTORY iB H. MORSE STEPHENS Price 25 Cents 1 History 1b LECTURE 1 St. Francis of Assisi The papacy of Innocent III marked the triumph of Hildebrandine ideals; recognition of the supremacy of the Church in Latin Christendom and of the Pope over the Church; political ascendancy of the Church defended on the ground of its services to humanity. Moral aims of the Church; its campaign against vice; contrast be- tween vice and crime; its ideal of purity and chastity; the sanctity of celibacy; the sacrament of marriage; Peter Lombard and the sacraments; the penitential system; the sacrament of penance; auricular confession. Democracy in the Church; secular priests; canons; monks and nuns; humble birth of some of the greatest popes. The Church and social reform; its recognition of individual rights; its campaign against chattel slavery; its attitude towards the poor. Protests against the wealth and political power of the Church; Arnold of Brescia; Emperor Frederick II; popular protests; the ''Poor Men of Lyons"; the Patarini; protests in literature; the troubadours; the min-. nesingers; Walter Map. Danger of breach between the mediaeval church in spite of its moral, democratic and humane ideals, and the mass of the people; danger to the Church; danger to religion; danger to organized society. St. Francis and the Franciscan friars or Friars Minor revive the ideals of primitive Christianity in their sympathetic attitude towards, and service of, the poor, the afflicted and the unfortunate. The growth of inequality in society; wealth and poverty; primitive Christianity; St. Paulinus of Nola; St. Martin of Tours; socialistic ideals. The ardor of Christianity, which had gone into missions to the heathen, into monasticism, into the Crusades, goes, after the example set by St. Francis, into the service of the poor, the afflicted and the unfor- tunate. St. Francis, born at Assisi, 1182; revived interest in his work and personality; Sabatier; his views; recovery and publication of documents; Tamassia; weight laid on the social ideals of St. Francis. The early years of the life of St. Francis; the Portiuncula; "Holy Poverty"; his first companions; Brother Leo; Brother Giles; Brother Juniper; the interview with Innocent III, 1210; his obedience to the Pope and the Church. The preaching of St. Francis; its success; rapid increase in the numbers of the friars; the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience; the Rule approved by Pope Honorius III, 1223. 2 History 1b The latter years of St. Francis; the ''Stigmata"; the great gathering of the friars at Assisi, 1225; his death, 1226; canonization, 1228; the great church at Assisi; its importance in the history of art; Giotto; the church of St. Mary of the Angels at Assisi. The personality of St. Francis; his love for all humanity, including lepers and brigands; the stories of his preaching to the birds and of the fierce wolf of Gubbio; his humility; his mysticism; his cheerfulness; the Canticle of the Sun. The early literature on St. Francis; the Life by Thomas of Celano; the Mirror of Perfection; the Sacrum Comercium; the official Life by St. Bonaventura; the Legend of the Three Companions; the popular feeling about St. Francis in Italy; the Fioretti or Little Flowers of St. Francis. St. Clare; St. Francis and St. Clare; foundation and organization of the Poor Clares, 1224. Extension of the Franciscan friars; their missionaries and martyrs among the Muhammadans; their work against heresy; their preaching in Italy; St. Antony of Padua; their work in Spain, in France, in Germany, in England; Conrad of Marburg. Organization of the Franciscans and abandonment of the ideals of St. Francis; Brother Elias of Cortona; the generals of the Franciscans; the work for the friars of Cardinal Ugolino, afterwards Pope Gregory IX, 1227-1241. The ''Tertiaries" of St. Francis, organized 1230; spread of his ex- ample among the laity; St. Louis, King of France; St. Louis, Bishop of Toulouse; St. Elizabeth of Thuringia. Dissensions among the Franciscans in the thirteenth century; the spiritual Franciscans; Joachim of Flora; the Fraticelli. The sympathetic imagination of the Franciscans; their hymns; the Dies Irae of Thomas of Celano; the Stabat Mater of Jacopone da Todi. The theology of the Franciscans; their place in the history of the medieval universities. Other orders of Mendicant Friars; St. Dominic, 1170-1221; his work among the Albigensian heretics; the Preaching Brothers of Toulouse, 1216; organization of the Dominican friars or Friars Preacher, 1230; charged with the Papal Inquisition, 1233; their appeal to the intellect; their great theologians; contrast betwen the Dominicans or Black Friars and the Franciscans or Grey Friars. Organization of the Carmelites or White Friars, 1219, and of the Augustinian, Austin or **Crutched" Friars, 1250. Services of the friars to humanity, society, religion and the Papacy. Dante's description of St. Francis and St. Dominic in his "Paradise." St. Francis, the founder, or re-founder, of the ideal of social service; his work begins a new era in the history of Western European society. 3 History 1b LECTUEE 2 The Emperor Frederick II Changes in the character of the struggle for the supremacy of Latin Christendom between the Holy Roman Empire and the Holy Catholic Church under the successors of Pope Innocent III and the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. Frederick II, the '^Wonder of the World," born at Jesi, 1194, heir to the power of the Hohenstaufen in Germany and to the Norman kingdom of South Italy and Sicily. Frederick II after the death of his father, Henry VI, in 1197, and of his mother, Constance, in 1198, the ward of Pope Innocent III; his education at Palermo; his learning; his interest in Arabic literature; considered a sceptic in religion; his Asiatic manner of life and attitude towards government; his curiosity in philosophy and science; his Italian poetry; his love of art; his modernity. Frederick II in South Italy and Sicily; his attitude towards the Nor- man feudal barons and the Saracens; his overthrow of feudalism; his administrative system; compared with that of Henry II of England; his encouragement of education; foundation of the University of Naples, 1224; encouragement of the school of medicine at Salerno. Efforts of the Popes to separate the Norman kingdom of Sicily from German rule. Frederick II, "King of the Romans," 1212; crowned Emperor, 1220; his son Henry crowned king, 1220; government of St. Engelbert, Arch- bishop of Cologne, in Germany, 1220-1225; Frederick's policy of govern- ing Germany in the names of his sons; Conrad, King of the Romans, 1237; Frederick declared deposed by Gregory IX, 1239, and by Innocent IV, 1245; election as anti-kings of Henry, Landgrave of Thuringia, 1243, and William, Count of Holland, 1247. Frederick's policy in Germany; his recognition of the feudal rights of the great feudatories, ecclesiastical and lay, 1220, 1232; development into codes of German customary law; the Sachs enspie gel; the Diet of Mainz, 1235, and Frederick's endeavor to establish an imperial court of appeal and thus to end feudal warfare; a limited number of electors to the imperial throne gradually recognized. Extension of German power and trade to the east; the princes and the cities; Bohemia, though a Slav state, and a kingdom, regarded as having an electoral vote; Ottocar I, 1197-1230; Wenceslas III, 1230- 1253; the Danes driven from the southern Baltic, 1223-1227; growth of Bran- denburg; expansion of Christianity; Albert, Bishop of Riga; foundation 01 the Knights of the Sword, 1200, and their conquest of Livonia and 4 History 1b Courland; removal of the Teutonic Knights from Palestine, 1220, and their conquest of Prussia; the Grand Master, Hermann of Salza. This extension made easier by the incursion of the Tartars under Baty, grandson of Ghingiz Khan, in 1240; their destruction of Kiev and overthrow of the Eussians, Poles and Hungarians; consternation caused by the Tartar invasion. Development of German literature under Frederick II; the court of Hermann of Thuringia; the Minnesinger; Walther von der Vogelweide; Wolfram von Eschenbach; Parzival. Importance of the appearance of vernacular literatures in German, French, Spanish and Italian; the Italian poetry of Frederick II; Pro- vencal literature; the Troubadours. The contest between Frederick II and the Papacy; with his former tutor, Honorius III, 1216-1227; with Gregory IX, 1227-1241; Frederick excommunicated, 1227; peace of San Germano, 1230-1239; Frederick and Innocent IV, 1243-1254; declared deposed by the Council of Lyons, 1245; Frederick's desperate attack on the Papacy and adoption of the views of the Fraticelli, 1245-1250. Frederick's crusade, 1228-1229; he obtained Jerusalem by diplomacy, 1229; his claim to the throne of Jerusalem; the city in Christian hands for the last time, 1229-1244. The Papacy during the reign of Frederick II; new strength received from the support of the Mendicant Friars; the struggle against heresy; organization of the Papal Inquisition, 1233; the preaching of Conrad of Marburg; the Papal legislation of Gregory IX; his Decretals and the canon law; relations of the Papacy with St. Louis IX of France and Henry III of England; the Council of Lyons, 1245, and its significance. Frederick II and the growing power of the cities; his suppression of municipal liberties in the Sicilian cities of Messina, Catania and Syra- cuse; his attempts to check the growth and independence of the German cities; his wars with the Lombard cities; his support of the city despot as against the city republic; Eccelin da Eomano; the continued opposition of Kome to the rule of the Popes. Frederick II and Europe outside of Germany and Italy; his three marriages, to Constance of Aragon, to Yolande of Brienne, and to Isabella, sister of Henry III of England. The last days of Frederick II; his religious opinions; his favour to his Saracen subjects; his dreams of a lay Papacy, like the Caliphate. Death of the Emperor Frederick II, the '< Wonder of the World," 1250; with him went the greatness of the house of Hohenstaufen, the glory of the Sicilian civilization, and the last power that could have controlled Eome for the Popes. 5 History 1b LECTURE 3 St. Louis IX Contemporary with Frederick II, with his absolutist theories in gov- ernment, his modernism, and his tendency to religious scepticism, was the saintly, feudal, crusading king of France, Louis IX. The change in the situation of the French monarchy effected under Philip Augustus by the conquest of Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Poitou, and by the extension to the south due to the crusades against the A-lbigenses. The Capetian monarchy and feudalism; the royal "baillis"; com- parison with the administrative reforms of Henry II of England and of the Emperor Frederick II. The brief reign of Louis VIII, 1223-1226; definite conquest of Poitou; renewal of the Albigensian Crusade and the royal progress through Provence and Languedoc. '^ Establishment of heredity in the French monarchy; Louis VIII not crowned in his father's lifetime; ''appanages" left to his younger sons. The minority of Louis IX, 1226-1235; regency of the Queen-mother, Blanche of Castille; failure of the feudal reaction. The reign of St. Louis IX, 1235-1270, a ''Tertiary" of St. Francis; king, crusader and saint; his education; his personality; his piety; his sense of justice; his sense of duty; his Life by Joinville. The administration of St. Louis; the extension of the monarchy made more system necessary; the royal domain under the king's direct control and the feudal counties and baronies; the trained officials of the royal household; development of the law and legal procedure; the king the fountain of justice; appeals; the Parlement of Paris; the royal bailliages and senechaussees; the Grand Co'uncil; the maitres des comptes; expulsion of the Jews from France, 1252. Comparison with the development of the English system of admin- istration; Henry III and the Barons' War; St. Louis chosen as arbi- trator; Simon de Montfort and the Parliament of 1265. The foreign policy of St. Louis; his refusal to take part in the contest beween Frederick II and the Popes, to allow his brother Robert to accept election to the Empire, or to recognize the deposition of Frederick by the Council of Lyons; his relations with Henry III of England, James I of Aragon, and the kings of Castille and Navarre. St. Louis as a crusader; the Sixth Crusade; inspired by the capture of Jerusalem by the Karizmian Turks in the service of Egypt, 1244; as in the Fifth Crusade, 1217-1221, it was resolved to attack Egypt; St. Louis in Egypt, 1249-51; taken prisoner; in Palestine, 1251-1254. 6 History 1b Queen Blanche regent of France during the absence of St. Loui::, The brothers of St. Louis; Eobert, Count of Artois, 1237-1249 j Alphonse, Count of Poitou and Auvergne, 1241, and of Toulouse, 1249- 1271; his administration in the south of France; the Parleraent of Tou- louse; Charles, count of Anjou, Maine and Provence, 1245-1265; the extinction of the ruling feudal houses of Languedoc and Provence; the English in Gascony. The fall of the Hohenstaufen; death of Conrad IV, 1254; Pope Inno- cent IV, 1253, and Pope Alexander IV, 1255, sell the kingdom of Sicily to Henry III of England for his son Edmund; Manfred, king of Sicily, 1258; wars between the Guelf and Ghibelline cities and despots in Lom- bardy and Tuscany; battle of Montaperti, 1260; Charles of Anjou and Provence made king of Sicily, 1265, by Pope Clement IV; battle of Grandella and death of Manfred, 1267; battle of Tagliacozzo and execu- tion of Conradin, 1268. Interregnum in Germany after the death of Conrad IV, 1254; definite appearance of the Seven Electors, the Archbishops of Mainz or Mayence, Cologne, and Treves or Trier, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine and the King of Bohemia; double- election of Richard of Cornwall, brother of Henry III of England, and Alfonso X of Castillo, 1257; end of the Interregnum with the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1273. The Seventh Crusade, 1270; St. Louis diverted to Tunis by Charles of Anjou; his death in camp at Carthage; St. Louis the last of the great crusaders; his exemplification of all that was best in medieval and feudal Christendom. End of the Latin power in the Eastern Mediterranean; fall of the Latin Eastern Empire with the capture of Constantinople by Michael Palaeologus, 1261; continuance of Latin feudal states in Greece and the islands; capture of Athens by the Catalans, 1310; the Venetians in Crete and the Ionian Islands. End of the Crusading states; loss of Antioch, 1268; the crusade of Edward of England, 1270-1272; failure of Pope Gregory X to start a new crusade, 1274; loss of Acre, 1291; the Christian kingdom of the Lusignans in Cyprus and the possession of Rhodes by the Knights of St. John of the Hospital alone remained. Contemporary with St. Louis IX of France was St. Ferdinand III of Castillo and Leon, who fought against the Muhammadans, 1214-1252, and captured Cordova, 1236, Seville, 1244, and Cadiz, 1250; the character and work of his successor, Alfonso X of Castillo and Leon, 1252-1284; the extension of Aragon under James I, 1213-1276, to the Balearic Isl- ands, 1229, and Valencia, 1239; Portugal attained her European limits by the conquest of the Algarves by Affonso III, 1255-1279. 7 History 1b The Age of St. Louis was also the Age of the Schoolmen; the uni- versal demand for education, discussion and inquiry; the basis of medi- eval education; the trivium, — grammar, rhetoric, logic; the quadrivium, — arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music; the universities of the thirteenth century; Paris and Oxford; scholasticism; Aristotle; scholasticism and theology; scholasticism and natural science; the Sentences of Peter Lom- bard; Dominicans and Franciscans; the great schoolmen; Alexander Hales, 1180-1245; Albertus Magnus, 1193-1280; St. Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274; St. Bonaventura, 1221-1274; Eoger Bacon, 1213-1292. Sense of intellectual unity in Latin Christendom; the great school- men, two Italian, two English, one German, all studied or taught at Paris; the use of Latin as against the development of the vernacular languages of Europe. LECTURE 4 Pope Boniface VIII; the Emperor Henry VII By the end of the thirteenth century new forces had appeared in the development of civilization in Europe, which tended to overthrow the medieval simplicity of the Hildebrandine ideal of the supremacy of the Church and of the Imperial ideal of the supremacy of the State. These new forces were moral and intellectual, as well as political, in their action upon the Church, and economic, as well as political, in their action upon the State. The relation of the friars to the Church; .their rivalry with the sec- ular priests; their independence of episcopal control; their position in the universities, and particularly in the University of Paris; the strife for uniformity of faith; St. Thomas Aquinas. Changes in the feudal state, due to the growth of the cities; the city as a feudal unit; efficiency of city government; the citizen militia as a military force; its strength and weakness; recognition of cities as a force in the State. Adjustment of feudal ideas to the changed condition of medieval civilization; the theory of Estates; the influence of the lawyers and of the study of law; transformation of feudal government. The growing demand for administrative efficiency as society became more complex. The example set by the Emperor Frederick II and by St. Louis IX of France. Administration in South Italy and Sicily; strongly knit unity in spite of difference of race; the Sicilian Vespers, 1282; death of Charles of Anjou, 1285; division of the old Norman kingdom; Sicily independent under a Spanish prince from Aragon; Naples under the Angevins. 8 History 1b Administration in Central and North Italy; the cities as units; the Italian city-state and the nobles; the Italian city-state and the rural districts. Administration in the Iberian Peninsula; early participation of the cities in the work of government; organized feudalism in the State; the Estates or Cortes of Aragon; admission of the cities, 1133; the ''Privilege of Union," 1287, permitting the right of insurrection; the Estates or Cortes of Castillo and Leon; the ' ' Hermandad, " or brotherly union of the cities of Castillo, 1295; the legislation of Alphonso the Wise; the "Siete Partidas"; development of the Estates or Cortes in Portugal. Administration in Prance; the constructive work of Philip IV, le Bel, 1285-1314; development of the institutions of Philip Augustus and St. Louis; the ''Conseil du Eoi" or royal council; the ''Chambre des Comptes"; the Parlement of Paris; its diverse duties; the "Grande Chambre, " the ''Chambre des enquetes, " the ''Chambre des requetes"; development of the idea of royal justice; the local courts; the feudal courts; the local parlements; the rise of professional lawyers; the droit coutumier and the droit ecrit; the local Estates; first meeting of the States-Greneral of France, 1302; later meetings, 1308, 1314; the French communes. Administration in England; the constructive work of Edward I, 1272- 1307; the Model Parliament, 1295; his experiments with different Estates; his legal reforms; the Statute "Quia Emptores"; the three courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer; the power of Parliament over finance fixed, 1297, and in legislation, 1322; the English cities; Edward I and trade; the Statute of Merchants, 1283; expulsion of the Jews, 1290. Administration in Germany; growth of the independence of the cities; their leagues; their relations with the greater and lesser feudal lords; particularism of the German feudal states; the Swiss league of 1291; defeat of Leopold of Austria by the Swiss at Morgarten, 1315. The great Flemish cities; their industries and commerce; defeat of the French feudal army by the Flemings at Courtrai, 1302. Absence of any spirit of nationality in the modern sense during the thirteenth century; strong sense of civic patriotism in the cities; out- break of neighborhood spirit against oppression, as in the case of the Sicilian Vespers, the Swiss confederation, the Flemish rising and the resistance of the Scots to the English, culminating in the battle of Bannockburn, 1314. In this new era of new conditions, striving for adjustment, came the fullest expression of medieval Papal ideas by Pope Boniface VIII and of medieval Imperial ideas by the Emperor Henry YiL The Papacy after the fall of the Hohenstaufen; the influence of Charles of Anjou, 1266-1285; the delay in electing a pope, 1268-1271, 9 History 1b caused the fixing of the rules for the conclave by Gregory X, 1274; influence of the great Eoman noble families; nepotism; Nicholas III, 1277-1280, an Orsini, Honorius IV, 1285-1287, a Savelli, Nicholas IV, 1288-1292, a Colonna. Eudolph of Ilapsburg, Emperor 1273-1291, renounces the imperial claim over the papal possessions in Italy. The episode of Pietro Morrone, Pope Celestine V, 1294. Election of Benedetto Gaetani, Pope Boniface VIII, 1294; his lofty expression of the Hildebrandine ideals; his bulls ''Clericis laicos," 1296, and ''Unam Sanctam, " 1302; the great Jubilee at Eome, 1300; compar- ison with Gregory VII and Innocent III. Opposition to the Church in England by Edward I; the Statute of Mortmain, 1279; the outlawry of the clergy, 1296; the Parliament of Lincoln, 1301; the Statute of Carlisle, 1307. Opposition to the Church in France by Philip IV, le Bel; prohibition of French contributions, 1296; the assertions of the first States-General of France, 1302. Opposition to the Church in Germany; the German prelates and German national feeling; the excommunication of Albert of Ilapsburg, 1299. The Pope insulted at Anagni; death of Boniface VIII, 1303. The brief papacy of Benedict XI, 1304. Election of the Archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope Clement V, 1305; the seat of the Papacy fixed at Avignon, 1309; the ''Babylonish Cap- tivity" and the effect upon the Church and the Papacy of the removal from Rome to Avignon. Suppression of the Order of the Knights of the Temple, 1312. The Holy Eoman Empire after the Interregnum; the German policy of Eudolph of Hapsburg, 1273-1291, Adolph of Nassau, 1292-1298, and Albert of Hapsburg, 1298-1308; who were not crowned Emperors at Eome; failure of their efforts at heredity; grants made of the imperial domains; attitude of the great feudatories, the lesser feudatories and the cities to the imperial idea; the candidature of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip le Bel, 1308. Election of Henry of Luxemburg, 1308; crowned king at Aachen, 1310; his son John made King of Bohemia; expedition of Henry VII to Italy; crowned King of Italy at Milan, 1311, and Emperor at Eome, 1312. The ideas and policy of the Emperor Henry VII; his attempt to reconcile Guelfs and Ghibellines in Italy; his march against Florence; the De MonarcMd of Dante; death of Henry VII, 1313. Pope Boniface VIII and the Emperor Henry VII regarded as the last representatives of the medieval conception of the Holy Catholic Church and the Holy Eoman Empire. 10 History 1b LECTURE 5 Dante The essential unity of Latin Christian civilization bound up in the idea of the continuity of Church and State, associated with the name of Eome, represented in the writings of Dante, in spite of the intensity of his feeling for Florence and his use of the Italian language in his poems instead of Latin. Dante the exponent of medieval thought in religion, philosophy, liter- ature, science and politics. The youth of Dante Alighieri, born at Florence, 1265; his family; his education; social and political life at Florence during his boyhood. The inner life of Dante; the vision of Beatrice; the death of Beatrice, 1290; medieval love and chivalry; the troubadours; Italian poetry; the Emperor Frederick II; Guido Guinicelli; the Vita Nuova; the Canzoniere; Dante's marriage to Gemma Donati. The public life of Dante, 1295-1302; parties at Florence; Guelfs and Ghibellines; Cerchi and Donati; Bianchi and Neri, or White and Black Guelfs; Dante in the Council of One Hundred, 1296; ambassador to San Gemignano, 1299; visit to Eome at the Jubilee of 1300; Dante one of the six Priors of Florence, June 15 to August 15, 1300; Dante exiled from Florence, 1302. Dante in exile; his hopes for return; his relations with the Ghibelline exiles; at Bologna and Verona; at Paris, 1308-1310; possible visit to Oxford; his studies and mastery of scholastic philosophy. Dante and the Emperor Henry VII in Italy, 1311-1313; his attitude towards the Holy Eoman Empire; the Letters; the De MonarcMd; the world policy and the Italian policy of Dante. Dante's wanderings in Italy, 1311-1317; his continued interest in politics; his attitude towards the Papacy; Lucca; Verona; Can Grande della Scala. Dante's interest in philosophy and literature; the influence of schol- asticism; allegorical interpretation; the Convito or Convivio. Dante and the Italian vernacular; the De Vulgari Eloquentid. Dante and medieval science; the Questio de Aqud et Terrd attributed to him. Dante at Eavenna, 1317-1321; Guido da Polenta; his latter years; his reputation; the Epistle to Can Grande della Scala; the Eclogues; the death of Dante at Eavenna, 1321. The Divina Commedia or Divine Comedy, the supreme work of Dante; its three parts, the Inferno, the Furgatorio, the Paradiso; its structure; its exposition of medieval life and thought. 11 History 1b Dante ^s guides: Virgil, Cato, Statius, the Countess Matilda of Tuscany, Beatrice, St. Bernard. Dante's place in the history of politics. Dante's place in the history of literature; Boccaccio; Petrarch, Dante's place in the history of art; Giotto. Dante's attitude towards Pope Boniface VIII and the Emperor Henry VII, towards St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi; contrast between the first quarter of the thirteenth century and the first quarter of the fourteenth century. Dante as a world poet. LECTURE 6 The Eepublic of Florence The walled cities of the Middle Ages; their efficiency for defense; their place under feudal conditions; effect of the development of in- dustry and commerce; artisans and merchants; the need for organization and co-operation; the Roman collegia; the medieval guilds; personal freedom. Contrast with agricultural life in the Middle Ages; serfdom; the castles of the feudal lords. The Church and the walled cities; the bishops. Consciousness of civic pride; local patriotism; civic strife, political and economic; intensity of city life; Dante and Florence. The Italian city-states of the Middle Ages; comparison with the Greek city-states and the municipia and civitates of the Roman Empire; the commune and the people. Practical independence of the Italian cities combined with recognition of the claims to universal dominion of the Holy Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. The Italian cities of the twelfth century; effect of the Crusades; the Lombard League and Frederick Barbarossa; Milan; the maritime cities; Amalfi; Pisa; Genoa; the exceptional position of Venice and Rome. The cities of Tuscany; the Countess Matilda; Pisa; Lucca; Siena; Florence; destruction of feudal castles; establishment of the feudal nobles in the cities; their towers; their military efficiency; their polit- ical position; their relations with the trading and working classes; their faction fights; the need for internal peace and order; the Podestas and the Captains of the People; the relations of the cities to the surrounding agricultural districts, and of the larger cities to the smaller cities. Florence, the representative Italian city-state of the fourteenth cen- tury; its importance in Tuscany and in Italy. 12 History 1b The early history of Florence; the old Boman city; the old walls; the rise of the Commune after the death of the Countess Matilda, 1115; the subjugation of the neighboring lords and their castles; the new walls, 1173. The grandi and the people; organization of the trade-guilds or major Arti; further conquest of the surrounding country or contado; the first Podesta, 1207; wars with Siena and Pisa; "il primo popolo"; the first Captain of the People, 1251. Factions in Florence; the Guelfs and the Ghibellines; overthrow of the Ghibellines, 1266; the ''Parte Guelfa,'* 1267; Charles of Anjou, lord of Florence, 1267-1277; the third walls, 1284. Government placed in the hands of the Signoria, chosen from the seven great guilds, 1282; battle of Campaldino, 1289, and end of the burgher fighting force; abolition of serfdom in the contado, 1289; ex- clusion of the grandi from oflSce, and further organization of the twenty- one guilds or Arti, 1293; definite organization of burgher government. The industries of Florence; the cloth industry; greatness of profits; the development of banking in Florence; the Florentines the Pope's bankers; letters of exchange; extent of Florentine business; Italians take the place in England of the Jews, expelled 1290; the wealth and luxury of the Florentines; their conspicuous place at the Jubilee of 1300 at Eome. Factions in Florence; the Bianchi and the Neri; Charles of Valois at Florence, 1301; expulsion of the Bianchi, including Dante, 1302; Florence at the head of the Guelf league of Tuscan cities, 1311; repulse of the Emperor Henry VII, 1312. Florence as a power in Italy; the age of the Italian despots; com- parison with the Greek city tyrants; the republic of Florence and the republic of Venice; opposition of Florence to the Visconti of Milan; the brief tyranny of Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, 1342-43; the Black Death at Florence, 1348; death of three-fifths of the population of Florence; the Decameron of Boccaccio, Eeadjustment of conditions of life in Florence, as elsewhere,- after the Black Death; alteration in military values; disappearance of the value of feudal cavalry; the fall of the Grandi or Nobles; disappearance of the burgher infantry; increased value of the individual; the pro- fessional soldier of the fourteenth century; the companies of mercen- aries; the condottiere; Sir John Hawkwood, and the "White Company." Factions in Florence; the "popolo grasso" and the "popolo minuto"; first appearance of the Medici family; the rising of the "Ciompi," or poor artisans, 1378; the episode of Michele Lando the wool-carder. Intensity of civic life in Florence during the century from the birth of Dante to 1378 shown in the adornment of the city and the outburst of literature and art; comparison with Athens. 13 History 1b The buildings at Florence; the Baptistery; the Duomo or Cathedral; the Campanile; the Palazzo Vecchio; the Ponte Vecchio; Santa Croce; Santa Maria Novella; the great Florentine architects; Arnolfo di Cambio, 1240-1310; Giotto, 1276-1337; Taddeo Gaddi, 1300-1366. The revival of art at Pisa; Niccolo Pisano, 1206-1278; Giovanni Pisano, 1250-1328; Andrea Pisano, 1270-1348, and his work at Florence; the progress of sculpture; the south gate of the Baptistery; the Cam- panile; the work of Orcagna, 1308-1368. The revival of painting; Pisa and Siena; painting at Florence; Cima- bue, 1240-1302; the supreme importance of Giotto, 1276-1336, both in architecture and painting; his work at Padua and Assisi; his work at Florence; Orcagna, 1308-1368. Literature and Florence; Dante, 1265-1321; Petrarch, 1302-1374, though of Florentine family, never lived at Florence; Boccaccio, 1313- 1375; the historian Giovanni Villani, 1275-1348; the University of Florence. The importance of Florence in the history of civilization. LECTURE 7 Cities and Universities of the Fourteenth Century While the unity of Latin Christendom seemed to be breaking up in the fourteenth century by the removal of the Papacy to Avignon and the Great Schism and by the restriction of the Empire to Germany after the death of Henry VII, business was organized on European lines and intellectual endeavor was cosmopolitan; the history of cities and universities more important and characteristic than that of the Papacy, the Empire, or the different states of Europe. The Black Death of 1347-1349; its effect on the civilization, pros- perity and morality of Europe. The increasing wealth of Europe up to the Black Death brought about the demand for luxury and encouraged manufactures and commerce; great risks and enormous profits. The organization of industry; the merchant guilds and the craft guilds. The organization of business; the monopoly of business by the Jews in the Middle Ages; the Christian theory of usury; the anti- Jewish movement of the thirteenth century; the rise of the Italian bankers; their wide influence; the Lombards; the Florentines; the Bank of St. George at Genoa. The maritime commercial cities of Italy; greatness of Pisa in the thirteenth century; defeat of Meloria, 1284; Pisa a Ghibelline city; its decline in the fourteenth century; conquered by Florence, 1406. 14 History 1b The greatness of Genoa in the fourteenth century; extent of trade; rivalry with Venice; the war of Chioggia, 1378-1381; the feuds of the Genoese families; the Doria, Fieschi, Spinola and Grimaldi; the office of Doge or Duke created, 1339; decline of Genoa; admission of a French governor, 1396. The Republic of Venice; its independent attitude with regard to Papacy and Empire; its relations with the Latin Empire of the East and with the Greek Empire of the Palaeologi; the power of the Doge or Duke; the great families of Venice; the oligarchy fixed, 1297-1319; the Council of Ten, 1310; made permanent, 1335; the conspiracy of Marino Faliero, 1353; the extent, nature and organization of Venetian trade; the policy of Venice in the East, the Adriatic and in Italy. Eome in the fourteenth century after the removal of the Papacy to Avignon; the great families; the Colonna, Orsini and Savelli; Rienzi, 1347; the demand for civic life and independence; return and death of Rienzi, 1354; Bulwer-Lytton 's Eiensi. The tendency of the interior cities of Italy to become despotisms in the fourteenth century; the bitterness of internal strife; Siena; Perugia; Bologna; the Italian city despots a relief from civic strife and turbulent democracy; the Visconti at Milan, the Delia Scala at Verona, the Este at Ferrara; the despots and their relation to industry, trade, art and literature; the marriage of Lionel of Clarence, son of Edward III of England, to Violante Visconti, 1368. Influence of the change in warfare on the situation of the Italian city-states. The imperial cities of Germany; contrast with the Italian cities; their industry; their commerce; their control of surrounding districts; their government; passing of government from the patricians to the guilds; effect of the Black Death. The political position of the German imperial cities; their place in the Diet of the Empire; their leagues; attempt to check them, and especially their right of confederation, by the Golden Bull of the Em- peror Charles IV, 1356; failure of the attempt. The Swabian League' of cities, led by Ulm, 1376; the great cities of south Germany, Mainz, Augsburg, Ulm, Nuremberg; the Rhenish League; importance of Cologne. The trading and maritime cities of North Germany; Liibeck, Dantzig, Hamburg; the Hanseatic League; its factories at London, Lynn, Bruges, Bergen, Novgorod; its control of the Baltic and the North Sea; intense rivalries; the wars of the League with Waldemar III of Denmark, 1361- 1363, 1367-1370; control of the League over Denmark established, 1370; visit of the Emperor Charles IV to Liibeck, 1375; the Hanseatic League at the height of its power; disputes between the merchant and the craft guilds. 15 History 1b The cities of the Netherlands in the fourteenth century; the indus- trial importance of Ghent; the wool-trade with England; Edward I; the Confirmatio Cartarum; the victory of Courtrai, 1302; the burghers and the weavers of the Flemish cities. The part taken by the Netherlands in the war between England and France; the career of James van Artevelde, 1336-1345; prosperity of the Flemish cities; effect of the Black Death; sequel of the expulsion of the English from France; defeat of Philip van Artevelde at Eoosbeke, 1382. The first phase of the Hundred Years' war between France and England; the claim of Edward III to the throne of France; recognized by the Emperor Louis the Bavarian, 1338; battle of Sluys, 1340; battle of Crecy, 1346, and capture of Calais, 1347; battle of Poitiers, 1356, and Treaty of Bretigny, 1360; gradual expulsion of the English from France, 1370-1375. Effect of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War on England; the recognized place of the cities and boroughs in the English Parlia- ment; the city charters of England; London; the peasant revolt, 1381. Effect of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War in France; the jacquerie or rising of the peasants; the cities of France; the effect of the battle of Poitiers; the States-General of 1356; Paris; Etienne Marcel, 1356-1358; the Communes of France in the fourteenth century; Paris; Lyons; Bordeaux; Marseilles. The cities of Spain in the fourteenth century; Seville and Pedro the Cruel; Barcelona; the ''Hermandad" or brotherhood of cities. The universities of the fourteenth century; uniformity of methods; difference of interest; likeness and difference of organization; the ''Nations"; the rise of colleges within the universities, especially at Paris and Oxford; doctors and masters; the enthusiasm of the students of the Middle Ages; the wandering students; their life and songs. The essentials of a medieval university; the "studium generale"; the charters of Popes and Emperors. Thought and education in the fourteenth century; the supremacy of theology; philosophy; the Nominalists and Eealists, or Scotists and Thomists; Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas; the scholasticism of the fourteenth century; Wiclif the last of the great schoolmen; the study of the law and of medicine. First indication of new studies; decree of the Council of Vienne, 1311, that professorships of Greek and Hebrew should be established at Paris, Bologna, Salamanca and Oxford. The great importance of the University at Paris as a model univer- sity; its reputation as the headquarters of orthodox theology; its influ- ence greater than that of the Papacy at Avignon; its influence on 16 History 1b France; its part in the life of Paris; its sixty-three colleges; the Sorbonne. Other French universities; Orleans and the study of law; Montpellier and the study of medicine; Angers; Toulouse. Beginnings of education in Germany; the foundation of the Univer- sity of Prague by Charles IV, 1347; universities founded at Cracow, 1364, Vienna, 1365, Buda, 1389, Heidelberg, 1386, Cologne, 1388, Erfurt, 1392, Eostock, 1396. The universities of Italy; their continued vitality; Bologna; Padua; Pavia; Florence. Universities founded in Spain; Palencia; Salamanca. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge; their colleges and hostels; the career of John Wiclif, 1324-1384; his rank as teacher, schoolman and statesman; his heretical teachings; his attitude towards the Papacy and the Church; his translation of the Bible; the socialistic views of his followers and their influence on the Peasant Eevolt of 1381; "What Oxford thinks to-day, England thinks to-morrow." Significance of the popular insurrections in England and France. LECTUEE 8 The Council of Constance and the Council of Basle While the theory of the organization of Latin Christendom under the Pope and Emperor continued, the residence of the Popes at Avignon and the German policy of the Emperors made a practical contradiction in the fourteenth century; the abandonment of Italy and Eome made the former French and the latter German, and they thus lost the uni- versal character which had come to them through the Eoman name and tradition. Impeachment of the supremacy of the Papacy in the Holy Catholic Church by Michael of Cesena, General of the Franciscans, by William of Ockham, by Marsiglio of Padua, and by John Wiclif; suggestions of the superior power of general church councils, of the organized State and of the national churches. The University of Paris and the idea of a General Council; the Declaration of Eense, 1338, and the Golden Bull, 1356, marked the inde- pendence of Germany of the Papacv; the Statute of Provisors, 1351, and the Statute of Praemunire, 1353, checked the Papacy in England. The demand for the return of the Papacy to Eome; Cardinal Albor- noz; St. Catherine of Siena, 1347-1380; Pope Urban V at Eome, 1367- 1370, and Pope Gregory XI, 1377-78. 17 History 1b Beginning of the Great Schism, 1378; election of two Popes. Scandal caused by the Great Schism; efforts of the University of Paris to end it; Council of Pisa and election of a third Pope, 1409. Absence of any temporal power strong enough to end the Great Schism; England under Eichard II, 1377-1399; France under Charles VI, 1380-1422; the Spanish kingdoms; the Italian states. The situation in Germany; the House of Luxemburg and the House of Hapsburg; the Emperor Louis the Bavarian; the Declaration of Reuse, 1338; the Holy Eoman Empire becomes in fact German and lay; the growth of Electors; Louis grants a divorce, 1342; Charles of Luxemburg, King of Bohemia, elected King of the Eomans, 1347; crowned Emperor at Eome, 1355. The Emperor Charles IV issues the Golden Bull, 1356; its importance; the seven electors; the procedure of elections; the Pope's claim to con- firmation ignored; the sovereign power of the electors; leagues of cities forbidden. The policy of Charles IV in Germany; his policy in Bohemia; the archbishopric of Prague, 1344; the University of Prague, 1347. The Hapsburgs in Austria; consolidation of their power; the Univer- sity of Vienna founded, 1365; their struggle with the Swiss; Leopold III defeated and killed at Sempach, 1386; recognition of the independence of the Swiss League, 1394. The progress of the Teutonic Order; its conquest of Prussia; the Grand Mastership of Winzig von Kniprode, 1351-1382; its wars with Lithuania; its relations with the Knights of the Sword; conversion of Lithuania, and union of Lithuania with Poland, 1387; defeat of the Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg, 1410; decline of the Teutonic Order. The Union of Kalmar, 1397, of the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden; effect of their union upon the Hanseatic League. Wenceslas, King of Bohemia, eldest son of the Emperor Charles IV, King of the Eomans, 1376-1400; his incapacity; his conference with Charles VI of France at Eheims, 1398; deposed, 1400. Demand of the University of Paris for a General Council to end the Great Schism; Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson. The growth of heresy; the Lollards or followers of Wiclif in England; their suppression; the teachings of John Huss at Prague; the national character of the Bohemian heresy; the story of St. John Nepomuc, 1393; withdrawal of the German students from the University of Prague, 1409. Sigismund, second son of the Emperor Charles IV, King of Hungary, 1387, King of the Eomans, 1411, resolves to call a General Council to end the Great Schism, to reform the Church, to suppress heresy; the personality of Sigismund; his defeat by the Turks at Nicopolis, 1396; 18 History 1b his friendship for Frederick of Hohenzollern, Burggrave of Nuremberg, whom he appointed Elector of Brandenburg in 1415. The Council of Constance, 1414-1418; its significance in the history of religion, of the Church and of European civilization. Deposition of Pope John XXIII, abdication of Gregory XII, and election of Pope Martin Vj refusal of Peter de Luna, Pope Benedict XIII, to resign. Condemnation and execution of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. Reforms attempted in the organization of the Church; national con- cordats. The organization of the Council of Constance by nations, after the fashion of the universities; the four nations; significance of the word ''nation'' in the Middle Ages; its relation to the words "people" and ' ' state. ' ' Declaration of the superiority of Councils over Popes; arrangements for future councils. England and Prance at the Council of Constance; Bishop Beaufort; the civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians in France; the Lancastrian kings in England. The second phase of the Hundred Years' War between England and France; the victory of Henry V at Agincourt, 1415; the Treaty of Troyes, 1420; the alliance between England and Burgundy; the regency of the Duke of Bedford in France, 1422-1435; the wonderful episode of Jeanne Dare, 1429-1430; expulsion of the English from France by 1450. The papacy of Martin V, 1417-1431; death of Benedict XIII, 1424, and end of anti-Popes, 1429; the recovery of the States of the Church in Italy; general recovery of the Papal influence in Europe; insignifi- cance of the Council of Siena, 1424; election of Pope Eugenius IV, 1431. The Hussite wars, 1419-1431; victories of the Bohemians over the Germans; John Ziska, 1419-1424; his tactics; his use of artillery; the democratic and religious ideas of the Taborites; failure of the crusades against the Hussites. Meeting of the Council of Basle, 1431; its three aims: the suppression of heresy, the reform of the Church, the pacification of Christendom; its organization by deputations instead of by nations; the negotiations with the Hussites and final pacification; the reform of the Church; end of the vigorous period of the Council and secession of many of its members, 1438. Pope Eugenius IV and the Council of Basle; his diplomacy; he cheek- mates the Council of Basle by calling a council at Ferrara, 1438, ad- journed to Florence, 1439, which brings about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin churches; the Emperor John Palaeologus; the recon- ciliation not welcomed at Constantinople. 19 History 1b Sigismund and the Council of Basle; crowned Emperor at Rome, 1433; recognized as King of Bohemia, 1435; his death, 1437. The latter days of the Council of Basle; its deposition of Eugenius IV and election of the Duke of Savoy as Pope Felix V, 1439; abdication of Felix and dissolution of the Council, 1449. Failure of the conciliar idea to establish itself as the system of government of Latin Christendom; reaction to the monarchical idea of papal government checked by the stated rights of national churches. The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 1438, and declaration of the rights of the Gallican Church; action against provisions and papal reser- vations, appeals to the Pope and annates; comparison with the English statutes of Pro visors and Praemunire; the royal power and the Gallican Church; decline of the influence of the University of Paris. The rights of the German Church stated by the Diet of Mainz, 1439, and the Concordat of Vienna, 1448; comparison with the Gallican and Anglican rights. The personalities of the Council of Basle; Cardinal Giulio Cesarini, Nicholas Cusanus, Cardinal d'Allemand, Archibshop of Aries, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini. The bull ' ' Execrabilis, " 1460, condemning all appeals to a General Church Council as invalid. The revival of religious enthusiasm by the Franciscan preachers, St. Bernardino of Siena, 1380-1444, and St. John Capistrano, 1385-1456. LECTURE 9 Italy in the Fifteenth Century: the Capture of Constantinople by THE Turks The importance of the history of Italy, not only as the native country of the men who directed the movement of Latin Christian civilization, but also as the home of the general tendencies of civilization; the lead- ership of Italy in thought and art; Italian history the key-note of the history of civilization up to the sixteenth century. The conciliar movement of the first half of the fifteenth century, following upon the ''Babylonian Captivity" of the Popes at Avignon and the Great Schism, decreased the political influence of Italy, but left to it the primacy in wealth and art; the decay of scholasticism made way for its intellectual leadership in the development of humanism. The Age of the Renaissance; different significations of the word; different ideas associated with it; its various manifestations in Italy; the Quattrocento. 20 History 1b The Papacy after the failure of the conciliar movement, while still maintaining its medieval pretensions, becomes, with the growth of the national churches, essentially Italian and plays to an increasing degree the part of an Italian state in competition with other Italian states. The Popes of the Eenaissance; the recovery of the States of the Church by Martin V, 1417-1431; their temporal sovereignty forces the Popes into Italian politics; their supremacy in Kome established after the Porcaro plot, 1452; nepotism; the use of relatives for political pur- poses and the promotion of relatives to high positions developed by Pope Sixtus IV, 1471-1484, and Pope Alexander VI, 1492-1503. The Popes of the Eenaissance and the College of Cardinals; failure of the recommendations of the Councils of Constance and Basle; the Popes and the great Eoman families; the Popes and the Italian despots; the Popes and foreign rulers. The Popes of the Eenaissance and the Curia; the papal officials; the papal diplomatists. The secularization of the Papacy in the latter half of the fifteenth century. The Popes of the Eenaissance and the Eevival of Learning; Pope Nicholas V, 1447-1455; Pope Pius II, 1458-1464. The Popes of the Eenaissance and art; Pope Sixtus IV, 1471-1484; the Sistine Chapel. The Popes of the Eenaissance; Nicholas V, 1447-1455; his coronation of the Emperor Frederick III, 1452; Calixtus III, Alphonso Borgia, 1455- 1458; Pius II, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 1458-1464; the Congress of Mantua; his ardor for a Crusade against the Turks; the bull "Execra- bilis,'' 1460; Paul II, Pietro Barbo, 1464-1471; Sixtus IV, Francesco della Eovere, 1471-1484; Innocent VIII, Giovanni Battista Cibo, 1484- 1492; his alliance with Lorenzo the Magnificent. Election of Eodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, 1492; his application of the theories and practices of other Italian states to the Papacy; Cesare Borgia; Lucrezia Borgia; the legend of the Borgias. The state-system of Italy in the fifteenth century; the five principal states; the minor city-states; despotism and republics; the balance of power in Italy; the rise of diplomacy; Machiavelli; the condottieri. The minor states; Siena; the house of Este, dukes of Ferrara; the Bentivoglio of Bologna; the Malatesta of Eimini; the Gonzaga of Man- tua; Frederick, Duke of Urbino, 1422-1482. The five principal states of Italy in the fifteenth century; the Papacy; the kingdom of Naples; the duchy of Milan; the republic of Venice; the republic of Florence. Alfonso V, King of Aragon and Sicily, also Alfonso I of Naples, 1442-1458; his patronage of the Eenaissance; Lorenzo Valla; Ferrante, 21 History 1b 1458-1494; the claims of the house of Anjou on the kingdom of Naples. The duchy of Milan created by the Emperor, 1395; the last Vis- conti duke, Filippo Maria Visconti, 1412-1447; claims to the succession; the Sforza dukes; Francesco, 1450-1466; Galeazzo Maria, 1466-1478; his assassination; Ludovico, ''II Moro," 1480; relations with Venice, Florence and Genoa; the invitation to Charles VIII of France, 1494; Lionardo da Vinci at Milan; the Lombard school of painting; Luini. The republic of Venice in the fifteenth century; extent of com- merce; the trade routes controlled by the State; the government of Venice; the Doge; the Council of Ten; the expansion of Venice by land and sea; Venice as an Italian state; conquest of Padua, Vicenza and Verona, 1406, of Friuli, 1420, Brescia, 1426, Bergamo, 1428, Eovigo, 1484, Cremona, 1499; the government of the Venetian mainland; the podestas; the condottieri generals; Carmagnola; Colleoni; the Venetian diplomat- ists; the University of Padua. The sea power of Venice; the Adriatic; the Ionian Islands; the Morea and the islands of the Aegean; Crete; the acquisition of Cyprus, 1488. The wealth and splendor of Venice; the power of the State; attitude towards Italy and the Papacy; St. Mark's; Venetian painters; Giovanni Bellini, 1427-1516; Carpaccio, 1470-1522; the statue of Colleoni. Venice and the learning of the Renaissance; the libraries of Petrarch and Bessarion; Aldus Manutius and the Aldine press. Indications of the decline of Venice; the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 1453; the discovery of the sea-route to India, 1498. The Eepublic of Florence in the fifteenth century; the conquest of Pisa,' 1406; and Leghorn, 1421; the rise of the Medici; Giovanni de 'Medici, 1421-1429; Cosimo de 'Medici, Pater Patrice, 1434-1464; Piero de 'Medici, 1464-1469; Lorenzo de 'Medici, ''II Magnifico," 1464-1492; his position in Florence; his position in Italy; the Pazzi conspiracy, 1478; his patron- age of art and literature; the Platonic Academy; the beginning of the preaching of Savonarola. Humanism at Florence; the teaching of Greek; the Revival of Learning. The Renaissance of art at Florence; architecture; Brunelleschi, 1377- 1446; Alberti, 1405-1472; sculpture; Ghiberti, 1378-1455; Donatello, 1386- 1466; Luca della Robbia, 1400-1482; Verrochio, 1435-1488; painting; Masaccio, 1402-1429; Fra Angelico, 1387-1455; Filippo Lippi, 1412-1469; Botticelli, 1447-1510. The birth of Lionardo da Vinci, the supreme type of the Renaissance, 1452; and of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, 1475. The significance of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, 1453; its effect on Italy, on sea power in the Mediterranean and on the Re- vival of Learning; the study of Greek in Italy. The growth of the power of the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor and 22 History 1b in Europe in the fourteenth and the first half of the fifteenth century; the efforts of John Palaeologus and Constantine Palaeologus to rouse western Christendom; defeat of Sigismund at Nicopolis, 1396; and of Ladislas of Hungary at Varna, 1449. Muhammad II; his preparations; the capture of Constantinople, 1453; end of the revived Greek Empire of the Palaeologi. Excitement in Europe; efforts of Pope Pius II for a Crusade against the Turks; his death at Ancona, 1464. Failure of western Christendom to combine against the Ottoman Turks. The state-system of Europe and the state-system of Italy; absence of national feeling; Charles VIII, King of Prance, and his expedition to Italy, 1494-1496. The New Europe. LECTURE 10 Loxns XI OF France: Monarchy in the Fifteenth Century The state-system of Western Europe in the fifteenth century; anal- ogies with the state-system of Italy; the kingdoms of the Iberian Penin- sula; their relations with each other; the electoral states of Germany and the effect of the Golden Bull, 1356; the kingdoms of Hungary, Bohemia and Poland; the Scandinavian kingdoms after the Union of Kalmar; the kingdom of England and its relations with Scotland, Flan- ders and France; the Treaty of Troyes, 1420; the kingdom of France. The idea of the state contrasted with the idea of the nation. Continuance, but increasing vagueness, of the idea of the univer- sality of the Empire in the fifteenth century. Effect of the conciliar movement upon the idea of the universality of the Church in the fifteenth century. Growth of the idea of state-craft; the influence of Italy; diplomacy; Venice; Florence. The classification of the people of Europe by status in the Middle Ages and in the fifteenth century; the ''Estates"; the effect of economic changes on agriculture, industry and commerce; prosperity of the mer- cantile and wage-earning classes; the history of prices; combination. Change in the situation of the land-holding classes; the passing of feudal conditions; the new nobility. Changes in the art of war; gunpowder; artillery; effect on castles and walled cities; the revival of infantry in the fourteenth century followed by the development of professional soldiery; the English archer; the 23 History 1b German lanzknecht; the Swiss infantry; the Spanish infantry; the French cavalry; development of the musket; the new tactics; Gonzalvo da Cor- dova, the "Great Captain, " and his military reforms; influence of the Turkish Janissaries. The new state-system and the new state-craft encouraged the idea of monarchy; efficiency of one-man government: disappearance of the feudal idea; the nobleman takes the place of the feudal baron and knight; the courtier; the power of wealth. The cities and the lawyers support the idea of the new monarchy; influence of the Church; the political ideas of the Eenaissance, The dynastic idea in the new monarchy; contrast with the feudal idea Adjustment of the Church, the new nobility, the merchants and the people to the new monarchy. Louis XI, King of France, 1461-1483, the typical monarch of the new type; the Memoirs of Philippe de Comines; Scott's Quentifi Durward. France in the fifteenth centurj^; effect of the Hundred Years' War on northern and central France; prosperity of southern France; Jacques Coeur, the merchant of Marseilles, Treasurer of France under Charles VII; the noblesse of France; the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 1438. The States-General of 1439; creation of a royal army; establishment of the taille as a permanent royal tax. Louis XI and the noblesse; Louis XI and the Galilean Church; Louis XI and the business classes; Louis XI and centralized administration; the ministers and the policy of Louis XI. Louis XI and Charles the Bold of Burgundy; the Valois dukes of Burgundy and their dominions; the accumulation of the states of the Netherlands; the idea of a Middle Kingdom; Charles the Bold and France; Charles the Bold and Germany; defeat of Charles the Bold by the Swiss at Granson and Morat, 1476; death of Charles the Bold, 1477; the duchy of Burgundy seized by Louis XI; marriage of Mary of Bur- gundy, heiress to the other domains of Charles the Bold, to Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III. The new monarchy in England; the effects of the Wars of the Roses; the reigns of Edward IV, 1461-1483; Eichard III, 1483-1485; and Henry VII, 1485-1509; the Court of Star Chamber. The Stuart monarchy in Scotland in the fifteenth century; the alliance between Scotland and France. The new monarchy in the Iberian Peninsula; Isabella recognized as heiress of Castille, 1468; her marriage to Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon, 1469; her succession to the throne, 1474; the Santa Hermandad or Holy Brotherhood, 1476; the independence of Portugal secured by the battle of Aljubarrota, 1385; the dynasty of John the Great and Philippa of Lancaster; the reign of John the Perfect, 1481-1495. 24 History 1b Failure of the state idea to embrace all Germany; absence of the state and national idea; effect of city independence and of imperialism; the house of Hapsburg succeeds the house of Luxemburg; the long reign of the Emperor Frederick III, 1440-1493; Frederick of Hohenzollern, Burggrave of Nuremberg, first Hohenzollern Margrave of Brandenburg, 1415-1440; his reign and policy. The effect of the organization of the European state-system on Italy; the invasion of Charles VIII of France, 1494; the Spaniards in Italy; Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon, and the conquest of Naples by Gon- zalvo da Cordova, 1504. The Papacy as an Italian state; the policy of Pope Julius II, 1503- 1513, compared with that of Pope Alexander VI; the wars of Julius II; the formation and composition of the States of the Church. Application of the new state-craft and the dynastic ideas of the new monarchy to Italian affairs; the Treaty of Granada between Ferdinand the Catholic and Louis XII of France, 1500; the claims of Louis XII on Milan and Naples; the diplomacy of Ferdinand the Catholic; the Venetian diplomatists; Machiavelli and the diplomacy of Florence, 1498- 1512; the writings of Machiavelli, 1469-1527, as the expression of the new state-craft; The Prince. The ideas of the balance of power in Italy and of an Italian State; Machiavelli; conquest of Milan by Louis XII, 1499 and 1500; the battle of the Garigliano, 1503, and conquest of Naples by the Spaniards; the League of Cambrai of the Pope, Louis XII, the Emperor Maximilian and Ferdinand the Catholic against Venice, 1508; the Holy League of the Pope, Ferdinand and Venice to drive the French from Italy, 1511; battle of Eavenna and death of Gaston de Foix, 1512; death of Pope Julius II, 1513; restoration of the Medici to Florence, 1512. Election of Giovanni de ' Medici, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, as Pope Leo X. Although Italy, where the new state-craft and the new state-system had originated, became its victim, it continued, when the new ideas spread throughout Western Europe, to lead Europe in thought and its expression in literature and art through its leadership in the Eevival of Learning and the Humanistic movement. 25 History 1b LECTURE 11 The Revival of Learning: Humanism The revival of knowledge of the Greek and Latin classics; its effect on religion and education; its encouragement of individualism; its denial of Christian hypotheses; its attempt to reconcile medieval Christianity with Greek and Latin literature; influence of classical form and style upon literature and art; various significations of the term Renaissance. Italy the natural starting place for the Revival of Learning; contin- uance there of the classic tradition; enthusiasm of the Italians of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries for the expansion and revival of class- ical studies; suitability of the Italy of the city despots and city republics for this mission; the Italian state system and its traditions; difference between the Church and religion in Italy and in other states. Meaning of the term Humanism; the weight laid on the individual man and his thoughts and deeds as against the medieval Christian man. Dante not only describes medieval thought, but foreshadows its suc- cessor. The part played by Florence, Rome, Milan, Naples, and Venice in the Revival of Learning. Symonds' classification of four periods of Italian Humanism. The first period of Humanism, the age of inspiration and discovery; Petrarch; his enthusiasm for Cicero and Virgil; his search for manu- scripts; his relations with Rienzi; his ignorance of Greek; Boccaccio; Manuel Chrysoloras appointed Professor of Greek at the University of Florence, 1396; importance of the study of Greek; Humanism and the Italian universities; effect of the Council of Florence, 1437; Gemistos Plethon. The second period of Humanism, the age of arrangement and trans- lation; the formation of libraries; the patronage of Cosimo de 'Medici; Mccolo de Niccoli; Lionardo Bruni; Poggio Bracciolini, 1380-1459; the career of Tommaso Parentucelli of Sarzana, librarian of Florence, who became Pope Nicholas V in 1447. The Papacy of Nicholas V, 1447-1454; his patronage of scholars; foundation of the Vatican Library; Cardinal Bessarion and his import- ance; humanism at Naples; Lorenzo Valla and his refutation of the Donation of Constantine; humanism at Milan; Francesco Filelfo, 1398- 1481, the typical humanist of the period. The third period of humanism, the age of erudition and academies; the circle of Lorenzo the Magnificent at Florence; the Platonic Society; intense interest in Plato as opposed to Aristotle; his ideas applied to Christianity; Ficino, 1433-1499; Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, 1463- 1494; Poliziano, 1454-1494; characteristics of the Florentine humanists; 26 History 1b the academies of Pomponius Laetus at Eome and of Pontanus at Naples; the humanism of Pope Pius II. The fourth period of humanism, the age of pure style; its center at Eome during the papacy of Leo X; Cardinal Bembo, 1470-1547; Cardinal Aleander, 1480-1542; the end of humanism in Italy with the sack of Eome, 1527. The influence of Italian humanism on literature in Italian; the enthus- iasm for Latin at first discourages writing in Italian; change towards the end of the fifteenth century; the Morgante Maggiore of Luigi Pulci; the Orlando Inamorato of Boiardo; the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto; the development of Italian prose; Machiavelli; Guieciardini. The influence of Italian humanism on Italian art; the study of Greek and Eoman art; sculpture and painting at Florence; Donatello; Botti- celli; art at Mantua; Mantegna; art at Siena; Sodoma; art at Perugia; the Umbrian school; Perugino; art at Milan; Lionardo da Vinci. Eome and art under Pope Julius II and Pope Leo X; St. Peter's; Bramante and Michael Angelo; the Sistine Chapel; Michael Angelo; the Vatican; Eaffaelle. The masters of the high Eenaissance; the universal genius of Lio- nardo da Vinci; the frescoes and pictures of Eaffaelle; the supreme greatness of Michael Angelo Buonarroti. Education in Italy under the influence of humanism; the school estab- lished by Vittorino da Peltre, 1378-1446, near Mantua. Manners in Italy under the influence of humanism; Baldassare Casti- glione, 1478-1529, and his book The Courtier. Humanism in Germany; the reception of the new ideas from Italy; the German universities; foundation of nine new universities between 1456 and 1506. The German schools; influence of the ''Brethren of the Social Life"; their school at Deventer; Alexander Hegius, 1433-1498. The German humanists and their debt to Italian humanism; Eu- dolphus Agricola, 1444-1485; Conrad Celtes, 1459-1518. The encouragement and patronage of German humanism by Cardinal Nicholas Krebs, called Cusanus, 1401-1464; Johann von Dalberg, Bishop of Worms, 1455-1503; the Ehenish Literary Society founded at Mainz, 1491; the Danube Society, 1501; the influence of the University of Vienna; patronage of humanism by the Emperor Maximilian. The case of Eeuchlin, 1455-1522, and the study of Hebrew; the Epistolae Ohscurorum Virorum by Cortus Eubianus and Ulrich von Hutten. The greatness of Desiderius Erasmus, 1467-1536, with whom the lead- ership of humanism crossed the Alps; his visits to Italy and England; the soundness of his scholarship; his universality, common sense and wit; his Praise of Folly, 1509; his edition of the Greek New Testament, 1516; 27 History 1b the foundation of New Testament scholarship; his editions of the classics and the Fathers. Humanism in England; the University of Oxford after Wiclif; Hum- phrey, Duke of Gloucester, 1391-1447; John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, 1420-1471; the influence of the Italian humanists; William Grocyn, 1442-1519; Thomas Linacre, 1460-1524; John Colet, 1466-1519; Sir Thomas More, 1480-1535; the Utopia. The new education in England; the teaching of Greek at Oxford; foundation of Corpus Christi College at Oxford by Bishop Fox, 1516; the influence of Erasmus at Oxford and Cambridge; the influence of Bishop Fisher, 1459-1535, at Cambridge; Cardinal Wolsey and the foun- dation of Christ Church, Oxford; Colet and the foundation of St. Paul's School, London; Linacre and the foundation of the College of Physicians of London, 1518. Humanism in France; attitude of the University of Paris and the Sorbonne; the teaching of Greek and Hebrew; John Lascaris; Aleander at Paris, 1508-1515; the first French humanists; Lefevre d'Etaples, 1455- 1537; the leadership of Bude or Budseus, 1467-1540, the friend of Eras- mus; the patronage of Francis I; the foundation of the College de France, though not under that name, 1530. Humanism in Spain; the foundation of the University of Alcala de Henares by Cardinal Ximenes, 1498-1508; the Polyglot Bible of Alcala. The development of typography made possible the rapid expansion of humanism through printed books and secured the permanence of the study of the classics; its effect upon the masses of the people in spread- ing the possibilities of popular education; the copyists of manuscripts and their opposition to printed books; the book fair of Frankfort. Block printing known to the Chinese and probably introduced from them into Europe in the fourteenth century; the guilds of the block printers. The invention of moveable cast type by Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, 1460; made public 1462. Eapid extension of book printing from cast type; 'Hhe German art"; twenty-four presses at Nuremberg by 1470; more than a thousand printers in Germany by 1500; William Caxton establishes a press at London, 1477; presses at Oxford, 1478, in Denmark, 1482, Sweden, 1483, at Con- stantinople, 1490, in Spain, 1494, in Portugal, 1502. Book printing in Italy; the first book printed by German printers at Subiaco, 1465; German printers at Venice, Bologna, and Florence; the first edition of Homer in Greek type printed at Florence, 1488. Of nearly 5000 books printed in Italy by 1500, more than 2800 were printed at Venice; reasons for the supremacy of Venice as a center for printing books and especially editions of the classics. 28 History 1b The Aldine press; Teobaldo Manucci better known as Aldus Manu- tius, 1450-1515; his editions of the Greek and Latin classics printed at Venice, 1490-1515; the Aldine Academy, 1500. Greatness of the service rendered by humanism to civilization; the part played by the Italians; rendering of the respect paid to scholarship in Browning's TJie Grammarian's Funeral, and of the attitude of the Kenaissance in Browning's The Bishop Orders His Tomb. LECTUEE 12 The Age of Discovery: Christopher Columbus; Vasco da Gama Relation between the Age of Humanism and the Age of Discovery; effect of the study of the Greek and Latin writers upon the medieval ideas of astronomy and geography; the ideas of Dante, Eoger Bacon, and Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly, 1350-1425; d'Ailly's Imago Mundi. The progress of astronomy and geography in the fifteenth century; Cardinal Cusanus, 1401-1464; Toscanelli, 1397-1482, and the effect of the travels of Marco Polo, 1256-1323; the German astronomers, Peuerbach, 1423-1461, Johann Miiller, called Eegiomontanus, 1436-1476; their inven- tions; Martin Behaim, 1436-1506. The life and work of Prince Henry 'Hhe Navigator," 1394-1460; his settlement at Sagre, 1418; the condition of Portugal during and after the reign of John the Great, 1385-1433; the improvement in navigation and ship building; the expeditions sent by Prince Henry to explore the west coast of Africa and to discover a sea route to India; discovery of Porto Santo by Perestrello, 1419, of Madeira, 1420, of the Azores, 1431, of the Cabo Branco, 1441, of the Guinea Coast and Senegal, 1445, of the Gambia, 1455, and of the Cape Verde Islands, 1460. The attitude towards exploration of John the Perfect, King of Port- ugal, 1481-1495; his desire to reach Asia; the expeditions to the north- east where Martim Lopes discovered Nova Zembla, to Timbuetoo and to Abyssinia; the Cape of Good Hope turned by Bartholomew Dias, 1486. Christopher Columbus born near Genoa, 1436 or 1451; personality and education; married to daughter of Perestrello, 1473 or 1480; his residence at Porto Santo; his study of the problem of sailing west to Asia; his knowledge of the ideas of d'Ailly, Behaim, and Toscanelli; his travels and endeavor to obtain command of an expedition; his difficulties; his terms; compact made with Isabella, Queen of Castille, 1492; and the expedition of Columbus decided. The situation in Spain at the time Columbus set sail; Isabella of Castille, 1451-1504, and Ferdinand of Aragon, 1452-1516, the ''Catholic Kings"; the building of the Spanish State; centralization of the Spanish Monarchy; strength of the royal administration. 29 History 1b Power of the Church and of religion in Spain; establishment of the Spanish Inquisition at Seville, 1481; its development from the medieval Inquisition; political and religious reasons for its introduction; expulsion of the Jews and Muhammadans; the personality of Torquemada, 1420- 1498; the desire to spread Christianity. The expansion of the Spanish State; the conquest of Granada, 1492; the conquest of Naples; the excellence of the Spanish infantry. The first voyage of Christopher Columbus, 1492; his second voyage, 1493-1496; the third voyage, 1498; his belief and that of all geographers that he had reached Asia; extent and effect of his discoveries. The bulls of Pope Alexander VI, 1493, and the Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494, dividing the area to be discovered between Spain and Portugal. The voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497-1499; he reaches India by sea and casts anchor at Calicut, 1498; effect of the discovery of the sea route to India. The Spaniards in the West Indies; explorations; arrest and return of Columbus to Spain, 1500; the fourth voyage of Columbus, 1502-1504; the search for a western passage to Asia; death of Columbus, 1506; the significance of his achievement; death of Queen Isabella, 1504. Kapid advance of the Portuguese in Asia; the voyage of Cabral, 1500; the second voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1502; trade and Christian missions; contrast between the conditions met by the Portuguese in Asia and by the Spaniards in America; the profits of the trade with Asia concentrated at Lisbon; the system established. The viceroyalty of Francisco de Almeida, 1505-1509; his battles with the Muhammadans, w^ho desired to retain the profits of the passage of the Asiatic trade with Europe. The viceroyalty of Affonso de Alboquerque, 1509-1515; his expeditions to Ormuz, Malacca, and Aden; he makes Goa the capital of Portuguese Asia; his policy and government. The Portuguese in Ceylon and the Spice Islands; the profits of the trade in pepper and spices; Fernan Peres de Andrade at Canton, 1518, and Pekin, 1521; death of Vasco da Gama at Cochin, 1524. The discovery of Brazil by Pedro Alvares Cabral, 1500; recognition of Brazil as Portuguese under the bull of Pope Alexander VI. The voyages and discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497, 1498, and of Gaspar de Corte Real, 1500, 1501; Newfoundland, Labrador, and the St. Lawrence. The life and work of Amerigo Vespucci or Americus Vespucius of Florence, 1452-1512; his voyages in the service of Spain, 1497-1498 and 1499-1500, and in the service of Portugal, 1501-1502, and 1503-1504; his exploration of the coast of Brazil; Pilot-major of Spain, 1508-1512. The name America suggested for the ''New World" discovered by 30 History 1b Cabral and explored by Vespucci, 1507, and applied to the whole Western hemisphere by Mercator, 1541. Gradual realization of the unity of the Western hemisphere and of the fact that Columbus had not reached Asia, but a new continent. First sight of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, 1513, looking westward, contemporary with the knowledge of the Pacific Ocean from the Asiatic side through the conquests and explorations of the Portuguese at Malacca and in the Spice Islands. The great voyage of Magellan across the Pacific Ocean, the first circumnavigation of the globe; Fernan de Maghalhaes, known as Magellan, 1480-1521; his personality; his services under Almeida and Alboquerque, 1505-1512; his scheme to cross the Pacific Ocean from west to east; placed in command of a Spanish expedition, 1519; passes through the Straits of Magellan, 1520; crosses the Pacific and reaches the Ladrones, the Philippines, and the Moluccas, 1521; death of Magellan, April 27, 1521; one of his ships, the "Victoria," returns to Spain, after circum- navigating the globe, 1522. The Age of Discovery marked by the deeds of Portuguese, Italians, and Spaniards; its effect upon European civilization; its transfer of Asiatic trade to Portugal; its expansion of Spanish activity to America; exhaustion of Spain and Portugal after a century of expansion. LECTUEE 13 The Emperor Charles V The attempt of Charles V to become the arbiter, rather than the actual ruler, of Latin Christendom; his power was dynastic, based upon his succession to various reigning houses; contrast between his position and that of the Holy Eoman Emperors upon the one hand, whose author- ity was based upon tradition, and that of Napoleon, whose power was based upon conquest. The growth of the dynastic idea in Europe; its growth out of feudal heredity and out of the idea of the State; its close relationship with the conception of the New Monarchy. Dynasticism in Spain; the marriages of the daughters of Ferdinand and Isabella; Isabella, the eldest and afterwards Maria, the third, to Emmanuel the Fortunate, King of Portugal; Joanna, the second, to the Archduke Philip; her insanity; Catherine, the fourth, first to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and then to his brother Henry, afterwards Henry VIII of England. Charles, elder son of the Archduke Philip and the Infanta Joanna, born 1500; inherited Castille and Leon from his grandmother, Isabella, 31 History 1b 1504; the Burgundian dominions, including the Netherlands, from his father, Philip, who had succeeded his mother, Mary of Burgundy, daugh- ter and heiress of Charles the Bold, 1506; Aragon, Sicily, and Naples from his grandfather, Ferdinand, 1516; and the Hapsburg dominions in Germany from his grandfather, the Emperor Maximilian, 1519. The nature of the government in these various dominions, and the varying power of rulers over them. The personality of Charles V; physical and temperamental inherit- ance; his education; his tutor, Adrian of Utrecht; the views of his- torians of Charles V; these views colored by the religion of the histor- ians; Eobertson; Armstrong. The three young monarchs, who succeeded to the ideas of the New Monarchy; their personality; their ministers; their diplomacy; their attitude towards Humanism, towards the new ideals, towards the State and towards the Church; the first half of the sixteenth century domi- nated by them; the progress of the Reformation affected by them and their personality. Henry VIII, King of England, born 1491, succeeded 1509, died 1547; prosperity of England under the first Tudors; its rapid commercial devel- opment under Henry VII; the Intercursus Magnus, 1496; the personal popularity of Henry VIII; his European policy; his marriage with Cath- erine of Aragon; Cardinal Wolsey, 1471-1530; Humanism in England; Henry VIII and the English navy. Francis I, King of France, born 1494, succeeded 1515, died 1547; position of the French monarchy; the French soldiery; the Chevalier Bayard, 1475-1524; the personality of Francis I; his European policy; his Italian policy; the battle of Marignano, 1515; his internal policy; the Concordat of 1516 with Pope Leo X, by which the king obtained the power of nomination to French bishoprics; Humanism in France; the Renaissance in France; architecture; the chateaux; death of Lionardo da Vinci in France, 1519. Death of the Emperor Maximilian I, 1519, who had taken the title of Emperor in 1502, without being crowned at Rome; his personality^; his knightly character; his German policy; the attempts to hold the Empire together as a German monarchy foiled by German particularism; the Reichskammergericht or Imperial Court of Appeal, 1495; the Circles of the Empire, 1512; the German lanzknechts; Humanism in Germany; Luther's theses, 1517. Charles V elected Emperor, 1519; crowned by the Pope at Bologna, 1530; the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by a Pope. The critical years, 1520-1523; in which complications appear, which prevented Charles from carrying out any consistent policy, and forced him to be an opportunist for the rest of his reign; his desire to unite 32 History 1b Latin Christendom for a struggle against the Muhammadans and his plans for a simple and direct government of Christendom thwarted. The revolt of the "comuneros" in Castille, 1520-1521. The cession of the Austrian dominions of the House of Hapsburg by Charles V to his brother, Ferdinand, 1520, thus dividing the Haps- burg power; marriage of Ferdinand to Anne of Hungary, and his recog- nition as King of Hungary, 1526, and King of Bohemia, 1527. The Diet of Worms, 1521; the appearance of Martin Luther and of the Eeformation in politics. The Knights' War, led by Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sick- ingen, 1522-1523. The outbreak of war between Charles V and Francis I, 1521. The brief papacy of Adrian VI, 1522-1523, the last non-Italian Pope, and the election of Giulio de 'Medici as Pope Clement VII. The end of the Union of Kalmar by the separation of Sweden under Gustavus Vasa, 1524. The accession of Sulaiman the Magnificent as Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, 1520, and his capture of Belgrade, 1521, and of Ehodes, 1522. Charles V and the Turks; the power of the Ottoman Turks; the con- quest of Egypt and of the title of Caliph, 1516-1517; the Turkish fleet in the Mediterranean; the rise of the Barbary corsair states; the Ad- miral Barbarossa; the greatness and the policy of Sulaiman, 1520-1566; the Spaniards in north Africa; capture of Oran, 1509, and of Tunis, 1535; failure before Algiers, 1541; the Knights of St. John of the Hospital at Malta, 1530; their famous defense under La Valette, 1565. The Turks in southeastern Europe; Sulaiman 's victory at Mohacs, where Louis II of Hungary was killed, 1526; the siege of Vienna, 1529; many Turkish invasions of Hungary and organization of southern Hun- gary as the Pashalik of Buda. Charles V prevented from using the strength of Germany against the Turks by the political strife of the Eeformation; the Diets of Nurem- berg, 1529, of Spires, 1526 and 1529, and of Augsburg, 1530; the Con- fession of Augsburg; formation of the German Protestant League of Schmalkalden. Francis I refuses to join Charles V against the Turks; Germany divided between Protestants and Catholics; the Eeligious Peace of Nur- emberg, 1532; Diets of Eatisbon, 1541, of Spires, 1542 and 1544, of Worms, 1545, and Eatisbon, 1546; civil war in Germany; Maurice of Saxony, 1521-1553; his policy and personality; the battle of Miihlberg, 1547, and Diet of Augsburg; renewed civil war, 1552; Treaty of Passau, 1552, and Eeligious Peace of Augsburg, 1555. The wars between Charles V and Francis I prevent the concentration of Christendom against Islam and the domination of Charles V; first 33 History 1b war, 1521-1526; battle of Pavia, 1525; Francis I taken prisoner; second war, 1526-1529, ended by the Peace of Cambrai, ''the Ladies' Peace"; the third war, 1536-1538; close alliance between Francis I and Sulaiman; the "Capitulations,'' 1536, which favored French trade in the Levant; fourth war, 1542-1544. War between Henry II of France and Charles V; Henry II allied with the Turks in the Mediterranean and the German Protestant princes; he obtains the Three Bishoprics, — Metz, Toul, and Verdun — 1552. Charles V and England; Wolsey's policy, 1519-1529; the question of the divorce of Henry VIII from Catherine leads to an alliance between Henry VIII and Francis I, 1532; the alliance between France and Scot- land; marriage of James V of Scotland to Madeline of France, 1537, and to Mary of Guise, 1538; attempt of Thomas Cromwell to bring Henry VIII into alliance with the German Protestants; marriage of Anne of Cleves, 1539; alliance between Henry VIII and Charles V, 1543, and war between England and France, 1544-1550. Charles V and his cousin, Mary Tudor; Mary, Queen of England, 1553; her Catholicism and marriage to Philip, son of Charles V, 1554. Charles V and Italy; the political situation of Italy during the first half of the sixteenth century; the papacy of Clement VII, 1523-1534; , the Pope as an Italian politician; the result of the battle of Pavia, 1525; the League of Cognac against Charles V; the sack of Eome, 1527; the Treaty of Barcelona, 1529; coronation of Charles V as Emperor at Bologna, 1530, and re-establishment of the Medici at Florence, 1530; marriage of Henry of Orleans, afterwards Henry II of France, to Cath- erine de 'Medici, 1533; Charles V takes the duchy of Milan on the death of Francesco Sforza, 1535. The papacy of Paul III, Alexander Farnese, 1534-1549; his attitude towards Charles V; his earnestness for the struggle against the Turks; his negotiation of the Truce of Nice between Charles V and Francis I, 1538; his nepotism; his desire to obtain Milan and Parma for his son; his withdrawal of support from Charles, 1547; his attitude towards the Reformation; his summons of the Council of Trent, 1545; his opposition to the plans of Charles; his portrait by Titian. Charles V and the Netherlands; the wealth of Antwerp after the discovery of the direct sea-route to India; his aunt Margaret, 1506-1530, and his sister Mary, 1530-1555, successively Governess of the Nether- lands; wealth and independence of the Netherlands; subjection of Ghent by Charles V, 1540. Charles V and Spain, the nucleus of his jjower; centralization of royal authority; the Spanish soldiers; the Spanish treasure fleets; Spain the leading force in Europe; the sixteenth the Spanish century. Charles V and Spanish America; the explorers; the expedition o^ 34 History 1b Hernando de Soto to the Mississippi, 1539-1542; the voyage of Coronado along the Kio Grande and to the Colorado, 1540-1542; and of Cabrillo along the coast of California, 1542-1543; the ''conquistadores"; eon- quest of Mexico by Cortes, 1519-1521, and of Peru by Pizarro, 1531-1541; the foundation of Lima and Buenos Aires, 1535; the Philippine Islands regarded as part of Spanish America. Charles V and art; the age of the great Venetian painters; Giorgione, 1478-1510; Tiziano Vecelli, called Titian, 1490-1576; Tintoretto, 1518- 1594; Paolo Veronese, 1528-1588; the Florentine School continued in Andrea del Sarto, 1486-1531; Correggio, 1494-1534; the latter years of Michael Angelo, 1475-1564; Benvenuto Cellini, 1500-1572; his Autobiog- raphy as a document illustrating the life of the sixteenth century. Abdication of the Emperor Charles V in favor of his son, Philip II, 1556; his brother Ferdinand I elected Emperor. The cloister life of Charles V in the monastery of Yuste in Spain; his death, 1559. The importance of the reign of Charles V; end of the possibility of a dynastic world sovereignty in the House of Hapsburg; break up of the unity of Latin Christendom by the Protestant Eeformation; pathos of his life and its failure. LECTURE 14 The Protestant Reformation The movement of the sixteenth century called the Reformation was, like the movement called the Renaissance, a general and not a special movement; it was the natural and inevitable outcome of the development of the ideas and conditions intellectual, religious, political, economic, and social of the fifteenth century. The religious side of the movement, which is specifically the Pro- testant Reformation, grew out of the need for a fresh adjustment of the Church to the new political and social conditions in its organization and to the new intellectual and religious ideas in its dogma. The attacks on the medieval Church were at first staved off by the friars in the thirteenth century; they were renewed as a result of the Great Schism in the fourteenth century, owing to the incongruity of the ideal and the actual in the organization of the Church. The development of ideas under the influence of Humanism repeated in a more positive form and one easily transmitted through printing the views of earlier heretics and added the weight of the new critical study of the Bible. The attitude of the Humanists to the Reformation; the views of 35 History 1b Erasmus; his desire for reforms based on scholarship and reason; the Spanish Humanists. The Keformation in Germany; its national character; its connection with German Humanism. Martin Luther and his leadership in the German Eeformation; born, 1483; an Augustinian, 1505; priest, 1507; Professor at the University of Wittenberg, founded 1502, in 1512; his ninety-five theses, 1517; the dis- pute over indulgences; the Address to the Christian Nohility of the German Nation, 1520; Luther as a pamphleteer; Luther at the Diet of Worms, 1521; development of his ideas; his marriage to Catherine von Bora, 1525; formulation of his beliefs; the personality of Martin Luther; dif- ference of opinion about him; his violence; his honesty. The services to the Eeformation and to Luther of Philip Melancthon, born, 1497; Professor at Wittenberg, 1518-1560. Spread of the Eeformation in Germany; Nuremberg; Osiander, 1498- 1552; Augsburg; Strasburg; Martin Bucer, 1491-1551. The Eeformation movement in Switzerland; Ulrich Zwingli, 1484- 1531; a Humanist; his attack on indulgences, 1518; his theology; abolition of the Mass, suppression of monasteries and foundation of the University of Zurich, 1525; killed at the battle of Cappel, 1531; Oeeolampadius, 1482- 1531, and the Eeformation at Basle. Attitude of Erasmus towards the Eeformation movement. The divisions among the Eeformers; the rejection of authority in religion led to individualism of belief; the intolerance of Luther; con- ference of the leading Eeformers at Marburg, 1529; the Confession of Augsburg, 1530; expression of extreme views; the Anabaptists. The political side of the German Eeformation; the desire of the German princes to secularize the ecclesiastical states; Albert of Hohen- zollern. Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, creates their territory into the Duchy of Prussia, 1525; Frederick the Wise, 1487-1525, John the Steadfast, 1525-1532, and John Frederick, 1532-1547, Electors of Saxony; Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 1504-1567; his introduction of Lutheranism, suppression of monasteries and foundation of the Univer- sity of Marburg, 1526. The Protest against the decision of the Diet of Spires to give effect to the Edict of Worms against the Lutherans, 1529, gives rise to the name ''Protestant"; formation of the League of Schmalkalden, 1531, after the failure of the effort at reconciliation of the Diet of Augsburg. The social effect of the German Eeformation; the Peasants' Eevolt, 1524-1525; its cruel suppression; the Anabaptists at Miinster, 1534. The latter years of Martin Luther; his organization of Lutheran churches; his translation of the Bible into German; his hymns; his political views; his furious opposition to the Peasants' Eevolt; his views 36 History 1b on marriage; permission of the bigamy of Philip of Hesse, 1539; his death, 1546; effect of his personality on religion, on Germany, and on Europe. Spread of Protestantism in Germany; Wurtemberg, 1534, Brandenburg and Albertine Saxony, 1539, became Protestant; efforts of Charles V at Eatisbon, 1541, and at Spires, 1544, to reconcile the two parties; the Schmalkaldic war, 1546, and victory of (Jharles V; Maurice of Saxony; recognition of the territorial idea in religion by the Treaty of Passau, 1552, and the Keligious Peace of Augsburg, 1555; the Ecclesiastical Eeservation. Abandonment in Germany of the medieval idea of "one faith, one church," and adoption of the idea of "cujus regio, ejus religio. " The Eeformation in Sweden; its connection with politics; Gustavus Vasa elected King of Sweden, 1523; confiscation of the wealth of the bishops, 1527; acceptance of the Confession of Augsburg as the religion of the State; organization of the Lutheran Church in Sweden, 1540-1544; the Peasants' Eevolt in Sweden, 1542-1543. The Eeformation in Denmark and Norway; Frederick I and the new doctrines; the Edict of Odensee, 1527; Christian III joins the Schmal- kaldic League; overthrow of episcopacy and adoption of Lutheranisra, 1536; Bugenhagen draws up the Danish Lutheran liturgy, 1537; trans- lation of the Bible into Danish by Palladius, 1550. The Eeformation in England under Henry VIII; the theology of Henry VIII; his pamphlet against Luther, 1521; the question of the divorce from Catherine of Aragon, 1527-1533; the policy of Thomas Cromwell; the Parliament of 1529-1536; the Act of Supremacy, 1534; execution of Eisher and More; the Ten Articles, 1536; the suppression of the monasteries, 1536, 1539; economic effect; the Pilgrimage of Grace; the Six Articles, 1539; the Eeformation in England not the result of a popular movement, but a series of political measures, making the Anglican Church independent of the Papacy. The Eeformation in France; the ideas of Lefevre d'Etaples; con- demnation of the views of Lefevre and Luther by the Sorbonne; nature of early French Protestantism; lack of organization; the policy of perse- cution of individuals; the persecutions of 1534, 1539, and 1546; the burning of ifitienne Dolet, 1546; French Protestantism organized on the ideas of Calvin in the reign of Henry II, 1547-1559. The Eeformation at Geneva; importance of the life and work of John Calvin, 1509-1564; his education; his erudition; his personality; his theological and political ideas; comparison with Martin Luther; his orig- inality'- and lucidity; his sermon for Nicholas Cop, 1533; publication of the first edition of the Christian Institution at Basle, 1535. Calvin at Geneva, 1536-1538; the situation of Geneva; organization 37 History 1b of Calvin; his exile, 1538-1541; his recall and influence at Geneva, 1541- 1564; the spread of Calvinism; its conflict with Lutheranism; Calvin at the Diet of Eatisbon, 1541; his relations with Melancthon; his Appeal to Charles V, 1543, and presentation of his views to the Diet of Spires, 1544; the influence of Calvin on the Reformation in France and western Germany. The intolerance of Calvin; execution of Gruet, 1547; burning of Michael Servetus, 1553. The Eeformation in England under Edward VI, 1547-1553; influence of the German and Swiss reformers; Thomas Cranmer; the Acts of Uniformity, 1549, 1552; the English Prayer-book; the Forty-two Articles; the reaction under Mary Tudor, 1553-1558; Cardinal Pole; the reconcil- iation with Rome; the Marian persecution; burning of Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, and others; accession of Elizabeth, 1558. The Reformation in Scotland; a popular movement; the burning of George Wishart, 1545, and the murder of Cardinal Beaton; the life and work of John Knox, 1505-1572; his imprisonment; his residence at Geneva, 1554-1555, 1556-1559; the Scottish reformers and the political situation in Scotland; the First Covenant and the Lords of the Congre- gation; adoption of the Geneva Confession of Faith by the Scottish Estates, 1560, and division of the Church lands. Development of anti-trinitarian ideas; Lelio Sozzini, called Soeinius, 1525-1562; and Fausto Sozzini, 1539-1604; their theology; the persecution of the Socinians; the burning of Giordano Bruno, 1600. The political effect of the Reformation was the establishment of the State as supreme in matters of faith and the encouragement of the inde- pendence of the State in Europe; its economic effect the distribution of the lands of the Church among the laymen in Protestant countries; its social effect the propagation of new ideas among the masses of the people; its intellectual effect the encouragement of individual freedom of thought as against authority; and its religious effect the breaking up of the unity of Latin Christendom as represented in the Church, which had lasted more than a thousand years and had moulded European civilization. LECTURE 15 The Wars of Religion in France and the Revolt of the Netherlands Bitterness of the religious struggle during the second half of the sixteenth century; absence of national feeling, where religious feeling existed, shown in the Schmalkaldic War in Germany; this is particularly shown during the religious wars in France, in spite of the strength of 38 History 1b the French State, where the opposing parties looked for help to the Spaniards and English respectively. Organization of the Calvinists in France during the reign of Henry II, 1547-1559; they are called Huguenots and were particularly strong in the western and southern provinces; they were mainly nobles and bourgeois or middle classes, and never seem to have been more than one-tenth of the people, but presented as much military strength as the Catholics; the persistent Catholicism of Paris. The war of Henry II against Philip and Mary of Spain and England; defeat of the French at Saint-Quentin, 1557; capture of Calais by the Duke of Guise, 1558; treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, 1559; death of Henry II. The chief figure in French politics for the next thirty years was Catherine de 'Medici, 1519-1589, widow of Henry II and Queen-mother through three reigns; her history and character. The reigns of the last Valois, Francis II, husband of Mary Stuart, 1559-1560; Charles IX, 1560-1574; Henry III, 1574-1589. Difficulty of the position of Catherine de 'Medici between the Catholics and the Huguenots; the families of Guise and Bourbon, Eight civil and religious wars in France between 1562 and 1589. Condition of France during these wars; destruction of industry and commerce; lack of any central power to stop them; failure of the States- General; all compromise refused; the Huguenots and Queen Elizabeth of England; the Catholics and Philip II of Spain; effect on the situation of the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain. Gradual growth of the idea of religious toleration; the Chancellor de PHopital, 1504-1573. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572; about 2000 Hugue- nots killed in Paris and about 10,000 in the rest of France. Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, a Huguenot, becomes heir to the throne of France, 1584; formation of the Catholic League; insur- rection in Paris; the States-General of Blois; murder of the Duke of Guise, 1588, and of Henry III, 1589. War between Henry IV and the League; the battle of Ivry, 1590; dissensions among the Leaguers; the demand for peace; the Satyr e Menippee, 1593; conversion of Henry IV to Catholicism, 1593; surrender of Paris, 1594. The triumph of toleration, even at the expense of the State; the Edict of Nantes, 1598, giving the Huguenots liberty of conscience, right of worship in certain places and garrisons in certain cities. The Peace of Vervins between Henry IV and Philip II, 1598. The revolt of the Netherlands and its importance in the relations of France, Spain, and England in the latter half of the sixteenth century. The revolt was in part political and in part religious, but in no way national. 39 History 1b The seventeen states of the Netherlands formed part of the Bur- gundian inheritance and each was independent of the others; their wealth and prosperity under Charles V; different races and languages; Frisians. Dutch, Flemings, Walloons; French, Flemish, and German. Efforts of Charles V and Philip II to make a centralized state of the Netherlands. Spread of Protestantism, and especially of Calvinism, in the Nether- lands, but the majority, especially in the south and west, which is now Belgium, remained Catholic. Objection of the Netherlanders to being governed by Spaniards for the interest of Spain; weakness of dynasticism; attachment to local institutions; personal popularity of Charles V in the Netherlands. The Eegency of Margaret of Parma, half-sister of Philip II, 1559- 1567; the government of Granvelle, 1559-1564; withdrawal of Spanish troops, 1560; the religious riots of 1566. The personalities of the Netherlands leaders; Egmont; Brederodc; Sainte-Aldegonde; Horn; William of Orange; his brother, Louis, of Nas- sau; Motley's Bise of the Dutch Eepuhlic. William the Silent, Prince of Orange, 1533-1584; his education; his personality; the hero of the Dutch revolt. The attitude of Philip II, as administrator, as King of Spain, and as champion of the Catholic Church. The government of the Duke of Alva, 1567-1573; his Spanish army; execution of Egmont and Horn, 1568; severity of his government; Brill seized by the ''Beggars of the Sea," 1572; the siege of Haarlem, 1572- 1573; recall of Alva. Interest taken by Catherine de 'Medici and Elizabeth of England in the revolt of the Netherlands. The government of Eequesens, 1573-1576; the siege of Leyden, 1573- 1574; foundation of the University; the ''Spanish Fury" at Antwerp, 1576; the Pacification of Ghent, 1576. The government of Don John of Austria, 1576-1578; his personality, reputation, and ambitions; concessions to the Belgian Catholics; tem- porary withdrawal of the Spanish troops; Archduke Mathias elected Governor-General and Francis of Anjou "Defender of the Liberties" of the Netherlands. The government of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, 1578-1592; organization of the Union of Arras and of the Union of Utrecht, 1579; importance of the latter, which had in it federal provisions; election of Anjou as sovereign, 1580, and renunciation of Philip, 1581; departure of Mathias; death of Anjou and assassination of William the Silent, 1584. Evident separation of interests as well as religion between the seven 40 History 1b Protestant States, which had accepted the Union of Utrecht — namely, Holland, Zealand, Gelderland, Priesland, Utrecht, Groningen, and Overyssel — and the ten Catholic States. Alexander of Parma recovers the Catholic Netherlands; capture of Antwerp, 1585; Henry III of France and Elizabeth of England refuse the crown of the Netherlands; the Earl of Leicester, Governor-General, 1585-1587. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588, and its effect on the situ- ation in the Netherlands. Maurice of Nassau, son of William the Silent, stadtholder of five of the Protestant States of the Netherlands, 1587; his military skill; the attitude of Elizabeth. Death of Alexander of Parma, 1592; the Cardinal-Archduke Albert appointed Governor of the Catholic Netherlands; his marriage to Isabella, daughter of Philip II, 1598. End of the revolt of the Netherlands; separation into Protestant and Catholic Netherlands; the independence of the Protestant Nether- lands not recognized by Spain till 1648. The greatness of the Protestant Netherlands in trade, sea power, and art. LECTURE 16 Philip II of Spain: the Counter-Eeformation During the second half of the sixteenth century, while France was torn by religious wars, which developed new political ideas but ended in the restoration of the State, and while the revolt of the Netherlands brought into being the new federal state of the Protestant Netherlands, Spain supported Philip II as the champion of the Catholic Church and the chief of a centralized administration. The personality of Philip II, 1527-1598; his education; trained by Charles V; a man of peace and not a general; an administrator and not a statesman; a sincere Catholic and not inclined to toleration; a believer in his divine mission; his immense popularity in Spain; views of Pro- testant historians. Contrast between the position of Charles V and Philip II; the center of Philip's life and interest was Spain; his detachment from German affairs; his adherence to the ambilious designs of Charles V, but from a different standpoint. Political significance of the marriages of Philip II; his four wives: Maria of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos, 1543-1545; Mary Tudor, 1554- 1558; Elizabeth, daughter of Catherine de 'Medici, 1560-1568; Anna, 41 History 1b daughter of the Emperor Maximilian II, 1570-1580, mother of Philip III; his court and domestic life; the tragedy of Don Carlos, The administrative centralization of Spanish government; the capital fixed at Madrid; building of the Escorial; Philip II and his secretaries. Buy Gomez and Antonio Perez; further development of the Inquisition; the war with the Moriscoes, 1568-1570. The drain on Spain both in men and money caused by the revolt of the Netherlands. The Spanish settlements in America; the problem of government; the Kingdom of the Indies; the Council of the Indies and the Board of Trade of Seville; confusion of administration with commerce; the monop- oly of Castille; the mines; the treasure fleets; efforts at systematic colo- nization; extermination of the natives; Las Casas, the Apostle to the Indies, 1474-1566; introduction of negro slaves; the slave trade; the Christian missions to Spanish America. The Spanish claim to the monopoly of the New World; the attacks of the English and the Dutch; Drake; effect of the Spanish power in America on the Spanish struggle for leadership in Europe and upon the economic and political situation in Spain; the sea power and the fleets of Spain; Alvaro de Bazan, Marquis of Santa Cruz, 1526-1588. Philip II as the champion of Christendom against Islam; the relief of Malta, 1565; Cyprus taken by the Turks; the Turkish fleet destroyed by the Spaniards and Venetians at Lepanto, 1571; enthusiasm caused by this victory. Philip II as the champion of the Catholic Church; the religious element in his wars with the Netherlands, France, and England. Philip II and France; the diplomacy of Catherine de 'Medici; his part in the religious wars; his support of the Guises and the League; the effect of the accession of Henry IV of France; the Treaty of Vervins, 1598. Philip II and England; the diplomacy of Elizabeth Tudor; the thirty years of the Peace of Elizabeth; aid given by her to the French Hugue- nots and the revolted Netherlanders; the English seamen in American seas; growth of English sea-power; concentration of Spanish force against England; defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588; the sack of Cadiz by Essex and Ealegh, 1596. Philip II and Italy; his attitude towards the Papacy; his domination of Italy through his possession of Sicily, Naples, and Milan; Cosimo de 'Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1569; the decline of the republics of Venice and Genoa; gradual rise to importance in Italy of the Dukes of Savoy as lords of Piedmont. Philip II and Portugal; the death of Dom Sebastian, 1578; conquest of Portugal by the Duke of Alva, 1580; immense accession of wealth 42 History 1b and power through the control of Portuguese Asia, Africa, and America. Philip II the champion of a view of religion which rapidly gained ground during his reign; the first half of the sixteenth century was the age of the Protestant Eeformation; the second half was the age of the Catholic Counter-Eeformation. The Catholic Church felt the need of internal reform, definite state- ment of dogma and new enthusiasm, which was supplied by the Counter- Eeformation; the Papacy, even if some of the Popes were opposed to Spain and to Philip II, was protected as an Italian State by the Spanish domination in Italy and had no longer to fight and scheme for its independence. The first steps towards reform in the Church; the improvement in the clergy; foundation of the Theatines, 1524, an order of secular clergy; the saintly life of St. Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, 1538-1584. The life and work of St. Ignatius Loyola, 1491-1556; his character and education; foundation of the Company or Society of Jesus by Loyola, Francis Xavier, Lainez, and Faber, 1534; its confirmation by Pope Paul III, 1540. The rapid extension and work of the Jesuits; their organization and military obedience; their high intellectual acquirements and enthusiasm; their zeal for education, the confessional and missions; their work in winning back Bavaria, Hungary, and Poland to Catholicism; their mis- sions in Protestant countries; their missions to the heathen, in Asia and America; the life and work of St. Francis Xavier, 1506-1552. The Council of Trent; its first sessions called at the wish of the Emperor Charles V to reform the Church, to restore its unity, and to fix its dogma, 1545-1547, 1551-1552; their failure; the third session, 1562-1563; fixed the dogma of the Catholic Church on disputed points and reaffirmed the power of the Papacy. The establishment of the Supreme Tribunal of the Inquisition or Papal Inquisition, on the lines of the Spanish Inquisition, 1542; its effectiveness in Italy. The Popes of the latter half of the sixteenth century; Eanke 's History of the Popes. The austerity and reforming zeal of Popes Paul IV, Caraffa, 1555- 1559; Pius IV, Medici, 1559-1565; Pius V, Ghislieri, 1566-1572. The salvation of church music by Palestrina, 1524-1594; the Mass of Pope Marcellus. The fixing of the Gregorian Calendar by Pope Gregory XIII, Buon- campagni, 1572-1585, by taking out ten days in 1582. The administrative ability of Pope Sixtus V, Perretti, 1585-1590. Attitude of these Popes to Philip II and of Philip 11 to these Popes. Philip II representative of the Spanish character in the sixteenth century; his dignity; his love of art. 43 History 1b Equally representative was Santa Teresa, 1515-1582, the reformer of the Carmelites; her mysticism; her common sense. Spain also produced at this time Miguel de Cervantes, 1547-1616; the characteristics of Don Quixote. LECTUEE 17 Elizabeth of England The emergence of England as an important European state in the sixteenth century; the English State under the first Tudors and the ideas of the New Monarchy; growth of the power of the Crown in England with the extinction of the old nobility and the transformation of the Church. The position of Queen Elizabeth at the time of her accession, 1558; the rivalry with Mary Stuart, 1558-1568; the need for diplomacy; Eliza- beth's policy with regard to Scotland, France, and Spain; the personality of Elizabeth; marriage projects. Change brought about by the surrender of Mary Stuart, 1568, ^ and the deposition of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V, 1570. The Peace of Elizabeth, 1558-1587; its importance; while the rest of western Europe was torn by civil and religious war, England profited by peace; the French and Flemish exiles. The government of Elizabeth; the administrative system; the Privy Council; the Justices of the Peace; the statesmen of Elizabeth; William Paulet, Marquis of Winchester; William Cecil, Lord Burghley; Sir Francis Walsingham; Sir Nicholas Bacon; Sir Walter Mildmay; Sir Thomas Smith. The suitors of Elizabeth; Philip II of Spain; Erie XIV of Sweden; Adolf of Denmark; Hans Casimir of Saxony; Hans Frederick of the Palatinate; the Earl of Arran; the Archduke Ferdinand; the Archduke Charles; Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy; Henry, Duke of Anjou; Francis, Duke of Alengon, afterwards of Anjou. The court of Elizabeth; Eobert Dudley, Earl of Leicester; Sir Chris- topher Hatton; Sir Philip Sidney; Sir Walter Kalegh. The Church under Elizabeth; the idea of a State church; Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury; Catholic and Puritan ideas of church government; Eome and Geneva; persecution of Catholics and Puritans; the ideal of the Church of England; Eichard Hooker, 1558-1583. Elizabeth and Ireland; Ireland under the Tudors; the danger to England; Ireland and the Eeformation; the Plantation Policy; the Span- iards in Ireland; the massacre at Smerwick, 1580. Elizabeth and Scotland after the surrender of Mary Stuart; the 44 History 1b Presbyterians in Scotland; John Knox; the Eegents during the minority of James VI. Elizabeth and France; her support of the Huguenots; the effect of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. Elizabeth and the revolt of the Netherlands. Elizabeth and Spain; the inevitable conflict due to the expansion of England; seizure of the Spanish treasure, 1568; show of peace, while English seamen plundered the Spanish Main; policy of Elizabeth. The expansion of England by discovery, by trade and by colonization; growth of the sea-power of England; changes in ship building and sea fighting; the English navy; the sea captains of Elizabeth; Frobisher; Davis; Willoughby; Hawkins; Eichard Grenville; Sir Francis Drake and the reorganization of the English navy; his naval ideas; his circum- navigation of the globe, 1577-1580; the first Englishman in the Pacific and in California. English colonization in America; Sir Humphrey Gilbert and New- foundland, 1583; Sir Walter Ealegh and Virginia, 1585. The approach of war; Spain and England; the execution of Mary Stuart, 1587; the defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588. The war of Elizabeth, 1587-1603; the new statesmen and courtiers; Eobert Cecil; Francis Bacon; Walter Ealegh; the Earl of Essex; the expedition to Cadiz, 1596. The revolution in agriculture in England during the reign of Eliza- beth; from open field village to convertible husbandry; disappearance of serfdom; first exportation of grain from England, 1592. The development of industry in England during the reign of Eliza- beth; the cloth manufacture; influence of immigrants; the guild system gives way to the domestic system and the beginnings of the factory system; other manufactures; England becomes an exporting country. The development of commerce in England during the reign of Eliza- beth; the opening of the Eoyal Exchange, 1568; London becomes a trade center, after the destruction of Antwerp; the great commercial com- panies founded; the Muscovy Company, 1566; the Levant or Turkey Company, 1581; the London East India Company, 1600. London as a financial center during the reign of Elizabeth; Sir Thomas Gresham, 1520-1572; the accumulation of capital in England; the rise in prices; the new coinage, 1561; end of the financial control of England by foreigners; loans raised in England. The inevitable result of the growth of wealth an increase of comfort; Elizabethan country houses; the development of country sports; hawking; horse racing; coursing; the breeding of horses and dogs; city life and its splendor. The character of the English in the reign of Elizabeth; their versa- tility; their independence; their delight in life; ''Merry England"; the 45 History 1b universities of Oxford and Cambridge; foundation of new colleges; the Edward VI and Elizabethan grammar schools. The literature of the reign of Elizabeth; Spenser; the English drama; Marlowe; Shakspere; Ben Jonson; the Essays of Francis Bacon; the Ecclesiastical Polity of Eichard Hooker. The national spirit, which grew up in England in the reign of Eliza- beth, illustrated in Shakspere. The personality of Elizabeth Tudor; her influence on England; her courage; her representation of England; sadness of her later years; the rebellion of Essex, 1601; her death, 1603. Union of England and Scotland under James VI of Scotland; Great Britain as a European power. LECTURE 18 Henry IV of France; Cardinal Eichelieu The leading figure in Europe after the death of Philip II was Henry IV of France; the sense of national unity, which had been slowly devel- oping since the fifteenth century, had first shown itself in Spain, in spite of provincial rivalry, from the necessity of maintaining an empire, in the unity and identity of Church and State, and in England from the sudden outburst of prosperity, despite political and religious differences, which were to lead to civil war. The meaning of nationality. The bond of nationality in France was the State. Henry IV represented the idea of the French State; his popularity in France; his absolutism in France justified by the lack of patriotism of the League and of the Huguenots, and by the turbulence of the nobles; his administrative, judicial, and financial reforms; the work of Sully; the endeavor to promote the material prosperity of the French people, as Elizabeth had promoted the material prosperity of the English people. The effect of the Edict of Nantes, 1598. The foreign policy of Henry IV; his understanding of the new situ- ation in Europe, produced by the break-up of the unity of Latin Chris- tendom through the Eeformation and the failure of Charles V and Philip II to restore it; his solution a Europe of sovereign independent states, irrespective of religion. The ' ' Grand Design ' ' of Henry IV. Assassination of Henry IV, 1610, and accession of Louis XIII under the Eegency of Marie de 'Medici. The troubles of the minority of Louis XIII; the States-General of 46 History 1b 1614; the government of the Due de Luynes, 1617-1621, and liis war with the Huguenots. The work of Henry IV of building up the power of the State in France taken up by Cardinal EichelieUj 1623. The personality of Eichelieu, born 1-585, Bishop of Lueon, 1607, Car- dinal, 1622. The internal policy of Eichelieu to make the royal power in France supreme in the State; his struggle with the nobles; the edict against duelling; attitude of Eichelieu with regard to the Queen-Mother, Marie de 'Medici, to the King's brother, Gaston of Orleans, and to the Queen, Anne of Austria. The conflict of Eichelieu with the Huguenots; their appeal to Charles I of England; the siege of La Eochelle, 1628-1629; the Peace of Alais, granting the Huguenots religious liberty, but depriving them of their military guarantees. The foreign policy of Eichelieu; his desire to overthrow the power of the House of Hapsburg as being dangerous to France and to Europe; his two Italian wars, 1624-1626, 1628-1630, to cut off the direct con- nection between the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburg dominions. Eichelieu and Germany; his support of the Protestant princes; his direct intervention on their behalf in the Thirty Years' War, 1635. Eichelieu and Sweden; his relations with Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant King of Sweden, before and during the Thirty Years' War. Eichelieu and the Protestant Netherlands; renewal of the war be- tween Spain and the Dutch after the Twelve Years' Truce, 1612-1621. Eichelieu and England; the marriage of Henrietta Maria to Charles I of England, 1625; the weakness of England in Europe under the first two Stuarts, James I, 1603-1625, and Charles I, 1625-1649; the personal government of Charles I, 1629-1640, and the outbreak of civil war, 1640. The Spanish marriages, 1612, when Louis XIII married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III, and Philip, son of Philip III, married Elizabeth, sister of Louis XIII. Eichelieu and Spain; he encourages the insurrections of Catalonia and Portugal, 1640. Spain in the first half of the seventeenth century; the reign of Philip III, 1598-1621; the expulsion of the Moriscoes, 1609; the reign of Philip IV, 1621-1665; the administration of the Count-Duke Olivares, 1621- 1643; the part played by Spain in the Thirty Years' War; the renewed war with the Protestant Netherlands. The insurrection in Portugal, 1640; declaration of the Duke of Bra- ganza as John IV; revolt of the Portuguese possessions in Asia, Africa, and Brazil against the Spaniards; aid given by Eichelieu and the Dutch to the Portuguese. 47 History 1b Spanish literature and art under Philip III and Philip IV; Lope de Vega, 1562-1635; Calderon, 1600-1687; Velasquez, 1599-1660; Murillo, 1617-1682. Italy in the first half of the seventeenth century; the continued domination of Spain in Italy; the States of the Church; the most notable popes; Paul V. Borghese, 1605-1621; his quarrel with Venice; Urban VIII, Barberini, 1623-1644; his anti-Spanish policy and friendship for Eichelieu. Fra Paolo Sarpi, 1552-1623; his championship of Venice; his intel- lectual leadership; the Italian movement in science; Vesalius, 1514-1564; Galileo, 1564-1642. Eichelieu and sea-power; his attempt to build a navy; his East India Company and its settlements in Madagascar; the French in Canada; foundation of Quebec, 1608. The sea-power of the Dutch; the Dutch in Asia; the voyage of Hout- man, 1596; they secure the pepper and spice trade; foundation of Batavia, 1619; rivalry with the English; massacre of Amboyna, 1623; their settle- ments at the Cape of Good Hope, in India, Ceylon, the Spice Islands, China, and Japan. The Dutch in North America; foundation of New Amsterdam; the New Netherlands. The English in North America; the settlement in Virginia; foundation of Jamestown, 1607; the first settlement in New England ;the Plymouth colony, 1620. Life in the time of Eichelieu as depicted in the novels of Alexander Dumas. LECTUEE 19 The Thirty Years' War Twenty years after the end of the wars of religion in France came the Great War of Eeligion in Germany; contrast between the results; France came out with a highly centralized administration under an absolute monarch, Germany with about 360 sovereign independent states, loosely combined in the Empire; France came out with a state religion, Germany with the principle of state religions in its different states. The political situation in Germany; the Emperors of the House of Hapsburg; Ferdinand I, 1556-1564; Maximilian II, 1564-1576; Eudolph II, 1576-1612; Matthias, 1612-1619; their power in Austria, Bohemia, and Hapsburg-Hungary; their weakness in Germany; their alliance with Spain. The religious situation in Germany; nine-tenths of the Germans Protestant in 1555; the work of the Counter-Eeformation; the spread of 48 History 1b Calvinism, especially in the Palatinate and Brandenburg; the Lutheran- isra of Saxony; execution of Krell, 1591; the recovery of Bavaria to Catholicism. The points left at issue by the Keligious Peace of Augsburg, 1555; the non-recognition of Calvinism; the Ecclesiastical Eeservation; the case of Gebhard von Waldburg-Truchsess, Archbishop of Cologne, 1583- 1589. Approach of religious war in Germany; formation of the Protestant Union under Christian of Anhalt, 1609, and of the Catholic League under Maximilian of Bavaria, 1610. The outbreak of the Thirty Years' War; the situation in Bohemia; the '' defenestration " at Prague, 1618; accession of the Emperor Ferdi- nand II and election of the Elector Palatine Frederick to the throne of Bohemia. The Bohemian-Palatinate period of the Thirty Years' "War, 1619- 1623; battle of the White Mountain, 1620; Tilly; occupation of Bohemia by Tilly and of the Rhenish Palatinate by the Spaniards under Spinola; triumph of the Catholic League; renewal of war between Spain and the Dutch, 1621; the attitude of James I of Great Britain. The Danish period of the Thirty Years' War, 1625-1629; Christian IV of Denmark; Wallenstein, 1583-1634; his personality; question of his German patriotism. Height of Catholic success; the Edict of Restitution, 1629; the Diet of Ratisbon, 1630; dismissal of Wallenstein; the diplomacy of Richelieu. The Swedish period of the Thirty Years' War; the personality of Gustavus Adolphus, born 1594; King of Sweden, 1611; his campaigns against the Danes, the Russians, and the Poles; formation of the Swedish army; his resolution to interfere in Germany, 1630; the sack of Magde- burg, 1631; the triumphant march of Gustavus Adolphus; killed at the battle of Liitzen, 1632. The policy of Wallenstein; assassination of Wallenstein, 1634. The French period of the Thirty Years' War, 1634-1648; the inter- vention of Richelieu; his relations with the Swedes under the Chancellor Oxenstiern; occupation of Lorraine; grant of Alsace by the German Protestant princes; Bernhard of Saxe Weimar, 1604-1639. Political character of the latter years of the Thirty Years' War; demands of the French and Swedes. First negotiations for a general peace, 1640; accession of Frederick William of Brandenburg, the Great Elector, 1640; his declaration of neutrality. Continuation of the French participation in the Thirty Years' War after the death of Richelieu, 1642; the policy of Mazarin; development of the French army; Turenne, 1611-1675; Conde, 1621-1686; the victories 49 History 1b of Conde over the Spaniards at Eocroi, 1643, and Lens, 1648; the Swedish army. The negotiations at Osnabruck and Miinster, 1644-1648; the signature of the Treaties of Westphalia, 1648. Effect on Germany of the Thirty Years' War; depopulation and misery; throwing back of German civilization for a century. Political effect of the Thirty Years' War on Germany; the recognition by the Treaties of Westphalia of the practical sovereign independence of the German states; the shadowy power left to the Holy Eoman Em- peror; the Eeichstag or Diet of the Empire becomes perpetual, 1667; the importance of the Eeichskammergericht or Imperial Court; the Eeichs- hofrath or Aulic Council. Eeligious settlement on the basis of "cujus regio, ejus religio. " Euin of trade and commerce; decline of the German cities; only Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck renew the Hanseatic League, 1630. Territorial increase of certain German states by the Treaties of West- phalia, notably of Bavaria, which became an electorate, and Brandenburg, whose elector had become Duke of Prussia, under the kings of Poland, since 1563. Eussia and Poland in the seventeenth century; the traditions of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, 1533-1584; his title of Tsar, 1547; the expan- sion of Muscovy ; the ' ' troublous times ' ' ; the reigns of Michael Eomanov, 1613-1645, and Alexis Eomanov, 1645-1676; Poland under the Catholic branch of the House of Vasa; its political confusion and administrative medievalism; the Polish nobility; the "liberum veto," 1652. Great Britain during the Thirty Years' War; the war between Charles I and the Parliament, 1640-1645; contrast with the religious wars in France and the Thirty Years' War in Germany; non-interference of foreign states; the campaigns in Scotland and Ireland; the execution of Charles I, 1649. The first half of the seventeenth century sees the end of the religious wars and the rise of the Europe of the States. LECTTJEE 20 The Treaties of Westphalia: Cardinal Mazarin The importance of the Treaties of Westphalia in the history of European civilization; definite recognition of a new era of sovereign states, bound together by a common tradition of civilization, communi- cating with each other by a system of diplomacy, and recognizing the somewhat nebulous authority of international law. The growth and basis of international law; Grotius, 1583-1646; the 50 History 1b De jure belli ac pads; Puffendorf, 1632-1694; the sanction of international law found in public opinion. Persistent unity of European civilization; danger of overlooking this in the consideration of modern European history; though the states of Europe were politically sovereign and independent, they were yet bound together by common traditions, common interests, and a common history. The representatives of the Pope and the Republic of Venice acted as mediators at the Congress of Miinster, but the refusal of the Pope to sanction the Treaties of Westphalia was disregarded by the Catholic rulers, who signed the treaties. The rise of diplomacy; ambassadors, envoys, ministers resident and consuls; the procedure of diplomacy settled in many respects by the congresses of Osnabruck and Miinster; their importance in diplomatic history; the force of treaties. The history of the making of the Treaties of Westphalia; the services of trained diplomatists. The territorial arrangements of the Treaties of Westphalia; France obtained the Three Bishoprics, — Metz, Toul, and Verdun — occupied since 1552, Alsace, except Strasburg, and saving the rights of the Empire, Breisach, and the right to garrison Philipsburg and Pinerolo; Sweden obtained Western Pomerania, with the island of Riigen, Stettin, Wismar, the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden. The Swiss Cantons were recognized as independent of the Empire; the Protestant Netherlands, which had been already recognized as inde- pendent of Spain by Philip IV by the Treaty of Miinster in January, 1648, were also recognized as independent of the Empire. Germany became a group of independent states under the loose bond of the Empire. At the end of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden and France stood out as the two great military powers of Europe, and the Protestant Nether- lands as the great sea power; after 1653, England under the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell took a commanding part. The reign of Queen Christina of Sweden, 1626-1689, only child of Gustavus Adolphus; her abdication, 1654; the reign of Charles X, 1654- 1660; his wars with Denmark, Russia, and Poland; the Great Elector of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia, free from Polish sovereignty, 1657, and Sweden wins Halland and Scania, 1658. Failure of William II to become hereditary ruler of the Protestant Netherlands, 1650; the development of the burgher republic; John de Witt the director of Dutch policy, 1653; the naval war between England and the Dutch, 1652-1654; England again becomes a sea power; Admiral Blake in the Mediterranean. 51 History 1b Cardinal Mazarin director of the policy of France, 1642-1661; acces- sion of Louis XIV, 1643; Mazarin continues the policy of Kiehelieu in Germany and in Europe, and directs the negotiations of the Treaty of Westphalia. Spain refuses to make peace with France in 1648 owing to the out- break of civil war in France; the Fronde, 1648-1653; "playing at civil war"; the women of the Fronde; Conde; Turenne; the Cardinal de Eetz. Continuance of the war between France and Spain; the intervention of Cromwell; the battle of the Dunes, 1658; Cromwell adopts the policy of expansion by conquest; the capture of Jamaica, 1655. The religious policy of Oliver Cromwell; his demands on behalf of the Vaudois or Waldenses, 1656. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659; Spain cedes Eoussillon, Artois, and parts of Flanders, Hainault, and Luxembourg to France. Marriage of Louis XIV to Maria Theresa, elder daughter of Philip IV of Spain, 1660. Triumph of France in European politics; the effectiveness for the French State of the policy of Eichelieu and Mazarin; the way prepared for Louis XIV, and his attempt to control Europe. The life and work of Saint Vincent de Paul, 1576-1660. 52 History 1b LECTURE 21 Louis XIV in France The idea of the State in the seventeenth century; its highest develop- ment in France; Louis XIV; "I am the State. '^ The personality of Louis XIV, 1638-1715. The monarchy as the center of the State; everything done in the King's name; ''de par le Roi"; absolutism. The institutions of the State; the King's Council; the Parlements and especially the Parlement of Paris; the government of the provinces; the intendants; growth of the bureaucracy. The financial system; the farmers-general. The court of Louis XIV; its establishment at Versailles, 1682; effect on the nobility of France. The Galilean church under Louis XIV; his conflicts with Popes Alex- ander VII, 1662-1664, and Innocent XI, 1687-1689; the Assembly of 1682; Jesuits and Jansenists; the great bishops and preachers; Bossuet; the Quietists; Fenelon; Marie Alacoque, 1647-1690, and the worship of the Sacred Heart; the Abbe de Ranc^, 1626-1700, and La Trappe. Louis XIV and the Huguenots; the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685. The government of Louis XIV to 1685; the administration of Colbert, 1661-1683; his policy of protection; growth of French industries and commerce; the rise of the French navy; the French colonies; wealth and prosperity of France under Colbert; the cities of France; the bourgeoisie. Gaiety and splendor of the French court during the first years of the reign of Louis XIV; Mademoiselle de la Valliere; Madame de Montespan; death of the Queen, 1683; the Letters of Madame de Sevigne. The development of the French army under Louis XIV; the adminis- tration of Louvois, 1666-1691; the great French generals, Turenne and Conde, Luxembourg and Vauban; continuance of feudal ideas in the army; the noblesse; proprietary regiments; foreign regiments; the ''Maison du Roi"; the Swiss Guards. Effect of the European ambitions of Louis XIV on France; his diplo- macy; his wars; his concentration on the Spanish Succession. Impoverishment of France during the latter years of the reign of Louis XIV; effect of the emigration of the Huguenots; maladministra- tion of the finances; depression of agriculture; Vauban 's Dime Eoyale. Gloom and depression of the court during the latter years of the reign of Louis XIV; his marriage to Madame de Maintenon, 1684; the Memoirs of Saint-Simon. Effect of the example of Louis XIV on Europe; the principles of centralization and bureaucratic administration; the State and the absolute 53 History 1b ruler; Frederick William of Brandenburg, the Great Elector, 1640-1688; the Revolution of 1660 in Denmark by which the Danish Monarchy was made hereditary and absolute; the ''Divine Right of Kings" doctrine propounded in England under Charles II and James II; the opposite view upheld by John Locke; absolutism overthrown in England by the Revo- lution of 1688. The constitution of society during the latter half of the seventeenth century, when Louis XIV ruled in France and set the example to Europe; privilege; classes; the old nobility or noblesse d'epee; the new nobility; noble land; nobility of office; the growth of wealth; the great commercial companies; monopolies; the guild system; the artisans; the peasants; disappearance of serfdom in France and the Latin countries. The spread of education in the seventeenth century. The supremacy of France in thought, fashion, literature and art in the seventeenth century; its standards and tendencies adopted in England Germany, Spain and Italy; the seventeenth the French century. Development of the western European vernaculars into literary Ian guages; the French theatre; tragedy; Corneille, 1606-1684; Racine, 1639 1699; Moliere, 1622-1673; French prose; Pascal, 1625-1662; La Fontaine 1621-1695; Fenelon, 1651-1715; the foundation of the French Academy 1635. French art and architecture; Versailles. Louis XIV and Asia; the French East India Company; foundation of Pondicherry, 1674; embassy to Siam, 1685. Louis XIV and America; the French West Indies; Haiti, Martinique and Guadeloupe; development of Canada; the work of the Jesuits; the government of Frontenac, 1672-1682, and 1689-1698; La Salle's voyage down the Mississippi, 1682; first French settlement in Louisiana, 1699. Effect on European civilization of the Age of Louis XIV. LECTURE 22 Louis XIV and Europe The leadership of France in the Europe of independent and sovereign States after the Treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees; the weakness of Germany divided into about 360 sovereign states of the Empire; the weakness of Italy, which was dominated by Spain; the weakness of the Spanish empire in Europe; the situation of England under Charles II and James II; the vigor of the Protestant Netherlands. Louis XIV dominated the latter half of the seventeenth century in Europe; his ambitions; his foreign policy; his diplomacy; his standing army; his desire to absorb directly or indirectly the Spanish empire. 54 History 1b Louis XIV and Spain; rivalry for diplomatic precedence; the decline of Spain under Charles II, the last of the Spanish Hapsburgs, 1665-1700. Louis XIV and England; his cousins, Charles II and James II; the Treaty of Dover, 1670. Louis XIV and the Empire; the Emperor Leopold I, 1658-1705; the League of the Rhine, 1658; the Great Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg. Louis XIV and the Mediterranean; his desire for sea power; cam- paigns against the Barbary Corsairs; aid sent to the Venetians in defense of Candia in Crete; capture of Candia by the Turks, 1669; bombardment of Tripoli, 1681, Algiers, 1682-1683, and Genoa, 1684, by Du Quesne. Louis XIV and the Turks; revival of the vigor of the Ottoman Turks under the Kiuprili Grand Viziers; French troops at the battle of the Saint Gothard, 1664; establishment of French influence at Constantinople. Rivalry between the English and the Dutch as naval powers and traders; Asiatic trade and colonization in America; the English Navi- gation Acts; the naval war of 1664-1667; by the Treaty of Breda, 1667, the English abandoned the trade of the Spice Islands, but obtained the New Netherlands in America, now New York. The War of Devolution, 1667-1668; nature of the claims of Louis XIV on the Spanish Netherlands; Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. The doctrine of the Balance of Power invoked by the Triple Alliance of England, Sweden and the Dutch, 1668, to check the ambitions of Louis XIV; Sir William Temple and John de Witt; nature of the doc- trine; its idea implicit in that of the Europe of sovereign, independent states. The Dutch War, 1672-1678; death of John de Witt; William III of Orange; European character of the war; the treaties of Nimuegen or Nymwegen, 1678. The critical period for the Balance of Power in Europe, 1678-1688; the alliance of Louis XIV with Charles II of England; the ''Chambers of reunion"; the siege of Vienna by the Turks, 1683; accession of James II in England, 1685; effect of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes; formation of the League of Augsburg, 1686. The plans of Louis XIV thwarted by the Revolution of 1688 in Eng- land, which expelled the Stuarts and brought William III of Orange, the champion of the idea of the Balance of Power, to the thrones of England and Scotland with his wife, Mary II. European importance of the Revolution of 1688; establishment of the power of Parliament in England; the party system; Whigs and Tories; the merchants and the landed proprietors; religious toleration; John Locke, 1632-1704; the Revolution settlement in Scotland; the Revolution settlement in Ireland; the battle of the Boyne, 1690. 55 History 1b The War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697; the battle of La Hogue, 1692, and destruction of the navy of Louis XIV; the Treaties of Ryswick, 1697. The significance of the siege of Vienna by the Turks, 1683; John Sobieski, King of Poland, 1674-1696; the Turkish war; the capture of Azov by Peter the Great of Russia, 1696; the battle of the Zenta won by Prince Eugene of Savoy, 1697; the conquest of Hungary from the Turks; the Treaty of Carlowitz, 1699; beginning of the decline of the Ottoman power in Europe. The Eastern question in the latter part of the seventeenth century; the Austrian Hapsburgs; Poland; Russia; the Turks. The falling in of the Spanish Succession on the extinction of the male line of the Spanish Hapsburgs the dominant question in Western Europe. Effect of the ambitious designs of Louis XIV the declaration of the doctrine of the Balance of Power in Europe. Continued solidarity of European civilization, in spite of the estab- lishment of the Europe of independent and sovereign states in the place of the medieval Europe of the Holy Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire; the development of diplomacy and international law; interna- tional business and commerce; the Mercantile theory; protection of indus- tries and trade; international travel; European character of literature, philosophy, art and science. LECTURE 23 The War of the Spanish Succession The decline of Spanish power in the seventeenth century; the extent of the Spanish Empire in Europe and America. The question of the Spanish Succession; the ambition of Louis XIV; the doctrine of the Balance of Power; the Partition Treaties, 1668, 1698, 1700; the attitude of William III. The claimants to the Spanish Succession after 1699; Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV, and the Archduke Charles, son of the Emperor Leopold. The death of Charles li of Spain, November 1, 1700. Louis XIV accepts the Spanish dominions for his grandson; ''the Pyrenees no longer exist"; coronation of Philip V, the first Bourbon King of Spain. Formation of the Grand Alliance of the Emperor, England and the Dutch against Louis XIV; death of William III, 1702, and accession of Queen Anne in England. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1713; the respective strength 56 History 1b of the two sides; Louis XIV, his ministers and his marshals; the states- men and generals of the Grand Alliance; Marlborough, Eugene and Heinsius; Marlborough's victories at Blenheim, 1704, Eamillies, 1706, Oudenarde, 1708, and Malplaquet, 1709; capture of Gibraltar by Rooke, 1704. The critical year of the war, 1706-1707; Spain, except Catalonia, declares for Philip V; appearance of a national spirit in Spain; Charles XII of Sweden refused to interfere. Change in the situation caused by the death of the Emperor Joseph I and the election of the Archduke Charles, as Emperor Charles VI, 1711; the Tories succeed the Whigs in England. The overthrow of the power of Louis XIV; inability of the French State to conquer Europe; triumph of the doctrine of the Balance of Power. The Treaties of Utrecht, 1713; neglect of the idea of Nationality; Spain and the Indies left to Philip V; the Spanish dominions in Italy, except Sicily, and the Netherlands given to the Emperor Charles VI. Appearance of two new royal powers; Frederick William of Hohen- zollern. Elector of Brandenburg, recognized as King of Prussia, title adopted in 1701; Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, recognized as King of Sicily, title and island exchanged with the Emperor for Sardinia, 1720. Colonial and commercial advantages attained by England from the Treaties of Utrecht; sovereignty in Newfoundland and Hudson Bay recognized, and Acadia or Nova Scotia ceded; predominance secured in North America ; the part of New England in ' ' Queen Anne 's War ' ' ; begin- ning of English power in the Mediterranean; acquisition of Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain; the Asiento concerning trade with Spanish America. The latter days of Louis XIV; failure of France to dominate Europe; death of Louis XIV, 1715. England during the reign of Queen Anne; power passes from the Crown to Parliament; the strife of parties; freedom of expression of opinion; the beginnings of journalism; Daniel Defoe, 1663-1731; litera- ture; Addison, 1672-1719, Steele, 1671-1729, and the Spectator; Swift, 1667-1745; Pope, 1688-1744; science; Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727. Development of the English colonies in America; their freedom and self-government; restraint of their industry and trade; immigration of Huguenots and of religious exiles from the Rhenish Palatinate. Development of the Hudson Bay Company. Development of the London East India Company; foundation and absorption of the English East India Company; foundation of Fort St. George, Madras, 1639; cession to the Company of the island of Bombay, part of the dowry, with Tangier in Africa, of Catherine of Braganza, 57 History 1b wife of Charles II, 1668; foundation of Calcutta, 1686; the trade of India. Legislative Union of England and Scotland, 1707. The overthrow of the ambitions of Louis XIV left Great Britain the most prosperous state in Europe; her policy to develop sea power, and expansion by trade and colonization, rather than to attempt to dominate Europe. The effect of the English ideal of self-government at home and of expansion beyond Europe through trade and colonization upon the devel- opment of Western or Atlantic European civilization. LECTURE 24 Peter the Great of Russia The expansion of the European State-system to the West by coloniz- ation in America and to the East by the emergence of Russia as a European State; the making of Russia the work of Peter the Great. The Muscovy of the Age of the Renaissance; the struggle of the Slavs of the Greek Church with the Tartars of the Golden Horde; the Grand Duchy of Moscow; the city states of Pskov and Novgorod; the trade of the Hanseatic League. The reign of Ivan the Terrible, 1533-1584; who took the title of Tsar, 1547; the Muscovy Company of London; the invasion of Siberia. Muscovy in the seventeenth century; the Tsars of the House of Romanov; the struggle with the Roman Catholic Slavs of Poland; the Greek Catholic church and the independence of the Russian church from Constantinople, 1589; the Asiatic character of the government of the Tsars; the Cossacks. Peter Alexievitch, born 1672, recognized as joint Tsar with his brother, Ivan V, 1682; the government of the Princess Sophia and Vasili Galitzin, 1682-1689; Peter assumes the government, 1689; sole Tsar, 1696. The education and personality of Peter the Great; the influence of his foreign friends, Gordon and Lefort; his passion for boat building; his desire to make Russia a sea power; his longing for a sea port; Arc- angel on the White Sea; his desire to make Russia a European State. The journey of Peter the Great to Western Europe, 1697-1698; the destruction of the Streltsi; formation of a regular army and navy; forcible introduction of Western usages. First appearance of Russia in European politics; coalition of Russia, Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark to attack Sweden, then the leading power on the Baltic. Decline of Sweden as a military and naval power; changes in the policy of Charles XI; France, Denmark and Brandenburg; the Revolution of 1682 and the establishment of absolute monarchy in Sweden. 58 History 1b Charles XII of Sweden, born 1682; ''the Madman of the North"; his boyhood and character; succeeds his father as King of Sweden, 1697; his first campaigns; defeat of the Danes, and of Peter the Great at Narva, 1700; conquest of Poland, 1704-1706; commanding position of Charles XII in 1706; his refusal to interfere in the War of the Spanish Succession. Foundation of St. Petersburg, 1702; significance of the change of capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Charles XII invades Eussia; his defeat at Poltava, 1709; disappearance of Sweden as a great power; recognition of Eussia as a European power; importance of the battle of Poltava. Suggestion of the partition of Poland made to Peter the Great by Frederick I of Prussia, The reforms of Peter the Great; the introduction of an administrative and bureaucratic system; the eight governments; encouragement of com- merce. The disastrous war of Peter the Great with the Turks, 1710-1711; his desire to establish Eussia both on the Baltic and the Black Sea. Charles XII at Bender and Adrianople; his return to Sweden, 1715; his death, 1718. By the Treaty of Nystadt, 1721, Sweden ceded the provinces bordering on the Gulf of Finland to Peter the Great; Eussia a sea power. The last years of Peter the Great; his wife, the Empress Catherine; his statesmen and generals; the Old Eussian party; the execution of his only son, the Tsarevitch Alexis, 1722. The death of Peter the Great, 1725; the greatness of his work. Appearance of a new force in European civilization; the Eussian Slavs; the autocratic form of Eussian government; the expansion of Europe to the East; the Eastern Question in the eighteenth century; contributions of Eussia to European civilization. LECTUEE 25 Fkederick the Great of Prussia Germany in the eighteenth century; absence of a German State or of a German nation; the German people and their slow recovery from the Thirty Years' War; German learning and the German universities; Leib- nitz, 1646-1716; German music; Johann Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750. Eecovery of population in Germany; absence of commerce; no move- ment of expansion. German administration; application of the ideas of managing a landed estate to German States; the Cameralists. The chief states of Germany; Austria; the Emperor Charles VI, 1711- 1740; his administration; Hungary and Bohemia and their influence in 59 History 1b detaching the House of Hapsburg from German interests; the Palatinate; Bavaria; Saxony and the election of Augustus I and II to be Kings of Poland; Hanover created an electorate, 1692; recognized, 1713; the Elector George 1 of Hanover, King of Great Britain, 1714. The position of the Empire in Germany; its weakness; "Neither Holy, nor Koman, nor an Empire. '^ The vigor of the House of Hohenzollern; Frederick William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, 1640-1688; the scattered position of his domin- ions; independent Duke of Prussia, 1657; his efforts for absolutism and centralization; his military policy; raises his army to 30,000 men. The Elector Frederick III of Brandenburg, 1688-1713; crowned him- self Frederick I, King of Prussia, 1701; his part in the War of the Spanish Succession; the royal title recognized by the Treaties of Utrecht. Frederick William I, King ol Prussia, 1713-1740; his personality; his military policy; his passion for tall soldiers; his excellent administration; his paternalism. The policy of Frederick William I; acquisition of part of Western Pomerania with the port of Stettin, 1720; his support of the doctrine of the Balance of Power. The youth of Frederick the Great, born 1712; his personality. Conditions in Europe at the time of the accession of Frederick the Great, 1740. Changes made in the Utrecht settlement; exchange of Sicily for Sardinia by Charles VI, 1720, and guarantee of Parma to Don Carlos, son of Philip V of Spain and Elizabeth Farnese. The longing for peace illustrated in the attitude of the Eegent Orleans in France, 1715-1723, and of Lord Stanhope in England, 1714-1721. The complications of the money market, the development of banking and the misunderstanding of credit bring about financial crises; the South Sea Bubble in England and the Mississippi Bubble in France; John Law, 1671-1729; the foundation of the Bank of England, 1692. Advantage of Great Britain over other countries in the handling of capital and of national finance. The peace of Europe maintained by the administration of Cardinal Fleury for Louis XV of France and of Sir Eobert Walpole for George I and George II of Great Britain. The danger point, the Pragmatic Sanction of the Emperor Charles VI, by which the dominions of the Austrian Hapsburgs were to pass to his elder daughter, Maria Theresa; 'Hhe shadow hunts of Kaiser Karl." The episode of the War of the Polish Succession, 1733-1735; Don Carlos became King of Naples and Sicily, Stanislas Leczinski King of Lorraine, and Francis of Lorraine, husband of Maria Theresa, Grand Duke of Tuscany. 60 History 1b The death of the Emperor Charles VI, 1740, caused a general European war; the war of Jenkins' Ear had already broken out between England and Spain, 1739; Anson in the Pacific Ocean, 1740-1744. The first Silesian War, 1740-1742; the victories of Frederick the Great and his acquisition of Silesia. The War of the Austrian Succession, 1741-1748; the allies on either side; all the European States involved; a war of States and not of relig- ions or nations; the desperate resistance of Maria Theresa; the Elector of Bavaria Emperor, as Charles VII, 1742-1745; Francis of Lorraine elected Emperor, 1745; the victories of Frederick the Great and Marshal Saxe. The American phase of the war; capture of Louisbourg on the island of Cape Breton by the New Englanders, 1745. The Asiatic phase of the war; Madras taken by Labourdonnais, 1746. The Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748; the two States that profited were Prussia and Sardinia; exchange of Louisbourg for Madras; discon- tent of the American colonists. The commanding figure that came out of the War of the Austrian Succession was Frederick the Great; the unscrupulousness and success of his policy; importance of his acquisition of Silesia; his qualities as a general; efficiency of the Prussian army. Frederick the Great as a ruler; "I am the first servant of the State"; his absolutism; his paternalism; his efficiency as an administrator. Frederick the Great of Prussia the typical ruler of the eighteenth century; contrast with Louis XIV of France; comparison between the French and the Prussian bureaucracy; Louis XV and Frederick the Great; Frederick the Great and Germany. The social and political ideals of the eighteenth century in Europe. LECTUEE 26 The Seven Years' War; Pitt: Charles III or Spain The eight years from the Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, to the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, 1756; the realignment of the Euro- pean States; Austria, Eussia, France and Sweden against Prussia and England. The Empress Maria Theresa; her personality; her piety; her family; her development of dynastic loyalty in the Austrian dominions; her desire to recover Silesia. Eussia under the Tsaritsa Anna, 1730-1740; the throne seized by Elizabeth, younger daughter of Peter the Great, 1741; maintenance of the Western and European policy of Peter; the expansion of Eussia in Asia; the explorations of Vitus Bering, 1680-1741. 61 History 1b France under Louis XV; rigidity and weakness of the administration, especially of the finances; material prosperity, education and intellectual development of the people; the Encyclopedie Methodique; the court of Versailles; Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour, 1745-1764. The diplomatic revolution of 1756; Kaunitz; the alliance of France and Austria; its unpopularity in France. The rivalry between England and France in Asia and America. The French and English in India; intermixture of the French East India Company in Indian politics; the schemes of Dupleix; the develop- ment of native soldiers or sepoys under European officers; the Karnatik and the Deccan; Bussy; appearance of Eobert Clive; defense of Arcot, 1751; recall of Dupleix, 1754. The French and English in America; the French desire to connect Canada with Louisiana; the defeat of General Braddock, 1755; the spirit of the American colonists. William Pitt, 1707-1778; his personality and policy; England drawn into the war in Europe by the situation of Hanover; "I will conquer Canada on the plains of Westphalia." The Seven Years' War, 1756-1763; the invasion of Saxony by Fred- erick the Great, 1756; the first victories of Frederick; his later defeats and exhaustion of his territories; deserted by England, after the resig- nation of Pitt, 1762; saved by the death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, 1762; the Treaty of Hubertsburg, 1763. The war between the French and English in India; the Black Hole of Calcutta and the victory of Clive at Plassey, 1757; defeat of the French by Eyre Coote at Wandewash, 1761; capture of Pondicherry. 1762; end of the French power in India; adoption of French methods with Indian native princes by the London East India Company. The war between the French and English in America; the ''French and Indian War"; the advantage of the French in their concentrated and centralized government; Montcalm, 1712-1759; the disadvantage of the English colonists in the variety and rivalry of their governments; Benjamin Franklin and the Albany Congress, 1754; attitude of the colo- nists towards the English government; Montcalm takes Oswego, 1756, Fort William Henry, 1757; repulse of Abercromby at Ticonderoga, 1758. Pitt and the war in America; capture of Louisbourg by Amherst and Boscawen, 1758; occupation by the English of Fort Frontenac and Fort Duquesne, 1758, of Fort Niagara and Ticonderoga, 1759; defeat of Mont- calm by Wolfe and capture of Quebec, 1759; capture of Montreal by Amherst, 1760, and occupation of the whole of Canada. The policy of Choiseul, chief minister of France, 1758-1770; the Pacte de Famille or Family Compact with Spain, 1761, an offensive and defensive alliance of the Bourbons of France and Spain. 62 History 1b Charles III, King of Spain, 1759-1788; his experience and ability as an administrator; the revival of Spain. Spain declares war against England under the Facte de Famille, 1762; capture of Havana by Lord Albemarle and of Manilla by General Draper. The Treaty of Paris, 1763; France ceded Canada, Cape Breton and certain West India islands, and Spain ceded Florida, to England; France ceded Louisiana to Spain. The art of war in the eighteenth century; the organization of the Prussian army by Frederick the Great; drill and discipline; introduction of the bayonet and of light cavalry; the new tactics; comparative weak- ness of the French, Spanish and Austrian armies, which bore marks of the older regimental system; Pitt and the Highland Scottish regiments; the strategy of the eighteenth century. Sea power in the eighteenth century; the English navy under Pitt; Admiral Boscawen and the victory of Lagos, 1759; Admiral Hawke and the battle of Quiberon Bay, 1759; the execution of Admiral Byng, 1757. After the Treaty of Paris, Charles III prepares to defend his American empire; expeditions to occupy the coast line of America; the Falkland Islands and the dispute with England; the question of the Pacific Ocean; Don Jose de Galvez sent to Mexico, 1764; resolution to explore and occupy Upper California. The expedition of Don Caspar de Portola and Father Serra, 1769; the exploration of Upper California; foundation of the Presidio and the Mission of San Francisco, 1776; the Eussians in California. The importance of the question of the Pacific between 1763 and 1790; the exploration of the Pacific Ocean; Australia, New Zealand and the South Sea Islands; the voyages of Captain Cook and La Perouse. LECTUEE 27 The Enlightened Despotism in Europe The most noteworthy events between the Seven Years' War and the French Eevolution were the suppression of the Society of Jesus, 1773; the First Partition of Poland, 1773; and the American Eevolution, 1776. The overthrow of the Jesuits; the attack upon them and their expul- sion from Portugal by Pombal, 1757-1761; his example followed by Choiseal in France, 1761-1764; their expulsion from Spain, 1767, Naples, 1767, and Parma, 1768; suppression of the Society by Pope Clement XIV, 1773; the Jesuits continue in Prussia and Eussia by the favor of Fred- erick the Great and the Tsaritsa Catherine. The condition of Poland in the eighteenth century under the Saxon kings; election of Stanislas Poniatowski, 1764; his efforts to bring about reforms; the Confederations of Eadom and Bar; the position taken up 63 History 1b by the Tsaritsa Catherine II; the policy of Choiseul; the First Partition of Poland, 1773; the territories appropriated by Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Eussia, and Maria Theresa. Significance of these events and of the American Eevolution. More significant was the general development of the Aufklarung or Enlightenment throughout Europe; the ideals of the Enlightened Des- potism; in the seventeenth century absolute government was justified as best representing the unity and efficiency of the State, in the eighteenth century as being most useful to the people at large. The enlightened despots looked upon highly centralized and efficient administration for the material prosperity of their people as the aim of the government of their States; bureaucracy; disregard for national, local or religious differences. Their religious tolerance; the religious attitude of the eighteenth century; Deism; Voltaire; Eousseau; religious tolerance extended to- wards Jews, and by Catherine II of Eussia towards Muhammadans; Joseph II 's Edict of Toleration, 1781. Their efforts for material prosperity; public works; building roads and bridges, draining marshes and improving harbors. Their encouragement of agriculture, industry and commerce; the Phys- iocrats; Quesnay; Turgot; the single-tax idea; the study of political economy; new ideas of wealth and taxation; the publication of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, 1776. Their projects of legal and judicial reform; promulgation of codes of law; abolition of torture; introduction of humane methods of punish- ment; Catherine's "Instruction for a New Code," 1766; publication of Beccaria's Dei delitti e della pene, 1764. Their recognition of the right of individual freedom; abolition of slavery in Portugal, 1773; abolition of serfdom in Bohemia, 1781; Baden, 1783; Hungary, 1785; Denmark, 1788; attitude of Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great towards serfdom; Voltaire the great champion of individual freedom. Some of the enlightened despots attacked all forms of privilege; Joseph II; the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany; abolition of guilds and monopolies; Turgot. Development of humanitarianism in the eighteenth century; its chief champions, Voltaire and Diderot; the enlightened despots and humani- tarianism. Efforts to aid the afflicted; recognition of the duty of the State; improvement in the treatment of the insane, the deaf-mutes and the blind; the sick and the foundation of state hospitals; hospital reform. Efforts to aid the unfortunate; prison reform; John Howard, 1726- 1790; the poor; the campaign against mendicity; Benjamin Thompson, 64 History 1b Count Kumford, 1753-1814; the organization of charity; orphan asylums; foundling asylums. General recognition of the rights of humanity in the eighteenth century; the influence of the Free Masons. The belief of the enlightened despots that the happiness and pros- perity of mankind could best be maintained by the arbitrary government of a wise and good man working through expert and sympathetic administrators. Their belief that the State should take over the humanitarian duties left in the Middle Ages to the Church. Their belief in absolute government. Their readiness to encourage education, primary, secondary, university and technical; the encouragement of education regarded as a duty of the State; reorganization of universities; foundation of the first engineering school at Paris, 1747, and of the first mining school at Freiberg in Saxony, 1765. The enlightened despots sometimes carried out their own reforms and sometimes worked through enlightened ministers. The most important enlightened despots were Frederick the Great of Prussia, 1740-1786, but mainly engaged in war, 1740-1763; Catherine the Great of Eussia, 1762-1796; the Emperor Joseph II, ruler of the Austrian dominions, 1780-1790; Charles III of Spain, 1759-1788; Gustavus III of Sweden, 1771-1792; the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, 1765-1790; the Margrave Charles Frederick of Baden, 1771-1811. The most important enlightened ministers were the Marquis of Pombal in Portugal, 1750-17V7; Bernardo Tanucci in Naples, 1734-1776; Du Tillot in Parma, 1749-1771; Struensee, 1770-1772, and Andrew Bernstorff, 1772- 1780 and 1784-1795, in Denmark; Turgot in France, 1774-1776. Behind the movement of the enlightened despotism in Europe was the power of public opinion, voiced by the great French writers, of whom the greatest and most representative was Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire, 1694-1778. LECTURE 28 Independence and Organization of the United States of America While the views of the physiocrats and the encyclopaedists, and of such leaders of thought as Voltaire, Diderot and Beccaria, were more concerned with the progress of enlightenment and humanitarianism than with the actual form of government, other writers, of whom the chief was Rousseau, believed that the evils of society came trom the form of the government and could be remedied by a change of this form. 65 ' History 1b The English speaking world was little affected by the theory of enlight- ened despotism, though much concerned with humanitarianism. The form of government in England in the eighteenth century; change wrought by the accession of George III, 1760; the breakdown of the party system in England; the rise of family cliques; the decay of Parliament, which ceased to represent the people; the rotten boroughs; struggle of George III for personal government; boss and king; the declaration of public opinion against him; Lord Bute; Wilkes; the Letters of Junius. The personal government of George III, with Lord North as minister, 1771-1782. The government of the thirteen English colonies in America; their variety; their social and economic difference; their legislative independ- ence; their lack of unity; their opposition to the English government, especially in economic matters; change brought about in their position by the annexation of Canada, 1763, and removal of the fear of French aggression; their disgust at the Quebec Act, 1774. The movement of colonial opposition; its historic and economic reas- ons; Benjamin Franklin and the Albany Congress, 1754; the meeting of the Continental Congress, 1774. The Declaration of Independence, 1776; the views of Thomas Jeffer- son; a recital of abstract principles and of actual grievances. Sympathy felt in England for the colonists; William Pitt, Lord Chat- ham; Edmund Burke; the Americans fighting the battle for the principle of representation and against the personal government of George III. The first campaigns; the services of George Washington to the Amer- ican cause; his personality; his military services; surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, 1777. Interest taken in Europe in the American War of Independence; unpopularity of England; enthusiasm in France; La Fayette and other volunteers join Washington; the diplomatic skill of Franklin; treaty of alliance between France and the Americans, 1778; war declared by France against England, 1778, and by Spain, under the Facte de Famille, 1779. The Armed Neutrality; its enunciation by the Neutral League of the North, 1780; its meaning; supported by practically all the States of Europe; war declared by England against the Dutch, 1780. Weakness of Great Britain; unpopularity of the war; the movement of the Volunteers in Ireland; the Gordon Riots in London, 1780. The War of American Independence; the siege of Gibraltar, 1779- 1782; failure of the English effort to extend the war to Europe; the question of the Bavarian Succession; the Treaty of Teschen, 1779; a French army under Rochambeau arrives in America, 1780; the surrender 66 History 1b of Cornwallis at Yorktown, 1781; Eodney's naval victory over De Grasse, 1782. Eetirement of Lord North from office, 1782; preliminaries of peace signed, 1782; by the Treaty of Versailles, 1783, the independence of the American colonies recognized, Minorca and Florida ceded to Spain, and certain West India islands and African settlements to France. Significance of the success of the American Eevolution; a new power brought into existence with unlimited resources, traditions of self-gov- ernment, high ideals and a new field of existence, untrammeled by European conditions; end of the personal government of George III; the general election of 1784 and beginning of the administration of William Pitt the Younger. Effect on Europe of the success of the American Eevolution; the triumph of self-government contrasted with enlightened despotism. Although the independence of the thirteen American States had been recognized in 1783, the problem of their union had not been worked out; the character of the Continental Congress; the critical period of Amer- ican history, 1784 to 1789. The Federal Convention of 1787; the difficulties of its task; the making of the Constitution of the United States; the ratification of the Constitution; the Federalist, 1787-1788. Inauguration of George Washington as first President of the United States, 1789. Importance of the Constitution of the United States in the history of civilization; its solution of the problem of the relation of local to central government; its advance upon the attempts at federation of the Swiss and the Dutch. The problem of expansion to the West; the Ordinance of 1787. 67 History 1b LECTURE 29 The French Revolution The modern perspective of the history of the French Revolution; it is now seen that the French Revolution was the natural and inevitable result of conditions and not a series of strange and abnormal occurrences. The social and economic changes brought about in the peaceful years of the Revolution, 1789-1792, followed the lines of the enlightened des- potism in the other countries of Europe, as in the division of France into departments, the abolition of privilege, etc., while the demand for self-government through representative institutions corresponded to the demands of the Americans, which were based in practice on English liberties and in theory upon the views of Rousseau and other European writers. The situation of France at the close of the eighteenth century; material prosperity greater and education more widely spread than in any continental country of Europe; the bureaucracy; the demand for the abolition of privilege; the wretched financial system; the condition of agriculture, industry and commerce. The government of France under Louis XVI, 1774-1789; his person- ality; hatred and contempt felt for his queen, Marie Antoinette; the Austrian alliance; the reforms of Turgot, 1774-1776; the administrations of Necker, 1776-1781, Calonne, 1783-1787, Lomenie de Brienne, 1787- 1788, and Necker, 1788-1789; the absolute necessity for a reform of the finances; the deficit. The meeting of the States-General, 5 May, 1789; the struggle between the Orders; the Oath of the Tennis Court, 20 June, 1789; the States- General declares itself the National Assembly; opposition of the court; the taking of the Bastille, 14 July, 1789; the National Guard of Paris formed; La Fayette. The National Assembly at Versailles; spread of the insurrectionary movement to the provinces of France; the question of a Constitution; Necker; La Fayette; Mirabeau; expression of free public opinion in clubs and in journals; the breakdown of the bureaucracy; removal of the court to Paris, 5 and 6 October, 1789, followed by the Assembly. Responsibility divorced from authority; rejection of Mirabeau 's scheme to select the king's ministers from the leaders of the Assembly; Mira- beau 's Notes for the Court. Reorganization of France; division into departments; abolition of privilege; attempt to make a national and self-governing state. The French Constitution of 1791; comparison with the Constitution of the United States and the Polish Constitution of 1791; the executive. 68 History 1b legislative and judicial arrangements; the extension of the idea of elec- tion; equality before the law; the weakness of the executive; the Feder- ation of 14 July, 1790. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy; confiscation of the property of the Church; application of the idea of election; schism. The effect of the French Eevolution on Europe; the Belgian Ee vo- lution of 1789; Van der Noot and Vonck; the United States of Belgium; the attitude of the rest of Europe; public opinion in England; Edmund Burke; Frederick von Gentz; excitement in the countries bordering on France; Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea. The Emperor Leopold II, 1790-1792; his accession on the death of Joseph II, February, 1790; his pacification of the Austrian dominions; Hungary; the Tyrol; the Catholic Netherlands; his relations with Fred- erick William II, King of Prussia. Germany at the time of the French Revolution; opposition to Joseph II; the Fiirstenbund, 1785; death of Frederick the Great, 1786; the Triple Alliance of Great Britain, Prussia and the Protestant Netherlands, 1788; the masterly policy of Leopold II; restoration of Hapsburg leadership; attitude of Leopold towards France. Poland at the time of the French Eevolution; reforms attempted by Stanislas Poniatowski after the First Partition; desire to make a cen- tralized Polish State; the Constituent Diet, 1788; Hugo von Kollontai, 1752-1812; the Polish Constitution of 1791. The question of the intervention of the other states of Europe in the affairs of France; the appeals of the emigres; Gustavus III of Sweden; William Pitt; his policy of peace and reform, 1784-1791; the commercial treaty between England and France, 1786; the disregard in the first flush of National enthusiasm of the Constituent Assembly for inter- national law; the questions of Avignon and of the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace; the policy of Mirabeau. The affair of Nootka Sound, 1790; its importance in the history of the Pacific Coast; England and Spain; refusal of the Constituent Assembly to be bound by the Facte de Famille; the right of declaring peace and war; Mirabeau and the Diplomatic Committee; death of Mirabeau, 2 April, 1791. The flight to Varennes, 21 June, 1791; the effect on France and on Europe; the Declaration of Pilnitz by Leopold II and Frederick William II, 27 August. 1791; acceptance of the Constitution of 1791 by Louis XVI, 21 September, 1791. The Legislative Assembly, 1791-1792; approach of war; the questions leading up to it; an army of emigres formed under Conde on the frontier; the French princes at Coblentz; the Girondins; the policy of Brissot; foreign intervention and patriotism; the organization of public opinion 69 History 1b in France; the journals; Marat; the Jacobin Club; death of the Emperor Leopold II, 1 March, 1792, and the assassination of Gustavus III of Sweden, 29 March, 1792. The administration of Narbonne, January-March, 1792; and of the Girondin ministers, March to June, 1792; the policy of Dumouriez, 1739- 1823. Declaration of war by France against Austria, 20 April, 1792. What had been accomplished during the peaceful period of the French Eevolution, 1789-1792; the creation of a French National State; the complication of a great foreign war checked the process of organization; necessity of bearing in mind that the latter years of the French Eevo- lution were years of a desperate war for independence undertaken before the new self-governing French State was prepared for it; the general question of the right of intervention in the affairs of a foreign country. LECTUEE 30 The War of the French Eevolution; the Eeign of Terror Effect of the outbreak of war on the political situation in France and in Europe; the problem of intervention by foreign states in the affairs of a state changing its form of government; Burke and Pitt; the coalition of Austria, Prussia and Sardinia against France. Effect of the first days of war; the invasion of the Tuileries, 20 June, 1792; effect of Brunswick's proclamation; capture of the Tuileries, 10 August, 1792; desertion of La Fayette; the Marseillaise ; suspension of the Monarchy; the advance of Brunswick; the Commune of Paris; Danton; the massacres of September in the prisons of Paris; meeting of the National Convention, 20 September, 1792; declaration of the French Eepublic "one and indivisible, ' 21 September; the battle of Valmy. The first successes of the French republican armies; the victory of Jemappes, 6 November, and occupation oi the Austrian Netherlands by Dumouriez; the advance of Custine to the Ehine and capture of Mayence; occupation of Savoy and Nice; the Eevolutionary Propaganda and annex- ation of Belgium and Savoy. The policy of the Girondins; absence of parties in the Convention; the Plain; the Mountain; the Jacobin Club; execution of Louis XVI, 21 January, 1793; war declared by Great Britain, Spain, Portugal and the Empire. Attitude of the European states towards the French Eepublic; the coalition; Catherine II and Frederick William II; the Second Partition of Poland; Thugut; Godoy; Pitt; public opinion; Burke. Lack of organization in France; Danton; effect of the repulse of the French armies; the desertion of Dumouriez; the invasion of France; 70 History 1b creation of the Committee of Public Safety; expulsion of the Girondin leaders, 31 May, 1793. Civil war in France; the rising of La Vendee; the federalist move- ment; the insurrection of the cities; the murder of Marat by Charlotte Corday, 13 July, 1793. The Great Committee of Public Safety; Kobespierre; Carnot; Barere; organization of the Keign of Terror; its purpose and effectiveness; the thirteen armies of the Eepublic. The winter of 1793-1794; the Committee of Public Safety and its relation to the National Convention; the Commune of Paris; the provinces of France and the problem of National defense; the deputies on mission; the Revolutionary Tribunal and the guillotine; the Republican Calendar and system of weights and measures; the Worship of Reason, The victories of the French armies; the Terror at its height; Robe- spierre and the Worship of the Supreme Being; the victory of Fleurus, 26 June, 1794; the battle of the First of June; arrest of Robespierre, 9 Thermidor, 27 July, 1794; end of the Reign of Terror. The Polish insurrection of 1794; Kosciuszko; occupation of Warsaw, April; defeated by the Russians under Suvorov, October; contrast be- tween the triumph of the French Republic and the failure of the Polish insurrection; the outburst of national patriotism in France. Attitude of Europe towards the triumphant French Republic; with- drawal of Prussian interest to Poland; Burke and the majority of the English Whigs joined Pitt; public opinion in Great Britain and in the United States; President Washington and Genet; Jay's treaty, 1794- 1795. The government of the Thermidorians in France; continued successes of the French armies; conquest of the Protestant Netherlands by Piche- gru, January, 1795; the decree of the National Convention of 4 December, 1794, and end of the Revolutionary Propaganda; the demand for the natural limits; invasion of Spain by the French. Third and final partition of Poland, 3 January, 1795. Organization of the Batavian Republic; treaty of peace made between France and Tuscany, 9 February, 1795; France restored to the comity of Europe; triumph of the French nation. The negotiations at Basle; Barthelemy; the Treaties of Basle between France and Prussia, 5 April, 1795, and between France and Spain, 22 July, 1795; their importance; the demand for the Rhine frontier; Prussia and North Germany. France in the summer of 1795; the attacks on the Convention of 12 Germinal (1 April, 1795) and 1 Prairial (20 May, 1795) ; death of Louis XVII, 8 June, 1795; the demand for the termination of arbitrary govern- ment. ^1 History 1b The Constitution of the Year III; its separation of the executive and legislative; the Directors and the Councils of x^neients and of Five Hun- dred; the decree of the two-thirds; the demonstration of 13 Vendemiaire, 5 October, 1795; its defeat by Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte. The European significance of the War of the French Eevolution; the triumph of French national patriotism; the idea of the Nation superadded to the idea of the State. Contrast between the peace and the war periods of the French Eevo- lution; the adjustment of France to self-government interfered with by the intervention of Europe; desperate defense of French national inde- pendence and the right to modify the government shown in her sub- mission to the Eeign of Terror; independence more sought than self- government; difficulties in the way of political, social and economic adjustment, when complicated by a desperate war for independence. LECTUEE 31 Napoleon Bonaparte One result of the War of the French Eevolution was to evolve from the thirteen armies of the Eeign of Terror a force of well disciplined and enthusiastic young soldiers; after the Treaties of Basle, when the French Eepublic was freed from invaders and became aggressive, these young soldiers tended to become a professional army. The personality of Napoleon Bonaparte; an Italian from Corsica; his family; his education in France; his interest in Corsican polities; his family driven from Corsica, 1793; his services at the siege of Toulon; made a general by Barras; his friendship with Eobespierre's brother; employed by Barras in the suppression of the demonstration of 13 Vendemiaire. The literature on Napoleon; waves of opinion with regard to him; the legend of Napoleon; extremes of praise and blame; Scott; Thiers; Lanfrey; Masson; his psychology; Levy; Taine. The first Directors under the Constitution of the Year III; Barras; appointment of Bonaparte to command the Army of Italy, March, 1796; his marriage to Josephine de Beauharnais. The policy of the first Directors; continuance of the war with Austria, Sardinia and Great Britain; Eeubell; Carnot. The campaigns of 1796 in Italy; the strategy, the tactics, the young veterans of Bonaparte; Montenotte; peace with Sardinia and cession of Savoy and Nice to France; Lodi; Castiglione; Areola; Eivoli; signature of the Preliminaries of Leoben, 18 April, 1797. Campaign of 1796 in Germany; the retreat of Moreau. 72 History 1b The demand for peace in France and England; critical condition of Great Britain; the mutinies in the English navy, 1797. Effect of the campaigns of 1796; attack on England through Ireland; the United Irishmen; persistent neutrality of Prussia; treaty of alliance between France and Spain; destruction of the Spanish fleet at the battle of Cape Saint Vincent, 14 February, 1797. The peace movement in the summer of 1797; Barthelemy a Director; overthrow of the peace party on 18 Fructidor, 4 September, 1797; Bona- parte and Hoche. The policy of the Fructidorian Directors; growth of professionalism in the French army; the policy of Bonaparte in Italy; formation of the Cisalpine and Ligurian Eepublics; signature of the Treaty of Campo- Formio, 17 October, 1797, between France and Austria; the question of the Ehine frontier. The Fructidorian Directors and Great Britain; the expedition of Bona- parte to Egypt and the aid given to the Irish insurrection of 1798; Nelson's victory in the Battle of the Nile, 1 August, 1798, and the surrender of Humbert to Cornwallis, 8 September, 1798. Aggressive policy of the Fructidorian Directors in Switzerland and Italy; formation of the Helvetic, Koman and Parthenopean Eepublics; Pope Pius VI carried prisoner to France; adoption of the first Law of Conscription, 5 September, 1798. Indignation of the States of Europe; formation of the Second Coa- lition against the French Eepublic; Pitt makes a combination with the Emperor Francis II and the Tsar Paul, who had succeeded Catherine in 1796; Frederick William III of Prussia, who had succeeded 1797, declares neutrality. The campaigns of 1799; Suvorov drives the French from Italy, except Genoa; Massena defends Switzerland; failure of the Duke of York at Bergen. Effect of the renewal of European war on the French government; the coup d'etat of 30 Prairial, 18 June, 1799; Sieyes and Talleyrand. Bonaparte's campaigns in Egypt and Syria; his administration of Egypt; failure before Acre; his return to France, 9 October, 1799. The coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, 9 November, 1799; Bonaparte First Consul. The Constitution of the Year VIII, 1799; the Consuls, Bonaparte, Cambaceres and Lebrun; the Council of State, the Senate, the Tribunate, the Legislative Body; Bonaparte as an administrator; foundation of the Bank of France, 13 February, 1800; the Concordat signed by Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII, 15 July, 1801; organization of the prefectures; legal reform; the Codes; Bonaparte First Consul for life, 2 August, 1802. The foreign policy of First Consul Bonaparte; relations with Prussia, 73 History 1b Russia and Spain; the battles of Marengo, 14 June, 1800, and Hohen- linden, 3 December, 1800; assassination of the Tsar Paul, 23 March, 1801. The treaty of Luneville between France and Austria, 9 February, 1801; the resignation of Pitt, March, 1801; the treaty of Amiens between France and Great Britain, signed by Cornwallis and Joseph Bonaparte, 25 March, 1802; terms of these treaties. Changes made in Europe during the Consulate. The changes in Italy; Bonaparte President of the Italian Eepublic, January, 1802. The changes in Switzerland; the Act of Mediation, 19 February, 1803, the federal constitution restored, but with six new cantons; Geneva an- nexed to France. The changes in Germany; secularization of ecclesiastical States; cession of the left bank of the Ehine to France; reorganization of the Eeichstag or Imperial Diet, 27 April, 1803. Outbreak of war between the First Consul and Great Britain, 1803; formation of the camp at Boulogne; Pitt again Prime Minister; the execution of the Due d'Enghien, 21 March, 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte offered the title of Emperor of the French by the Senate, 18 May, 1804; the offer ratified by the French people in their primary assemblies; coronation of Napoleon as Emperor by Pope Pius VII at Paris, 2 December, 1804. The Emperor Francis II takes the title of Francis I, Emperor of Austria, 7 December, 1804, having previously, 11 August, 1804, declared the Austrian dominions an hereditary empire; he resigned the title of Holy Roman Emperor, 6 August, 1806. Significance of the imperial title taken by Napoleon; it challenged the continuance of the European State system as it had existed since 1648, as the policy of the First Consul Bonaparte had challenged the doctrine of the Balance of Power. The interests of France disregarded for the larger conception of the Napoleonic Empire. The idea of nationality and of national independence, which had been so desperately defended by France and from which had been inspired the armies of the French Revolution, abandoned, as well as the idea of natural frontiers, by the interference of Napoleon in Switzerland and his annexation of Piedmont to France, 11 September, 1802. LECTURE 32 The Napoleonic Empire Alarm felt in Europe at the aggressiveness of Napoleon; the fears of European statesmen were no longer of French Revolutionary ideas 74 History 1b of democracy and self-government, but of the destruction of the Balance of Power in Europe. Protests made by Great Britain against the annexation of Piedmont to France, and her refusal to surrender Malta, which she had taken in 1800, to the Knights of St. John, except under a guarantee. Embargo laid by the English government on French ships; arrest of English tourists in France; occupation of Hanover by a French army; blockade of French ports by English fleets; sale of Louisiana to the United States, 1803. The camp at Boulogne; organization of the ''Grande Armee"; its excellence; young veterans; professional soldiers; corps d 'armee, divisions and brigades; the Marshals of the Empire; the staff; officers and soldiers; the Imperial Guard; the infantry; tirailleurs and voltigeurs; cavalry; light and heavy; cuirassiers and dragoons; hussars, lancers and chasseurs; artillery; engineers; medical staff; Larrey; the spirit of honor and de- votion to the Emperor take the place of patriotism; the conscription; Marbot's Memoirs and the spirit of the Grande Armee. Great Britain and Napoleon; rise of the national spirit in England; the camp at Shorncliffe; Sir John Moore; the English navy; Nelson; the sailor songs of Dibdin. Pitt again prime minister of Great Britain, 1804; he thinks of the Balance of Power and not of national patriotism; the old fashioned diplomacy; the coalition of Austria, Eussia and Great Britain; alliance of France and Spain. The institutions of the Napoleonic Empire; the Legion of Honour; the Imperial Court; the grand dignitaries; the Empress Josephine; the Bonaparte family; the Senate; excellence of the Napoleonic adminis- tration; the Napoleonic bureaucracy; its efficiency and military organ- ization. Napoleon the last and most efficient of the enlightened despots; comparison with Frederick the Great of Prussia. The Napoleonic Empire and Europe; aims and ideals of Napoleon; Napoleon crowned King of Italy at Milan, 26 May, 1805; Eugene de Beauharnais Viceroy of Italy. Failure of the projected invasion of England; Villeneuve and Nelson; Sir Robert Calder's action, 22 July, 1805; destruction of the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar, 21 October, 1805; death of Nelson. The campaign of 1805; surrender of Mack at Ulm, 20 October; occu- pation of Vienna; battle of Austerlitz, 2 December; Treaty of Pressburg, 26 December. Death of Pitt, 23 January, 1806; formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, July 12, 1806; end of the Holy Roman Empire, August 6, 1806; the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemberg given the title of king. 75 History 1b The campaign of 1806; Frederick William III of Prussia and Queen Louisa; battles of Jena and Auerstadt, 14 October; occupation of Berlin, October 25; overthrow of Prussia. The campaign of 1807; battles of Eylau, 8 February, and Friedland, 14 June; defeat of the Eussians. The Treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807; its importance. The Napeolonic Empire; its structure and organization; Joseph Bona- parte, King of Naples, 30 March, 1806; Louis Bonaparte, King of Hol- land, 24 May, 1806; Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, 18 August, 1807; the Confederation of the Ehine or Rheinbund; the organization of Germany; mediatization of the small states of Germany; codified law, centralized administration and military conscription introduced; the or- ganization of Italy; Eugene de Beauharnais. Significance of the Napoleonic Empire; ruin of the State system and of the doctrine of the Balance of Power; the Napoleonic Empire European rather than French; an administrative entity rather than a national organization; opposed to self-government; the highest expression of enlightened despotism; comparison and contrast with the Roman Empire and with the Holy Roman Empire of the Middle Ages. Great Britain and the Napoleonic Empire; the influence of sea power; the blockade of the French coast; the capture of the French, Dutch and Spanish islands in the West Indies, the Indian Ocean and Asia; capture of the Cape of Good Hope; Miranda and his schemes for the independ- ence of Spanish America; failure of the English attack on Buenos Aires, 1808. Napoleon and English commerce; the Berlin Decree, 21 November, 1806; the English Orders in Council, 11 November, 1807; the Milan Decree, December 17, 1807; eft'ect of the Continental Blockade. The administration of the Duke of Portland in England, 1807 to 1809; Canning and Castlereagh; their rival policies; Canning's under- standing of the National idea. Napoleon's interference in the Iberian Peninsula; his resolution to attack Portugal; the Treaty of Fontainebleau, October 27, 1807; the occupation of Portugal by a French army under Junot, November, 1807; Napoleon and Spain; Joseph Bonaparte declared King of Spain and the Indies, June 6, 1808. The Spanish insurrection; the capitulation of Baylen, 20 July, 1808; the intensity of national feeling in Spain; guerilla warfare; Sir Arthur Wellesley in Portugal; the Convention of Cintra, 30 August, 1808; Napo- leon in Spain; the retreat of Sir John Moore to Corunna. Unpopularity of the Napoleonic Empire in Germany; the shooting of Palm, 26 August, 1806; Stadion's attempt to make Austria leader of a movement in Germany. 76 History 1b The campaign of ]809; the battles of Aspern or Essling, May 21, 22, and of Wagram, July 6; the Treaty of Schonbrunn; failure of Austria; failure of the English expedition to Walcheren; Hofer and the Tyrol. Denmark and the Napoleonic Empire; bombardment of Copenhagen, September, 1807; Sweden; election of Bernadotte as Prince Eoyal, 5 No- vember, 1810; the Turks; war between the Tsar Alexander and the Turks, 1809 to 1811; the Illyrian Provinces. Napoleon and the Pope; arrest of Pope Pius VII, July 6, 1809; annex- ation of Eome, 13 December, 1810. The Napoleonic Empire at its greatest extent; 130 departments from Kome to Liibeck; excellence of administration; foundation of the Univer- sity of France, 17 March, 1808; absence of representative government and suppression of freedom of expression of opinion; Fbuche, Minister of Police, 1804-1810. Napoleon and the Napoleonic Empire; his Court; his belief in the hereditary principle; the Napoleonic nobility, 1808; resignation of Tal- leyrand, 1808. Divorce of Napoleon from Josephine and his marriage to the Arch- duchess Marie Louise, 2 April, 1810; Metternich State Chancellor of Austria; birth of the King of Eome, 20 March, 1811. Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working against him at the height of his power; his misunderstanding of the desire for self- government; his misunderstanding of the value of sea power; his failure to ruin English prosperity; his misunderstanding of the strength of national patriotism, which he had aroused in England, Spain and Germany, Inevitable overthrow of the Napoleonic Empire; refusal of the Europe of the Nations to accept it. LECTUEE 33 Overthrow of the Napoleonic Empire; the Eise of the Nations Napoleon the last of the enlightened despots of Europe, who believed that they knew better what was good for the people than the people; government of, but not by the people; disbelief in representative govern- ment and political liberty with belief in equality before the law and individual freedom. National character of the combined movement, which overthrew the Napoleonic Empire; rise and growth of the national idea, which resented interference by foreigners; its vehement expression in France during the War of the French Eevolution; national patriotism roused against Napoleon among the Spaniards, Portuguese, Swiss, Hungarians, Dutch and Italians; the only exception the Poles, who believed he would restore 77 History 1b the independence of Poland; the overthrow of the Napoleonic Empire certain, when the national spirit was roused in Germany and Eussia. The war in the Iberian Peninsula; national patriotism of the Span- iards; the defense of Saragossa; AVellington in the Peninsula; the Anglo- Portuguese army; the lines of Torres Vedras, 1810-1811; victories of Wellington at Talavera, 1809, Salamanca, 1812, Vittoria, 1813; expulsion of the French and Joseph Bonaparte from Spain. The growth of the national spirit in Germany; the Duke of Bruns- wick; Major Schill; the Tugendbund; Father Jahn; the poets of nation- alism; Arndt and Korner; attitude of Goethe towards Napoleon. The reorganization of Prussia; Stein, 1757-1831; his abolition of serfdom and other reforms; Hardenberg and his completion of Stein's work by making former serfs land holders; Scharnhorst, 1755-1813, and the adoption by Prussia of universal military service; foundation of the CJniversity of Berlin, 1810. Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander I; the disagreement between them; Napoleon's invasion of Eussia, 1812; character of the invading armies; only one-third French soldiers; a Napoleonic, not a French army; the gradual destruction of the Grande Armee, which had been organized in 1804, during the wars of Napoleon. The campaign of 1812; the battle of Borodino, 7 September; the occupation and destruction of Moscow; the retreat of the invaders; destruction of the Napoleonic army; the Eussian spirit; Tolstoi's War and Peace. Effect of the retreat from Moscow; Torek's Prussian contingent deserted Napoleon; declaration of war by Frederick William III of Prussia against Napoleon, 16 March, 1813; Bliicher; Gneisenau; effect of Scharnhorst 's military reforms. National outburst of patriotism in Germany; the policy of Stein; the Free Corps; German patriotic songs; the Iron Cross. The campaign of 1813; Bernadotte and the Swedish army; the Con- gress of Prague; the Emperor Francis declares war against Napoleon, 12 August; the battle of Leipzig, October 16-19; Napoleon driven from Germany. The question of a national rising in France to resist invasion, as during the War of the French Eevolution; inability of Napoleon to rouse France; reasons for the attitude of France; the Proposals of Frank- fort, 9 November, 1813; attitude towards Napoleon of the Tsar Alex- ander, Metternich and Castlereagh; the French people not identified with the Empire. Invasion of France by Wellington, 7 October, 1813, and across the Ehine, 31 December. The defensive campaign of 1814 in France; the Treaty of Chaumont i 78 History 1b between the allies; occupation of Paris, 31 March; abdication of Napo- leon, 6 April. The suddenness with which the Napoleonic Empire came to an end showed the weakness of its foundation, when opposed by the national idea. Nationalism in Italy; Murat; Bentinck; Nationalism in Germany at its height; Nationalism in the Netherlands; Carnot's defense of Ant- werp; Norway ceded to Sweden by Denmark in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. The Treaty of Paris; disappearance with Napoleon of the Napoleonic Empire; loss of the Ehine frontier by France, which was reduced to the boundaries of 1792; Louis XVIII recognized as King of France; the Charter of 1814. Outbreak of war between Great Britain and the United States; the events leading up to it; President Jefferson, 1801-1809; expansion west- wards; the Louisiana Purchase. The War of 1812; nationalism and sectionalism; the Hartford Con- vention; the naval war; the burning of York and of the Capitol at Washington; Jackson's victory at New Orleans; the Treaty of Ghent, 24 December, 1814. The adjustment of Europe to the new conditions left by the over- throw of the Napoleonic Empire referred to a congress of representatives of the States of Europe, which met at Vienna, November, 1814. Escape of Napoleon from Elba, March, 1815; the Hundred Days; failure of the attempt to arouse French national patriotism; the Addi- tional Act; the resolution of the Great Powers to expel Napoleon from France. The campaign of 1815, culminating in the battle of Waterloo, 18 June. The second Treaty of Paris; Napoleon sent to St. Helena, where he died, 5 May, 1821. The Napoleonic Empire, the creation of Napoleon Bonaparte rather than of France, paved the way for the modern Europe of great national states, but it could not continue since the spirit of nationality was opposed to a revival of any sort of Empire. LECTURE 34 The Congress of Vienna; the Ascendancy of Metternich The Congress of Vienna, November, 1814, to March, 1815; its import- ance in diplomatic history; its chief members; Metternich; Nesselrode; Hardenberg; Castlereagh; the policy of the Tsar Alexander and the King of Prussia, of Metternich and Castlereagh; appearance of the idea of the Great Powers. ^ 79 History 1b The diplomatic campaign of Talleyrand; its extraordinary success; France as a Great Power; the minor powers; the Treaty of 3 January, 1815; the effect of the return of Napoleon from Elba. The settlement of Europe by the Congress of Vienna; neglect of the principle of Nationality; the arrangement of Italy; the union of the Dutch and Belgians in the Kingdom of the Netherlands; the union of Sweden and Norway; the relations of Russia with Finland and Poland; the organization of the Germanic Confederation or Bund; its thirty-nine members; the Bundestag; the reorganization of Switzerland, The Holy Alliance of the Tsar Alexander I, Frederick William III and Francis I, 26 September, 1815; its objects and meaning; under Met- ternich's guidance it was led to work against self-government or repre- sentative government in the States of Europe; Metternich's fear of democracy. The ascendancy of Metternich in European affairs, 1815 to 1848; his desire to maintain the peace of Europe by Congresses of representatives of the Great Powers; the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818; the Congress of Carlsbad, 1819; the doctrine of intervention; its intention and im- portance; the Congresses of Troppau, 1820, Laybach^ 1821, and Verona, 1822; intervention against revolutionary movements by Austria in Italy, 1821, and by France in Spain, 1823. Possible application of the doctrine of intervention to America, where the Spanish- American colonies had revolted; opposition of €anning on behalf of Great Britain; statement of the Monroe Doctrine. The history of Europe during the ascendancy of Metternich, 1815 to 1848, is the history of the development, of the demand for self-government and national states. Great Britain from 1815 to 1848; the importance of Canning; the Reform Bill of 1832, and establishment of middle class government; the social, political and economic reforms of 1832-1839; the struggle over the Corn Laws; growth of Chartism; the demands of the democracy; denial of the principle of nationality set forth by the Irish, but its recognition in the grant of self-government to Canada. The Eastern Question; the attitude of Metternich; the insurrection of the Greeks; Byron; the condition of the Turkish State under Mahmud II; the emergence of Egypt under Mehemet Ali; the battle of Navarino, 20 October, 1827; war between the Russians and Turks, 1828-1829; recognition of Greek independence, 1829; Otto of Bavaria King of Greece, 1832. The Revolution of July, 1830, in France; Louis Philippe King of the French, 1830-1848; the conquest of Algeria, 1830-1840; middle class government in France. The Revolution of 1830 in Belgium; Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha elected King of the Belgians, 1831; the Belgian Constitution. 80 History 1b The Eevolution of 1830 in Poland; its suppression by the Russians. Revolutionary movements in Italy suppressed by the Austrians. Insurrection and civil war in Portugal and Spain; independence of Brazil, 1822, and of Spanish America; the Miguelites in Portugal and the Carlists in Spain; difficulties in the way of establishing representative government. Growth of the ideas of self-government and democracy, and of nation- alism in Germany; the German Universities; their idealism and their scholarship; Kant and Hegel; Niebuhr and Ranke; the ideals of Prussia; Wilhelm von Humboldt; the formation of the Zollverein. The civil war of the Sonderbund in Switzerland, 1847. In spite of all Metternich's efforts, the European movement was in favor of self-government and of nationalism; these ideas were at the basis of the Revolutionary movement of 1848 in Europe. LECTURE 35 The Independence of Spanish America Discontent felt in Spanish America over the political and economic situation in the eighteenth century; the effect of the administrative and economic reforms of Charles III; the vice-royalties of Mexico, Peru, New Granada and Buenos Aires; continued exclusion of the Creoles from office; Cuba, San Domingo and the Spanish West Indies; Portugal and her dominion of Brazil; Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763; retroceded to France, 1800. The effect of the American Revolution, by which the English colonies had attained independence, on Spanish America; the prophecy of Aranda. During the wars between Great Britain and Spain, 1796 to 1802, 1803 to 1808, Spanish America was practically independent; its loyalty to Spain; repulse of the English attack on Buenos Aires, 1808; unanimous refusal to recognize Joseph Bonaparte. Revolutionary outbreaks in all the provinces of Spanish America, 1810; the expulsion of Cisneros from Buenos Aires; Miranda in Venezuela. Effect of the overthrow of the Napoleonic Empire and the restor- ation of Ferdinand VII to the. throne of Spain on Spanish America; the reaction in Spain; lack of vigorous action against the Spanish insurgents. The national and political views of the Spanish American leaders; victory of sectionalism; meaning of republicanism in Spanish America; influence of European ideas; contrast with the English- American Revo- lution. The geographical conditions of the Spanish American Revolution. The Revolution in southern South America; independence of the vice- royalty of Buenos Aires or the Rio de la Plata declared 6 July, 1816; San 81 History 1b Martin; his marcli across the Andes; the independence of Chile and the establishment of a Eepublic declared, 1 January, 1818. The Eevolution in the vice-royalty of New Granada; defeat of Miranda, 1812; Simon Bolivar, 1783-1830; formation of the Eepublic of Colombia, including New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador, by Bolivar, 1819. The Eevolution in Mexico; defeat of Hidalgo, 1811; the career of Iturbide, 1783-1824; Mexico declared independent, 27 September, 1821; Iturbide Emperor of Mexico, 1822; declaration of the Eepublic of Mexico, 2 December, 1822. The Eevolution in Guatemala; independence declared 21 September, 1821; separated from Mexico, 1 July, 1823. The Eevolution in the island of San Domingo; declaration of the Eepublic, 1 December, 1821. The loyalty to Spain of the vice-royalty of Peru; naval victory of the Chilians under Lord Cochrane over the Peruvians, 1818; advance of San Martin from the south and of Bolivar from the north; capture of Lima; declaration of the independence of Peru, 28 July, 1821; battle of Aya- cucho, 1824. Interest taken in the Spanish American Eevolution in Europe and in the United States; Ferdinand VII and the Holy Alliance; the position taken up by Canning; '^I have called a new world into existence to redress the balance of the old"; promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine, 1 December, 1823. Failure of the attempt to form a federal Eepublic of the Spanish American States; characteristics of Spanish American government; sec- tionalism; military dictatorships; Francia, Dictator of Paraguay, 1814- 1840; contrast with Anglo-American government. Brazil declared its independence under the Emperor Pedro I, son of John VI of Portugal, 1822, but did not become a republic until 1889. The States of the Eio de la Plata; Uruguay independent, 1825; Para- guay, 1814; the rest after a long struggle between the federal and unitary parties becomes the federal Argentine Eepublic; importance of Buenos Aires. Upper Peru organized as the Eepublic of Bolivia, 1826; Venezuela, 1829, and Ecuador, 1830, independently organized from Colombia; the federal Eepublic of Guatemala or Central America divided into the five independent republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Eica and Honduras, 1839. The Eepublic of Mexico; revolutions, civil wars, dictatorships, seces- sions and attempts at federal and unitary republics; disputes between central and local organizations; the secularization of the estates of the Church and the missions. 82 History 1b The secession of Texas from Mexico, 1836; war between the United States and Mexico, 1846-1848; the situation of California; the question of the Pacific Coast; by the Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded New Mexico and Upper California to the United States. The expansion of the United States between 1814 and 1848; the acqui- sition of Florida from Spain, 1819; -the Webster-Ashburton treaty, 1842; the movement westward; the admission of Texas, 1845; the Oregon ques- tion; its settlement, 1846; importance of the acquisition of Upper Cali- fornia, 1848; the United States and the Pacific Ocean. Analogies and contrasts between the ideas of self-government and nationality developed between 1814 and 1848 in Europe, Spanish America and the United States; federalism and nationalism; liberalism and democ- racy; limited monarchy and republicanism. LECTUEE 36 The Ee volution ary Movement of 1848 in Europe The political and social ferment of a generation produced the revolu- tionary movement of 1848. The national idea; its effect on the writing and study of history. Political theories; the development of the idea of universal suffrage. The French socialist writers; their relation with the eighteenth cen- tury thinkers, like Eousseau, and with Babeuf; Saint-Simon, 1760-1825; Fourier, 1772-1837; Proudhon, 1809-1865; Louis Blanc, 1813-1882. The positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte, 1798-1867; the reaction to Christianity; Lamennais, 1782-1854; Lacordaire, 1802-1861. The German philosophers; Hegel, 1770-1831; Schopenhauer, 1788-1860. The Utilitarian philosophers in England; Bentham, 1748-1832; his followers. The political economists; the development of political economy and its solution of social problems; Malthus, 1764-1834; John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873. The resettlement of Europe upon a new economic basis after the Napoleonic wars; changes brought about by the invention of machinery; development of steam power; the industrial revolution; the factory system. The condition of the laboring classes after the Napoleonic wars; the effect of free competition after the abolition of serfdom and of the guild system; pauperism; special urgency of the problem of pauperism in England, since the new economic and industrial conditions first devel- oped there; the Poor Law of 1834; the State in full acceptance of the medieval duties of the Church. While Utilitarian philosophers and political economists influenced the 83 History 1b administration of European governments from 1814 to 1848, a reaction developed, partly religious, partly humanitarian and partly socialistic, in favor of the sympathetic treatment of the poor, the afflicted and the unfortunate. The revival of religion and its effect on the administration of charity; Ozanam, 1813-1853, and the foundation of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. The humanitarian movement in England; Maurice, 1805-1872; Charles Dickens, 1812-1870; Charles Kingsley, 1819-1875. The European character of the social and political ferment which led to the movement of 1848; its chief exponent, Mazzini, 1808-1872. The romantic movement in literature and its significance; Chateau- briand, 1767-1848; Byron, 1788-1824; Lamartine, 1792-1869; Victor Hugo, 1802-1885. Th# romantic movement in art; its European character. The development of music in the first half of the nineteenth century; Germany and Italy; Beethoven, 1770-1827; Eichard Wagner, 1810-1883. The Monarchy of July in France; Louis Philippe and Guizot, 1840- 1848; the Eevolution of February, 1848; establishment of the Second French Eepublic; the Constitution of 1848; election of Louis Napoleon as President; his policy and ideas; his declaration in favor of universal suffrage; the coup d'etat of 2 December, 1851; the Prince President de- clared Emperor as Napoleon III, 2 December, 1852. The Eevolution of 1848 in Italy; the different tendencies towards middle class government and democracy, towards feudalism and union- ism, towards monarchy and republicanism; Mazzini; Garibaldi; the Car- bonari; Charles Albert, King of Sardinia. The Eevolution of 1848 in Italy; formation of various republics; expulsion of the rulers of Italian States, including Pope Pius IX; Charles Albert and Mazzini; defeat of Charles Albert at Novara, 23 March, 1849; restoration by Austrian troops of the Italian rulers; restoration of Pope Pius IX to Eome by the French, 1850. The Eevolution of 1848 in Austria; development of nationalism in Hungary, Bohemia and the other provinces; the insurrection of 13 March in Vienna; dismissal of Metternich; general insurrection; absence of harmonious action; Kossuth in Hungary; failure of the Eevolution; the policy of Schwarzenberg; Francis Joseph Emperor; defeat of the Hun- garians by Austrian and Eussian armies, 1849. The Eevolution of 1848 in Germany; its divided aims; resemblance to the situation in Italy; nationalism and democracy; the part played by Prussia; the Parliament of Frankfort, 1848-1849; its failure; suppression of the Eevolution; the war with Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein; the leadership of Prussia. 84 History 1b The Eevolutionary movement of 1848 in England; the Chartists; the Eevolutionary movement in the Netherlands, Belgium and the Danubian Provinces. General failure of the Revolutionary movement of 1848 in Europe; the ideas of nationalism then given forcible expression were to be triumphant later in the nineteenth century in Italy and Germany. International character of socialist and democratic ideas; the ''Work- ingman's Programme" of Ferdinand Lassalle, 1862; the ''Manifesto of the Communist Party" of Karl Marx and Engels, 1848; publication of *'Das Kapital" by Karl Marx, 1867; foundation of the ''International" by Mazzini, Ledru-Eollin, Karl Marx, Kossuth and George Odger at London, 1864. LECTURE 37 The Making of the Kingdom of Italy The situation in Italy after the suppression of the Revolutionary movement of 1848; reaction everywhere, except in the kingdom of Sar- dinia; Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia, 1820-1878; Camillo Cavour, 1809-1861. The policy of Cavour, 1852-1859; his resolution to unite Italy under the House of Savoy by taking advantage of the political situation in Europe; contrast between Cavour and Mazzini. Determination of Cavour to take part in the Crimean War, 1854-1856; the nature of this war; resolution of Great Britain and Prance to defend the Turks against Russia; the siege of Sebastopol; co-operation of Victor Emmanuel, 1855. At the Congress of the Great Powers at Paris, 1856, where the terms of peace were settled, Cavour brought forward the condition of Italy and especially of Naples; the international questions dealt with by the Declaration of Paris. The sympathy of Western Europe with the ideals of Italian Nation- ality; the special sympathy of Napoleon III; his agreement to aid Victor Emmanuel against Austria in exchange for Savoy and Nice. The campaign of 1859 in Italy; defeat of the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino; cession of Lombardy to Victor Emmanuel by the Treaty of Villafranca, 11 July, 1859; Savoy and Nice ceded to Napoleon III. General insurrection of northern and central Italy against the Aus- trians, and their own rulers; Tuscany, the Legations of Bologna and Ferrara, the Romagna, Parma and Modena vote for a union with the kingdom of Sardinia, 1860; the conquest by Garibaldi of Sicily and Naples, and expulsion of Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies, 1860. The problem that faced Garibaldi and Cavour; Mazzini projected an 85 History 1b Italian Republic; patriotic conduct of Garibaldi; Naples and Sicily voted for union with the kingdom of Sardinia. Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin; declaration of Victor Emmanuel as Victor Emmanuel I, King of Italy, 17 March, 1861. The policy of Cavour; " 3i free Church in a free State"; death of Cavour, 6 June, 1861. Completion of the kingdom of Italy; by combining with Prussia against Austria Victor Emmanuel obtained Venetia, 1866; by taking advantage of the withdrawal of the French he occupied Rome, 20 Sep- tember, 1870; Rome declared the capital of Italy. Parliamentary government in Italy; its difficulties; general develop- ment of Italy. The problem of the Papacy; Pope Pius IX^ 1846-1878, and Pope Leo XIII, 1878-1903. Italy as a Great Power; her place in the Triple Alliance with Ger- many and Austria-Hungary; her expansion; ''Italia irredenta"; her dependencies in east Africa; her interest in the Mediterranean; the expe- dition to Tripoli, 1911. The characteristics of the ' ' Risorgimento " in Italy; political, eco- nomic and social changes; modern Italian achievements in literature, science and art. Emigration from Italy to the United States and South America; the part played by Italy and the Italians in the history of European Civil- ization. LECTURE 38 The Making of the German Empire The situation in Germany after the failure of the Revolutionary move- ment of 1848; the ascendancy of Austria; Beust's scheme of a Middle Germany; Bismarck, 1815-1898, appointed Prussian representative at the Bundestag, 1851. Reconstitution of the Zollverein, with Austria excluded, 1853. Growing strength of Prussia; accession of William I, 1861; his mili- tary instincts; reorganization of the Prussian army by Von Roon, 1803- 1879, and of the general staff by Von Moltke, 1800-1891; Bismarck, chief minister of Prussia, 1862; his personality, aims and career; contrast between Cavour and Bismarck. Prussia the representative of the idea of German National unity. The Danish war, 1864; cession of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and Austria. The Seven Weeks' War, 1866; overthrow of Austria; battle of Sadowa or Koniggratz, 3 July. 86 History 1b Dissolution of the Germanic Confederation; annexation by Prussia of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Homburg, Nassau, Frankfort and Schles- wig-Holstein; Austria extruded from Germany. Formation of the North German Confederation, 1867, with the King of Prussia as President and Commander-in-chief, and Bismarck as Chan- cellor; Von Boon organizes the army of the Confederation on the Prussian system; the Bundesrath and the Eeichstag. The reorganization of Austria as the Austro-Hungarian Empire-King- dom by the Emperor Francis Joseph. Beust and Deak. Charles of Hohenzollern elected Prince of Eomania, 1866. The situation in Spain; the reign of Queen Isabella, 1833-1868, a period of civil wars and pronunciamentos; flight of Isabella, 1868; candi- dature of Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain. The war policy of the Emperor Napoleon III; the expedition to Mexico, 1862; the Luxemburg question, 1867; the unpopularity and weakness of the Second Empire in France; Bismarck's understanding of the situation. The Franco-German War, 1870-1871; complete triumph of the Ger- mans; surrender of Napoleon III at Sedan, 2 September, 1870; overthrow of the Second Empire and declaration of the Third French Eepublic. Desperate resistance of France; the Government of National Defense: Gambetta; the siege of Paris. William I, King of Prussia, declared German Emperor at Versailles, 18 January, 1871. Thiers elected President of the Third French Eepublic, March, 1871; cession of Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire and payment of an indemnity. The insurrection of the Commune of Paris, 1871; its leaders and its ideas; its overthrow. Organization of the German Empire on the lines of the North German Confederation; admission of the south German States of Bavaria, Wur- . temberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt to the Bundesrath and Eeichstag; the organization of Alsace-Lorraine as a Eeichsland or territory of the Empire. Economic effect of the war-indemnity paid by France; creation of a national German coinage. Bismarck and the Catholic Church; the Kulturkampf, 1872-1876. The foreign policy of Bismarck, the dictator of Europe, 1870-1890; the Dreikaiserbund or alliance of the three Emperors: William, Francis Joseph and Alexander II of Eussia; his attitude during the Eusso-Turkish War, 1877-1878; the Congress of Berlin, 1878; formation of the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy, 1882. Death of the Emperor William T. 9 March, 1888, and of the Emperor 87 History 1b Prederick, 15 June, 1888; accession of William II; dismissal of Bismarck, 12 March, 1890. Expansion of Germany; the colonial policy of Bismarck; German East and West Africa; other colonial possessions. The emigration of Germans, especially to the United States, somewhat checked by the industrial and commercial prosperity of Germany. The Pan-German idea; comparison with the Pan-Slavonic idea in Eussia and the cry of '^ Italia irredenta"; the extension of the nineteenth century idea of nationalism ana of National States to race units. The efficiency of German administration; the German army and the German navy. The German universities; the leadership of Germany in science and especially in applied science. Growth of socialism in Germany; political, economic and social prob- lems created by the industrial and commercial prosperity of the German Empire. The contribution of Germany to the Western civilization of the nine- teenth century. LECTUEE 39 The British Empire While the spirit of nationality brought two new Great Powers as National States, the German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, into existence in the latter part of the nineteenth century, while Eussia expanded into Asia through Siberia until she developed into a power in the northern Pacific, and while France under the third Eepublic consoli- dated her north African possessions, Great Britain had to meet the problem of organizing a scattered empire. Uiiique character of the British Empire; its contrast with older em- pires and with the United States; its dependence on sea power. Great Britain in the nineteenth century; the reign of Queen Victoria, 1837-1901; characteristics of the Victorian era; literature; science; Charles Darwin, 1809-1882; application of science to material needs; introduction of steam; railways; George Stephenson, 1781-1848. The statesmen of the Victorian era; Sir Eobert Peel; Palmerston and Derby; Gladstone and Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield; Salisbury. The extension of the franchise, 1867 and 1885; growth of democracy. Industrial and commercial development; the policy of free trade; agricultural depression. The nature of the British Empire; distinction between dependencies and colonies. India, the great dependency; growth of the East India Company's 88 History 1b dominions; the i^olicy of Warren Hastings, 3 774-1784, and of Lord Welles- ley, 1798-1805; direct annexation and administration, and the mainte- nance of subsidiary native states; the domination of India secured by Lord Dalhousie, 1848-1856; his policy of annexation and direct admin- istration. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857; abolition of the East India Company; the government of India taken over by the Crown, 1859; the problems of Indian government; the Empire of India, 1877; the unrest in India. Other dependencies in the British Empire; Ceylon, Singapore and the Malay states; Hong Kong; Mauritius; the African settlements; the British West India islands; British Guiana. The British Empire and the Mediterranean; Gibraltar; Malta; Cyprus; the opening of the Suez Canal, 1869; the British administration of Egypt; Lord Cromer. The particular problems of the government of dependencies; the rights of the native populations; imperialism. The colonies within the British Empire; contrast with dependencies; acknowledgment of their right to govern themselves; Lord Durham's report, 1839. The British North American colonies; Quebec, Ontario and the Mari- time Provinces; the Hudson Bay Company; discontent in Canada; the insurrections of 1837-1838; the grant of self-government; formation of the Dominion of Canada, 1867; Sir John Macdonald; federalism in Can- ada; the development of the Dominion to the west; the new provinces; British Columbia and Vancouver Island; their part in the problems of the Pacific Ocean; boundary and other disputes with the United States; loyalty to the British Empire shown during the Boer War in South Africa; Newfoundland not a member of the Dominion. The Australian colonies; their origin and development; New South Wales; Victoria; Queensland; South Australia; Western Australia; Tas- mania; their special problems; their interest in the Southern Pacific; Polynesia and Melanesia; the Fiji Islands; British New Guinea; for- mation of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1901. New Zealand; its unique position; its experiments in government. British South Africa; the colonies of the Cape of Good Hope and Natal; the complications caused by the Dutch Boer population and the native peoples; the Boer, the Kaffir, and the Zulu wars; Cecil Ehodes and the occupation of Ehodesia; the Boer War, 1899-1902; formation of the Union of South Africa, 1909. The problem of Imperial Federation; readiness of Great Britain to encourage federation of the colonies, but unwillingness to try it at home; the problem of Ireland; the demand for Irish Home Rule. The extraordinary character of the British Empire; its proof of the 89 History 1b success of self-government and federation; effect of the American Eevo- lution and of the success of the federal system of the United States. LECTUEE 40 The United States as a World Power The theory of the Great Powers as held by Metternich at and after the Congress of Vienna; changes wrought in the nineteenth century by the creation of the German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in the proportion of their importance; the Europe of the Nations takes the place of the Europe of the States; disappearance of the doctrine of the Balance of Power. The spirit of nationality in the smaller states of Europe; the national independence of Komania, Servia and Bulgaria; the Kingdom of Greece becomes the kingdom of the Hellenes, 1864; the kingdom of Norway separates itself from Sweden, 1905; intensity of national feeling among peoples that have lost their independence; Poland; Finland; the nation- alities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire-Kingdom. The recognition of small nations by the concert of the Great Powers; the neutrality guaranteed of Switzerland and Belgium. The expansion of Western civilization into Asia and Africa; the transformation of Japan; the partition of Africa among the nations of Europe. The formation of World Powers; the British Empire; the Russian Empire; the French Empire; the German Empire. Nationalism and sectionalism in the United States of America; the test of federalism; the history of the issues involved; Andrew Jackson and Nullification; the Missouri Compromise; the North, the South and the West; the Great Civil War or War between the States, 1861-1865; Abraham Lincoln; the Gettysburg Address. The elements of the American Nation; the effect of immigration; the absorption and amalgamation of the immigrants. The expansion of the American nation; the movement to the West; California and the Pacific Coast. The purchase of Alaska from Russia, 1867. The neighbors of the United States; the Dominion of Canada, 1867; the French in Mexico, 1.862; the Emperor Maximilian, 1863-1867; re- establishment of the Republic of Mexico; Porfirio Diaz, President of Mexico, 1884-1911. Material development of the United States after the Civil War; the growth of industry and commerce; wealth and prosperity. The government of the United States; ideals and reality; extension of the power of the central government; the American Nation. 90 History 1b The foreign policy of the United States, 1865-1898; the refusal to interfere in the affairs of Europe; effect of Washington's Farewell Ad- dress; settlement of the Alabama claims, 1871; the Monroe Doctrine; President Cleveland's Venezuela Message, 1895. Expansion beyond the American continent; annexation of Hawaii, 1898. The Spanish- American War, 1898; the situation in Cuba; annexation of Porto Eico and the Philippine Islands; the problem of imperialism. The United States as a World Power; its importance; forced to take part in settling world problems. The first Peace Conference at the Hague, 1899; the United States and arbitration; the United States and the Boxer rebellion in China, 1900; the United States represented at the Algeciras Conference, 1906. The United States and international peace; the war between Eussia and Japan; President Eoosevelt and the Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905. The United States and the Panama Canal; the abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1901; the action of President Eoosevelt in Panama; the making of the Panama Canal. The culmination of European civilization in the United States; the unrest in Asiatic civilization; India; China. The problems before the World Powers; Africa; Asia; the Pacific Ocean. The United States of America forced to take part in the solution of these political problems, which are the outcome of the history of European civilization. The United States and economic problems. The United States and social problems. The historic solidarity of Western civilization. The political, economic and social interpretation of history. ^Wl RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO^^- 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 J ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ft tAR 1 1992 ^i\^ u iw M Ai i u u K ^ ' ^ LiDnAnYUGCOr rtiY MAR 1 ZUilS ulat:on de PT UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ■m f U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES I C0Q7D10D3M ■.■m\y W^'^~ — ^ / X J^" * ->*S^ '^A I illlMl r.