rWO-BOOK NGL mi^ BY MARY P HYDl ; BOOK TWO D C HEATH BiCa Vif^fVTON U S A S7o DEI No. m V- TWO-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH BOOK TWO PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR WITH EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION BY MARY F. HYDE AUTHOR OF " PRACTICAL LESSONS IN THE USE OF ENGLISH ' " A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR " " WORD ANALYSIS," ETC. BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1904 Copyright, 1900 and 1901 Dy MARY F. HYDE 3>l DEPf. .4LL KIGHTS KESEKVED BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. PREFACE This book is designed for the higher grades in grammar schools, and for those classes in high schools, academies, and ungraded schools that require a brief, practical, pro- gressive course in English grammar. The aim of the work is to give the pupil a mastery of the fundamental facts of English grammar, and to lead him to use that knowledge in the interpretation of literature and in the expression of his own thought. The instruction has been made concrete by the use of illustrative examples. These examples have been selected with great care from the works of the best writers, and they not only serve to make clear the grammatical points under consideration, but also aid in the formation of the pupil's literary taste,, and help him to see that the laws of language are derived from the usage of the best writers and speakers. Abundant and varied exercises for the application of the principles presented are given throughout the book. The pupil is required to show his understanding of the subject by his ability to give original illustrations of the facts studied, as well as to point out and explain the various forms and constructions found in sentences selected from literature. 54 H45 iv PREFACE The selection and arrangement of topics is adapted to give the pupil a clear and comprehensive view of the sub- ject. Part First treats of the Sentence and the Parts of Speech, and lays the foundation for the pupil's mastery of the sentence by emphasizing the fact that it is not the form, but the function, of a word in a sentence that determines the class to which it belongs. Part Second takes up the subdivisions of the Parts of Speech and Inflection. The chief emphasis is placed upon the main facts, but the attention of the pupil is also directed to such special forms and uses of words as he will be most likely to meet in his reading. Special training is given upon words and forms commonly misused. Part Third treats of Syntax. It gives the leading con- structions of words in the English sentence, with numerous illustrations from literature. Part Fourth treats of the Structure and Analysis of sen- tences. It provides for a careful study of clauses in con- nection with the complex sentence, and contains clear and concise models for oral and written analysis and a great abundance of carefully selected matter for illustration and practice. Part Fifth relates to Composition. It gives training upon the paragraph, exercises in narration and description, and a special study of letter-writing and related subjects. My cordial thanks are returned to all who, by criticism or suggestion, have aided in the preparation of this book. M. F. H. CONTENTS PART FIRST The Sentence and the Parts of Speech CHAPTER PAGB I. The Sentence ... ...... i II. Subject and Predicate ....... 3 III. Modified Subject and Predicate 4 IV. Order of Subject and Predicate ..... 5 V. Nouns .......... 9 VI. Pronouns ......... 10 VII. Adjectives 12 VIII. Verbs 14 IX. Adverbs 16 X. Prepositions 17 XI. Conjunctions ......... 20 XII. Interjections 22 XIII. Review of the Parts of Speech ..... 23 XIV. Phrases 27 XV. Clauses 27 PART SECOND Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech and Inflection XVI. Classes of Nouns 29 XVII. Inflection of Nouns — Number 32 XVIII. Irregular Plurals of Nouns 36 VI CONTENTS CHAPTER . PAGE XIX. Plurals of Compounds ... .o,. 39 XX. Nouns with Foreign Plurals 41 XXI. Inflection of Nouns — Gender . . . ,* .42 XXII. Inflection of Nouns — Case 45 XXIII. Possessive Case . . 48 XXIV. Possessive Case of Compounds 50 XXV. Substitute for the Possessive Inflection ... 52 XXVI. How to Parse Nouns '53 XXVII. Review of Nouns .55 XXVIII. Classes of Pronouns — Personal Pronouns ... 57 XXIX. Compound Personal Pronouns 62 XXX. Classes of Pronouns — Adjective Pronouns ... 64 XXXI. Classes of Pronouns — Relative Pronouns ... 66 XXXII. Use of Relative Pronouns 68 XXXIII. Relative Clauses 76 XXXIV. Classes of Pronouns — Interrogative Pronouns . . 78 XXXV. How to Parse Pronouns . . . . . .81 XXXVI. Review of Pronouns 84 XXXVII. Classes of Adjectives ....... 85 XXXVIII. Articles 88 XXXIX. Comparison of Adjectives . . . . . .92 XL. How to Parse Adjectives • 97 XLI. Choice of Adjectives ....... 99 XLII. Review of Adjectives . . . , . . .101 XLIII. Classes of Verbs 103 XLIV. Verbs of Incomplete Predication . . . . . 105 XLV. Active and Passive Voice 107 XLVI. Mode 109 XLVII. The Infinitive 112 XLVIII. The Participle 115 XLIX. Tense 118 CONTENTS Vll CHAPTER PAGE L. Person and Number 121 LI. Forms of Verbs •123 LI I. Auxiliary Verbs . . 127 LI II. Auxiliary Verbs {Continued^ 131 LIV. Auxiliary Verbs (^Continued) 133 LV. Auxiliary Verbs {Continued^ . . . . .138 LVI. Conjugation of the Verb Z>r/z/' of colloquy and soliloquy is really not preceded by a vowel sound. 2 Many proper names do not follow the rule, but simply add s-, as, Henrys, Stacys. 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR How are the singular nouns in the following examples changed to make each mean more than one? — proot gulf fife proofs gulfs fifes V. Most nouns ending in f or fe form the plural by adding 5 to the singular ; as, roof, roofs ; safe, safes. The following nouns change / or fe to ves : — beef knife self thief calf leaf sheaf wharf ^ elf life shelf wife , half loaf staffs wolf EXERCISE 42 Make (i) a list of ten 7ioims, ending in i or fe, that form their phirals by the addition of s ; and (2) a list of ten other nouns that form their plurals in ves. CHAPTER XVni IRREGULAR PLURALS OF NOUNS Tell how the plurals below are formed: — man foot mouse ox child men feet mice oxen children VI. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of the singular ; as, man, men ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth ; foot, feet ; manse, mice (also changes s to c\ 1 Staff (a stick or pole^, staves or staffs; staff (a body of officers), staffs, ^ Wharf, wharves or wharfs. NUMBER 37 In a few nouns the plural ends in en^; as ox, oxen ; brother , hrethren ; child, children. Give the number of each italicized noun in the following examples, and notice its form : — 1. A sheep before her shearers is dumb. 2. The sheep are feeding in the pasture. VII. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. Other nouns which have the same form in both numbers are brace, dozen, head, pair, and yoke when used after numer- als, and head, sail, cannon, fish, trout, and heathen, when used in a special or a collective sense. VIII. Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, — aborigines clothes scissors tidings trousers assets dregs thanks tongs vitals IX. Some nouns plural in form are now generally used as singulars ; as, — amends ' economics measles physics ethics mathematics news , politics X. Some nouns originally singular are now generally used in the plural ; as, alms, eaves, riches. 1 The old plural kine ( = kyen) is still used in poetry, and such forms as eyen (eyes), hosen (hose), and shoon (shoes) are found in several dialects. 38 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR XL Some nouns have two plural forms differing in mean- ing; as: — brother, brothers (by blood) ; brethren (by association). cannon, cannons (separately) ; cannon (collectively). die, dies (stamps for coining) ; dice (cubes for gaming). ^•iti^ fishes (separately); fish (collectively). genius, geniuses (men of genius) ; genii (spirits). index, indexes (tables of reference) ; indices (signs in algebra). penny, pennies (number of coins) ; pence (amount in value). EXERCISE 43 Write sentences containing the plurals of the following nouns ^ and tell how each plural is formed: — woman foot cannon shad deer tooth ox mouse fish genius sheaf enemy buoy crutch reef wharf colloquy envoy EXERCISE 44 Ufe fife (i) Tell which of the following nouns are used in the singular^ and which in the plural. (2) Write sentences illustrating their correct use: — alms eaves politics thanks amends dregs riches tidings aborigines mathematics scissors tongs clothes news shears victuals NUMBER 39 EXERCISE 45 Make a list of the following no mis ^ and write opposite each its singular: — pence brethren indices fishes wharves pennies women staves halves sheaves dice dies genu geniuses beeves brothers lives indexes cannons elves CHAPTER XIX PLURALS OF COMPOUNDS Tell how each plural form below is made from the sin- gular : — spoonful brother-in-law man-servant spoonfuls brothers-in-law men-servants XII. Some compound nouns form the plural like single words, others make the principal word plural, and a few change both words; as, cupful, cupfuls ; mother-in-law, mothers-in-law; woman-servant y women-servants . EXERCISE 46 Write the singulars of the following jwuns, and tell how their plurals are formed : — Brahmans * forget-me-nots merchantmen cupfuls Frenchmen mouse-traps dormice Germans Normans 1 The words Brahman, German, Mussulman, Ottoman, and talisman are not Compounds of man. 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Englishmen grandfathers stepsons fellow- servants handfuls talismans fishermen major-generals tooth-brushes aides-de-camp II fathers-in-law men-of-war attorneys-at-law hangers-on sisters-in-law commanders-in-chief knights-errant III sons-in-law knights-templars men-servants women-servants XIII. When a title is prefixed to a proper name, the com- pound may be made plural by changing either the title or the name ; as, the Misses Brown, the Messrs. Gray ; or the Miss Brozuns, the Mr. Grays. The title is always made plural when it is used with two or more names ; as, Messrs. Stone and Wood ; Generals Grant and Lee. XIV. Letters, figures, and signs add the apostrophe (') and s, to form the plural ; as. Dot the i's ; Cancel the j's ; Write the -i-'i" on a straight line. EXERCISE 47 Writ^ the plurals of the following compotmds : — countryman maid-servant man-trap horseshoe mother-in-law toothpick four-per-cent mouthful attorney-general goose-quill footboy Miss Hill journeyman footman Mr. North NUMBER 41 CHAPTER XX NOUNS WITH FOREIGN PLURALS XV. Many nouns taken from foreign languages retain their original plurals ; as : — Singular Plural Singular Plural alumnus alumni genus genera analysis analyses . index indices animalculum animalcula larva larvae antithesis antitheses memorandum memoranda apex apices nebula nebulae axis axes parenthesis parentheses basis bases phenomenon phenomena cherub cherubim radius radii crisis crises seraph seraphim datum data stratum • strata erratum errata terminus termini focus foci thesis theses formula formulae vertebra vertebrae fungus fungi vertex vertices genius genii vortex vortices Some foreign words which are in common use form the plural in the usual way, often with a difference of meaning ; as formulas y indexes ^ geniuses. EXERCISE 48 (i) Make a list of the foregoing singular nouns from foreign languages, and opposite each write from memory its plural. (2) Write {a) five 7iouns that are used only in the plural ; 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR (b) two nouns plural in form that are used in the singular;. (c) three nouns having the same form in both numbers. CHAPTER XXI INFLECTION OF NOUNS — GENDER Which words in the following list denote males? Which denote females ? man father host man-servant woman mother hostess maid-servant The distinction between words to denote sex is called gender. A noun that denotes a male is of the masculine gender; as, man, heir. A noun that denotes a female is of the feminine gender; as, woman, heiress. A noun that may denote either a male or a female is generally said to be of the common gender ^ ; as, parent, friend, robin. A noun that denotes a thing neither male nor female is of the neuter gender ; as, book, sky, joy. The gender of nouns is distinguished in three ways : — (I) By different words; as, - — VlASGULINE Feminine Masculine Feminine bachelor maid earl countess boy girl father mother brother sister gentleman lady buck doe hart roe ^ Some grammarians do not recognize common gender. INFLECTION OF NOUNS 43 Masculine Feminine fvlASCULINE Feminine husband wife ram ewe king queen sir madam monk nun son daughter lord lady stag hind nephew niece uncle aunt papa mamma wizard witch (2) By different endings. The chief feminine ending is ess. Some nouns form the feminine by simply adding the suffix ess to the masculine ; as, — baron baroness Jew Jewess count countess lion honess deacon deaconess patron patroness heir heiress priest priestess host hostess shepherd shepherdess Other nouns shorten the ending of the masculine, or make other changes, before adding ess ; as, — actor actress abbot abbess benefactor benefactress duke duchess enchanter enchantress emperor empress hunter huntress governor governess preceptor preceptress marquis marchioness tiger tigress master mistress waiter waitress negro negress A few other feminine endings, such as ine, a, and trix, appear in words taken from foreign languages ; as, — 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine hero heroine infante infanta Joseph Josephine signor signora Paul Pauhne sultan sultana Augustus Augusta administrator administratrix czar czarina executor executrix don donna testator testatrix (3) By prefixing or annexing words indicating the sex ; as, Masculine man-servant men-singers he-goat cock-sparrow peacock Feminine maid-servant women-singers she-goat hen-sparrow peahen EXERCISE 49 Make a list of all the masadine nouns nientio7ted in the foregoing lists, and opposite each write from memory the corresponding feminine noun. EXERCISE 50 Point out the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter nouns in the following sentences, and tell which 7iouns may denote either males or females : — 1. We learned the ways of the fish, the birds, the bees, the winds, the clouds, the flowers. 2. Night closed in, but still no guest arrived. 3. Leaving the boatmen at the camp, I spent the greater part of the night in the very heart of a jungle. INFLECTION OF NOUNS 45 4. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians of man. 5. Though Grandfather was old and gray-haired, yet his heart leaped with joy whenever Httle Alice came fluttering, like a butterfly, into the room. — Hawthorne. 6. 1 have had playmates, I have had companions. —Charles Lamb. 7. Brethren, the sower's task is done. — Bryant. 8. I rise, my Lords, to declare my sentiments on this most solemn and serious subject — Burke, 9. Little Eflie shall go with me to-morrow to the green. And you'll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen. — Tennyson. 10. Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives. Followed the Piper for their lives. — Robert Browning. 11. The lamps shone o*er fair women and brave men. — byron. 12. What would we give to our beloved ? The hero's heart, to be unmoved, The poet's star-tuned harp, to sweep. The patriot's voice, to teach and rouse. The monarch's crown, to hght the brows? — He giveth His beloved sleep.— E. B. Browning. CHAPTER XXII INFLECTION OF NOUNS — CASE Tell the subjects of the verbs in the following sen tences : — 1. The boy bought a watch. 2. An officer caught the thief. 3. Birds build nests. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR What did the boy buy ? Whom did the officer catch ? What do birds build ? The noun or pronoun that denotes the person or thing receiving the, action expressed by a verb is called the object of the verb. State the offices of the italicized words in the following : — 1. We followed the shepherd's dog. 2. The horse's bridle is broken. When a word is used to show to whom or to what some- thing belongs, it is said to denote possession. Find in the following sentences a noun used (i) as the subject of a verb; (2) as the object of a verb; (3) as the object of a preposition; (4) to denote possession: — ■ 1. The boy stood by the door. 2. He heard his father's voice. 3. A wave upset the boat. The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence is called case. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb is in the nominative case ; as, — The bell rang. / hear a lark. A noun or pronoun used to show possession is in the possess- ive case ; as, — The child's eyes are blue. She is my friend. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a prepo- sition is in the objective case ; as, — They launched the vessel. Come with me. INFLECTION OF NOUNS 47 How many case forms have the nouns in the foregoing examples ? Which one is indicated by inflection ? The possessive case of nouns is the only one that has a spe- cial form. Nouns are inflected for number and for the possessive case. A noun is said to be declined when its number and case forms are regularly arranged; as, — Declension of a Noun Singular Plural Nom, boy boys Pass. boy's boys' Obj. boy boys EXERCISE 61 State the kind, the gender, the number, and the case of the nouns in the following sentences : — 1. This tree stood in the centre of an ancient wood, 2. The waves rush in on every side. 3. Grandfather's chair stood by the fireside. 4. The stranger shook his head mournfully. 5. Birds have wonderfully keen eyes. 6. He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and with a heart full of trouble and anxiety turned his steps homeward. 7. Dark lightning flashed from Roderick's eye. — Scott. 8. When the rock was hid by the surge's swell. The mariners heard the warning bell. — ^outhey. 9. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 10. They shook the depths of the desert gloom. — hemans. 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 52 (i) Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the nominative case. (2) Write five sentences, each containing a nonn in the possessive case. (3) Write five sentences, each containing a noun in the objective case. CHAPTER XXIII POSSESSIVE CASE Point out the nouns that are in the possessive case, and tell how each possessive is formed : — 1. She knelt by the lady's side. 2. The ladies' gallery is closed. 3. Men's voices were heard. (i) Add the apostrophe and 5 ('*) to a singular noun, to form the possessive ; as, boy, boys ; man, man's. The s is sometimes omitted in poetry for the sake of the metre ; and it is also omitted in a few words where too many hissing sounds would come together ; as, for con- science' sake ; for righteousness' sake ; for Jesus' sake. (2) Add the apostrophe (') to a plural noun ending in s, to -form the possessive ; as, boys, boys' ; ladies, ladies'. (3) Add the apostrophe and 5 {'s) to a plural noun not ending in s, to form the possessive ; as, men, men's ; children, children's. POSSESSIVE CASE 49 The possessive sign does not always denote possession. It is used to show authorship, origin, kind, etc. ; as, LoweWs poems ; the sun's rays ; mens clothing. EXERCISE 53 Point out the nouns in these sentences^ tell how each is usedy and name its case : — 1. The lark's song rang in her ears. 2. The sound of horses' hoofs was heard in the distance. 3. The scene brought to mind an old writer's account of Christ- mas preparations. 4. The incidents of the Revolution plentifully supplied the bar- ber's customers with topics of conversation. 5. The boy rang the janitor's bell. 6. A burst of laughter came from the servants' hall. 7. I noted but two warblers' nests during the season. 8. Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. — Bryant. 9. He felt that his little daughter's love was worth a thousand times more than he had gained by the Golden Touch. — Hawthorne. EXERCISE 54 Write in parallel columns the possessive singular, and the possessive plural forms of the following words : — sister woman boy girl mother wife soldier * son bee bird friend teacher poet child man judge so ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXIV POSSESSIVE CASE OF COMPOUNDS Tell how the possessive case is formed in the following compound words and phrases : — 1. The lieutenant-governor's revery had now come to an end. 2. Bright and Dun's window is filled with flowers. 3. They are reading Green's and Macaulay's histories. (4) Compound nouns, words in apposition,^ and phrases re- garded as compound, add the possessive sign to the last word only ; as, my bivther-in-law' s house ; for thy servant David's sake ; somebody else's hat. (5) Two or more connected nouns implying joint possession add the possessive sign to the last noun only ; as, William aiid Mary's reign ; Mason and Dixon s line. (6) Each of two or more connected nouns implying sep- arate possession must take the possessive sign ; as, Webster s and Worcester s dictionaries ; Longfellow' s and Lowell's poems. Exercise 55 Explain the possessives in the following examples : — 1. In my Father's house are many mansions. 2. Hope vanished from Fitz-James's eye. — Scott. 3. Enough, enough ; sit down and share A soldier's couch, a soldier's fare. — Scott. 4. A man's first' care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart. — Addison. 1 See page 183. POSSESSIVE CASE 51 5. This happened after General Washington's departure from Cambridge. 6. Many a young man ransacked the garret, and brought forth his great-grandfather's sword, corroded with rust and stained with the blood of King Philip's War. — Hawthorne. 7. The rest of the house was in the French taste of Charles the vSecond's time. — Irving. 8. The grocers', butchers', and fruiterers' shops were thronged with customers. — i rving. 9. Hither they came, from the cornfields, from the clearing in the forest, from the blacksmith's forge, from the carpenter's work- shop, and from the shoemaker's seat. — Hawthorne. 10. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, Thy God's, and truth's. — Shakespeare. 11. What good woman does not laugh at her husband's or father's jokes and stories time after time? — Thackeray, 12. These are Clan- Alpine's warriors true. — Scott, 13. I dined with a party of gentlemen at my friend Mr. James Russell Lowell's. — Holmes. 14. If to do were as easy as to know what were well to do, chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' pal- aces. — Shakespeare. 15. The groves were God's first temples. — Bryant. EXERCISE 66 (l.) Write five sentences^ each containing connected nouns denoting joint possession. (2.) Write five sentences^ each containing connected nouns denoting separate possession. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXV SUBSTITUTE FOR THE POSSESSIVE INFLECTION Possession is sometimes indicated by the objective case with the preposition of ; as, The voice of the speaker^ for the speaker's voice. This form is generally used in speaking of things with- out life; as, The lid of the box ; the bank of the river. This form is preferred also in speaking of persons, when the possessive form would be ambiguous or awkward ; as, The wife of one of my brothers. When a thing is personified,^ the possessive sign is gen- erally used, particularly by the poets ; as, — Go forth, under the open sky, and list To Nature's teachings.— Bryant. Certain words and phrases denoting a period of time take the possessive case also ; as, A day's journey ; a week's vacation ; six months'' interest. Of is sometimes used before the possessive form of a noun or pronoun, making a sort of double possessive ; as, A cousin of Richard' s ; a friend of mine, EXERCISE 57 Explain fully the case of each noun in the following sen- tences, and point out the examples in which possession is indicated by the objective case with the preposition of: - >- 1 When an inanimate thing has ascribed to it the attributes of a person, it is said to be personified. HOW TO PARSE NOUNS 53 1. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft In life's morning march, when my bosom was young, — Campbell. 2. He has not learned the lesson of life who does not every day surmount a fear. — Emerson. 3. The trade of America had increased far beyond the specu- lations of the most sanguine imaginations. — Burke. 4. The poetry of earth is never dead. — keats. 5. Either measure would have cost no more than a day's debate. — burke. 6. They came without a moment's delay. 7. She has had two years' experience. 8. He likes neither winter's snow nor summer's heat. 9. The city was taken after a ten years' siege. 10. The chieftain's pride was humbled. EXERCISE 58 Select from your Reader — (i) Five sentences in which possession is indicated by the objective case with the preposition of. (2) Five other sentences in which possession is indicated by the use of the possessive sign. CHAPTER XXVI HOW TO PARSE NOUNS To parse a word is to describe it by stating (i) the part of speech it is ; (2) its inflection, if it has any ; and (3) its syntax, or grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. .54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR To parse a noun, state — (i) Its class. (3) Its gender. (2) Its number. (4) Its case. (5) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. Example. — His eyes sparkled with joy when he heard J as 071 s reply. 1. Eyes is a noun, common, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case — subject of the verb spa7'kled} 2. Joy is a noun, abstract, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case — object of the preposition with. 3. Jason's is a noun, proper, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case — depending upon the noun 7-eply. 4. Reply is a noun, common, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case — object of the verb heard. EXERCISE 59 Pai'se the 7touns in the followifig se7tte7ices : — 1. The lights of the church shone through the door. 2. Nell and her grandfather rose from the ground, and took the track through the wood. — Dickens. 3. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 4. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. — Shelley. 5. Strong reasons make strong actions. — Shakespeare. 6. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs. — byron. ^ When the pupil is familiar with the different steps, a briefer method of parsing may be followed ; thus, Eyes is a noun, common, plural, neuter, nomi- native, subject of the verb sparkled. REVIEW OF NOUNS 55 7. I now bade a reluctant farewell to the old hall. — Irving 8. A great deal of talent is lost in the world for the want of a little courage. — Sydney Smith. 9. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. — Byron. 10. Is Saul also among the prophets? —Bible. 11. The doe lifted her head a little with a quick motion, and turned her ear to the south. — c. D. Warner. 12. They had now reached the road which turns off to Sleepy Hollow ; but Gunpowder, who seemed possessed with a demon, instead of keeping up it, made an opposite turn, and plunged headlong down hill to the left. — Irving. 13. 'Tis the middle of night by the castle clock, And the owls have awakened the crowing cock. — Coleridge. 14. A soft answer turneth away wrath. — Bible. 15. Some have even learned to do without happiness, and in- stead thereof have found blessedness. — Carlyle. 16. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. — Gray. 17. Reading maketh a full man, conversation a ready man, and writing an exact man. — Bacon. 18. Charity beareth all things, beJieveth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things. — Bible. CHAPTER XXVII REVIEW OF NOUNS EXERCISE 60 What is a noun ? Mention the two leading classes ot nouns and tell the difference between these classes. What $6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR is a collective noun ? What is an abstract noun ? State three ways in which abstract nouns are formed, and illus- trate by examples. What is meant by inflection ? To what do the inflections of nouns relate ? How do most nouns form the plural ? Mention other ways in which nouns form their plurals, and illustrate by example. Give the plural of watc/i, piano, potato, donkey, lily, loaf, roof, tooth, ox, sheep. Distinguish between the meaning of brothers and brethren; fishes and fish ; indexes and indices ; pe?i7iies and pence. State three ways in which compound nouns form the plural, and illustrate by examples. Give the plural of larva, alnmnus, axis, beau, bandit, seraph. Why do these nouns not form their plurals in the usual way? What is gender.? How many genders are there, and what does each denote 1 Mention three ways in which the gender of nouns is distinguished. Give the feminine nouns corresponding to the nouns hart, monk, nepheWy host, master, gove^'nor^ executor, hero, man- servant. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns, if it has any : woman, heiress, landlord, doe, waitress, czar, admijtis- tratrix, guest, friend, witness, cousin, sun, wind, table, house. How many cases have nouns.!* What determines the case of a noun } Which case has a special form } How is the possessive case of nouns formed } How is the possessive CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 57 formed in compound words and phrases ? How may pos- session be indicated without the possessive form ? When is this way preferable ? CHAPTER XXVIII CLASSES OF PRONOUNS L PERSONAL PRONOUNS Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, and tell which denote the person speaking, which the person spoken to, and which the person or thing spoken of : — 1. I am monarch of all I survey. 2. You will be surprised when you read the report. 3. He requested that we should be present. 4. Buy the truth, and sell it not. A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of, is a personal pronoun. A pronoun that denotes the person speaking is in the first person ; as, /, we. A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to is in the second person ; as, thou, ye, you. A pronoun that denotes a person or a thing spoken of is in the third person ; as, he, she, it, they. Person is that distinction of pronouns which denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. S8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Nouns have no forms to distinguish person ; but a noun is sometimes said to be of the first person when it is in apposition^ with a pronoun of the first person, and of the second person when it is in apposition with a pronoun of the second person, or when it is used in address; as, — 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. (First person.) Thou, Lord, seest me. (Second person.) O death, where is thy sting? (Second person.) Declension of the Personal Pronouns first person Singular Plural Nom. I Nom. we Poss» my, mine Poss. our, ours Obj. me Obj. us The plural form we (our, ours, us) is sometimes used vaguely for people in general ; as, — The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers. — Wordsworth. The form we is frequently used by editors and authors, when referring to themselves; as, — We have remarked elsewhere on this portrait. We is also used by kings and some other rulers in issuing proclamations and giving orders ; as, — You have good leave to leave us : when we need Your use and counsel, we shall send for you. — Shakespeare, Benry IV, ^ See page 183. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 59 SECOND PERSON Singular Plural Nom. thou Nom. ye, you Poss, thy, thine Poss, your, yours Obj. thee Obj. you Thou^ the second person singular, is no longer in common use. It is now chiefly used in prayer and in poetry ; as, — Withhold not thou thy tender mercies from me. I see in thy gentle eyes a tear ; They turn to me in sorrowful thought ; Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, Who were for a time, and now are not. — Bryant. The pronoun you is used, in ordinary speech, in the place of thoti^ whether one or more than one person is addressed. It is plural in form, and takes a plural verb ; as, — You are merry, my lord. — Shakespeare. You are noC wood, you are not stones, but men. — Shakespeare. THIRD PERSON Singular Plural Masc. Fern, Neut. Masc, Fern., or Neut. Nom. he she it they Poss. his her, hers its their, theirs Obj, him her it them The pronoun of the masculine gender is generally used to refer to u noun which may denote a person of either sex; as, — Each pupil must provide his own material. 6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR The pronoun of the masculine gender is also used in referring to animals or things that are supposed to possess masculine qualities, and the pronoun of the feminine gender is used in referring to animals or things to which feminine qualities are attributed ; as, — The eagle soars above his nest. 'Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. —Coleridge. The pronoun of the neuter gender is often used to refer to animals or to young children, in cases where the sex is not considered ; as, — The deer raised its head. The infant knew //j-name. The pronoun it is also used as the grammatical subject of a verb which is followed by the real or logical subject ; as, — // is useless to deny the fact. It is used as an impersonal subject when the meaning intended is expressed or implied by the verb itself ; as, — // rains. // snows. // is sometimes used as an impersonal or indefinite object ; as, — Come and trip it as you go. They lord // over us. The possessive forms my, thy^ heVy our ^ your, and their are used before the nouns they modify, and the forms mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are used after the noun ; as, — My sister, but sister mine. This is my book. The book is mine. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 6l The possessive forms of the pronoun are often called pos- sessive adjectives. Mine and thine were formerly used before their nouns, provided the nouns began with a vowel sound; as, — Bow down thine ear. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills. This usage may still be observed in our English Bible and in poetry. EXERCISE 61 In the following sentences, explain the special uses of the italicized pronouns : — 1. Every member is expected to do his part. 2. The child closed its eyes. 3. The camel kneels to receive its burden. 4. How glorious, through his depths of light, Rolls the majestic sun ! 5. The deer left her dehcate footprint in the soft mould. 6. The bear broke away from his keeper. 7. The sea is mighty, but a mightier sways His restless billows. 8. The merry lark, he soars on high. No worldly thought o'ertakes him ; He sings aloud to the clear blue sky, And the daylight that awakes him. As sweet a lay, as loud, as gay, The nightingale is trilling ; With feeling bliss, no less than his, Her little heart is thrilling. — hartley CoLERmcE. 9. //is one thing to be well informed, /*/ is another to be wise. 10. Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of //. 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11. //is said that he will speak. 12. They had to foot // to the station. 13. Agree with thine adversary quickly. 14. And now there came both mist and snow, And // grew wondrous cold.— Coleridge. CHAPTER XXIX COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS Tell how the italicized pronouns in the following sen tences are formed, and how each is used : — > 1. The boy hurt himself. 2. We often deceive ourselves, 3. I myself heard the remark. The pronouns my, our, thy, your, him, her, it, and them are used with self or selves to form compound personal pronouns ; thus, — COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS Singular Plural First Person. myself ourselves Second Person, yourself ' himself yourselves Third Person. herself itself themselves The compound personal pronouns are used for emphasis in the nominative and the objective, either in apposition with a noun or pronoun or alone ; as, — ■ COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63 I myself longed to go. Then rest thee here till dawn of day; Myself yf\A guide thee on thy way. — scott. Here we met the poet himself. The compound personal pronouns are also used in the objective case as reflexives, that is, as objects denoting the same person or thing as the subject of the verb; as, — He hid himself from his friends. I let myself down with a rope. Formerly the simple personal pronoun was used reflex- ivcly; as, — Now I lay me down to sleep. This usage is now rare, except as an indirect object; as, — I have bought me a new hat. EXERCISE 62 Tell which pronouns in the following sentences are used emphatically and which reflexively : — 1. A house divided against itself cannot stand. 2. He himself was not the author of the article. 3. We found ourselves in an absolutely French region. 4. He bowed to the audience and then seated himself. 5. The book itself could hardly be called a novel. 6. They interested themselves in the sports of the children. 7. I myself longed to cut free from prescribed bondage. 8. Thus influenced, I conquered myself in a single' evening, and lost my shyness forever. 9. Th^se remarks helped me to justify to myself that early choice. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXX CLASSES OF PRONOUNS— Con^nued II. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS Which of the italicized words below are used as adjec- tives ? Which are used as pronouns ? 1. Many tickets were sold. 2. Many were unable to secure seats. 3. Look at this clock. 4. This is sold. Certain words can be used to limit nouns or to stand for nouns. When such words limit nouns, they are adjec- tives ; when they stand for nouns they are adjective pra nouns. Sometimes there is a difference of form; as, no (adj.), none (pro.); other (adj.), others (pro.). Adjective pronouns are sometimes divided into the following classes : — (i) Demonstrative pronouns, those pointing out the things to which they relate; as, this (plural these), that (plural those). (2) Distributive pronouns, those relating to persons or things considered separately; as, each, either, neither. (3) Reciprocal pronouns, those expressing a mutual or reciprocal relation ; as, each other, one another. They feared each other (that is, each feared the other). They assisted one another (that is, each one of them assisted another) . CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 65 (4) Indefinite pronouns, those not specifying any particular indi- vidual or thing ; as, all, another^ any^ both, few, many, none, one, other, several, some. Some adjective pronouns are inflected for number and case. Thus, this and that have the plural forms tJiese and those; one and other have plural and possessive forms ; and either and another have a form for the possessive singular. EXERCISE 63 Tell whether the italicized ivords in the following sen- tences are adjectives or pronouns, giving reaso7ts in each case : — 1. Many, alas! had fallen in battle.— Hawthorne. 2. There is a calm for those who weep. —j. Montgomery. 3. All are architects of fate, Working in these walls of time; Some with massive deeds and great. Some with ornaments of rhyme. — Longfellow. 4. Any life that is worth living must be a struggle. — Dean Stanley. 5. The man deserving the name is one whose thoughts and exertions are for others rather than for himself. — Sir Walter Scon-. 6. All men think all men mortal but themselves.— Young. 7. Men at some time are masters of their fate. — Shakespeare. 8. This was the noblest Roman of them all. —Shakespeare. 9. My worthy friend Sir Roger is one of those who is not only at peace with himself, but beloved and esteemed by all about him. — Addison. ID. It is one thing to be well informed; it is another to be wise. —Robertson. ^^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11. We too seldom think how much we owe to those formidable savages. —John Fiske. 12. Few shall part where many meet. —Campbell. 13. To know That which before us hes in daily hfe Is the prime wisdom. — Milton. EXERCISE 64 Cofistruct sentences containing the following words tised {\) as adjectives; (2) as pronoims : — both each few several these neither none many that other CHAPTER XXXI CLASSES OF PRONOUNS — Continufd III. RELATIVE PRONOUNS Tell how many assertions are made in each of the fol- lowing sentences, read the principal statement, and state the office of the italicized part: — 1. We found a guide, who answered our questions. 2. The wind, which rose suddenly, had now ceabcd. 3. They that seek wisdom will be wise. Which words in the dependent clauses above refer to preceding nouns, and how are the dependent clauses joined to the independent clauses } A pronoun that refers or relates to a noun or another pro- noun, and joins to it a dependent clause, is a relative pronoun. CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 6/ The noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun refers or relates is called its antecedent, because the antecedent usually precedes the pronoun ; as, — What is that sound which now bursts on his ear? He who would be great in the eyes of others must first learn to be nothing in his own. The simple ^relative pronouns are who^ which^ that^ and what. EXERCISE 65 Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences^ name their antecedents^ and tell what the pronouns con- nect : — 1. This was a signal to the patriots, who instantly despatched SM'ift messengers to rouse the country. 2. We made preparations for our journey, which lay through mountainous regions. 3. They were accompanied by some Indians, who were skilful divers. 4. They saw nothing more valuable than a curious sea-shrub, which was growing beneath the water. 5. He that filches from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed. —Shakespeare. 6. In the centre of the wood stood an enormous tuhp tree, which towered like a giant above all the other trees of the neighborhood. 7. The general, who was on horseback, ordered the troops to halt. 8. They have taken forts that military men said could not be taken. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 9. They that have done this deed are honorable. The flame that lit the battle's wreck Shone round him o'er the dead. 11. Is it the wind that moaneth bleak? 12. It is indeed impossible to kill a weed, which the soil has a natural disposition to produce. CHAPTER XXXII USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS W/io is usually applied to persons; as, — Hail to the chief w/w in triumph advances. ~ Scott. Old Kasper took it from the boy, JV/io stood expectant by. — Southey. Can this be she, The lady, wko knelt at the old oak tree ? — Coleridge. Sometimes, particularly in the description of individual traits or acts, w/io refers to animals ; as, — Twice have the crow-blackbirds . attempted a settlei.ient in my pines, and twice have the robins, who claim a right of preemption, so successfully played the part of border-ruffians as to drive them away. —Lowell. In the next cage [we see] a hyena from Africa, wko has doubtless howled around the pyramids. — Hawthorne. I knew a tame deer in a settlement in the edge of the forest, who had the misfortune to break her leg. — c. D. Warner. He was only answered by the cawing of a flock of idle crows, . . . tvAo, secure in their elevation, seemed to look down and s ofl" at the poor man's perplexities. Irving. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 69 Which is applied to the lower animals and to things with- out life ; as, — His good steed, which had borne him through many a hard fight, had fallen under him. — prescott. Nature has indeed given us a soil which yields bounteously to the hands of industry. —Webster. Which was formerly used in speaking of persons ; as, — Our Father which art in heaven. Which sometimes has a phrase or a clause for its ante- cedent ; as, — In the midst of these my musings she desired me to reach her a little salt upon the point of my knife, which I did in such a trepi- dation and hurry of obedience that I let it drop by the way. — Addison. It is probable that when this great work was begun, which must have been many hundred years ago, there was religion among this people. —Addison. As he approached the village, he met a number of people, but none whom he knew, which somewhat surprised him, for he had thought himself acquainted with every one in the country round. — Irving. When he was angered, which was often enough, he gave his com- mands and breathed threats of punishment like any king. — R. L. Stevenson. In each of the foregoing examples, which refers not to a single word, but to the idea expressed by the preceding clause. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR That is applied to persons, to animals, and to things; as, — Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. — Shakespv.are. Even the very dog that lay stretched at his feet . . . would look fondly up in his master's face. — Irving. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. — Bible. That is generally preferred to who or which — (i) In introducing a relative clause that limits or re- stricts the meaning of the antecedent ; ^ as, — They that touch pitch will be defiled. (2) After a joint reference to persons and things ; as, — Where are the boy and dog that we met ? When the relative that is used as the object of a prepo- sition, the preposition follows the pronoun ; as, — Here is the hat that you looked at. What refers to things. It is generally used without an antecedent expressed, and is equivalent to that which; as, — She remembers what (that which) she reads. As is sometimes used as a relative pronoun. It is then usually preceded by such; as, — Let such as (those who) hear take heed. 1 Some recent authorities teach that only that should be used when the relative clause is limiting or defining ; as, the man that runs fastest wins the race ; but who or which when it is descriptive or coordinating : as, this man, who ran fastest, won the race ; but, though present usage is perhaps tending in the direction of such a distinction, it neither has been nor is a rule of English speech, nor is it likely to become one. — The Century Dictionary, RELATIVE PRONOUNS 71 But is sometimes a relative pronoun. It has a negative force ; as, — There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has {that has not) one vacant chair. — Longfellow. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS Who is declined, in both singular and plural, with the nominative who^ the possessive whose^ and the objective whom; as, — Blessed is he who has found his work. There is a reaper whose name is Death. He whom I loved is dead. The other relative pronouns are not declined, but whose is often used as if it were the possessive form of which (that is, as equivalent to of whicli) ; as, — Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly. — Bryant. The simple relative pronouns have the following forms : — Singular and Plural Nom. who which that what Poss. whose (whose) Obj. whom which that what COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS » Pronouns formed by adding ever, so, or soever to who, which, and what are called compound relative pronouns ; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever ; whichever, whichsoever ; what- ever, whatsoever. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR These compounds are generally used without antecedents expressed. Thus, — Whoever looks may find the spot. Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein. Whosoever- will save his life, shall lose it. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might. Since they do not refer to definite persons or things, they are sometimes called indefinite relative pronouns. Whoever and whosoever are declined as follows : — Singular and Plural Nom. whoever whosoever Poss. whosever whosesoever Obj. whomever whomsoever The person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun are determined by its antecedent, thus : — He prayeth best, who loveth best All things, both great and small. —Coleridge. In this example, zvho refers to he, hence it is third per- son, singular number, and masculine gender. The case of a relative pronoun depends upon its use in its own clause. Thus, in the sentence, "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," that is the subject of the verb wears, hence it is in the nominative case. In the sentence, "The evil that men do lives after them," that is the object of the verb do, and is, therefore, in the objective case. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 73 EXERCISE 66 Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences^ 7taine their antecedents^ tell what the pronouns connect^ and give the person, number, gender, and case of each : — 1. He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 2. Where lies the land to which the ship would go? 3- My ramble soon led me to the church, which stood a little distance from the village.— Irving. 4. What a man has learnt is of importance, but what he is, what he can do, what he will become, are more significant things. — Helps. 5. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. — bible. 6. A land that will not yield satisfactorily without irrigation, and whose best paying produce requires intelHgent as well as careful husbandry, will never be an idle land. — Warner. 7. All precious things, discovered late, To those that seek them issue forth. — Tennyson. 8. They are slaves who dare not be In the right with two or three. — Lowell. 9. Here, then, I parted, sorrowfully, from the companion with whom I set out on my journey. — holmes. 10. He who has sought renown about the world, and has reaped a full harvest of worldly favor, will find, after all, that there is no love, no admiration, no applause, so sweet to the soul as that which springs up in his native place. — Irving. 11. We have no bird whose song will match the nightingale's in compass, none whose note is so rich as that of the European blackbird : but for mere rapture I have never heard the bobo- link's rival. — Lowell. 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 12. Whoever examines the maps of London which were pub- lished toward the close of the reign of Charles the Second will see that only the nucleus of the present capital then existed. — Macaulay. 13. Whatever befell them, it was not dishonor, and whatever failed them, they were not found wanting to themselves. — R. L. Stevenson. 14. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 15. The books which help you most are those which make you think most. — Parker. 16. They never fail who die in a great cause. — byron. 17. The Upper Lake discharges itself into the Lower by a brook which winds through a mile and a half of swamp and woods. — Warner. 18. I tell you that which you yourselves do know. — Shakespeare. 19. How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings ! — Bible. 20. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and stood In brighter light, and softer air, a beauteous sisterhood? 21. The charities that soothe and heal and bless, Lie scattered at the feet of men like flowers. 22. There breathes not clansman of thy line But would have given his life for mine. — Scott. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN The relative pronoun is often omitted when, if expressed, it would be in the objective case; as, — Observe the language well in all \_that\ you write. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 75 In poetry, the relative pronoun is sometimes omitted, even when it would be the subject; as, — 'Tis distance \_that~\ lends enchantment to the view. — Campbell. The antecedent of a relative pronoun is sometimes omitted, being implied in the pronoun ; as, — [Hel Who breaks, pays. EXERCISE 67 Tell where relative pronouns are omitted in the following sentences^ and name the case of each omitted word: — 1. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have under- taken. — Addison. 2. All the faces he drew were very remarkable for their smiles. — Addison. 3. The house we lived in is sold. 4. Few and short were the prayers we said. — Wolfe. 5. The stranger at my fireside cannot see The forms I see, nor hear the sounds I hear. — Longfellow. 6. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. — Campbell. 7. I am monarch of all I survey. — Cowper. 8. Nearly all of his poems were intended to further a cause he held dear, or to teach a lesson he thought needful. 9. All I hear Is the north wind drear. 7^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXXIII RELATIVE CLAUSES EXPLANATORY aND RESTRICTIVE Tell which clauses, in the following senterices, introduce additional ideas about the antecedents, and which limit or restrict their meaning : — 1. The physician, who was in the next room, entered. 2. I thrice presented him a kingly crown. Which he did thrice refuse. 3. I know the man that must hear me. 4. They that have done this deed are honorable. A clause that introduces an additional idea about the antecedent is explanatory ; as, — They had one son, who had grown up to be the staff and pride of their age. The cargo, which was valuable, was lost. A clause that limits or restricts the meaning of the antecedent is restrictive ; as, — The bird that soars on highest wing Builds on the ground her lowly nest. That is generally preferred to who or which in introducing a restrictive clause.^ A relative clause not restrictive is separated from the remainder of the sentence by the comma. * See footnote page 70. RELATIVE CLAUSES JJ EXERCISE 68 Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences^ and tell in each case whether they introduce explanatory or restrictive clauses: — 1. He that is not with me is against me. 2. The Carrier, who had turned his face from the door, signed to him to go if he would. — Dickens. 3. Carefully then were covered the embers that glowed on the hearthstone. —Longfellow. 4. Not far from the gateway they came to a bridge, which seemed to be built of iron. — Hawthorne. 5. The first spring wild-flowers^ whose shy faces among the dry leaves and rocks are so welcome, yield no honey John Burroughs. 6. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the less weight it carries. —Addison. 7. We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea. —Coleridge. 8. Bordered with trees whose gay leaves fly On every breath that sweeps the sky The fresh dark acres furrowed lie, And ask the sower's hand. — Bryant. 9. The mind that lies fallow but a single day sprouts up in follies that are only to be killed by a constant and assiduous culture. —Addison. 10. A tree, which grew out from the hillside, was the Hving centre-beam of the roof. — Stevenson. 11. And everybody praised the Duke, Who this great fight did win. — southey. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 12. Brazil, which is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, is covered with a vegetation of incredible profusion. Indeed, so rank and luxuriant is the growth, that Nature seems to riot in the very wantonness of power. A great part of this immense country is filled with denstf and tangled forests, whose noble trees, blossoming in unrivalled beauty, and exquisite with a thousand hues, throw out their produce in endless prodigality. On their summit are perched birds of gorgeous plumage, which nestle in their dark and lofty recesses. Below, their bases and trunks are crowded with brushwood, creeping plants, innumerable parasites, all swarming with life. There, too, are myriads of insects of every variety ; reptiles of strange and singular form ; serpents and lizards, spotted with deadly beauty : all of which find means of existence in this vast workshop and repository of Nature. And that nothing may be wanting to this land of marvels, the forests are skirted by enormous meadows, which, reeking with heat and moisture, supply nourishment to countless herds of wild cattle, that browse and fatten on their herbage ; while the adjoining plains, rich in another form of life, are the chosen abode of the subtlest and most ferocious animals, which prey on each other, but which it almost seems no human power can hope to extirpate. — buckle. EXERCISE 69 Select from your Reader or History six relative clauses that are explanatory^ and six others that are restrictive. CHAPTER XXXIV CLASSES OF PRONOUNS — C^«/i««^ar IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS How are the italicized words used in the following sentences ? CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 79 1. Who comes here ? 2. Which reached home first ? 3. What is the news ? A pronoun used in asking a question is an interrogative pronoun. An interrogative pronoun may be used in a direct or an indirect question ; thus, — What did you see ? (Direct question.) I asked what you saw. (Indirect question.) The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. Who refers to persons. It is declined like the relative who. Which refers to persons or to things. It implies selec- tion ; as, — Which of the brothers sings ? Which of the chairs do you prefer ? What refers to things ; as, — What was in the box ? Whether was formerly in common use as an interroga- tive pronoun ; as, — Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ? Which and what are sometimes used as interrogative adjectives ; as, — Which way shall I fly ? Where are they now ? What lands and skies Paint pictures in their friendly eyes ? What hope deludes, what promise cheers. What pleasant voices fill their ears ? — Longfellow. 8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR As an interrogative adjective, what, like which, is used of persons as well as of things ; as, — What man would say such a thing? Which boy replied? EXERCISE 70 Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, tell the kind of each pronoun^ and name its case : — 1. Who can understand his errors ? 2. Which of you, by taking thought, can add one cubit unto his stature ? 3. Shall the clay say to him that fashioneth it, What makest thou ? 4. Who planted this old apple tree ? 5. What is civiHzation? What does it consist in? 6. Whom shall I send ? 7. Ah ! what is that sound which now bursts on his ear? — Dimond. 8. Who, among the whole chattering crowd, can tell me of the forms and the precipices of the chain of tall white mountains that girded the horizon at noon yesterday ? Who saw the narrow sunbeam that came out of the south, and smote upon their summits until they melted and mouldered away in a dust of blue rain ? Who saw the dance of the dead clouds when the sunHght left them last night, and the west wind blew them before it Hke withered leaves ? — Ruskin. EXERCISE 71 Tell whether the italicized words in the followifig sentences are interrogative or relative pronouns, giving a reason in each instance : — 1 . What is the Constitution ? It is the bond which binds together millions of brothers. — Daniel w^ebster. HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS 8 1 2. The divine faculty is to see what everybody can look at. — — Lowell. 3. Now tell us all about the war, And what they fought each other for. ~ Southey, 4. The lovely lady Christabel, Whom her father loves so well, What makes her in the wood so late, A furlong from the castle gate ? — Coleridge. 5. It was with great difficulty that the self-important man in the cocked hat restored order ; and having assumed a tenfold austerity of brow, demanded again of the unknown culprit, what he came there for, and whom he was seeking. — Irving. 6. Do you ask what the birds say ? 7. Things are not what they seem. 8. Who is the great man ? He who is the strongest in the exercise of patience ; he who patiently endures injury. CHAPTER XXXV HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS To parse a . pronoun, state — (i) Its class. (2) Its antecedent (if it is a relative pronoun). (3) Its person (if it is a personal or a relative pronoun). (4) Its number. (5) Its gender (if it is a personal pronoun of the third person singular). (6) Its case. (7) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Example I. And then / think of one who in her youthful beauty died. 1. / is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and nominative case — subject of the verb think} 2. One is an adjective pronoun, third person, singular number, and objective case — object of the preposition of. 3. Who is a relative pronoun, third person, singular number, agreeing with its antecedent one, and nominative case — subject of the verb died. 4. Her is a personal pronoun, third person, singular number, feminine gender, and possessive case — depending upon the noun beauty^ Example II. No one heard what he said. What is a relative pronoun, used without an antecedent expressed, of the third person, singular number, and objective case — object of the verb said, EXERCISE 72 Parse the pronouns in the following sentences : — 1. The moon did not rise till after ten, so I had two hours of intense darkness during which I used my ears instead of my eyes. — M. Thompson. 2. And what is so rare as a day in June ? — Lowell. 3. Hang around your walls pictures which shall tell stories of mercy, hope, courage, faith, and charity. — D. G. Mitchell. 4. A few hoped, and many feared, that some scheme of mon- archy would be established. —John Fiske. 1 Or follow a briefer form, similar to the one suggested on p. 54. HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS 83 5. With merry songs we mock the wind That in the pine top grieves, And slumber long and sweetly On beds of oaken leaves. — Bryant. 6. I witnessed a striking incident in bird life which was very suggestive. — M. Thompson. 7. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star ? — Coleridge. 8. He laid him down and closed his eyes.— southey. 9. Triumphant arch, that fill'st the sky When storms prepare to part, I ask not proud Philosophy To teach me what thou art. — Campbell. 10. He that only rules by terror Doeth grievous wrong. —Tennyson. 11. We judge ourselves by what we feel capable of doing, while others judge us by what we have already done. — Longfellow. 12. I fear thee, ancient mariner! I fear thy skinny hand ! And thou art long, and lank, and brown, As is the ribbed sea-sand. — CoLERmoE. 13. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 14. He who plants an oak looks forward to future ages, and plants for posterity. — Irving. 15. Which of us shall be the soonest folded to that dim Un- known? Which shall leave the other walking in this flinty path alone ? — Bryant. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXXVI REVIEW OF PRONOUNS EXERCISE 73 What is a pronoun ? How does a pronoun differ from a noun ? Mention the different classes of pronoups and give examples of each class. What is a personal pronoun ? How many case forms has the pronoun of the first person ? How is each used ? Give the second person singular, and tell how it is used. Give two uses of the pronoun you. Which person has a distinction of gender } State special uses of the pronouns of the masculine, feminine, and neu- ter genders. How are the possessive forms of personal pronouns used.-* Mention the compound personal pronouns, and tell how they are formed. Give an example of their use as reflexives ; for emphasis. How does an adjective pronoun differ from an adjective.'' Define a relative pronoun. State the distinctions in the use of who, which, and what. Give a sentence in which as is used as a relative pronoun; in which but is so used. What is an interrogative pronoun } What words are used as interrogative pronouns? CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 8$ CHAPTER XXXVII CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, and tell what each expresses : — 1. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. 2. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 3. A Httle leaven leaveneth the whole lump. 4. Three years she grew in sun and shower. (i) An adjective that expresses quality or kind is a de- scriptive adjective ; as, a happy boy ; a narrow path ; a wooden bench. The following terms are sometimes applied to certain descriptive adjectives : — {a) Proper Adjectives, those formed from proper names ; as, American forests ; the English language. Proper adjectives begin with capital letters. {F) Participial Adjectives, which are participles* used simply as adjectives ; as, burning words, the rising sun, withered leaves. (2) An adjective that points out something or denotes number or quantity is a limiting adjective ; as, this week ; two hours; 7nuch trouble. A Hmiting adjective may be used — (^) Simply to point out ; as, this, that, the, an, yon, yonder. Sucli adjectives are sometimes called demonstrative adjectives. * See page 115. 86 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR (<5) To express a definite number ; as, one, two, fourteen, fifty, {/) To express an indefinite number or quantity ; as, any, little, much, many, some. {d) To show the order of things in a series ; as, first, second, third. Limiting adjectives expressing number are called numeral ad- jectives. Numerals are classified as — {a) Cardinals, those denoting how many ; as, one, two, three. {b) Ordinals, those denoting the order of things in a series; as, third, fourth, fifth. An adjective formed from two simple words is called a compound adjective ; as, native-born citizen, rock-bound coast, low-vaulted roof, twenty-third psalm. EXERCISE 74 Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, state the office of each, and tell what kind of adjective it is : — 1. Thirty-two statues of various sizes were found in this field. 2. Its chief attractions were a never-failing breeze at night, good water, and a large garden in the centre of a cleared space. 3. Hark ! 'tis the twanging horn o'er yonder bridge. — Cowper. 4. We met several men riding at a rapid pace. 5. Across its antique portico Tall poplar- trees their shadows throw. — Longfellow. 6. This long march through the primeval forest and over rugged and trackless mountains was one of the most remarkable exploits of the war. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 87 7. O blessings on his kindly voice and on his silver hair ! 8. Suddenly there was a gentle little tap on the inside of the lid. 9. The thirteen colonies were now free and independent states. 10. A certain man fell among thieves. 11. Small service is true service while it lasts. — Wordswortfl 12. All the air a solemn stillness holds. — Gray. 13. The good old year is with the past. — Bryant. 14. With a slow and noiseless footstep Comes that messenger divine. — Longfellow. 15. With fingers weary and worn, With eyelids heavy and red, A woman sat, in unwomanly rags. Plying her needle and thread. — Hood. 16. All the little boys and girls. With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls. And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls, Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. — Browning. EXERCISE 75 Write sentences containing the following words used as adjectives : — strong any many brittle prompt fair all curved every distant both dutiful little modern neither some few much each another clear brief certain other several 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER XXXVIII ARTICLES The limiting adjectives the and an or a (the shortened form of an) are sometimes called articles. The is the weakened form of that. It is called the definite article. The is used to point our some particular thing or things or a class of things ; ^ as, — And the Piper advanced and the children followed. — Browning. The stars are out by twos and threes.— Wordsworth. An or a is the weakened form of the numeral adjective one. It is called the indefinite article. An or a is used to point out any one thing of a class ; as,— A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than to act one. — Dr. Johnson. While the indefinite article is generally used before a singular noun, it is also used before a plural noun with feWy greats many, or good many ; as, — A few days, a great many books, a good many people. The indefinite article should not be used before a word denoting a whole class. Thus, not "What kind of a bird was it.?" *'I do not like that sort of a thing"; but "What kind of bird was it.?" "I do not like that sort of thing." 1 In such phrases as " the more the merrier," the is not an article, but an adverb. See page 220. ARTICLES 89 EXERCISE 76 In the following sentences find the articles that point out (i) some particular thing or things ; (2) a class of things ; (3) any one thing of a class : — 1. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the wicked, ^t- 2. A wise man will make haste to forgive. 3. The shamrock is the national emblem of Ireland. 4. A fair little girl sat under a tree. 5. The salmon is both a marine and a fresh-water fish. 6. He returned with the title of Admiral. 7. The maples redden in the sun; In autumn gold the beeches stand. 8. Consider the lilies how they grow. AN OR A An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound ;^ as, an apple ; an initial ; an hour. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound ; as, a boat ; a day ; many a one (one begins with the consonant sound oi w); a unit (unit begins with the conso- nant sound of J/). EXERCISE 77 Read the follozving sentences, supplying the proper form of the indefinite article. Give in each case a reason for your choice : — 1. Be hero in the strife. 2. He is humorist. ^ An was formerly used before all words beginning with k, and is still used by many writers before A in unaccented syllables; as, an hotel; an historian. 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. For Brutus is honorable man. 4. He that hath trade hath estate, and he that hath ' calHng hath office of profit and honor. 5. Such one is seldom found. 6. I learned that he was universal favorite in the village. 7. That book is — — authority on this subject. 8. hundred dogs bayed deep and strong, Clattered hundred steeds along, Their peal the merry horns rung out, hundred voices joined the shout. 9. The shades of night were falHng fast, As through Alpine village passed youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice, banner with the strange device, Excelsior ! 10. Truth is the highest thing man may keep. REPETITION OR OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE When tvi^o or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is used before the first only ; but when they modify different nouns, expressed or understood, the article is used before each ; as, — A red and white rose (one rose). A red and a white rose (two roses). Sometimes, however, when the adjectives modify the same noun, the article is repeated for emphasis; as ''An amusing and an instructive book." The article is sometimes used before each adjective with a noun in the singular, and before the first adjective only ARTICLES 91 with a noun in the plural ; as, '* Omit the second and the third stanza," or " Omit the second and third stanzas." When two or more connected nouns refer to the same person or 'thing, the article is used before the first only ; but when they refer to different persons or things that are to be especially distinguished, the article is used before each ; as, — He was an eminent orator and statesman. Its effect approaches to that produced by the pencil or the chisel — Macaulay. In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the article is used before the first noun only ; but if they refer to different persons or things, the article must be used with each noun; as, — 1. He would make a better statesman than orator (= He would make a better statesman than [he would make an] orator). 2. He would make a better statesman than an orator (= He would make a better statesman than an orator [would make] ) . EXERCISE 78 Give reasons for the repetition or the omission of the article in each of the following sentences : — 1. He purchased from the Indians a large and fertile tract land. 2. Wanted, a stenographer and typewriter. 3. Wanted, a stenographer and a typewriter. ^''- 4. To the wise and good, old age presents a scene of tranquil enjoyment. of/ 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, they looked down with contempt. 6. Here was a type of the beginning and the end of human pomp and power. 7. He had, indeed, a quick observation and^ retentive memory. 8. What manner of man is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him ! ^.. 9. He detected, with unfailing skill, the good or the vile wher- ever it existed. 10. However strange, however grotesque, may be the appearance which Dante undertakes to describe, he never shrinks from describing it. He gives us the shape, the color, the sound, the smell, the taste. 11. The third and fourth chapters are brief and dry. 12. Have you read the seventh and the eighth chapter? 13. He is a better speaker than writer. 14. He was a ready orator, an elejgant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and a most contemptible sovereign. 15. They elected a secretary and a treasurer. 16. He had naturally a generous and feeling heart. 17. Down in a green and shady bed a modest violet grew. 18. What is the difference between a vowel and a consonant? CHAPTER XXXIX COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Tell how many forms the adjective long has in the foUov^- ing sentences, and what each form expresses : — 1. This work requires a long pencil. 2. Your pencil is longer than mine. 3. Here is the longest pencil in the box. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 93 Some adjectives change their form to express different de- grees of quality. This change of form is called comparison. The form of an adjective that simply expresses the quality is the positive degree ; as, long, short. The form of an adjective that expresses a higher or a lower degree of the quality is the comparative degree ; as, longer, shorter. The form of an adjective that expresses the highest or the lowest degree of the quality is the superlative degree ; as, longest, shortest. Most adjectives of one syllable add er to the simple form of the adjective, to form the comparative, and e^f, to form the superlative. If the adjective ends in e, one e is omitted ; as, — Positive Comparative Superlative long longer longest pure purer purest In adding these suffixes the usual rules for spelling must be ob- served. Thus : — (i) If the adjective ends in e^ omit the e before adding er or est ; as, wise, wiser, wisest. (2) If the adjective ends in y, preceded by a consonant, change the J' into// as, happy, happier, happiest. (3) If the adjective ends in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant; as, thin, thinner, thinnest. Most adjectives of more than one syllable prefix more or less to the simple form of the adjective, to form the com- parative, and most or leasit to form the superlative ; as, — 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Positive Comparative Superlative careful more careful most careful fortunate less fortunate least fortunate A few adjectives of two syllables, ending in sounds that unite easily with the sound of er or est, may be compared by adding er or est; as, noble, h-appy, narrow, tender, pleasant. The form of comparison that is most pleasing to the ear should be used. IRREGULAR COMPARISON ome adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows Positive Comparative Superlative bad, evil, ill worse worst far farther, further farthest, furthest fore former foremost, first good, well better best hind hinder hindmost, hindermost [in]^ inner inmost, innermost late latter, later last, latest little less, lesser least many, much more most near nearer nearest, next nigh nigher nighest, next old elder, older eldest, oldest [out] outer, utter outmost, outermost utmost, uttermost [up] • upper upmost, uppermost 1 The words in the brackets are adverbs. No corresponding adjectives exist in the positive form. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 95 MEANINGS OF DOUBLE FORMS Farther zxv^ further are often used indiscriminately, though further is generally preferred in the sense of additional; as, — No further reasons were given. Latter and last are used in speaking of order in a series ; later and latest refer to time; as, — The last volume is just published. Have you heard the latest news? Lesser is opposed to greater; as, — God made two great lights ; the greatei light to rule by day, and the lesser light to rule by night. Elder is opposed to younger; older ^ to new ; as, — His elder son was in the field. . Our house is older than yours. Outer is opposed to inner ; utter means complete^ total. The outer ^dXS. has fallen. The attempt to sail the boat was an utter failure. Adjectives expressing meanings that do not admit of dif- ferent degrees cannot, if taken in their strict sense, be com- pared ; as, one, this, that, equal, square, vertical, perfect^ universal. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR INFLECTION FOR NUMBER The two adjectives this and that are inflected for number; thus, — Singular Plural this these that those EXERCISE 79 (i) Write the comparison of beautiful, clear ^ deep, elo- quent, famous, heavy, ill, many, little, well. (2) State the distinction in meaning between {a) latter and later ; ih) elder and older. (3) Give ten adjectives that cannot be compared. EXERCISE 80 Point out each adjective in the follozving sentences, name its degree, and tell what it modifies: 1. Choose the timbers with greatest care. — Longfellow. 2. Of all the old festivals, however, that of Christmas awakens the strongest and most heartfelt associations. — Irving. 3. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow. — Byron. 4. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most wonderful skill. — Hawthorne. 5. She is more precious than rubies. — Bible. 6. We started immediately after an early luncheon, followed an excellent road all the way, and were back in time for dinner at half- past six. 7. The day was cloudy, and the sea very rough. HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES 97 8. Alas ! when evil men are strong, No life is good, no pleasure long. — Wordsworth. 9. He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. — Bible. 10. The noblest mind the best contentment has. — Spenser. 11. This was the noblest Roman of them all. — Shakespeare. 12. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with invincible resolution ; who resists the sorest temptations from within and from without ; who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully ; who is calmest and most fearless under menaces and frowns ; whose reliance on truth, on virtue, on God, is most unfaltering. — Channing. CHAPTER XL HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES To parse an adjective, tell — (i) Its class. (2) Its degree of comparison (if the adjective can be compared). (3) Its syntax or construction — use in the sentence. Example. — The north wind is cold. 1. The is a Hmiting adjective, modifying the expression north wind. 2. North is a descriptive adjective, modifying the noun wind. 3. Cold is a descriptive adjective of the positive degree. It completes the meaning of the verb is, and modifies the noun wind^ limited by the and north. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 81 Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : — 1. It is the most beautiful shrub that ever sprang out of the earth. 2. Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. 3. Such pleasures nerve the arm for strife, Bring joyous thoughts and golden dreams. 4. This door led into a passage out of which opened four sleeping-rooms. 5. Wide is the gate and broad is the way. 6. In the middle of the eighteenth century there were four New England colonies. — fiske. 7. Birds of the polar areas of snow and ice are white, those of the tropics are vari-colored and brilliant-hued. — m. Thompson. 8. Straight and strong and magnificently plumed, the palms rose to an average height of seventy or eighty feet.— a. B. Edwards. 9. Spring is the season when the volume of bird-song poured round the world is incomparably stronger, fuller, and sweeter than at any other. —M. Thompson. 10. Lo ! while we are gazing, in swifter haste Stream down the snows till the air is white. — Bryant. 11. The habit of observation is the habit of clear and decisive gazing. Not by a first casual glance, but by a steady deliberate aim of the eye are the rare and characteristic things discovered. —John Burroughs. 12. A form more fair, a face more sweet, Ne'er hath it been my lot to meet. — Whittier. CHOICE OF ADJECTIVE^^. /;. '. ; ;' •,,):9C^ 13. A beautiful form is better than a beautiful face; a beautiful behavior is better than a beautiful form : it gives a higher pleasure than statues or pictures; it is the finest of the fine arts. — Emerson. CHAPTER XLI CHOICE OF ADJECTIVES The adjectives in the following exercises are often misused. Find out from a dictionary their exact meaning, and be care- ful to use them in their proper sense. EXERCISE 82 Copy the following sentences^ fillifig the blanks with appro- priate words from this list: — handsome beautiful splendid fine pretty lovely elegant grand 1. She lived in a cottage by the sea. 2. The Viceroy was welcomed by a procession. 3. Niagara is a cataract. 4. feathers make birds. 5. Pegasus was a snow-white steed, with silvery wings. 6. She was a lady of character. 7. The room was filled with furniture. 8. The executive mansion is a residence. 9. The view from the top of the mountain is . 10. The sunset was . 11. We had a sail on the lake. ?00 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 83 Copy the following sentences^ inserting the proper word in each blank. Give in each case a reason for your choice : — I. — Cunning, Attractive 1. What an little child she was ! 2. The fox is a animal. 3. The boy eluded his pursuers. ll. — JDumb, Dull, Stupid 1. I was with silence ; I held my peace. 2. The boy was so that he could not understand the problem. 3. He was too to express any opinion on the subject. 4. Be kind to animals. III. — Funny, Strange, Odd 1. The sailor had many adventures. 2. His remarks set the table in a roar. 3. He was dressed in an way. 4. Misery makes bedfellows. 5. The speaker amused his audience with stories. TV. — Mealthy, Healthful, Wholesome 1. A body contributes to the health of the mind. 2. Apples are a food. 'I. food makes a man. 4. He sought for a climate. 5. The captain was a man. REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES,. ; \ ;.,'; ;' .'Kdi: Y. — Madf Angry 1. Be ye , and sin not. 2. A dog ran down the street. 3. Paul, thou art beside thyself; much learning doth make thee 4. This unexpected reply made the boy . VI.— Ugly, Ill'Natured 1. The man was so that few persons would employ him. 2. Hans Andersen wrote "The Duckling." 3. It is hard living with an person. CHAPTER XLII REVIEW OF ADJECTIVES EXERCISE 84 Find the adjectives in the following selection^ and state the office of each : — How beautiful is night ! A dewy freshness fills the silent air ; No mist obscures, nor cloud nor speck nor stain Breaks the serene of heaven : In full-orbed glory yonder moon divine Rolls through the dark blue depths ; Beneath her steady ray The desert circle spreads Like the round ocean girdled with the sky. How beautiful is night !— Southey. I0;> , .,/ ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 85 What is an adjective ? Into what two classes may adjec- tives be divided ? Name three adjectives that are used to point out things ; two adjectives that express a definite number ; two that ex- press an indefinite number; two that express an indefinite quantity ; two that indicate order of things in a series. State the difference in meaning between the and an or a. Distinguish between the use of an and a, and illustrate by examples. Name two adjectives that change their form to denote the plural number. Give their plural forms. What is meant by the comparison of adjectives.? What are the three degrees of comparison called } Define each, and give an example. How is the comparative formed } Give examples. How is the superlative formed t Give examples. What is meant by irregular comparison } Illustrate. Mention two adjectives that are compared by means of suffixes ; two that are compared by means of adverbs ; two that are compared irregularly ; and two that are not usually compared. Give the comparative and superlative forms of few, heavy ^ amiable, swift, useful, fierce^ mighty, witty ^ gentle, good^ badf late^ little, ill, muchy many. CLASSES OF VERBS 103 CHAPTER XLIII CLASSES OF VERBS TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS Point out the verb in each of the following sentences, name its subject/ and tell which word is used as the object ^ of the verb : — 1. Spiders spin webs. 2. Bees make honey. 3. Who taught them? Some verbs, like the examples above, require objects to complete their meaning; other verbs do not require objects. A verb that requires an object is a transitive verb; as, — Birds build nests. Henry threw the ball. A verb that does not require an object is an intransitive ¥erb ; as, — Birdsy?)'. The sun shines. In a few instances the same word may be used as a tran- sitive verb in one sentence, and as an intransitive verb in another ; as, — The wind blows the dust. (Transitive.) The wind blows. (Intransitive.) 1 See page 14. 2 gee page 46. r<^' ' ';:..;.'■,-,' ENGLISH grammar EXERCISE 86 Point out the verbs in the following sentences^ and tell in each case whether the verb is transitive or intransitive : — 1. He shrugged his shoulders, shook his head, cast up his eyes, but said nothing. 2. Each takes his seat, and each receives his share. 3. We scatter seeds with careless hand. 4. A tear stood in his bright blue eye.— Longfellow. 5. A rill of water trickles down the cliff. 6. The piper advanced, and the children followed. — Browning. 7. A pair of kingfishers dart back and forth across the bay, in flashes of living blue. 8. Do many good works, and speak few vanities. 9. We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, But we left him alone with his glory Wolfe. 10. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. 11. The warrior bowed his crested head. — Hemans. 1 2. But soon I heard the dash of oars, I heard the pilot's cheer. 13. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew. — Coleridge. 14. In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests cast the leaf. And we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief. — Bryant. VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION I05 EXERCISE 87 Write sentences containing the following words used (l) as transitive verbs ; {2) as intransitive verbs : — learn write watch strike ride roll see read fly sing CHAPTER XLIV VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION Which verbs in the following sentences form a predicate alone, and which must be followed by another word to com- plete their meaning ? — 1. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows. 2. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 3. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. A verb that requires an additional word or words to com- plete the predicate is a verb of incomplete predication. When the verb is transitive, the predicate is completed by the object of the action ; as, — War brings sorrow. When the verb is intransitive, the predicate is completed by a word or words describing the subject, and the com- pleting adjunct is called a complement ; as, — The sky is blue. The boy was an orphan. I06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Most intransitive verbs have a complete meaning in them- selves ; as, — The rain/^/Zi". The wind blows, A few intransitive verbs (as be^ become^ appear^ looky seem, and the like) must be followed by a noun or an adjective to complete their meaning ; as, — He is a statesman. The child seems cold. Such verbs of incomplete predication are sometimes called copulative, since they connect or couple the subject with a word describing the subject ; as, — Washington was a patriot. She looks happy. EXERCISE 88 Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are transi- tive or intransitive, name the object of each transitive verb, and tell what completes the meaning of each incomplete intransi- tive verb : — 1. He crept softly to the window. 2. The way was long, the wind was cold. — Scott. 3. I heard the bells on Christmas Day Their old, familiar carols play. — Longfellow. 4. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. — Keats. 5. The daffodil is our doorside queen. — Bryant. 6. The next day Congress took the formal vote upon the reso- lution. 7. Behold the fowls of the air. — Bible. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE I07 8. The fish swam by the castle wall, And they seemed joyous, each and all. — Byron. 9. Open then I flung the shutter, when, with many a flirt and flutter. In there stepped a stately raven of the saintly days of yore. — POE. 10. The snow had begun in the gloaming, And busily all the night Had been heaping field and highway With a silence deep and white. — Lowell. EXERCISE 89 Write ( I ) five sentences y each containing a verb of incom- plete predication completed by a nomi ; {2) five sentences, each containing a verb of incomplete predication completed by an adjective. CHAPTER XLV ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE Tell in how many ways each thought is expressed in the following sentences : — 1. The governor signed the bill. 2. The bill was signed by the governor. 3. A hound chased the deer. 4. The deer was chased by a hound. A transitive verb may represent its subject as acting or as being acted upon. I08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR A transitive verb that represents its subject as acting is said to be in the active voice; as, Columbus discovered America. A transitive verb that represents its subject as being acted upon is said to be in the passive voice; as, America zvas discovered by Columbus. The object of the verb in the active form becomes the subject of the verb in the passive form. The active voice makes the agent prominent, while the passive voice makes the receiver of the action prominent. Some verbs usually intransitive become transitive by means of a preposition, and take the passive voice ; as, — He laughed at them. They were laughed at. EXERCISE 90 Point out the transitive verbs in the following sentences^ and tell the voice of eachy giving in each case a reason for your statement : — 1. The frightened animal sought the open country. 2. Our guide had never visited the cave. 3. The building was destroyed by fire, but some of the furniture was saved. 4. The guest was admitted into the parlor. 5. The portrait attracted his notice at once. 6. The petition was signed by a number of prominent citizens. 7. He holds him with his glittering eye. — Coleridge. 8. Many interesting discoveries were made among these broken cliffs. — HawthornEc MODE 109 9. Here the canoe was driven upon the beach, and the whole party landed. 10. The farmer swung the scythe or turned the hay, And 'twixt the heavy swaths his children were at play. — Bryant. 11. On Christmas eve the bells were rung. — Scott. 12. The schoolmaster swept and smoothed the ground before the door, trimmed the long grass, trained the ivy and creeping plants which hung their drooping heads in melancholy neglect ; and gave to the outer walls a cheery air of home. — Dickens. 13. A little fire is quickly trodden out. 14. The great iron gateway that opened into the court-yard was locked. 15. Nothing interrupted the stillness of the scene. CHAPTER XLVI MODE Find in the follov^^ing sentences a verb that asserts some- thing as a fact, one that asserts something as merely thought of or conceived, and one that expresses a command : — 1. He speaks distinctly. 2. If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat. 3. Speak the truth. The manner of asserting is called the mode of j;he verb. A verb that asserts a thing as a fact or asks a direct question is in the indicative mode ; as, — The river is deep. Is the river deep? no ENGLISH GRAMMAR A verb that expresses something as conceived rather than as actually true is in the subjunctive mode ; as, : — If he were ill, he would inform us. Take heed, lest thou fall. A verb in the subjunctive mode is generally preceded by if, though, lest, unless, except, or some similar word ; but these words are not always followed by the subjunctive. When the verb in a conditional clause expresses doubt, it is in the subjunctive mode ; but when it expresses probability or certainty it is in the indicative mode ; as, — If the law be unjust, it should be repealed. (Subjunctive.) If the law is unjust, let it be repealed. (Indicative.) In the first sentence above, doubt is implied about the un justness of the law; in the second sentence, the unjustness is assumed as a fact. The most common uses of the subjunctive mode are — (i) To express a condition or supposition; as, — If thou be a king, where is thy crown ? If he were here [but he is not], he could explain the matter. In sentences like the last, the subjunctive expresses a supposition contrary to the actual fact, and refers to present time. (2) To express a wish ; as, — O that the day were done ! (3) To express purpose ; as, — Judge not, that ye be not judged. Watch ye and pray, lest ye enter into temptation. MODE III A verb that expresses a command or an entreaty is in the imperative mode ; as, — Close the gate. Forgive us our debts. EXERCISE 91 Tell what each verb expresses in the following sentences, and name its mode : — 1. Consider the lilies of the field. 2. I stood and watched by the window The noiseless work of the sky. 3. I stand upon my native hills again. 4. Thine own friend and thy father's friend, forsake not. ^ 5 . Return ye now every one from his evil way. 6. Though this be madness, yet there is method in it. 7. Turn away thine eyes, lest they behold vanity. 8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. EXERCISE 92 Tell the mode of each italicized verb in the following sen- tences, giving reasons for your statements : — 1. Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow. 2. If you were in my place, you would think differently. 3. If I were hungry, I would not tell thee. 4. Though thou detain me, I will not eat of the bread. 5. Love not sleep, lest thou co?ne to poverty. 6. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done. 7. If it bear the test, it will be accepted. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 8. If it bears the test, it will not be used. 9. See that thou tell no man. 10. Some heavenly ^owtr guide us hence. 11. Judge not, that ye be r\o\. judged. 12. Beware, lest thou be led into temptation. 13. Last night the moon had 2, golden ring. And to-night no moon we see. — Longfellow. 14. If fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness. — Shakespeare. EXERCISE 93 (i) Write three sentences, each containi^tg verbs in the indicative mode. (2) Write three sentences, each containirig verbs in the subjunctive mode. (3) Write three sentejices, each containing verbs in the irnperative mode. CHAPTER XLVII THE INFINITIVE (i) Select from the following sentences verb forms that do not assert, but that name actions, like nouns; (2) tell how they are used : — 1 . To err is human. 2. They intend to return soon. 3. Doing nothing is tiresome. The verb form that does not assert, but that merely names action or being, like a noun, is called an infinitive. THE INFINITIVE 113 There are two infinitives, the simple infinitive, and the infinitive in -ing. The simple infinitive is the simple form of the verb, alone or preceded by to ; as, — They can go. I expect to go. The simple form, without to, is used alone, or after a few of the most common verbs, such as may, can, tmist, shall, will, bid, dare, do, let, make, need, hear, and see ; as. Why not sing? Do sing. The form with to is employed in most of the uses of the simple infinitive.^ The infinitive in -ing, also called the participial infinitive or gerund, is formed by adding -ing to the simple form of the verb; as, — Learn the luxury of doing good. The infinitive, like a noun, is used as subject or object; and, like a verb, it may take an object, if transitive, and may have adverbial modifiers ; as, — • 1. To retreat is impossible. 2. I decided to remain at home. 3. There is no prospect oi finding the treasure. ^ To was originally a preposition, used with the infinitive only in certain rela- tions. It is now a mere prefix, or sign of the infinitive in most of its uses. As this is the only one of the infinitive forms that is distinctive, it is commonly called the infinitive. The other forms are, however, equally true infinitives in origin and 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 94 Classify the infinitives in the folloiving sentences^ giving reasons for your statements : — 1. I like to look on a scene like this. 2. Let music swell the breeze. 3. The rain had ceased to patter, and now began to fall with a steady determination. 4. There was no difficulty in finding the river. 5. But where to find that happiest spot below, Who can direct, when all pretend to know?— Goldsmith. 6. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing than to act one. — Dr. Johnson. 7. He hears the parson pray and preach. — Longfellow. 8. As he approached the stream, his heart began to thump. — Irving, 9. But it must be understood that we did not go to see the Pyramids. We went only to look at them. — Amelia B. Edwards. 10. There are two opposite ways by which some men make a figure in the world ; one by talking faster than they think, and the other by holding their tongues and not thinking at all. — Irving. EXERCISE 95 Write sentences containing (i) simple infinitives ; (2) parti- cipial infinitives formed f7'om the following verbs : — find break choose lose sell build hear spend meet have .THE PARTICIPLE II5 CHAPTER XLVIII THE PARTICIPLE Tell of what verbs the italicized words are forms, and which parts of speech they most resemble: — 1. Out came the children running. 2. We beheld a horseman approaching leisurely. 3. The company, seated round the fire, welcomed the stranger. 4. We sailed by an island covered with large trees. The verb form that is used as an adjective is called a participle. The participle does not assert, but assumes or implies action or being. It takes modifiers like a verb, but qualifies a noun or pronoun, like an adjective. The participle of a transitive verb takes an object. A participle that denotes unfinished action is a present or imperfect participle ; as, hearing, writing. A participle that denotes finished action is a past or perfect participle; as, heard, written. EXERCISE 96 Select the participles in the following sentences, state the kind, and tell what each modifies : — ■ 1. I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft. — Campbell. 2. ToiHng, — rejoicing, — sorrowing, Onward through life he goes. — Longfellow. 3. The passengers, warned by the helmsman, retreated into the cabin. — LossiNG. 4. While I lay musing on my pillow, I heard the sound of little feet pattering outside of the door. — Irving. Il6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the withered leaves lie dead. — Bryant. 6. Looking out of the window, I saw a crow perched upon the edge of the nest. — burroughs. 7. Yonder sat a tailor cross-legged, making a waistcoat; near him, stretched on his face at full length, sprawled a basket- maker with his half-woven basket and bundles of rushes beside him ; and here, close against the main entrance, lay a blind man and his dog ; the master asleep, the dog keeping watch. — Amelia B. Edwards. 8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. — Bryant. EXERCISE 97 (i) Copy from your Reader six sentences containing present participles. Underline the participles. (2) Copy from your Reader six sentences containing perfect participles. FORMS OF THE VERB IN -mgr The verb form ending in -ing has four uses : — • (i) As a present participle ; thus, — He hears his daughter's voice, singing in the village choir. — Longfellow. (2) As an infinitive ; thus, — • They spent the evening in singing carols. (3) As a noun ; thus, — The time of the singing of birds has come. — Bible. (4) As an adjective ; thus, — A singing bird on every bough. — Howitt. THE PARTICIPLE II7 It will be observed from the foregoing examples, that the present participle and the infinitive in -ing both have some of the constructions of the verb, but that the participle is an adjective in its use, while the infinitive is a noun. The verbal noun is similar to the infinitive, but it is more de- cidedly a noun, while the infinitive is more decidedly a verb. Thus the verbal noun may have an article and be joined to a following noun by a preposition, just as an ordinary noun may be, but it cannot take an object as an infinitive can. EXERCISE 98 Distinguish between the different forms of the verb in -ing in the following sentences, and tell how each is used: — 1. The darting swallows soar and sing. 2. After standing a long time at the end of the wharf, gazing sea- ward, the strangers began to stray into the town. 3. Coming back we met two or three more regiments. 4. I had now given up all expectation of finding the road. 5. One could wander for miles through this forest without meeting a person, or hearing a sound, other than the occasional chatter of a squirrel, the song of a bird, or the sighing of the wind through the branches overhead. 6. Hark ! from the murmuring clods I hear Glad voices of the coming year. — Bryant. 7. There's a merry brown thrush sitting up in a tree. — Lucy Larcom. 8. But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, And the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. —Campbell. Il8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 99 Write three sentence s^ each containing a form of the verb in •ing used (i) as a participial infinitive ; (2) as a verbal noun; (S) <^s a present participle ; (4) as a participial adjective. CHAPTER XLIX TENSE Tell what time each verb expresses in the following sen- tences, and mention the different forms of the verb : — * I. I see the light. 2. I saw the light. 3. I shall see the light. The form of the verb that expresses the time of the action is called iense. Since there are three divisions of time — present, past, and future, there are three leading tenses — present, past, and future. A verb that denotes present time is in the present tense; as, I hear. A verb that denotes past time is in the past tense; as, I heard. A verb that denotes future time is in the future tense ; as, I shall hear. ' Besides these three leading tenses, there are three perfect tenses, which denote action as finished or completed. TENSE 119 A verb that denotes an action as completed at the present time is in the present perfect tense ; as, — I have heard the speaker. He has finished the work. A verb that denotes an action as having been completed before some past time is in the past perfect or pluperfect tense ; as, — He had heard the report. A verb that denotes an action which is to be completed before some future time is in the future perfect tense; as, — I shall have heard the lecture. He will have heard the lecture. FORMATION OF TENSES Tell which tenses are indicated by the form of the verb itself, and which are made by the aid of other verbs : — TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE Present. I write Present Perfect. I have written Past. I wrote Past Perfect. I had written Future. I shall write Future Perfect. I shall have ivritten Only two tenses, the present and the past, are indicated by the form of the verb itself. The other tenses are expressed by the aid of other verbs, called auxiliary verbs. The future tense is made up of the verb shall or will and the simple infinitive of the verb expressing the action. 120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Shall is used in the first person, and will in the second and third persons, to announce future action. (See Chapter LIII.) The present perfect tense is made up of the present of the auxiliary verb have and the perfect participle of the principal verb. The past perfect tense is made up of the past of the auxil- iary verb have and the perfect participle of the principal verb. The future perfect tense is made up of the auxiliary shall or will and the perfect infinitive of the verb expressing the action. EXERCISE 100 Point out the verbs in the following sentenceSy and name the tense of each : — 1. We started late in the afternoon of the first day. 2. There is a land of pure delight. 3. I had now come in sight of the house. 4. A ship- of- war arrived unexpectedly in the bay. 5. The walls of this most curious and interesting fortress have probably lost much of their original height. 6. Over the sea our galleys went. 7. The moon had risen, but the breeze had dropped. 8. A cuckoo's nest is a very simple affair, but it will bear close study. — M. Thompson, 9. Short space he stood, — then waved his hand : Down sunk the disappearing band. — Scott. 10. It is a strange thing how little, in general, people know about the sky. — Ruskin. PERSON AND NUMBER 121 11. Other soldiers heard the noise, and ran hastily from the barracks to assist their comrades. — Hawthorne. 12. My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky ; So was it when my life began, So is it now I am a man. — Wordsworth. EXERCISE 101 Write six tense forms for each of the following verbs^ to be used with the stcbject I: — ■ find break come drive forget give know see draw sell CHAPTER L PERSON AND NUMBER Tell how many forms of the verb hear are used with the different subjects in the following, and give the end- ings of the special forms : — Singular Plural First Person. I hear We hear Second Person. Thou hearest You hear Third Person, He hears They hear The different forms that a verb takes to correspond to the person and the number of its subject are called person and number forms. The second person singular has the ending est or st in 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR both the present and the past tenses of the indicative mode; as, — Present Thou plantesf; thou sees*. Past Thou planteds*; thou saws*. The third person singular has, in the present indicative, the ending s or es and the old forms eth or th; as, — She sleeps or she sleepe^Tit. He does or he ^oth or he doeife. The forms with thou and the forms in th or eth are now seldom used, except in prayer and in poetry. With the exception of the verb be, the first person sin- gular and the plural forms for all the persons have no endings to mark person or number. The verb be has different forms for the singular and the plural in the present and past tenses of the indicative mode; as, — Singular Plural I am We, you, or they are I was We, you, or they were EXERCISE 102 Write the forms of the following verbs required for the subjects J, thou, he, and we^ in the indicative present : — draw hear move speak sing see stand choose lift ' come find forget know take stand FORMS OF VERBS 123 CHAPTER LI FORMS OF VERBS Tell how the past tenses of the following verbs are formed : — Present Past Perf. Part. Present Past Perf. Part. plant planted planted fall fell- fallen look looked looked throw threw thrown live lived lived give gave given A verb that forms its past tense by adding ed or d to the present is a regular verb; as, walk, walked; move, moved. A verb that does not form its past tense by adding ed or d to the present is an irregular verb; as, drive, drove; give^ gave. Some verbs have both regular and irregular forms ; as, build, builded ox btiilt ; kneel, kneeled ox knelt. Verbs that have more than one form for the past tense or perfect participle are said to be redundant. The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle are called the principal parts of a verb, since all the other parts can be found when these three parts are known. A verb that lacks any of the principal parts is called defective; as, — Present Past Perfect Participle can could may might shall should will would 124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS Present Past Perf, Part. Present Past Perf. Part. abide abode abode burn r burned ( burnt burned arise arose arisen burnt ( awoke ( awaked awoke • burst burst burst awake awaked buy bought bought bear lu„_. rborn ( borne cast cast cast r , • r , -, ^ uurc [to bring forthj ) catch caught caught bear [to carry] ■ bore borne chide chid chidden ( beaten (beat choose chose chosen beat beat cleave r clove (cleft cloven, adj. begin began begun [to split] cleft behold beheld beheld cling clung clung bend bent bent clothe 'clothed ".clad clothed f bereaved. v^lLflliC clad bereave bereft (bereft come came come cost cost cost beseech besought besought rbade (bid bidden creep crept crept bid bid cut cut cut deal dealt dealt bind bound bound bite bit ( bitten (bit dig do dug did dug done draw drew drawn blow blew blown r dreamed dreamed break broke broken dream 1 dreamt dreamt breed bred bred ( drunken, adj. ( drunk, drank bring brought brought drink drank build built built drive drove driven FORMS OF VERBS 125 Present dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbear forget forsake freeze get gild gird give go grind grow hang have hear heave Past dwelt ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbore forgot forsook froze got gilded f girded I girt gave went ground grew I hung I hanged had heard ihove heaved Perf. Part. dwelt eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forborne forgotten forsaken frozen {gotten got r gilded (gilt, adj. girded girt given gone ground grown hung hanged had heard hove heaved Present Past hide hid hit hit hold held hurt hurt keep kept kneel r kneeled (knelt knit knitted knit know knew lay laid lead led lean 1 leaned I leant . leap leaped leapt learn learned . learnt leave left lend lent let let he [to recline] ■lay light lighted lit lose lost make made mean meant meet met Perf. Part. hidden hit held hurt kept kneeled knelt knitted knit known laid led leaned leant leaped leapt learned learnt left lent let lain lighted Ht lost made meant met 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Present Past Perf. Part. Present Past , Perf. Part. pass passed J passed (past shred shred shred shrink shrank shrunk pay paid paid shut shut shut pen penned pent penned sing sang sung pent ■ sunken, adj. .sunk put put put sink sank quit 1 quitted Iquit quitted sit sat sat quit slay slew slain read read read sleep slept slept rend ride rent rode rent ridden slide slid slidden .slid ring rang rung sling slung slung rise rose risen slink slunk slunk run ran run slit sUt slit say said said r smelled 1 smelt smelled see saw seen smell smelt seek sought sought 1 sodden, adj. 1 seethed smite smote smitten seethe seethed sow sowed Jsown I sowed sell sold sold send sent sent speak spoke spoken set set set speed sped sped shake shook shaken spell ' spelled spelt spelled shed shed shed spelt shine shone shone spend spent spent shoe shod shod spill spilt spilt shoot shot shot spin spun spun show showed shown . showed spread spread spread spring sprang sprung AUXILIARY VERBS 127 Present Past Perf, Part. Present Past Perf. Part. stand stood stood thrive 1 throve thriven steal stole stolen 1 thrived thrived sting stung stung throw threw thrown strew strewed strewn . strewed thrust thrust thrust f trodden stride strode stridden tread trod (trod strike struck 1 stricken (struck • wake Jwoke 1 waked woke waked string strung strung wear wore worn strive strove striven weave wove woven swear swore sworn weep wept wept sweat sweat sweat 1 wetted wetted sweep swept swept wet (wet wet swim swam swum win won won swing take swung took swung taken wind wound wound teach taught taught work worked r wrought, \ adj. tear tore torn ( worked tell told told wring wrung wrung think thought thought write wrote written CHAPTER LII AUXILIARY VERBS Compare the italicized verbs in the follov^^ing sentences, and tell which express their own proper meanings and which help other verbs to express their meanings : — I. Trees have roots. 2. The leaves have fallen. 3. It was an ancient mariner. 4. How cheerfully the week was spent ! 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Verbs that are used to help or complete the conjugation of other verbs, are said to be used as auxiliaries, and are then called auxiliary verbs ; as, — The rain had ceased. EXERCISE 103 Point out the verbs in the followifig sentences, and show which are tcsed as auxiliary verb»: — 1. The days are cold, the nights are long. 2. The sower's task is done. 3. Some of the men had no muskets, and almost all were without bayonets. 4. The boats had difficulty in landing. 5. I have had playmates : I have had companions. 6. By fairy hands their knell is rung. 7. There was a sound of revelry by night. 8. The cabin was surrounded by a dense forest. 9. They know not what they do. 10. He did receive the message. 11. His face did shine as the sun. 12. I shall not look upon his like again. 13. If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee? 14. He will not do the work. 15. Who trusts the strength will with the burden g-row. 16. . The mountain and the squirrel Had a quarrel. The verbs have, do, shall, will, and be are used as auxiliary- verbs v^ith the participles or infinitives of other verbs to form tense and voice. They have the following forms : — AUXILIARY VERBS 129 PRESENT Have I. — THE VERB Have PRINCIPAL PARTS PAST PERFECT PARTICIPLE had had INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural I have We have Thou ^ hast You have He has They have PAST TENSE Singular Plural I had We had Thou hadst You had He had They had SUBJUNCTIVE MODE present tense Singular Plural (If) I have (If) we have (If) thou have (If) you have (If) he have (If) they have PAST TENSE Singular Plural (If) I had (If) we had (If) thou had (If) you had (If) he had (If) they had IMPERATIVE MODE Singular Plural Have (thou) Have (ye or you) INFINITIVES (To) have Having PARTICIPLES Present Perfect Having had 1 In ordinary speech, the pronoun you has taken the place of the singular form thou ; but you is plural, and takes a plural verb. I30 f ENGLISH GRAMMAR Have as an Auxiliary Verb The verb have is used as auxiliary with the perfect parti- ciple of a verb, to form the perfect tenses, each part of have forming the corresponding perfect; as, — Present Perfect. I have seen Past Perfect. I had seen Future Perfect. I shall have seen Perfect Infinitives. (To) have seen ; having seen Perfect Participle. Having seen Have as an Independent Verb When have expresses possession it is an independent verb ; as, — Birds of the air have nests. EXERCISE 104 Tell whether the verb have in the following sentences is an indepefident verb or an atixiliary verb, giving a reason in each case : — 1. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. — Shakespeare, 2. " Have then thy wish ! " He whistled shrill, And he was answered from the hill. — Scott. 3. Yes : he had lived to shame me from my sneen — Taylor. 4. The sun had scarcely risen when the messenger arrived. 5. Greatly begin ! though you have time But for a line, be that subH me. — Lowell. 6. The things which I have seen, I now can see no more. 7. The fondness for rural life among the higher classes of the Eng- lish, has had a great and salutary effect upon the national character. — Irving. AUXILIARY VERBS 131 CHAPTER LIII AUXILIARY WE.'R'BS.— Continued 11. — Shall present tense past tense Singular Plural Singular Plural I shall We shall I should We should Thou shalt You shall Thou shouldst You should He shall They shall He should They should III— Will PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE Singular Plural Singular Plural I will We will I would We would Thou wilt You will Thou wouldst You would He will They will He would They would Sha// and wi/f are used with the infinitive of a verb, to form the future tense. Sha// is an auxiliary of the future in the first person, and wi// in the second and third persons ; as, — I ska// pass the house this afternoon. You wi// be to(5 late. He wi// bring the papers. To make a promise or to express the determination of the speaker, wi// is used in the first person and s/ta// in the second and third persons; as, — I wi// do the errand. I wi// have my bond. You s/ia// not escape. He s/ia// receive the reward. 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Shall is used in asking questions in the first person ; as, — Shall I ring the bell ? (The action is dependent on the will of the person addressed.) Either shall or will is used, according to the answer expected, in asking questions in the second and third persons ; as, — Shall you sign the paper? (I shall sign the paper.) Will you give me the address? (I will gwQ you the address.) Should and would, in corresponding cases, are used in the same manner as shall and will ; thus, — I shall return the book, or I should return the book. You will find the tree, or you would find the tree. EXERCISE 105 Explain each use of shall and of will in the following sentences: — 1. To-day the vessel shall be launched. — Longfellow. 2. Take care of your spirit and conduct, and your reputation will take care of itself. — Hamilton. 3. You will compel me then to read the will. — Shakespeare. 4. Shall I descend? And will you give me leave? — Shakespeare, 5. Hear me, for I will speak. — Shakespeare. 6. Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile?— Shakespeare. 7. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. But we shall not fail. The cause will raise up armies ; the cause will create navies.— Webster. 8. All that breathe will share thy destiny. — Bryant. 9. Choose ye this day whom ye will serve. AUXILIARY VERBS 133 EXERCISE 106 (i) Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with a form of shall or will, (2) State a reason for the use of each word inserted : — 1. We go if it does not rain. 2. you have hot or cold tea? 3. The work probably be finished to-night. 4. Whither thou goest, I go; and where thou lodgest, I lodge. 5. I lift up mine eyes unto the hills. 6. I find you at home? 7. He said he -^ — not accept the explanation. 8. I be pleased to hear from you. CHAPTER LIV AUXILIARY VERBS. — Continued IV.— CONJUGATION OF THE VERB Be PRINCIPAL PARTS Present Past Perfect Participle Be, am was been ^ INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural I am We are Thou art You are He is They are 1 The forms of the verb be are derived from three different verbs, now repre« sented by the forms be, am^ and was. 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAST TENSE I was We were Thou wast (wert) You were He was They were FUTURE TENSE I shall be We shall be Thou wilt be You will be He will be They will be PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Singular Plural I have been We have been Thou hast been You have been He has been They have been PAST PERFECT TENSE I had been We had been Thou hadst been You had been He had been They had been FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I shall have been We shall have been Thou wilt have been You will have been He will have been They will have been SUBJUNCTIVE MODE present tense Singular Plural (If) I be (If) we be (If) thou be (If) you be (If) he be (If) they be AUXILIARY VERBS 135 (If) I were (If) thou wert (If) he were Singular Be (thou) PAST TENSE (If) we were (If) you were (If) they were IMPERATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Plural Be (ye or you) INFINITIVES Present (To) be Being Perfect (To) have been Having been Present Being PARTICIPLES Perfect Compound Perfect been having been He as an Auxiliary Verb The different forms of the verb be are used as auxiliary — (i) With the perfect participle of a transitive verb to make the passive voice ; as, — I am seen I have been seen I was seen I had been seen I shall be seen ' I shall have been seen (2) With the present participle of a verb, to make the pro- gressive form. The progressive form represents an action as continuing or progressing ; as, — I am reading I have been reading I was reading I had been reading I shall be reading I shall have been reading 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Be as an Independent Verb When not thus used with the participle of another verb, be is an independent verb. It may then — (i) Express existence; as, God is. (2) Be used as a copula, connecting its subject to a word or words describing the subject; as, Life is real. EXERCISE 107 Explain the use of the verb he in each of the following examples : — 1. Life is real! Life is earnest ! — Longfellow. 2. I have been a stranger in a strange land. 3. The harp, his sole remaining joy, Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott. 4. Yarmouth was a walled town, and a good part of the ancient enclosure has been preserved. 5. If money had been needed before, it was still more needed now. 6. This was accomplished in less than an hour's time. 7. Trade with the colonies was forbidden. 8. Old Kaspar's work was done, And he before his cottage door Was sitting in the sun. — Southey. 9. While we were talking, a third messenger arrived. 10. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 12. O sweet and strange it seems to me, that ere this day is done, The voice, that now is speaking, may be beyond the sun. — Tennyson. 12. The city was destroyed by an earthquake. AUXILIARY VERBS 137 13. The great iron gateway that opened into the courtyard was locked. — Irving. 14. Whatever is, is right. — Pope. 15. The old stage-coach is at the door. 16. I stood on the bridge at midnight, As the clocks were striking the hour. EXERCISE 108 Copy from the sentences in this lesson (i) all verbs that have the passive form ; (2) all verbs that have the progressive form ; and explain the formation and the use of each. EXERCISE 109 (i) Write five sentences , each containing the verb he used as an independent verb. (2) Write five sentences^ each containing a verb in the passive voice. (3) Write five sentences^ each containing a verb in the pro- gressive form. v.— THE VERB Do Do as an Auxiliary Verb The present and past tenses of the verb do are used as auxiliaries with the simple infinitive — (i) In emphatic assertions; as, — I do wish you would listen. I did listen, (2) In interrogative sentences; as, — Do you hear the bell ? Did you see the sail ? (3) In negative sentences; as, — I do not hear the bell. I did not see a sail. 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR I>o as an Independent Verb When do is used with the meaning io perform, it is an independent verb; as, Do your duty. He did the work quickly. EXERCISE 110 Tell whether the verb do is used as an independent or as an auxiliary verb in the following examples^ and explain the use of the auxiliaries : — 1. The evil that men do Hves after them. — Shakespeare. 2. You all did mark how he did shake.— Shakespeare. 3. She gave me of the tree, and I did eat. 4. You all do know this mantle. — Shakespeare. 5. I do not like your faults. 6. Accuse not nature ; she hath done her part : Do thou but thine. — Milton. 7. Do not dissipate your energies on trifles. —Hamilton. 8. Most of the facts of nature, especially in the life of birds and animals, are well screened. We do not see the play, because we do not look intently enough. —John Burroughs. 9. Did ye not hear it? — Byron. 10. A merry heart doeth good like a medicine. CHAPTER LV AUXILIARY VERBS — Continuea The following verbs are used with the simple infinitive to express power, permission, possibility, necessity, etc. They are sometimes called auxiliaries of mode. AUXILIARY VERBS 1^9 I. — Can present tense past tense Singular Plural Singular - Plural I can We can I could We could Thou canst You can Thou couldst You could He can They can He could They could Can is used to express power or ability, and is in the indicative mode ; as, — She can walk. He {:{?u/d speak readily in three or four languages. II. — May present tense past tense Singular Plural Singular Plural I may We may I might We might Thou mayest You may Thou mightest You might He may They may He might They might Majy expresses permission or possibility ; as, — You may \_are permitted to] enter the room. He may [it is possible that he will] change his mind. May is also used to express purpose, or to express a wish ; as, — Open the gate that they may enter. May you be happy. Could and might are sometimes used as the simple past of can and may^ and sometimes in a conditional sense ; as, — I could hear the music. The lights of the village might be seen from the bay. He might go if he could spare the time. T40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR III. — Must Must has no change of form. It expresses necessity ; as — ■ He must have rest. IV. — Shotild and Would^ Should is no longer used as a simple past, but has the sense of an indefinite present or of a contingent condition ; as, — Ambition sJiould be made of sterner stuff. If I should begin the work, I could not finish it. ^The phrases made up of the verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, with an infinitive, are classed together by some grammarians, and called the potential mode. A verb in the so-called potential mode is conjugated as folk'ws : — PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural I may go We may go Thou mayst go You may go He may go They may go PAST TENSE I might go We might go Thou mightst go You might go He might go They might go PRIGSENT PERFECT TENSE I may have gone We may have gone Thou mayst have gone You may have gone He may have gone They may have gone - PAST PERFECT TENSE I might have gone We might have gone Thou mightst have gone You might have gone He might have gone They might have gone AUXILIARY VERBS I4I Would is sometimes a simple past, sometimes a contingent present ; as, — He would not speak when he had the opportunity. He would not speak if he had the opportunity. V. — Ought Ought is the old past tense of the verb owe^ and expresses duty or obligation. It is used with the present infinitive to indicate present time, and with the perfect infinitive to indi- cate past time ; as, — Present. He ought to go. Past. He ought to have gone. EXERCISE 111 Tell how th6 verbs may, can, must, should, and would are used in the following sentences : — 1. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives subUme. — Longfellow. 2. For men may come and men may go, But I go on forever. — Tennyson. 3. He that fights and runs away, May live to fight another day. 4. It may be the gulfs will wash us down ; It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles. 5. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought. 6. It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do, but what humanity, reason, and justice tell me I ought to do. — burke. 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 7. They had been friends in youth, But whispering tongues can poison truth. 8. Too late ! too late ! ye cannot enter now. — Tennyson. 9. How he could trot ! how he could run ! and then such leaps as he could take — there was not a hedge in the whole country that he could not clear. — Irving. 10. She must weep or she will die. -Tennyson. 1 1 . He saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village. — Irving. 12. If a storm should come and awake the deep, What matter ! I shall ride and sleep, — Procter. EXERCISE 112 Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the verbs may, can, must, mighty could, should, and ivould, CHAPTER LVI CONJUGATION OF THE VERB Drive PRINCIPAL PARTS Present Past Perfect Participle Drive drove driven I. — ACTIVE VOICE INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural I drive We drive Thou drivest You drive He drives They drive CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE 143 PAST TENSE I drove We drove Thou drovest You drove He drove They drove FUTURE TENSE I shall drive We shall drive Thou wilt drive You will drive He will drive They will drive PRESENT PERFECT TENSE I have driven We have driven Thou hast driven You have driven He has driven They have driven PAST PERFECT TENSE Singular Plural I had driven We had driven Thou hadst driven You had driven He had driven They had driven FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I shall have driven We shall have driven Thou wilt have driven You will have driven He will have driven They will have driven SUBJUNCTIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural (If) I drive (If) we drive (If) thou drive (If) you drive (If) he drive (If) they drive 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAST TENSE (If) I drove (If) we drove (If) thou drove (If) you drove (If) he drove (If) they drove IMPERATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Singular Plural Drive (thou) Drive (ye or you) INFINITIVES Present (To) drive Driving Perfect (To) have driven Having driven PARTICIPLES PRESENT PERFECT COMPOUND PERFECT Driving having driven II. — PASSIVE FORMS The passive forms of a transitive verb are made by join- ing its perfect participle to the different forms of the verb be; thus, — INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE I am driven I have been driven PAST TENSE PAST PERFECT TENSE I was driven I had been driven FUTURE TENSE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I shall be driven I shall have been driven CONJUGATION OF THE VERB DRIVE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 145 PRESENT TENSE (If) I be driven PAST TENSE (If) I were driven IMPERATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Be (thou) driven INFINITIVES Present (To) be driven Perfect (To) have been driven Being driven Having been driven PRESENT Being driven PARTICIPLES PERFECT driven COMPOUND PERFECT having been driven III — PROGRESSIVE FORMS The progressive forms of a verb are made by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb be; thus, — INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE I have been driving PRESENT TENSE I am driving PAST TENSE I was driving FUTURE TENSE I shall be driving PAST PERFECT TENSE I had been driving FUTURE PERFECT TENSE I shall have been driving 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR SUBJUNCTIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE (If) I be driving PAST TENSE (If) I were driving IMPERATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE Be (thou driving) INFINITIVES Present (To) be driving Perfect (To) have been driving Having been driving PRESENT PARTICIPLES PERFECT EXERCISE 113 COMPOUND PERFECT having been driving Write the active forms of the verb see that are used with the subject I in the different modes and tenses. EXERCISE 114 Write the passive forms of the verb see that are used with the subject thou in the different modes and tenses. EXERCISE 115 Write the progressive forms of the verb write that are used with the subject lie in the different modes and tenses. PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 147 CHAPTER LVII DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, AND PARTICIPLES I. VERBS To parse a verb, tell — 1. Its conjugation — regular or irregular, giving its princi- pal parts. 2. Its class — transitive or intransitive. 3. Its voice -^ active or passive (if transitive). 4. Its mode — indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. 5. Its tense. 6. Its person and number. 7. Its subject. Example i. — A flat stone marks the spot where the bard is buried. Marks is a regular verb — mark, marked, marked. It is transi- tive, active voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject stone. Is buried is the passive form of the regular verb bury^ — bury, buried, buried. It is transitive, passive voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its sub- ject bard. Example 2. — The dew was falling fast. Was falling is the progressive form of the irregular verb fall — fall, fell, fallen. It is intransitive, indicative mode, past tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject dew 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Example 3. — I may do that I shall be sorry for. Shall bCy made up of the auxihary shall and the simple infini- tive of the verb be, is the future tense of the verb be. It is ir- regular, — be, was, been, — intransitive, indicative mode, used with the subject /. Example 4. — Be silent, that you may hear. Be is an irregular verb — be, was, been — intransitive, imperative mode, present tense, used with the subject you understood. EXERCISE 116 Parse the verbs in the following sentences : — 1. Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all. 2. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast. — Cowper. 3. The ship is sinking beneath the tide. — Southey. 4. I have been young, and now am old, yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken. — Bible. 5. There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; Omitted, all the voyage of their Hfe Is bound in shallows and in miseries. — Shakespeare. 6. The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh. 7. The Americans were sheltered by an intervening wood. 8. Some murmur when their sky is clear And wholly bright to view. If one small speck of dark appear In their great heaven of blue. —Trench. 9. I dreamed to-night that I did feast with Caesar. 10. We had had no water since our daylight breakfast ; oui lunch on the mountain had been moistened only by the fog. — C. D. Warner. PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 149 Auxiliaries of Mode In phrases made up of can {could) y may {might) ^ mtist, should^ or would^ with the simple infinitive, parse the aux- iliary verb and the infinitive separately.^ Example i. — How he could run! Could is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, past tense, used with the subject he. Run is the present infinitive of the verb run. It is intransitive, object of the verb could. Example 2. — If you were here, I could assist you. Could is a defective verb, transitive, subjunctive mode, past tense, used with the subject /. Assist is the present infinitive of the verb assist . It is transitive, active voice, object of the verb could. Example 3. — He should have gone. Should is a defective verb, transitive, indicative mode, past tense, used with the subject he. Have gone is the perfect infini- tive of the verb go. It is intransitive, object of the verb should. EXERCISE 117 Parse the italicized verbs in the following sentences: — • 1. Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it. 2. One may acquire the habit of looking upon the sunny side of things, and he may also acquire the habit of looking upon the gloomy side. 1 These compound lorms are sometimes parsed as verb-phrases in the in' dicative or subjunctive mode, according to their use in the sentence. ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. Should he go, he could not hear the lecture. 4. We should be as careful of our words as of our actions. 5. He could speak readily in three or four languages. 6. Give me this water that I may not thirst. 7. If you would achieve a high success, you must think for yourself 8. If I were you, I should atteinpt the work. 9. The guards told us that we could proceed no farther. II. INFINITIVES To parse an infinitive, tell — 1. From what verb it is derived. 2. Its form — present or perfect, active or passive. 3. Its syntax — use in the sentence. Example i.^ — The greatest curiosity of the study remains to be mentioned. To be mentioned is a simple infinitive from the transitive verb mention. It is present, passive, and depends upon the verb remains. Example 2. — Form the habit of listening attentively. Listening is an infinitive from the verb listen. It is present active, and is used as the object of the preposition of. EXERCISE 118 Parse the infinitives in the following sentettces : — 1. To reheve the wretched was his pride. 2. Remember that when the inheritance devolves upon you, you are not only to enjoy, but to improve. PARSING VERBS, INFINITIVES, PARTICIPLES 151 3. He had the happy knack of starting interesting subjects and saying all sorts of interesting things by the way. 4. Do with all your might whatever you have to do, without thinking of the future. 5. To see is to beheve. 6. Seeing is believing. 7. In keeping Thy commandments there is great reward. 8. But talking is not always to converse. III. PARTICIPLES To parse a participle, tell — 1. From what verb it is derived. 2. Its form — present or perfect, active or passive. 3. Its syntax — use in the sejitence. Example i. — Looking upward, he saw the moon. Looking is a present participle, active, from the verb look. It modifies the pronoun he. Example 2. — The ships, anchored in the harbor, were loaded with tea. Anchored is a perfect participle, passive, from the verb anchor. It modifies the noun ships. EXERCISE 119 Parse the verbs, the infinitives, and the participles in the folloiving sentejtces : — I. I rose softly, opened the door suddenly, and beheld one of the most beautiful little fairy groups that a painter could imagine. — Irving. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Let us enter and pass up the staircase. — Hawthorne. 3. In this way they expected to ruin all the merchants, and starve the poor people, by depriving them of employ- ment. —Hawthorne. 4. Let me move slowly through the street. — Bryant. 5. The country was to be defended, and to be saved, before it could be enjoyed.— Webster. 6. We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man without gaining something by him. — Carlyle. 7. In an attitude imploring, Hands upon his bosom crossed. Wondering, worshipping, adoring. Knelt the Monk in rapture lost. — Longfellow. 8. The rattle of drums, beaten out of all manner of time, was heard above every other sound. — Hawthorne. 9. Whatever may be our fate, be assured that this declaration will stand. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, and it will richly compensate for both. 10. You may break, you may shatter the vase, if you will, But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. 11. For men must work, and women must weep. Though storms be sudden, and waters deep, 12. The burden laid upon me Seemed greater than I could bear. 13. Modem majesty consists in work. What a man can do is his greatest ornament, and he always consults his dignity by doing it— Carlyle. CORRECT USE OF VERBS 153 14. The pine, placed nearly always among scenes disordered and desolate, brings into them all possible elements of order and precision. Lowland trees may lean to this side and that, though it is but a meadow breeze that bends them, or a bank of cow- slips from which their trunks lean aslope. But let storm and avalanche do their worst, and let the pine find only a ledge of vertical precipice to cUng to, it will nevertheless grow straight. — Ruskin. CHAPTER LVIII CORRECT USE OF VERBS I. Lay, Lie 'RESENT Past Pres. Participle Perf. Participle Lay laid laying laid Lie lay lying lain Lay is a transitive verb. It means to place or put some- thing in position. Lie is an intransitive verb, meaning to rest. EXERCISE 120 Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the proper form of lay or lie : — 1. the music on the piano. 2. The rain has the dust. 3. He down to rest. 4. He has there an hour. 5. She the letter on the desk. 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 6. The dog is by the fire. 7. The workmen are a new walk. 8. the roots with care. 9. The gentle race of flowers Are in their lowly beds, with the fair and good of ours. 10. In the cold moist earth we her, when the forests cast the leaf. II. Sit, Set Present Past Pres. Participle Perf. Participle Sit sat sitting sat Set set setting set Sit is an intransitive verb. It means to take a seat; to remain in a seated or settled position ; to perch or brood, as a bird. Set is transitive when it means to place something in position ; to fix or establish ; it is intransitive when it means to sink or settle downward. EXERCISE 121 Re-write the following sentences y using the proper verb or form from each parenthesis. Give a reason for youf choice : — 1. I (set, sat) in this seat last night. 2. The hen is (sitting, setting) on twelve eggs. 3. He had (sat, set) under that tree for an hour. 4. The gardener is (sitting, setting) out strawberry plants. 5. Will you Tset, sit) by me? CORRECT USE OF VERBS 155 6. (Sit, set) the cup on the shelf. 7. The surgeon (set, sat) the boy's arm. 8. The sun is (setting, sitting) already. 9. Five little birds were (sitting, setting) in a row. 10. Who (sat, set) the table? 11. He (sat, set) in the front seat. 12. They were (setting, sitting) by the pond, watching the goldfish. III. Mapf Can May IS used to indicate permission qt possibility ; can, to denote power or ability. EXERCISE 122 Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the proper form of inay or can : — 1. Mabel not sing. 2. He speak French fluently. 3. We not hear the speaker. 4. Who understand his errors? 5. You look at my drawings. 6. The boy said that he sail a boat. 7. you hear the watch tick? 8. ■ you tell the names of our most common birds? 9. I go home ? TO. I told him that he go. IV. Think, Guess ^ Eocpect To think is to judge, to exercise the mind. To guess is to form an opinion at random. To expect is to look for- ward to ; this verb always refers to the future. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 123 Copy the following sentences^ filling the blanks with some form of think, guess, or eocpect: — 1. I will about the matter. 2. No one was able to the riddle. 3. Do you to meet your friend. 4. I he did not go. 5. I your plan is a wise one. 6. Do you the attendance will be large? 7. what I have in this box. 8. England every man to do his duty. V. Stop, Stay Stop^ to cease from motion ; to come to an end. Stay, to remain ; to tarry. EXERCISE 124 Copy the following senteiues, fiHi'^^g the blanks with the proper form of stop or stay. Give in each case a reason for your choice : — 1. Did you- at Chicago on your way home? 2. Where did you while you were in the city? 3. The driver is the car. 4. Mr. Hunt is at the Mountain House. 5. Does this boat at the first landing? 6. Our friends are at the seashore, 7. The plumber could not the leak. 8. You promised to at home this evening. 9. We shall here overnight. ID. Let us here, and wait for a car. REVIEW OF VERBS 157 VI. Learn, Teach LearUj to acquire knowledge; to receive instruction. Teacky to give instruction to. EXERCISE 125 Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with the proper form of learn or teach: — 1. He the child to sing. 2. Clara her lesson quickly. 3. The pupils are a new song. 4. Where did this boy to speak French? 5. Who you to skate? 6. We are to sketch from nature. 7. Take my yoke upon, you, and of me. 8. There, in his noisy mansion skilled to rule, The village master his little school. 9. The teacher us a new song. 10. The master John, and John his lesson quickly. CHAPTER LIX REVIEW OF VERBS EXERCISE 126 Define a verb. What is a transitive verb .? What is an intransitive verb t Mention a word that may be a transitive verb in one sentence, and an intransitive verb in another. 158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR What inflections have verbs ? What is meant by voice ? How many voices are there ? What does each denote ? How is the passive voice formed ? What is meant by mode ? How many modes are there ? Define, and give examples of each. What is tense ? Name the three leading tenses. Which tenses are indicated by inflection, and which by the aid of other verbs 1 What person-forms has the verb .? What number-forms } How do the infinitive and the participle differ from the verb f How do they differ from each other } Which part of speech is the infinitive most like ? The participle ? Mention four different verbal forms ending in -ing, and state the characteristics of each. What are the principal parts of a verb ? What is a regular verb } An irregular verb } Name a verb that has both regular and irregular forms. Name a verb that has the same form for the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle. What is meant by conjugating a verb ? When is a verb said to be used as an auxiliary.^ Men- tion three verbs that may be used as either independent or auxiHary verbs, and give examples of each use. What auxiliary is used in forming the passive voice } Which of the auxiliaries are tense auxiliaries } How are they used ? CLASSES OF ADVERBS 159 CHAPTER LX CLASSES OF ADVERBS I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what each expresses : — 1. Now came still evening on. 2. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 3. Days brightly came and calmly went. 4. It is a very difficult task. (i) Adverbs that show when or how often are adverbs of time; as, now, tJien, to-day, yesterday, early, presently, soon, always, often, ottce, twice, daily, again. (2) Adverbs that show where are adverbs of place; as, here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, somewhere, yonder, above, below, np, down, away, off, far. The word thei^e is not always an adverb of place. Some* times it is used merely to introduce a sentence, in order that the verb may be placed before its subject. When it is used to introduce a sentence in this manner, it is called an expletive ; as, — There [expletive] was a sound of revelry by night. There [adverb of place] groups of merry children played. (3) Adverbs that show how are adverbs of manner; as, well, ill, badly, slowly, quickly, clearly, together, so, thus. (4) Adverbs that show how much are adverbs of degree; as, very, much, little, only, almost, enough, quite, too, so, as. l6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR (5) Adverbs that express certainty or uncertainty are modai adverbs ; as, indeed^ verily^ possibly^ perhaps. The words yes and no are sometimes called adverbs, but they are really equivalent to sentences ; as. Will you go ? Yes (=1 will go). Combinations of words used as single adverbs may be called adverbial phrases; as, again and again, at last, at le7igtJi, by and by, by far, ifi and out, in vain, now and then, out and out, through and through, up and down. EXERCISE 127 Point out the adverbs and the adverbial phrases in the followifig sentences, tell to which class each belongs, and what it modifies : — 1. A thousand hearts beat happily. — Byron. 2. Down sunk the bell with a gurghng sound. — Southey. 3. Then did the httle maid reply, "Seven boys and girls are we." — Wordsworth. 4. Defect in manners is usually the defect of fine perceptions. — Emerson. 5. On right, on left, above, below, Sprung up at once the lurking foe. — Scott. 6. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship. Yet she sailed softly too. — Coleridge. 7. The world is too much with us. — Wordsworth. 8. How often, oh, how often I had wished that the ebbing tide Would bear me away on its bosom O'er the ocean wild and wide. — Longfellow. CLASSES OF ADVERBS l6l II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE Tell how each adverb is used in the following sen- tences : — 1. The guests withdrew silently. 2. The tree hes where it fell. 3. Where can rest be found? (i) An adverb that simply modifies another word is a simple adverb ; as, He walked rapidly. . (2) An adverb that not only modifies a word, but also connects the clause of which it is a part with the remainder of the sentence, is a conjunctive adverb; as. He came wJien he was called. The most common words of this class are when^ where, whencey whither, hozv, and why. These are also called adverbial conjunctions. (3) An adverb that is used to ask a question is an inter- rogative adverb ; as, Where did he stand.? EXERCISE 128 Find the conjunctive and the interrogative adverbs in the following sentences, and tell how each is used: — 1. Why are we here? 2. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 3. You take my house when you do take the prop That doth sustain my house \ you take my life When you do take the means whereby I live. — Shakespeare. l62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me. 5. Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang and stood In brighter hght, and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? — Bryant. CHAPTER LXI COMPARISON OF ADVERBS Some adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. A few are compared by inflection ; as, soon, sootier, soonest. Most adverbs form the comparative and superlative degrees by the use of more and most ; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely. The following adverbs are compared irregularly : — Positive Comparative Superlative badly, ill worse worst far farther, further farthest, furthest late later latest, last little less least much more most nigh, : near nearer nearest, next well better best EXERCISE 129 Write the comparison of the following adverbs : — last often swiftly next ill nigh more well fast distinctly HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS 163 CHAPTER LXII HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS To parse an adverb, tell — 1. The kind of adverb. 2. Its degree, if comparative or superlative. 3. Its construction — what it modifies. Example i. — He then touched briefly upon the promi- nent events of the Revolution. Then is an adverb of time, modifying the verb touched. Bf'iefly is an adverb of manner, modifying the verb touched. Example 2. — I remember, I remember The house where I v^as born. Where is a conjunctive adverb, showing place. It modifies the verb was born, and connects the clause "where I w^s born" with the word house. Example 3. — When did he go? When is an interrogative adverb of time, modifying the verb did go, EXERCISE 130 Parse the adverbs ajid the adjectives in the following sentences : — 1. He lives long that lives well. 2. Still waters run deep. 3. Welcome her, all things youthful and sweet ! l64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. Then they praised him soft and low. 5. He drank of the water so cool and clear. — Southey. 6. How fast the flitting figures come ! — Bryant. 7. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak. 8. The door in the mountain-side shut fast. 9. A wondrous portal opened wide. — browning. 10. The tumult grew louder. 11. Louder still the minstrels blew. 12. Colder and louder blew the wind, A gale from the Northeast. — Longfellow. 13. There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. — Longfellow. 14. And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide. But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride. 15. There is nothing hke a primeval wood for color on a sunny day. — C. D. Warner. 16. Why stand ye here all the day idle? — Bible. 17. Oh! what a tangled web we weave. When first we practice to deceive. — Scott. 18. O SoUtude ! where are the charms That sages have seen in thy face ? — Cowper. 19. O, why should the spirit of mortal be proud ? — Knox. 20. The rain is falling where they lie. —Bryant. ADVERBS DISTINGUISHED FROM ADJECTIVES 16$ CHAPTER LXIII ADVERBS DISTINGUISHED FROM ADJECTIVES Tell whether the italicized words in the following sen- tences are adjectives or adverbs, giving a reason in each case : — 1. She looks cold. 2. She looked coldly on the project. 3. The apple feels hard. 4. He works hard. Be careful to discriminate between an adjective used to complete the predicate and an adverb used to modify the verb. An adjective is used when the quality or condition of the subject is given, and an adverb, when the manner of the action is described ; as, — The child seems happy (adjective). He lived happily (adverb). Do not use an adjective where an adverb is required ; as, — I am 7)ery tired (not real tired). He is somewhat better (not some better). She answered promptly (not prompt^. In poetry an adjective is sometimes used for an adverb; as, — Silent rows the gondolier. Some adverbs are identical in form with adjectives; as, muchy little, far, ill, hard, loud, soft, fast. 1 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 131 Copy the following sentences^ inserting the proper word from each parenthesis. Give in each case a reaso?i for your choice : — 1. She looked (beautiful, beautifully). 2. How (charming, charmingly) she sang. 3. The sentinel stood (firm, firmly) at his post. 4. Set the tree (firm, firmly). 5. The judge looked (sharp, sharply) at the prisoner. 6. We climbed the hill (easy, easily). 7. This is an (uncommon, uncommonly) large tree. 8. The patient is (some, somewhat) better. 9. It was a. (remarkable, remarkably) clear night. 10. He was an (unusual, unusually) interesting speaker. 11. I am (real, very) sorry that you cannot join our party. 12. This milk tastes (sour, sourly). 13. The boy reads (clear, clearly) and (distinct, distinctly). 14. He is (some, somewhat) hoarse. 15. The bell sounded (clear, clearly). 16. The notes of the grackle sound (harsh, harshly). 17. How (quiet, quietly) th'e snow falls! 18. The speaker did not quote that passage (accurate, accurately) . EXERCISE 132 REVIEW OF ADVERBS What is an adverb ? How are adverbs classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. How are they classified with respect to use ? State the two offices of a conjunctive adverb. Give an example of CLASSES OF PHRASES 167 an interrogative adverb. Mention five adverbs that admit of comparison, and give the comparison of each. In what way are adjectives and adverbs alike.? How do they differ.? CHAPTER LXIV CLASSES OF PHRASES I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM Read the phrases ^ in the following examples, and tell by what each phrase is introduced : — 1. The tree on the corner is an elm. 2. They walked toward the river. 3. He expects to return soon. 4. We found the boy sailing a boat. ( 1 ) A phrase introduced by a preposition is a prepositional phrase; as, — 1. The leaves of this phint are glossy. 2. We heard the sound of distaiit footsteps. 3. The troops were marching through a valley. 4. He reads for information. (2) A phrase introduced by an infinitive is an infiniiive phrase ; as, — 1. To do good should be the aim of all. 2. He hoped to win the prize. 3. Crowds came to behold the sight. 1 See page 27. l68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR (3) A phrase introduced by a participle is a participial phrase; as, — 1. Looking upward, they beheld the cause of the trouble. 2. He advanced, followed by the Jive faithful workmen. 3. Having finished the work, he demanded his pay. EXERCISE 133 In the following sentences point out the prepositional , the infinitive, and the participial phrases , and tell by what each phrase is introduced : —^ 1. Strive to be usefully employed. 2. Having obtained the information, he ceased questioning. 3. They saw a small vessel approaching the shore. 4. At last, turning briskly away, she came toward the table. 5. We are anxious to learn the result. 6. He was unable to convince this man of his error. 7. Not one of these men offered to lend his assistance. 8. Down plunged the diver, ana soon rose dripping from the water, holding the sea-shrub in his hand. 9. To love one's country has ever been esteemed honorable. 10. And out again 1 curve and flow To join the brimming river. EXERCISE 134 Write sentences containing (i) a prepositional phrase used like an adjective ; (2) a prepositional phrase used like an adverb ; (3) a participial phrase used like an adjective ; CLASSES OF PHRASES 169 (4) an infinitive phrase used as the subject of a verb ; (5) an infinitive phrase used as the object of a verb. II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE State the office of each phrase in the following examples : — 1. The decision of the judge was just. 2. The house stands on a high hill, 3. To defer action will be unwise. 4. He refused to open the gate. (i) A phrase that performs the office of an adjective is an adjeciive phrase; as, — 1 . The doors of the church were open. 2. He beheld a stranger standing near him, 3. Listen to the song of the bird. (2) A phrase that performs the office of an adverb is an adverbial phrase ; as, — 1. They landed on an island. 2. He came to inspect the work. 3. The house stood on this corner. (2) A phrase that performs the office of a noun is a noun phrase; as, — 1. To please all is impossible. 2, We hope to hear the speaker. I70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 135 Find the adjective^ the adverbial, and the noun phrases in the following examples, and tell how each is used : — 1. In happy homes he saw the Hght Of household fires gleam warm and bright. 2. Rehgion dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart. 3. Hark ! I hear the bugles of the enemy. 4. A lamp was burning in the Httle chapel. 5. Rise with the lark. 6. It was one by the village clock. 7. The newly elected member went in state to the City Cross, accompanied by a band of music. 8. The doors of the prison closed upon him. 9. Around the walls stood several oak bookcases. 10. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most wonderful skill. 11. You must change your style of living. 12. Point thy tongue on the anvil of truth. 13. It stands on a mound which elevates it^above the other parts of the castle, and a great flight of steps leads to the interior. 14. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 15. Cease to do evil; learn to do well. 16. Here delicate snow-stars, out of the cloud, Come floating downward in airy play. EXERCISE 136 Write (i) Jive sentences, each contaiiting an adjective phrase; (2) five sentences ^ each containing an adverbial phrase ; (3) two sentences, each containing a noun phrase. PREPOSITIONS 171 CHAPTER LXV PREPOSITIONS Tell what the following prepositions connect, and what relations they express : — 1. He stood on the bridge. 2. 'Twas the night before Christmas, 3. The tree was struck by lightning. 4. He died for his country. 5. The eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill. Prepositions express such a variety of relations that they cannot be easily classified according to meaning. The most common relations expressed by prepositions are — ( 1 ) Place or direction ; as, ^ / home ; tozvards the bridge ; heloiv the falls. (2) Time ; as. After breakfast ; till noon ; since morning. (3) Agency, instrumentality, or means; as, Killed by frost; cut zvith a hatchet ; lost tJiroicgh carelessness. (4) Cause or purpose ; as, Thankful for good health ; he votes from principle. (5) Possession; as. The voice f?/" the speaker; the beauty of the rose ; the blade of the knife. (6) Definition ; as. The virtue of temperance ; the city of Rome. (7) Object; as, The fear of death; the hope of reward. Many other relations are implied, such as reference^ ex- pressed by about ; association, by zvitk ; separation, hy front ; opposition, by against ; substitution, by for ; etc. 1/2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR The words most commonly used as prepositions are the following : — about athwart from to above before in toward across behind into towards after below of under against beneath off underneath along beside on until amid besides over unto amidst between round up among beyond since upon amongst by through with around down throughout within at for till without Concerning, during, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting touching, and a few similar words of participial form are usually classed as prepositions. Certain phrases are used with the force of single prepo- sitions. They are called compound prepositions ; as, according to, in place of, in regard to, instead of, out of, on account of. ORDER OF PARSING PREPOSITIONS To parse a preposition, — (i) Name the part of speech. (2) Tell with what word it connects its object. (3) State the relation shown.^ Example. — He goes on Sunday to the church. — Longfellow. 1 With young pupils, the third step may be omitted. PREPOSITIONS' 173 1. On is a preposition, connecting the noun Sunday with the verb goes, and showing the relation of time. 2. To is a preposition, connecting the noun church with the verb goes, and showing the relation of place. EXERCISE 137 Parse the prepositions in the following sentences, and tell the use of each prepositional phrase : — 1. At midnight, however, I was aroused by the tramp of horses' hoofs in the yard. 2. Great turtles came up out of the water, and crawled along on a sandy place. — M. Thompson. 3. The scheme failed for want of support. 4. The love that leads the willing spheres Along the unending track of years And watches o'er the sparrow's nest, Shall brood above thy winter rest. — Bryant. 5. With my cross-bow I shot the Albatross. — Coleridge. 6. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. — Lowell. 7. On the cross-beam under the Old South bell The nest of a pigeon is builded well. In summer and winter that bird is there, Out and in with the morning air; I love to see him track the street. With his wary eye and active feet; And I often watch him as he springs. Circling the steeple with easy wings. Till across the dial his shade has passed. And the belfry edge is gained at last. — N. P. Willis. 174 El^GLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER LXVI CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Find in the following examples conjunctions that con- nect words, phrases, or clauses of like kind, or having the same relation to the rest of the sentence : — 1. Art is long, and time is fleeting. 2. Games and carols closed the day. 3. The house was silent and deserted. 4. You see where Warren fell, and where other patriots fell with him. Words, phrases, and clauses of Hke kind, or standing in the same relation to the rest of the sentence, are said to have the same construction or to be of equal rank. Con- junctions that connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank, are coordinating conjunctions. They may connect — (i) Two independent clauses; as, Be diligent, and yon will succeed. (2) Two words in the same construction ; as, The min- strel was infirm and old. (3) Two phrases in the same construction ; as, They are alike in voice and in matmer. (4) Two dependent clauses in the same construction; as. No one could tell whence they came or whither they went. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS 175 Coordinating conjunctions are divided into the following classes : — '■ (i) Copulative, those that join similar parts; as, and, a/so, besides, likewise, moreover. (2) Adversative, those that join parts opposed in mean- ing ; as, but, yet, hoivever, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding. (3) Alternative, those that imply a choice between two ; as, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or. (4) Causal, those that express cause or consequence; as, for, therefore, hence, consequently. Conjunctions used in paij-s are called correlatives ; as, both — and, either — or, neither — nor, not — but, not only — but. EXERCISE 138 Point out the coordinating conjunctions i^i the following examples, and tell what they join : — 1. The shower was now over, and a rainbow above the eastern wood promised a fair evening. 2. Either he is talking, or he is pursuing. 3. Through days of sorrow and of mirth. 4. Be just, and fear not. 5. He calls on the people not only to defend, but to study and understand their rights and privileges. 6. This lesson is plain, and easily appHed. 7. Their route now lay over rough ground, and their progress was slow. 8. He was interrupted by the flash and report of a rifle. 9. We know what we are, but know not what we may be. 10. The time we live ought not to be computed by the numbei of years, but by the use that has been made of them. 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 11. Virtuous and wise he was, yet not severe. 12. I know not whether to go or to remain. 13. He does not deserve to succeed; for he will not put forth effort. 14. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 15. He was small of stature, and sUght in frame. 16. Read not to contradict, nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. II. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Name the dependent clause in each of the following sentences, state its use, and tell how it is joined to the prin- cipal clause : — 1. I would grant your request if I could. 2. He came, because he was needed. 3. Be silent, that you may hear. Conjunctions that connect a dependent or subordinate clause to a principal clause are subordinating conjunctions. They denote — (i) Time; as, after, before, ere, since, till, when, while, as. (2) Place ; as, where, whence. (3) Manner and comparison ; as, than, as. (4) Cause or reason ; as, because, since, as, that, whereas. (5) End or purpose ; as, that, lest. (6) Condition ; as, if, unless, except. (7) Concession ; as, though, although. Certain phrases performing the office of conjunctions may be called compound conjunctions ; as, but also, as well aSf as if, as though. HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS 177 EXERCISE 139 Find the siibordiftating conjunctions in the following sen- tences, and tell ivhat each denotes : — 1. I have not seen him since he was a child. 2. He labored earnestly that abuses might be reformed. 3. Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty. 4. Live well that you may die well. 5. His stories are good to hear at night, because we can dream about them asleep ; and good in the morning, too, be- cause then we can dream about them awake. 6. Now had the season returned when the nights grow colder and longer. 7. A clownish air is but a small defect ; yet it is enough to make a man disagreeable. 8. Since we must fight it through, why not put ourselves in a state to enjoy all the benefit of victory, if we gain the victory. 9. A great black cloud had been gathering in the sky for some time past, although it had not overspread the sun. 10. Speak clearly, if you would be understood. CHAPTER LXVII HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS To parse a conjunction, tell — 1. Its class — coordinating or subordinating. 2. Its use — state what it connects. Example i. — Hear me for my cause, and be silent, that you may hear. 1/8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1. And is a coordinating conjunction, connecting the two in- dependent members, "Hear me for my cause," and "be silent, that you may hear." 2. That is a subordinating conjunction, connecting the subor- dinate clause, "you may hear," to the principal clause, "be silent." Example 2. — Is the night chilly and dark .? I. Afid is a coordinating conjunction, connecting the two adjectives chilly and dark. EXERCISE 140 Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences : — 1. My hair is gray, but not with years. Nor grew it white In a single night. As men's have grown from sudden fears : My limbs are bowed, though not with toil, But rusted with a vile repose, For they have been a dungeon's spoil, And mine has been the fate of those To whom the goodly earth and air Are banned, and barred, — forbidden fare. — Byron. 2. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to fortune and to fame unknown.— Gray. 3. They deserved respect ; for they were good men as well as brave. — Hawthorne. 4. On either side the river lie Long fields of barley and of rye.— Tennyson. 5. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. — Shakespeare. REVIEW OF CONJUNCTIONS 1 79 6. As Caesar loved me, I wept for him ; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was vaHant, I honor him: but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. — Shakespeare. 7. The test of a people is not in its occupations, but in its heroes. — T. w. higginson. 8. Then they praised him, soft and low. Called him worthy to be loved. Truest friend and noblest foe ; Yet she neither spoke nor moved.— Tennyson. 9. One whole month elapsed before I knew the fate of the cargo. 10. The works of Milton cannot be comprehended or enjoyed, unless the mind of the reader cooperate with that of the writer. He does not paint a finished picture, or play for a mere passive listener. Ke sketches, and leaves others to fill up the outline. He strikes the key-note, and expects his hearer to make out the melody. — Macaulay, EXERCISE 141 REVIEW OF CONJUNCTIONS Name the two leading classes of conjunctions. What is a coordinating conjunction ? What is meant by v^ords, phrases, or clauses of equal rank .'' Illustrate. Tell how coordinating conjunctions are classified, and give examples of each class. What is a subordinating conjunction ? Mention some of the different relations denoted by subordinating conjunc- tions, and give illustrations. What are correlative conjunctions ? Give examples. Mention phrases that are used as conjunctions. l8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER LXVIII INTERJECTIONS Since interjections are not grammatically related to the other words in a sentence, the parsing of an interjection con- sists in simply naming the part of speech. EXERCISE 142 Name the interjections in the following sentences^ and tell what feeling each expresses : — 1. Ah ! what would the world be to us If the children were no more ? — Longfellow. 2. Hark ! let me listen for the swell of the surf. 3. Ah ! what a weary race my feet have run. — Warton. 4. Oh ! wherefore come ye forth, in triumph from the north? — Macaulay. 5. Alas ! I have nor hope nor health. — Shelley. 6. And, lo ! from far, as on they pressed, there came a glittering band. — Hemans. 7. Hark ! hark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 8. Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn ? 9. For, lo ! the blazing, rocking roof Down, down in thunder falls ! — Horace Smith. 10. Heigh ho ! daisies and buttercups, Fair yellow daffodils, stately and tall. 11. O joy ! that in our embers Is something that doth live. — Wordsworth. Part Third . SYNTAX Syntax treats of the grammatical relations of words in sentences. The relation that any part of speech bears to other parts of speech in the same sentence is called its syntax or construction. CHAPTER LXIX CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS I. NOMINATIVE CASE Subject Nominative (i) The subject of a verb is in the nominative case; as, — Man is mortal. / sprang to the stirrup. EXERCISE 143 Find the subject nominatives in the following examples y and tell of what verb each is a subject : — 1. The fleet consisted of nine vessels. 2. Up flew the windows all. 3. Facts always yield the place of honor in conversation, to thoughts about facts. 4. Not a ripple stirred on the glassy surface of the lake. 181 l82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 5. Somewhat back from the village street Stands the old-fashioned country-seat. Across its antique portico Tall poplar-trees their shadows throw ; And from its station in the hall An ancient timepiece says to all, — " Forever — never ! Never — forever ! " —Longfellow. Predicate Nominative (2) A noun or pronoun used to complete the predicate after certain intransitive verbs, such as be, become, appear, look, and seem, and after the passive forms of a few transitive verbs like make, call, choose, and elect is in the nominative case; as, — Webster was a statesman. He was elected senator. The noun that completes the predicate in this manner refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb, and is in the same case as the word explained. It is called a predicate noun or a predicate nominative.^ Infinitives and participles of verbs of the class just named take the same c^se after them as before them, when both nouns or pronouns denote the same person or thing ; as, — // was thought to be he. We asked him to be our leader. He, being a foreigner, was ineligible to office. ^ The noun or adjective that completes the predicate m this manner is sometimes called an attribute complement. CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 183 EXERCISE 144 Parse the nouns in the folloiving examples^ and tell to what each predicate fiominative refers : — 1. Every man's task is his life-preserver. 2. I am monarch of all I survey. 3. Our fortress is the good greenwood, Our tent the cypress-tree. 4. Toil is the condition of our being. 5. The colonists were now no longer freemen ; they were entirely dependent on the King's pleasure. 6. He was one of the ablest seamen of his time, and was a favorite with his sailors. 7. Every day is a little life ; and our whole Hfe is but a day repeated. 8. Each tree is an individual and has a personal character. Apposition A noun or pronoun added to another noun or pronoun to explain its meaning is called an appositive, or is said to be in apposition with the word explained. (3) An appositive is in the same case as the word explained; as, — Motley, the historian, was an American. (Nominative case.) We met your brother, \ht general. (Objective case.) Have you seen Gibson, the artisfs^ drawings? (Possessive case.) ^ See page 50. l84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 145 Find the appositives in the following examples, state the case of each^ and tell why it is in that case : — 1. Spenser, the poet, lived in the time of Queen Elizabeth. 2. The tiger, an animal equal to the Hon in size, is a native of Asia. 3. He went to his old resort, the village inn. 4. These gay idlers, the butterflies, Broke, to-day, from their winter shroud. 5. Samuel Adams, the distinguished patriot, died in 1803. 6. An ancient clock, that important article of cottage furniture, ticked on the opposite side of the room. 7. The harp, his sole remaining joy, Was carried by an orphan boy. 8. My friend, Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has beauti- fied the inside of his church with several texts of his own choosing. Nominative Absolute (4) A noun or pronoun used absolutely with a participle, its case not depending upon any other word, is in the nomi- native case absolute; as, — The fog being very dense, we could not safely proceed. The mountains rose, peak [being] above peak. • EXERCISE 146 Name the nouns and the pronouns that are in the nominative absolute, and tell with what participle, expressed or under- stood, each is used: — CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 185 1. The storm having ceased, the ships sailed. 2. Paul preached and taught with all confidence, no man for- bidding him. 3. His calling laid aside, he lived at ease. 4. The supper being over, the strangers requested to be shown to their place of repose. 5. But the lark is so brimful of gladness and love The green fields below him, the blue sky above. — Coleridge. Nominative of Address (5) A noun used to name a person or thing addressed is in the nominative case of address ; as, — Watchman, tell us of the night. O grave, where is thy victory? EXERCISE 147 Parse in full the nouns that are in the nominative of address : — 1. O Father ! I hear the sound of guns. 2. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, But in ourselves, that we are underlings. —Shakespeare. 3. Veterans ! you are the remnant of many a well-fought field. — Webster. 4. Oh Life ! I breathe thee in the breeze. — Bryant. 5. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up to such a sudden flood of mutiny. — Shakespeare. EXERCISE 148 Write sentences illustrating five different constructions of a noun in the nominative case. l86 ' ENGLISH GRA'MMAR II. POSSESSIVE CASE Possessive Modifier A noun or pronoun used as a possessive modifier is in the possessive case ; as, — A friend should bear his friend^ s infirmities. The noun denoting the thing possessed is sometimes omitted ; as, — Our first visit in Rome was to St Peter's. When two nouns in the possessive case are in appo- sition, only the noun immediately preceding the modified term, expressed or understood, takes the possessive sign ; as, — For thy servant David's sake. For the queen's sake, his sister. — Byron. EXERCISE 149 Parse the noims in the following examples : — 1. The village was two days' journey fi-om the sea. 2. Buckingham Palace fi-onts on St. James's Park. 3. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's. — Shakespeare. 4. At a little distance from Sir Roger's house, among the ruins of an old abbey, there is a long walk of aged elms, which are shot up so very high, that, when one passes under them, the rooks and crows that rest upon the tops of them seem to be cawing in another region. — Addison. 5. There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, The village preacher's modest mansion rose. — Goldsmith. CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 1 87 6. We have no bird whose song will match the nightingale's in compass, none whose note is so rich as that of the European blackbird ; but for mere rapture I have never heard the bobolink's rival. — Lowell. III. OBJECTIVE CASE Direct Object (i) A noun or pronoun used as the direct object^ of a transitive verb (or of its participles or infinitives) is in the objective case ; as, — Choose the timbers with greatest care. The pillars supporting the roof are strong. I come to bury Ccesar, not to praise him. EXERCISE 150 Find in the following examples the nouns and tJie pronotms that are used as direct objects, and tell of zvhat each is the object : — I . One of the favorite themes of boasting with the Squire, is the noble trees on his estate, which, in truth, has some of the finest that I have seen in England. There is something august and solemn in the great avenues of stately oaks that gather their branches together high in air, and seem to reduce the pedestrians beneath them to mere pygmies. "An avenue of oaks or elms," the Squire observes, " is the true colonnade that should lead to a gentleman's house. As to stone and marble, any one can rear them at once — they are the work of the day ; but commend me to the colonnades that have grown old and great with the family, and tell by their grandeur how long the family has endured." ... ^ See page 46. 1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR It is with great difficulty that the Squire can ever be brought to have any tree cut down on his estate. To some he looks with rever- ence, as having been planted by his ancestors ; to others with a kind of paternal affection, as having been planted by himself; and he feels a degree of awe in bringing down, with a few strokes of the axe, what it has cost centuries to build up. — Irving, Bracebridge Hall. Object of Preposition (2) A noun or pronoun used as the object ^ of a preposition is in the objective case ; as, — We spoke not a word of sorrow. Come with me. EXERCISE 151 Select the objects of the prepositions in the following selection^ and tell to what words they are joined by the prepositions : — Shut in from all the world without. We sat the clean-winged hearth about, Content to let the north-wind roar In baffled rage at pane and door. While the red logs before us beat The frost-hne back with tropic heat ; And ever, when a louder blast Shook beam and rafter as it passed. The merrier up its roaring draught The great throat of the chimney laughed, The house-dog on his paws outspread Laid to the fire his drowsy head. The cat's dark silhouette on the wall A couchant tiger's seemed to fall ; 1 See page 18. CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS I89 And, for the winter fireside meet, Between the andirons' straddling feet, The mug of cider simmered slow, The apples sputtered in a row, And, close at hand, the basket stood With nuts from brown October's wood. — Whittier, Snow-Bound. Indirect Object (3) A noun or pronoun used as an indirect object to show to whom or for whom or what something is done is in the objective (or dative) case; as, — He gave the man [indirect object] a coat [direct object] (= He gave a coat to the man) . She bought the bird [indirect object] a cage [direct object] (=She bought a cdigt for the bird). Usually the indirect object alone is used when the noun stands next the verb, the preposition when the noun is separated from the verb. EXERCISE 152 Tell which verbs in the following sentences take two objects^ and name the direct and the indirect object in each case : — 1. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 2. Then give him, for a soldier meet, A soldier's cloak for winding-sheet. 3. The sand ridge ran for a long way back into the swamp, and thus gave me a safe and easy road to the heart of a typical jungle. I90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4. I thrice presented him a kingly crown. 5. He giveth His beloved sleep. 6. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul. 7. I made me great works ; I builded me homes ; I planted me vineyards. 8. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Objective Predicate (4) A noun used as an objective predicate is in the objective case ; as, — They made him secretary. An objective predicate, as in the example above, com- pletes the meaning of a transitive verb, and describes its object. When the verbs make, appoint, elect, call, choose, and others of similar meaning, take a complement which describes the direct object of the verb, they are said to be factitive, and the complement is often called the factitive object. When verbs of this class are used in the passive voice, they are followed by the predicate nominative. (See page 182); as, — He will be made secretary, EXERCISE 153 Select the objective predicates in the follozving examples, tell what verb each completes, and what it describes: — 1. They made me queen of the May. 2. Few men make themselves masters of things they write 01 speak. 3. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS 191 4. And Simon he surnamed Peter. 5. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 6. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. Adverbial Objective (5) A* noun used adverbially to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, by denoting iime, distance, weight, value, etc., is an adverbial object, and is said to be in the objective case, adverbially ; as, — He held the office three years. The walk is three feet wide. Do not remain a moment longer. EXERCISE 154 Find the adverbial objects, and tell what each modifies : — 1. An hour they sat in counsel. — Browning. 2. My little ones kissed me a thousand times o'er. — Campbell. 3. I therefore walked back by the horseway, which was five miles round. — Goldsmith. 4. So all night long the storm roared on. — Whittier. 5. And a good south wind sprung up behind ; The Albatross did follow, And every day, for food or play. Came to the mariner's hollo ! — Coleridge. Cognate Objective Some verbs are followed by a noun which repeats the meaning of the verb. This is called a cognate object ; as, — I dreamed a dream. I ran a race. 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR (6) A noun used as a cognate object is in the objective case. EXERCISE 155 Name the cognate objectives in the following examples^ and tell hozv each is used: — 1. I have fought a good fight. 2. Behold, I dream a dream of good. 3. He sleeps the sleep of the just. 4. Let me die the death of the righteous. 5. Well hast thou fought the better fight. EXERCISE 156 REVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS Write sentences illustrating six different constructions of a noun in the objective case. EXERCISE 157 State the construction of each italicized word in the following selection : — For my part, I was always a bungler at all lands of sport that required either patience or adroitness, and had not angled above half an hotir, before I had completely " satisfied the sentiment, ' and convinced myself of the truth of Izaak Walton's opinion, that angling is something like poetry — a man must be born to it. I hooked myself instead of the fish ; tangled my line in every tree ; lost my bait ; broke my rod ; until I gave up the attempt in despair, and passed the day under the trees, reading old Izaak ; satisfied that it was his fascinating vein of honest simplicity and rural feeling that had bewitched me, and not the passion for angling. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 193 My companions, however, were more persevering in their delusion. I have them at this moment before my eyes, steahng along the border of the brook, where it lay open to the day, or was merely fringed by shrubs and bushes. I see the bittern rising with hollow scream, as they break in upon his rarely-invaded haunt ; the king- fisher watching them suspiciously from his dry tree that over- hangs the deep black mill-pond, in the gorge of the hills ; the tortoise letting himself slip sideways from off the stone or log on which he is sunning himself; and the panic-struck frog plump- ing in headlong as they approach, and spreading an alarm through- out the watery world around. — Irving, The Sketch- Book. CHAPTER LXX CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS I. AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. Antecedents modified by each, every, and no are singular; as, — Every tree is known by its fruit. When reference is made to an antecedent that may denote a person of either sex, the pronoun of the mascu- line gender is generally used ; as, — Each contributed what he could. When the antecedent is a collective noun, it is neuter, and singular if reference is made to the collection as a whole, 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR but plural if reference is made to the individuals in the collection separately ; as, — ■ The army proceeded on its march. The army left their camp utensils behind them. EXERCISE 158 Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks with suitable pronouns. Give in each case a reason for your choice : — 1. The committee decided the matter without leaving seats. 2. All passengers must show tickets. 3. Every passenger must show ticket. 4. Somebody left umbrella. 5. Men at some time are masters of fate. 6. Neither would admit that was in the wrong. 7. Each soldier carried own gun. 8. Happy, thrice happy, every one Who sees labor well begun. 9. One who would succeed must learn to think for '■. 10. The committee has offered to refund the amount which received from the company. 11. Every man must bear own burden. 1 2. The soldiers paused on march. EXERCISE 159 State the person, number, and gender of each italicized pronoun i7i the following examples, giving reasons for youf statements : — CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS I95 1. The house stood among flourishing apple-trees, three 01 four of which are yet standing. 2. Every opinion reads on him who utters it. 3. He who thinks much of himself will be in danger of being forgotten by the rest of the world. 4. He was surrounded by a shouting multitude, most of whom had been born in the country which he had helped to found. 5. So the Deacon inquired of the village folk Where he could find the strongest oak. That couldn't be spHt nor bent nor broke. — O. W. Holmes. 6. Few, few were they whose swords of old Won the fair land in which we dwell. — Bryant. 7. That is a good book which is opened with expectation, and closed with profit. 8. Thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's, One of the few, the immortal names, That were not born to die. — Halleck. II. CASE RELATIONS OF THE PRONOUN The case relations of the pronoun are nearly the same as those of the noun. EXERCISE 160 State the case of each italicized pronoun in the following examples y and tell why it is in that case: — I. Subject Nominative I. Who, of all that address the public ear, whether in church, or court-house, or hall of state, has such an attentive audience as the town-crier? 19^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Few believed the report. 3. They that have done this deed are honorable. 4. What caused the trouble? II. Predicate Nominative 5. It is // be not afraid. 6. All mine are thine, and thine are inine, 7. Who do men say that I am? III. Apposition 8. We all do fade as a leaf. 9. They love each other. 10. The singer, she whom you most wished to hear, is ill. 11. I myself was surprised at the result. IV. Nominative Absolute 12. He being absent, no one would discuss the question. 13. Thou looking on, I shall not fail. V. Nominative of Address 14. Thou, who wouldst see the lovely and the wild Mingled in harmony on Nature's face, Ascend our rocky mountains. 15. O thou that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh come. VI. Possessive Modifier 16. And they whose meadows it murmurs through. Have named the stream from its own fair hue. 17. Two robin redbreasts built their nest Within a hollow tree. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS 197 VII. Direct Object 1 8. No one heard him. 19. Seeing me, the bird flew. 20. We expect to meet them. VIII. Object of Preposition 21. What to me is fame? 22. I that speak unto thee am he. 23. Stay, lady, stay with us. 24. Whom did you speak to? IX. Indirect Object 25. Give us this day our daily bread. 26. Pay me that thou owest. 27. J/]. Enough is as good as a feast [w] . (5) Cause or reason, introduced by because, for, since, as, that ; as, — Freely we serve, because we freely love. Since you desire it, I will remain. (6) Purpose, introduced by that, lest; as, — Open the door that they may enter. Take heed lest ye fall. 242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR (7) Result or consequence, introduced by so that, that: as, — A storm arose, so that ive could not leave the harbor. What has he done, that he should be dismissed? (8) Condition, introduced by if, unless, except, but ; as, — I will go if you are ready. The house will be sold unless the money is paid. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. It never rains but it pours. (9) Concession, introduced by though, although ; as, — Though he woi'ks hard, he does not succeed. Although he spoke, he said nothing. EXERCISE 196 Point out the adverbial clauses of ti7ne, and tell what each modifies : — 1. As the last sentence fell from the lips of the reader, a loud shout went up. 2. While she was yet speaking, the sun rose in all its splendor. 3. She was a phantom of delight When first she gleamed upon my sight. 4. When his host had left the room, Dolph remained for some time lost in thought. 5. The sea-birds screamed as they wheeled around. 6. The sun had set before the conflict ended. 7. Write to us as soon as you reach your destination. 8. Fear not, while acting justly. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 243 9. I have not visited the city since you were here. 10. Small service is true service while it lasts. 1 1 . Days brightly came and calmly went, While yet he was our guest. EXERCISE 197 Point out the adverbial clauses of place, and tell what each modifies: — 1. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 2. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 3. Where thoughts kindle, words spontaneously flow. 4. The clouds rolled away to the east, where they lay piled in feathery masses, tinted with the last rosy rays of the sun. 5. Where the heart is well guarded, temptations cannot enter. 6. Cover the thousands that sleep far away ; Sleep where their friends cannot find them to-day. EXERCISE 198 Point out the adverbial clauses of manner, and tell what each modifies: — 1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. 2. He died as he lived. 3. Not as the conqueror comes, They, the true-hearted, came. 4. Speak as you think. 5. Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 6. We all do fade as a leaf. 7. It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven. 244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 199 Find the adverbial clauses of degree, and tell zvhat each modifies : — 1. Corruption wins not more than honesty. 2. No sooner did this idea enter his head, than it carried con- viction with it. 3. The nearer the dawn, the darker the night. 4. The boy ran so fast that I could not overtake him. 5. The result was better than I expected. 6. So far as my own observation goes, the farther one penetrates the sombre solitudes of the woods, the more seldom does one hear the voice of any singing bird. 7. The more time he loses, the poorer he considers himself. 8. The line is so long that it will reach the bottom. EXERCISE 200 Point out the adverbial clauses of cause or reason, and tell how they are joined to the principal clauses : — 1. We love him because he first loved us. 2. Since they are here, we must receive them. 3. Freely we serve, because we freely love. 4. They deserved respect ; for they were good men as well as brave. 5. Since you are acquainted with the facts, you can judge for yourself. 6. As he persisted in refusing help, I left him alone. 7. Our bugles sang truce ; for the night-cloud had lowered. 8. As our proposal was rejected, we have nothing further to say. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 245 EXERCISE 201 Point out the adverbial clauses of purpose and of result, and tell what each modifies : — 1. We sow that we may reap. 2. Beware lest you fall. 3. He labored earnestly that abuses might be reformed. 4. I repeated the order that there might be no mistake. 5. Let my people go, that they may serve me. 6. Seek to be so useful, that the world will miss you when away. 7. The day was so still that carts could be heard rumbling a mile away. 8. Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty. EXERCISE 202 Point out the adverbial clauses of condition^ and tell hoiv they are joined to the principal clauses : — 1. Speak clearly if you speak at all ; Carve every word before you let it fall. 2. The bill will not become a law, unless the Governor signs it. 3. If he had feared difficulties, he would not have died an acknowledged leader of men^ 4. Had you not helped me, I should have failed. 5. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. 6. If it bear the test, it will be accepted. 7. If I had not been acquainted with the facts, this would have led me into a great error. 8. Had he been absent, the motion would have been carried. 9. This is strange if it be true. 10. If we fail, it can be no worse for us. 246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 203 Point out the adverbial clauses of concession ^ and tell what each modifies : — 1. Though it was morning, the sun did not shine, 2. His knowledge, though not always accurate, was of immense extent. 3. The good which men do is not lost, though it is often dis- regarded. 4. He remained in school, though he was not able to work. 5. Although I had so many interruptions, I completed the work in time. 6. Though the position of affairs has changed, there is still danger to be apprehended. 7. Though he were present, it would make no difference. 8. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. IV. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES To analyze a complex se7ttence — (i) Tell the kind of sentence. (2) Name the subject and the predicate of the sentence. (3) Tell what the subject consists of. (4) Tell what the predicate consists of. (5) Analyze the subordinate clause or clauses. Example I. — That man is formed for social life is acknowledged by all. Oral Analysis 1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 2. The subject is the noun clause, that man is formed fa? social life; the predicate, is acknowledged by all. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 247 3. The predicate consists of the verb is acknowledged, modified by the adverbial phrase dy all. 4. The subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction that. 5. The subject of the subordinate clause is the noun man, the predicate, is formed for social life. 6. The predicate of the clause consists of the verb is formed, modified by the adverbial phrase for social life. Written Analysis Complex Declarative Sentence Complete Subject That man is formed for social life Simple Subject Noun clause : that man is formed for social life Complete Predicate is acknowledged by all Simple Predicate Modifier Verb : is acknowledged Adverbial phrase : by all Subordinate Clause Introduced by the conjunction that Subject Noun : man Complete Predicate is formed for social life Simple Predicate Modifier Verb : is formed Adverbial phrase : for social life 248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Example II. — The fact that he was present is sufficient Oral Analysis 1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 2. The subject is the fact that he was present; the predicate, ts sufficient. 3. The subject consists of the noun fact, modified by the ad- jective the, and by the appositive noun clause that he was present. 4. The predicate consists of the verb is, completed by the adjective sufficient. 5. The subordinate clause is introduced by the conjunction that. 6. The subject of the subordinate clause is he ; the predicate, uas present. 7. The predicate of the clause consists of the verb was, com- pleted by the adjective present. Written Analysis Complex Declarative Sentence Complete Subject The fact that he was present Simple Subject Modifiers Noun : fact Adjective : the Appositive noun clause : that he was present Complete Predicate is sufficient Simple Predicate Complement Verb: is {incomplete^ Adjective : sufficient THE COMPLEX SENTENCE Subordinate Clause Introduced by the conjunction that 249 Subject Pronoun /he Complete Predicate was present Simple Predicate Complement Verb: was {incomplete') Adjective: present Example III. — The people believed in him, because he was honest and true. Written Analysis Complex Declarative Sentence Complete Subject The people Simple Subject Modifier Noun : people Adjective: the Complete Predicate believed in him, because he was honest and true Simple Predicate Modifiers Verb: believed Adverbial phrase : in him Adverbial clause of reason : because he was honest and true 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Subordinate Clause Connected to the verb believed by the conjunction because Subject Pronoun : he Logical Predicate was honest and true Gram. Predicate Complement Verb : was {incomplete^ Adjectives connected by a7td : honest and true EXERCISE 204 Analyze the sentences in tJie following exercises : — 1. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music. 2. Such a fortnight in the woods as I have been Hghtly sketch- ing, will bring to hini who rightly uses it a rich return. 3. If we seek to acquire the style of another, we renounce the individual style which we might have acquired. 4. "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate-bolts undrew. 5. So thick were the fluttering snowflakes, that even the trees were hidden by them the greater part of the time. 6. I now found myself among noble avenues of oaks and elms, whose vast size bespoke the growth of centuries. 7. Nothing is so dangerous as pride. 8. We are happy now because God wills it. — Lowelu 9. A great black cloud had been gathering in the sky for some time past, although it had not yet overspread the sun. 10. Here I sit among my descendants, in my old arm-chair, and immemorial comer, while the firelight throws an appropriate glory round my venerable frame. — Hawthorne. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 251 11. He who sets a great example is great.— Victor Hugo. 12. I saw from the beach, when the morning was shining, A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on.— moore. 13. The song that moves a Nation's heart Is in itself a deed.— Tennyson. 14. As I crossed the bridge over the Avon on my return, I paused to contemplate the distant church in which the poet lies buried. — Irving. 15. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with cer- tain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. 16. We can almost fancy that we are visiting him [Milton] in his small lodging; that we see him sitting at the old organ beneath the faded green hangings ; that we can catch the quick twinkle of his eyes, rolHng in vain to find the day ; that we are reading in the lines of his noble countenance the proud and mournful history of his glory and his affliction. — Macaulay. 17. When the woodpecker is searching for food, or laying siege to some hidden grub, the sound of his hammer is dead or muffled, and is heard but a few yards. It is only upon dry, seasoned timber, freed of its bark, that he beats his reveille to spring and woos his mate. —John burroughs. 18. We are nearer heaven when we listen to the birds than when we quarrel with our fellow-men. — Henry Van Dyke. 19. And the night shall be filled, with music. And the cares, that infest the day. Shall fold their tents, like the Arabs, And as silently steal away. — Longfellow. 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR CHAPTER LXXXIII THE COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more independent members; as, — The walls are high, and the sho7'es are steep. Each member of a compound sentence, by itself, forms a complete sentence, which may be simple or complex; as, — The Mayor was dumb and the Council stood As if they were changed into blocks of wood. 1. The Mayor was dumb. (Simple sentence.) 2. The Council stood as if they were changed into blocks of wood. (Complex sentence.) The connective between the members may be omitted ; as, " The night is chill, the cloud is gray ;'' but the relation between the members should be stated in the analysis. To analyze a compound sentence — (i) Tell the kind of sentence. (2) Name the different members, and tell how they are connected. (3) Analyze in order the different members of the sentence. Example. — The merchants shut up their warehouses, and the laboring men stood idle about the wharves. Oral Analysis I. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two simple members connected by the copulative conjunction and. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 253 2. The subject of the first member is the merchants ; the predi- cate, shut up their warehouses. The subject consists of the noun merchants, modified by the adjective the. The predicate consists of the verb shut, modified by the adverb up, and completed by the object warehouses. The object is modified by the possessive pronoun their. 3. The subject of the second member is the laboring men; the predicate, stood idle about the wha^ues. The subject consists ot the noun 7nen, with the adjectives the and laboring, of which laboring modifies men, and the modifies laboring men. The predi- cate consists of the verb stood, completed by the adjective idle, and modified by the adverbial phrase about the wharves. Written Analysis Compound Declarative Sentence Two members connected by the conjunction and FIRST MEMBER Complete Subject The merchants Simple Subject Modifier Noun : merchants Adjective: the Complete Predicate shut up their warehouses Simple Predicate Mod of Verb Object Mod. of Object Verb: shut {incomplete^ Adverb: up Noun : warehouses Possessive pronoun : their 254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR SECOND MEMBER Complete Subject the laboring men Simple Subject Modifiers Noun : men Adjectives : the, laboring Complete Predicate stood idle about the wharves Simple Predicate Complement Modifier Verb: stood (incomplete) Adjective: idle Adverbial phrase : about the wharves EXERCISE 205 Analyze the sentences in the followifig exercises: — 1 . Every day is a little life ; and our whole life is but a day repeated. 2. The harvest truly is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 3. They toil not, neither do they spin. 4. It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to be wise. 5. The ravine was full of sand now, but it had once been full of water. 6. He touched his harp, and nations heard, entranced. 7. The moon is up, and yet it is not night. 8. They had played together in infancy ; they had worked to- gether in manhood ; they were now tottering about, and gossiping away the evening of life ; and in a short time they will probably be buried together in the neighboring churchyard. — Irving. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 255 9. Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast. — Cowper. 10. Lay down the axe ; fling by the spade ; Leave in its track the toiling plough.— Bryant. 11. But what chiefly characterized the colonists of Merry Mount was their veneration for the Maypole. It has made their true his- tory a poet's tale. Spring decked the hallowed emblem with young blossoms and fresh green boughs; Summer brought roses of the deepest blush, and the perfected fohage of the forest ; Autumn enriched it with that red and yellow gorgeousness which converts each wild-wood leaf into a painted flower ; and Winter silvered it with sleet, and hung it round with icicles, till it flashed in the cold sunshine, itself a frozen sunbeam. — Hawthorne. CHAPTER LXXXIV SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS I. The Arrow and the Song I shot an arrow into the air. It fell to earth, I knew not where ; For, so swiftly it flew, the sight Could not follow it in its flight. I breathed a song into the air. It fell to earth, I knew not where ; For who has sight so keen and strong That it can follow the flight of song ? Long, long afterward, in an oak I found the arrow, still unbroke ; And the song, from beginning to end, I found again in the heart of a friend. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR II. Rip Van Winkle The great error in Rip's composition was an insuperable aversion to all kinds of profitable labor. It could not be from the want of assiduity or perseverance ; for he would sit on a wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a Tartar's lance, and fish all day with- out a murmur, even though he should not be encouraged by a single nibble. He would carry a fowling-piece on his shoulder for hours together, trudging through woods and swamps, and up hill and down dale, to shoot a few squirrels or wild pigeons. He would never refuse to assist a neighbor, even in the roughest toil, and was a foremost man at all country frolics for husking Indian corn or building stone fences. The women of the village, too, used to employ him to run their errands, and to do such little odd jobs as their less obliging husbands would not do for them. In a word. Rip was ready to attend to anybody's business but his own; but as to doing family duty, and keeping his farm in order, he found it impossible. In fact, he declared it was of no use to work on his farm ; it was the most pestilent Httle piece of ground in the whole country ; everything about it went wrong, and would go wrong in spite of him. His fences were continually falling to pieces ; his cow would either go astray, or get among the cabbages ; weeds were sure to grow quicker in his fields than anywhere else ; the rain always made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do ; so that though his patrimonial estate had dwindled away under his management, acre by acre, until there was Httle more left than a mere patch of Indian corn and potatoes, yet it was the worst- conditioned farm in the neighborhood. — Washington Irving. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 257 IIL The Poet's Song The rain had fallen, the Poet arose, He passed by tne town and out of the street, A light wind blew from the gates of the sun. And waves of shadow went over the wheat, And he sat him down in a lonely place. And chanted a melody loud and sweet. That made the wild-swan pause in her cloud, And the lark drop down at his feet. The swallow stopt as he hunted the bee, The snake slipt under a spray. The wild hawk stood with the down on his beak. And stared, with his foot on the prey. And the nightingale thought, *.* I have sung many songs, But never a one so gay. For he sings of what the world will be When the years have died away." — Alfred Tennyson. IV. Leaves The leaves, as we shall see immediately, are the feeders of the plant. Their own orderly habits of succession must not interfere with their main business of finding food. Where the sun and air are, the leaf must go, whether it be out of order or not. So, there- fore, in any group, the first consideration with the young leaves is much like that of young bees, how to keep out of each other's way, that every one may at once leave its neighbors as much free-air pasture as possible, and obtain a relative freedom for itself. This would be a quite simple matter, and produce other simply balanced forms, if each branch, with open air all round it, had nothing to 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR think of but reconcilement of interests among its own leaves. But every branch has others to meet or to cross, sharing with them, in various advantage, what shade, or sun, oi rain is to be had. Hence every single leaf-cluster presents the general aspect of a little family, entirely at unity among themselves, but obliged to get their living by various shifts, concessions, and infringements of the family rules, in order not to invade the privileges of other people in their neighborhood. — John Ruskin. V. The Constitution What is the Constitution? It is the bond which binds together millions of brothers. What is its history? Who made it? mon- archs, crowned heads, lords, or emperors? No, it was none of these. The Constitution of the United States, the nearest approach of mortal to perfect political wisdom, was the work of men who purchased liberty with their blood, but who found that, without organization, freedom was not a blessing. They formed it, and the people, in their intelligence, adopted it. And what has been its history? Has it trodden down any man's rights? Has it circum- scribed the liberty of the press? Has it stopped the mouth of any man? Has it held us up as objects of disgrace abroad? How much the reverse ! It has given us character abroad ; and when, with Washington at its head, it went forth to the world, this young coun- try at once became the most interesting and imposing in the circle of civilized nations. How is the Constitution of the United States regarded abroad? Why, as the last hope of liberty among men. Wherever you go, you find the United States held up as an example by the advocates of freedom. The mariner no more looks to hia compass, or takes his departure by the sun, than does the lover of liberty abroad shape his course by reference to the Constitution of the United States — Daniel Webster. Part Fifth COMPOSITION CHAPTER LXXXV THE PARAGRAPH I. WHAT A PARAGRAPH IS Read the following selection, and tell what it is about : — A Saranac boat is one of the finest things that the skill of man has ever produced under the inspiration of the wilderness. It is a frail shell, so light that a guide can carry it on his shoulders with ease, but so dexterously fashioned that it rides the heaviest waves Hke a duck, and sUps through the water as if by magic. You can travel in it along the shallowest rivers and across the broadest lakes, and make forty or fifty miles a day, if you have a good guide. — Henry Van Dyke, Little Rivers. A series of sentences relating to a particular point is called a paragraph. A small blank space is usually left at the beginning of the first line in a written or printed paragraph. When a line is begun in this manner, it is said to be indented. EXERCISE 206 Stale the subject of each of the following paragraphs^ and show how each sentence in the paragraph helps in the develop- ment of the topic : — 259 260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR The English, from the great prevalence of rural habits throughout every class of society, have always been fond of those festivals and holydays which agreeably interrupt the stillness of country life ; and they were in former days particularly observant of the religious and social rites of Christmas. It is inspiring to read even the dry details which some antiquaries have given of the quaint humours, the bur- lesque pageants, the complete abandonment to mirth and good fellowship, with which this festival was celebrated. It seemed to throw open every door, and unlock every heart. It brought the peasant and the peer together, and blended all ranks in one warm generous flow of joy and kindness. The old halls of castles and manor-houses resounded with the harp and the Christmas carol, and their ample boards groaned under the weight of hospitality. Even the poorest cottage welcomed the festive season with green decora- tions of bay and holly — the cheerful fire glanced its rays through the lattice, inviting the passenger to raise the latch, and join the gossip knot huddled round the hearth, beguiling the long evening with legendary jokes, and oft-told Christmas tales. — Washington Irving. II What are clouds? Is there nothing you are acquainted with which they resemble? You discover at once a likeness between them and the condensed steam of a locomotive. At every puff of the engine a cloud is projected into the air. Watch the cloud sharply ; you notice that it first forms at a Httle distance from the top of the funnel. Give close attention and you will sometimes see a perfectly clear space between the funnel and the cloud. Through that clear space the thing which makes the cloud must pass. What, THE PARAGRAPH 26 1 then, is this thing which at one moment is transparent and invisible, and at the next moment visible as a dense opaque cloud ? It is the steam or vapor of water from the boiler. Within the boiler this steam is transparent and invisible ; but to keep it in this invisible state a heat would be required as great as that within the boiler. When the vapor mingles with the cold air above the hot funnel it ceases to be vapor. Every bit of steam shrinks, when chilled, to a much more minute particle of water. The liquid parti- cles thus produced form a kind of water-dust of exceeding fineness, which floats in the air, and is called a cloud. — Tyndall, Forms of Water. II. SINGLE PARAGRAPHS EXERCISE 207 Write a short paragraph aboiit some incident that has taken place in your locality. Leave a margin half an inch wide at the left of your paper, and a space half an inch long at the beginning of the first line of the paragraph. Topics for similar exercises : — 1. Effect of last night's frost. 2. A runaway horse. 3. First signs of autumn. 4. A fire. 5. Scene at the railway station. 6. A panic in a school building. 7. A bicycle accident. 8. Condition of our streets. 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR III. RELATED PARAGRAPHS The Busy Bee Let us watch the bees as they pass to and fro from their hive. First of all we see some half-dozen around the door. They are there to warn off intruders. If we approach too near the front of the hive, one of these sentries will dash forward with an angry buzz ; and, if we do not wisely take the hint, the brave little soldier will soon return with help from the guard-room to enforce the command. There are three substances required in the hive, — pollen, or bee-bread, the food of the young bees; wax to make the combs; and honey for the support of the community. The bees that are passing and repassing the sentries are not all laden alike. Some of them have little yellow or red tufts on their legs, others have none. But all that return are laden. Those with tufts on their legs have been collecting pollen from flowers. The honey-gatherers and the wax-gatherers carry their stores in their throats. To understand how the pollen is carried, we should examine a bee's hind leg with a microscope. The upper joint is flattened, and its edges are surrounded with stiff hairs, which form a sort of basket. When the bee enters a flower, it takes a plunge into the pollen. The pollen is brushed down into the little basket, till a good-sized ball is formed. If the bee cannot complete its load in one flower, it will always seek out another of the same kind. It will not mix the pollen of two different kinds of flowers. The honey-gatherers and the wax-gatherers draw in the sweet juices from flowers by their trunks. The trunk serves as a mouth and a pump. The liquid passes through this into the throat, and is thus carried to the hive. — Adapted from Good Words fer the Youngs STUDY OF A SELECTION 263 What do we first see around the door of the hive? What do these bees do? Why are they called sentries? What is an intruder? What three substances are required in the hive ? What is pollen ? What is meant by the cojuniunity ? What are the bees doing that are passing and repassing the sentries? Describe a bee's hind leg. How does a bee collect pollen? How do the honey-gatherers and the wax-gatherers collect their stores ? State the number of paragraphs in this piece, and tell what each is about. EXERCISE 208 Write from memory what you have learned about the Beesy arranging your statements in four paragraphs. Tell — 1. What bees are first seen around a hive. 2. What three substances are required in the hive, and the use of each. 3. How a bee collects pollen and carries it to the hive. 4. How the honey-gatherers and the wax-gatherers collect their stores. CHAPTER LXXXVI STUDY OF A SELECTION The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers in New England I The breaking waves dashed high On a stem and rock-bound coast, And the woods against a stormy sky Their giant branches tossed | 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR And the heavy night hung dark The hills and waters o'er, When a band of exiles moored their bark On the wild New England shore. ra Not as the conqueror comes, They, the true-hearted, came ; Not with the roll of the stirring drums, And the trumpet that sings of fame; IV Not as the flying come, In silence and in fear; — They shook the depths of the desert gloom With their hymns of lofty cheer. Amidst the storm they sang. And the stars heard, and the sea ; And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rang To the anthem of the free 1 VI The ocean eagle soared From his nest by the white wave's foam. And the rocking pines of the forest roared, — ■ This was their welcome home 1 STUDY OF A SELECTION 265 VII There were men with hoary hair Amidst that pilgrim band ; — Why had they come to wither there, Away from their childhood's land? VIII There was woman's fearless eye, Lit by her deep love's truth ; There was manhood's brow serenely high, And the fiery heart of youth. IX What sought they thus afar? Bright jewels of the mine? The wealth of seas, the spoils of war? They sought a faith's pure shrine ! X Ay, call it holy ground, The soil where first they trod ; They have left unstained what there they found; — Freedom to worship God. — Felicia Hemans. What is this poem about? Read the first two stanzas. What does the first line tell ? Where did the waves dash high ? What is meant by a stern coast? What is the meaning of rock- bound? What is the meaning of the third and fourth lines? How would the first two fines in the second stanza be expressed in prose ? On what occasion did the waves dash high ? What is an exile ^ What is meant by mooring their bai'k? 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Read the next two stanzas. What do the first six lines of these stanzas tell? Ans. They tell how the exiles did not come. How many classes of persons are mentioned whose coming was unlike that of the Pilgrims ? How does the conqueror come? How do the flying come? What do the two remaining lines of these stanzas tell? Read the fifth and sixth stanzas. What does the fifth stanza describe ? What does the sixth stanza do ? What welcomed them ? Read the seventh and eight stanzas. What do these stanzas tell? Ans. They tell who were in the band. How many classes of persons are mentioned? Name each. What is the meaning of /loary ? Read the first question in the ninth stanza. Supply words making the second question complete. Express the third question fully. What does the last line of this stanza tell? What is meant by their seeking a faith's pure shrine ? A71S. Seeking a place where they could worship God in their own way. Read the last stanza. What place should be called holy ground ? Why ? EXERCISE 209 Copy the poem, and cominit it to memory. EXERCISE 210 Find out what yon can about The Pilgrim Fathers, and tJien — 1. Tell in your own words who the Pilgrim Fathers were, and what caused them to leave their native country. 2. Teil where they went first, how long they remained there, and why they decided to come to America. STUDY OF A DESCRIPTION 267 3. Give an account of their voyage to the New World, tell where they landed, and mention some of the hardships which they had to undergo on their arrival. CHAPTER LXXXVII STUDY OF A DESCRIPTION The Old A jjgler's Cottage I found the old angler living In a small cottage containing only one room, but a perfect curiosity in its method and arrangement. It was on the skirts of the village, on a green bank, a little back from the road, with a small garden in front, stocked with kitchen herbs, and adorned with a few flowers. The whole front of the cottage was overrun with a honeysuckle. On the top was a ship for a weathercock. The interior was fitted up in a truly nautical style, the old angler's ideas of comfort and convenience having been acquired on the berth-deck of a man-of-war. A hammock was slung from the ceiling, which, in the daytime, was lashed up so as to take but httle room. From the centre of the chamber hung a model of a ship of his own workmanship. Two or three chairs, a table, and a large sea-chest, formed the principal movables. The mantle- piece was decorated with sea-shells ; over which hung a quadrant flanked by two woodcuts of most bitter-looking naval commanders. His implements for angling were carefully disposed on nails and hooks about the room. On a shelf was arranged his library, con- taining a work on angling, much worn, a Bible covered with canvas, an odd volume or two of voyages, a nautical almanac, and a book of songs. — Washington Irving. 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR What is the title of this piece ? What is an angler? What does the first sentence tell ? How many rooms were in the cottage? What was a curiosity? Where was the cottage ? What is meant by the skh'ts of the village ? Where did the cottage stand ? How far back from the road was it? What was in front of the cottage? What did the gar- den contain ? What is an herb ? Mention two or three kinds of herbs that are commonly raised in gardens. What else was in the garden? What is the meaning of adorned? Describe the front of the cottage. What was on the top of it ? What is a lueathercock ? What does the third paragraph describe? What is the intej'ior of a house? What is meant by a natctical style? What led the old angler to fit up his cottage in the style of a seaman? How was his hammock arranged? What hung from the centre of the chamber? What movable articles of furniture did the room contain? What decorated the mantle-piece? What hung over it? What is a quadrant? What is meant by the quadrant's being flanked by the two woodcuts? What hung on the nails and hooks about the room? Where was the library? Of what books was it composed? EXERCISE 211 REPRODUCTION The Old Angler's Cottage Write in your own zvords a description of The Old iugler's Cottage, EXERCISE 212 DESCRIPTION OF A ROOM Write a description of some room that yon have seen. Tell what things were iri the room, and how they were arraiiged. ORAL COMPOSITION 269 Topics for similar descriptions : — 1. A village store. 4. A country church. 2. Our schoolroom. 5. A family sitting-room. 3. A blacksmith shop. 6. A fire station. CHAPTER LXXXVIII ORAL COMPOSITION The Nest of the Bobolink Read the following selections: — I If I were a bird, in building my nest I should follow the example of the boboKnk, placing it in the midst of a broad meadow, where there was no spear of grass, or flower, or growth unlike another to mark its site. I judge that the bobolink escapes the dangers to which I have adverted as few or no other birds do. Unless the mowers come along at an earher date than she has anticipated, that is, before July i, or a skunk goes nosing through the grass, which is unusual, she is as safe as bird well can be in the great open of nature. She selects the most monotonous and uniform place she can find amid the daisies or the timothy and clover, and places her simple structure upon the ground in the midst of it. There is no concealment, except as the great conceals the little, as the desert conceals the pebble, as the myriad conceals the unit. You may find the nest once, if your course chances to lead you across it and your eye is quick enough to note the silent brown bird as she darts quickly away ; but step three paces in the wrong direction, and your search will probably be fruidess. — John burroughs. 2^0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR II The bobolinks build in considerable numbers in a meadow within a quarter of a mile of us. A houseless lane passes through the midst of their camp, and in clear westerly weather, at the right season, one may hear a score of them singing at once. When they are breeding, if I chance to pass, one of the male birds always accompanies me like a constable, flitting from post to post of the rail- fence, with a short note of reproof continually repeated, till I am foirly out of the neighborhood. Then he will swing away into the air and run down the wind, gurgling music without stint over the unheeding tussocks of meadow-grass and dark clumps of bul- rushes that mark his domain. — James Russell Lowell. EXERCISE 213 Tell ill your own zvords where the bobolink builds its nest^ ivJiy the situation chosen is a safe one, ajid how the male bird strives to conceal from the passer-by the location of the nest. CHAPTER LXXXIX EXERCISES IN NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION EXERCISE 214 Nesting of a Familiar Bird Write an account of some bird that nests in your locality. S. Tell whether the bird is a permanent or a summer resident, and if the latter, at what time it arrives in the spring. EXERCISES IN NARRATION 2/1 2. State the date of nesting, and give particulars about the situation and the construction of the nest. 3. State the number of eggs in a set, and tell how many broods are raised in a season. 4. Add any facts that interest you about these birds. EXERCISE 215 MIGRATION OF BIRDS Find out what you can about the Migration of BirdSf and theft — 1. Tell what the migration of a bird is. 2. Name the common migratory birds in your locality, and tell at what time they arrive in spring, and when they depart in autumn. 3. Tell why these birds migrate. State whether they feed upon insects, worms, fruit, seeds, fish, or other food, and show what effect the ccld weather has upon their sup- ply of food. 4. Tell how they migrate, — whether they travel in the daytime or at night, alone or in flocks, — and where they go. EXERCISE 216 Compare any two of the following, and state clearly some of the most striking points of resemblance and difference in their structure, habits, or uses: — Butterflies and Moths, Crabs and Lobsters, Toads and Frogs, Alligators and Crocodiles, Snakes and Eels, Rabbits and Hares, Clams and Oysters, Goats and Sheep. 272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Model. — BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS Butterflies and moths when flying look very much alike. Butterflies, however, fly only in the" daytime, while most moths fly at night. Butterflies as well as moths have four wings. When a but- terfly is at rest, it holds its wings erect. When a moth is at rest, its wings are folded over the body like a flat roof. EXERCISE 217 Write about some article that is prepared for market near your home ; as^ — coal tobacco wheat granite cotton petroleum butter maple sugar State, so far as you know, the different steps taken in the process of cultivation or manufacture, and tell in what form and in what way the article is taken to market. CHAPTER XC STUDY OF A DESCRIPTION The Snow- Storm {Frojji ^^ Snoxv-Bound^''') The sun that brief December day Rose cheerless over hills of gray, And, darkly circled, gave at noon A sadder light than waning moon. Slow tracing down the thickening sky Its mute and ominous prophecy, A portent seeming less than threat, It sank from sight before it set. STUDY OF A DESCRIPTION 273 A chill no coat, however stout, Of homespun stuff could quite shut out, A hard, dull bitterness of cold. That checked, mid-vein, the circling race Of life-blood in the sharpened face, The coming of the snow-storm told. The wind blew east ; we heard the roar Of Ocean on his wintry shore. And felt the strong pulse throbbing- there Beat with low rhythm our inland air. ^ ^ ^ ^ ¥^ Unwarmed by any sunset light The gray day darkened into night, A night made hoary with the swarm And whirl-dance of the blinding storm. As zigzag wavering to and fro Crossed and recrossed the winged snow : And ere the early bedtime came The white drift piled the window-frame. And through the glass the clothes-line posts Looked in like tall and sheeted ghosts. So all night long the storm roared on : The morning broke without a sun ; In tiny spherule traced with lines Of Nature's geometric signs. In starry flake, and pellicle. All day the hoary meteor fell ; And, when the second morning shone, We looked upon a world unknown. On nothing we could call our own. 374 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Around the glistening wonder bent The blue walls of the firmament, No cloud above, no earth below,— A universe of sky and snow ! The old familiar sights of ours Took marv^ellous shapes; strange domes and towers Rose up where sty or corn-crib stood. Or garden wall, or belt of wood ; A smooth white mound the brush-pile showed, A fenceless drift what once was road ; The bridle-post an old man sat With loose-flung coat and high cocked hat; The well-curb had a Chinese roof ; And even the long sweep, high aloof. In its slant splendor, seemed to tell Of Pisa's leaning miracle.^ — John Greenleaf Whittier. What statement is made in the first two lines? Where was the cheerless sun seen? When? What word describes the appear- ance of the hills? To what is the light of the sun compared in the second state- ment? Why waning moon? What words in the third hne de- scribe the appearance of the sun at noon? What is the third fact stated about the sun? What is meant by the thickening sky? What is the sun called in the seventh line? What is 2, portent? Tell what signs of the coming snow-storm are mentioned in the first eight lines. Read the next ten lines. What is the first thing mentioned in these lines that indicated the approaching snow-storm ? What shows the degree of the chiil? Why would a coat of " homespun stuff" be *This line refers to the Leaning Tower of Pisa. STUDY OF A DESCRIPTION , 2/5 more likely to shut out the chill than any other coat? What was the effect of the chill upon the face? Why? How did the wind indicate the coming of the storm ? What is meant by the throbbing pulse of the ocean? Read the next ten lines. When did it begin snowing? What is the meaning of hoary ? To what does the use of the word swarm direct the attention? The word whirl- dance ? What showed the depth of the snow at early bedtime? Read the next nine lines. How long did the storm continue? Read the part in these lines descriptive of the snow-flakes. What is the meaning oi pellicle ? What does the use of the word shone imply about the state of the weather on the second morning? Read the remaining lines. What is meant by the glistening wonder 1 What is the meaning of the line, No cloud above, no earth below? What is said about the old familiar sights? What did the sty or corn-crib resemble? The brush-pile? The road? The bridle-post? The well-curb? The well-sweep? How does this description of a snow-storm accord with your own observations ? EXERCISE 218 Sttidy carefully the foregoing description of a snow-storm^ and then tell in your own words — 1. How the sun, the chill, the wind, and the ocean indi- cated the coming of the snow-storm. 2. At what time it began to snow, and how long the storm continued. 3. What was seen on the second morning. 2^6 LETTER-WRITING CHAPTER XCI LETTER-WRITING I. THE PARTS OF A LETTER A letter is made up of five parts. (See Form on next page.) If a letter fills a page or more, it should begin about an inch and a half from the top of the page. But if it occupies only a few Hnes, it should begin lower down, so that the margins above and below the letter may be about equal. The first line of the heading should begin a little to the left of the middle of the page. A margin should be left on the left-hand side of each page. The width of this margin should be about one-quarter of an inch on note-paper, and about half an inch on large letter-paper. The address is usually placed at the beginning of a business letter and at the close of a familiar letter. When the address is placed at the close of a letter, the salutation should begin at the marginal line, on the first line below the heading, and the body of the letter should begin at the end of the salutation, on the first line below. EXERCISE 219 (i) Copy on note-paper the following letter-form. Leave on the left-hand side of the page a margin one-quarter of an inch wideband arrange the different parts as they are arranged hi the model given. LETTER-WRITING 2/7 [heading] ScurJuCL Ba/iiraA>CL, Col., TTlru djui/L BA/rtKjzA.,- [salutation] [body of letter] [conclusion] [addrrss] TTTa.. Thxunk S. HxAjmjLh, TTicuLiharL^VJcb. 27S ENGLISH GRAMMAR (2) Write a lettef^-form similar to the one given on page 277, using in it your own name and address^ and the name and address of one of your friends. Draw dotted lines to represent the body of the letter, II. THE HEADING The heading of a letter shows where the letter was written and when it was written. If the letter is written from a city, the heading should contain the number of the house, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. Note. — Sometimes the number of the post-office box is used instead of the number of the house and the name of the street. If the letter is written from a small town, the heading should contain not only the name of the town and the name of the state, but the name of the county also. If the letter is written from a large school, from a hotel, or from any well-known institution, the name of the institution may take the place of the street and number. The heading should begin about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and a little to the left of the middle. If the heading is short, it may be written on one line. If it occupies two or three lines, the second line should begin a little farther to the right than the first, and the third line should begin a little farther to the right than the second. Name the different items in each heading. What mark is used to separate these parts? What mark is placed at the close of each heading ? LETTER-WRITING 279 Forms of Heading RuIXa/T\xL,lIj27vm^^ 8, iq03. TTWbckiI,iqoo. 3 lib TTLaAtiyru St.^VfljdxxrajuikjubjVJcb., TizirnJLCUVL| i2 ^, 1 C] o 5 . T)xoaA>^A.,CcrL.,Sx>pt. i2 5, ICjOl. (T? 0. 13ox '^.S.S.) 280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Separate by commas the different items in the heading, and place a period at the close of the heading. Note. — If any of the words in the heading of a letter are abbreviated, the different items must be separated by commas, just as if the words were written in full. A period must be placed after each abbreviation. Do not omit the name of the state from the heading of a letter ; thus, not Spi'ingfield, July 24, 1903. Do not abbreviate the name of a city ; not JY. V. for A^ew York. Do not abbreviate the distinguishing word in the name of a county; thus, not Scho. Co. for SchoJiarie Co., Wash. Co. for Washingto7i Co. Do not write st, d, or tk after the" number denoting the day of the month, when that number is immediately fol- lowed by the number denoting the year; wot Jan. ist, 1902, for Jan. i, 1902 ; May 3d, 1904, for May 3, 1904; Dec. 25th, 1905, for Dec. 25, 1905. EXERCISE 220 Copy the foregoing Headings. Be carefiil to arrange the different parts as they are arranged in the fonns given. EXERCISE 221 Write headings for letters from the items given below. Arrange the items like those in the foregoing forms. 1. Austin, Texas, May 3, 1903. 2. 839 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ilhnois. November 15, 1900. 3. Cooperstown, Otsego County, New York, August 26. 1902. LETTER-WRITING 28 1 4. Yale College, New Haven, Connecticut, February 22, 1901. 5. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, January 17, 1907. P.O. Box 947- EXERCISE 222 Write a heading for a letter to be sent from your home to-day. III. THE SALUTATION The salutation consists of the opening words of respect or affection. Forms of Salutation To relatives or friends — X)jixxK, hcutluA. - TTLlj cLexiA QXxxAn.- TTLlj (ijexiA TTlxrtKxA.,- DxnaXLe/rruL/rL : — With what kind of letter does the first word in each salutation begin? What words are used for the names of the persons addressed? By what marks are some of the salutations followed? By what are others followed? 282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR When the words fat her ^ mother ^ sister, cousin, etc., are used in the salutation of a letter, they should begin with capital letters. The salutation may be followed by a comma and a dash, or by a colon and a dash. Note. — Some writers do not use the dash in the salutation unless the body of the letter begins on the same line as the salutation. When the address is placed at the close of a letter, the salutation should begin at the marginal line, on the first line below the heading; but when the address is placed at the beginning of a letter, the salutation should be placed on the first line below the address. (See p. 277, and pp. 285 and 286, Ex. i and 2.) EXERCISE 223 Copy the fore^'oing forms of salutation. EXERCISE 224 Write a salutation for a letter to — 1. Your mother or your guardian. 2. A lady who is a stranger. 3. A gentleman who is a stranger. 4. A business firm. 5. Your teacher. 7. One of your classmates. 6. Your aunt. 8. Your cousin. IV. THE CONCLUSION The conclusion of a letter is made up of the closing words of respect or affection and the signature of the writer. LETTER-WRITING 283 Forms of Conclusion 1 JLoxnrru>lru^ ucruAA, .A^JjUL. JL.TCioLhJjurrL TTLodt sinrucJiAJiJlru ucruA^, Cjjexrr-oc 14-. T^jLTuprucricLb f"a/n/TVL| S. A^jdJjjru ChuojJljLb R..TK>aTrbp^na/ru .^^Kiror, TTLucJx. Name the different items in each address and tell how those parts are separated. What mark is placed at the close of each address? Separate the different parts of the address by commas, and place a period at its close. Do not forget to use a title when writing a person's address. Some of the most common titles used in ad- dresses are : LETTER-WRITING 287 I. — Before the Names of Persons Mrs.^ Miss Mr. Rev. Prof. Master Misses Messrs. Dr. Hon. Prefix Mrs. to the name of a married woman ; Miss to the name of an unmarried woman ; Mr. to the name of a man who has no higher title ; and Master to the name of a boy. In writing to two or more gentlemen, use the title Messrs. ; to two or more young ladies, the title Misses. Prefix Rev. to the name of a clergyman, or Rev. Mr. if the Christian name is not known ; Dr. to the name of a physician ; Prof, to the name of one who has been elected to a professorship in a college or other institution of learning. ; and Hon. to the name of a cabinet officer, a member of Congress, a judge, a mayor, and to the names of some others of similar rank. Note. — When a lady writes to a stranger, she should prefix Miss or Mrs., in parentheses, to her name, so that the person who answers the letter may know how to address the reply. II. — After the Names of Persons Esq.i A.M. M.D. Ph.D. D.D. LL.D. Esq. is added to the name of a member of the legal pro- fession, and to the names of civil officers not entitled to the prefix Hon. A.M., M.D., Ph.D., D.D., and LL.D. are titles conferred by universities, colleges, or other institutions of learning. Do not prefix Mr. to a name when Esq., A.M., or some similar title is added to the name ; and do not prefix Dr. to a ^ The meanings of these titles are given in the list of abbreviations on pages 319-321- 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR name that is followed by one of the titles, M.D., Ph.D., D.D., or LL.D.; thus, not Dr, John Brown, M.D., but Z^r. John Brown, or John Brown, M.D. Not Rev. Dr. Henry S. White, D.D., but Rev, Dr. Henry S. White, or Rev, Henry S, White, D,D. EXERCISE 227 Write addresses to be used in letters to — A married lady. A boy. A clergyman. An unmarried lady. An editor. A physician. A member of Congress. A business firm. A lawyer. VI. THE BODY OF A LETTER The body of a letter usually begins at the end of the salu- tation, on the first line below it (see p. 277); but when the address and salutation together occupy more than two lines, the body of the letter is often begun on the same line with the salutation. (See pp. 286 and 292.) Adapt the style of the letter to the subject. In writing to relatives or to intimate friends, be unreserved — write as you would talk if your friends were present. In writing to superiors or to strangers, be respectful. Begin at once with what you wish to say, and when you have finished do not try to think of something to fill the sheet, but add the closing words of respect or affection, and sign your name. Do not write a succession of short sentences with the sub- jects omitted ; as, Had a pleasant jonrney. Found my Jriends welL Shall expect to hear from you soon. LETTER-WRITING 2S9 Do not begin a new paragraph under the last word of the preceding paragraph, but leave a space the width of the margin at the beginning of the first line in every paragraph, except the first. Do not rule a line for the margin of a letter. When you use the letters st, d, or /// after the day of the month, do not write them abov^e the line, but on the line ; as, Dec. i6th, not Dec. 16?. Do not place periods after ist, 2d, 3^, 4th, etc. Do not place two periods at the close of a sentence when the last word is abbreviated. Do not send a letter carelessly written. Pay particular attention to penmanship, capital letters, and marks of punctuation. If writing to a person who is not a near relative or a close friend, do not forget to enclose a postage stamp when you write requesting an answer for your own benefit. EXERCISE 228 Write a letter to one of your cousins or to some other friend^ describing yonr school. Tell the number of pnpils, the 7iiimber of teacJiers, and siicJi other things about the school as inteirst you most. Follozv the form given on page 277. Give your full address in the headi^tg, and sign your own 7tame to the letter. EXERCISE 229 Suppose that you are away from home attending school. Write a letter to some member of your family^ reqiiesting to have some article that you need sent to yoti. 290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR VII. THE SUPERSCRIPTION The address on the envelope is called the superscription. Forms of Superscription Thuxr Ijork.. Rjur. W.€mA>L|TlT.PcrTtiiA.,D.D., TLoTU/aiJc, P. 0. BoTc^n- Ccm/rx.. LETTER-WRITING 291 Write the first line of the address near the middle of the envelope, making the right and left margins equal. Begin each of the other lines a Httle farther to the right than the preceding line. Notice that in the forms of superscription given the dif- ferent items are separated by commas, and the last item is followed by the period. Many persons use no marks of punctuation in the superscription, except the period after an abbreviation. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner of the envelope. To fold a sheet of ordinary note-paper so that it will fit an envelope a little longer than the width of the sheet, lay the sheet before you with the first page up, and the double edge toward your left hand. Then turn the lower third of the sheet up, fold the upper third down over this, and press the folds. If a large square envelope is used, only one fold should be made. Place the sheet before you in the manner described, turn the lower part of the sheet up until the lower and upper edges meet, and press the fold. Insert the letter in the envelope in such a manner that it may be right side up when it is taken from the envelope and unfolded. EXERCISE 230 (i) Copy on envelopes the foregoing superscriptions. (2) Write on envelopes the superscriptions of letters to he sent to — 292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1. Your father or guardian. 3. Your teacher. 2. One of your classmates. 4. A business firm. 5. Your uncle in a distant city. VIII. A BUSINESS LETTER Form of Business Leiter biC] Cojmp^>dL St.,XoijaZ)LrilLi>, hCij., f)jLQjumJUA. J23, iqOO. TAxx/nidinrL S q woJu^PiXuxi \\ crrii. (JtAjlA. |t)/L favJx. cLcrllaXb ($i4-.oo),foT urkLcA phxLbJL J)JUrLcL "to TrUL| oAAAJibJ) CL copxi o^ "HoJyjpJiJLd TTLoTbtKZu TTLoLcazx/ruL' jt)A otxjl L|XaAv.-&-€^A/rvm/rL^ U;W\.tKiLTU^/^TU>L/TT^^ LjoajLAi) "DbuXu, What is the first thing spoken of in the body of the letter? Whjit does the letter ask to have sent? Where is it to be sent? When is the subscription to begin? LETTER-WRITING 293 EXERCISE 231 Copy the foregoing letter. Pay particular attention to capital letters, marks of punctuation, and arrangement of the different. parts. IX. LEITERS ORDERING PERIODICALS EXERCISE 232 Write a letter ordering ** St. Nicholas,'' '' Youth' s Com- panion," or some other magazine or paper that you would like to take. Use your oivn name and address in the letter, and write as carefully as if the letter were to be sent. EXERCISE 233 . Write a letter ordering a newspaper that is published near your home. X. CHANGE OF ADDRESS EXERCISE 234 Suppose you are a subscriber for sojne magazine or paper, and wish to have the address changed. Write to the pub- lishers and 7'equest to have the paper sent to your new address. Mention in your letter the na7ne of the periodical, and give the old address as well as the new. 294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR XL LETTERS ORDERING BOOKS Hartford, Conn., Sept. 7, 1905. Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co., no Boylston Street, Boston, Mass. Dear Sirs : — Enclosed is an order for three dollars and ninety-five cents {$ 3y%V)' ^^^ which please send me, by express, the following books : — 6 The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers. 1 Carlyle's Essay on Burns. 2 George Eliot's Silas Marner. 2 Scott's Ivanhoe. I Webster's First Bunker Hill Oration. Yours respectfully, E. D. Read. Note. — If you are ordering books that are published in various styles, state in your order not only the title of the book, but also the edition and style of binding that you prefer. It is well to state also the author's name. EXERCISE 235 (i) Copy the foregoing letter, (2) Think of some book that you would like to own, and write to the publishers and order the book. (3) Write to the publishers of your Reader or your Geog- raphy, and ofder a sujficient number of copies of the book to supply your class. LETTER-WRITING 295 XII. ORDERS EXERCISE 236 Write to William Graj/y Canton^ N. K, ordering the fol- lowing seeds to be sent, by mail, to your address : — I pkg. Pansy, light blue, 1 5 cts. ; i pkg. Pansy, King of the Blacks, 1 5 cts. ; i pkg„ Verbena, scarlet, 20 cts. ; I pkg. Verbena, mixed varieties, 20 cts. ; i pkg. Sweet Mignonette, 5 cts. ; I oz. Sweet Peas, mixed colors, 10 cts. Follow the form given on the preceding page. EXERCISE 237 Write a letter to some business firm that you know, or- dering goods of some kind. State clearly the number and kind of articles that you desire, and tell how you wish them sent, XIII. APPLICATIONS Williamsport, Ind., July 17, 1903. The Registrar, American University, Washington, D.C. Dear Sir : — Please send me a catalogue of the American University, and greatly obHge, Yours respectfully, Albert Raymond. EXERCISE 238 Copy the letter above. 296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISE 239 Write to a publisher of books, and ask him to send yon a catalogue of his publications. CHAPTER XCII BUSINESS FORMS I. BILLS 1 Mr. Lyman Gilbert, Chicago, Nov. i, 1904. Bought of Smith & Howard. 50 lbs. Coffee Sugar, . . . @ 8^ % 4 00 10 lbs. Java Coffee, . " 35^ 3 50 4 lbs. Oat Meal, . 5^' 20 8 doz. Eggs, " 20^ I 60 4 gals. Molasses, " ']ou>naje. I, I q 00 JlsujujihexL ■jrorru H-th/rc TIX. Oui>uj|otcL ITuaXu t)crtlUxAJb, fur -IroxxJxA. to tklh cLoLl. TnA2>.C. K..lUAi^. When is a receipt given? By whom is it signed? In how many places is the amount written ? How is it written ? Why is it written twice ? For what purpose was the first sum paid? What is meant by "balancing" an account? EXERCISE 243 Copy the foregoing receipts. Be careful to arrange the different parts like those in the models given. EXERCISE 244 Suppose Walter D. Moore rents a house that you own. On the first day of this month he paid you thirty dollars for rent of house to that time. Write a receipt for the amount received. Follow the Form given ab&ve. EXERCISE 245 Look at the bills 07i pages 296 and 297 and write the two receipts that might have been given in place of the receipted bills. 300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR III. ADVERTISEMENTS FOR ARTICLES LOST Lost. — On Saturday afternoon, between the Commercial Bank and the Post Office, a small black morocco pocket- book, containing a check on the Commercial Bank and one or two dollars in silver. The finder will be suitably rew^arded upon leaving the article at 714 Broadway. What was lost? What does the phrase on Saturday afternoon tell? What does the second phrase tell? What words describe the pocket-book? What did the pocket-book contain? Where was the finder requested to leave the article? When you write an advertisement about an article that is lost, describe the article so clearly that it may be known from your description. EXERCISE 246 Yoli have lost one of the articles named below. Write an advertisement about the lost article, to be inserted in one of the papers ifi your town. bracelet knife dog horse IV. ADVERTISEMENTS FOR ARTICLES FOUND Found. — On Main Street, last Friday morning, a watch. The owner can have the article by calling at this office, proving the property, and paying for this notice. What article was found? Where was it found? When was it found ? What is meant by proving the property ? BUSINESS FORMS 301 When you write an advertisement about an article that has been found, do not describe the article fully, lest the wrong person should claim it. EXERCISE 247 Yoli have found one of the things named below. Write a notice for a paper, advertising the article. muff coat bank-book travelling-bag V. ADVERTISEMENTS FOR HELP 1 Wanted. — A neat, strong girl for general housework ; must understand cooking; references required. Apply at 189 West 57th Street. 2 Wanted. — A bright, active, honest boy for office-work. Apply by letter, stating age and giving references. Address Dr. L. B. Porter, P. O. Box 1247, New York. What is the first advertisement for? What qualifications must the girl have? How is the apphcant expected to apply? What is the second advertisement for? How is the apphcant to apply? EXERCISE 248 (i) Copy the foregoing advertisements. (2) Write an advertisement asking for a woman or a girl to take care of yotaig childre^i. Mention some of the qualities that the applicant must possess. (3) Write a letter in answer to the second advertisement above. Give for reference the name of your teacher. 302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Note. — Do not forget the proper form for the heading, the address, and the other parts. Remember that a neat, well-written letter, sent in answer to an advertisement, will aid the applicant in securing the desired position. VI. ADVERTISEMENTS FOR SITUATIONS Wanted. — By a young man, a situation as coachman ; understands tiie care of horses and is a careful driver ; good references. Address F. B., 325 Third Avenue. Who advertises for a situation? What situation does he wish? What does the writer say he can do? EXERCISE 249 (i) Write an advertisement for a situation as gardener. (2) Write an advertisement for a sitiiatioji as cook. (3) Write an advertisement for a situation as janitor. (4) A dressmaker wishes to go out by the day. Write an advertisement for her. VII. NOTICES OF PUBLIC MEETINGS The annual meeting of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society will be held at the Fourth Presbyterian Church on Tuesday, the 25th inst., at 3 o'clock p.m. Of what meeting is this a notice? Where is it to be held? When is it to be held? EXERCISE 250 Rev. William Howard, D.D., will deliver a lecture ofi Temperance at some church or hall in your place. Write a notice of the lecture. BUSINESS FORMS 303 EXERCISE 251 Some society in your place is to hold an annual meeting for the election of officers. Write a notice of the meeting. EXERCISE 252 Your school is to have public exercises. Write a notice telling where and when the exercises are to be held. EXERCISE 253 Write public notices similar to those you heard read from the pulpit last Sunday. VIII. TELEGRAPHIC DESPATCHES EXERCISE 254 Write, from the items given below, telegraphic despatches of not more than ten words each. The address and the signs ture are not to be counted as part of the ten words. 1 Mrs. G. W. Hall, Hanover, N.H., Dec. 17, 1901. Rutland, Vt. I shall not reach home to-night, on account of a railroad accident. No one is injured. r W H 11 2 Mr. H. R. Baker, ^^^^^^' N'^-' ^^^^^ ^^' ^^o/- Omaha, Neb. The house is sold, and possession is to be given on May 1st. I have written you full particulars. R. S. Allen. 304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3 Baltimore, Md., Dec. i8, 1904. To the Passenger Agent of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, 285 Broadway, New York. Please reserve for me a lower berth in the sleeping-car that leaves New York for Oswego on Friday, the 23d inst. S. T. Norton. CHAPTER XCIII SOCIAL FORMS FORMAL INVITATIONS Formal invitations are expressed in the third person : thus— TTVu. ojrxxL VCihJ). CcLuroAxi SXxi/rJjuj AjinujihZ XhjL cJjuxLuiAJL crL VfXx.VJdhxjinrrL Kiyruc^ cxjrrLQXi/ruj cut cL/rvruA. OTL \uJihdxxjUi,%wruL Tuy7\jLtjejL/nIJx , clL sju^-i/n. o'ouTofc. 2'] OaJc ..AooTuujL./. SOCIAL FORMS 30$ The note of acceptance or regret should correspond in form to the invitation, as in the following examples : — OuCxnupXj) uruUx cJjuxbuLnjL Vfh^^. CL/rui. TTlAi. £TiiJx , cut SJLXM/TL O^cXcrcic. AxxyuJi> tJixuL CL pJuLiruruJ) i/rxY^'u^-^yrruml oAjuM/yxtb hxZ) oxomJxi/nxije. crt TTIa.. ojtlA. TTL/ii). ExLaroAxL StxxrnJjuj^ kjjTucL L/ruriicuLujrL j-OT I uxi dxm , 3>uynj^ Tu/rueJ^^ cut SjexK/n, o^cXcrcic. 3o6 ENGLISH CxRAMMAR EXERCISE 255 Study carefully the arrangement of items in the foregoing forms y and then copy on note-paper these forms. EXERCISE 256 (i) Write an invitation to dinner from Mr. and Mrs. Luther Brown to Miss Julia Reed. (2) Write an answer^ accepting the invitation. (3) Write an answer, declining the invitation. APPENDIX 3j