LIBRARY OK Till'. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. (VTKT Deceived Accessions JAN 1895 .. .. 189 .. C7 4 /ss No. ... a call. Appear Seem. Things appear as they present themselves to the eye ; they seem as they are represented to the mind. Things appear good or bad, so far as we can judge by our senses, and seem right or wrong, as we may determine by reflection. Approach Address. The word approach, which means to draw near to, is sometimes misused for address ; as, " He is a difficult man to approach" Appreciate Rise. A just estimate is the true meaning of appreciate. Hence it is correct to say : " I appreciate it." The word is erroneously used in the sense of rise; as, "The land will appreciate rapidly;" that is, rise or increase in value. Apprehend Comprehend Think. To receive an idea into the mind is to apprehend it, while fully to understand it is to comprehend it. Hence, we may apprehend many truths which we do not compre- Jiend. Apprehend is also loosely used for think ; as, " I apprehend that it will rain." Apt Likely Liable. Critics do not sanction the use of apt, the special mean- ing of which is quick, prompt, ready, suitable, in the sense of likely or liable, words denoting a probability or contingency; as, "He is apt to leave town to-day;" " You will be apt to take cold." Likely should be substi- VOCABULARY. 9 tuted for apt in the first example, and liable or likely in the second. " She is an apt pupil," illustrates the proper use of the word. Artist Artisan Mechanic. Artists practice the fine arts; artisans, the industrial arts; mechanics^ the mechanical arts. Mechanics are al- ways artisans ; but artisans are not necessarily mechanics. As So Like. Following is an example of the incorrect use of the adverb as in the sense of so: "You are not as smart as I." In the sentence, " It may be satisfactory so far as the plans are concerned," so is misused for as. The mis- use of like for as is not uncommon; as, " He acted just like I had supposed he would act" Assure Promise. Between these words there is not any connection, yet promise is often misused for assure in such expressions as, " I promise you that it is a true statement," etc. At By In. Following is an example of the misuse of at for by: " I attended the sales at auction." The sense here evi- dently requires the preposition by, since auction denotes the manner of sale. At is less specific than in, and it is better to say, " I attended the ball in Union Hall," than it is to say, " at Union Hall ; " since literally, in this con- nection, at may mean either in or near the hall. Avocation Vocation. A man's business, calling, or profession is his vocation. His avocations are such pursuits or diversions as serve incidentally to occupy his time and attention. " The use 10 VOCABULARY. of this word \avocatioii\ for vocation" says Webster, " is very improper." Thus: " Pliilosophy is the vocation of Herbert Spencer, but fishing and hunting may be his avocations" * Avow Acknowledge Confess. An admission is implied by each of these words, but under different circumstances. Thus, a patriot avows his hostility to tyranny and is applauded; a gentleman acknowledges his mistake and is forgiven ; a prisoner con- fesses his crime and is punished. Awful Very. It is clumsy in the extreme to use awful in the sense of very ; as, " It is awful cold to-day." This error is of common occurrence. Balance Remainder. Balance refers to accounts, etc., and should be dis- tinguished from remainder, meaning that which is left or remains; while balance, in its common sense, signifies to compare in relative value or weight. It is accordingly incorrect to say: "The balance of the week." Beside Besides. Beside is a preposition, meaning, originally, by the side of. It is always a preposition, and only a preposition; as, " Nellie sits beside you." Usage has extended the meaning of the word to one side, or out of the regular VOCABULARY. II course; as, "It is beside my present business to consider a deeper phase of the subject." It has also been mod- ified to mean out of, or in a state of deviation from ; as, " You are beside yourself." Besides is also a preposition when it means in addition to; as, "Besides all else, between you and me there is a wide gulf." Besides is an adverb when it means moreover; as, "Tell him, besides, that the way is long and difficult." Hence the use of beside as an adverb is incorrect. Between. See AMONG. Bestow Confer. Bestow is said of things given among persons in private life ; confer of things given from persons in authority to those below them in rank. Hence one friend bestows a favor upon another; emperors confer privileges on their ministers. Beyond. See ABOVE. Become Grow. These words are commonly confounded. Grow is in- correctly used for \become in such a sentence as, " The dark sky ^rtfzetf clearer." It could grow darker; it could become clearer. Behind. See AFTER. Bias Prejudice. Bias indicates a mental leaning which influences our feelings or opinions; prejudice a pre-judgment irrespect- ive of the merits of the case. Thus, we may be biased, either for or against, but we are prejudiced against. Bias supposes something real, whether good or bad, which affects our opinions, but prejudice supposes something unreal or false, which misleads the judgment. Bias may be taken in a neutral or a good sense ; prejudice, always 12 VOCABULARY. in a bad sense. It is accordingly incorrect to say: "I was prejudiced in his favor." Blanch Whiten. Blanch is to make white by withdrawing the color; ^whiten to cover or color with white. "His face whitened with fear," is accordingly incorrect Booty Prey. The idea of plunder is common to these words, but the use of prey is restricted to that which is consumed, or intended for consumption. Hence we say the eagle is a bird of prey, and that the robbers escaped with their booty. Bound Determined. Bound is a nautical term, and cannot be correctly used in the sense of ready, or determined; as, "I am bound 'to do it." We may properly say: "The ship is bound for Liverpool." Bountiful Plentiful. Bountiful applies to persons, not to things, and has no reference to quantity ; hence it is erroneous to use it as a synonym for plentiful; as, "A bountiful breakfast." Brace Pair Couple. Two persons or things when joined or linked together form a couple. The difference in the meaning of these words may be thus illustrated : "A married couple ;" "A brace of ducks;" "A pair of gloves." Couple, of these words, is most frequently misused ; as, "A couple of dol- lars." Bravery Courage. Bravery is inborn; courage is the result of reason, judgment. VOCABULARY. 13 Bring' Fetch. Bring expresses a motion toward, not away from the speaker or writer, while fetch expresses a double motion, first from and then toward him. Example: A servant brings the parcel home which he has been sent to fetch. Bury Inter. Burial, concealing in the ground, comprehends simply the purpose of the action ; interment and sepulture, the manner as well as the motive of the act. Interment and sepulture are accompanied by religious ceremonies, and refer to the bodies of human beings only ; burial is not confined to humanity, but applies also to the lower ani- mals, and to any object deposited in the earth for the purpose of concealment. Thus, dogs are buried; men are interred. Burial requires that the object be con- cealed under ground ; interment may be used for depos- iting in vaults. Bury is familiarly used in the sense of inter, but inter cannot properly be used for bury. But That If. But is often misused for that or if; as, " I do not doubt but he will come ; " "I should not wonder but it were so." By With. Both of these words imply connection between an in- strument and the agent by whom it is used ; but with means a closer, by a more remote relation. To illustrate: We kill a man with a sword ; he dies by violence. By. See AT. 14 VOCABULARY. Can May These little words are very generally misplaced. " Can I go out to the park to-day, mother? " has a very differ- ent meaning from "May I go out to the park to-day, mother? " Permission is askbd in the latter, but not in the former sentence. Carry. See ADOPT. Carnival Festival. Carnival means literally a farewell to meat, and in Catholic countries, it is a festival celebrated a week before Lent; but, in any other sense, it should not be used synonymously with fun, frolic, or festival', as, " The Authors' Carnival was a pleasing spectacle." Caligraphy Chirography. The difference in the meaning of caligraphy and chir- ography is that the former signifies fair penmanship, and the latter, one's own handwriting, irrespective of its qual- ity. The error consists in the use of caligraphy for chirography. Capacious Large. Capacious means having the capacity to hold or retain. It is often ludicrously confounded with large \ as, for ex- ample, when a man talks of a capacious rent in his coat. Capacity. See ABILITY. Caption Heading. Caption should not be used in the sense of heading; as, " The caption of a press article." Caption is that part VOCABULARY. 15 of a legal instrument which shows where, when, and by what authority it was taken, found, or executed. Casualty. See ACCIDENT. Character Reputation. Careless use is common of character and reputation, two such simple words that it would seem unnecessary to define them; yet it may be remarked that their mean- ing is essentially different. A man of bad character may have a good reputation and vice versa. Chastity Continence. Both of these words denote moral virtues. Cliastity prescribes rules for the indulgence of the passions ; con- tinence altogether prohibits such indulgence. Circumstance Incident Fact. Crabb thus defines the difference in the meaning of these common and much abused words: "Incident is what happens ; fact is what is done ; circumstance is not only what happens and is done, but whatever is, or be- longs to a thing. Circumstance comprehends in its signification whatever may be said or thought, of any- thing ; incident carries with it the idea of whatever may befall, or be said to befall, anything; fact includes in it nothing but what really is, or is done." Civil Polite. Little distinction is observed in the use of these words. Polite expresses more than civil , and it is possible for one to be civil in manner and conduct, and yet not polite. Example: "The landlord gave me a civil reception, but when he learned my name, he became polite'' 1 6 VOCABULARY. Clever Generous. Clever, is often erroneously used in the sense of gener- ous. Its true meaning is smart, skillful, adroit. Clumsy Awkward. A clumsy man lacks grace of shape ; an awkward man lacks grace of action. Clumsy is opposed to elegant; awkward, to adroit. We do not discover awkiuardness before something is done ; clumsiness is seen in the very appearance of a thing, or person. Complete Finish. The verb finish has a more restricted meaning than complete. A builder, for example, may finisJi a house and yet fail to complete it. When anything is completed, it lacks nothing; when it is finished, all has been done to it that was intended. Comprehend. See APPREHEND. Condign Severe. Condign means that which is merited or deserved. It is accordingly absurd to use it in the sense of severe; as, "The villain did not deserve the condign punishment which he received." This is a palpable contradiction in terms, equivalent to saying, that he did not deserve the deserved punishment. Condone Compensate Atone. Condone, which means to forgive, should not be used in the sense of compensate, or atone. Conduct Behavior. Behavior refers to our manner of acting on particular occasions; conduct, to the general tenor of our actions. Hence, the gallant behavior of the soldier in battle; the VOCABULARY. I/ uniformly wise and temperate conduct of all good citizens. Our humor influences our behavior; conduct is influenced by our morals and temper. Confer. See BESTOW. Confess. See Avow. Confound. See ABASH. Confuse. See ABASH. Conscientious Scrupulous. A conscientious man does nothing to offend his con- science; a scrupulous man often has his scruples on minor points. Hence, a man may be scrupulous, yet not necessarily conscientious. We should endeavor to be conscientious, without being over-scrupulous. Consequence Importance. The etymological meaning of consequence is a sequence, a result, and careful writers do not sanction its use in the sense of importance. Says Professor Gould: "The phrase, however, is now so universally used, and it is so generally accredited by both lexicographers and good writers, that no man can be justified in asserting dogmat- ically that it is a corruption of language." Consider Think Suppose. "This word," says Richard Grant White, referring to consider, " is perverted from its true meaning by most of those who use it." Consider means to meditate, to delib- erate, to reflect, and cannot properly be used for think, or suppose, in such sentences as, " I consider his conduct very ungentlemanly." Constantly Continually. Constantly, meaning firmly, or steadfastly, is commonly misused for continually ; as, " The trade of the house is 18 VOCABULARV. constantly increasing." That which is continual may not always continue in the same state, and is applied to that which is expected to cease ; that which is constant, how- ever, remains in the same state, and is applied to that which ought to last. Thus, we hear continual noises, and constantly try to live in peace. Contemptible Contemptuous. Contemptible is sometimes misused for contemptuous ; as, " I entertain a contemptible opinion of you." The speaker here unintentionally casts a reflection upon his own opinion, instead of upon the character of the person addressed. Contiguous. See ADJACENT. Convene Convoke. Convoke has been nearly banished from the current literature of the day by the adoption, as a substitute, of the word convene. Convoke means to call together; con- r by means of the flame it emits; heat, only by the sensations which it produces in ourselves. It is not correct to say: "A terrible fire is raging within me." VOCABULARY. 31 First Firstly. Although sanctioned by some critics, it is not desirable to use the adverb firstly, however euphonious it may be in certain cases, for first. Firstly is given in Webster with the remark: " Improperly used for first" Fly Flee. Although closely connected, these verbs are not inter- changeable. Fly means to move with wings, fast or slow ; flee, to move with voluntary rapidity. " I'll fly to the rescue," is an expression allowable in a figurative sense only. It is incorrect to say: " I shall fly from my ene- mies." Angels and eagles mayjfy, but men and women, not being provided with wings, can onlyfae. Freedom Liberty. It is common to use these words unadvisedly, yet each has its peculiar significance. Freedom is personal and private; liberty is public. The freedom of the city is the privilege granted by the authorities to individuals; the liberties of the city are the immunities which it en- joys. All natives of the United States are born free, but they may, at times, be temporarily restrained of their liberty. Freedom serves also to qualify the action ; liberty is applied only to the agent. Hence, we may speak or think with freedom ; but we have the liberty of speaking, thinking, or acting. Friend Acquaintance. Between these words there is a distinct difference not always observed. Friend implies a far nearer and dearer degree of relationship than acquaintance ; thus, we may have many acquaintances, but comparatively few friends. 32 VOCABULARY. Future Subsequent. The meaning of 'future is, about to be, coming; it is often strangely employed for subsequent, that which follows or comes after; as, "When I began to read the book it deeply interested me, but after the first chapter the future chapters were very dull." G General Universal. General is to universal as a part to the whole. What is getieral includes the greater part, or number ; what is universal includes every individual, or every part. A general rule admits of exceptions ; a universal rule admits of none. Examples: "It is generally believed that the mental capacities of the sexes are equal." " It is a uni- versal principle that children should honor their parents." Generous. See CLEVER. Genteel Polite. There may be gentility without politeness, and vice versa. A genteel education is suited to the station of a gentleman; a polite education, to polished society. Gen- tility respects rank ; politeness, the refinement of the mind and outward behavior. Gentleness lameness. Gentleness is an attribute of nature; tamcness, the result of discipline. These words are misapplied in the VOCABULARY. 33 following sentences: "The lion after a brief training became perfectly gentle" " The dog was too tame to be dangerous." Genuine Authentic. A genuine book is one written by the author whose name it bears; an authentic book is one which deals truthfully with its subject. Get Take Become. Get signifies to strive after ; to desire. Where, then, is the justification for such expressions as, " I shall get cold;" "You are getting crazy;" unless the idea be that the cold and the insanity are really desired ? We should say, " I shall take cold ; " " You are becoming crazy." Give. See ACCORD. Glimpse Glance. A glimpse is the action of the object appearing to the eye; a glance, the action of the eye seeking the object. Thus we catch a glimpse ; we cast a glance. Grant. See ACCORD. Gratuitous Unwarranted. It is customary to misuse gratuitous > which means without payment, for untrue, or unwarranted; as, " The intimation that the tax-levy measure had been vetoed by the Mayor, was wholly gratuitous" Great. See EVERY. Grow. See BECOME. 34 VOCABULARY. H Habit. See CUSTOM. Hanged Hung. The misuse of these words is very common. Hung is ordinarily the correct word, but when we refer to suspen- sion by the neck, as in the case of criminals, hanged should be used. See EXECUTE. Hardly Scarcely. It should be remembered that these words have a dis- tinct meaning. Plardly refers to degree; scarcely, to quantity. Thus we say : " I can hardly learn my lesson to-day, as there is scarcely time." Haste Hurry. These words, though widely different in meaning, are often confounded. Hurry conveys the idea of haste, accompanied by precipitation and confusion; while haste implies only rapidity of action, an eager desire to make progress; and may exist with deliberation and dignity. Thus, we should hasten, but not hurry > in acquiring an education. Heading. See CAPTION. Healthy Wholesome. Healthy means in a state of health, and is frequently misapplied for wholesome, signifying that which is condu- cive to health. Example: Lobsters are usually healthy, but not wholesome. Hollow Empty. Hollow respects the thing itself; the absence of its own materials produces hollowness. The absence of foreign VOCABULARY. 35 substances in anything constitutes emptiness. What is empty must be hollow ; but what is hollow need not be empty. Thus, a nut is hollow so that it may contain its kernel ; it is empty if it has no kernel. Home Residence. A man may have many residences, but only one home. Residence means a temporary, home a permanent place of abode. Hope Expectation. Hope is that which is welcome; expectation is either welcome or unwelcome. The young hope to live long; the old expect to die soon. How That. How, meaning the manner in which, is often confused with that; as, " I have heard Jioiv some critics have been pacified with claret and a supper, and others laid asleep with soft notes of flattery." Dr. Jolmson. Humanitarian Philanthropist. Few people are aware of the proper use of these words. Humanitarian, Webster to the contrary, signifies one who denies the divinity of Christ; philanthropist^ a lover of mankind. It is accordingly inexact to say: " The condition of the working classes has been greatly ameliorated by modern humanitarians" Humble. See DEMEAN. Humor Mood. While humor and mood both indicate a temporary state of feeling, they differ in the cause; humor being attrib- utable jnore to the physical, and mood to the mental state. Hiimor is determined by influences within our- selves; mood, entirely by events. Humor is commonly 36 VOCABULARY. taken in a bad, mood in an indifferent sense. The cor- rect usage may be thus illustrated; "On receipt of the telegram he was in a good humor, but after reading it he fell into a melancholy mood" Hypocrite Dissembler. The distinction between these words is not generally comprehended. The hypocrite feigns to be what he is not ; the dissembler conceals what he is. Thus, every hypocrite is a dissembler, but every dissembler is not a hypo- crite. Ice Iced. It is a very common but incorrect custom to confuse the words ice and iced; as, in " ice cream," " ice water." Here, while there is but little difference in the sound, there is a great deal in the sense. Ice cream really has no ex- istence; that which is called ice cream is cream iced; hence, properly, iced cream. Ice water is the product of melted ice, and may be either warm or cold, but water into which ice is put for the purpose of making it cold is iced water. Ideal Imaginary. The ideal is not directly opposed to, but is abstracted from the real ; the imaginary, on the contrary, is directly opposed to the real ; it is the unreal formed by the imag- ination. Ideal happiness, for example, exists in the mind without any actual prototype in nature; but it may VOCABULARY. 37 still be possible of realization. The imaginary, on the contrary, is a mental state in opposition to some positive reality; as, the imaginary pleasure of a lunatic who thinks himself a king. If. See BUT. Ignorant Illiterate. Ignorant is a comprehensive term implying much more than illiterate. A man may be illiterate, that is un- learned, unlettered, uneducated, and yet be very clever and far from ignorant of human nature and the ways of the world ; but to say that one is ignorant is to imply that he is also illiterate. Ill Sick. The stronger and generally the better of these words is sick. The use of ill is common in England, but less popular in America, where the preference appears to be for sick. Imagination. See FANCY. Imbroglio Row Quarrel. Imbroglio means an intricate or complicated plot, and cannot properly be used for row or quarrel ; as, " They were engaged in a noisy and violent imbroglio over the title to the land." Imitate Copy Counterfeit To imitate is to take a general likeness; to copy is to take an exact likeness ; to counterfeit is to take a false likeness. Imitate is used in an indifferent or a good sense; copy, often, and counterfeit^ still oftener, in a bad sense. Hence, to imitate an author's style is always per- missible; but to copy it would be a too slavish adherence. To counterfeit a coin or a signature would be a crime. 38 VOCABULARY. Immense Big-. It is common to misuse immense for big, etc. That is immense which is boundless or infinite ; while big is used in a much more restricted sense. It is accordingly incor- rect to speak of an immense house, or an immense city. Immodest Indecent. The distinction between these adjectives is generally disregarded. Both indicate immorality; indecency, by external signs, as dress, words, looks; immodesty, by con- duct and disposition. Hence, indecency is a weaker word than immodesty. Importance. See CONSEQUENCE. In Into. In is often erroneously used for into; as, " Let us go out in the garden." Inaugurate Begin. The meaning of inaugurate is to install or induct into an office with suitable ceremonies. It should not accord- ingly be used as though it were synonymous with begin ; as, " I shall inaugurate a new course of study." While Webster gives this definition with the remark " recent," the use of the word in any such sense is condemned by all of the latest and best critical authorities, and ought to be carefully avoided by all students of pure English. Incident. See CIRCUMSTANCE. Inconceivable Incredible. That which cannot be conceived or imagined is incon- ceivable ; that which cannot be credited or believed is incredible. The inconceivable is not necessarily incred- ible, nor is the incredible likely to be inconceivable. The VOCABULARY. 39 common error, however, lies in misusing inconceivable for incredible. The correct usage is illustrated in such expressions as, " The inconceivable goodness of God ; " " The incredible character of his statements," etc. Increase Grow. To increase is either a gradual or an instantaneous act ; to grow is a gradual process. To increase is either a natural or an artificial process; \jQgrow is always natural. Increase is used in the transitive as well as in the intransi- tive ; but grow is always used in the intransitive. Money increases, but does not grow; while wheat may both grow and increase. Indices Indexes. * Algebraic signs are indices ; tables of contents are in- dexes. The difference in the meaning of the words is sufficiently clear, still it is not uncommon for indices to be misused for indexes. Individual Person. Individual means, etymologically, that which cannot be divided, applies to any one object among the many, and is opposed to the whole, or that which is divisible. Hence, it is clearly absurd to use individual 'in the sense of person; as, "I saw several strange individuals in the class-room." Indorse Approve. The use of indorse in the sense of approve, as, " I do not indorse his action," is not sanctioned by modern authorities, and is a clear violation of the genius of our language. Such expressions as, " I will indorse the note," that is to say, write my name upon the back of it, illustrate the correct use of the word. 4O VOCABULARY. Infamous Scandalous. Infamous applies to persons and things; scandalous, only to things. The infamous produces greater publicity, and is more serious in its nature, than the scandalous. A man may be infamous ; his acts scandalous. Inside Interior. The word inside may be applied to bodies either small or large ; while interior is peculiarly appropriate to bodies of great magnitude. It is accordingly proper to speak of the inside of a nutshell or a room ; the interior of a palace or a cathedral. Instance. See EXAMPLE. Institute Establish. The act of instituting includes design and method; that of establishing comprehends the idea of authority. To institute is always the act of an agent ; to establish is sometimes the effect of circumstances. Public-spirited citizens institute that which is for the public good; com- merce between countries becomes established in course of time. Inter. See BURY. Intoxicate See DRUNK. Invent Discover. The author of any new combination of causes or things, invents ; he who finds something which has al- ways existed, but was previously unknown, discovers. Hence, Galileo invented \\\z telescope; Newton discovered the law of gravitation. Irritate. See AGGRAVATE. VOCABULARY. 41 Issue Number. Between these words there is not the slightest similarity, still issue is currently misused for number; as, "I read it in a recent issue of the Chronicle." Jealousy Envy. The distinction between these words is not always observed. Jealousy, etymologically defined, signifies filled with a burning desire ; envy means not looking at or looking at in a contrary direction. Jealous is applica- ble to bodies of men, as well as individuals; envious, to individuals only. Nations are jealous of any interfer- ence in their commerce, etc. ; individuals are envious of the rank and wealth of one another. We we jealous of what is our own; we are envious of what is another's. Jealousy fears to lose what it has; envy is pained at seeing another have that which it wants for itself. Princes are jealous of their authority ; courtiers are envious of those in favor. The envious man sickens at the sight of enjoyment; he is easy only in the misery of others. Jealousy, according to its object, is a noble or an ignoble passion ; in the former case it is emulation sharpened by fear; in the latter, it is greediness stimulated by fear. Envy is always a base passion. Jeopardize Jeopard. It is now customary to v&z jeopardize instead Q{ jeopard. VJ\\.\\e jeopardize is not literally incorrect, still the prefer- 42 VOCABULARY. ence should be given to jeopard. Says Professor Math- ews, "There is considerable authority for this word, [jeopardize] which is beginning to supplant the good old English word jeopard. But why is it more needed than perilize, hazardize?" Judgment Discretion. Judgment is conclusive ; discretion is intuitive. Judg- ment acts by rule ; it admits of no question or variation ; discretion acts according to circumstances. Judgment requires knowledge and actual experience; discretion requires reflection and consideration. Thus, a general exercises his judgment in the disposition of his army and in the mode of attack, but uses his discretion in the choice of officers, etc. Justice Equity. Justice is founded on the laws of society ; equity, on the laws of nature. Justice is a written or prescribed law ; equity is a law in our hearts, conforming to no rule except circumstances, and deciding by the consciousness of right and wrong. Justice forbids us from doing wrong,, and requires us to repair the wrongs which we have done to others; while equity forbids us from doing to. others what we would not have them do to us. K Keep Preserve Save. The idea of having in one's possession is common to all these terms, but they differ somewhat in application. VOCABULARY. 43 Things are kept at all times; preserved under circumstan- ces of difficulty and danger ; saved at the moment when threatened with destruction. Thus, the shepherd keeps his flock, by simply watching over it; children are at times preserved amid the greatest dangers; things are often saved from burning by the exertions of the firemen. Kill Murder Slay. All of these words convey the idea of the taking of life. Kill is the general and indefinite term ; to murder means the unlawful and deliberate killing of a human being ; to slay is to kill in battle. Killing is applicable to all that has life; murder, to mankind only; slay, most- ly to men, but sometimes to the lower animals. It will thus be observed that the killing of one man by another is not necessarily murder. Kind. See DESCRIPTION. Knowledge Learning". Knowledge is a general term which signifies simply the thing known ; learning is that species of knoivledge de- rived from schools, or through the medium of personal instruction. Knowledge admits of all degrees, and is the opposite of ignorance ; learning is positively a high degree of knowledge. We may acquire knowledge from per- sonal experience; learning, from books. Labyrinth Maze. The idea of intricacy is expressed by each of these words, but in a far greater sense in labyrinth than in 44 VOCABULARY. maze. Political and polemical discussions may be meta- phorically compared to a labyrinth, that is, a mental state of confusion from which we are unable to extricate our- selves ; maze, on the contrary, denotes a state of tempo- rary perplexity into which the mind has been thrown by unexpected or inexplicable events. Unless great care be exercised in their use, these terms are likely to be misapplied. Lady Woman. The prevalent misuse of these words is very silly and affected. Lady is a term indicating a social, mental, or moral superiority, while ivoman merely denotes the sex. All ladies are women, but all women are not ladies. A servant styles herself a lady, and says that her mistress is a very decent sort of a woman. Many appear to be under the misapprehension that a sufficient degree of respect is not implied in the time-honored and noble word woman. Large. See CAPACIOUS. Large Quite. These words are occasionally confounded and mis- applied. Quite relates to adjectives, and it is incorrect to use it as if relating to a noun. In the sentence "I shall soon inherit quite a fortune," quite qualifies the noun fortune, and is accordingly erroneous. If large were to be inserted before the word " fortune," so as to make the sentence read : " I shall soon inherit quite a large fortune," the objection to the use of quite, which is then made to qualify the adjective large, instead of the noun fortune, would be removed. Lean Meager. Lean means a lack of fat ; meager a lack of flesh. The lean is not necessarily meager ; but the meager is VOCABULARY. 45 always lean. Animals, as well as men, may be lean, but men only, are meager. Leanness is often connected with the temperament ; meagerness is the result of starvation and disease. Learn Teach. To learn means to take ; to teach, to give instruction. It is said that the words were once synonymous, but now the difference in their meaning is well defined, and the use of learn for teacJi in such expressions as " I will learn you the art of multiplication," etc., is no longer permis- sible. Learning". See KNOWLEDGE. Leave Quit. An appreciable distinction exists between these words when used with exactness. A man may leave his house for a short time, and then go back to it, but when we quit a place it is with the intention never to return. Leave applies to persons or things; quit, to things only. Lengthy Long-. In such phrases as " a lengthy debate," the word lengthy is objectionable, and should be superceded by long. Lenience Leniency Lenity. It is preferable in all cases, to use lenity rather than either lenience or leniency. Although lenience and leniency are recognized by both Webster and Worcester, they do not appear to be etymologically correct, and are con- demned in strong terms by nearly all literary critics. Says Professor Gould, referring to leniency: " It is not properly constructed, and it is not needed." Less. See FEWER. 46 VOCABULARY. Liberty. See FREEDOM. Lie Lay. A wide confusion prevails relative to the proper use of these verbs. Says Crabb: "To lie is neuter, and designates a state ; to lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; a thing lies on the table; some one lays it on the table ; he lies with his fathers ; they laid him with his fathers. In the same manner, when used idiomatic- ally, we say, a thing lies by us until we bring it into use ; we lay it by for some future purpose ; we lie down in order to repose ourselves ; we lay money down by way of deposit ; the disorder lies in the constitution ; we lay a burden upon our friends." Like. See As. Likely Liable. See APT. Likewise. See ALSO. List Catalogue. A list is a mere record of names ; a catalogue is a sys- tematic list. Thus a list of books will give their titles only, regardless of any plan of arrangement ; while a catalogue implies, in addition to the names, a systematic classification and arrangement. Lit Lighted -Alighted. Lit, a colloquialism, is often misused for lighted; as, " the gas is lit; " also for aligJited; as, " he lit upon his feet" Loan Lend. Both of these verbs have a recognized existence in our literature, but loan is perhaps obsolete, and its use should be avoided by precise writers and speakers. It is VOCABULARY. 47 undoubtedly far better usage to say, "Lend me your pen- cil," than it is to say, " Loan me your pencil." Locate Settle. The use of locate in the sense of settle has been stig- matized as an "Americanism" and a "vulgarism," and should be shunned. Thus, a man is said to settle, not to locate, in California. Locate is recognized, in the diction- aries, as a neuter verb, with the remark " rarely used." Love Like. A ludicrous misapplication is often made of these words. " Children, love and obey your parents," illus- trates the proper use of love, but it is very silly to say *' I love roasted turkey," etc. Like is sufficiently strong in any such sense. Men may be said to love God and civil and religious liberty ; but they like, rather than love, books, music, pictures, etc. Luxurious Luxuriant. A clear distinction is now drawn between these words, which are so frequently confounded. We may say, with accuracy, " a luxurious table," " luxurious ease," " a lux- urious liver," etc., implying an indulgence or a delight in luxury; but the use of luxuriant is restricted to the sense of rank or excessive growth or production ; as, "the luxuriant weeds," etc. M Male Man. Male, as an adjective, signifies pertaining to the male, as distinguished from the female sex. It applies to the 48 VOCABULARY. lower animals as well as to human beings. A mistaken idea apparently exists that male applies to men only; and in this sense the wrd is often misapplied. See FEMALE. Manner. See AIR. May. See CAN. Make Try. In such sentences as, " I will try the experiment," the word try is improperly used for make. Maze. See LABYRINTH. Meager. See LEAN. Mechanic. See ARTIST. Mistake Mistaken. A serious philological blunder lies in the popular misuse of these words. Mistake means to take amiss, and is equivalent to misjudge, misapprehend, miscon- ceive. " I do not make any mistake as to your inten- tions," means : "Your intentions are clear tome ; I do not misapprehend them." Says Arthur to Henry: " The pop- ulation of San Francisco is 500,000." "You are mis- taken" answers Henry; " it is only 250,000." The use of mistaken in this sense is clearly erroneous, and should be mistake. Arthur is not mistaken ; that is to say, misap- prehended by Henry, who clearly comprehends and de- nies his (Arthur's) assertion about the population of San Francisco. Henry meant what he did not say. He in- tended to tell Arthur, " You mistake, that is to say, you err, misapprehend, or misjudge, in your statement. You make the number too high; it is not as you assert, 500,000, but only 250,000." VOCABULARY. 49 Modesty Bashfulness. Modesty is a principle of the mind ; bash fulness^ a state of feeling. Modesty is unassuming; basJifulness is down- cast, timid, and awkward. Modesty is desirable ; bashful- ness is not. Money Cash. Money is applied to everything which serves as a circu- lating medium; cash is, in a strict sense, used for coin only. Hence all cash is money, but all money is not cash. Mood. See HUMOR. Most Very Almost. It is a gross and inexcusable error to use rnosf, the superlative of much, for very ; as, " It was a most shock- ing accident." Most is, besides, widely misused for almost; as, " He comes to see me most every day." Murder. See KILL. Mute. See DUMB. Mutual Common Reciprocal. The use of mutual in the sense of common, or reciprocal, is a blunder which has been denounced by Dean Alford and many other critics. " Our Mutual Friend " is the title given by Dickens to one of his novels. Says that eminent scholar Lord Macaulay : "Miitual friend is a low vulgarism for common friend." Mutual implies recip- rocity of sentiments and acts between two, but is not directly applicable to persons. Thus we may speak of the mutual love of man and wife; and of John, as the common friend of James and Charles. 5 50 VOCABULARY. N Named Mentioned. In such expressions as, " I have never named the sub- ject to him," named is improperly used for mentioned. Near. See CONVENIENT. Necessary Essential. Necessary signifies not to be departed from, and is a general and an indefinite term. The essential contains that essence or property which cannot be omitted. It is nec- essary for men to die. Exercise is essential to the pres- ervation of health. There is an essential difference between gold and silver. Here we could not properly use necessary for essential. Negligence Neglect. Negligence is a habit ; neglect is an act. The following sentences illustrate the difference in the meaning of these words : " His negligence was the source of all his misfor- tunes," " By his neglect he lost the opportunity." NeighborhoodVicinity. Neighborhood means the place which is nigh, that is, nigh to one's habitation; vicinity primarily means the place which does not exceed in distance the extent of a village. Neighborhood refers to the inhabitants, or to inhabited places, and denotes nearness of persons to each other, or to objects ; as, a populous neighborhood, } ^icinity denotes nearness of one object to another, whether person or thing; as, "Oakland is in the vicinity of San Fran- cisco." Neither. See EITHER. VOCABULARY. 51 Never. See EVER. New Novel. New and novel are sometimes used indiscriminately. New is opposed to old, novel to known ; as, a neiv house, a novel invention. No Not. It is easy to misuse these two little words ; as, " It makes little difference whether or no I do it." Here not should be used for no. Nominate Name. To nominate is to mention for a specific purpose. To name is to mention for a general purpose. Persons only are nominated ; things, as well as persons, are named. To be nominated is a public act ; to be named is gener- ally private. To be nominated is always an honor ; to be named may, according to circumstances, be either honorable or dishonorable. Nor Or. These conjunctions are often confused. Example: "I can neither read or write." In this sentence or is incor- rectly used for nor. Noted Notorious. As adjectives, these terms are sometimes misused ; as, " He is a noted criminal." The better word here would be notorious, the meaning of which is restricted to that which is bad ; while noted may be used in either a good or a bad sense. Novice. See AMATEUR. Number. See ISSUE. 52 VOCABULARY. o Obligation. See DUTY. Observation Observance. The act of noting is called observation; that of keep- ing or celebrating is called observance. The difference in the meaning of these words is clearly illustrated by such phrases as, "the acute observation of the detect- ive;" "the religious observance of the Sabbath." Observe Say. While the dictionaries authorize the common use of these words, it is in better taste to restrict the employ- ment of observe to its primitive signification ; namely, to notice. Hence such an expression as, " What did you observe?" is objectionable, and should be, " What did you say ? " Occasion Opportunity. The occasion is that which determines our conduct, and amounts to a degree of necessity ; the opportunity is that which invites to action. We do things as the occasion requires, or as the opportunity offers. We may have oc- casion to write a letter without having the opportunity. Occur Transpire. The misuse of these words is very common. Occur means simply to take place, to happen ; transpire to leak out, to come to light. Hence, it is incorrect to say, " The annual school exhibition transpired last week." The proper word here is occurred. But transpire is correctly used in such a sentence as, " The proceedings of the cau- cus have not yet transpired'' VOCABULARY. 53 Of To. * It often happens that these prepositions are misapplied In such expressions as, " It is a quarter to 10 o'clock." To means toward, and the proper word to use in such a construction is of, the literal meaning of which is out of. Older. See ELDER. Only. See ALONE. Or. See NOR AND. Ordinary Common. A distinction may be thus drawn between these terms; what is common is done by many persons ; what is ordina- ry is repeated many times. Ordinary has to do with the repetition of the act ; common, with the persons who per- form it. Ought Should. Both of these words, though implying obligation, have different shades of meaning. OugJit is the stronger term. Thus a man ouglit to be honest ; he should be neat in his dress. Over Under. These words have various meanings besides the desig- nation of mere locality, and are often misapplied. The terms " imder oath," " under hand and seal," " under arms," under his own signature," etc., are fully established and authorized forms of expression, which do not con- cern the relative positions of the persons and things indicated, but are idiomatic. Hence, over instead of under 'his own signature, is an unjustifiable phrase, despite the fact that the signature is really at the bottom of the instrument signed. Owing 1 . See DUE. 54 -VOCABULARY. Own Confess. The verb to own means to possess, but it has borrowed the additional and objectionable meaning of to confess^ to acknowledge ; as, " He owned his crime." A man owns a house, but confesses a larceny, or a murder, neither of which offenses is hardly susceptible of ownership. Pair. See BRACE. Pale Pallid Wan. All these terms denote an absence of color, but vary in degree, pallid rising upon pale, and wan upon pallid. Paleness in the countenance may be temporary, but pal- lidness and wanness are caused by sickness, hunger, or fatigue, and are of longer duration. Palliate. See EXTENUATE. Paraphernalia Trappings Regalia. We often hear paraphernalia used in the sense of trap- pings or regalia; as, "The Grand Marshal was conspicuous in his gorgeous paraphernalia" The word is derived from the Greek, and is strictly a law term, meaning what- ever the wife brings with her at marriage, in addition to her dower, such as her dresses and her jewels. Hence the evident absurdity of the use of pharaphernalia in the sentence cited. VOCABULARY. 55 Partake Eat, Partake, meaning to take a part of in common with others, to participate, is often affectedly used as a synonym of eat. It is correct to say that two or more persons partake of dinner, as they may partake of anything else. But, for the individual who eats alone, to say he partook of refreshments is an egregious blunder. Partially Partly. The use of the adverb partially for partly, although it has the sanction of Webster, is obviously incorrect. "The case in court has been partially heard." This is a com- mon expression, the intended meaning of which is, that the case has been heard in part, or partly heard. Par- tially heard, denotes that it was heard in a biased or prejudiced manner. Party Person. Party, a collective noun, meaning a number of persons is often incorrectly used for person ; as, " He was a very agreeable party'' 1 Pass. See ADOPT. Patron Customer. These nouns are generally used indiscriminately. A patron is a virtual benefactor ; one who countenances, aids, or supports. A customer is a purchaser, or buyer, who expects in return for his money full value received. Hence it is erroneous for a merchant to say, " He is a patron of mine," when he means simply a customer. People Persons. The meaning of people is a body of persons regarded collectively, a nation ; hence the obvious inaccuracy of 56 VOCABULARY. the expression, "^[any people think so." Persons is pref- erable in any such sense. Perfect. See EVERY. Perpetually Continually. Perpetual means never ceasing, continuing without in- terruption ; continual, of frequent recurrence, etc., with occasional interruptions. " Indolent pupils are perpet- ually failing in the tasks assigned them." Here the proper word is continually. Time is perpetual ; frequent disregard of our duties is continual. Persons. See INDIVIDUALS. Persuasion Sect Denomination. Persuasion, the definition of which should be plain to every one who speaks English, is often ludicrously used in the sense of sect or denomination ; as, " He is of the Methodist persuasion" Philanthropist. See HUMANITARIAN. Plead Pleaded. " He plead not guilty." Pleaded, not plead, consti- tutes the imperfect tense and the perfect participle of the verb to plead. Hence, in the example quoted the correct word is pleaded. Plentiful. See BOUNTIFUL. Polite. See CIVIL. Portion Part. The distinction between these words is usually un- heeded. A portion is a part assigned, allotted, or set aside for a special purpose ; part has a less limited meaning. Hence, we may say correctly ; " In what/w/ of the city do you live?" " What portion of the estate do you inherit? " VOCABULARY. 57 Post Inform. The misuse of post for inform in such sentences as, " I will post you about it," is as inelegant as it is inaccurate. Posture Attitude. Each of these words has its appropriate place, and one should not be misapplied for the other. Posture is the mode of placing the body, and may be either natural or assumed. Attitude is always assumed, and is intended to display some grace of the body, or some affection or purpose of the mind. Postures, when natural, accommo- date themselves to the convenience of the body ; when assumed they may be either serious or ridiculous. Praise Applause. We express our approbation by praise and applause. Praise is the general, applause, the specific term. Ap- plause springs from impulse, while praise is the result of reason and reflection. Precise. See ACCURATE. Predicate Base Found. Says Professor Gould, concerning these much-abused words : " The functions of the etymological family, vi\\&\cz predicate descends, are limited to speaking, saying, telling, etc. And our lexicographers generally agree in so limiting the definition of predicate ; namely, to say, to affirm, to declare. * * * Ignorant usage and very ignorant usage it must be in the United States has re- cently paraded predicate in the sense of to found; as, His argument was predicated on the assumption, etc. The word is used in that sense in the pulpit, at the bar, and of course in novels and newspapers. But > c 58 VOCABULARY. means to found, than it means to build or to destroy." ' It is thus clear that, in the sense criticised, based Q* founded is the proper word. Prejudice. See BIAS. Present Introduce. To place in the presence of a superior is to present ; to bring to be acquainted is to introduce. It is accord- ingly incorrect to say, " I will present Mr. Smith to Miss Jones." A foreign Minister is properly said to be pre- sented to the President ; but ladies and gentlemen, in social life, are merely introduced. Preserve See KEEP. Prevail. See ADOPT. Previous Previously. The adjective previous is often misused for the adverb previously ; as, can, and must, and their variations. ADVERBS are divided into four general classes ; namely, adverbs of Time, of Place, of Degree, and of Manner. ADVERBS OF TIME answer to the questions When ? How long? How soon ? or, How often ? including those which ask. ADVERBS OF PLACE answer to the questions Where? Whither? Whence? or Whereabouts? including those which ask. ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 8/ ADVERBS OF DEGREE answer to the" questions How muck? Hoiv little? or, to the idea of more or less. ADVERBS OF MANNER answer to the question How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show hoiv a subject is regarded. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. Adverbs sometimes per- form the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or manner; adverbs so used are called conjunctive adverbs. ' MODIFICATIONS. Adverbs have not any modifica- tions, except that a few are compared after the manner of adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, often- est ; long, longer, longest. Adverbs are also irregularly compared ; as, well, better, best. CONJUNCTIONS are divided into three general classes; namely, Copulative, Disjunctive and Correlative. A COPULATIVE CONJUNCTION denotes an addition, a cause, or a supposition ; as, " He and I shall not dis- pute; for, if he express any choice, I shall grant it." A DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION denotes opposition of meaning; as, "Be not overcome [by] evil, fo// overcome evil with good." THE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to another; as, "John came, neither eating nor drinking." SYNTAX. Syntax lays down the principles by which we are to be guided in the construction of sentences. It treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of words. The general principles of relation, agreement 88 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. and government are comprised in the following rules> twenty-six in number, taken from Goold Brown, or, as he is commonly called, " the grammarian of gram- marians." RULE i. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit; as, "At a little distance from tJie ruins of the abbey stands an aged elm." [Several exceptions are noted to this rule, the definite article sometimes relating to an adjective or an adverb, etc.] RULE 2. A noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case; as, "I know thou sayst it: says thy life the same?" RULE 3. A noun or a personal pronoun used to ex- plain a preceding noun or pronoun is put, by apposition, in the same case; as, " But he, our gracious Master'' RULE 4. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns; as, " He is a wise man, though he is young!' [The excep- tions noted to this rule show that the adjective some- times may relate to a phrase or sentence which is the subject of an intervening verb, or may be taken abstractly with an infinitive or a participle.] RULE 5. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender ; as, " This is the friend of whom I spoke; he has just arrived." [Several exceptions are noted to this rule.] RULE 6. When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number; as, "The council were divided in their sentiments." NOTE. A collective noun conveying the idea of unity requires a pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter, agreeably to Rule 5 ; as, " The nation will enforce its laws." ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 89 RULE 7. When a pronoun has two or more ante- cedents connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number; as, "James and John will favor us with their company." [This rule also admits of exceptions.] RULE 8. When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number; as, "James or Jo/in will favor us with his company." RULE 9. A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number; as, "I knoiv ; thou knowst, or knowest ; he knoivs, or kno^vetJl;" "the bird files; the birds fly." RULE 10. When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number ; as, " The council were divided" NOTE. A collective noun conveying the idea of unity requires a verb in the third person, singular, and gener- ally admits also of the regular plural construction ; as, ** His army was defeated;" " His armies were defeated" RULE 1 1. When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number; as, "Judges and Senates liave been bought for gold; esteem and love were never to be sold." Pope. [The rule admits of several exceptions.] NOTES. When two subjects or antecedents are con- nected, one of which is taken affirmatively and the other negatively, the verb or pronoun must agree with the af- firmative subject and be understood to the other ; as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, produces honorable competence." When two subjects or antecedents are connected by as well as, but, or save, they belong to different propo- sitions ; and (unless one of them is perceded by the adverb 9O ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. not] the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be understood to the latter ; as, "Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life;" "Nothing, but wailings, was heard" When two or more subjects or antecedents are pre- ceded by the adjective each, every, or know, they are taken separately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singu- lar number; as, "And every sense and every heart is joy." When words are to be taken conjointly as subjects or antecedents, the conjunction and must connect them. Two or more distinct subject-phrases connected by and require a plural verb; as, "To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, arc three things so very different as rarely to coincide." RULE 12. When a verb has two or more singular nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number; as, "Fear or jealousy af- fects him. NOTES. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers connected by or or nor, it must agree with that which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in the person and number required; as, " Neither he nor his brothers were there." But when the nominatives require different forms of the verb, it is, in general, more elegant to express the verb, or its auxiliary, in connection with each of them ; as, " Either thou art to blame, or I at one time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato." [There are exceptions to this rule.] NOTES. Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived ; the preposi- tion of, therefore, should never be used after the parti- ciple when the verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, of is improper : " keeping of one day in seven ;" "by preaching of repentance." When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, 0/must be inserted to govern the object following. A participle should not be used where the infinitive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the lead- ing word in sense should always be made the leading or governing word in the construction. Participles in general, however construed, should have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, ac- tion, or passion. RULE 15. Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, ad- jectives, or other adverbs ; as, "Any passion that habitu- ally discomposes our temper, or unfits us for properly 92 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. discharging the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency." [This rule admits of ex- ceptions.] Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence most perspicuous and agreeable. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; nor should they be employed when quality is to be expressed, and not manner; as, " The soonest time." A negation in English admits of but one negative word; as, "I could not wait any longer;" not, "no longer." RULE 1 6. Conjunctions connect either words or sen- tences; as, "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herdsmen and thy herds- men ; for we are brethren." [To this rule there are ex- ceptions.] RULE 17. Prepositions show the relation of things; as, " He came from Rome to Paris /';/ the company of many eminent men, and passed with them through many cities." [Exceptions are noted to this rule.] NOTES. Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended. An ellipsis or omission of prepositions is inelegant, except in those phrases in which long and general use has sanctioned it. RULE 1 8. Interjections have no dependent construc- tion ; as, "Oh ! let not thy heart despise me." RULE 19. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the name of the thing possessed ; as, " Touched by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine." RULE 20. Transitive verbs and their participles govern the objective case; as, " I found her assisting him." ECLECTIC GRAMMAR 93 NOTE. Those verbs and participles which do not admit of an object should not be used transitively; as, " The planters grow cotton ; " say raise, or cultivate, RULE 21. Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs and their participles take the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing ; as, "// could not be /ie." RULE 22. Prepositions govern the objective case; as> " Truth and good are one ; and beauty dwells in them, and they in her, with \\V^ participation" RULE 23. The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and commonly connects it with a finite verb; as, " I desire to learn." RULE 24. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the preposition to; as, " If he bade thee depart, how darest thou stay?" RULE 25. A noun, or a pronoun, is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word; as, "He failing, who shall meet success?" RULE 26. A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present; and a mere suppo- sition with indefinite time, by a verb in the subjunctive past; but a conditional circumstance, assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood ; as, " If thou forsake him, he will cast thee off forever; " " If it were not so, I would have told you ; " "If thou went, nothing would be gained." COMMON ERRORS. People of intelligence make many grammatical errors in the use of single words or forms, and false concords, that is to say, wrong genders, numbers, cases, and tenses. 94 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. "A and THE," says Professor Nichol, " should be re- peated when they introduce two or more nouns or adjec- tives referring to distinct things ; e. g., ' She had a black and white dog.' If two dogs are meant, it should be: ' She had a black and a white dog.' * The Queen sent for the secretary and treasurer ' should be, ' The Queen sent for the secretary and the treasurer,' unless it is meant to imply that the two offices are combined in one person." THE POSSESSIVE CASE is often used interchangeably with the genitive [a Latin case indicating origin, posses- sion, etc.] after of. " My father's house," and " the house of my father " are identical ; but the latter form is more accurate when the subject is neuter. Prefer " the roof of the house" to "the house's roof;" "the history of Mex- ico" to "Mexico's history." Where two possessives, one personal, the other a mere genitive, come together, the result is bad English ; as, " in Hannibal's march's ex- pected line" should be "in the expected line of Hanni- bal's march." Whose is permitted after a neuter; we may say: "The country whose fertility is great," but prefer " the country the fertility of ivliicli is great." Professor Gould says : 41 Every man who is sensitive on the subject of correct language must have felt the want of an impersonal rela- tive pronoun the possessive case of which should hold toward things the relation that ' whose ' holds to persons. But there is no such pronoun, and no human ingenuity can make one. In its absence, whose has been substi- tuted as a matter of necessity, and almost by common consent." Before a participle in such cases as, " the cry of the church's being in danger," the noun may be in the possessive, but it is like a double genitive, and it is, ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 95 therefore, better to say : " the cry of the church being in danger." The possessive form attaches only to the last form of a title ; as, " The King of France's decree," and generally comes close to the related noun. Hence the awkwardness of saying : " England's Mediterranean power;" it should be: "the power of England in the Mediterranean." But observe the difference in the fol- lowing : " Peter's, Joseph's, and Richard's estate " means that each had a separate estate. " Peter, Joseph, and Richard's estate " means their joint property. The pos- sessive of one noun is often incorrectly used with another noun followed by a relative. " They attacked Legrand's house, whom they put to death," means they put the house to death ; it should be : " They attacked the house of Legrand, whom they put to death." For " I await the lady's opinion for whose use it was intended," read : " I await the opinion of the lady for whose use it was in- tended." "A copy of his idea who made it," is, at least, a questionable expression. Better read : "A copy of the idea of the original contriver," or "thinker." A more glaring error is in the employment of both tf/and the possessive, as in the phrase : " that of other men's" The use of the possessive should be avoided where its active and passive senses are likely to be confounded. " Have you heard," asked a friend of an old gentleman, " have you heard of your son's robbery?" "Not yet," was the answer; "whom did he rob?" Custom appears to have sanctioned the use of the possessive case in place of the nominative or the objective as the antecedent to a pronoun ; as, " But when I heard John's voice, I knew that he was safe ;" "Smith's story is all untrue, and I have told him so." If, in the examples here cited, the proper noun had been, by a change of construction, put 96 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. in either the nominative or the objective case, there could be no possibility of error. Somebody, Anybody, Everybody, Nobody, each of which is spelled as one word, may be treated as two words: namely, the adjectives some, any, every, etc., and the noun body ; but when body is joined to the adjectives some, any, every, etc., the combination becomes one word, so far as grammatical construction is concerned, and the one word somebody, or its analogues, is frequently quali- fied by the adjective else, meaning somebody besides the one first mentioned. To indicate possession we should add an apostrophe and an s to the noun. But the adjective else, and not the noun, is often erroneously put in the pos- sessive ; as, "somebody else's novel ;" " anybody else's cus- tom ;" " everybody else's wish;" " nobody else's business." The proper construction is: "somebody's else novel; "anybody's else custom;" "everybody's else wish;" "no- body's else business." GENDER OF NOUNS. Relative to the gender of nouns it may be remarked that some masculine forms have a common or inclusive sense, and may, without impropriety, be applied to females ; but there is a palpable difference between saying: "Adelaide Neilson was the greatest actress of her time," and saying, "Adelaide Neilson was the greatest actor of her time." The latter form is equiv- alent to asserting that she was the greatest genius among all the actors and actresses of her time, which is not what is meant. ADJECTIVES. As a rule one adjective cannot qualify another, but there are exceptions ; as, " A red hot poker ;" "The pale blue sky." Some adjectives, logically incapa- ble of degree, as, certain, fall, false, true, honest, square, round, even, accurate, occasionally admit of comparison ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 97 with reference to their approach to the standard, or the degree of the quality they display. This license, how- ever, should be used with caution. Such an expression as, " more perfect," is hardly admissible, while, "more preferable," " most entire," are mere redundancies. We should remember to use the comparative of the adjective when only two things are compared. " He is the taller" not the tallest, " of the two brothers." The superlative may, however, go with a singular form when the matter has a collective meaning; as, " He was the eldest of the family." " His eyes are the worst of his face," means that his eyes are the worst of all the features of his face. Such words as fast may be either adjectives or adverbs. Discrimination should be exercised in their use, and, in prose, adjectives should not be used for adverbs, nor vice versa. Such phrases as "excessive wrong ; " " that being the now estimate," are incorrect. An adjective does not necessarily become an adverb by accompanying a verb; as, " Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." Here uneasy is an adjective qualifying "head." The use of then as an adjective is not correct, although very common ; as, " The then editor of the ' Sun ' is now dead." Then is an adverb of time, and the sentence should read thus : " He who was then the editor of the ' Sun ' is now dead." This error is the result of a desire for brevity, but verbal economy is not commendable when it violates the plainest rules of grammar. Then may sometimes be properly used as a conjunction. Adjectives often stand where adverbs might be ex- pected ; as, " drink deep" " this looks strange" " standing erect" In certain instances it is proper to employ adjectives; yet such phrases as, "indifferent well," 8 98 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. u extreme bad," are grammatical errors/ "I would have done it independent of any consideration," is an incorrect sentence, and should be : "I would have done it inde- pendently of any consideration." THE CONJUNCTION THAN. Relative to this word, which is a source of much confusion, Webster says : "A particle expressing comparison, used after certain adjec- tives and adverbs which express comparison or diversity, it [than] is usually followed by the object compared, in the nominative case. Sometimes, however, the object compared is placed in the objective case, and tJian is then considered by some grammarians as a preposition." Generally, it should be remembered, however, that than does not govern the objective case ; as, "Washington, than whom no man was ever more beloved by his countrymen ; " " Beelzebub, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." While it is claimed that such sentences are correct, the weight of authority appears to be to the contrary. It is correct to say: "I esteem you more than they" or "I esteem you more than them;" but the phrases differ in meaning, the first being equivalent to : "I es- teem you more than they do;" the second to: "I esteem you more than I esteem them." VERBS. It is a violation of grammar to confound, as is often done, broke and broken, bore and borne, stole and stolen, wove and woven, arose and arisen. The auxiliary be, which goes with intransitive verbs, is sometimes wrongly used for have, which generally goes with transi- tive verbs; as, "I am just arrived at San Francisco;" " The pretender being returned ; " "I found she was gone out of the house." Properly constructed, these sentences should read thus: " I //adjust arrived at San Francisco;" " The pretender having returned ;" " I found she /tad gone ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 99 out of the house?." The introduction of "out of," in the last expression, makes the verb transitive. The infinitive of the verb can now be used properly only substantively, as a nominative, and accordingly such a construction as the following is inadmissible in prose : " For not to have been dipped in Lethe's stream Could not save the son of Thetis from to die" The direct object of a transitive verb should be put in the objective case; as, "The lightning struck the tree, and made it wither." The verbs teach, ask, forgive, tell, etc., take two objectives, one of a person, and the other of a thing; as, " He taught his pupils history;" "They asked him his name.'" The verbs to make, name, call, esteem, etc., take two objectives of the same person or thing; as, "They called John a traitor'' Intransitive verbs often take an objective case, akin in form or meaning to the verb itself; as, " He dreamed a dream" Verbs are often incorrectly used as if governing the nominative case of a personal pronoun. Example : "Let's you and I go;" instead of, "Let us go;" or, "Let you and me go." Have went, and similar expressions, though incorrect, often escape notice from the fact that the different parts of the verb are likely to be separated in a sentence ; as, " I have walked a long distance, and although much fatigued, went to several places." Corrected, the sentence would read, " I have walked a long distance, and although much fatigued, gone to several places." A still better construction would be : "I have walked a long distance, and although much fatigued, have gone to several places." I done, I seen, Iliave saw, are all ungrammatical expres- sions, and should be, / did, I saw, I have seen. 100 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. The verb See is often incorrectly used in the present tense; as, "I see him yesterday;" instead of, "I saw him yesterday." To see is present, yesterday is past, hence the absurdity of the expression criticised. We might say with equal propriety: " I see him. to-morrow," instead of, " I shall see him to-morrow." It is sometimes permis- sible, however, where the ideas of frequent repetition, or of continued presence, are involved, to say / see when speaking of what is temporarily past; as, "I see them every day ; " " I see by the papers that the Legislature has adjourned," etc. Immutability, actual or supposed, requires the present tense; as, "He saw that virtue is advantageous. The verb come is commonly misused in the present form for came, which is past ; as, " He come to my house to-day." Corrected, the sentence would read, " He came to my house to-day." We often hear has began used instead of has begun, and begun instead of began. " He Jias began to attend night school : " " He begun his allotted task." We should say, " He has begun to attend night school;" " He began his allotted task." Began is the past tense of the verb to begin, begun is its perfect participle. The preterit of the verb to- drink should not be used for the perfect participle ; as, " Many toasts were drank at the banquet." Properly worded the sentence would read : " Many toasts were drunk at the banquet." Had ought, had better, had rather. Says Professor Mathews: "All these expressions are absurdities, not less gross than hisn, totJier, haint, theirn. No doubt there is plenty of good authority for had better and had rather; but how can future action be expressed by a verb that signifies past and completed possession?" ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. IOI Relative to had have the same author says, " This is a very low vulgarism, notwithstanding it has the author- ity of Addison. It is quite common to say, ' Had I have seen him,' 'Had you have known it,' etc. We can say, c I had been] but what sort of a tense is had have been?" FALSE CONCORDS. A confusion in the use of figura- tive language is generally the source of mistakes in gender. "The critics who contended for Homer" is, to say the least, an over-violent personification. It is now no longer proper to use the pronoun which as it was used in the time of Shakespeare. As an interrogative, which applies to persons as well as to things, but as a relative its use is restricted to things. - The pronoun that, on the contrary, may be applied to both persons and things. It is correct to say, "Which of the two brothers did you see to-day?" " We were the first that entered the church." WHO. The personal pronoun who is often incorrectly used in the nominative for the objective whom; as, " Who did you see ?" The error in this sentence will readily be perceived by putting it in another form, thus : " Who saw you ?" which is the very reverse of what is meant to be said. Put it into another form, by reversing the last, and it reads : " You saw who" which, if correct, so is "You saw /ie" "You saw s/ie" etc. But it is not cor- rect, and should be: "Whom did you see?" or, "Whom saw you ?" or, " You saw whom ?" Turn it as we please, we cannot now change the meaning of the sentence. Whom, the objective, is also misused for who, the nomi- native ; as, " For the benefit of those whom she thought were his friends/' Here the error may be detected by inclosing in brackets the two words which are paren- thetical, when the sentence reads thus : " For the benefit of those whom [she thought] were his friends." Whom 102 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. were his friends ! The wording should be, " who she thought, were his friends." Errors of this class most frequently escape detection, because obscured by paren- thetical words. The Relative Pronoun That is often awkwardly and unnecessarily repeated ; as, " It does not follow that y because there are no national banks of issue at the South, that there is necessarily an insufficiency of currency there." Reconstructed the sentence should read thus : " It does not follow that, because there are no national banks of issue at the South, there is necessarily an in- sufficiency of currency there;" or, "It does not follow, because there are no national banks of issue at the South, tJiat there is necessarily an insufficiency of currency there." In such expressions as the following, tJiat is improperly omitted : " Such, at least, is the reasoning of the ladies, and we suppose they are right." "The proper wording is : " Such, at least, is the reasoning of the ladies, and we suppose that they are right." In conversation, however, the omission of that, if not too frequent, is not only correct, but preferable. The evident misuse of the relative pronoun that has doubtless led many persons to omit it, where otherwise they would have employed it. The " Spectator," in an article headed, "The Just Remonstrance of Affronted That," and referring to the use of that as supplying the places of the pronouns who and which, concludes thus : " I am not against reforming the corruptions of speech you mention, and own there are proper reasons for the introduction of other words besides that ; but I scorn as much to supply the place of a who or a which at every turn, as they are unequal always to fill mine; and I expect good language and civil treatment, and hope to ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 103 receive it for the future : That, that I shall only add is, that I am, Yours, That" That as a relative is distin- guished from which in the following instances : It cannot stand for a clause or a sentence. It may be used in reference to either persons or things. Tt cannot take a preposition before it. We may say, " This is the asser- tion to which I object;" but we must say: "This is the assertion that I object to" It is in closer connection with the immediately preceding noun. The difference is clearly illustrated by comparing the following sentences: " There was a hotel next door which was a nuisance." " There was a hotel next door tJiat was a nuisance." The first sentence means, that the fact of the hotel being next door constituted the nuisance ; the second sentence means simply that the hotel itself was a nui- sance. That, when it refers to an object, may be omitted ; it should not be introduced immediately after a proper name. It may be often used instead of ^vho or ivhich, for variety. We should beware of using such expressions as ; " It is me;" " It is him;" "Between you and /;" " It cannot be me you mean." They should read thus: "It is /;" "It is he;" "Between you and me;" " It cannot be / whom you mean." The indefinite use of it as an expression for a state of being, or the subject of a discourse, is, however, unob- jectionable. The verb must agree with the it; as, "// is I;" "// is they." The most frequent abstract use of -it appears in apposition to general phrases ; as, " It is im- possible to say," and as representing natural processes ; as, "//rains;" "//blows." The objective absolute, found in Milton, is obsolete. But an entire clause, thrown into the objective, may be 104 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. introduced by a relative in the nominative ; as, " He went on speaking to who ^^vould listen to him" Who is here elliptical for those who, WRONG NUMBERS are often met with when there are intervening, or qualifying clauses, and the nearest noun, or group of nouns, is mistaken for the nominative ; as, "The taste of the grapes were good;" "A plurality of subjects require a plural verb;" "The dropping of super- fluous words are an improvement of style;" "He was fonder of nothing than wit and raillery, but he is far from being happy in //." Corrected, the sentences would read as follows: "The taste of the grapes ivas good;" "A plurality of subjects requires a plural verb ; " u The dropping of superfluous words is an improvement of style ;" " He was fonder of nothing than wit and raillery, but he is far from being happy in them." The collective force of and, or the disjunctive force of or, is ignored in the following : " Both minister and magistrate is compelled to choose between his duty and his profession;" "A feeble, harsh, or obscure style arc always faults ;" "When the helplessness of childhood or the fraility of woman make an appeal." The sentences, corrected, read thus : " Both minister and magistrate arc compelled to choose between his duty and his profes- sion ;" "A feeble, harsh, or obscure style is always a fault;" "When the helplessness of childhood or the fraility of woman makes an appeal." But sometimes two subjects are so closely connected as to make a single idea; as, "Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing;" "All is but toys;" "Renown and grace is dead." These expressions are permissible. It is also hypercritical to object to " Thine is the king- dom, and the power, and the glory" since each noun, in ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 10$ turn, is regarded as the nominative. The full expression would be " Thine is the kingdom, thine is the power, thine is the glory." It is erroneous to say, " I am as well as when you ivas here." Excepting in poetry " you " is used for " thou " as well as in the plural, but it must be followed by the plural of the verb. Hence, the correct construction is : " I am as well as when you were here." The verb, as a rule, should agree with the subject, but it may agree with the predicate when the latter comes first in the sentence; as, " The reward of the President is the love and respect of his people." The following sentences are awkwardly constructed and show that when possible the coupling of a singular and a plural should be avoided ; J> " The only remaining circumstance is the principles." "The only other part of speech which partakes of the weakness remarked in conjunctions is prepositions." The wording of the sentences should be altered so as to read thus: " The principles are the only remaining circumstance." " Among the other parts of speech prepositions alone partake of the weakness remarked in conjunctions." Many collective nouns, such as people, clique, meeting, league, etc., may be followed indifferently by either a singular or a plural verb, but we should be careful not to vary the number of the verbs or pronouns agreeing with the same noun in the same sentence; as, " No people ever was more rudely assailed by the sword of conquest than those of this country ; none had its chains, to appearance, more firmly riveted around tJieir necks." "The mob is cruel and they are ignorant" Corrected, these sentences should read thus: "No people ever were more rudely assailed by the sword of conquest than those of this coun- try; none had tJteir chains, to appearance, more firmly riveted around their necks;" "The mob is cruel, and 106 ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. // is ignorant; 1 ' or, "The mob are cruel, and they are ignorant." The titles of books should always be in the singular; hence, it is wrong to say, " 'The Industries of San Fran- cisco' are very instructive reading." It should be : " ' The Industries of San Francisco ' is very instructive reading.'* It is erroneous to say, " Property should be returned to their legal owners," since property is a singular, not a plural noun. The correct construction is accordingly : " Prop- erty should be returned to its legal owners." Writers are often puzzled as to the proper number of the verb following nouns which are really or apparently plural in form, but have a singular meaning. Alms and riches are not true plurals, but commonly take the plural verb; and summons does double duty, summonses having fallen into disrepute, although literally as correct as licenses. News* measles, small-pox, and gallows are plurals, but are nearly always followed by a singular verb. " Wages should be followed by the plural," writes Professor Nichol ; " ' the men's wages are distributed every Saturday night ' is right." But we should not be led into the error of say- ing, " The wages of sin are death." The correct wording in this case is, " The wages of sin is death." Concerning means, odds, and pains, authorities are divided, and it is really indifferent whether they take a singular or a plural verb, provided the two constructions are not mixed. When, therefore, a nominative is singular in form merely; and has a distinctly plural meaning, it should be followed by a plural verb. "The greater number of such periods is ungraceful and obscure," should be : " The greater number of such periods are ungraceful and obscure." A general term, on the contrary, is erroneously separated into its component parts in the following : " It gives ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. IO/ pain to the mind and memory, and exposes the unskill- ful hearer, to mingle the particulars together. It leads them into a thick wood, instead of into open daylight" Here the pronoun them grammatically refers to particulars, which makes a nonsensical construction. Them is meant to refer to hearers, but the antecedent is hearer. The sentence should read thus : " It gives pain to^ the mind and memory, and exposes the unskillful hearer to mingle the particulars together ; it leads him into a thick wood instead of into open daylight." In the annexed sentences the distributives each, every, eitlier, neither, are improperly followed by the plural of the verb: "I am not positive that either of us were there;" " How far each of the three "epic poets have distinguished themselves;" "Neither bear any sign of case ;" " Let every one please themselves? These expressions should read thus : "I am not certain that eithet of us was there ;" " How far each of the three epic poets lias distinguished himself;" "Neither bears any sign of case;" "Let every one please himself'' As well as, and none always take the singular. Hence it is incorrect to say : " Homer as well as Virgil were studied." It should be: " Homer as well as Virgil was studied." None [no one] have come," should be: " None has come." After a singular noun or pronoun and not takes a singular verb. " My poverty, and not my will, con- sent," should be : " My poverty, and not my will, consents" " Full many a flower are born to blush unseen," is in- correct, and should read : " Full many a flower is born to blush unseen;" the rule being that many a properly takes the singular. In the annexed couplet, many a is wrongly followed by the plural : " And many a holy text around she strews That teach the rustic moralist IOS ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. In the second line of the couplet teach grammatically considered, should be teaches, although it would ruin the rhythm. The preposition with may properly be followed by either the singular or the plural ; as, " Prosperity with humility renders its possessor amiable." Here " with humility" is regarded as a modification of " prosperity." But when two or more things act together ; as, " The President, with the Cabinet and the Congress, form a good government," the plural is correct. WRONG MOOD AND TENSE. The most frequent errors in the use of English resulting from the use of wrong moods and tenses may be avoided by attention to the following rules: 1. Be careful to discriminate between the indefinite past, and the perfect. Remember that the latter brings the close of the action down to the time of speaking; as, " I ate my breakfast at ten o'clock A. M. to-day and now I have just finished my dinner." The perfect cannot accordingly be properly applied to an event which is referred to as complete at a past date; as, "You may do what you Jiave done a year ago." Corrected this should read: "You may do what you did a. year ago." " Our club has begun last Monday," should be : " Our club began last Monday." The past perfect tense marks an event occurring at a definite time. " He had lost his wife while he was Governor of Nevada," should be: "He lost his wife while he was Governor of Nevada;" or, " He had lost his wife when he was Governor of Nevada." 2. Observe the sequence of tenses : A past tense generally goes with a past tense ; a present with a present or a future tense. The following examples will illustrate the rule : " No writer would write a book unless ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. 109 he thinks it will be read." Here the proper construction would be : " No writer would write a book unless he thought it would be read," or else : " No writer -will write a book unless he thinks it ivill be read." " Before six months were past the paper was known in almost every town ; while at the limits of the country it circulates every morning." The correct form would be : " Before six months were past the paper was known in almost every town, while at the limits of the country it was circulated every morning." The following sentence is incorrect : " But the influences under which its institu- tions were to have been formed will no longer be ex- clusively American ;" and should read : "But the influences under which its institutions are to be formed will no longer be exclusively American." " A week elapses before the carrier returns, and so it will frequently happen that a mail steamer for Europe shall have de- parted," is incorrect, and should be : "A week elapses before the carrier returns, and so it frequently happens that a mail steamer for Europe has departed." We may in vivid narrative describe past scenes and events as if they were actually before us ; as, "When the bark of Columbus nears the shore of America, can we separate the man from the living picture : does riot the new world clothe his form with her palm groves and savannahs ?" The use of the infinitive after a principal verb requires attention. When it expresses that which is either future or contemporary at the time indicated by the principal verb, whether that verb be in the present or the past tense, it should be in the present ; as, "I intend to write;" " He intended to write;" "He seems to be a literary man;" "He appears to have studied;" "He appeared IIO ECLECTIC GRAMMAR. to study;" "Pie appeared to have studied." These are all correct expressions. But, " I found him belter than I expected to have found him," is not correct. It is similar to saying : " It is long since I commanded him to have done it." The sentences should read : " I found him better than I expected &?jftdf him;" and "It is long since I commanded him to do it." The error may be further illustrated in the following examples : " I ex- pected from the promises of the Governor to have seen the bank paying in gold ;" " They, supposing him to have been in the company, went a day's journey;" " Had this been the fate of Tasso, he would have been able to have celebrated!' Corrected, these sentences would be : "I expected from the promises of the Governor to see the bank paying in gold;" "They, supposing him to be in the company, went a day's journey;" "Had this been the fate of Tasso, he would have been able to celebrated The same rule is applicable to the participle ; as, "When I wrote that letter I // clauses, members, or sentences in such a way that the weakest shall stand first, and that each, in turn, to the end of the sentence, shall rise in importance, and thus make a deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it ; as, " Shall tribulation, or persecution, or famine, or the sword ?" etc. THE CLIMAX OF SOUND lies in the arrangement of a series of words or clauses according to their length, so that the shortest shall come first ; as, " He was a good, noble, disinterested man." EPIGRAM may be defined as a short sentence express- ing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity; as, "You are not only vicious, you are virtuous ;" "The statues of Brutus and Cassius were conspicuous by their absence" PURITY. Every violation of purity is termed a barbarism, and may be attributed to : i. The use of obsolete words. 124 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 2. The use of provincial, or slang words or expres- sions. 3. The general use of technical terms. 4. The use of foreign words, and phrases. 5. The use of newly coined words. 6. The use of solecisms. OBSOLETE WORDS. It is sometimes difficult to say when a word has become obsolete, for words may be re- called when on the verge of banishment. Obsolete words are occasionally used in poetry, in burlesque, and in nar- ratives of ancient times, where, as they harmonize with the characters and objects delineated, they are peculiarly appropriate. In all other composition, however, they should be shunned. " \{ per adventure he should deny my request." Here the word peradventure is obsolete, and should give place to a current English word such as per- chance. THE USE OF PROVINCIAL OR SLANG WORDS, and phrases, although sometimes tolerated in conversation, should be generally avoided in written composition. But it is permissible to employ them grammatically, as in the Irish and Welsh of Shakespeare, the Scotch of Scott, and the Cockney dialect of Dickens. In the sentence " I calculate I shall go," calculate is a provincialism. When we say, " / sJiould smile" although the words are correct in themselves, we are guilty, in their use, of a slang ex- pression. TECHNICAL TERMS, however appropriately applied in special departments of thought and to special things, are likely to appear vulgar or pedantic when employed in every-day life. Such words as quadrate, connotation, pre- cognition, diiaroscuro, dynamic, apperception, and remem- brancer come under this head. PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 12$ FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES, although allowable when they fill a void in our language, should not be used in place of equally expressive English terms. The fol- lowing may be mentioned as illustrative of this class of words and phrases: politesse, cafe, sortie, fracas^ cmeute, volupte, confreres, vraisemblance, tout ensemble, amour-propre, noblesse oblige, fair accompli, dernier ressort, coup detat, raison d'etre, etc. Writers of foreign travel and novelists may be granted considerable license in the use of these terms. The use of foreign idioms, as, "// repents me," for "/ repent" etc., also constitutes a violation of purity. NEWLY COINED WORDS should be very cautiously employed. New thoughts may require new forms, but a word should never be invented when others now ex- isting will serve the purpose. Under no circumstances should words be coined by young writers. The correct principle has been happily stated by Pope in his " Essay on Criticism : " " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold ; Alike fantastic, if too new or old ; Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." Tr^e following may be cited as representatives of the class of newly coined words : Obversely, scientist, con- catenate, conserve, disemasculate, fictional, skeletonize, bur- glarise, martyrise, apotheosed,peripatetician, undevelopment, incumberment, protended, unsuccessf illness, suicided, adore- ment, difficultly, unanalogical, and disgustful. Solecisms appear in many different forms, and in such expressions as " He sings a good song," for " He sings well.' 2 A good song may be badly sung ; hence, the meaning is different from that expressed. 126 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. Solecisms of a similar nature are involved in the sen- tences: " He tells a good story;" "He plays a good fiddle." The use which gives law to language is thus stated by Dr. Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric :" 1. "It must be reputable, or that of educated people, as opposed to that of the ignorant and vulgar. 2. " It must be national, as opposed to what is either local or technical. 3. " It must be present, as opposed to what is obso- lete." The making of new compounds, as architect-capacity mirror-writing, world-system, self -practice, age-distant, etc., is also a violation of purity. The affectation of using adjectives or adverbs as nouns is also opposed to purity ; as, " We have to do with these influences not in the actual, but as expressed in language;" "We knew the when, but we knew not the where." The use of such words as name-word, for noun ; link- word, for conjunction; un-go-tJirough-some-ncss, for im- penetrability; and the words regretable, usable, doable, etc., all of which are barbarisms, is also in violation of the principles of purity. PROPRIETY. In the use of language every word and phrase should convey the idea which etymology or established usage has prescribed. When the rule is violated, the result is an impropriety. The main sources of impropriety are : 1. Neglect of the proper sequence of particles. 2. Carelessness as to the meaning of sentences. PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. I2/ The following examples illustrate how propriety may be violated by a neglect of the proper sequence of particles: " It was charactized with eloquence," "A tes- timonial of the merits of the book," " It was an example of the love to form comparisons," " He made an effort for meeting them," "They have no other object but to come," " Some anomalies have never been excepted against by any writer," " Repetition is always to be preferred before obscurity." Corrected, these expressions should read : " It was characterized by eloquence," " A testimonial to the merits of the book," " It was an example of the love of forming comparisons," " He made an effort to meet them," "They have no object but to come," " Some anomalies have never been taken exception to by any writer," " Repetition is always to be preferred to obscurity." Two verbs are often followed by a single preposition which accords with only one of them ; as, " This duty is repeated zn& inculcated upon the reader." It is absurd to say that the duty is repeated upon, and the correct con- struction is: "This duty is repeated to and inculcated upon the reader." Propriety requires the use of such language as is best suited to the idea to be expressed proper arrangement of words in sentences, etc. Following are a few examples of its violation in this respect : " While these disturbances were carrying on, the mayor arrived;" "Of the nineteen tyrants under the reign of Gallienus there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural deatJi" These sentences should read : " While these disturb- ances were being carried on, the mayor arrived ;" "Of the nineteen tyrants under the reign of Gallienus there was 128 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. not one who had a life of peace or a natural death;" or, " Of the nineteen tyrants under the reign of Gallienus there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace or died a natural death." The following carelessly constructed sentences are also violations of propriety, and show either a gross confusion of ideas or a lamentable lack of attention : " One man was so injured that his death was despaired of;" " Mon- archy stood prostrate at the foot of the church ; " " Father Mathew in Ireland, effected the reform of Temperance ; " "I have not willfully committed the least mistake;'* " Sweyn, King of Denmark, and Olave, King of Norway, invaded England, and spreading themselves in bodies over the kingdom, committed many and cruel depredations;" "Richelieu's portrait was encircled by a ctown of forty rays, in eacJi of wJiicJi was the name of the celebrated forty academicians;" "If we would see what the abo- rigines of this country originally were, what but for foreign intermixture they would still have been, we have only to look to the inhabitants of the south and west of Ireland ; }> " Lost, a large Spanish blue gentleman's cloak." The correct reading of these sentences is thus : " One man was so injured that his life was despaired of;" " Monarchy was prostrate at the foot of the Church;" or, " Monarchy /// prostrate at the foot of the Church;" " Father Mathew, in Ireland, effected the reform of in- temperance;" " I have not knowingly committed the least mistake ;" " Sweyn, King of Denmark, and Olave, King of Norway, invaded England, and, spreading their armies in bodies over the kingdom, committed many and cruel depredations;" "Richelieu's portrait was encircled by a crown of forty rays, in each of which was the name of one celebrated forty academicians ;" " If we would see PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. what the aborigines of this country originally were, what but for foreign intermixture their descendants would still be, we have only to look to the inhabitants of the south and west of 'Ireland ;" " Lost, a large blue Spanish cloak, belonging to a gentleman." PRECISION. Precision is often violated by a lack of discrimination in the use of synonymous words. The English language contains but a limited number of real synonyms, the words, so called, generally merely resembling one another in meaning without coinciding, and having usually well- defined shades of difference. The principle has been treated in detail in the "Vocabulary." Its observance' is essential to exactitude of style. Precision is also violated by the substitution of the terms ordinarily applied to abstract ideas for the names of persons. Shaftesbury, for example, writing of Aris- totle, names him only as "the master critic," "the mighty genius and judge of art," "the prince of critics," "the grand master of art," and " the consummate philologist," thus confusing the reader and leaving him in doubt as to who is meant by these high-sounding titles. The precise writer rejects all unnecessary words ; he does not say that such a thing cannot possibly be, or must necessarily be, because possibly and necessarily imply nothing more than can and must. He does not, after making a statement, repeat it without any modifications of the idea, in several different clauses. Such unmean- ing repetitions are called redundancies, which enfeeble style and violate precision. . The following inconsistent expression may be cited 130 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. under this head : "It will invariably be found to be the case, as a rule, that when a fine sentiment comes from his pen it is not his own." Here either the word invariably or the phrase as a rule should be omitted. CLEARNESS OR PERSPICUITY. Clearness or perspicuity implies, in general, the absence of any obscurity or ambiguity. A sentence from which it is difficult to gather any meaning is said to be obscure. A sentence that leaves a doubt between two meanings, or is susceptible of more than one interpretation, is ambiguous. All of the parts of speech, if carelessly used, are likely to be misconstrued, and thus cause ambiguity. " His presence was against him." It is impossible to determine, from the construction of this sentence, whether the word presence is used in the sense of appearance, or as the opposite of absence. " I will have mercy, and not sacrifice" Here sacrifice^ which is used as a noun, might be mistaken for a verb, in which case it would mean: " I will have mercy, and will not sacrifice" "Our sympathies are divided as to the revolting Arabs." We are left in doubt whether revolting, as used in this sentence, means disgusting or rebelling. " He has a certain property in the city." We may infer from this expression, that certain is used either in the sense of specific or sure. " I have long since learned to like nothing but what you do" Does this mean, " I have long since learned to like nothing but what you like; " or, " I have long since learned PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 131 to like nothing except what is done by you?" "I did not speak yesterday, as I wished to have done!' The speaker may mean either that he did not speak as he wished to have spoken, or, that he wished to, but did not speak. " Two sisters want teaching!' In the language of this advertisement there is a double ambiguity, both verb and participle being ambiguous. It really means that the two sisters desire to teach, but it might mean that they wished to be taugJit. " Both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in the measures." Reference is here made to two sets of power, but the rule which, when two things are meant, prescribes the repetition of the article before the second of two coupled adjectives is broken. We say, "the pious and the profane," not "the pious and profane." The rule is also applicable to coupled nouns. In disjunctive clauses the repetition of the disjunctive particle is not requisite, but it may be employed for emphasis ; as, " Neither by law, nor by right, nor by cus- tom can this be maintained." The preposition of has a double meaning, which is illustrated in the expressions : " The Reformation of Luther;" "The love of God." "He aimed at nothing less than the Presidency," may mean that he aimed at nothing lower than the Presidency, or that he aimed at nothing else than the Presidency. All not is often misused for not all ; as, "All who lay claim to these virtues are not to be depended on." The sentence should read : "Not all who lay claim to these virtues are to be depended on." The slovenly use of relatives in English results in much ambiguity. They, their, tJiem, his, that, which, and /'/ are a source of wide confusion. Following are a few examples : 132 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. " The priests transmitted to the ignorant popula- tion the instruction which they themselves were unable to acquire;" "Beaumont was so accurate a judge of plays, that Ben Jonson, while he lived, submitted all his writings to his censure, and 'tis thought used his judgment in correcting, if not contriving, all his plots." " The sharks wJio prey upon the inadvertency of young heirs are more pardonable than those who trespass upon the good opinion of those who treat them upon the foot- ing of choice and respect." "They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when compelled by tJteir wants or tJteir fears, to have recourse to their aid." " I cannot say how much I delight to witness that energetic spirit which distinguishes the local authorities in this town, and w//zV-// shows that that happy system of local govern- ment to which Lord Carnarvon has so well alluded, and which is quite as characteristic of this country, and quite as important to this country, as the great Parliament, wkic/i meets in London, and which attracts the admira- tion of the world, is worked efficiently among you." " If it were spoken with ever so great skill in the actor, the manner of uttering that sentence could have nothing in // which could strike any but people of the greatest humanity; nay, people elegant and skillful in obser- vations upon *'/." Corrected, these sentences would read thus: "The priests were the means of conveying instruction to a population too ignorant to acquire it for themselves." "Beaumont was so accurate a judge of plays, that so long as he lived all Ben Jonson's writings were submitted to his censure. It is thought that Jonson even used Beaumont's judgment." "The sharks who prey upon the inadvertency of young heirs are more pardonable PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 133 than the fellows who trespass upon the good opinion of men who graciously treat them with favor and respect." "They were summoned, occasionally, by their kings, when the wants or the fears of the sovereign compelled him to have recourse to the aid of his people." " I cannot say how much I delight to witness the ener- getic spirit that distinguishes the local authorities in this town. It shows that the happy system of local government to which Lord Carnarvon has so well referred, a system quite as characteristic of this country, and quite as important to this country, as the great Parliament, which, in London, attracts the admiration of the world, is efficiently worked among you." " If it were spoken with ever so great skill in the actor, there could be nothing in the manner of uttering that sentence designed to strike any but people of the greatest humanity, people elegant and skillful in observing such delicacies of ex- pression." The errors resulting from a confusion of relatives, as indicated in the examples cited, may be avoided by attention to the following precepts: 1. Repetition of the antecedent noun, or use of an equivalent noun. 2. Substitution of whereby for by which, if for that, what for that which, or of the participle for the relative and verb. 3. The judicious use of ellipses in omitting the relatives. 4. Removing redundancies. 5. Altering the construction. 6. Separating a long sentence into short sentences. 7. Turning indirect into direct quotations. 134 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. The ambiguity, in the following sentences, is the result of a loose arrangement : "A self-made man arrived in California with only one shirt to his back, and since, he has contrived to accumu- late over ten millions. The meaning here intended is that he contrived to accumulate over ten millions of dollars, but the idea ex- pressed is that he contrived to accumulate over ten mill- ions of shirts. " The night was very dark, and a man came to the aid of some women who heard a cry, and, splashing with a broom, he saw the Jiand of a woman groaning on the other side of the water, and he held out the broom." If we say that he saw the hand of a woman, who was groaning, etc., the meaning will be clear, although the awkwardness of the construction will still remain. Squinting construction, as it is called, that is to say, a word or an expression so placed in the middle, of a sentence that it looks both ways, and may be connected in meaning either with what precedes or with what fol- lows, is a common source of ambiguity. Following are examples: "Though some of the Eu- ropean rulers may be females, when spoken of altogether, they may be correctly classified under the denomination 'kings.'" The sentence may mean that " some of the European rulers may be females when spoken of altogether," etc., or, " Though some of the European rulers may be fe- males, they may, when spoken of altogether, be correctly classified under the denomination 'kings.'" "Are these designs, which any man, who is born an American, /;/ any circumstances, ought to be ashamed to avow?" is equally objectionable, and may mean a "man PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 135 who in any circumstances is born an American," etc., or thathe '-oughtnot in any circumstances to be ashamed, "etc. The proper construction is this : " Are these designs, which any man who is born an American ought, in any circumstances, to be ashamed to avow ? " The ambiguity arising from the careless or ignorant use of personal pronouns is forcibly .illustrated in the following sentence : " He told the coachman that he would be the death of him if he did not take care what he was about and mind what he said." It was here the intention of the writer that the he in "he would be the death," should refer to the coach- man, who would cause his employer to lose his life by rash driving, but the reference might be construed to r mean the employer. OBSCURITY OF^ STYLE is the result of complicated con- struction, verbosity, excessive brevity, etc., and generally originates from an indistinctness of conception in the writer or speaker. " Care should be taken," says Quin- tilian, " not that the reader may understand, if he will, but that he must understand whether he will or not." Simplicity is an important element of clearness. We should shun the use of big words when it is possible to express our ideas equally well in plain idiomatic English. Such attempts at fine language as the follow- ing cannot be commended, and often result in confusion: "The night, now far advanced, was brilliantly bright with the radiance of astral and lunar effulgence." It is far better to say, " The night was far advanced, and the moon and stars were shining brightly." " The letter is the fulmination of a man of profound convictions. It may not be accurate in its collocation of events, but it is the outpouring of an earnest soul." 136 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. The sense here, stated with unaffected simplicity, is; "It is the letter of a man of strong convictions; and though perhaps inaccurate in most of its details, it com- mands respect by the evident sincerity of its purpose." It is better to say love than to use such periphrases as, the tender chords, or the amorous affection. TJie succulent bivalve is a bad substitute for oyster, and enrage should be preferred to exacerbate ; he died poor, to he expired in indigent circumstances. Persons and things, in ordinary prose, should be given their plain names. Hence we should not refer to God as ''the occupant of the throne of heaven," nor to Homer as "the blind old bard," nor to Dante as "the distin- guished Florentine," nor to Milton as "the great Epic Iconoclast," nor to Shakespeare as "the Swan of Avon'\ or " Gentle Will," nor to Dr. Johnson as "the great lex- icographer." When the action referred to is closely related to the attribute named, the rule is not applicable ; as, " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?" "The victors of Sedan saw nothing between them and the capture of Paris." Remote allusions and frequent quotations are also a source of obscurity; as, "They partook of the cup that cheers, but not inebriates," for, "They took tea together;" "He failed in one trade and tried another; but his re- ceipts were few and far between, and his last state was worse than his first" for, "He failed in one trade, tried another, and failed again." Following is a- salient example of allusive pedantry: " There are torches of Miltiades in every battle-field of academic or national struggles, of which the sight or remembrance ought forever to prevent the young Themis- PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 137 tocles from sleeping." The meaning of this sentence is probably: " In every academic or national competition there are examples of well-earned success which ought to inspire us with a desire to emulate them." Simple things and incidents should always be described in simple language. Following is an example, to the contrary, likely to puzzle the reader : " I found, on examination, a contusion of the integu- ments under the orbit, with extravasation of blood and ecchymosis of the surrounding cellular tissue, which was in a tumefied state, with abrasion of the cuticle." Trans- lated into plain English, the meaning of this sentence is that the doctor found a patient with a black eye. The same sort of stilted language is often found in metaphysical treatises and art criticisms. Lord Macaulay has directed attention to the strong Saxon of Dr. John- son's unpremeditated remarks, such, for example, as "The rehearsal had not wit enough to keep it sweet ;" " that is," he continued, by way of correcting, but really spoiling the sentence, " it has not vitality enough to pre- serve it from putrefaction." " When we were taken up-stairs," he says in a letter from the Hebrides, u a dirty fellow bounced out of the bed on which one of us was to lie." The incident reappeared at a later date in the Journal in the following pompous and inverted form: " Out of one of the couches on which we were to repose, there started up, at our entrance, a man, black as a cyclops from the forge." Simple words come most naturally to our minds, and attempts to display learning often result in an exposure of ignorance. The almost exclusive use of Saxon does not, like the extreme use of Latin words, savor of ab- surdity; but it, too, is a fault of style. Plain words are 138 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. the best for plain things, but technical subjects may ap- propriately be discussed in technical terms. To talk of a daisy or a wall-flower by its botanical name in ordinary conversation, would be to make our meaning obscure. We should call a spade a spade; a thief a thief, not a kleptomaniac ; but geography is better than earth-descrip- tion. Magnitude is different from greatness; fluidity is not wateriness; and to drop the distinction would be, by an affectation of simplicity, a fall into obscurity. With some exceptions, the briefer we make the expres- sion of a thought, the clearer will it be. A superfluous word or phrase is, as a rule, productive of harm, and should not be used in composition. TAUTOLOGY. Clearness is often violated by tau- tology, or a needless repetition of words or ideas. Fol- lowing are illustrations of tautological expressions: "On comparing these works together, I found there was no comparison between them." It would be far better to say: " I found there was no comparison between these works." " Less capacity is required for this business, but more time is necessary" should be : " Less capacity, but more time, is required for this business." The superfluous particles, especially the prepositions and conjunctions italicized in the following examples, if omitted will improve the sense: " He would have recoiled aghast from before the idea;" " Doivn until this time;'* "They may be divided up into their component parts;" " Persons who settle upon what shall be the topics of their speeches;" "As they must pass their lives together, I have therefore thought;" "Of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it;" " He restored the chief butler to his butlership again;" "The law, and the equity, PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 139 and the merits of the case ;" " It was either white, or blue, or green." Adverbs, adjectives, or qualifying phrases the mean- ings of which are already involved in the sentence are tautological and should be omitted. Following are examples: "The most entire satisfaction;" "The whole sum total;" "The entire monopoly of the ^vhole trade;" ''One unanimous cry;" "These departments mutually reflect light on each other ; " " They returned back again to* the city;" "The universal opinion of all men;" "Many offered voluntarily to be among the number;" "The proper ornaments of style arise from sentiment, and flow in the same stream with the current of thought;" "The second mode is by studying the literature of a language in order of time, or chronologically, beginning with the very oldest written books, and coming down to the latest and neivest." The use of two or more nouns meaning nearly the same thing ; as, currency and circulation, investigation and inquiry, institutions and government, welfare and prosper- ity, intents and purposes, bounds and limits, pleasure and enjoyment, courage and fortitude, should generally be avoided. Such collocations are allowable for the purpose of unfolding what is involved, or of discriminating between two possible meanings of a word ; as when we say : "sense and construction," in contradistinction to "sense and sensibility." Some words run in couples, hunt in pairs, and seem linked like Siamese twins, by established usage. " Means and substance," " head and front," etc., are examples of this class, but it is not desirable to multiply these prac- tical duplicates, as they are likely to suggest a. difference where none exists, and thus confuse the reader. But the 140 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. repetition of a word is often advisable for the sake of clearness, and the repetition of an idea is often conducive to effect in oratory; as, "All that is little and low and mean among us." PLEONASM does not, like tautology, exactly repeat the sense of the writer; but it adds to it nothing except what is really involved in that which has been said. Pleonasm is a more deceptive fault of clearness than tautology. The following are pleonasms : " He went home full of a great many serious reflections ; " "I shall come to see you at your house to-morrow, if I have any leisure on my hands;" " Reason is the glory of human nature, and is one of the chief eminences whereby we are raised above our fellow-creatures, the brutes, /;/ this lower world ; " " This club treats all other clubs with an eye ^/"contempt ; "' " He managed the affairs of the country with prudent policy and provident wisdom :" "In the Attic common- wealth, it was the privilege and birth-right of every citizen and poet to rail aloud and in public" The words italicized in the foregoing sentences should be omitted. The following and similar expressions are justifiable at times for rhetorical emphasis; as, "The heavens above, the earth beneatJi, and the waters under tJie earth; " " We have seen with our eyes, and heard with our ears'' VERBOSITY is also contrary to clearness; as, "On receiving this information he arose, went out, saddled his horse, and went to town." The details here do not repeat one another, but are insignificant It would be better to reconstruct the sentence so as to read thus: "On receiving this information he rode to town." Extended instances of verbosity usually illustrate other errors; but PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 14! the uncouthness of the following is due, principally, to the trivial details it introduces: "Besides which, I remember well seeing a magnificent drawing, of the largest size, called ' Italy,' belonging to Mr. Jones, and another grand one of the ' Falls of the Clyde,' with others, of which Mr. Ruskin has not a word to say in his bulky catalogue of 150 pages, which, notwithstanding that half of it is spent upon his own drawings, is really very interesting reading at any other time, and at any other place." Very long sentences, even when not tautological, are often difficult to comprehend. The awkwardness of the following sentences is owing chiefly to a redundancy of adjectives, the intrusion of sentiment, the accumulation of particles, etc. " Finally, Mill, the youngest of the three he was but twenty-nine when he wrote the pas- sage which I have quoted had for several years been writing in the Westminster and other Reviews articles from which it was to be inferred that when his cour- ageous and truth-loving father, and that father's friend, Bentham, should be gone from the earth, they would leave behind them, in this heir of their hopes, one fit to be an expositor of their ideas through another generation, but who was likely rather to look right and left in that gen- eration for himself, and to honor his descent, not by mere adhesion to what he had inherited, but by an open-mind, edness that should even solicit contrary impressions, and push on passionately at every break of day, in the quest of richer truth." The sentence may be improved by thus rewriting it: " Mill, the youngest of the group, though but twenty-nine when he wrote the passage quoted above, had for several years been known as a leading writer in the Westminster 142 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. and other Reviews. From the tone and quality of his articles it might already have been predicted that the ideas of his father, and of Bentham, his father's friend, were likely to be expounded to the next generation in a manner worthy of the bold thinkers who had originated them. His readers felt that John Stuart Mill was sure to honor his descent by no blind adhesion to inherited belief, but by a keen regard to the circumstances of his time, a mind ever open to receive various impressions, and a zeal ever on the alert for the pursuit of truth." The original sentence is thus divided into three sentences. Long sentences have their proper place as elements of variety in an extended composition; but they require skillful treatment, and should be avoided by inexperi- enced writers. Circumlocutory expressions like the following are to be avoided: "Having bestowed great pains in investi- gating the subject, I am firmly persuaded that," " I am convinced it is true that," " As far as I know," etc. The frequent use of /;///, though, however, still, neverthe- less, if I may say so, so to speak, etc., especially when one follows another, is likely to muddle the sentence and puz- zle the reader. THE DOUBLE NEGATIVE, which is commonly opposed to clearness, is properly used when a direct affirmative would overstate the truth; as, "He is not unjust" "It was not a bad\\\\." The double negative is also employed effectively by eminent writers to make a strong assertion with some reserve. Lord Macaulay says that Milton in his blindness "meditated a song so sublime and holy that it would not have misbecome the lips of those ethe- real virtues," etc. But in the following instances the double negative is badly employed : " Henceforth all PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 143 orders not emanating from the ministry must not be obeyed;" "It is not to be denied that a high degree of beauty does not lie in simple forms ; " " The following expressions seem not to have the merit of not being syn- onymous." EXCESSIVE BREVITY may also lead to a violation of clearness. It is more commonly the error of great authors, who are likely to forget that the reader cannot supply the latent trains of thought which link their sen- tences. The obscurity of excessive brevity is generally due to an abuse of ellipses ; as, " He is inspired with a true sense of that function," instead of " He is inspired with a true sense of tJie importance of that function." "Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as a savage is a happier state of life than a galley-slave." We cannot properly call a savage or a galley-slave a state of life, though we may compare their conditions. The obscurity of the sentence is removed by supplying the omitted words so as to make it read thus: "Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as the state of a savage is happier than that of a galley-slave." Connecting particles or pronouns, on the contrary, may often be omitted with advantage to clearness ; as, " Man proposes ; God disposes ; " "I told you I would go my- self;" "Had I known the danger, I would not have gone ; " " Had I but served my God with half the zeal I served my king." Here, "with which" is understood after zeal, and there is not any ambiguity. Condensation is commonly the remedy for obscurity; thus, " Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom, whenever an opportunity presented, he praised through the whole period of his existence with 144 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. unvaried liberality; and perhaps his character may re- ceive some illustration if a comparison be instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was;" a sen- tence which may be thus condensed and improved : " Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no opportunity of praising; and his character is illustrated by comparison with his master." Obscurity may be remedied, sometimes, by paraphrase. The same word cannot be used, Consistently with the principles of clearness, in different senses in the same sentence ; as, " He presents more and more convincing arguments than his adversary." Here the word more first occurs as an adjective, then as an adverb, to the great confusion of the reader. The sentence should read : 44 He presents more numerous and more convincing argu- ments than his adversary." The pronouns, particularly the personals and relatives, are often misused in this way. The same pronoun, as a rule, should not be made to refer to different objects in the same sentence. Obscurity may arise from inversions and omissions. Inversions are most common in poetry; as, " When Adam, first of men, To first of women, Eve, thus moving speech, Turned him all tar to hear new utterance flow." The omission, or rather non-repetition of the subject, often strains the attention and causes a degree of ob- scurity. Adverbs when misplaced, or even inverted for emphasis, may easily cause obscurity; as, " He left the room very slowly repeating his determination not to obey." Care should be taken to place the adverb as near as possible to the word which it qualifies, and in such a position, either before or after, that it cannot be taken to qualify any other word. PHILOSOPHY OF RHP:TORIC. 145 The use of participles often causes ambiguity; as, "I saw an old school-fellow yesterday when I was in New York walking down Broadway, valise in hand." Infinitives, when carelessly used, are ambiguous and detrimental to clearness ; as, " Do yo intend to send your son to help me to work or to play? " Does this mean : " Do you intend to send your son, or to help me, or to work, or to play?" or, " Do you intend to send your son that he may help me, or that he may work, or that he may play?" or, " Do you intend to send your son to help me, that I may work, or that I may play?" STRENGTH. Strength, in its technical sense, has already been de- fined. We may add that the essence of strength lies in originality and vividness, and the term comprehends substantially all of the elements of Purity, Propriety, Precision, and Perspicuity. The rejection of superfluous words, which, as we have seen, is one of the elements of precision, is essential to strength. Whatever adds nothing to the meaning of a sentence detracts from its strength, and whether it be simply a word, a phrase, or a clause, should be rejected. The italicized words in the following examples convey no additional meaning, and should accordingly be omitted: " Being satisfied with what he has achieved, he attempts nothing further; " " If I had not been absent, if I had been here, it would not have happened ; " " The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, and spreads delight through all its faculties" 146 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. RELATIVES AND CONDUCTIONS. Care should be taken not to use the relative for the conjunction, or the con- junction for the relative; of which latter fault Swift is guilty in the following sentence: "There is no talent so useful toward rising in the world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality gen- erally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, called discretion." Here the word and should give place to which. It will also be noticed that the words which is are understood after talent, near the beginning of the sentence, and that the conjunction or is accordingly introduced to connect the first clause with that which follows. Parts of sentences should be connected by either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, but not by both. " He was a man of fine abilities, and who lost no opportunity of improving them by study." Here who should be rejected, since the connection is made by and. Between two relative clauses, however, <( conjunction is generally employed ; as, " Cicero, whom the profligate feared, but who was honored by the upright," etc. THE Too FREQUENT USE OF AND should be avoided. Not only when employed to introduce a sentence, but also when often repeated during its progress, this con- junction greatly weakens style. It is used no less than eight times in the following sentence from Sir William Temple: "The Academy set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue; and the French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language; and, indeed, with such success that it can PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 147 hardly be equaled, and runs equally through their verse and their prose." The conjunction is often omitted, and with fine effect, when the object is to present a quick succession of spirited images. But, on the contrary, \vhen making an enumeration in which it is important that the transition from one object to another should not be too rapid, but that each should appear distinct from the rest, the con- junction may be repeated with peculiar advantage; as, " I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of God." THE SPLITTING OF PARTICLES, that is, the separa- tion of a preposition from the noun which it governs, should always be avoided. The error is illustrated in the following sentence : " Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by the advantages of fortune." It should read thus : " Though virtue borrows no assistance from the advantages of fortune, yet it may often be accompanied by them." THE EXPLETIVE THERE, as used in the. following sentence, should be avoided : " There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." A briefer and stronger expression of the sentiment would be : " Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." The use of this expletive is permissible only when it is used to introduce an important propo- sition. ARRANGEMENT OF EMPHATIC WORDS. The proper arrangement of emphatic words in a sentence is essential to strength. They may sometimes be placed at the 148 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. beginning of a sentence; as, " The pleasures of the imagin- ation, taken in their full extent, are not so gross as those of sense, nor so refined as those of the understand- ing." At other times, it is advisable to suspend the sense for a time, and bring the emphatic words at the close of the sentence ; as, " On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his ivonderfiil in- vention. PRECEDENCE OF CLAUSES. Strength requires that the shorter members of a sentence should have pre- cedence of the longer, and that the weaker should be placed before the stronger. Both of these principles are violated in the following example : " In this state of mind, every employment of life becomes an oppressive burden, and every object appears gloomy." It is far more forcible to say: "In this state of mind, every object appears gloomy, and every employment of life becomes an op- pressive burden.' WEAK ENDINGS. We should avoid ending a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any small unaccented word ; as, " He is one whom good men are glad to be ac- quainted with;" " He is one with whom good men are glad to be acquainted." The superiority of the construc- tion of the second sentence is obvious. INTENSIVE EXPRESSIONS. Another violation of strength lies in the injudicious use of very, and other intensive or superlative expressions. All exaggerated language, as in the frequent use of such adjectives as stu- pendous, boundless, tremendous, prodigious, rapturous, infi- nite, incalculable, awful, majestic, etc., should be avoided. BATHOS. When the thought descends instead of as- cending, the strength is impaired. This descent is some- PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. 149 times confusing, and is called bathos. Example: "She was a true wife, a loving mother, and a good cook." CLIMAX. The phrases and clauses of a sentence should, in accordance with the laws of strength, be arranged in an ascending scale, called climax. A figure of arrangement depending for its force on the fact that the vividness with which the mind realizes a succession of images has much to do with the order in which they are presented. PLAIN LANGUAGE. We should always write naturally if we wish to write strongly. Every form of affectation is an offense against perspicuity and propriety as well as strength. The plainest language is not always the most forcible; it cannot be too natural, but it may be too familiar. A great orator, after a great war, produced a profound impression by saying in the House of Com- mons : " The Angel of Death has been abroad through the land ; we may almost hear the beating of his wings." " If," said a critic after the debate, " if you had said flap- ping, we would have laughed." We should not use unnecessary adjectives. It is better to say murder than a planned Jiomicide. The preference should be given to suggestive adjectives, leaving as much as we may, with safety, to the imagination of the reader. Indirect or prefaced modes of expression should be shuned, except where they are emphatic ; as, " It was I who did it; " " There appeared to them a strange vision." An accumulation of little words should be avoided, since it is an impediment to strength; as, "Now, as that we may love God, it is necessary to know Him ; so that we may know God, it is necessary to study His works." It would be better to say : " As to love God we must know Him, to know Him we must study His works." ISO PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. HARMONY. Harmony, while comparatively of less importance than Purity, Propriety, Precision, Perspicuity, or Strength, is still an essential element of style. Sound, although secondary to sense, should not be disregarded. Harmony consists of the use of pleasing words, their euphonious arrangement in sentences, and the adaptation of sound to sense. Words belonging to the following classes are detrimental to harmony, and should be avoided : 1. Derivatives from long compound words; as, bare- facedness, wrongheadedness, unsuccessfulness. 2. Words containing a succession of consonant sounds; as, fonn'dst, strik'st, flinched. 3. Words having a succession of unaccented syllables ; as, meteorological, derogatorily, mercenariness. 4. Words in which a short or unaccented syllable is repeated, or followed by another closely resembling it, as, holily, farriering. It must not be inferred, however, that such words are to be rejected in all cases, but only when other words may be used which are equally significant and more euphonious. Harsh terms are sometimes more expres- sive and better adapted to the subject. The use of the same word more than once in the course of a sentence, or the use of similar combinations of letters in contiguous words, is prejudicial to harmony. Sentences containing a succession of words of the same number of syllables, as, " No kind of joy can long please us," are also defective in harmony. " No species of joy can long delight us," is a more harmonious form of expression. But however well chosen or euphonious the words may be in them- PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. !$! selves, unless skillfully arranged, the music of the sentence will be lost. An alternation of soft and harsh sounds in a sentence, the cadence of periods, etc., are conducive to harmony. Following is an example from Baker, in which every vowel regularly alternates with a consonant, and nearly every consonant is a liquid: " Lay him low, lay him low, In the clover, or the snow ; What cares he ? he cannot know : Lay him low." The multiplication of liquid sounds is also noticeable in the following lines from Foe : "And neither the angels in heaven above, Nor the demons down under the sea, Can ever dissever my soul from the soul Of the beautiful Annabel Lee." The annexed extract from Washington Irving is an excellent illustration of the cadence at the close of a long yet clear and musical sentence in prose: "As the vine which has long twined its graceful foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs; so is it beautifully ordered by Providence, that woman, who is the mere dependent and ornament of man in his hap- pier hours, should be his stay and solace when smitten with sudden calamity; winding herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, and binding up the broken heart." The labor of Sisyphus is imitated in the following lines from Pope, which clearly illustrate the adaptation of the sound to the sense: " With many a weary step, and many a groan, Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone." 152 PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC. UNITY. Unity, the primary requirement of which is that a sentence be restricted to one leading proposition, is vio- lated in such sentences as the following: "My friends turned back after we reached the vessel, on board of which I was received with kindness by the passengers, who vied with one another in showing me attention." Here there are no less than four subjects, namely: friends, we, /, who [that is passengers]. The unity of the sentence may be attained by thus reconstructing it; "My friends having turned back after we reached the vessel, the passengers received me on board with kindness, and vied with one another in showing, me attention." We should not crowd into a sentence things having no connection; as, "Their march was through an unculti- vated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." The scene is here changed repeatedly, and forms a distasteful and confusing medley. LONG PARENTHESES are antagonistic to unity. Pas- sages in which they occur should be divided into shorter sentences; as, "The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (which were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance which turned out to be mercury), yield every year over three hundred thousand pounds of that valuable metal." Following is the correct construction : " The quick- silver mines of Idria, in Austria, were discovered by a peasant in 1797. Catching some water from a spring, PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC 153 he found the tub so heavy that he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance which proved to be mercury. Of this valuable metal, the mines mentioned yield every year over three hundred thousand pounds." THE LOGIC OF STYLE. Next to the choice of words nothing is of more im- portance than their proper arrangement. " Force in language," says that advanced thinker, Herbert Spencer, " is mainly dependent upon economy of the mental energies and sensibilities. The more time and attention it takes to receive and understand a sentence, the less time and attention can be given by the reader to the contained idea, and the less vividly will that idea be conceived." After calling attention to the greater forcibleness of Saxon over Romanic words, and to the superiority of specific expressions, by the use of which there is a saving of the mental effort required to translate words into thoughts, he adds :