Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/americanfarmbookOOallerich THE AMERICAN FARM BOOK; OR COMPENDOF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE; BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON SOILS, MANURES, DRAINING, IRRIGATION, GRASSES, GRAIN, ROOTS, FRUITS, COTTON, TOBACCO, SUGAR CANE, RICE, AND EVERY STAPLE PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES. WITH THE BEST METHODS OP PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET ILLUSTRATED BY MORE THAI^ 100 ENGRAVINGS. Ky R. L. ALLEN. AUTHOR OF DISEASES OF "DOMESTIC ANIMALS," AND EDITOR OF "the AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST." NEW YORK : C. M. SAXTON, 121 FULTON, STREET. 1850. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by RICHAUD L. ALLEN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for tne Southern Distrifet of New York. C. W. BENEDICT, Stereotyper, 201 William street, cor. of FranJcfort. / f ' Ac TO THE FARMERS AND PLANTERS OF THE UNITED STATES, This work is respectfully dedicated, with the hope that it will add its mite in sustaining and carrying forward the great agricultural improvements of the present day. To agriculture, The most healthful, the most useful, THE most noble EMPLOYMENT OF MAN, rather than to any other, or perhaps, than to all others combined, must we look for the permanent strength, the glory and happiness of our great Republic. THE AUTHOR. W366500 ADVERTISEMENT. The American Farm Book was first published two years since, under the title of " A Brief Compend of American Agriculture." The favor with which it was received by the public, and its extensive sale, liave induced a thorough revision, with the addition of several products not previously mentioned. The Southern department of the work has been enlarged from the personal observation of the Author, during two years residence at the South. For most of the Illustrations of southern plants, the author is indebted to original drawings mad^ for him by Don Jose Maria de la Torre, of Havana ; and of those of the shade trees, to the Publishers of Biraw»j<*'s Trees of America. New York, January, 1849. PREFACE. The following work on American Agriculture is intended as one of the first in the series of lessons for the American Farmer. The size precludes its embracing any thing be- yond the shortest summary of the principles and practice by which he should be guided, in the honorable career he has selected. As a primary work, it is not desirable it should comprise so much as to alarm the tyro in agriculture with the magnitude of his subject. A concise and popular exposition of the principal topics to which his attention will necessarily be directed, will, it is believed, in connection with his own observation and practice, give him a taste for fur- ther research, which will lead him to the fullest attainment in agricultural knowledge that could be expected from his capacity and opportunities. Much of what is detailed in the present volume, has been tested by the writer's own experience and observation. For the remainder, he is indebted to various oral and written in- formation, derived from the best agriculturists, and especially from the valuable foreign and domestic agricultural periodi- cals of the present day. Whenever original authority could be known or recollect ed, it has been credited ; but many even of the most recent discoveries, have already passed through such numerous hands, and received so many shades of alteration or improve- ment, that their authors would hardly recognize their own VI PREFACE. offspring. It would not be strange, therefore, if they had become incorporated in the mass of agricultural principles, without any indication of their origin. The same or similar discoveries and improvements, are also not unfrequently made without any interchange, by different minds and at remote distances. If any omissions of proper acknowledg- ment have occurred, the writer will be happy to correct them hereafter. To the experienced and scientific, this work may appear too commonplace — to the uninstructed, too enlarged or abtruse. It was ndt intended to reconcile impossibilities. The first must look to elaborate or complete treatises for the fullest information on the various subjects comprehended in this general summary. To the last, it must be answered, that what is here communicated, is important to be known ; that modern agriculture, like all other progressive modern sciences and arts, has necessarily introduced new terms for the explanation of new principles and new practices ; and the former must be learned before the latter can be compre- hended. INTRODUCTION. Agriculture, in its most extensive sense, may be defined, the cultivation of the earth with a reference to the produc- tion of vegetables, and the conversion of portions of them into animals, and a variety of forms, which are the best adapted to the wants of mankind. It is appropriately dis- tinguished by numerous subdivisions. Tillage Husbandry consists in the raising of grain, roots and other products, which require the extensive use of the plow and harrow to prepare the ground for annual sowing and planting. Grazing is limited to the pasturing and winter feeding of farm stock, and it requires that the land appropriated to this purpose, should be kept in pasturage for summer food, and in meadows to yield the hay necessary for winter's use. In its strictly technical meaning, grazing implies the rear- ing of farm stock till they have attained sufficient maturity for a profitable market, as far as this maturity can be secured on grass and hay. It, however, properly embraces in its minor divisions, the keeping of cows for the purposes of a dairy, and the support "^f flocks for the production of wool. Feeding, in its agricultural signification, consists in stall fattening animals. It is properly connected with tillage husbandry for the production of grain and roots, and by the free use of which, animals can be brought to a" higher con- dition or ripeness, and they will thus command a much bet- ter price in market, than if fed exclusively on grass and hay. Vm INTRODUCTION. Breeding, technically defined, is restricted to the produc- tion of choice animals for use as future breeders, by the judi- cious selection and crossing of the best specimens of the vari- ous distinct breeds of domestic stock. Horticulture embraces the entire department of garden- ing, the cultivation of trees, shrubbery, and fruits ; and these occupations are again variously subdivided. By Planting (or the occupation of planters), is under- stood the cultivation of extensive farms or plantations, for the exclusive production of one or more commercial staples, such as cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, indigo, &c., and their preparation for a distant market. The term is peculiarly sectional, and its use so far as adopted in this country, is limited to the southern portion of it. All of the foregoing and various other occupations con- nected with the cultivation of the earth, are comprehended under the general head of Agriculture. Besides the varied practical knowledge which is indis- pensable to the proper management of every department of agriculture, its general principles and theoretical relations require a familiarity with the elements of History, Geology, Meteorology, Chemistry, Botany, Entomology, Anatomy, Zoology, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, and Mechan- ics ; and in their ultimate connection, they involve no incon- siderable share of the entire circle of human knowledge and science. In view of its intricacy, its magnitude, and its importance to the human race, we cannot fail to be struck with the peculiar wisdom of Deity in assigning to man this occupa- tion, when a far-seeing and vigorous intellect fitted him to scan with unerring certainty and precision, the visible works of his Creator, and trace their causes and effects through all their varied relations. It was while in the sinless perfection of his original nature, when " the Lord God put him into INTRODUCTION. IX the garden of Eden, to dress it and to keep it," and ag- riculture was his his sole occupation, that his godlike intel- ligence enabled him, instinctively to give appropriate nam^s, indicative of their true nature or character, " to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field ;" and so just and accurate was his perception, that " whatso- ever he called every living creature, that was the name thereof." In our present imperfect condition, a beneficent Provi- dence has not reserved a moderate success in Agriculture, exclusively to the exercise of a high degree of intelligence. His laws have been so kindly framed, that the hand even of uninstructed toil, may receive some requital in remunerating harvests ; while their utmost fulness can be anticipated, only where corporeal efforts are directed by the highest intelligence. The indispensable necessity of an advanced agriculture to the comforts and wealth, and indeed, to the very existence of a great nation, renders it an object peculiarly worthy the attention and regard of the legislative power. ' In looking to the history both of ancient and modern times, we find, that wherever a people have risen to enduring eminence, they have sedulously encouraged and protected this right arm of their strength. Examples need not be given, for they abound in every page of their civil polity. Our own country has not been wanting in a moderate re- gard for Agriculture. By wise legislation in our National Congress, every item of extensive agricultural production within the United States, with the single exception of the inferior wools, is believed to be fully protected from foreign competition, by an unyielding and perfectly adequate impost on all such articles, as would otherwise enter into a success- ful rivalry with them from abroad. Many of our subordi nate, or state legislatures, have also, by liberal provisions, X INTRODUCTION. given such encouragement to various objects, as they deemed necessary to develope the agricultural resources within their jurisdiction. Such have been the appropriations for numer- ous geological and other state surveys ; the bounties on dif- ferent articles, as silk, hemp, and some others ; and occa- sionally a small gratuity to encourage the formation and support of State and County Agricultural Societies. But while we would not be unmindful of what has here- tofore been effected, our duty compels us to assert, that much yet remains to be done. A single suggestion for the action of the g^eral government and states, is all that our limits will permit us to make. The organization of a National Board of Agriculture, com- posed of able and intelligent men, expressly selected for this purpose, whose sole duty it should be, to collect all informa-. tion and statistics on the subject, and arrange and spread them before the people ; to introduce new and valuable for- eign plants., adapted to our soil and climate ; suggest im- proved methods of cultivation ; recommend and disseminate the most approved principles of breeding domestic animals ; indicate those best adapted to particular purposes or peculiar localities ; point out new avenues for the profitable disposal of our surplus products ; and recommend such laws or their modification, as might best subserve this interest ; in short, who should stand as sentinels and defenders on the watch- tower of this great citadel — this is the lofty duty, and should be esteemed the peculiar privilege of American leg- islation to accomplish. This was a favorite, yet not a fully digested plan of Washington, the suggestions of whose be- nevolent and comprehensive mind were never followed but for his country's good. From the individual states, a less commanding, but not less beneficial duty is required. Restrictions wisely impo- sed upon the general government, limit its action to such INTRODUCTION. XI measures only as are essential to the general welfare, and such as cannot properly be accomplished by any more cir- cumscribed authority. More liberal and enlarged grants from the people, give to the state legislatures the power of doing all which their constituents choose to have effected for their own benefit. Education in all its branches, is under their exclusive control ; and to endow and foster every institution which has a tendency to raise and improve the intellectual, the moral, and the social condition of the people, has ever been their cherished policy. Yet up to this time, no institution expressly designed for the professional education of farmers, has ever been established in this country. That far-seeing wisdom which characterizes the consummate statesman, and which regards the future equally with the present and past, has halted upon the threshold of the great temple of agri- cultural science, whose ample and enduring foundations have been commenced by the imited efforts of the men of genius throughout both hemispheres. To aid with every means in their power in laying these foundations broad and deep, to elevate its superstructure, to rear its mighty columns, and adorn its graceful capitals, would seem most properly to come entirely within the province of the representatives of intelligent freemen, the great business of whose lives is the practice of agriculture. In addition to continuing and making more general and comprehensive the encouragement for other objects hereto- fore considered, it is the duty of each of the larger states of the Union, liberally to endow and organize an Agricultural College, and insure its successful operation within Its juris- diction. Connected with these, should be example and ex- perimental farms, where the suggestions of science should be amply tested and carried out before submitting them to the public. The most competent men at home and abroad Xll INTRODUCTION. should be invited to fill a professional chair ; and if mqiiex^ would tempt a Liebig, a Boussingault, a Johnston, or a Playfair, to leave the investig,atiojis of, European soils and products, and devote his mind and energies to the improve- ment of American husbandry, it should be freely given. These institutions should be schools for the teachers equally with the taught ; and their liberally-appointed labo- ratories and collections should contain every available means for the discovery of what is yet hidden, as well as for the further development of what is already partially known. Minor institutions should of course be established at differ- ent and remote points, to scatter the elements of agricultural knowledge broadcast over the land, and bring them within the reach of the poorest citizens and the humblest capacities. By such a liberal and enlightened course, we should not only incalculably augment the productive agricultural ener- gies of our own country, but we should also in part, repay to the world at large, the obligations under which we now rest for having appropriated numerous and important disco- veries and improvements from abroad. If we have the ability which none can doubt, we should make it a point of honor to return in kind, the liberal advances we have thus received. It is to the rising generation these suggestions are made; the risen are not yet prepared for their acceptance. The latter have been educated, and become habituated to different and more partial influences. By their industry, intelligence, and energy, displayed in numberless ways, and especially by their protection of American labor, they have accomplished much for their own and their country's welfare — they are resolved to leave this glory for their successors. New York, June, 1846. AMERICAN A&RICTJLTTJEE CHAPTER I. SOILS. Soils are those portions of the earth's surface, which contain a mixture of mineral and vegetable or animal sub- stances, in such proportions as adapt them to the support of vegetation. Rocks are the original basis of all soils, which by the convulsions of nature, or the less violent but long continued and equally efficient action of air, moisfure and frost, have been broken into fragments more or less minute. There are various gradations of these changes. The Texture of Soils. — Some rocks exist in large boulders or rounded stones, which thickly overspread the surface and mingle themselves with the earth beneath, giving to it the character of a rocky soil. The smaller sizes, but an equal prevalence of the same materials, distinguish the sur- face where they abound, as a stony soil. A third and more minute division is called a gravelly soil ; a fourth is a sandy soil ; a fifth constitutes a loam ; and a sixth, in which the parti- cles of earth are reduced to their greatest fineness, is known under the name of a clay soil. The two first mentioned, however, are not properly, dis- tinct soils, as the only support of any profitable vegetation, is to be found in the finer earth in which the rocks and stones are embedded. In frequent instances, they materially benefit the crops, by the influence produced from their shade, moisture, and protection from winds ; and by the gradual decomposition of such as contain lime, potash and other fer- tilizing materials, they enrich the soil and contribute to the support of vegetation. Their decomposition is hastened by the apparently worthless vegetable life which they yield to the living mosses that cling to their sides, and every where 14 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. penetrate their fissures ; thus imperceptibly corroding the solid structures and preparing them for future usefulness as soils. If we add to the above, a peat or vegetable soil, we shall have the material divisions of soils, as distinguished by their texture. Besides these, soils are frequently to be seen, more or less extensive, which possess peculiarities entitling them to a distinct classification, and requiring a treatment, in some respects, different from any others. Such are the prarie soils, which, having been annually burnt over for ages, are highly charged with ashes and the alkaline salts. Such also, are the terre-gras lands in Louisiana, and the brick- mold of the East and West Indies, each of which requires peculiar management in plowing and cultivation. Other Classifications of Soils. — Soils are also dis- tinguished by their tendency to absorb and retain water, gravel ^nd sand holding very little, while clay and peat readily absorb and retain a great deal ; by their constant satu- ration from perennial springs, which are called springy soils ; by the quantity of vegetable and animal matter they contain ; by their porosity or adhesiveness ; by their chemical charac- ter, whether silicious, argillaceous or calcareous ; by the quality and nature of the vegetation they sustain ; and lastly, and by far the most important, they are distinguished by their fertility or barrenness, the result of the proper adjustment and combination of most of the conditions enumerated. Deserts of sands, layers of rocks, stone or pure gravel, and beds of marl and peat are not soils, though containing many of their most important elements. It is apparent to the most casual observer, that soils fre- quently, and by almost imperceptible degrees, change from one character to another, and that no classification, however minute, will suffice to distinguish each. Some obvious yet simple distinctions, which are usually recognized, must nevertheless be assumed for future reference. For this pur- pose, and to avoid unecessary deviations from what should be a common standard, we shall adopt the arrangements as made by Professor Johnston, which is based principally upon their chemical constituents. " 1°. Pure clay (pipe-clay) consisting of about 60 of silica and 40 of alumina and oxide of iron, for the most part chem- ically combined. It allows no silicious sand to subside when diffused through water, and rarely forms any extent of soil. 2°. Strongest clay soil (tile-clay, unctuous clay) consists of SOILS. 15 pure clay mixed with 5 to 15 per cent, of a silicious sand, which can be separated from it by boiling and decantation. 3°. Clay loam differs from a clay soil, in allowing from . 15 to 30 per cent, of fine sand to be separated from it by washing, as above described. By this admixture of sand, its parts are mechanically separated, and hence its freer and more friable nature. 4°. A loamy soil deposits from 30 to 60 per cent, of sand, by mechanical washing. 5°. A sandy loam leaves from 60 to 90 per cent', of sand, and 6°. A sandy soil contains no more than ten per cent, of pure clay. The mode of examining, with the view of naming soils, as above, is very simple. It is only necessary to spread a weighed quantity of the soil in a thin layer upon writing paper, and to dry it for an hour or two in an oven or upon a hot plate, the heat of which is not sufficient to discolor the paper — the loss of weight gives the water it contained. "While this is drying, a second weighed portion may be boiled or otherwise thoroughly incorporated with water, and the whole then poured into a vessel, in which the heavy sandy parts are allowed to subside until the fine clay is beginning to settle also. This point must be carefully watched, the liquid then poured ofi", the sand collected, dried as before upon paper, and again weighed. This weight is the quan- tity of sand in the known weight of m^oist soil, which by the previous experiment has been found to contain a certain quantity of water. Thus, suppose two portions, each 200 grs,, are weighed, and the one in the oven loses 50 grs. of water, and the other leaves 60 grs. of sand, — then, the 200 grs, of m,oist are equal to 150 of dry, and this 150 of dry soil coi^tain 60 of sand, or 40 in 100 (40 per cent.). It would, therefore, be properly called a loain, or loa'iny soil. But the above classification has reference only to the clay and sand, while we know that lime is an important constituent of soils, of which they are seldom entirely destitute. We have, therefore, 7°. Marly soils, in which the proportion of lime is more than five but does not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the dry soil. The marl is a sandy, loamy, or clay marl, according as the proportion of clay it contains would place it under the one or other denomination, supposing it to be 16 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. entirely free from lime, or not to contain more than five pei cent., and 8°. Calcareous soUs, in which the lime exceeding 20 per cent, becomes the distinguishing constituent. These are also calcareous clays, calcareous loams, or calcareous sands, according to the proportion of clay and sand which are present in them. The determination of the lime also, when it exceeds five per cent., is attended with no difficulty. To IQO grs. of the dry soil diffused through half a pint of cold water, add half a wine glass-full of muriatic acid (the spirit of salt of the shops), stir it occasionally during the day, and let it stand over night to settle. Pour off the clear liquor in the morning and fill up the vessel with water, to wash away the excess of acid. When the water is again clear, pour it off, dry the soil and weigh it — the loss wih amount generally to about one per cent, more than the quan- tity of lime present. The result will be sufficiently near, however, for the. purposes of classification. If the loss exceed five grs. from 100 of the dry soil, it may be classed among the marls, if more than 20 grs. among the calcareous soils. Lastly, vegetable matter is sometimes the characteristic of a soil, which gives rise to a further division of "^ 9°. Vegetable molds, which are of various kinds, from the garden mold, which contains from five to ten per cent., to the peaty soil, in which the organic matter may amount to 60 or 70. These soils also are clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant character of the earthy ad- mixtures. The method of determining the amount of vegetable matter for the purposes of classification, is to dry the soil well in an oven, and weigh it ; then to heat it to dull redness over a lamp or a bright fire till the combustible matter is burned away. The loss on again weighing is the quantity of organic matter." The foregoing are only such general divisions, as possess properties sufficiently common to each, to require a treatment nearly similar. Besides their principal component parts, every soil must contain in greater or less quantities, all the elements which enter into the composition of vegetables. They may have certain substances which are not necessary to vegetable life, and some one or all of such as are, may be contained in excess ; yet to sustain a healthy prolific vegeta- ' SOILS. 17 tion, they must hold, and in a form fitted to its support, sileXy alumina, carbonate of lime, sulphate of litne, potash, soda, magnesia, sulphur, phosphorus, oxide of iron, manganese, chlorine, and probably iodine. These are called the inor- ganic or earthy parts of soils^^as they are found almost exclusively in combination witn earths, salts, or minerals. They however, constitute from less than 0.5 (one half of one) to over 10 per cent, of all vegetables. In addition to these, fertile soils must also contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, which are called the organic parts of soils, from their great preponderance in vegetables and animals, of which they constitute from about 90, to over 99 per cent. of their entire substance. Clay Soils — their Characteristics and Treatment. — Clay soils are usually denominated cold and wet, from their strong affinity to water, which they generally hold in too great excess for rapid or luxuriant vegetation. The alumina which exists in clay, not only combines with water forming a chemical compound, but the minute division of its particles and their consequent compactness, oppose seri- ous obstacles to the escape of such as comes in contact with it. Hence, the necessity of placing it in a condition to obviate these essential defects. The most eff'ectual method of disposing of the surplus water in clay soils, is by underdraining. This draws off rapidly, yet by imperceptible degrees, all the excess of water, and opens it to the free admission of atmospheric air ; and this, in its passage through the soil, imparts heat and such of the gases it contains, as are useful in sustaining vegetation. When these are not constructed, open drains should be formed wherever water stands after rains. The slight ele- vation and depression of the surface made by careful plow- ing, will probably be sufficient, if they terminate in some ravine or artificial ditch, and have size and declivity enough to pass off" the water rapidly. Clay soils are greatly improved by coarse vegetable ma- nures, str^w, corn-stalks, chips, &c., which tend to the sepa- ration of its particles. The addition of sand is very benefi- cial, but this is too expensive for large fields. Lime is also a valuable material for a clay soil, as by the chemical combi- nations which are thereby induced, the extreme tenacity of the soil is broken up ; while the lime adds an ingredient of fertility, not before possessed by it, perhaps, to an adequate extent. Gypsum has the same eifect, in a more powerful 18 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. degree. Paring and burning, (by which, the surface con- taining vegetable matter, is collected into heaps and fired, reducing the mass to a charred heap, which is then spread over and mixed with the soil,) produce the same result. This is a practice which has been long in use in different parts of Europe ; but althoupi attended with immediate and powerful results, it is too expensive for general introduction into a country, where labor is high, and land and its products comparatively cheap. Wherever frosts and snow abound, the plowing of clay lands for spring crops, should be done in the autumn if prac- ticable ; by which their adhesiveness is temporarily destroyed, the earth is enriched by the snows, and finely pulverized by the frost, and they are left in the finest condition for early spring sowing, and without additional working. If plowed in the spring, it should be done when they are neither too wet nor dry ; if the former, the earth subsequently bakes, and for a long time, it is almost impenetrable to the hoe or the teeth of the harrow ; if too dry, they are so compact as to be turned over only with great effort, and then in solid lumps. The action of the atmosphere, will pulverize these masses of baked earth after a time ; but not sufficiently early in most of our northern states, for the convenience or advantage of such crops as are immediately to follow the plowing. For much of the South, plowing clay lands in the autumn is worse than useless ; as the loose earth thus thrown up, is soon re- duced by the heavy winter rains to a compact surface, ap- parently as unfitted for cultivation, without subsequent plow- ing, as the incrustations of lava from a volcano. No soils are so tenacious of the manures which may be incorporated with them as the clays. They form an inti- mate combination, both mechanical and chemical,"^ and hold ♦ By mechanical, in the sense above used, is understood the external relation of bodies, which is nearly equivalent in its meaning in this connection, to artificial. Thus the clay envelopes the manure, and from its impervious character shields it from escape either by drainage or evaporation, and almost as effectually, as if it were enclosed in an earthen vessel. By chemical is meant, its internal or constitutional character. Thus clay not only absorbs the gases which are brought into contact with it from manures, from moisture and from air, as a sponge absorbs water ; but it also forms new combinations with them, which change the ori- ginal nature of these elementary principles, and from light evanescent gases, they become component parts of solid bodies, in which condi- tion they are retained till exhausted by the growing vegetation. These terms are important, and should be fully understood. For SOILS. 19 them securely against waste from drainage or evaporation for an indefinite time, till the growing crops demand them'. They also greedily seize upon and hoard up all such fertil- izing principles as are conveyed to them by the air and rains. We may mention as an example of their efficiency in abstracting Vegetable nutrition from the atmosphere, that many of them, when thrown out from a great depth below the surface, and entirely destitute of organic remains (vege- table or animal matter), after an exposure for some months to its meliorating influence, become capable of bearing large crops, without the aid of manure. This is particularly true of the clays which rest on the Onondaga limestone, an ex- tensive group occupying the central and north-western part of New York. The clays are admirably adapted to the production of most of the grains, and the red and white clovers cultivated in the United States. These they yield in great profusion and of the best quality ; and so peculiarly suited are they to permanent meadows and pasturage, that they are styled by way of eminence, grass lands. They are justly character- ised as strong and lasting soils ; and when properly managed the purpose of still more clearly elucidating the subject to the mind of the young student, we give some further examples. If we take a piece of crystalized marble, compact uncrystalized limestone, and chalk, we shall have three substances exactly alike in their chemical character ; for they are all chemical combinations of carbonic acid and lime, associated together in precisely the same proportions. But in their external arrangements, as they appear in a recent fracture to the eye and touch, that is, in their mec/iowica^ arrangements, they are totally dissimilar. Again — If we take the pure lime, (quick lime), that is obtained from each of the foregoing by subjecting them to an intense heat, by wTiich the carbonic acid is expelled, and pour upon it nearly one third of its weight of water, great heat is developed, and the lime both mechanical- ly ■^sorhs, and chemically combines with it, forming a new compound, or salt, which is a hydrate of lime. If sand (mostly silex) be added to the Ume with water, and mechan- ically mixed or stirred together and allowed to remain for a sufficient time, they will combine chemically, forming silicate of lime, the common mortar of stone masons. Sand (silex) stirred in with clay,(an impure alumina), is mechani- cally mixed ; if then subject to a strong heat as in making brick, they become chemically united, forming silicate of alumina, inseparable by any human means short of the chemists crucible. If we divide or separate a stick by splitting or cutting, it is a mechanical ; and if by burning or charring, it is a chemical change. Thus every alteration, either in nature or art, is referable to one of the above conditions or changes. 20 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and put to their appropriate use, they are esteemed as among the choicest of the farmer's acres. Sandy Soils and their Management. — The character and treatment of sandy soils, are in almost every particular the reverse of those of clay. They do not possess the property of adhesiveness, and they have but little affinity for water, which escapes from them almost as soon as it falls. They have but a slight hold upon the manures which are diffused through them ; they are loose in their texture, and may be plowed at any time, but with most advantage when wet. The sowing or planting should follow immediately. As clay soils are much benefited by a mixture of sand, so likewise are sandy soils greatly improved by the addition of clay, yet in a much higher degree ; for though it would never pay, as a general rule, to add sand to clay, yet the addition of a few loads of the stiffest clay to a light sand, would in almost every instance, much more than compensate for the trouble and expense. For this purpose, the clay should be thinly spread in autumn, upon sward land previously plowed, and the winter's frost will effectually separate the particles. It should then be harrowed thoroughly and deeply in the spring, and subsequently plowed if necessary. Such a dressing on a light crawling sand, is more than equivalent to an equal quantity of the best manure, and will be permanent in its effects. Clay and sand are necessary to each other, as they both contain qualities which are essential to a good soil ; and that will always be found the best, which has the proper proportion of each. Sandy soils are improved by the frequent use of a heavy roller ; it cannot . be used too often. They require to be made more compact, and any treatment that secures this object, will be advantageous. Lime, by its chemical action on the constituents of soils, while it separates clay, renders sand more adhesive ; and when cheaply obtained, it is always a profitable dressing for sandy soils, to the full amount they may require. Gypsum, in considerable quantities, has an effect similar to lime, both on clay and sand ; and when added in smaller portions, pro- duces a striking increase in the crops of sandy soils. Clay marls, containing either carbonate, sulphate, or phosphate of lime, are of great value to sandy soils. Equally bene- ficial are ashes, leached or unleached, peat, or vegetable manures of any kind. Some calcareous sands, containing a large proportion of lime, like those of Egypt and exten- SOILS. 21 sive regions in the Barbary States, will produce luxuriantly, if supplied with a slight addition of manure and an abun- dance of water. Sandy soils can never be profitably culti- vated, till they have acquired sufficient compactness and fer- tility, to sustain a good growth of grass or clover ; and when once brought to this condition, they are among the most valuable for tillage, especially for such crops as require early maturity. They are, at all times, easily plowed and worked ; they re- quire no draining ; and though light and dry, are quick and kindly soils, giving an immediate and full return for the labor and manure bestowed upon them. When in a condition to produce grass, sheep are admirably adapted to preserve and augment their fertility, and by their incessant migrations over it, their sharp hoofs pack the surface closely, producing the same effect as the roller.- Gravelly Soils are in some respects similar to sand, but much less desirable, being appropriately termed hungry. Like the latter, they are peculiarly leachy, but in an increased degree, permitting the rapid escape of manures, both by evaporation and drainage. Such as are calcareous or com- posed of limestone pebbles, are in a great measure not sub- ject to these objections ; as the disposing affinities of the lime, (of which enough will be found to exist in the soil in a finely comminuted or divided state, and in this condition is enabled to act efficiently,) have a tendency to retain the vegetable matters, thus compacting the soil, and holding whatever food of plants may from time to time be given to it, for the wants of future crops. Unless of this latter de- scription, gravelly soils should not be subjected to tillage, but appropriated to pasturage, when sheep will keep them in the best and most profitable condition of which they are capable. Loamy Soils being intermediate between clay and sand, possess characteristics, and require a treatment approximating to one or the other, according to the predominance of either quality. They are among the most desirable soils for the various purposes of agriculture. Marly and Calcareous Soils have always a full supply of lime, and like the loams, they frequently incline towards a clay or sand, requiring a management corresponding to their character. Putrescent and vegetable manures increase their fertility, and these are held with grejit tenacity till exhausted by crops. In durability or lastingness, they cannot be ex- 22 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ceeded ; and few are more profitable for cultivation or grazing. Alluvial Soils, are such as have been formed from the washing of streams. They vary in their characteristics, from a mixed clay to an almost pure sand ; but generally, they combine the components of soils in such proportions as are designated by loamy soils, or sandy loams. "When thus formed they are exceedingly fertile ; and if subject to the an- nual overflow of a stream, having its sources far above them, they usually receive such an addition to their productiveness, as enables them to yield large crops perpetually, without further manuring. They are for the most part easily worked, and are suited to the various purposes of tillage and meadows ; but when exposed to overflowing, it is safer to keep them in grass, as this crop is less liable to injury by a freshet ; and where sub- ject to washing from the same cause, a well-matted sod is the best protection which can be off"ered against it. Many of the natural grasses which are found in these meadows, yield a fodder of the highest value. Peaty Soils. These are composed almost wholly of peat, and are frequently called vegetable soils. They are exten- sively diff"used between the latitudes of 40° and 60° north, at a level with the ocean, and are frequently found in much lower latitudes, when the elevation of the surface produces a corresponding temperature. They generally occupy low swampy levels, but sometimes exist on slight, northern declivities, where the water in its descent is arrested by a succession of basin-shaped cavities. Their peaty character is acquired, by the growth and par- tial decay, through successive ages, of various aquatic plants, the principal being the sphagnums and lichens. In swamps, many of which were probably small lakes in their origin, the peat is found of an unknown depth, reaching in some instances, beyond 30 and 40 feet. On declivities and occa- sional levels, the peat is sometimes only a few inches in thickness. It is of a blackish or dar"k brown color, and exists in various stages of decay, from the almost perfect state of fallen stumps and leaves, to an imperfectly defined, ligneous mass, or even an impalpable powder. In its natural state, it is totally unfit for any profitable vegetation, being saturated with water, of an antiseptic na- ture, which, for an almost indefinite time, resists putrefaction or decay. When thrown out of its native bed and exposed SOILS. 23 to drain for a few months, much of it is fit for fuel ; and it is always of advantage to the muck heaps, as an absorbent of the Uquid and gaseous portions of animal and other vola- tile manures ; or it is of great utility when applied alone to a dry, gravelly or sandy soil. Cultivation of Peat Soils. When it is desirable to culti- vate a peaty soil, the first process is to drain it of all the moisture which has given to it, and sustained its present character. The drains must be made sufficiently near to each other, and on every side of the bed ; or they must, at least, be so located as effectually to intercept and carry off all the springs or running water which saturates the soil ; and they should be deep enough to prevent any injurious capil- lary attraction of the water to the surface. When it has been thoroughly drained, the hommocs if any, must be cut up with the mattoc or spade, and thrown into heaps, and after they are sufficiently dried, they may be burned, and the ashes scattered over the surface. These afford the best top dressing it can receive.^ Sand or fine gravel, with a large quantity of barn-yard manure and effete lime, should then be added. On some of these, according as their composition approaches to ordinary soils, good crops of oats, corn, roots, &c., may be grown ; but they are better suited to meadows, and when thus prepared, they will yield great burthens of clover, timothy, red top, and such of the other grasses as are adapted to moist soils. Subsequent dressings of sand, lime, manure and wood ashes, or of all combined, may be after- wards required, when the crops are deficient, or the grasses degenerate. Peat contains a large proportion of carbon, and the silicates in which such soils are deficient, (and which they procure only in small proportions from the farm-yard manure, but more largely from the sand or gravel,) are essential to be added, in order to furnish an adequate coating for corn stalks, straw and the valuable grasses. As they are exhausted, they must be again supplied or the crops will fail. Besides yielding an important* food to the crop, lime is essential to produce decomposition in the mass of vegetable matter, as well as to combine with and aid in furnishing to the grow- ing plants, such of their food as the atmosphere contains. Ashes are among the best applications, as they possess the silicates, lime, potash, and other inorganic materials of plants in great abundance, and in a form readily adapted to vegeta- 24 " AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ble nutrition. Gypsum is also a valuable manure for peaty soils. SUBSOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. The efficiency of soils in producing good crops, depends much on the subsoil. If this consists of impervious clay or hard-pan, which prevents the drainage of the water, it is evident, the accumulation of heavy rains will materially in- jure the vegetation above ; for it is certain, that while no- . thing is more essential to productiveness than an adequate supply of moisture for the roots, nothing is more injurious than their immersion in stagnant water. If this description of subsoil be deep, the only remedy is thorough underdrain- ing ; if shallow, the crust may be broken up with the subsoil plow and gradually mixed with the surface soil, when the water will readily escape below. A variety of plows have been constructed for this purpose ; but unless it be intended to deepen the soil by an admixture of manures, they must not be used for bringing up the subsoil too rapidly, to mix with that on the surface. In ad- dition to the more ready escape of water, thus secured by breaking it up, the air is also admitted, which enables the roots to strike deeper, and draw their nourishment from a much greater depth. The increased distance through which the roots penetrate, furnishes them with additional moisture during a season of drought, thereby securing a lux- uriant crop when it might otherwise be destroyed. This is frequently a great item in the profit of the farmer ; as, be- sides the increase of crop which follows a dry, hot season, when a full supply of moisture is furnished, the product is usually of better quality ; and the general deficiency of agri- cultural produce, which ensues from seasons of drought, makes his own more valuable. As a result of this practice, there is also a gradual increase in the depth of the soil ; as the fine and more soluble parti- cles of the richer materials above, are constantly working down and enriching the loosened earth below. In time, this becomes good soil ; and this, in proportion to its depth, increases the area from which the roots derive their nutri- ment. So manifest are the advantages which have followed the use of subsoil plows, that they have been extensively introduced of late years, among the indispensable tools of the better class of agriculturists. SOILS. 26 - When the subsoil is loose and leachy, (consisting of an excess of sand or gravel,) thereby allowing the too ready escape of moisture and the soluble portions of manures, the subsoil plow is not only unnecessary, but positively injurious. In this case, the surface soil should be somewhat deepened by the addition of vegetable matters, so as to afford a greater depth through which the soluble manures must settle, be- fore they can get beyond the reach of the roots ; and the supply of moisture would thereby be much augmented. It is better, however, to keep lands of this character in wood or permanent pasture. They are at best, ungrateful soils, and make a poor return for the labor and manure bestowed upon them. If there be a diversity in the character of the surface and subsoils, one being inclined to sand and gravel, and the other to marl or clay, a great improvement will be secured, by allowing the plow to reach so far down as to bring up and incorporate with the soil, some of the ingredients in which it is wanting. This admixture is also of remarkable benefit in old or long-cultivated fields, which have become deficient in inorganic matters, and in their texture. The effect of long continued cultivation, besides ex- hausting what is essential to the earthy part of plants, is to break down the coarser particles of the soil, by the mechani- cal action of the plow, harrow, &c. ; and in a much more rapid degree, by the chemical combinations, which cultiva- tion and manuring produce. A few years suffice to exhibit striking examples in the formation and decomposition of rocks and stones. Stalactites and various specimens of lime- stone, indurated clays, sandstone and breccias or pudding stones, are formed, in favorable circumstances, almost under our eye ; while some limestones, shales, sandstones, &c., break down in large masses amiually, from the combined effect of moisture, heat, and frost. The same changes, on a s^naller scale, are constantly going forward in the soil, and much more rapidly while under cultivation. The general tendency of these surface changes, is towards pulverisation. The particles forming the soil, from the impalpable mite of dust to the large pebbles, and even the stones and rocks are continually broken up by the combined action of the vital roots, and the manures incorporated with the soil, by which new elements of vegetable food are developed and become available, and in a form so minute as to be imbibed by the spongioles of the roots ; and by the absorbent vessels, they 2 26 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. are afterwards distributed in their appropriate places in the plant. Where this action has been going on for a long period, a manifestly beneficial effect has immediately fol- lowed,- from bringing up and mixing with the superficial earth, portions of the subsoil which have never before been subject to cultivation. A subsoil which is permeable by water, is sometimes imperceptibly beneficial to vegetation, not only by allowing the latent moisture to ascend and yield a necessary supply to the plants ; but a moisture frequently charged with lime and various other salts, which the capillary attraction brings from remote depths below the surface. It is probably from this cause, that some soils produce crops far beyond the yield which might be reasonably looked for, from the fertili- • zing materials actually contained in them. This operation is rapidly going forward during the heat of summer. The water thus charged with saline matters, ascends and evapo- rates at and below the surface, leaving them diffused throughout the soil. After long continued dry weather, a thin, whitish coating of these salts, is frequently discernible on the ground. The enriching effect of these deposites, is one of the compensating results, seldom discovered or acknowledged perhaps, yet wisely designed by a beneficent Providence, to secure a future and increased fertility from the temporary loss occasioned by drought. Where rain seldom or never falls, this result is noticeable in numerous, and sometimes extensive beds of quiescent (not shifting) sand. Deposits ofttimes occur several inches in thickness. Such are the extensive beds of impure muri- ate of soda and other salts, in the arid deserts of California ; in the southern parts of Oregon ; the nitrates found in India, Egypt, Peru, and various other parts of the world. ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. Besides the qualities of soils already noticed, there are several physical conditions which affect their value. They should be of sufficient depth, friable or easily pulverized ; they should possess the right color, and be susceptible of the proper admission and escape of heat, air and moisture. Jethro Tull, who wrote more than a century ago on the subject of agriculture, maintained that if a soil be worked to a proper depth, and perfectly well pulverized, nothing more is necessary to insure an indefinite succession of the most SOILS. 27 luxuriant crops, without the aid of manures ; and it must be confessed, his practice gave some apparently strong confirma- tions of his theory. By carrying tillage far below the surface, thus securing the minute division of the earth to a great depth, and rendering it permeable to the roots, he insured the free access of air and moisture, which are among the first and most important requisites in the growth of ^^ege- tables. But Tull wrote before agriculture became a science, and omitted to estimate the large amount of fertile ingredients, which every crop takes out of the soil, and which can only be supplied by the addition of fresh materials. A succession of crops would therefore, so far reduce the soil, as to render it necessary to add manures, or vegetation must inevitably fail. This careful, laborious practice, could only, for the time being, enhance the crop and prolong its available supplies ; yet in accomplishing even this object, his example is worthy of imitation by every tiller of the soil. Friableness of the Soil is a quality equally removed from the adhesiveness of strong clay, or the openness of loose sand. Good loam, and fertile, alluvial soils always possess this property. When stirred by the plow, the spade or the hoe, the earth ought to fall and crumble readily, although it should be wet. Such a condition secures a ready admis- sion to the roots, which thus easily pervade the soil, and draw their necessary support from it in every direction. Under draining, and the addition of coarse manures to clay, fermented manures and ashes to sand, and lime and gypsum to both, will materially enhance their friableness. Color is an essential feature in soils, and like friableness, it has an important relation to their capacity for heat and moisture. Dark-colored earths, and black in the highest degree, absorb heat more rapidly than any other when exposed to a temperature above their own ; and it escapes with equal readiness when their relative temperature is reversed. A rough pulverised surface, which is seen in the minute inequalities of a friable and well cultivated soil, produces the same result. During the heat of the day, and especially when the sun's rays fall upon the earth, the dark, friable soil imbibes the heat freely, and transmits it to the remotest roots ; thus securing that warmth to the plant, which is one of the necessary conditions of its growth. When the temperature of the air falls on the approach of evening, a reversed action in the soil takes place, by which the heat as rapidly escapes. 28 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. This immediately brings the surface to the dew point and secures a copious deposit of moisture, which a friable soil speedily conveys to every part of the roots. The dew point is attained when the surface of any ob- ject is below the temperature of the surrounding air. The careful observer will not fail to discover the formation of dew, not only for some time after the sun has risen, and long before he sinks below the horizon, when the condition above indicated exists ; but sometimes even in the fervor of a mid-day sun, when the thick corn, or any luxuriant vege- table growth repels his fierce rays from the earth. In many instances, the rank, dark growing crops themselves, when shielded from the sun's rays by their overspreading tops, become rapid condensers of atmospheric vapor, and the plant drinks in the wholesome and nutritious aliment at every pore, and frequently collects a surplus, which streams down its sides to the thirsty soil beneath. The principle is further illustrated, by the deposit of moisture in large globules on the surface of any object in the shade, which is sensibly be- low the surrounding temperature ; as is shown by an earthen or metallic vessel filled with cold water, and set in a warm room on a summer's day. The proper capacity of soils for imbibing and parting with moisture, gives them another decided advantage over others, which have it in an imperfect degree ; as it is found by recent experiments, that rich, porous soils, which are readily penetrated by water and air, absorb the nutritious gases, (oxygen, nitrogen, and their compounds, nitric and carbonic acid, ammonia, &c.) largely from the atmosphere ; and that they do this to an appreciable extent, only while m^oist. The effect of this will readily be estimated, fro^ the well-known, beneficial influence exerted on the growing plant, by the presence of these important elements. Light colored clays, marls, and sands, are neither in their mechanical texture, friableness, or color, the best suited to promote the growth of plants. Peat soils, from a deficiency of inorganic materials, and their too great affinity for water in their natural condition, are even less adapted to the object than either of the preceding. Schubler has found, that during 12 hours in the night when the air was moist, 1,000 lbs. of entirely dry quartz,* * Quartz, as analyzed by Bergman, gave 93 per cent, of silex ; 6 of alumina ; and I of oxide of iron. It comes so near a pure silica, that in treating of it agriculturally, we speak of it as silex or silica. SOILS. 29 or common sand did not gain a pound; calcareous sand gained 2 lbs. ; loamy soil, 21 lbs. ; clay loam, 25 lbs. ; such as were rich in vegetable mold, still more ; while peat ab- sorbed a much larger per cent, than either. Davy also found, that the same quantity of very fertile and perfectly dry soil, on exposure, gained 18 lbs. in one hour ; a good sandy soil, under the same circumstances, ab- sorbed 1 1 pounds ; a coarse, inferior sand, 8 lbs., and an almost worthless heath, (gravelly soil), gained but 3 pounds The capacity of soils for retaining water, is somewhat proportionate to that of absorbing it : — Of its own weight. Quartz sand is saturated when it contains 24 per cent. Calcareous sand " " " 28 '* Loamy soil " " " 38 " Clay loam " " " 47 " Peat (about) " " " 80 It is thus evident, that perfection is not obtained in either sandy, gravelly, clay, or peat soils, as they are characterized in the classification we have assumed. It is only when they have been improved by partial admixture with each other, and charged with the proper quantity of vegetable manures, and the salts which are requisite for their fertility ; when they have been drained, wherever necessary to free them from stagnant water, whether upon or within the soil, or to remove any noxious springs, which sometimes contain i^at- ters in solution, injurious to vegetation ; and finally, when the subsoil is in the proper condition to facilitate the free admis- sion and escape of moisture and air, and the extension of the roots in every direction — it is only when all these con- ditions lexist, that the fullest products from soils can be realized. It is absolutely essential to profitable cultivation, that all the earthy substances required by the crops, should exist in the soil in sufficient quantities, and in an accessible form, to supply their wants. The proportions may be various, one sometimes greatly predominating over another, as is suffi- ciently obvious in the equally-productive powers of good clays, sands, and peats ; yet in every instance it will be found, unless owing to a heavy coating of manures, and a peculiarly favorable season, that a soil can be relied on for such constant results, only when it has been so ameliorated as to approximate towards the character of loams. 30 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. The following is an analysis of three specimens of very fertile soils, made by Sprengel : — Soil near From the banks of the Weser. Osterbruch. near Hoya. near Weserbe. Silica, Quartz, Sand, and Silicates 84.510 71.849 83.318 Alumina 6.435 9.350 3.086 Oxides of Iron 2.395 6.410 6.840 Oxides of Manganese 0.450 0.925 0.620 Lime 0.740 0.987 0.720 Magnesia 0.525 0.246 0.120 Potash and Soda extracted by water.... 0.009 0.007 0.006 Phosphoric Acid 0.120 0.181 0.065 Sulphuric Acid 0.046 0.174 0.026 Chlorine in common Salt 0.006 0.002 0.006 Humic Acid 0.780 1.270 0,800 Insoluble Humus 2.995 .550 4.126 Organic matters containing Nitrogen.. 0.960 2.000 1.220 Water 0.029 0.100 0.150 100. 100. 100. The above had remained for a long time in pasture, and the second was remarkable for the fattening qualities of its grsiss when fed to cattle. The following are arable lands of great fertility : 1 2 3 From Ohio. Soil Soil from Moravia. Soil. Subsoil. From Belgium. Silica and fine Sand 77.209 87.143 94.261 64.517 Alumina 8.514 6.666 1.376 4.810 Oxides of Iron 6.592 2.220 2.336 8.316 Oxide of Manganese 1.520 0.360 1.200 0.800 Lime 0.927 0.664 0,243 ^Lfme°^ ^'^^^ Magnesia 1.160 „ „io npin Carb.of,no«. Potash, chiefly combined with ^-^^^ 0.310 ^^^ 10.36 Silica 0.140 0.120 > ^ oin 5 0.100 Soda,ditto 0.640 0.025 5 "•^'^" J 0.013 Phosphoric Acid combined with Lime and Oxide of iron 0.651 0.060 trace 1.221 Sulphuric Acid in Gypsum.. 0.011 0.027 0.034 0.009 Chlorine in common Salt.... 0.010 0.036 trace 0.003 Carbonic Acid united to the Lime 0.080 Humic Acid 0.978 1.304 0.447 Insoluble Humus 0.540 1.072 Organic substances contain'g nitrogen 1.108 1.011 100. 100. 100. 100. " Of these soils, the first had been cropped for 160 years successively, without either manure or naked fallow, The second was a virgin soil, and celebrated for its fertility. The third had been unmanured for twelve years, during the last nine of which it had been cropped with beans, barley, pota- toes, winter barley and red clover, clover, winter barley, wheat, oats, naked fallow." — (Johnston.) Bergman found that one of the most fertile soils in Swe- SOILS. 31 den centained 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Chaptal analyzed a very productive soil in France, which gave near 25 per cent of the same, and seven of organic matter. Tillet even found one, and that the most fertile, which yielded 37.5 of carbonate of lime. Some of the best in the Missis- sippi valley, have yielded upon analysis, 20 per cent, of mag- nesian lime ; and of phosphate of lime, two to three per cent. Many other soils throughout the United States, contain an equal proportion of carbonate of lime. Such are always the last to wear out, and the first to recover by the addition of manures, when suffered to remain uncultivated, or in a state of rest. 32 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. CHAPTERII. MANURES. While soils are permitted to remain in their natural state, or if denuded of their original foliage and used only for pas- ture, little or no change is perceptible either in their charac- ter or productive powers. A slight change, however, is gradually wrought in their texture and capacity for produc- tion, which is fully revealed in the lapse of centuries. The elevated mountain's side, and the steep declivities of hills, support an annual vegetation of more or less luxuriance ; and a portion of this, together with the broken twigs and the wasting trunks of fallen trees, are carried down by the rains, and become a rich addition to the lower soils on which they ultimately rest. Beside the vegetable matter thus annually removed from one spot and accumulated upon another, many of the fertilizing salts, which the action of the roots, or exposure to the atmosphere has rendered soluble, and the finer particles of earth, which the alternations of heat and frost, of rain and drought, have reduced to dust, are also washed out of the higher soils and deposited on the plains and val- leys below. Such doubtless, was once the condition of those secondary bottom-lands, which for ages, probably, received the rich deposits from other soils ; but whose present situa- tions, elevated beyond even the extraordinary rise of the rivers whose course is near, show some radical alteration of their respective levels, by which the inundations no longer contribute to their fertilization. These soils being well stored with the food of plants, and frequently to a great depth, will bear large successive crops for a long period : and they have in many instances, been treated by their first occupants as if they were inexhausti- ble. Of this description, were the James River and other alluvial lands in Virginia, some of which were continued in uninterrupted crops of corn and tobacco for more than a cen- tury, without the addition of manures. But they have long «ince become exhausted ; and the more careful planters are MANURES. 33 now endeavoring to resuscitate those worn-out lands, which ought never to have become impoverished. Of the same character are most of the secondary bottoms on the Con- necticut, the Scioto, the Miami, and other rivers. The first, aUhough under cultivation for more than two centuries, has fully maintained its productiveness, the necessary result of its minute subdivisions among intelligent farmers ; and the two latter, if properly managed, are capable of perpetual fertility. Although but a little more than half a century has elapsed since these last have been subject to the white man, they have, in too many instances, already been severely cropped. The writer has seen fields, which he was assured have yielded forty-seven large successive crops of corn, and ex- clusively from their own resources. A more careful tillage, however, is now becoming general. The lower alluvial bottoms that are frequently overflowed, and thus receive large coatings of manures, which are fully equivalent to the products taken off, are the only soils which will permanently sustain heavy crops without the aid of man. Such are the banks of the Nile and the Ganges, and many of our own rivers, which by the overflowing of their waters alone, have continued to yield large annual burthens ; the two former, probably for more than 4,000 years ; but they are thus supported, at the expense of a natural drainage of thousands of acres, which by this means, are proportion- ally impoverished. Manures, then, in some form, must be considered as absolutely essential to sustaining soils sub- jected to tillage. In their broadest sense, manures embrace every material, which if added to the soil, tends to its fertilization. They are appropriately divided into organic and inorganic ; the first embracing animal and vegetable substances, which have an appreciable quantity of nitrogen ; the last, comprehending only such as are purely mineral or earthy, and which in general, contain no nitrogen. These characteristics are sometimes partially blended, but they are sufficiently distinct for general classification. Much pertinacity has been exhibited by some highly intel- ligent minds, who should have entertained more liberal views, as to the peculiar kinds of manures necessary to support a satisfactory productiveness. We have seen that Tull maintained, that the deepening and thorough pulveriza- tion of the soil was alone sufficient to secure perpetual fer- tility. But this crude notion, it is evident to the most super- 2* 34 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ficjal modern reader, is wholly untenable. Some agricul- turists of the present day, however, while they scout Tull's theory, (who was, nevertheless, a very shrewd man for his time), will yet claim as essential to successful vegetation, the existence in the soil, of but a part only of the food of plants. Thus, one asserts that the salts alone will secure good crops ; others maintain that the nitrogenous substances are the true source of fertility; while still another class refer to the presence of humus or geine, (the available product of vegetable and animal decay in the soil), as the only valuable foundation of vegetable nutriment in all manures. Truth and sound practice lie between, or rather in the combination of all these opinions. It has been shown in a preceding page (17th), that all fertile soils must have not less than fifteen, and more pro- bably sixteen, different simple or elementary substances, in various combinations with each other. All of the ordinary cultivated plants, contain potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, silica, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, sul- phuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, and frequently iodine ; each of which, excepting the two last, are in com- bination with oxygen. In addition to these, they also have carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. Other substances or ultimate principles may possibly exist in plants, which analysis may hereafter detect, but which have hitherto elu- ded the closest investigation. It is therefore obvious, that such principles as all fertile soils furnish to vegetables, must be contained in manures. It is no satisfactory answer to this position, to assert, that numerous experiments have apparently been successful, of growing plants in pure sand and water ; or with charcoal and the salts added ; or even that there are some atmosphe- ric plants, that fulfill their zoophytic existence in air. Growth may continue for a long time under such circum- stances ; hut full maturity never arrives, and probably never can, without the available presence in the soil, of every element ivhich enters into the composition of plants. Profitable farming requires, that manures embodying all these elements, should be added in sufficient quantities to the soil, to develope fully and rapidly, such crops as are sought from it. It becomes then, a matter of the highest consequence to the farmer, to understand not only what substances may be useful as manures ; but also, how to apply them in the best MANURES. 35 manner to his crops, so far as they can be made profitable. We shall first speak of the inorganic manures. ASHES. If any organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, be burned, an incombustible substance remains behind, called the ash or ashes. This varies in different plants, from less than one, to over twelve per cent, of their whole weight. It also varies with the different soils upon which they are found, with the different parts of the same plant, and in the different stages of its maturity. Thus, plants which grow on peaty or low wet soils, give a less proportion of ashes than those which mature upon soils that are dry, or rich in the sili- cates and salts. The bark, leaves and twigs, give much more of ash than the trunks of trees and stems of plants ; and in their early growth, they yield a much larger proportion than after they have attained maturity. The following table, constructed from several reliable sources, but principally from Sprengel, arranged in part by Johnston, will show the relative quantity of ashes found in some of the more important objects of cultivation. 1 «5 3 1 6 is CO •1^ 6 a 1 a 2 5 o « Si Wheat—Gr'n 2.25 2.40 0.96 0.90 0.26 4.00 0.60 0.4o 0.10 trace 11.77 " St'w 0.20 0.29 2.40 0.32 0.90 28.70 0.37 1.70 0.30 35.18 Barley— Gr'u 2.78 2.90 1.06 1.80 0.25 11.82 .69 2.10 0.19 trace 23.49 St'w 1.80 0.48 5.54 0.76 1.46 38.56 1.18 1.60 0.70 0.14 0.20 52.42 Oats — Grain 1.50 1.32 0.86 0.67 0.14 19.76 0.35 0.70 10 0.40 25.80 " Straw 8.70 0.02 1.52 0.22 0.06 45.88 0.79 0.12 0.05 0.02 0.02 57.40 Rye — Grain 5.32 ♦ 1.22 0.44 0.24 1.64 0.23 0.46 0.09 42 0.34 10.40 " straw 0.32 0.11 1.78 0.12 0.25 22.97 1.70 0.51 0.17 27.93 Field) Bean 4.15 8.16 1.65 1.58 0.34 1.26 089 2.92 0.41 21.36 Bean> Straw 16.56 0.50 6.24 2.09 0.10 2.20 0.34 2.26 0.80 0.07 0.05 31.21 Field ) Pea 8.10 7.39 0.58 1.36 0.20 4.10 0.63 1.90 0.38 0.10 24.64 Pea 5 straw 2.35 27.30 3.42 0.60 9.96 3.37 2.40 0.04 0.20 0.07 49.71 Pota- ) Roots toes $ Tops 4.028 2.334 .331 .324 .050 .084 .540 .401 .160 .032 8.284 8.19 .09 12.97 1.70 .04 4.94 .42 1.97 .60 .02 30.84 Tur- ) Roots 2.386 1.048 .752 .254 .036 .388 .801 .367 .239 .032 6.303 neps {Leav's 3.23 2.22 6.20 .59 .03 1.28 2.52 .98 .87 .17 18.09, Carrots 3.633 .922 .657 .384 .039 .137 .270 614 .070 .033 .060 6.619 Parsneps 2.079 .702 .468 .270 .024 .162 .192 100 .178 .005 ? 4.180 Rye Grass 8.81 3.94 7.34 0.90 0.31 27.72 3.53 0.25 0.06 62.86 Red Glover 19,96 5.29 27.80 3.33 0.14 3.61 4.47 6.57 3.62 74.78 White Clover 31.05 5.79 23.48, 3.05 1,90 14.73 3.63 6.05 2.11 0.63 91.32 Lucern 13.40 6.16 48.31 3.48 0.30 3.30 4.04 13.07 3.18 0.30 96.52 Sainfoin 20.67 4.37 21.95 2.88 0.66 6.00 3.41 9.16 1.67 69.57 In tha foregoing table, the grain, beans, peas, straw and Included in Potash. 136 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE:. }iay are estimated after they have been dried in the air ; the roots as they are taken from the field. The clovers and grass lose from 55 to 75 per cent, of their entire weight when full of sap, lessening of course, as they approach to the state of ripening' their seed. The potato loses in drying, 69 per cent, of water; the turnep, 91 ; the carrot, 87; the turnep leaf, 86 ; the carrot leaf, parsnep and parsnep leaf, each 81 ; and the cabbage, 93. There is much variation in the different specimens of the above substances subjected to examination, according to the peculiar variety, the different circumstances and various stages of their growth. The oat is the most variable of the grains, one specimen sometimes containing three times the quantity of ash afforded by others. The roots also, sometimes vary as three to one in their quantity of ash. As the grain and most of the other crops approach maturity, the quan- tity of some of the principles constituting the ash, lessens, as of potash and soda, their presence being no longer neces- sary in the sap, to aid the formation of the various products of the plants. Later and probably more accurate analyses, give consider- able variations in the relative quantities of the elements of the ash of different plants. Thus, an average of six of these, gave of peas with the pod, about 35 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and of beans, about 32 per cent. But the table is given to illustrate principles in the organization of plants, rather than to define the precise relative proportions of the constituents of each. The farmer will perceive from this table, the great value of ashes to his crops. The quantity seems small in compari- son with the total weight of the vegetable ; yet small as it is, the aggregate of a few years will so far exhaust the soil of one or more of the principles necessary to sustain a luxuri- ant vegetation, that it will cease to yield remunerating re- turns. The annual exhaustion of salts from large crops of grain, roots and grass, is from 180 to more than 250 lbs. in every acre of soil. The ashes of vegetables, consist of such elements as are always required for their perfect maturity, and it is evident, they must furnish one of the best saline manures, which can be supplied for their growth. They are to the earthy parts of vegetables, what milk is to the ani- mal system, or barn-yard manures to the entire crop ; they contain every element, and generally in the right propor- tions, for insuring a full and rapid growth. MANURES. 37 Ashes are also among the most economical manures , as from the free use of fuel in the United States, they are pro- duced by almost every household. Good husbandry dictates, that not a pound of ashes should be wasted, but all should be saved and applied to the land ; and where they can be procured at a reasonable price, they should be purchased for manure. Leached ashes, though less valuable, contain all the elements of the unleached, having been deprived only of a part of their potash and soda. They may be drilled into the soil with roots and grain, sown broadcast on meadows or pas- tures, or mixed with the muck-heap. They improve all soils not already saturated with the principles which they contain. The quantity of Ashes that should be applied to the acre, must depend on the soil and the crops cultivated. Potatoes, turneps and all roots ; clover, lucern, peas, beans, grain and the grasses are great exhausters of the salts, and they are con- sequently much benefitted by ashes. They are used Avith decided advantage for the above crops in connection with bone-dust ; and for clover, peas and roots, their effects are much enhanced when mixed with gypsum. Light soils should have a smaller, and rich lands or clays, a heavier dressing. From 20 to 30 bushels per acre for the former, and 50 for the latter, is a moderate application ; or if they are leached, the quantity may be doubled with decided bene- fit, as they act with less energy. Repeated dressings of ashes, Uke those of lime and gypsum, without a corresponding ad- dition of vegetable or barn-yard manures, will eventually ex- haust tillage lands of their carbonaceous and organic matters. Ashes "tnay he applied to nieadoiv-lands, for a longer time than to any other crops, and for this obvious reason. The whole surface of the soil is closely covered with vegetable agents, which are actively employed in drawing carbon from the air and soil, a large portion of which is stored up in the stubble and roots, which thus makes it less important that the organic matters should be given back to the soil, in the shape of vegetable or animal manures. As an instance of the rapidity with which this operation goes forward, it has been found, that the dried roots and stubble of a clover-field the second year, and after one crop for the first, and two for the second season had been taken off, yielded 56 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of the aggregate crops of hay. An old mea- dow has yielded 400 lbs. of roots for every 100 of hay for the season. The carbon is constantly increasing in the soil of well- 38 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. managed pastures, and it also increases for a time in mea- dows. It will continue to do so for an indefinite period, if the ashes of plants are added to the soil, nearly to the amount of the mineral ingredients taken off. With this increase in the organic elements of vegetation, (if we were certain that nitrogen is accumulated in tlie same ratio, which we are not), it is evident that the salts alone would then be wanting to give the utmost luxuriance ; and these are found combined in the most convenient and generally the most economical form as ashes. But care is necessary that they be not added in excess. Coal Ashes. — The bituminous and anthracite coals afford ashes, and although inferior in quality to those made from wood and vegetables, are like them, a valuable manure, and they should be applied to the land in a similar manner. If they contain many cinders, from not having been thoroughly burned, they are more suited to heavy than to light soils, as they tend to their mechanical division, which though benefi- cial to the former, are injurious to the latter. Ashes of Sea Weeds or Marine Plants. — When from its quantity or remoteness, it is inconvenient to carry the srea-weed to the soil, which abounds on most of our sea- coasts, it can be burned ; when it will be found to yield a large proportion of ash, which is peculiarly rich in soda. This is of great value to the farmer. Several species of the fuci have for a long period been collected and burned on the northern coasts of Scotland, Norway and the Baltic, forming an article of commerce under the name of kelp. Its value consisted in its alkaline properties, for which it was much used by the glass and soap-makers, the bleachers, and for other uses in the arts. For these purposes, it is now nearly superseded by soda ash, a crude carbonate of soda, extracted by the decomposition of sea-salt ; and the price it now bears in market, will bring it within the reach of farmers for some of the economical purposes of husbandry. Peat Ashes. — Nearly all peat approaching to purity, when thrown out of its bed and thoroughly dried, will admit of being burned to an imperfect ash ; and when it does not reach this point, it will become thoroughly charred, and re- duced to cinders. In both of these forms, it is a valuable dressing for the soil. It is always better for dry uplands, to use the unburned peat after it has been properly composted in a muck heap ; as the organic matters which it contains, and which are expelled by burning, are of great benefit to MANURES. 39 the soil. But when they are remote, the peat may be burn- ed at a trifling cost, and the ashes appUed with manifest profit. The principal use hitherto made of them by farmers, has been in spreading them directly over the surface of the reclaimed bed from which they were taken, LIME. Lime is the product of limestone, marble, chalk, or marl, after it has been burned, or subjected to an intense heat. In either of the foregoing forms, it is a carbonate, and contains from 43 to 46 per cent, of its weight of carbonic acid, which is expelled by calcination. After the acid has been driven off, it exists in its quick or caustic state ; and in that condi- tion, its affinity for moisture and carbon is so great, that it greedily combines with both, on exposure to water, earth, or even to the atmosphere, passing again into a carbonate and hydrate. It is in these latter conditions, that it is applied to soils and muck heaps. If reduced to an impalpable powder, (the condition in which chalks and marls generally exist,) limestone would act with equal efficiency as if burnt. Lime, next to ashes, either as a carbonate or sulphate, has been instrumental in the improvement of our soils, beyond any other saline manures. Like ashes, too, its application is beneficial to every soil, not already sufficiently charged with it. It makes heavy land lighter, and light land hea- vier ; it gives adhesiveness to creeping sands or leachy gravel, and comparative openness and porosity to tenacious clays ; and it has a permanently beneficial effect, vi^here generally used, in disinfecting the atmosphere of any noxious vapors existing in it. It not only condenses and retains the volatile gases brought into contact with it by the air and rains, but it has the further eff'ect, of converting the insoluble matters in the soil, into available food for plants. It has proved, in many instances, the wand of Midas, changing everything it touched into gold. It is the key to the strong box of the farmer, securely locking up his treasure till de- manded for his own use, and yielding it profusely to his de- mands whenever required. In its influence in drying the land, and accelerating the growth of plants, the use of lime is equivalent to an increase of temperature ; and the farmer sometimes experiences in eflfect, the same benefit from it, as if his land were removed a degree or two to the south. The influence of lime in resuscitating soils after they have been exhausted, has been frequent nnd striking ; and it may 40 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE- be stated as an incontrovertible truth, that wherever procu- rable at low prices, lime is one of the most economical and efficient agents in securing fertility, within the farmer's reach. It has been falsely said to be an exhauster of soils ; that it enriches the fathers and impoverishes the sons. So far as it gives the occupant of the land the control over its latent fertility, this is true ; but if he squanders the rich products when within his reach, it will be his own fault. Lime gives him the power of exhausting his principal ; if he uses aught beyond the interest, his prodigality is chargeable to his own folly, not to the liberality of his agent. By the ad- dition of lime to the soil, the insoluble ingredients contained in it are set free, and they are thus enabled to aid in the for- mation of plants ; and larger crops, and of better quality, are the results. If these be taken from the soil without a corresponding return of manure, exhaustion must follow. In the preceding table, it is seen, that lime constitutes, in all cases, only a very minute part of the entire plant ; all the other ingredients must be added, or the fertility of the soil cannot be sustained. But in the very abundance of the crops which lime affords, means are provided for the main- tainence of the highest fertility. If they are consumed on the farm, their manure should be returned to the fields ; and if sold, other manures should be procured to replace the sub- stances from which they are formed. A practice which has extensively prevailed for many years, in sections of the eastern states, consists in alternating wheat and clover on strongly limed-lands. The plan usu- ally adopted, is to give one year to wheat, and one or two following, to clover ; sometimes taking off the first clover crop for hay, and feeding off upon the ground, and plowing in, the after growth for manure ; and upon this, wheat is again sown. This course has succeeded in bringing into fine con- dition, many unprofitable fields. It may work well for years, but it is nevertheless faulty and improvident. Lime only is added directly to the soil, but the clover draws from the air and moisture, whatever food it can attract from them. There remain to be supplied, potash, soda, the phosphates and silicates, (which the soil will soon cease to furnish suffi- cient for the wants of the wheat and clover removed), or sterility must inevitably follow- The best method is to add in some form, the full amount of all the materials abstracted by the annual crop. MANURES. 41 When this is done, the large dressing of lime will retain the accumulating fertility, far beyond what the soil would be capable of were it not for its agency ; and it is in this that the great profit of farming consists. Large crops only are profitable. The market value of many indifferent ones, will hardly meet the expense of cul- tivation, and it is only the excess beyond this, which is pro- fit. It is evident that if 15 bushels per acre of wheat, be an average crop, and it requires 12 bushels to pay all ex- penses of production, three bushels is the amount of profit. But if by the use of lime and ordinary manures, the product can be raised to 30 bushels per acre, the profit would be near the value of 12 or 15 bushels, after paying for the manures. Thus the advantage from good management, may be five times that of neglect. This example is given as illustrating a principle, and not as an exact measure of the difference be- tween limed and unlimed fields. Application of Lime. — Lime may be carried on to the ground immediately after burning, and placed in small heaps. There it may be left to slack by rains and the air ; after which spread it preparatory to ploAving. A good practice is to place it in large piles, and cover it thickly with earth, which gradually reduces it to powder. It may then be carried where it is wanted, and spread from the cart. It is still bet- ter, when small quantities only are .wanted, to add it to the compost, after it has been thoroughly air-slacked, avoiding fermentation, as far as practicable, after it has been added ; as its avidity for carbon expels the ammonia, which is the most valuable of the volatile ingredients of the muck heap. A thick coating of earth over the whole, will arrest and retain much of the gas that would otherwise escape. Fresh burnt lime does not act beneficially upon the crops during the first year of its application, unless prepared by adding it to three or four times its bulk of earth, in which condition it should remain for a long time. If it be mixed with rich mold when first taken hot from the kiln, it will decompose or libe- rate the alkalies contained in the earth to such a degree, as to render this compost a powerful manure. Nearly all limestones yield lime sufficiently pure for agri- cultural purposes. When required of greater purity, it may always be obtained by burning oyster shells, or others of ma- rine origin. Magnesian Lime. — Many of the limestones contain mag- nesia, and are called magnesian lime. The effect of this, is 42 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. a more energetic action, and where it is found in lime, the same result will be produced by the application of a less quantity. The amount of Lime to be used, depends entirely on the soil. Some fertile lands contain over 30 per cent, in their natural state. The large amount, of more than 600 bushels of lime per acre, has been applied at one time, to heavy clays, and such soils as were full of vegetable mold, with de- cided benefit to the land. But equally beneficial results would have been produced, had one half the quantity been first added, and 50 bushels every third or fourth year subse- quently. In the United States, the average for a first dress- ing, is from 50 to 120 bushels per acre. This may be re- newed every four or five years, at the rate of 20 to 40 bush- els. If an overdose has been applied, time, or the addition of putrescent or green manures, are the only correctives. To give lime its fullest efi'ect, it should be kept as near the surface as possible ; and for this reason, it is well to spread it after plowing, taking care to harrow it well in. Allow it then to remain in grass as long as profitable. Its weight and minuteness give it a tendency to sink ; and after a few years of cultivation, a large portion of it will be found to have got beyond the depth of its most efficient action. Where lime is used, this tendency gives additional value to the system of underdraining and subsoil plowing, which enables the atmosphere and roots to follow it, thus prolonging its efi'ect, and greatly augmenting the benefit to crops. It should be ' Gama Grass (^Tripsacu7n dactyloides) is iound growing spontaneously on a naked sand beach, in Stratford, Ct., and in other places on our eastern coasts. It has occasionally been much lauded at the North, where it is a coarse, rough grass ; and it seems generally, to be little prized at the South. But we have recently, the opinion of some intelligent men in that section, that it is much relished by stock ; as they 'frequently eat it so close to the ground, as soon to extirpate it. We should conclude, therefore, that it is a valuable grass for some sections of the United States, wliore the soil and locality are suited to it. The Egyptian, Syrian or Guinea Grass (Sorghum halpensCy Fig. 24), known by various other names, is a native of our southern States, in many of its va- rieties, although it has been import- ed from abroad. I have seen it growing in profusion on Long Island, Charleston, S. C, and in southern Mississippi. It grows like a very slender, miniature corn- stalk, from four to six feet high, with a strong stem, a large grassy Fig. 24. jeaf, and bears a stately seed-stalk, tufted with flowrets, which, however, so far as they have come within my knowledge, do not bear a fully-ripened seed in this country. That imported from the Mediterranean, grows with great vigor. Its roots are tuberous, large and prolific ; and equally with the rich, succulent leaves and stalks, when the latter are young, they are at all times greedily devoured by stock. Dr. Bachman, of South Caro- lina, considers it a stock-sustaining plant, far superior to any other grown at the South. It is difficult to remove when once embe^dded in the soil, and the cotton planters look upon its introduction into their cultivated fields, with unmingled apprehension. Bermuda Grass {Cynodon dactylon, Lin. — Paspalum dactylon, Deccan., Fig. 17). — This is considered bj Mr. Spalding, an experienced planter in Georgia, who examined them both critically, from specimens which he raised to- gether, as the Doub grass of India, so much commended 5# 106 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. by Sir William Jones, and so highly prized by the Brah- mins. It is by the agriculturists of the South, deemed an invaluable grass, yielding four or five tons per acre on good meadow. Mr. Affleck, of Mississippi, states the yield of three Fig 25. cuttings, at five to six tons per acre on common meadow, that it loses only 50 per cent, of its weight in drying, and is consequently the hardest grass to cut. It is one of the most nutritive grasses known, and is of great value to the river planter. It loves a warm and moist, but not wet soil. Crab Grass is considered (unjustly as I think) a pest by the cotton-planters, for equally, perhaps, with the Bermuda, it is a rich and nutritious grass. It comes up after the crops are laid by (received their last plowing and hoeing), and grows rapidly as the cotton or corn matures and dries ; and by the time they are ready to remove from the field, has frequently attained so large a growth, as to afford a crop of hay. Even considered as a fertilizer alone, it is a valuable assistant to the planter. When the corn or cotton is young, the ground requires working to an extent sufficient to keep down this grass, solely with a reference to preserving its porosity — its dew-condensing, dew-absorbing proper- ties. When the crop is sufficiently matured to need no fur- ther care, the grass shoots forward rapidly, and absorbs largely from the floating elements of the air. Winter Grass is known on the low, moist fertile soils of Mississippi and adjoining States. It springs up in the au- tumn, grows all winter, and seeds in the spring. It fattens all animals that feed upon it. The Muskeet Grass, found growing on the plains of Mex- ico and Texas, is considered one of the best of the indigenous grasses. I have seen it growing on the plantations of Louisi- ana, where it has been successfully transplanted. Grama [La Grama, or the grass of grasses) is held in the highest estimation by the Mexicans. It attains a me- dium height, and is deemed the most nutritious of the natural grasses in our southwestern, frontier prairies, in California, and parts of Mexico. It grows on dry, hard, gravelly soils, on side hills, the swells of the prairies, and the gentle eleva- THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 107 tions in the valleys. The principal value is found in the numerous seeds, which are retained in the pods with great tenacity, long after they are ripe, serving as a luxurious food for all the graniverous beasts and fowls of the regions where it is grown. The Buffalo Grass is found intermixed with the Grama, and seldom grows more than a few inches in height. It forms a thick, soft herbage, on which the traveller walks with ease, and reposes when weary, with delight. It yields a rich sustenance to countless herds of wild horses and cat- tle, buffaloes, deer and antelopes. Tornillo or Screw Grass. — This grows in great profu- sion in the region of the two last grasses ; but is most con- spicuous on the table- lands, and between the rivers and creeks, the tall grass of the lower levels, giving place to it as the surface ascends. It is taller than the buffalo, with broader leaves. It bears a seed-stock eight or ten inches high, surmounted by a spiral-shaped pod, an inch long and one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which contains ten or twelve roundish, flattened seeds. The herbage is not re- lished by animals, but the ripened seeds yield a food of great richness, on which innumerable herds of wild cattle fatten for slaughter. Horses, mules and most other animals and fowls subsist upon it. — (^Dr. Lymaii.) The Prairie Grasses abound in the western prairies, and are of great variety, according to the latitude and circum- stances under which they are found. They afford large sup- plies of nutritive food both as pasturage and hay. They possess different merits for stock, but as a general rule, they are coarse when they have reached maturity, and are easily injured by the early frosts of autumn. Some of the le- guminosse or wild pea vines, Avhich are frequently found among them, yield the richest herbage. We are not aware that any of these grasses have been cultivated with success. The Pony Grass (Fig 26) may be mentioned, as one of the best of the winter grasses in our western States. It grows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green all winter. It is easily detected under the snow by animals, from the little hommocs which everywhere indent its surface. Tk£ Wild Rice which lines the still, shallow waters of 108 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. the streams and small inland lakes of many of the western States, affords a palatable forage when green, or if early cut and dried ; and the grain, which is produced in great profu- sion, is an exhaustless store to the Indians, who push into the thickest of it, and bending over the ripe heads, with two or three strokes of the paddle on the dry stalks, rattle the grain into their light canoes. The wild ducks, geese and swans, which yet frequent those waters, fatten on this grain through- out the fall and winter. TussAc Grass (Dactylis cespitosa) is a luxuriant, salt- marsh grass, growing in large tufts, and is found in perfec- tion on its native soil, in the Falkland Islands, between 51° and 52° South, and about 8° east of the Straits of Magellan. Capt. Ross describes it, as " the gold and glory of those islands. Every animal feeds upon it with avidity, and fat- tens in a short time. The blades are about six feet long, and from 200 to 300 shoots spring from a single plant. About four inches of the root eats like the mountain cabbage. It loves a rank, wet peat bog, with the sea spray over it." Governor Hood of those islands says, " to cultivate the tus- sac, I would recommend that the seed be sown in patches, just below the surface of the ground, and at distances of about two feet apart, and afterwards weeded out, as it grows very luxuriantly, and to the height of six or seven feet. It should not be grazed, but reaped or cut in bundles. If cut, it quickly shoots up, but is injured by grazing, particularly by pigs, who tear it up to get at the sweet nutty root." Arundo Grass {^Arunclo alopecurus). — Mr. Hooker from the same islands says : " another grass, however, far more abundant and universally distributed over the whole country, scarcely yields in its nutritious qualities to the tus- sac ; I mean the Arundo alopecurus, which covers every peat bog with a dense and rich clothing of green in sum- mer, and a pale, yellow, good hay in the winter season. This hay, though formed by nature without being mown and dried, keeps those cattle which have not access to the former grass, in excellent condition. No bog, however rank, seems too bad for this plant to luxuriate in ; and as we remarked during our survey of Port William, although the soil on the quartz districts was very unprolific in many good grasses, which flourish on the clay slate, and generally speaking, of the worst description, still the Arundo did not appear to feel the change ; nor did the cattle fail to eat down large tracts of this pasturage." I have purposely devoted several pages to the description THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. ' >g|p9 of such new grasses as are indigenous to this continent,, and which, by their superior vahie in their native locab'ties, would seem to commend themselves to a thorough trial in similar situations elsewhere. There are doubtless, others of great merit, which experiment hereafter, will demonstrate to be of singular benefit to the American farmer. Most of these, yet remain to be classified by the botanists ; and what' is of much more utility, to be thoroughly tested by the cru- cibles of intelligent chemists and the experiments of en- lightened agriculturists, to determine their absolute and rela- tive value for economical purposes. The subject of grasses has been but slightly investigated in this country, in comparison with its immense importance ; and for this reason, with few exceptions, we are at a loss for the true comparative value, of the foreign and indigenous grasses, to American husbandry. As an instance of the want of a well-established character to some of our most generally-cultivated grasses, we quote the opinions of Dr. Muhlenburgh, of Pa., who has written ably on the subject ; and the late John Taylor, a distin- guished agriculturist of Virginia, both of whom place the tall oat grass (Avena elatior) at the head of the grasses ; yet from the investigations made at Woburn, it appears among the poorest in the amount of nutritive matter yielded per acre. Dr. Darlington, also of Pennsylvania, does not mention it, but gives the following, as comprehending " those species which are considered of chief value in our meadows and pastures, naming them in what I consider the order of their excellence : 1. Meadow or green grass (^Poa pratetisis). 2. Timothy {Fhleum pratense). 3. Orchard grass (Dac- tylis glomerata) 4. Meadow fescue (Festucapratensis). 5. Blue grass [Poa compresso). 6. Ray grass {^LoliuTn perenne.) 7. Red top (Agrostis vulgaris). 8. Sweet- scented vernal grass {Anthoxanthum odoratum)^ The SiveetScented, Soft Grass, or Holy Grass, [Holcus odoratus), according to the Woburn table, is next to the tall fescue and Timothy in point of nutritive matter to the acre, when cut in seed, and it is placed as far in advance of all others, in the value of its aftermath ; yet scarcely any other authority mentions it with commendation. Without relying on these experiments, as an unerring guide for the American farmer, we append the table on the two following pages, as the fullest and most correct we have on the subject, and as affording a useful reference to some of the leading and most desirable of the English grasses, many of which, are more or less cultivated in this country > 110 s fc5 > s ^-^ 5D r/2 1 2 3 n 3 15^ r si 2 3 1^ !iD isfl CS e &i ) >."^ t:) en §1 ^3 -^ ^ 3 -a be c o :j 5) hIvH, I|4I II 8 ^ 11 O § ■paasuissetS o 4N 3 1 -^ : 1 '^^ 1 -: lO ~ '^- lo.vvoy urssuiSK-' ^ S B 1 aq; jo 9n[B. Uh - 5 3 o a^Buorjjodoj,; k ^ —1 C5 : O CO XI to •paas m uoq^l 1 ?j 1 ci 5; 1 ^ cc 1 2 i s s G R S \ P. ^ 2, If 1 1 f to -i1 "3 '3 •jaA\ou 'i^ 'H >> « 1 B 11 S' <: ^ ?: >: 1 -5 1 ^ 3 ^ ^ •a-iouauouiao;|^?jz:S|2???5|rto'?|'^gz:|§2:2r;;^S :?Slr|;5 3?^l -tr-ffl 4euu 3Anuin>j|S'-«-'|=^=Jz;h-»^h^-|^^^|^"?^ ^-n'^Ic*;?*^ :y- OAbS SUI.jp |.9k-""<^ '*«5'*|--HC<|^^-|-,0,C^|^:j,„|^ 1^^^ \ .'^.'^ '^■•^ . eo — . ^, -qi ^-j; : So : •sur.Up ut ssoips };; 4J! l-- 1^ . ^t- . i-m SS : ■a "* . PS t- • 1 -- X ,(5 Oi . — < rt ■ |0 -1 . CO (N . 1 M O r^ O . •patip U3l{A\ ?.?i : h-co ^§§ : 8J0B Jod ;aY •^o.- .|^=> |u.^ : (N05 • h'- C-. I~ « •UO^jS UOl{A\ o 6i = :;^^^ si= Xi !JD CD -* i »^ •^ t>- c-i 55 rc :S^ 9 J 08 J ad '^.w r; t^ ;=. o ~'^ - C< -^ Ot -' -^ M . ■ .• c ^^• j_; P;H3[3Av uaqAi ill III hi ill ££J 5£J c^^* = «J = =J = «J fi 3 i:5-i . S«J ^c f^E 3 tea tx-; ^'s" pa.Coxdiua iios P 5^1 ^1 ^s , saiiuui III atB^sl o . 1 «> PijAv unqStanl A. 1 ^ 1 c, - 1 - 1 •^3 • '^ : s i ■ 1 •' tn « -3 :72 1 » 1 S o • ctf E ^ : 1 I 1 & ! be 2 2 bn , cS: « o -i7 3 ' be 3 i tc 3 < i 9 o B : CO (O B B -^ CD © eo B ': § : ?5 © © ■-5 i 1 ■-5 o 00 00 «3 2 bb 3 < ^ >» ^ CO "3 ■-J bi 3 00 >> 3 1^ CD t 00 1 1-5 "-3 ^ 1 s 3 3 •7» "3 ^ CD" 2S >> 3 1 ill li IP w o j 11 1^ ips SI coco §11 ■O in 1 CD C< CD ..O CO CD C3S i^ CD • i CD O CD ;o •■■i 02 22 ill ill CO O CO 11 i ii 22 IP ill liii 0) 0) 1 111 11 111 III 11 III 0} is o 3 a 3 o c« 3 111 cq «g 1^ 3 3 CS 3 2 -3 V 3 i Rich sand soil. Brown loam. T. clay. S c Is 3 % ll o 00 li s i c« S 1" S 1 ^ i ^ IN « (N eo § ^ 00 Is § 00 00 to . 'k : § : o • ■n • ^ i ^ : £ : li g : « • |: & : 2 : u • a • i^ : 1 : OS • i •• 3 ; bD . a • «s ; > s _3 H d o 3 1 > o fci: CO o is ■| 1 o o e 3 5 >> -s to V 3 cd K \ % 5^ 3 *C 3 03 O 3 1 tc » 3 1 .2 3 a o 1 i 3 2 i 3 3 £ s 3 3 i i 1 o b 1 1 c c "a c 3 -< I b «. t 1 t .= C( c 1 D 2 to bo 1 ® 3 ■f > .2 1 bo < 112 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. SOWING GRASS SEEDS. As a general rule, grass seeds do best when sown early in the spring, on a fine tilth or mellow soil. If this is done while the frost is leaving the ground, no harrowing will be necessary, as -the spring rains wash the seed into the honey- comb left by the frost, and secure to it an early germination. They are also successfully sown in August or September, when the fall rains will generally give them sufficient growth, to withstand the effects of the succeeding winter, if the land be free from standing or surface water. It has recently been the practice of many judicious far- mers, to renovate their old, worn-out meadows, by giving them a coating of unfermented manure, and then turn the sod completely over. On the surface thus plowed, a dress- ing of well-rotted manure or compost with ashes, is spread and thoroughly harrowed lengthwise of the furrows. The seed is then sown and slightly harrowed in, and the decom- posing manure and the stubble and roots of the sod give an immediate and luxuriant growth. Grass seed is generally sown with the white grains, wheat, rye and oats ; but if the grass be sown alone and sufficiently thick, the young plants will exclude the weeds, and occupy the soil as profitably as can be done with the grain. Though the moisture and shade, which are secured by the presence of the grain, are sometimes an advantage to the grass seed, yet it often fails when thus sown, from the absence, per- haps, of sufficient sun and air ; or more probably, from the exhausting crop of grain, which precedes it. We do not sufficiently appreciate the violation of one of the essential principles of rotation in this practice, as the grass is of the same class of plants as the grain, which has just been taken from the field. When followed by clover, this objection fails. There is usually a great deficiency of grass seed sown, when permanent meadows or pastures are required. The English method is, to mix together and sow on a single acre, without any grain, two to four bushels of various seeds, which are the best adapted to the purpose. A quick and full growth rapidly covers the surface with a rich herbage, frequently surpassing in value, that of the best natural pas- tures or meadows. LANDS THAT SHOULD BE KEPT IN PERPETUAL GRASS, Are such as are frequently under water, as salt and fresh THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 113 water meadows ; such as are liable to overflow, as the rich bottom or interval lands upon a river bank ; heavy, tenacious clays, and mountain or steep hill-side land, which is pecu liarly liable to wash from rains. The low, bottom lands generally receive one or more annual dressings from the over- flowing waters. The fertilizing matters thus deposited, are converted into hay, and become a reliable source for increas- ing the muck heap for other parts of the farm, without de- manding any thing in return. The thick sward of nutritious, grasses, which nature has so lavishly supplied to them, is an effectual protection against abrasion and waste from the overflowing water, while the crop, if at any time submerged, can receive comparatively little injury. If plowed and the fine loose earth is exposed to a sweeping current, much of the soil and all the crop may be lost. Strong clay lands cannot be properly worked without much labor, unless when under-drained and well filled with manure ; and they seldom exist in the former condition in this country. Yet these soils, next to the fertile, self-sustaining, bottom lands, are the most profitable for the various grasses. When thus appropriated, immediately after clearing ofi" the native growth of wood, the fine vegetable mold at the surface, aided by the magazine of supplies contained in the clay below, gives to them the most certain and permanent growth. If once plowed, this mold is turned under, and the intractable clay takes its place on the surface ; and lacking those pecu- liarities of color, texture and chemical composition, which we have before shown, are essential to the most successful vegeta- tion, the grass is thin, and for years, comparatively unproduc- tive. When necessary to break up such lands, they ought to be thoroughly manured, evenly laid down, and heavily seeded to grass ; and if any deficiency of seed or growth is manifested, they should receive an addition of seed, with a compost dressing. The injury to plowing steep side-hills, is sufficiently ap- parent, as not only the soluble matters, but many of the finer particles of the soil, are washed out and carried far beyond reach. Such lands should be kept in permanent pasture, if not suitable for mowing. If fed off by sheep, they drop most of their manure on the higher points, which is partially washed down and sustains the fertility of every part. There is still another class of lands that should not be broken up for meadows. These are such as are filled with small stones from the surface of which they have once been cleared ; bu 114 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. which plowing and harrowing will again bring to it, and here they will remain, a perpetual annoyance to the mower, unless removed at no little trouble and expense. MEANS OF RENOVATING PERMANENT MEADOWS AND PASTURES. The general theory adopted in regard to pasture lands, is, that they are manured sufficiently by the animals feeding on them. This opinion is only partially correct. Pastures wear out less than other lands ; but when milch cows and working animals are fed upon them, they carry off much of the produce of the soil, which is never again return- ed to it. Even the wool and carcass of sheep, with the ordinary escape of the salts by the washing of the rains, will, after a long time, impoverish the land. How much more rapidly then, if much of the manure and all the milk, which is rich in all the elements of plants, is daily carried from the soil. To such an extent have the permanent, clay pastures of Cheshire (England) been impoverished, that it has been found necessary to manure them with crushed bones, which at once brought up their value more than 100 per cent. There is much phosphate of lime in milk, and bones, which are mostly of the same material, are the best manure that could be used for dairy pastures. Wool con- tains a large proportion of sulphur, and sulphate of lime (gypsum) is therefore a proper manure for sheep pastures. Whatever has a tendency to develope vegetation, will gen- erally accomplish the object by yielding all the needful pro- perties. Ashes and salt are of the highest value for pasture lands, and with the addition in some instances, of lime, bones and gypsum, are all that would ever be necessary for perma- nent pastures. From the peculiar action of these, instead of growing poorer, pastures may become richer through, every successive year. Pertnanent meadow lands, if constantly cropped without manures, may he exhausted with much greater rapidity thanp>ci8tures, though this depreciation is much more gradual than with tillage lands. There is no greater mistake than to suppose they will keep in condition, by taking off one annual crop only, and either pasturing the aftermath, or leaving it to decay on the ground. By recurring to the ta- ble of the ash of plants, page 35, it will be seen, that the analysis of hay there given, shows over five per cent., while dried clover yields from seven to nine per cent, of earthy matter. Every particle of this is essential to the success of THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC, 115 the plant ; and yet, if the land produces at the rate of two tons per acre, the salts are taken out of it, to the amount of upwards of 300 lbs. per annum. No soils but such as are periodically flooded with enriching waters, can long suffer such a drain with impunity. They omist be reneived with the proper manures, or barrenness will ensue. Ashes, lime, bones, and gypsum (the latter especially to be applied to clovers, its good effects not being so marked on the grasses), are essential to maintain fertility ; and to insure the greatest product, animal or vegetable manures must also be added. The proper manner of applying manure, is by mixing in a compost and scattering it over the surface, when the grass is just commencing a vigorous growth in spring, or simul- taneously with the first rains after mowing. The growing vegetation soon buries the manure under its thick foliage, and the refreshing showers wash its soluble portions into the roots ; and even the gases that would otherwise escape, are immediately absorbed by the dense leaves and stalks, Avhich everywhere surround it. When scattered broadcast, under such circumstances, the loss of manure is trifling, even in a state of active decomposition. Pasturing Meadows. — It is an established principle with some, that close feeding, as often at least, as once a year, is essential to the permanent productiveness of all meadows. There is certainly no objection to feeding them soon after being mown, and while the ground is dry and the sod firm. The roots of the grass are rather benefitted than injured by the browsing, and the Ijand is improved by the droppings from the cattle. But they should never be pastured in early spring or late autumn. It is economy to purchase hay at any price, rather than to spring-pasture meadows, or feed them too late. Rotation on Grass Lands. — Most soils admit of a profitable rotation or change of crops ; and where this is the case, it is generally better to allow grasses to make up one of the items in this rotation. Where these are successfully grown in permanent meadows, this change or breaking up is less to be sought on their own account, than for the other crops, which do better for having a rich, fresh turf to revel in. Thus, potatoes are sounder and better, and yield more on turf than on old plowed ground ; and the grain crops are generally more certain and abundant on this, than on other lands. But many of the light soils retain the grasses only 116 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. for a short time. These should be placed in a rotation, which never assigns more than two years to grass. Time for cutting Grass. — This must depend on the kinds of grass cultivated. "We have seen, that Timothy affords nearly double the quantity of nutriment, if cut after the seed has formed, instead of while in flower, and it is then much more relished by horses and a portion of the stock. Timo- thy therefore should never be cut for them, until after the seed has filled. The proper time for harvesting, is between the milk and dough sfate, when it will nearly ripen after cutting. Orchard grass, on the other hand, although pos- sessing two-sevenths more nutritive value for hay in the seed, yet as it is more tender, and much preferred by stock when cut in flower, and as it continues to grow rapidly afterwards, should be always cut at that time. Even a few days will make an important difference in the value of grass, when cut for hay. The kind of grass, and the stock to which it is to be fed, cannot, therefore, be too closely no- ted, to detect the precise moment when the grass will best subserve the purpose for which it is intended. Curing Grass. — Many farmers do not consider the scorch- ing effects of our cloudless July suns, and the consequence is, that hay is too much dried in this country. Unless the grass be very thick and heavy, it will generally cure suffi- ciently, when exposed in the swath for two days. When shook or stirred out, it should not remain in this condition beyond the first day, or it will thus lose much of its nutri- tive juices ; nor should dew or rain be permitted to fall upon it, unless in cocks. It is better, after partially drying, to ex- pose it for three or four days in this way, and as soon as properly cured, place it under cover. It is a good practice, to salt hay when put up, as it is thus secured against damao-e from occasional greenness ; and there is no waste of the salt, as it serves the double object after curing the hay, of furnishing salt to the cattle and the manure heap. There is a loss of available, nutritive matter, in the ordi- nary mode of curing hay, which is obvious to every care- ful feeder. ' This is conspicuously evident, in the dimin- ished quantity of milk yielded by cows, when taken from the pasture and put upon the hay made from grass, similar to that before consumed. To what this difference is owing, is not yet fully ascertained ; but it is undoubtedly the result of several causes combined. The tender, succulent grass, in the process of excessive THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 117 drying, is partially converted into woody fibre, a form in some degree, equally removed from the nutritive properties of the green herbage, as slabs or saw dust from the life-sus- taining principles, yielded by fresh, young boughs and twigs. When there is mismanagement in the curing process, result- ing in fermentation, the saccharine matter, so abundant in the juices of good grass, and so essential to some of the con- stituents of milk, is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, both of which rapidly escape, and would be useless to the animal if retained. A series of careful experiments has been made, which showed the important fact, that a cow, thriving on 100 to 120 lbs. grass per day, required nine pounds of barley or malt in addition to this quantity, when converted into hay. This is stated as illustrating a general principle, without assigning to it any definite or uniform ra- tio of deterioration, which varies with every variety of grass, and the period and manner of curing. THE CLOVERS, Sometimes, improperly called grasses, are botanical ly ar- ranged in the order, legumhioscB, under the same head Avith the bean, pea, locust and vetches. More than 160 species of clover have been detected by naturalists. Their proper- ties and characteristics are totally unlike the grasses, with which they agree, only in their contributing in a similar manner to the support of farm-stock. There are many va- rieties cultivated abroad, but the attention of farmers in this country, has been limited to a very few. The Common Red or Northern Clover, ( Trifolium pratense,) a biennial, and occasionally, on calcareous soils, a triennial, is the species most generally in use in the United States. This is a hardy, easily-cultivated variety, growing luxuriantly on every properly-drained soil, of sufficient strength to afford it nutriment. It has numerous, strong, well-developed stems, branching outwardly and vertically from a single seed, each bearing broad, thick leaves, which are surmounted by a large, reddish, or purple flower. By the analysis of Davy, the whole plant yields an amount of nu- tritive matter, fully equal to any other of the clovers. Mode of Cultivation. — Clover may be sown broadcast, either in August or September, or early in the spring, with most of the cereal grains, or the cultivated grasses ; or it may profitably constitute a crop by itself. The quantity of seed required per acre, depends on the kind of soil. On well 118 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. prepared loams, ten or twelve pounds of good seed will fre- quently give a full covering to the land, while on clay, twelve to sixteen pounds are necessary per acre. When sown with the grasses, six on the first, and eight to twelve pounds on the last soil will suffice. An additional amount of seed, as with the grasses, will give a finer quality of hay, in consequence of multiplying the number of stalks ; and for this purpose, as well as to insure it on every spot of the field, it should always be liberally sown. The covering, like that of grass seeds, should be of the slightest kind ; and when sown very early in the spring, or on well pulverized grounds and followed by rains, it will germinate freely with-, out harrowing. ^fter the leaves are developed in the spring, an applica- tion of gypsum should be made by sowing broadcast, at the rate of one to three or four bushels per acre. The effect of this on clover, is singularly great, and it seems to be augmented by applying it on the leaves. This may perhaps be account- ed for, in the fact, that besides its other uses, gypsum yields a considerable proportion both of its sulphuric acid and lime to the plant, and thus constitutes a direct food. The influ- ence of gypsum is almost incredible, in bringing up the clo- vers on fields where they were hardly discernible before. This may be witnessed in almost every soil where gypsum has any ef- fect. By sowing a quantity over the grass plat containing either the seeds or plants of the clover, however thin or meagre they may be, an immediate and luxuriant growth distinguishes the spot which has received it, from all the surrounding field. Bones are invaluable maimre for the clovers. The table of the ashes (page 35), shows the great quantity of lime and phosporic acid (the leading elements of bones), which the clovers contain, in comparison with the rye grass, which is a type of the other grasses. Thus, the red clover has about four times as much lime, twenty-six times as much phos- phoric acid, more soda and sulphuric acid, and nearly twice and a half as much potash as the grass. The white clover has about four times the potash ; the lucern, nearly seven times the lime, and fifty-two times the sulphuric acid, con- tained in the grass. Such are the various demands of plants, and the necessity of providing each with its specific food. And hence, the advantage of cultivating a variety of grasses and clovers on the same spot. Each, it is true, draws its nutriment from the same elements, but in such unlike proportions, that when THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 119 they cease to yield adequate support to one, the soil may still be rich in those which will give luxuriant growth to others. Thus, two or more of the forage plants, when growing toge- ther, riiay each yield a large crop, swelling the aggregate product far beyond what would be realized in the separate cultivation of either. This is a conspicuous and satisfac- tory illustration of the utility of good husbandry, as shown in the cultivation of the mixed grasses and forage. Time for cutting and mode of curing Clover. — Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed and assumed a brownish hue. By close cutting, more forage is secured, and the clover afterwards springs up more rapidly and evenly. The swath unless very heavy, ought never to be stirred open, but allowed to wilt on the top. It may then be carefully turned over, and when thus partially cured, placed in high slender cocks, and remain till sufficiently dry to remove into the barn. Those who are very careful in curing their hay, provide cheap cotton covers (tarpaulins are better), which are thrown over the cocks when exposed to the rain, the corners of which are weighted, to prevent being blown up by the wind. The long exposure of clover to the weather, when -thus cured, renders this precaution peculiarly desirable. The clover may be housed in a much greener state, by spread- ing evenly over it in the mow, from ten to twenty quarts of salt per ton. Some add a bushel, but this is more than is either necessary for the clover, or judicious for the stock con- suming it ; as the purgative effects of too much salt, induce a wasteful consumption of the forage. A mixture of alter- nate layers of dry straw with the clover, by absorbing its juices, answers the same purpose, while it materially im- proves the flavor of the straw for fodder. After -management of Clover fields. — The second crop of clover may be either saved for seed, mown, pastured, or turned under for manure. As this is a biennial when allow- ed to ripen, the stocks generally die after the second year ; and the crop is only partially sustained afterwards, by the seed which may have germinated the second year from the first sow- ing, or from such as has been shed upon the surface, from the seed matured on the ground. The maximum of. benefit deriva- ble to the soil, in the manure of the stubble and roots, is at- tained the second year ; as we have seen that the dried roots of the clover at that time, are sometimes in the proportion of 56 for every 100 pounds of clover hay produced from them in two years. But the ground is then so full of the roots, as 120 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. to check further accumulation. This is then the proper time for plowing up the field, and renewing again its accustomed round of crops. If desirable, the clover may be imperfectly sustained on some soils, for a few years, by the addition of gypsum, bone-dust, ashes and other manures, which will de- velop and mature the ripened seeds ; but the greater tena- city of other plants and grasses, will soon reduce it to a minor product in the field. Complaint is sometimes made among farmers in England, whose fields have been often in this crop, that their land is clover sick. This arises, simply, from the exhaustion of the land of some of those principles peculiar to clover, which are needed to prepare them again for bearing good crops. Ro- tations and judicious manuring are the only remedies for this, d: similar deficiencies with other crops. Importance of the Clovers. — The great value of the dif- ferent clovers as forage, was well known to the ancients. They were extensively cultivated by the early Romans, and since that period, they have been extended throughout a large part of Europe. They were not introduced into Great Bri- tain till the 16th century, but have since constituted a profita- ble branch of its husbandry. Their importance has long been acknowledged in the United States. The nutritive matter, although relatively less than from some of the grasses, is yet, in the amount per acre, fully equal to the average of any other forage crop, which is produced at the same ex- pense. It is easily and cheaply raised ; it is liable to few or no casualties or insect enemies in this country ; and its long tap roots are powerful auxiliaries in the division and improvement of soils. Its broad, succulent leaves derive a large portion of their nutriment from the atmosphere ; and while it affords a product equal to the best grasses, it draws a large part of it from the common store-house of nature, without subjecting the farmer to the expense of pro- viding it in his manures. It is as a fertilizer, however, that it is so decidedly supe- rior to other crops. In addition to the advantages before enumerated, the facility and economy of its cultivation, the great amount yielded ; and lastly, the convenient form it off'ers for covering with the plow, contribute to place it far above any other species of vegetation for this purpose. All the grains and roots do well after clover ; and wheat especially, which follows it, is more generally free from disease than when sown with any other manure. The introduction of THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. I2l clover and lime in connection, has carried up the price of many extensive tracts of land, from $10 to $50 per acre, and has enabled the occupant to raise large crops of wheat, where he could get only small crops of rye ; and \JL has fre- quently increased his crop of wheat three-fold, where it had been previously an object of attention. It is a common observation of intelligent farmers, that they are never at a loss to renovate such lands as will pro- duce even a moderate crop of clover. Poor clay lands have been brought to a clover-bearing state, by sowing an early and late crop of oats in the same season, and feeding them off on the ground. Poor, sandy soils may be made to sus- tain clover, with the aid of manure, ashes and gypsum, com- bined with the free use of the roller. This object is much facilitated by scattering dry straw over the surface, which affords shade, increases the deposit of dew, and prolongs its effects. Whenever the period of clover-producing is at- tained, the improvement of the soil may be pushed, with a rapidity commensurate with the inclination and means of the owner. Harvesting Clover Seed. — After taking off one crop, or pasturing the field till June, or to such time as experience shows to be the most proper, the clover should be kept un- molested, to mature a full crop of seed. Early mowing re- moves the first weeds, and the second growth of the clover is so rapid, as to smother them and prevent their seeding, and the clover is thus saved comparatively clean. It is then mown and raked into very small cocks, and when dried at the top, they are turned completely over without breaking ; and as soon as well dried, they may be carried to the threshing floor, and the seeds beaten out with sticks, light flails, or with a threshing machine. An instrument with closely-set teeth and drawn by a horse, is sometimes used for collecting the clover heads from the standing stalks, from which the seed is afterwards sepa- rated. If wanted for use on the farm, these heads are some- times sown without threshing. The calyx of the clovers is so firmly attached to the seed, as to be removed with difii culty ; but if thrown into a heap after threshing, and gently pressed together, a slight fermentation takes place, and the seed is afterwards readily cleaned. A fan or clover machine may be used for cleaning the seed for market. The pro- duce is from three to six bushels per acre, which is worth to the farmer, from $3 to $5 per bushel, of 60 pounds. 6 ^^ ^ \ ^ 122 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Southern Clover ( T. medium) is a smaller species than K the T. pratense, and matures ten or fourteen days earlier. > The soil best suited to it, is nearly similar to that required f by the northern clover ; but it succeeds much better on a \ -light, thin soil than the latter, and it should be sown thicker. Strong clay or rich, loamy soils will produce much heavier nJ crops of the larger kind. Experience alone will determine '*^ \vhich of these kinds' should be adopted, under all the cir- ^^ cumstances of soil and fertility, and the uses for which it is 4 lesigned. White Creeping Clover ( T. repens, Fig. 27). — There are several varieties of white clover, all of which are hardy, nutritious and self-propagating. Wherever they have once been, the ground becomes filled with the seed, which spring up whenever an opportunity is aflbrded them for growth. They are pecu- liarly partial to clay lands having a rich vegetable mold on the surface ; and the addition of gypsum, will at all times give them great luxuriance. Their dwarf character renders them unfit for the scythe, while the dense- ly-matted mass of sweet, rich food, ever growing and ever abundant, makes them most valuable for pasture herbage. The Yellow Clover, Hop Trefoil or Shamrock ( T. procumbens), like the white, is of spontaneous growth, very hardy and prolific. It bears a yellow flower and black seeds. It is one of those unostentatious plants, which though never sown and little heeded, help to make up that useful variety, which gives so much value and permanence to our best pasture lands. Another variety of the yellow clover grows to the height of 24 to 30 inches, in most of the States, and bears a pro- fusion of flowers and seeds. This is a good forage for sheep, and an excellent fertilizer for the land, but is not much relished by cattle or horses. Many other of the minute Clovers and leguminos^e, the Wild Pea, and other species of this family, abound in our untilled lands, and add greatly to the nutritive character of the forage, although their merits and even their existence are scarcely known. THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 123 Ceimson or Scarlet Clover (T. incarnatum, Fig. 28) is a native of Italy, and much cul- tivated in France. It bears a long head, of bright scarlet flowers, and in southern Europe is a profitable crop. Although it was introduced into this country many years since, it has not hitherto commended itself to particular attention as an object of agriculture. LucERN (Medicago saliva, Fig. 29) is one of the most productive plants for forage, ever grown. It was extensively cultivated by the Greeks, and other nations of antiqui- ty ; and it has been a prominent object of attention in Italy, Spain, France, Holland and Flanders. Its relative value as compared with clover ( T. pratense\ is decidedly inferior, while its abso- lute value per acre, is much greater. It was early introduced into this country. Chancellor Livingston published his experiments with it from 1791 to '94, by which he esti- mates that he cut in one season, at the rate of 6^ tons per acre, in five cuttings, yielding a profit of over $35 an acre. It bears three or four crops per annum, containing from three to eight tons of hay. Those who have cultivated it, pronounce it hardy, and as capable of successful growth in this country as clover ; but to reach the highest product, it requires a richness of soil and carefulness of culti- vation, which would give an enormous produce to its more humble rival. Manner of Cultivation. — It must have a deep, dry, loamy soil, free from weeds, and well filled with manure. A suita- ble crop to precede it is corn or potatoes, heavily manured and kept clean. Then plow in the fall, and add 40 bushels crushed bones per acre ; and early in April, harrow tho- roughly, and sow in drills, from one to two and a half feet apart, at the rate of eight to ten pounds of seed per acre. Stir the ground and extirpate the weeds with the cultivator Fio. 29. 124 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and hoe, carefully pulling out by hand any that may be found in the drills. It may be lightly cropped the first year, and more freely the second, but it does not attain full maturi- ty till the third. The roots strike deep into the ground, and being a perennial, it requires no renewal except from the loss of the plants by casualties. It should be cut before growing too large, and cured like clover. Liquid manure is good for it, as are also gypsum and ashes. Barn-yard manure is occasionally necessary ; but to avoid weeds, it must be thoroughly fermented to destroy the seeds. It is sometimes sown broadcast, but the rapid progress of weeds and grass in the soil, will soon extirpate it if they are suffered to grow ; and there is no means of effectually eradi- cating them but by cultivating the iucern in drills, and the hoe and cultivator can then keep the weeds in subjection. It is one of the most desirable plants for soiling. From the care and attention required, the cultivation of Iucern is properly limited to an advanced state of agriculture and a dense population, where labor is cheap and products high. In the neighborhood of large cities, it may be advantageously grown, and in all places where soiling is practiced. San-Foin {Hedysarum onohrychis. Fig. 30), the esparcette of the French, is a native of the chalk soils of Europe, and is best adapted to strong calcareous lands. On such, it is a profitable herbage, as the roots penetrate to a great depHi, and yield large burdens of nutritious fodder. It will also grow successfully in deep garden molds. Though often at- tempted, we are not aware that it has been raised to any extent in this coun- try. Bokhara or Sweet-scented Clo- ver {Melilotus major) is a tall, shrub- like plant, growing to the height of four to six feet with branches, whose Fig. 30. extremities bear numerous small white flowers of great fragrance. When full grown, it is too coarse for forage, but if thick and cut young, it yields a pro- fusion of green or winter fodder. It should be sown in the spring, with about two pounds of seed per acre, in drills 16 to 20 inches apart. It must be kept clear of weeds and cul- tivated like Iucern It requires a rich, mellow, loamy soil. THE GRASSES, MEADOWS, ETC. 125 Spurry (Spergula arvensis, Fig. 31) might probably be introduced into American husbandry for forage, with decided advantage. It is a hardy plant, and groAvs spon- taneously in the middle States. Its chief merit consists, in its growing on soils too thin to bear clover. On such, it can be judiciously used to bring them up to the clover-bearing point, from which they can be taken, and carried forward much more rapidly by the clovers. Van Voght says, " it is better than red or white Fia.3i. clover; the cows give more and bet- ter milk when fed on it, and it improves the land in an ex- traordinary degree. If the land is to lie several years in pasture, white clover must be sown with it. When sown in the middle of April, it is ripe for pasture by the end of May. If eaten off in June, the land is turned flat and ano- ther crop is sown, which affords fine pasture in August and September. This operation is equivalent to a dressing of ten loads of manure per acre. The blessing of spurry, the clover of sandy lands, is incredible when rightly employed." Three crops can be grown upon land in one season, which, if turned in or fed on ther ground, can be made a means of rapid improvement to the soil. PASTURES. It is too often the case, that pastures are neglected, and like woodlands, are allowed to run to such vegetation as un- assisted nature may dictate. As a necessary consequence, their forage is frequently meagre and coarse, and incapable, either in quantity or quality, of supporting half the number of cattle in a poor condition, that might otherwise be full- fed from the same surface. But if we consider, that pastures furnish most of the domestic stock with their only food, for seven months of the year at the North, and generally for nine or ten months at the South, they may well be deemed worthy the particular attention of the farmer. Pastures ought to be properly divided, and it is a diffi- cult point to determine between the comparative advantages of small ranges, and the expense and inconvenience of keep- ing up numerous divisions. The latter require a large out lay on every farm, not only for the first cost of materials and 126 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. the annual repairs, but from the loss of land occupied by them ; and they are further objectionable from their harbor- ing weeds and vermin. Yet it is beneficial to give animals a change of feed ; and the grass comes up evenly and grows undisturbed, if the cattle be removed for a while. There is a further advantage, in being able to favor some particular individuals or classes of animals. Thus, fattening stock ought to have the best feed ; milch cows and working ani- mals the next ; then young stock ; while sheep will thrive on shorter feed than either, and greedily consume most plants which the others reject. By this means, a field will be thoroughly cleansed of all plants which animals will eat, and the remainder should be extirpated. The same care ought to be taken to prevent the propagation of weeds in pas- tures as in other fields. Many of these, mullen, thistles and the like, multiply prodigiously from sufTerajice, and if un- checked, will soon overspread the farm. Every pasture, if possible, should be provided with run- ning water and shade trees, or other ample protection against a summer's sun. The last can at all times be secured by a few boards, supported on a light, temporary frame. Exces- sive heat exhausts, and sometimes sickens animals ; conse- quently, it materially diminishes the effects of food in promo- ting the secretion of milk, and the growth of wool and flesh. AH grounds immediately after long rains, whether in early spring or late autumn, and especially, after the winter's frosts have just left them, are much injured by the poaching of cattle, if allowed to run upon them. Clay lands and those which have been recently seeded, are peculiarly susceptible of injury from this cause ; and from such fields and at such times, every animal should be rigidly excluded. On late and off early, is a good rule to be adopted for spring and fall pasturing. Wherever the grasses disappear, fresh seeds should be added and harrowed in ; mosses must be destroyed ; they should be properly drained, and every attention paid to them that is bestowed on the mowing lands, except that they sel- dom require manures. But ashes, gypsum, lime and bone dust may sometimes be applied to them with great profit. Pastures should take their course in rotation, when they get bare of good herbage or full of weeds, and it is possible to break them up advantageously. Though many choice, natural forage plants may thus be destroyed, yet if again turned into grass at the proper period, and they are sown GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 127 with a plentiful stock of assorted grass seeds, on a rich and well-prepared surface, they will soon place themselves in a productive state. CHAPTER VII GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. WHEAT (Triticmn). Fio. 32. Fia. 33. Fig. 34. Spring Bald Wheat. Winter Bald Wheat Winter Bearded Wheat. This is one of the most important and most generally cultivated of the cereal grains (or grasses as they are bo- tanically termed), though both rice and maize or Indian corn, contribute to the support of a larger population. It is found in every latitude, excepting those which approach too nearly to the poles or equator ; but it can be profitably raised, 128 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. only within such as are strictly denominated temperate. Linnseus describes but six varieties, yet later botanists enu- merate about thirty, while of the sub-varieties, there are several hundred. The only division necessary for our present purpose, is of the winter wheat (Triticum hybernum), and spring or summer wheat ( T. cestivum). The former requires the ac- tion of frost to bring it to full maturity, and is sown in au- tumn. Germination before exposure to frost, does not, how- ever, seem absolutely essential to its success, as fine crops have been raised from seed sown early in the spring, after having been saturated with water and frozen for some weeks. It has also been successfully raised, when sowed early in the season, while the frost yet occupied the ground. Spring and winter wheat may be changed from one to the other, by sowing at the proper time through successive sea- sons, and without material injury to their character. The latter grain is by far the most productive ; the straw is stouter ; the head more erect and full ; the grain plumper and heavi- er, and the price it bears in market, from eight to fifteen per cent, higher than that of spring wheat. This difference of price depends rather on the appearance of t-he flour and its greater whiteness, than on any intrinsic deficiency in its substantial qualities. The analysis of Davy gave in 100 parts of Insoluble Gluten, Starch, matter. Spring wheat of 1804, 24 70 6 Best Sicilian winter wheat, ^21 74 5 Good English winter wheat of 1803, 19 77 4 Blighted wheat of 1804, 13 53 34 The above analysis gives the greatest nutritive value to the spring wheat, as the gluten (animalized matter) consti- tutes the most important element in flour. It will also be noticed, that the Sicilian yields about two per cent, more gluten than the English, which enables the flour to absorb and retain a much larger proportion of water when made into bread. This is what is termed by the bakers, strength ; and when gluten is present in large proportions, other qual- ities being equal, it adds materially jto the value of flour. American wheat also contains more gluten than English, and that from the southern States, still more than that from the northern. An eminent baker of London says, America^i flour will absorb from eight to fourteen per cent, more of its GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 129 own weight of water, when manufactured into bread or bis- cuit, than their own ; and another reUable authority asserts, that while 14 lbs. of American flour will make 21 i lbs of bread, the same quantity of English flour will make only 18i lbs. As a general rule, the drier or hotter the climate in which the grain is raised, the greater is the evaporation, and the more condensed is the farina of the grain, and consequently the more moisture it is capable of absorbing when again ex- posed to it. Certain varieties of wheat possess this quality in a higher degree than others. Some manures and some soils also give a diff'erence with the same seed ; but for or- dinary consumption, the market value (which is the great consideration with the farmer), is highest for such wheat as gives the largest quantity of bright flour, with a due pro- portion of gluten. Other prominent differences exist among the leading cultivated varieties of wheat, such as the bearded and bald or beardless; the white and red chaff"; those hav- ing large and strong stalks ; or a greater or a less tendency to tiller or to send out new shoots. There is great room for selection in the several varieties, to adapt them to the differ- ent soils, situations, and climate for which they are designed. Preparation of the land for sowing. Wheat is partial to a well-prepared clay or heavy loam, and this is improved, when it contains either naturally or artificially, a large pro- portion of lime. Many light, and all marly or calcareous soils, if in proper condition, will give a good yield of wheat. Lime is an important aid to the full and certain growth of wheat, checking its exuberance of straw and liability to rust, and steadily aiding to fill out the grain. A rich, mel- low turf or clover ley is a good bed for it ; or land which has been well manured and cleanly cultivated in roots or corn the' preceding year. Fresh barn-yard manure applied directly to the wheat crop, is objectionable, not only from its containing many foreign seeds, but from its tendency to excite a rapid growth of weak straw, thus causing the grain both to lodge and rust. The same objection lies against sowing it on rich, alluvial or vege- table soils ; and in each, the addition of lime or ashes, or both, will correct these evils. A dressing of charcoal, has in many instances been found an adequate preventive ; and so beneficial has it proved in France, that it has been extensive- ly introduced there for the wheat crop. A successful exam- ple of uninterrupted cropping with wheat, through several 6# 130 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. years, has been furnished by a Maryland farmer, who used fresh barn-yard manure, with lime. But this is an exception, not a rule ; and it will be found that profitable cultivation requires, that wheat should take its place in a judicious ro- tation. The great proportion of silica in the straw of cereal grains, (amounting in wheat, barley, oats and rye, to about four fifths of the total of ash from the grain and straw), shows the necessity of having ample provision made for it in the soil, and in a form susceptible of ready assimilation by the plant. This is afforded by ashes, and from the action of lime upon the soil. Depth of Soil is indispensable to large Crops. — The wheat plant has two sets of roots, the first springing from the seed and penetrating downwards, while the second push themselves laterally, near the surface of the ground, from the first joint. They are thus enabled to extract their food from every part of the soil, and the product will be found to be in the ratio of its extent and fertility. Under-draining and sub-soil plowing contribute greatly to the increase of crops, and it is essential that all surface water be entirely removed. Wheat, on heavy clay lands, is peculiarly liable to winter kill, unless they are well-drained. This is owing to suc- cessive freezing and thawing, by which the roots are broken or thrown out. When this is done to a degree that will materially diminish the crop, the naked spots may be sown with spring wheat. Any considerable portion of the latter, will lessen the value for sale, but it is equally good for do- mestic use. The land should be duly prepared for the recep- tion of the seed, by early and thorough plowing, and harrow- ing, if necessary. ^ Selection and preparation of Seed. — Many persons se- lect their seed by casting , or throwing the grain to some . distance on the floor, using only such as reaches the farthest. This is a summary way of selecting the heaviest, plumpest grain, which if Sprengel's theory be correct, is attended with no advantage, beyond that of separating it from the lighter seeds of chess or weeds. It is certain, that the ^utmost care should be taken in removing everything from it but pure wheat, and this should be 'exclusively of the kind re- quired. When wheat is not thoroughly cleaned by casting, a sieve or riddle may be used ; or it should even be picked over by hand, rather than sow anything but the pure seed. Previous to sowing, a strong brine ought to be made of salt and water, and in this the grain is to be washed for GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 131 # five minutes, taking care to skim off all light and foreign seeds. If the grain be smutty, this washing should be re- peated in. another clean brine, when it may be taken out and intimately mixed with one twelfth its bulk of fresh pulverized quick-lime. This kills all smut, cleans out weeds from the grain, and insures early and rapid growth. When the seed is not smutty, it may be prepared by soak- ing or sprinkling with stale urine, and afterwards mixed with the lime ; and if well done, this also will prevent smut, though the first is most certain. (See varieties of seed fol- lowing, for further directions.) Quantity of Seed and time of sowing. — On well pul- verized, ordinary wheat soils, about five pecks of seed are sown to the acre, while rough land, clay soils and such as are very fertile, require from six to eight. In Maryland, but three pecks are frequently sown, and some of the best crops have been raised from only two pecks of seed to the acre, on a finely-pulverized soil. It takes more seed when full and plump than when shrunken, as there may be nearly two of the latter to one of the former, in the same measure. A dif- ference is to be observed according to the wheat, some need- ing more than others. A large quantity of seed, produces an earlier growth of light straw and head, but does not usually increase the aggregate cro^^. There is always a tendency in wheat and most of the cereal grasses, to tiller or send out new shoots for future stalks. This is a law of these plants, which compels them to make the greatest effort to cover the whole ground ; and sometimes a single seed will throw out more than 100 stalks. In early sowing, the wheat tillers in the autumn ; in late sowing this is done in part only, till the ensuing spring. Thick sowing, is a substitute for tiller- ing, to the extent that would otherwise be induced, and is equi- valent to an earlier sowing of a smaller quantity. The time for sowing in the northern States, is from the 10th to 20th September. . If sown earlier, it is liable to attack from the Hessian fly, and if later, it does not have time to root as well ; and is in more danger of being thrown out by the frosts or of winter killing. Late sowing is also more subject to rust the following season, from its later ripening. Sowing. — When the ground has been well mellowed, the seed may be sown broadcast and thoroughly harrowed in. Rolling is a good practice, as it presses the earth closely up- on the seed and facilitates germination ; and as soon as the seed is covered, the water furrows should be cleaned out, 132 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and again late in autumn, and early in the following spring. In northern Europe, it has been found a preventive against winter killing on strong clays, to sow the wheat in the bot- tom of each furrow, six inches deep, and cover it with the succeeding one. The wheat thus planted, comes up as soon as on the fields sown broadcast and harrowed, grows more vigorously, withstands the winters and produces large crops. Plowing in wheat with a light furrow, is perhaps, under any circumstances, better than harrowing, as the wheat is there- by all buried, and at a more suitable depth than can be done by the harrow. The roughness of the furrows when left without harrowing, is advantageous in heavy or clay lands, and only injurious in light or sandy. After Culture. — Harrowing in the spring, adds to the growth of the crop, by loosening the soil; and the loss of the few plants thus destroyed, is much more than compensa- ted by the rapid tillering and vigor of those which remain. Sowing in drills and hoeing between them, is much prac- ticed in Europe. The additional amount thus frequently raised, would seem to justify the adoption of this mode of cultivation in this country ; and it should at least be done, so far as to give it a fair trial. On light soils, rolling the wheat both in fall and spring, is highly advantageous. When the growth is luxuriant, decided benefit has attended feeding off the wheat On the field in the fall or spring, tak- ing care to permit the animals to go on, only when the ground is firm. Enemies of Wheat. — These are numerous. It is subject to the attack of the Hessian fly, if sown too early in the fall, and again the ensuing spring, there being two annual swarms of the fly, early in May and September. When thus invaded, harrowing or rolling, by which the maggots or flies are displaced or driven off, is the only remedy of much avail. Occasionally, other flies, and sometimes wheat worms commit great depredation. There is no effectual remedy known agamst any of these marauders, beyond roll- ing, brushing and harrowing. Dusting the grain with lime, ashes and soot, have been frequently tried, as have also the sprinkling them with urine, dilute acids and other liquids or steeps. Fumigating them in the evening, when the smoke creeps along through the standing grain, has been often tried, but without decided success. For this last purpose, a smoul- dering heap of damp brush, weeds or chips, is placed on the windward side of the field ; and its efficacy may be increased GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 133 by the addition of brimstone. Whenever obnoxious to these attacks, the only safety is, to place the crop in the best con- dition to withstand them, by hastening its growth, and by the propagation of the most hardy varieties. An application of unleached ashes in damp weather, will sometimes dimin- ish the ravages of worms at the root. Quick-lime has the same effect on all insects with which it comes in contact ; but it should be carefully applied to avoid injury to the plants. Smut is a dark brown or blackish, parasitic fungus, which grows upon the head and destroys the grain. The only remedy for this, is washing the seed in two or three succes- sive strong brines, and intimately mixing and coating it with quick-lime before sowing. Rust affects the straw of wheat while the grain is form- ing, and before it is fully matured. It is almost always present in the field, but is not extensively injurious except in close, showery and hot (muggy) weather. The straw then bursts from the exuberance of the sap, which is seen to exude, and a crust or iron-colored rust is formed in longitu- dinal ridges on the stalk. It is generally conceded, that this rust is a fungus or minute parasitic plant which subsists on the sap ; but whether it be the cause or consequence of this exudation is not fully determined. There is no remedy for this when it appears, and the only mitigation of its ef- fects, is to cut and harvest the grain at once. The straw in this case will be saved, and frequently, a tolerable crop of grain, which partially matures after cutting ; while if suffer- ed to stand, both straw and grain will be almost totally lost. The only preventives experience has hitherto found, are the selection of hardy varieties of grain, which partially resist the effects of rust ; sowing on elevated lands where- the air has a free circulation ; the abundant use of saline manures, salt, lime, gypsum, and charcoal; the absence of recent animal manures ; and early sowing, which matures the plant before the disease commences its attack. Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. Repeated experiments have demon- strated, that wheat cut at this time, will yield more in meas- ure, of heavier weight, and a larger quantity of swcQt, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing be- fore storing or threshing. 131 AMi.R,ICAN AGRICULTURE. Threshing is usually done among extensive farmers, with some one of the large machines taken into the field, and driven by horse power. The use of these enables the farmer to raise some of the choicest kinds of grain, whose propaga- tion before their introduction was limited, from the great difficulty of separating the grain from the head. He can also push his wheat into market ^t once, if the price is high, which is frequently the case immediately after harvest ; and he saves all expense and trouble of moving, storing, loss from shelling and vermin, interest and insurance. For the moderate farmer, a small single or double horse machine, or hand threshing in winter, where there is leisure for it, is more economical than the six or eight horse-thresher. Mowing or Stacking. — When stored in the straw, the grain should be so placed as to prevent heating or moulding. Fig. 86, Fio. 36. Unless very dry, when carried into the barn, this can only be avoided by laying it on scaffolds, where there is a free circulation of air around and partially through it. If placed in a stack, it should be well elevated from the ground ; and if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice or open work should be left from the bottom, extending through the centre to the top ; or a large bundle may be kept at the surface in the middle, and drawn upwards as the stack rises, thus leav- ing an opening for circulation, entirely through the centre of the grain. Additional security would be afforded by similai GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 135 openings at suitable intervals, in a horizontal direction. Mice and rats may be avoided, by laying the foundation of the stack on posts or stones, elevated beyond their reach, and covered at the top with projecting caps. Weevils sometimes affect the grain after storing. These may be almost if not wholly prevented, by thorough cleanliness of the premises where the grain is -stored. The cut on the preceding page, Fig. 35, shows a frame for stacking, combining the advantages of circulation through the centre, and an elevation which secures the grain from the depredations of vermin. Fig. 36, shows a stack com- plete, which is better made and more neatly finished than is too often done in this country. It is an important item of husbandry, so to stack grain as to avoid loss from the ad- mission of rain. No inconsiderable share of the stack, is thus frequently destroyed. The straiv and chaff of wheat should never be wasted. This is the most nutritious- of the cereal straws. It yields good fodder to cattle in time of scarcity, and is always good for this object, when cut and mixed with meal or roots ; and particularly, when early harvested and well cured. Turneps and straw are the only food of half the cattle, and most of the sheep, throughout Great Britain, and no where do they thrive more rapidly, or better remunerate their own- ers, than in that country. It is of great use also, as bedding for cattle and as an absorbent of animal and liquid manures. It furnishes in itself the best manure for succeding grain crops ; containing large proportions of the salts or ash required. When threshed on the field and not wanted for cattle, it should be scattered over the ground, and either plowed in or suffered to decay on the surface. VARIETIES OF SEED. Much depends on the judicious selection of seed. Some soils are peculiarly adapted to wheat growing, and on these should be sown the finest varieties, which are generally of a more delicate character. Wheat on other soils is liable" to many casualties, and on such, only the hardier kinds should be propagated. Careful and repeated trials with different varieties of seeds, on each field or on those which are simi- lar, will alone determine their adaptation to the soil. There are several choice varieties of winter wheat in cultivation in the United States, some of which stand higher in one, and some in another section. Some in high repute abroad, 136 AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST. have been introduced into this country, and proved to be valuable acquisitions ; while others have been found decided- ly inferior to many of the long adopted varieties. Experi- ment alone will enable the farmer to decide as to their value for his own grounds, however high they may stand else- where. When of a fine quality, and found to produce well on any given soils, their place should not be usurped by others, till repeated trials have shown their superiority, either in yield or character. But when the acclimated grain is infe- rior, other seed from remote distances, even if no better in quality, may properly be substituted for it, as a decided benefit has been found to follow a change. Wheat and nearly all seeds are found to be more produc- tive, when taken from a soil inferior to the one intended for sowing ; and it is claimed that such as have been produced, either in a warmer or colder climate, will mature earlier. It is not essential that the fullest, heaviest grain be sown. Sprengel affirms, that seed somewhat shrunken, is more cer- tain to give a good yield than the choicest seed ; and numer- ous trials would seem to favor this conclusion. The grain designed for seed should be well ripened before harvesting. From the ever-varying character of the diff'erent kinds of seed, their superiority at one time and on one locality, and their inferiority at other times and in other situations, it seems almost superfluous to give a particular enumeration of th© present most popular kinds. A brief mention of such only, as stand high in public favor in this country, with some of their most striking peculiarities, is all that our limits will admit. The Improved Flint is extensively cultivated in the fine wheat-growing country of western New York, where it was introduced in 1822. It is hardy, and withstands the winters remarkably well. A striking improvement in the strength of its straw has been observed, w^hich at first in- clined to lodge, but it is now erect and firm till fully ripened. The heads are also fuller and longer than when first intro- duced ; the berry is plump and white, yielding a large pro- portion of choice flour ; and it is retained in the head with greater tenacity, which is a decided advantage in harvest- ing, where threshing machines are substituted for the flail. The Old Genesee Red Chaff is a bald, white wheat, first cultivated in the same region, in 1798 ; and for a long time it was the decided favorite. Since 1820, however, it has been very subject to rust and blast ; but when circumstances are GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. ' 137 favorable, it is still found to be highly productive. In other localities, its cultivation may be attended with the most satis- factory success. The White May of Virginia "vvas a choice variety, and extensively raised in the neighborhood of the Chesapeake Bay, in 1800, but is now nearly extinct there. It has been cultivated in New York for ten years, is a good bearer and very heavy, weighing frequently QQ lbs. per bushel. It ripens early, in consequence of which, it escapes rust. The Wheatland Red is a new variety, discovered and propagated by Gen. Harmon, of Monroe Co., N. Y., by whom it is held in high estimation. It produces well and ripens early. The Kentucky White- Bearded, Hutchinson or Cana- dian Flint is very popular in western New York, where it has been rapidly disseminated since its first introduction, some twelve or fifteen years since. It is hardy, a good yielder, with a shgrt, plump berry, weighing 64 lbs. per bushel. It requires thicker sowing (about 25 per cent, more seed) than the improved flint, as it does not tiller as well, and unlike that, it shells easily, wasting much unless cut quite early. The English Velvet Beard or Crate Wheat has a coarse straw, large heads, a good berry of a reddish hue, and is well suited to the rich, alluvial, bottom lands, where its firm straw prevents its lodging. It is a fair yielder and tolerably hardy ; but its long beard is a great objection to its introduction on such lands as are suited to the finer kinds. The Yorkshire or English Flint or Soules Wheat has been recently introduced, and is similar in its leading features to the old Genesee. The White Provence is a new and favorite variety, but its slender stalk frequently subjects it to lodging. It is only suited to the finest calcareous wheat soils. The Blue Stem has been raised with great success in Pennsylvania, where it resisted smut and rust when all other kinds in the vicinity, were affected by it. The Mediterranean is a coarse wheat with a thick skin, yielding a dark flour. It resists rust and the fly, is a good bearer, and may be profitably grown where other choice kinds fail. The Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Many-Spiked, or Wild Goose Wheat is also a hardy variety, with a thick straw, which prevents its lodging. 138 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. PRODUCTION- OF NEW VARIETIES OP WHEAT. Besides introducing valuable kinds from abroad, and the improvement of such as we now have by careful cultivation, new varieties may be secured by hybridizing or crossing. This is done by impregnating the female organs of the flowers on one plant, by the pollen from the male organ of another. The progeny sometimes differs materially from both parents, and occasionally partakes of the leading qualities of each. Among those thus produced, some may be found of peculiar excellence, and worthy of supplanting others, whose value is declining. The effect of this crossing, is striking in the, ear of corn, where the red and white, the blue and yellow ker- nels are seen to blend in singular confusion over the whole ear, each differing, too, in size, shape and general qualities. Observation will sometimes detect a new variety of wheat in the field, self-hybridized, the result of an accidental cross. If this has superior merit, it should be carefully secured and planted in a bed by itself for future seed. Propagation may he extended with incredible rapidity by dividing the plant. The English Philosophical Trans- actions give the result of a trial, made by planting a single grain on the 2d of June. On the 8th of August, it was taken up and separated into 18 parts, and each planted by itself. These were subdivided and planted, between 15th of Sep- tember and 15th of October, and again the following spring. From this careful attention, in a fertile soil, 500 plants were obtained, some containing 100 stalks bearing heads of a large size ; and the total produce within the year, was 386,840 grains from the single one planted. SPRING WHEAT. This requires a soil similar to that of winter grain, but it should be of a quick and kindly character, as the grain has a much shorter time to mature. The ground must be well pulverized and fertile. The best crops are raised on land that has been plowed in the fall, and sown without addi- tional plowing, taking care to harrow in thoroughly. When planted early, the wheat rarely suffers from the fly, as it at- tains a size and vigor that withstands any injury from the fly when it appears. In certain localities, where the fly abounds and the wheat has not been early sown, it is found necessary to keep back the young plants, till the disappear- ance of the fly. Large crops have been obtained under fa- vorable circumstances, when sown as late as the 20th May. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 139 VARIETIES. The Black Sea Wheat is one of the most popular kinds at present cultivated. Of this there are two varieties, the red and the white chaff, both of which are bearded. The former is generally preferred. This wheat has yielded very profitable crops. The flour from this, like that from the Mediterranean wheat, is of a dark color. The Siberian is an excellent wheat, and has been much raised in this country. It produces a full, fine grain, is hardy and a good bearer. The Italian has also been extensively cultivated, and held in high estimation ; but it is now generally giving place to the preceding, where both have been tried. There are some other varieties which bear well and are tolerably hardy. Excellent spring grain has been produced, by early sowing from choice winter wheat, which has re- tained most of the characteristics of the original, under its new summer culture. In large sections of this country, wheat has been seriously injured by winter-killing and other casualties ; and wherever these prevail, and the soil is suited to it, spring or summer wheat may be advantageously intro- duced. A proper attention to the selection of seed and the preparation of the soil, will generally insure a profitable re- turn. If the market value of this wheat is not as high as the winter grain, it may' at least afford all that the farmer and his laborers require as food ; and he will generally find, if not in a wheat- growing region, that he can dispose of his surplus crop among his neighbors before the next harvest comes round, and at satisfactory prices. RYE (Secale sereale). This is extensively cultivated in the northeastern and middle Atlantic States. It is grown on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan, and as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural States of the West, rye will take its place in a great measure on their lighter soils. Most of the eastern States produced wheat when first subjected to cultivation ; but where lime did not exist in the soil, the wheat crop soon failed, and it gradually receded from the Atlantic border, except in marly or calcareous soils, rye almost universally succeeding it. But the liberal use of lime, connected with an intelligent ap- plication of the agricultural improvements of the present day, are regaining for wheat, much of its ancient territory. Rye resembles wheat in its bread-making properties, and 140 AMERIPAN AGRICULTURE. for this purpose it is only second to wheat, in those countries where it is cultivated. There is a peculiar aroma connected with the husk of the grain, which is not found in the finely- bolted flour. The grain when ground and unbolted, is much used in the New England States, for mixing into loaves with scalded Indian meal ; it is then baked for a long time, and is known as rye-and- Indian or brown bread. This possesses a sweetness and flavor peculiar to itself, which is doubtless owing in no small degree, to the quality above mentioned. Von Thaer says " this substance appears to facilitate diges- tion, and has a singularly strengthening, refreshing and beneficial effect on the animal frame." Rye is more hardy than wheat, and is a substitute for it on those soils which will not grow the latter grain with certainty and profit. Soil and Cultivation. — Neither strong clay nor calcareous lands are well suited to it. A rich sandy loam is the natural soil for rye, though it grows freely on light sands and gravels, which refuse to produce either wheat, barley, or oats. Loamy soils that are too rich for wheat, and on which it almost invariably lodges, will frequently raise an excellent crop of rye, its stronger stem enabling it to sustain itself under the luxuriant growth. TJie preparation of the Soil far Rye, is similar to that for wheat; and it may be advantageously sown upon a rich old turf or clover ley,'or after corn or roots where the land has been well manured, and thoroughly cleansed from weeds. There is not an equal necessity for using a brine- steep for rye as for wheat, yet if allowed to remain a few hours in a weak solution of saltpetre or some of the other salts, it promotes speedy germination and subsequent growth. Cultivation. — There is but one species of rye ; but to this cultivation has given two leading varieties, the spring and winter. Like wheat, they are' easily transformed into each other, by sowing the winter continually later through suc- cessive generations, to change it into spring rye, and the opposite course will ensure its re-conversion into winter grain. The last should be sown from the 20th of August to the 20th of September, the earliest requiring less seed, as it has a longer time to tiller and fill up the ground. Five pecks is the usual quantity sown, but it varies from one to two bus"hels according to the quality of the soil, the richest lands demanding most. It is a practice among many farmers, to sow rye on light lands, among their standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 141 the ground as level as possible. On such lands, this is attended with several advantages ; as it gives the grain an early start, and a moist, sheltered position, at a time when drought and a hot sun would check or prevent vegeta- tion. As soon as the corn is matured, it is cut up by the roots and placed in compact shocks, or removed to one side of the field, when the rye is thoroughly rolled. When sown on a fresh plowed field, it should be harrowed in before roll- ing. Great success has attended the turning in of green crops, and following the fresh plowing with immediate sowing of the seed. This brings it forward at once. No after cultiva- tion is needed, except harrowing in the spring, and again roll- ing, if the land is light, both of which are beneficial ; for though some of the stools may be thus destroyed, the working of the ground assists the remaining plants, so as to leave a great advantage in favor of the practice. A friend of the writer had occasion to plow some land in the spring, which joined a field of rye belonging to a neighbor. The owner claim- ed damages for supposed injury by the team and plow, which it was agreed should be assessed, on examim>tion after har- vesting, when it appeared that the damaged part was the best of the whole field. An honest English yeoman receiv- ed several pounds from a liberal squire, for alleged injury to his young grain, from the trampling of horses and hounds in a fox chase ; but at harvest, he found the crop so much benefit- ted by the operation, that he voluntarily returned the money. If the rye is luxuriant, it may be fed both in the fall and spring. Early cutting, as in wheat, produces more weight, larger measure and whiter flour. But whatever is intended for seed, must be allowed to ripen fully on the ground. Southern Rye differs materially in its manner of growth, from that cultivated in the North: I believe, however, this diff'erence arises exclusively from dissimilarity of climate ; and that, like the sectional sub- varieties of corn or maize, a few years' successive growth in a peculiar latitude, will give to either species, the same characteristics as the longer accli- mated grain. It tillers remarkably, and grows with great luxuriance during fall and a part of winter, affording excel- lent forage for cattle, sheep, and other animals. When the animals are taken off the following spring, the grain runs up to seed, yielding from 10 to 15 bushels of ripened grain to the acre. I saw a beautiful field of this, late in November, adjoining the mansion of Col. Wade Hampton, of South Carohna, which was devoted to the pets of the stables and 142 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. yards; and especially to the numerous varieties of fowls (aquatic and others), that seemed to revel on their fresh green pastures, in the absence of other herbage. Diseases. — Rye is subject to fewer casualties than wheat. Ergot or cockspur frequently affects it. This fungus is dis- covered, not only on rye, but on other plants of the order gramincB. Several of these elongated, curved and brownish spurs appear on a single head, and they are most frequent in hot, wet seasons. They are poisonous to both man and beast ; and when eaten freely, they have generated fatal epidemics in the community, and emaciation, debility, and in some cases death, to animals consuming it. The sloughing of the hoofs and horns of cattle, has been attributed to ergot in their grass and grain. Rust like that which affects the wheat crop, and owing probably to the same causes, attacks rye. When this happens, it should be cut and harvested without delay. Rye for Soiling is sometimes sown by those who wish forage late in autumn and early in spring. For this purpose, it should be sown at the rate of three or four bushels per acre. If on a fertile soil and not too closely pastured, it will bear a good crop of grain ; and in some cases when too rank, early feedmg will strengthen the stalk and increase the grain BARLEY (Hordeum, Fig. 33). Barley is a grain of extensive cultivation and great value. Like wheat and rye, it is both a I winter and spring grain, though in this coun- try, it is almost universally sown in The spring. There are six varieties, differing in no essential points, and all originating from the same source. Loudon says, in choosing for seed, " the best is that which is free from blackness at the tail, and is of a pale, lively yellow, in- termixed with a bright, whitish cast ; and if the rind be a little shrivelled, so much the better, as it indicates thin skin. The husk of thick- rinded barley is too stiff to shrink, and will lie smooth and hollow, even when the flour is shrunk within. The necessity of a change of seed from time to time, for that grown in a dif- , ferent soil, is in no instance more evident than in this grain, which otherwise becomes coarser every successive year. But in this, as in all other grain, the utmost care should be taken that the seed is full bodied." Fio. 33. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. » 143 The principal varieties are the two and six rowed ; the last being preferred for hardiness and productiveness in Eu- rope. The first is generally cultivated in this country, from its superior fullness and freedom from smut. There are nume- rous sub-varieties, such as the Hudson's Bay, which ripens very early and bears abundantly ; the Chevalier and Provi- dence, both accidental, of which a single stalk was first dis- covered among others of the ordinary kinds, and proving su- perior and of luxuriant growth, they were widely propagated ; the Peruvian, Egyptian, and others. New varieties may be produced by crossing, as with wheat. Soil. — Barley requires a lighter soil than will grow good wheat, and a heavier than will bear tolerable rye; but in all cases it must be one that is well drained. A mellow rich loam, ranging between light sand or gravel, and heavy clay is best suited to it. Cultivation. — It may be sown as soon as the ground is sufficiently dry in spring, on a grass or a clover ley turned over the preceding fall ; or it may follow a well-manured and cleanly-hoed crop. If sown on a sod, it should be lightly plowed in, but not so deep as to disturb the sod, and after- wards harrowed or rolled. The soil must always be well pul- verized. From 1| to 2^ bushels per acre is the usual allow- ance of seed, poor and mellow soils and early sown, requiring the least. Barley ought never to follow the other white grains, nor should they succeed each other, unless upon very rich soil. No farmer can long depart from this rule, without seri- ous detrim'ent to his soil and crops. Barnyard manures must never be applied directly to this grain, unless it be a light dressing of compost on indifferent soils; or in moderate quantity after the plants have commenced growing in spring. When the plants are four or five inches high, rolling will be of service if the ground is dry and not compact. This opera- tion gives support to the roots, destroys insects, multiplies seed-stalks, and increases their vigor. Destroyiotg Weeds in Grain. — When grain is infested with cockle, wild mustard or other weeds, they should be extirpat- ed by hand before they are fairly in blossom. If neglected till sometime after this, the seed is so well matured as to , ripen after pulling, and if then thrown upon the ground, they will defeat the effort for their removal. When too lux- uriant, barley like rye, may be fed off for a few days, but not too closely. The Harvesting of barley must be seasonably doiie. 144 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. More caution is requisite in cutting it at the proper time, than is necessary to observe with any other grain ; for if cut too late, its extreme liabiUty to shell will cause much waste, and it will shrivel, if cut before it is fully matured. It may be stacked like wheat. The uses of Barley are various and important. In Eu- rope, it forms no inconsiderable part of the food of the in- habitants. The grain yields from 80 to 86 per cent, of flour, which, however, contains but six per cent, of gluten ; seven per cent, being saccharine matter, and 79, mucilage or starch. It is inferior in nutriment to wheat and rye, but superior to oats. In this country, it is principally used for malting and brewing, and in some cases for distilling. When ground, it is more generally appropriated to fattening swine, thbugh sometimes used for other stock. THE OAT (Avena aativa. Pig. 34). /"^ ^ This grain is cultivated through- M iA * out a larger range of latitude, and ^ m \ on a greater variety of soil than fjj/ ' any cereal. It will grow on rich or poor, and on dry or moist soils ; on the heaviest clays and the light- est sands ; and it will generally pay as well on rich lands as any other crop. The average yield on good soils, is from 30 to 40 bushels per acre, and on the richest, when well cultivated, it has exceeded 120 bushels. It is exposed to fewer injuries than other grain, being seldom affected by rust, smut or insects. The wire worm is most destructive to it, espe- cially when sown on fresh sod. The most effectual modje of extir- pating these and other troublesome insects, is to turn the sod over, late in the fall, just before the severe winter frosts. They thus become Fio. 34. chilled, and incapable of seeking a safe retreat from their fatal effects. If not plowed at that time, it should be done immediately before sowing in spring, when by turning them into the bottom of the furrow, they GRAIN AND ITS CULTtVATION. 145 cannot find their way to the surface in time to injure the plant seriously, before it gets beyond the reach of their attacks. Varieties. — Of these, Loudon mentions nine as being well defined and entirely distinct, besides which there are many local or recent sub-varieties. He says, " The White or Common oat is in most general cultiva- tion in England and Scotland, and is known by its white husk and kernel. The Black oat, known by its black husk and cultivated on poor soils in the north of England and Scotland. The Red oat, known by its brownish red husk, thinner and more flexible- stem and firmly-attached grains. It is early, suffers little from winds, meals well, and suits windy situations and a late climate. The Poland oat, known by its thick white husk, awnless chaff, solitary grains, short white kernel, and short stiff straw. It requires a dry warm soil, but is very prolific. The Black Poland oat is one of the best varieties; it sometimes weighs 50 lbs. to the bushel. The Friezland or Dutch oat has plump thin-skinned white grains mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned. It has longer straw than the' Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double 'and treble, with longer straw than either of the two last. It is now almost the only kind raised in the north of England and south of Scotland, and brings a higher price in London than any other variety. The Georgian oat is a large-grained, remarkably profita- ble variety and on rich soil, in good tilth, has produced more than any other variety. The Siberian or Ta^'tarian, is by some conceded a distinct species. The grains are black or brown, thin and small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle, and the straw is coarse and reedy. It is little cultivated in England, but is found very suitable for poor soils and exposed situations. The Winter oat is sown at the rate of two bushels per acre in October, the plants are luxuriant and tiller Well, and afford good winter and spring pasture for ewes and lambs, and when these ' are shut out, it affords an ample-crop of grain in August." The Imperial oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred to all others. It is a clean, 7 146 AMERICAN AOltlOULTURB. bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy and prolific in the northern and middle States. The Hopetown oat originated from a single stalk, first discovered in 1824, by Mr. Sheriff, in a field of potato oats. It is distinguished by its exceeding height, and superior pro- duce when sown on rich soils. The Dyock oat is a recent sub-variety of the Potato oat, and it is claimed for it, that it exceeds the last in the num- ber of bushels yielded per acre, and also in the weight of the grain and the quantity of meal. The Skinless oats, greatly commended in Ireland, have been tried in this country without much success. They have shown a tendency to degenerate rapidly, the necessary effect of previous highly-artificial cultivation. There are many other varieties which have a partial or local popularity. From the readiness with which new kinds are produced, careful attention and observation on the part of the farmer, will enable him to detect from time to time, such as may have a decided value over others for particular localities. A superior kind was discovered in a field of com- mon oats in Oneida County, N. Y., some years since, and from the produce of one stool, it became widely disseminated, and has uniformly proved both hardy and prolific. The variety most cultivated in the United States is the Com- mon Wliiteoatj which is hardy and a good bearer, weighing from 30 to 34 lbs. per bushel. The Black oat is preferred in western New York, and some other sections of the country. Repeated trials have been made with the Potato oat, a heavy grain, weighing from 35 to 45 lbs per bushel, but its merits have not hitherto proved conspicuous, enough to justify its usurping the place of the older and long-tried varieties. The Egyptian oat is much cultivated south of Tennessee, and is said to be the only oat that will mature with certainty in the southern States. It is a grain of medium size, but plump and heavy ; sound, hardy and moderately prolific. It is sown in autumn, and after yielding winter and spring pasturage, gives from 10 to 20 bushels of ripened grain to an acre. Cultivation. — In this country, oats are sown at the rate of two to four bushels per acre, during all the spring months, and sometimes, though rarely, in June. The earliest sown are usually the heaviest and most productive. They may occupy a turf, or follow any of the well-manured, hoed crops. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 147 as mentioned in the preceding grains. No apparent advan- tage has been derived from steeps for the prevention of smut as in wheat, the impervious husk of the oat, apparently- arresting the Uquid, and preventing its penetration to the kernel. Sowing salt broadcast over the land, at the rate of two to six bushels per acre, has been found of use to the crop, both in furnishing it with a necessary manure and by killing insects. The seed should be well harrowed in and rolled, and no after attention is required, except to destroy the prominent weeds. Harvesting. — Oats frequently ripen unevenly, and if there is a large proportion of such as are backward, the proper time for cutting will be, as soon as the grain in the latest, may be rubbed out of the straw by hand. The oat is suffi- ciently matured for harvesting after it has passed the milk state, and is easily compressed between the thumb and finger. The lower part of the stalk wilfthen have assumed a yel- low color, and ceases to draw nutriment from the soil. If cut at this time, the straw is better for fodder and other uses , the grain is fuller ; the husk lighter ; and the loss from shelling, which is frequently a great item when left too late, is avoided. Oats, when very tall, are most profitably cut with the sickle, and when lodged, with the scythe ; but when erect and of medium height, with the cradle, or an ap- proved reaping machine, which is by far the most speedy and economical ; and this leaves them in a suitable position for binding into sheaves. They may be stacked Uke wheat. The uses of oats are various, and differ materially in dif- ferent countries. In Scotland, Ireland and many other countries, oat meal is much used as human food; and lor this, the Imperial oat or some one of the heavy kinds is pre- ferred, as they afford a larger proportion of meal and less of ^ husk. Scotland draws no inconsiderable part of the support for her entire laboring population, from this meal. It is formed into small thin cakes and eaten with milk, butter or molasses, or it is mixed with water or milk and made into a kind of pudding, under the name of stirabout, a favorite dish, which is said to be palatable to those accustomed to it. They are but little used for human food in this country, and only by emigrants, who bring their early habits with them. They are prepared by kiln-drying and hulling, then grinding and bolting, when required to separate the flour. The meal is scalded before using, and mixed with about half its weight of wheat flour, when made into bread. It is sold by the apothecaries to invalids, for whom it is valuable, from 148 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. its light, digestible character. It is also stirred into water, making an excellent beverage for laborers in hot weather. The principal use of oats in the United States, is as food for working animals, for which they are unrivalled. Oats are sometimes used when ground for fattening cattle, sheep and swine ; but for this purpose, they are surpassed by corn, barley, peas or boiled potatoes. They are an excellent fod- der for stock sheep, and for them, are most economically fed in the straw. All stock will do well upon them, when har- vested early, and cut previous to feeding, in a suitable cut- ting box. Analysis. — Davy found in 1,000 parts of Scotch oats, 743 of soluble or nutritive matter, containing 641 of mucilage or starch, 15 saccharine matter, and 87 gluten or albumen. Those of England, gave 59 of starch, six of gluten, two of saccharine matter, and 33 of husk in 100 parts. INDIAN CORN, (Zea maize). This next to the grasses, is by far the most important crop of the United States. The quantity this country is capable of raising, would fail to command belief, even if fairly stated. Its capacity will never be fully known, till a demand from abroad shall stimulate production much beyond what it has ever per- manently realized heretofore. The census return for 1840, gave 387,- 000,000 bushels ; and for 1843, the estimate of the whole product of Indian corn in this country, was over 400,000,000 bushels. The effect of this immense production of a sta- ple article, is felt in every depart- ment of our agriculture; and is conclusively shown by the low pri- ces of beef, pork, mutton, human food, whiskey and high wines, to all of which, corn is made largely to contribute. Nearly all the beef and pork of the vast and fertile West, and much in the North and South is made from it. Corn seems to have been created for this western hemis- phere. It is raised in boundless luxuriance, from the frozen Fig. 37. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 149 regions of Canada, almost to the Straits of Magellan. It riots in the fierce blaze of our cloudless western sun, and it is here that it attains the highest perfection. Its most pro- lific area on this continent, lies between 42° North, and 38*^ South latitude, deducting a limited portion of the equa- torial regions. Close attention in its cultivation is necessar)^ when receding from these limits towards the poles, on ac- count of a deficiency of sun for ripening it. In such locali- ties, the smaller and earlier kinds should be planted on a warm soil, so as to mature before the first frosts. Varieties. — There is no one of the cereal grains or grasses, which manifests itself under such multiplied forms as maize. From the little shrubby stalk that grows on the shores of Lake Superior, to the palmetto-like corn of the Mexican val- leys ; and from the tiny ears and flattened, oiosely clinging grains of the former, the brilliant rounded little pearl, or the thickly-wedged rice corn, to the magnificently elongated, swelling ear of the Kentucky, with its deeply-indented gourd-seed, it is developed in every grade of sub-variety. The kernels are long, round or flat, or shriveled like the sweet ; and their color is white, yellow, blue, red or striated ; yet each contains the same principles of nutriment, combined in somewhat different proportions, and contributes for equal weights, nearly in the same ratio, to the support of man and the lower orders of the animal creation. The analysis of corn as given by Dr. Dana, is in 100 parts, of flesh-forming principles, (gluten and albumen) 12.60 ; fat forming, (gum, sugar, starch, oil, woody fibre,) 77.09 ; salts, 1.31 ; water 9. The yellow contains more oil or fatty mat- ter than the white, and therefore yields a stronger or richer, food. This quality gives greater intensity to the peculiari- ties of flaV'or ; and by those not accustomed to its use, it is' not relished so well as the white. This is shown by the preference given to the latter in England and Ireland, where it has been recently introduced as a staple article of food. The large proportion of oil in this grain, increases its tend- ency to rancidity, when exposed to a hot and moist climate, un- less previously prepared to resist this influence by kiln-drying. Besides the kinds in general cultivation in this country, varieties have been occasionally introduced from abroad, of a character so diff'erent, as almost to entitle them to the dis- tinction of independent species. Such are the Chinese tree corn, bearing its slender ears at the extremities of several expanded branches ; the Egyptian^ with its millet-like head ; 150 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. the Oregon, with its separate husk or envelope for every dis- tinct kernel. But if we narrowly watch the vagaries of nature, we shall detect deviations from the ordinary stand- ards of our domesticated varieties, which approximate so closely to the most fanciful of the exotics, that we are com- pelled to believe, that all those which have hitherto come within our notice, originated from one common head ; and that the peculiarities of every description, are owhig to the difference of soil, climate and culture, and the carefully- cherished eccentricities of nature, aided by a skillful science or well practiced art. It is needless to particularize the many popular kinds of corn under successful cultivation in this country. They are found to vary with almost every degree of latitude and longitude ; and there are not unfrequently, numerous kinds held in deservedly high estimation within a single district. From these, there will be no difficulty in selecting such as will best repay the farmer's attention. TJie Soil for Corn must be dry, rich and well-pulverized. Neither strong clay or poor wet lands will yield good crops of corn. Land can scarcely be too rich for it ; and the fresher and less fermented the manure applied to it, unless on light, sandy soils, the better it will be for the crop. A great error is committed in raising corn, as with most of our tillage crops, from not having the soil sufficiently enriched ; though this error is diminished in the case of such as will not bear an excess of manure. Com is a gross feeder, and necessarily ranges over a great space in search of food. It has a large amount of stalk, leaves and grain to provide for in a few weeks, and its increase will be commensurate with the supply of food. A clover ley or rich grass sod is an excellent preparation for corn, with the addition of manure when required. But the manure should always be scattered broadcast, plowed and well harrowed in. The roots will be certain to find it, and in consequence of its general diffusion and consequent gradual absorption by the crop, the development of the ear and grain will correspond with that of the stalk and leaves. When manured in the hill on poor soil, it comes forward rapidly, and this induces an extension of the roots and foliage, entirely disproportioned to the elements contained in the soil ; and finding a support wholly inadequate to a corres- ponding maturity, the crop is limited to the overgrown stalks and leaves and a small proportion of grain. The Selection of Seed should be made with the utmost GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 161 care, not only from the best varieties, but the best seed of the particular kind desired. Some of the choicest have been brought to their present perfection, by selecting only the earliest and largest ears from the most prolific stalks. This ought always to be done before the corn is gathered in the field, where there is an opportunity for comparison. Hybridizing Corn, like that of other grain, is easily ac- complished, and its results are marked and frequently bene- ficial. The probable identity in origin of all the varieties, is evinced by the rapid change exhibited in the most di- verse kinds when their locality is changed. The small, early corn of the North, becomes the tall, later-maturing corn of the South, after being cultivated for two or three seasons in Louisiana; and the Oregon, with every kernel safely encased in its separate calyx, in the climate of New York, soon exchanges this partial covering for the more com- prehensive husk. Similar changes are characteristic of every variety ever coming within our notice. Preparation of Seed. — Repeated experiments havfe de monstrated the great utility of steeping corn for one or two days before planting, in a solution of saltpetre. This accele- rates the growth of the plant, and is a protection against birds, squirrels and mice, and for a while it will keep off worms. An effectual remedy against these depredations, is to add half a pint of boiling tar to a peck of seed, stirring the corn briskly for several minutes, as the tar is added, till every ker- nel is thinly coated with it. This supersedes the necessity of the worse than absurd remedy of scare-crows. The crows and other birds are of great advantage to the farmer on all his fields, as they pick up numberless insects, grubs and worms, which infest the ground and destroy, or seriously in- jure the vegetation. Instead of driving them from the corn grounds, they should be enticed there, by every proper means ; and by rendering the grain distasteful, their appe- tites are sharpened for the worms and insects, the less con- spicuous, but more fatal enemies of the grain. Planting. — Corn may be planted in hills three to five feet asunder, leaving from three to five stalks well spread in each hill, according to the kind of seed and quality of land. Some plant in drills, but this is objectionable when raised for the grain, as the trouble of cultivation is greater, without increasing the yield. Thick 'planting gives fewer ears upon a stalk and those of less size. The time of planting at the North, is usually the first three weeks of May, depending 152 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. much on the setison. Late frosts will sometimes cut down the first leaves, without destroying the germ ; but it is al- ways best to defer planting till all apprehensions of it are removed. In the more southern States, earlier planting is desirable, and it is there put into the ground from February to April. To give regularity to the rows and facilitate after culture, the furrows for the seed should be struck out each way with the utmost exactness, and twice the corn planted that is necessary to remain. It requires to be covered about two inches deep. The surplus plants can be pulled up at the second hoeing, when all fear of injury is past. If the land is light, it should be laid flat before planting, and after this, rolled compactly. Planting machines have been recently invented for putting in this grain, which greatly diminish the labor, while they perform the operation more perfectly. A light horse, or mule and boy can furrow and drop the seed, cover and roll, from eight to twelve acres per day ; and with entire uni- formity as to distance, depth of covering, and quantity of seed in each hill. Cultivation. — The ground may be stirred when the plants first show themselves. This is most economically done with the cultivator or light plow, and if the operation be frequent and thorough, there will be little use for the hoe. Hilling or heaping the earth around the plants should al- ways be avoided, except with very heavy soils, or such as are liable to an excess of moisture ; in all other cases it should remain flat. Stirring the ground in dry weather, is peculiary beneficial to corn and all hoed crops. Some omit it^then from fear of the escape of moisture, but its effect is precisely the reverse, for nothing so certainly produces fria- bleness, porosity and unevenness in the soil ; and this we have shown, under the heads of soils and draining, facili- tates the admission and escape of heat, which inevitably secures the deposit of large quantities of moisture, even in the driest and most sultry weather. Corn and other crops that were withering from excessive drought, have been at once rescued from its effects, by a thorough use of the plow and cultivator. Well-drained, dark-colored, and rich porous soils will be found to suffer much less in drought, than others which lack these characteristics. Harvesting. — If there be no danger of early frost, the corn may be suflfered to stand till fully ripe ; though if the stalks are deigned for fodder, they are better to be cut when GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 153 the grain is well glazed, and this should be done in all cases where frost is expected. Scarcely any injury occurs either to the leaf or grain, if the corn be cut and stocked, when both would be seriously damaged from the same exposure it standing. The stalks of corn ought never to be cut above the ear, but always near the ground, and for this obvious reason. The sap which nourishes the grain, is drawn from the earth, and passing through the stem, enters the leaf, where a ► change is effected, analogous to what takes place in the blood when brought to the surface of the lungs, in the ani- mal system ; but with this peculiar difference, however, that while the blood gives out carbon and absorbs oxygen, plants, imder the influence of light and heat, give out oxygen and absorb carbon. This change prepares the sap for condensa- tion and conversion into the grain. But the leaves which thus digest the food for the grain are above it, and it is while passing downward, that the change of the sap into grain principally takes place. If the stalk be cut above ihh ear, nourishment is at an end. It may then become -firm and dry, but it will not increase in quantity ; while if cut near the root, it not only appropriates the sap already in the plant, but it also absorbs additional matter from the atmosphere, which contributes to its weight and perfection. Corn must be perfectly dried in the field, and after this, husked and carried into an airy loft, or stored in latticed or open barracks. The stalks may be housed, or carefully stacked for fodder. Many of our western farmers allow both grain and stalks to stand in the field till wanted for use, when they are fed in an adjoining enclosure. This is* a wasteful practice, and can only be justified by the. very low price of grain. Where labor is not relatively too high, it is better to grind or crush the corn and cob, and cut the stalk ; then mix all together, dampening and slightly salting the mixture some time before feeding it. Could a comprehen- sive machine be invented for grinding the whole mass of stalk, husk, cob and grain together, it would save much of the food, and the labor both in preparing and digesting it. When fodder is high, the stalks and leaves will repay the expense of cultivation. Preparation of Corn for a distant market requires that the grain be not only well cured, sound and dry, but that it be properly kiln-dried. This expels the moisture, and de- 7# 164 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. stroys that vitality, which impels it to absorb dampness when- ever, exposed to it, as a preliminary aid to germination ; thus carrying out that great law of reproduction, impressed by Deity on every organic structure, whether animal or vege- table, " whose seed is in itself." By the operation of kiln- drying, it becomes mere matter divested of mtality, and may then be carried into all climates with impunity. Corn for Soiling. — Corn has recently been much culti- vated for fodder, and for this purpose, the soil must be in high condition and well pulverized. It may be sown broadcast and harrowed in, at the rate of three or four bushels per acre. But a much better method is, to sow thickly in drills,- and stir the ground with a light plow or cultivator. The sowing may be done early or late, though the first is most success- ful. It should be cut before the frosts touch it, and dried previous to housing. Several tons of excellent forage have been raised in this way, from a single acre. In a report to the Pedee Agricultural Society of South- Carolina, it is as- serted, that 138,816 lbs. of green corn stalks have been cut from one, acre in a season, weighing when dry, 27,297 lbs. The Uses of Corn in this country are numerous. It is largely fed to fattening and working animals, but must be cautiously given to the latter, and especially in hot weather. It is extensively manufactured into high wines and whiskey, the consumption of which as a beverage, evinces a sad per- version of one of the best gifts of nature. . It is converted into oil, molasses and sugar to a very limited extent ; ahd is variously and largely applied to domestic uses. While green it is boiled or roasted in the ear ; or it is cut from the cob and cooked with the garden or kidney bean, which forms the Indian succotash. Wnen ripe, it is hulled in a weak ley, then boiled and known as hulled corn, a most convenient and acceptable dish in the frontier settlements, remote from mills ; or it is parched over a hot fire, affording a delicious lunch, and a convenient provision for hunters, as popped corn. Hominy or samp is a favorite dish, and consists of corn coarsely ground and boiled in water ; and hasty pud- ding differs from this, only in being made of fine meal. The meal may be compounded with milk and eggs into jonny- cakes, puddings, griddles and other delicacies, universally esteemed for the table ; and when scalded and mixed with the flour of wheat or rye, it imparts adaitional sweetness to bread, while it scarcely diminishes its proportionate nutritive properties. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 155 RIOE (Oryza sativa, Fia. 38). This grain probably contributes directly to the support of a larger number of the human family than any other plant. In China, and nearly the whole length of the southern part of Asia ; throughout the in- numerable and densely populated islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; in the south- ern part of Europe, and a large extent of Africa ; and through no inconsiderable por- tion of the North and South American con- tinent and its central islands, it is extensive- ly grown, and forms the staple food of the inhabitants. Rice requires a moist soil, and is much more productive when subject to in- undation. A hot sun is also necessary to mature it ; and as a result of these two es- sential conditions, its culture is limited to regions much more circumscribed than are Fia. 38. allotted to wheat, maize, or some of the usually cultivated plants. I subjoin, from an excellent article on r'we and its cultivation, addressed to the writer by Dr. Cartwright, a practical planter of Mississippi. Varieties of Rice. — " Of these there are many, but I am in- duced to believe that they are all essentially aquatic. All the varieties, yet discovered, flourish best under the inundation sys- tem of culture ; yield more to the acre, give less trouble, and re- quire less labor. But each variety grows well on light, mo^st uplands without irrigation, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. The product, however, is so much less than by the irri- gation system, and the labor of tillage so much more, that the upland producer never can compete successfully with the low- l^mder. The former may curtail his expenses by growing rice for domestic uses, but he cannot profitably, produce it for sale. Besides the teurfold labor which rice on upland requires in comparison with that cultivated by the irrigation system, it cannot be sown thick enough to make a large yield per acre. Space must be left for the plow or hoe to till the rice, which is not necessary in those localities where it can be overflowed at will, and the water drawn off as occasion may require. Cultivation of Lowland Rice. — The method pursued on the rice lands of the lower Mississippi, is to sow the rice 156 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. broadcast about as thick as wheat, and harrow it in with a light harrow having many teeth ; the ground being first well plowed and prepared by ditches and embankments for inunda- tion. It is generally sown in March, and immediately after sowing the water is let on, so as barely to overflow the ground. The water is withdrawn on the second, third, or fourth day, or as soon as the grain begins to swell. The rice very soon after comes up and grows finely. "When it has attained about three inches in height, the water is again let on, the top leaves being left a little above the water. Com- plete immersion would kill the plant. A fortnight previous to harvest, the water is drawn off to give the stalks strength, and to dry the ground for the convenience of the reapers. A different method is practiced in the northern part of Italy. The seed is sown in April, previously to w^hich it is soaked a day or two in water. After sowing, about two inches of water is let in upon the ground. The rice comes up through the water, which is then drawn off to give the plant strength, and after some days, is again let on. The rice is more apt to mildew under this practice, than our meth- od, of letting the water on about the time the Italians draw it off. The same measure of ground yields three times as much Rice as wheat. The only labor after sowing, is to see that the rice is properly irrigated ; except in some localities where aquatic plants prove troublesome, the water effectual- ly destroying all others. The rice grounds of the lower Mississippi produce about seventy-five dollars worth of rice per acre. The variety called the Creole white rice, is con- sidered to be the best. Cultivation of Upland Rice. — In the eastern part of the State of Mississipi, called the Piney woods, rice is very generally cultivated on the uplands. Although it cannot be made a profitable article of export, yet it affords the people of the interior an abundant supply of a healthy food for them- selves, and a good provender for their cattle, and makes them independent of the foreign market. Unlike other kinds of grain, it can be kept for many years in a warm climate, without spoiling, by winnowing it semi-annually, which prevents the weevil and a small black insect that sometimes attacks it. » It is cultivated entirely with the plow and harrow, and grows well on the pine barrens. A kind of shovel plow drawn by one horse, is driven through the unbroken GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 157 ' pine-forest ; not a tree being cut or belted, and no grubbing being necessary, as there is little or no undergrowth. The plow makes a shallow furrow about an inch or two deep, the furrows about three feet apart. The rice is dropped into them and covered with a harrow. The middles, or spaces be- tween the furrows, are not broken up until the rice attains several inches in height. One or two plowings suffice in the Piney woods for its cultivation — weeds and grass, owing to the nature of the soil, not being troublesome. A similar method of cultivation obtains on the prairie land of the north- western States. Rice, like hemp, does not impoverish the soil.* On the contrary, it is a good preparatory crop for some others, as Indian corn. The pine barrens of Missis- sipi would produce rice ad infinitum, if it were not that the land, after a few years, owing to the sandy nature of the soil, becomes too dry for it. It has been ascertained by Arnal, that twelve pounds of wheat flour and two pounds of rice will make twenty-four pounds of an excellent bread, very white and good ; whereas, without the addition of rice, 14 pounds of flour will only make 18 pounds of bread. Like other kinds of grain, rice adapts itself to the soil and climate, and particular mode of cultivation ; but if the seed be not changed, or selected from the best specimens of the plant, it will ultimately degene- rate. Thus in Piedmont, after a long series of years, the rice became so much affected with a kind of blight called the hrusone, as to compel the Piedmontese to import fresh seed in 1829, from South Carolina. The American rice intro- duced into Piedmont, escaped the brusone, but it was seve- ral years before it adapted itself to the soil and climate. Some years ago, a traveller, finding rice growing in great perfection on the mountains and highlands of Asia, particu- • If this remark be limited to the lowland rice, we fully agree with it ; as the water and the materials it holds, either in suspension or solution, and to which it is exposed through so long a period of its growth, afford the greater part of the nutritive matter appropriated by the plant. But if applied to upland rice, we must dissent in toto ; for the rich, life-sustaining principles of this grain, draw largely on the soils where water is not present ; for like the white grains, the wheat, oats, and barley, its narrow, grass-like leaves do not draw much from the atmosphere. The intelligent writer indirectly concedes this in the following sentence but one. The soil becomes too dry for it, simply because it ft exhausted of those vital, fertilizing principles, the salts and carbonaceous matters, which help to sustain the re- quisite moisture in the soil, and which is one of the beneficial results | of their presence in it. 158 A^rERTCAN AGRICULTURE. larly Cochin China, named it riz sec or dry rice, and sent the seed to Europe, where many experiments were made with it. It yielded no better than any other kind of rice, and was found Uke all others to succeed best when inundated. The reason why it yielded so much more in Asia than in Europe can be readily accounted for, by the natural inundations it receives from the excessive rains during the monsoons. No variety has been discovered which yields as much out of the water as it does in it. There are many localities in the United States, where the culture of rice by the irriga- ting system, would rather serve to make the surrounding neighborhoods healthy instead of sickly. It is generally ad- mitted, that a given surface of ground completely inundated, is much less unhealthy than the same surface partially in- undated, or in transitu between the wet and the dry state. Hence mill-ponds which partially dry up in the summer, are fruitful sources of disease. Some of the best rice is said to grow on the bottom of mill-ponds. Nothing more is ne- cessary, than to make the bottom perfectly level, and then to overflow the whole surface just deep enough to keep the top leaves above water. As if to show that unhealthi- ness is not necessarily connected with the culture of this valuable grain, nature has imposed a law upon it, ordering that it should flourish better when overflowed with pure running water than with the stagnant waters of impure lakes and marshes. There are two kinds of rice, which are said to succeed best on uplands, the long and the round. The former has a red chaff", and is very difficult to beat. The latter shakes out, if not cut as soon as ripe. They nevertheless succeed best under the inundation system of culture. In the eastern hemisphere, rice is cultivated as far North as the 46th degree of latitude. The climate of the United States is better suit- ed to it than that of Europe, because our summers are hotter. In the northern part of China, the variety called the imperial rice, or riz sec de la Chine (the oriza sativa mutica), is more precocious than any other, is said to yield a heavy harvest, and to constitute the principal food for the people of that populous region. But it has succeeded no better in Europe than any other kind of rice. The best rice lands of South Carolina are valued at five hundred dollars per acre, while the best cotton lands sell for a tenth part of that sum, proving that rice is more profitable than cotton. The profits of a crop should not so much be es- GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 159 timated by the yield per acre, as the number cf acres a labor- er can till. After the land is properly prepared for inunda- tion, by levelling, ditching, and embankments, a single indi- vidual can grow almost an indefinite quantity of rice. Rice is no doubt ultimately destined to supersede cotton in a large portion of Mississippi and Louisiana." The varieties of Rice most grown in South Carolina and Georgia, which have hitherto been the greatest rice-produc- ing States of the Union, are the Gold-seed rice, the Guinea^ the Common White, and the White-bearded. There are several other varieties, but generally inferior to the foregoing. The best are produced by careful cultivation on soils suited to this grain, and by a careful selection of seed. In 1839, South Carolina produced over 66,000,000 lbs.; Georgia, 13,400,000 ; Louisiana, 3,765,000 ; and North Caro- lina, 3,324,000, no other State producing one million pounds. Rice will keep for years uninjured, if allowed to remain in the chaff or husk as it is gathered, in which condition it is called paddy. From the immense extent of our lowlands throughout the delta of the Mississippi, which, if subjected to the wet tillage of rice, may be considered of inexhaustible fertility, we may expect at some future day, to surpass every other portion of the globe in the quantity, as we now do in ^he quality of our rice. MILLET (Panicum milliaceum). This is the species of millet usually grown in the United States. In its form and the manner of bearing its seeds, the millet strongly resembles a miniature broom corn. It grows to the height of two to four feet, with a profusion of stalks, heads and leaves, which furnish excellent forage for cattle. From 60 to 80 bushels of seed per acre have been raised, and with straw equivalent to one or two tons of hay ; but an average crop may be estimated at about one third of this quantity. Owing to the great waste during the ripening of the seed, from the shelhng of the earliest of it before the last is matured, and the frequent depredations of birds which are very fond of it, millet is more profitably cut when the first seeds have begun to ripen, and then harvest- ed for fodder. It is cured like hay, and on the best lands yields from two to four tons per acre. All cattle relish it, and experience has shown it to be fully equal to good hay. Cultivation. — Millet requires a dry, rich, and well pul- verized soil. It will grow on thin soil, but best repays on 160 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. the most fertile. It should be sown broadcast or in drills from the 1st of May to 1st of July. If for hay and sown broadcast, 40 quarts per acre will be required ; if sown in drills for the grain, eight quarts of seed will suf- fice. It will ripen in 60 to 75 days with favorable weather. "When de- signed for fodder, the nearer it can approach to ripening, without waste in harvesting, the more valuable will be the crop. Indian or Grand Millet (Sor- ghum vulgare, Fig. 38). — This mil- let is much cultivated in Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia, the West Indies, and elsewhere. It grows from four to six feet high, affording a large quan- tity of forage, and much seed or giain, which is known as Guinea corn. This is ground into flour and used by the laborers where grown. It is also an economical food for cat- tle, swine, and fowls. It is not raii-ed to any extent in the United States, but might be advantageously introduced into the southern States. "Buck- Wheat, or Beech- Wheat (PolT/gonum fagopyrum, Fig. 39), is a grain much cultivated in this country. It grows freely on light soils, but yields a remunerating crop only on those which are fertile. Fresh manure is partic- ularly injurious to this grain. Sandy loams are its favorite soils, especially such as have lain long in pasture, and these should be well plowed and harrowed. It may be sown from the 1st of May to the 10th of August, but in the northern States, this ought to be done as early as June or July, or it may be injured by early frosts, which a«e fatal to it. It is sown broadcast, at the rate of three to six pecks per acre, and harvested when the earliest seed is fully ripe. The plant often continues flowering after this, and when the Fio. 38. Fia. 39. GRAIN AND ITS CULTIVATION. 161 early seed is blighted, as is often the case, the plant may be left till these last have matured. As it is liable to heat, it should be placed in small stacks of two or three tons each, but it is better to thresh out the grain at once. If not perfectly dry, the straw may be stacked with layers of other straw, and when well cured, it will be a valuable fodder for cattle. Sheep will feed and thrive as well on this straw as on good hay. tises. — This grain is ground and bolted and the flour is much used for human food. Before grinding, the hull or outer covering should be removed. When thus prepared, the flour is as white and delicate in appearance as the best rye, it is equally light and digestible, and is scarcely inferior to wheat in its nutritive properties. The grain is used for fattening swine, but is most profitable when mixed with corn. Poultry thrive upon it. Buckwheat was formerly employed as a fertilizer, but for this object it is inferior to the clovers, in all cases where the soil is capa- ble of sustaining them. Its rapid growth will insure the maturing and turning under •of two crops in one season. There are other varieties than the one specified, but none of equal value for general cultivation in this country. Canary Grass {Fhalaris canariensis. Fig. 40). — This, like the millet, is an annual, and is used like many other species of the family of grasses, both for the seed and forage. Its chief use, however, is as a food for the canary, and other feathered pets. It is sown quite early in the season, in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart, at the rate of two or three pecks per acre, in a rich, well-pulverized loam ; lightly covered, and kept clear of weeds by the cultivator and lioe. It is cut when fully ripe, and allowed to remain for some time ex- posed to the dews or rain, to loosen the chaff, which otherwise is very difficult of removal. Fio. 40. 162 AMERICAN AGHICULTURE. CHAPTER VIII LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. THE PEA (Fisiim Bativum). The pea, bean, tare or vetch, lupine, the clovers, and some other plants, are all embraced in the botanical order LeguminoscB. The pea is valuable for cultivation, not only for the table, but for many of the domestic animals. It is largely fed to swine, sheep and poultry. For the former, it should be soaked, boiled or ground. If land is adapted to it, few crops can be more profitably raised for their use. It ripens early, and when beginning to harden, they may be fed with the vines, and the animals will masticate the whole, and fatten rapidly. The Soil. — The heaviest clays will bear good peas, but a calcareous or wheat soil is better. Strong lands produce the best crops, but these should be made so by manures pre- viously applied, as the addition of such as are fresh, increases the growth of haulm or straw, and sometimes diminishes both the quantity and quality of the pea. When sown on a poor sward, the manure should be spread before plowing. A dressing of well-rotted manure increases the crop, and is a good preparation when intended to be followed by wheat. Varieties. — Of these there are many. The earlier kinds are generally indifferent bearers, and their cultivation is limited almost exclusively to the garden. Of those for field culture, the marrow-fat are among the richest of the peas, and they are preferred for good lands. The small yellow are perhaps the best for poorer soils. There is a very pro- lific bush-pea grown in Georgia, bearing pods six or seven inches long, which hang in clusters, on a short upright stem. The pods are filled with a white pea, which is highly es- teemed for the table, either green or dry. In that latitude, they bear two or three crops in one season. Cultivation, — Peas should have a clean fallow or fresh, rich sod, well harrowed. They are not affected by frosts, and may be sown as soon as the ground is dry. This will enable them to ripen in season to plow for wheat. They LEGUMINOUS PLANTS, 163 are very liable to attack from the pea-bug, which deposits its egg in the pea while in its green state, where it hatches ; and the worm, by feeding on the pea, diminishes its weight nearly one half. Here it remains through the winter, and comes out as a bug the following season. To avoid this pest, some sow only such seed as has been kept over two years, while others sow as late as the 15th to the 25th of May, which delays the pea till after the period of its attacks, but this latter prac- tice seldom gives a large crop. It may be killed by pouring boiling water upon the seed, stirring for a few minutes, and then draining it off. Peas are sometimes sown in drills, but most usually broadcast, at the rate of two or three bushels per acre. It is better to plow them in, to the depth of three inches, and afterwards roll the ground smooth, to facilitate gathering. When sown in drills, they maybe worked by the cultivator, soon after coming up. The growth is pro- moted by steeping the seed for twenty or thirty hours in urine, and then rolling in ashes or plaster. Harvesting is accomplished by cutting with the sickle or scythe, or what is more expeditious, when fully ripe so that the roots pull easily, with the horse rake. When thus gathered into heaps and dried, they may be threshed, and the haulm carefully stacked for sheep fodder. If this is se- cured in good condition, cattle and sheep will thrive upon it. Peas are frequently sown with oats, and when thus grown, they may be fed to sheep or horses as harvested or threshed, or made into meal for swine. The Cow or Indian Pea, frequently called the Stock Pea. The Southern Bean would be a more appropriate name for it, as it is grown exclusively in the southern States. It is a desirable crop, either as a fertilizer, or as food for domestic animals. Its long vines and succulent leaves, which draw much of their substance from the air, and its rapid and lux- uriant growth, particularly adapt it to the first object ; while its numerous and well-filled pods, and its great redundancy of stem and leaf, afford large quantities of forage. This is improved for cattle, when harvested before the seed is fully ripe. It is sown broadcast, in drills, or hoed in among corn, when the latter is laid by for the season. If in drills, it may be cultivated in its early stages by the plow, shovel-harrow, or cultivator. It can be cut with the scythe, or drawn to- gether with a heavy iron-toothed harrow, or horse rake, as with the common pea. It requires a dry, mellow soil, and is well suited to clays. 164 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. THE BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris). The bean is often a field crop in this country, and espe cially in the northern and middle States. It is principally used for the table, either green or dry. It is a palatable and highly condensed food, containing much in a small compass. In proportion to its weight, it gives moYe nutriment than any of the ordinary vegetables ; according to Einhof, yield- ing 84 per cent, of nutritive matter, while wheat gives only 74. It has, in common with the pea and vetch, though in a greater proportion, a peculiar principle, termed legumin, which is analogous to casein, the animal principle in milk. This is convertible into cheese, and in its nutritive proper- ties, it is essentially the same as the fibrin of lean meat, the aXhunien of eggs, and other animal matters. There is no vegetable we produce, which so nearly supplies the place of animal food, as the bean. Soil. — The bean is partial to a quick, dry soil. Too great strength of soil, or fresh manuring, gives a large quantity of vine, without a corresponding quantity of fruit. Ctdtivation. — The land should be finely pulverized, and if at all inclined to wet, it should be ridged. Beans are tender plants and will not bear the slightest frost, and as they grow rapidly, they will be sure to ripen, if planted when this is no longer to be apprehended. The seed is exposed to rot if put into the ground in cold, wet weather, and the land should, therefore, be previously well warmed by the sun. The bush beans are the only kind used for field planting, and of these there are several sub-varieties. The long gar- den beans, white, red or mottled, are great bearers, of fine quality, and early in maturing. This is important, when other crops are to succeed the same season. They are usu- ally planted in hills, about two feet apart, and also in drills, and covered with two inches of -fine earth. They have been sown broadcast, on clean, dry soils, and produced largely. When planted in drills, from fiije to eight plants should be left in each, according to their proximity ; or if in drills, they need from six to eight pecks of seed to the acre. Harvestihg. — When the beans are fully formed, and there is danger of frost, pull and throw them into heaps, in which condition the frost scarcely affects them. If the ground is not wanted for other uses, they may stand till the latest pods assume a yellow color. They are pulled with ease when the plant is mature, as the fibres of the root are LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 165 by that time dead. This is more quickly accomplished with an iron hook-rake, or if the stalks are partially green, they can be mown. If the vines are not dry, let them remain for a while in small heaps, and afterwards collect in larger piles, aromid stakes set at convenient distances, with the roots in the centre and secured at the top by a wisp of straw. When well dried, thresh, clean and spread them till they are quite free from dampness. Uses for Farm stock. — The straw or haulm is an excel- lent fodder for sheep, and it ought always to be stacked for their use. Sheep are the only animals which eat them raw ; and for them, no species of grain is better suited than the bean, when fed in moderate quantities. Swine, cattle and poultry, will thrive on them when boiled. Sixty bushels have been raised on an acre, worth from one to two, dollars per bushel. THE ENGLISH FIELD BEAN (Vicia faba). Is cultivated under many varieties in Europe, and partic- ularly in Great Britain, as a field crop for the use of horses and other animals. Among these are the Windsor, the tick^ the long pods and others. , Arthur Young prefers " the common little horse-bean as being more generally marketa- ble." I have raised several of these varieties, and although entirely successful, have found them less adapted to our cli- mate and agriculture, than the ordinary crops. They prefer a strong clay, or loamy clay soils. THE TARE, VETOH OR FITCH (V. sativa, Fig. 41). Of this there are tw^o kinds, the winter and the spring, both of which are hardy and productive. It is deemed an important crop in Europe, where it is much cultiva- ted for green fodder or soiling, and freguently it is used as pasturage, or cut and cured for hay. It is par- tial to clay, but grows indifferently on any rich soil which is not too dry. It is sown broadcast or in drills, but generally the former, on well-pulverized lands, and covered with the harrow, demanding no after attention except the exter- mination of weeds. Tares have Fr«. 41. 166 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. hitherto been little grown in this country, but in certain soils and situations, they may be introduced as a substitute for clover, where, from any cause, the latter does not grow successfully. All domestic stock are fond of them. rSE PINDAR, GROUND PEA, OR PEA-NUT (Arachis hypogoea). This is a legumen and is cultivated with profit in the south- ern States, on light, loamy or sandy lands, where it yields from 30 to 60, or even 80 bushels per acre, besides furnish- ing much haulm for forage. It is planted in hills, or sown in drills four to five feet apart, and worked with a light plow or cultivator, immediately after the plants show themselves above ground. They soon overspread the whole surface. When properly matured, the roots are loosened by a fork and pulled up by hand, and after curing, are put under cover for winter's use. They contain a large quantity of oil of a superior quality and flavor, which is suitable for the table and various purposes in the arts. The peat-nut is in high repute for its fattening qualities, when fed to stock. Swine are particularly partial to them ; and if allowed to run on a field containing both them and corn, they will remain among the pea-nuts till entirely ex- hausted, resorting to the grain occasionally, for a change of food. They can lie in the ground all winter, uninjured by frosts or rains. They are much used for human food, after drying and baking. THE WHITE LUPINE (Lupinus albua, Fig. 42). This plant is sometimes raised in southern Europe, where the seed is used as human food. It was cultivated by the Romans, and others among the ancients, for the same purpose. It is frequently used as a forage plant, for which purpose the -^hole plant is cut and fed green, or cured as hay. It is sometimes made use of as a fertili- zer, for which it is well adapted. It requires a similar soil and culti- vation with the pea. Via 43. ROOTS. 1G7 CHAPTER IX ROOTS. THE POTATO, (Solanum tuberosum). The potato is a native of the American Continent. It is found in a wild state both in Buenos Ayres and Chih, and was probably discovered in the same condition by the early settlers of North America. It was supposed to have been taken into Spain and Italy, early in the 16th century, by Spanish adventurers, as it was cultivated in those countries in 1550. In 1588, it was introduced into Vienna from Italy ; and also into England, probably as early as 1586, by the colonists of Virginia, who were sent out by Sir Walter Ra- leigh. On its first introduction into Europe, it was con- sidered a delicacy ; and it is not until within a comparatively recent period, that it has found its way into both conti- nents as an article of agricultural attention, and an almost indispensable food for man and beast. Yarieties. — These are almost illimitable. In form they are round, oblong, flat and curved or kidney-shaped ; they vary in size from the delicate lady-finger to the gigantic blue-nose ; their exterior is rough or polished, and of nearly every hue, white, yellow, red, and almost black ; and the surface is sometimes smooth and even, with the eye scarcely discernible ; or deeply indented with innumerable sunken eyes, like the Rohan and Merino. The interior is equally diversified in color ; and is mealy, glutinous or watery ; sometimes pleasant and sometimes disagreeable to the taste. They likewise diff'er in ripening earlier or later, and in being adapted in some of their varieties to almost every peculiarity of soil. Neiv kinds are produced at pleasure, by planting the seed found in the balls. The tubers obtained in this way, are small the first season, but with careful culture, will be large enough the second year to determine their quality, when the best may be selected for propagation. The earliest are easily designated by the premature decay of the tops. The varieties may also be increased from the seed by 168 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. hybridizing, or impregnating the pistils of one flower by the pollen from another ; and in this way, some of the best and most valuable kinds have been procured. Such as have no flowers are more productive of tubers, as there is no expendi- ture of vitality in forming the seed. They may be compelled to flower, by removing the small tubers from the roots as they form. The best Soil for Potatoes is a rich loam, neither too wet nor too dry. Cool and moist soils, like those of Maine, Nova Scotia and Ireland, and especially, if in rich, fresh sod, give the best flavored potatoes, and such as are the least liable to disease. A calcareous soil yields good potatoes, and generally sure crops, and where there is little lime in the soil, it should be added. Ashes, salt and gypsum are excel- lent manures, and in certain instances, have astonishingly increased the product. Crushed bones also greatly improve a potato soil. Fresh manures will often aff'ect the t&ste of the potato unpleasantly, and when necessary to apply them, they should be scattered broadcast and plowed in. Select such seed as experience has decided is best adapted to the soil, and the use for which they are to be appropriated. Some are careful to cultivate the most^ealy for the table, and plant those which give the greatest yield for their cat- tle. This is sometimes mistaken policy, as what are best for man, are generally best for cattle ; and although the farmer may get a much greater weight and bulk, on a given quantity of land of one kind, these may yield a less quantity of fat and flesh-forming materials, than those afforded by a smaller quant,ity of some other variety. Experiment has shown, that of " three varieties grown in Scotland, in 1842, the cups gave 13^ tons per acre, containing 2 -^^ tons of starch; the red dons yielded 144, tons and ly\ of starch; the white dons, 18^ tons, and 2,^ of starch, and the kidney has even given as much as 32 per cent, of starch." — (Johnston.) There is also a difference in the relative proportions of gluten. The potato contains in its new and ripe state, about 2\ per cent., which diminishes by long keeping. It is im- portant for this, as for an indefinite number of other practical matters, to have agricultural laboratories of unquestionable reliability, where the errors of superficial observation may be detected ; and where the real superiority of one product over another, and their variations induced by soils, manures and treatment, may be established beyond the possibility of a doubt. ROOTS. 169 Planting. — To produce abundantly, potatoes require a fertile soil, and if not already sufficiently rich, spread manure on the surface before plowing. If a tough sod, plow the preceding fall ; or if friable, it may be done just before plant- ing ; but in all cases, the land must be put in such condition as to be perfectly loose and mellow. Hills are the most con- venient for tillage, as they admit of more thorough stirring of the ground with the cultivator or plow. Medium size, uncut potatoes have been ascertained, from numerous experiments, to be the best for planting, but when seed is scarce, it is sometimes economical to divide them. Two potatoes should be placed in each hill ; or if in drills, they should be planted singly, ten inches apart. The distance both of hills and drills must depend on the strength of the soil and the size of the tops, some varieties growing much larger than others. Cover with light mold to the depth of four or six inches, and if the soil be light, leave the ground perfectly level ; if cold, heavy or moist, let the hill be raised when finished. Subsoil plowing is of great benefit to potatoes, as to most other crops, whenever the soil will justify its use. The sets cut from the seed-end, give a much earlier crop than those from the root. Cultivation, — When the shoots first appear above the ground, run the plow through them and throw the earth well to the plants ; and no injury results, if the tops are par- tially, or even entirely covered. The hoe is scarcely required, except to destroy such weeds as may have escaped the plow. The ground should be several times stirred before the tops interfere with the operation, but never after they come into blossom. Very large crops have been produced by top- dressing with compost, or well-rotted chip manure, soon after the plants make their appearance. This is carried to the field and spread from a light, one horse cart, the wheels passing between the rows ; but the same results would pro- bably be attained, by placing the land in the best condition before planting, if followed by the nicest cultivation after- wards. There is some gain to the crop, when the buds are plucked before they come into blossom. Harvesting and Storing should not be commenced until the tops are mostly dead, as the tuber has not arrived at full maturity before this time. They may then be thrown out of the hills by a double mold-board plow, or by a potato hook, or some other hand implement. They ought not to be exposed to the sun for any length of time, but may dry on 8 170 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. the surface in a cloudy day, or be gathered mto small heaps, with some of the tops spread over them, until freed from the surface moisture, when they may be stored. Those selected for seed, should be placed in small piles in the field ; or in thin layers in a cool, dry place in the cellar, where the air is ex- cluded and no heating or injury can occur. Those intended for winter consumption, may be put in dry bins or barrels in the store-room, and covered with straw and dry sand, or loose earth, to prevent the circulation of air. Such as are not wanted till the following spring, may be kept on the field, if there be not sufficient room in the cellars. It is better when thus stored, that they occupy an excavation on the north side of a hill, in a porous soil. If shaded by trees, it will lend to shield them longer from the heat of the sun, and they may thus be kept till June, before opening. They are gen- erally stored in the level field, in an excavation one or two feet deep, four or five wide, and of- any length required. They are piled as high as they can be conveniently ridged up, then covered with straw, carefully placed over them like shingles on a house, and covered Ughtly with earth till the severe frosts, when they should be adequately covered to protect them from rains and frost during winter. A partial heating and sweating take place soon after storing, and till this is complete, a loose covering of straw is all they re- quire. A ditch lower than the base must encircle the heap when the soil consists of clay, from which an outlet conducts away all the water, as any left upon them will inevitably produce decay. Diseases. — The potato has long been subject to the curl. From numerous experiments made in Scotland to avoid this disease, it has been found, that seed from potatoes which were gathered before fully ripe, gave a much better and surer crop. It would be well to try the experiment in this country, where there is any deficiency of product from want of full and healthy development. Potatoes are also affected by the scab and grub, against whose attacks there is no remedy, unless in a change of seed and locality. The rot has for several years produced serious and in creasing injury to the potato crop, threatening starvation iii Ireland, and causing great loss and suffering in several othei comitries in Europe. Its effects have also been extensively felt in the United States. Numerous and scientific examina- tions have been made on the subject. The proximate cause «s supposed to be a fungus, but what are the reasons for its ROOTS. 171 late rapid extension, and the remedy for its ravages, have not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. Preventives of Rot. — Under the following circumstances rot has not appeared, when adjoining fields have been nearly de- stroyed by it. 1. By nsing unripe seed, or seed which has been exposed to the sun, light and air, and well dried for ten days after digging, and afterwards stored in a dry place in small parcels, where air. is excluded till the moment of plant- ing. 2. By the use of lime, some of which is placed in the hill and the potatoes dusted with it, and also from the use of charcoal and salt, gypsum or other salts. 3, By the absence of fresh barn-yard manure, or if used, by adding largely of lime or saline manures. 4. The use of fresh sod, which has long been untilled. This has been found more efficacious than any other preventive, although it has occasionally failed. The sod niay be plowed in the fall, or left till late in May or early in June, when it has a good coating of grass; then turn over the ground and furrow it lightly, to receive the seed without disturbing the sod. Or they may be planted by using a sharpened stake three inches in diameter, with a pin or shoulder ten inches from the bottom, on which the foot may be placed for sinking the holes. These should be made be- tween the furrow slices at the proper distance for drills, and a single potato placed in each, which may be covered with the heel. 5. Sound, early varieties, early planted, have also escaped. I have thus secured a good yield, almost wholly free from disease ; and even those affected did not appear to communicate disease to others. It has also been found that some very late planted have escaped rot ; and if it be an epi- demic, it may be, that both by early and late planting, the peculiar stage of vegetation when the fungus appears, is in a great measure avoided. But the investigations on this impor- tant subject are still in their infancy, and nothing has thus far been ascertained, which can be justly considered as hav- ing determined principles of universal application ; yet it is to be hoped that the zeal, intelligence and general interest which are now combined for this object, will ere long de- tect, what has hitherto evaded the severest scrutiny of scien- tific research. Arresting the disease has in some instances been successful, by mowi^s: off the tops when they are found defective. This practice would be injurious to healthy plants, but may be adopted, like that of cutting grain when struck by rust, if it will secure even a part of the crop. When disease appears 172 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. in suoh as are dug, they should be carefully sorted and the sound ones well dried, then placed separately in layers and covered with ashes, burnt clay, or fine dry mold. These act as absorbents of moisture, and prevent contagion from such as may be imperceptibly affected. They may also be cut in slices and dried, or crushed and the farinaceous part ex- tracted. By this means the potato will be made to yield nearly all its nutriment. It is found that this disease affects the tissues (the nitrogenized or albumenous part) of the potato only ; and for this reason, potatoes which have not been too long or too deeply injured, will yield nearly their full amount of fat for animals or starch for the manufacturer. Uses. — Besides being an almost indispensable vegetable for the table, potatoes are boiled and mixed with flour or bread, to which they impart a desirable moisture and an agreeable flavor. They are sliced, dried and ground, and much used in Europe as flour, and by the confectioners in their various products. They are also manufactured into tapioca, and when nicely prepared, it is scarcely distinguisha- ble from that of the manioc. In all of these and some other forms, they enter into consumption as human food. They are also used in large quantities by the manufac- turers of starch; to some extent for distilling; and in a less degree for making sugar. The refuse of the pulp, after extracting the starch and the liquor drained from it, are used for cleansing woolens and silks, which they effect with- out injury to the color. But by far the greatest use of pota- toes in this country, is for stock-feeding. They are eaten with avidity by all the brute creation, either cooked or raw. For cattle and sheep, they are equally nutritious in either condition. For horses, they are improved by steaming or baking. Swine and most poultry will subsist on them raw, but will fatten on them only when cooked. Their good ef- fects are much enhanced by mixing with meal when they are hot, which partially cooks it. THE SWEET POTATO (Oonvolvidas batatas, Fig. 42) Is a root of very general growth, in the southern, and it is much cultivated in the middle sections of the United States. It is scarcely surpassed by any esculent for the table, and it is greadily eaten, and with great advantage, by every species of stock. Soil. — A dry, loamy soil, inclining to sand, is best for them; and this should be well manured with compost scatter- ed broadcast, before working the ground, and thoroughly pul- ROOTS. 173 verized by repeated plowing and harrowing. It should then be thrown into beds four feet wide with the plow, and in the centre of these, strike a light furrow to receive the seed, if the soil is dry, or plant it on the surface, if moist. The use of a subsoil plow in the beds before being thrown up, is of great benefit to the plant. Cultivation. — When the season is sufficiently long to mature them, the potato may be most conveniently planted, by cutting the seed into slips, and laying them six or eight inches apart in the place where they are to mature. Large potatoes divided into pieces of a proper size, are better for seed than small ones uncut. These should be covered about two inches with light mold. When they begin to sprout, the plow may be run close to the rows on either side, to remove the earth and allow the full benefit of the sun and air to the roots.^and as the plant advances in its growth, the earth may be gradually restored to them by the plow and hoe. Where the vines are so large as to be injured by the plow, the hoe alone should be used. The hill or drills may then be made broadly around the plants, hollowing towards them, to afford a full bed of rich, mellow earth, and to retain the rain which falls. They are fit for gathering when the vines are dead. When the season is short or early potatoes are wanted, plapi 174 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. on a hot bed, made of warm manure, with a covering' of four inches of fine mold. After splitting the potatoes, place them on this and cover with three inches of light earth. As the sprouts appear, draw and transplant them after a rain, in the same manner as before suggested with the roots. When early vegetated, a bushel of seed will, in this manner, supply- plants for an acre. The preservation of the Sweet Potato through the winter is often difficult. A careful seclusion from air and light, and the absence of frost and absolute dryness seem to be essential to their preservation. They are frequently kept, by piling in heaps on dry earth, which are still more secure with a layer beneath of corn stalks or dry pine boughs, six or eight inches deep. On this, pack the roots in piles six feet in diameter. Cover with corn stalks and dry earth, and protect this with a roof of boards, and a ditch deep enough to carry off all water. There must be a hole at the top, slight- ly stopped with straw, to permit the escape of heated air, and to preserve uniformity of temperature. There are numerous varieties of the sweet potato, white, red, yellow, &c. They yield from 200 to 300 bushels per acre, and under favorable circumstances, sometimes double this quantity. THE TURNEP (Brassica rapa). The flat English Turnep was introduced into this country with our English ancestry, and has ever since been an object of cultivation. When boiled, it is an agreeable vegetable for the table. Its principal value, however, is as a food for cattle and sheep, by which it is eaten uncooked. Its comparitive nutritive properties are small ; but the great bulk which can be raised on a given piece of ground, and the fa- cility and economy of its cultivation, have always rendered it a favorite with such farmers, as have soil and stock adapted to its profitable production and use. The proper soil for it is a fertile sand or well-drained loam. Any soil adapted to Indian corn will produce good turneps. But it is only on new land, or freshly-turned sod, that they are most successful. An unfilled, virgin earth, with the rich dress- ing of ashes left after the recent burning of accumulated vege- table matter, and free from weeds and insects, is the surest and most productive for a turnep crop. Such land needs no manure. For a sward ground, or clover ley, there should be a heavy dressing of fresh, unfermented manure, before plowing. ROOTS. 175 Cultivation. — Turneps are sown from the 15th of June to the 1st of August. The first give a greater yield ; the last, generally a sounder root, and capable of longer preservation. The ground should be plowed and harrowed immediately be- fore sowing, as the moisture of the freshly-turned earth in- sures rapid germination of the seed, which is of great import- ance to get the plants beyond the reach of insects as soon as possible. They may be sown broadcast, at the rate of one or two pounds per acre, and lightly harrowed, or brushed and rolled ; or it is better that the seed be sown in drills, when a less quantity will suffice. A turnep drill will speedily ac- complish the furrowing, sowing, covering and rolling at a single operation. The crop will be materially assisted by a top dressing of lime, ashes, and plaster, at the rate of fifteen or 20 bushels of the first two, and one and a half to three bushels of the last per acre. When the plants show them- selves and the leaves are partially expanded, the cultivator or hoe may be freely used, stirring the ground well, and ex- terminating all weeds. Ruta-Baga or Swedes Turnep. — The introduction of this is comparatively recent, and it proves to be more worthy of attention than the English or white turnep. It will grow in a heavier soil, yield as well, give a richer root, and it has the great advantage of keeping longer in good condi- tion ; thus prolonging the winter food of cattle when they most need it. Cultivation. — It is usually planted after wheat or corn ; but if a virgin soil or old pasture sward is chosen, it will materially lessen its liability to insects and other enemies. It is generally sown in drills, about two feet apart ; and on heavy lands, these shoula be slightly ridged. The plants must be successively thinned, to prevent interfering with such as are intended to mature, but enough should remain to pro- vide for casualties. Where there is a deficiency, they may be supplied by transplanting during showery weather. They should be left six or eight inches apart in the drills. The Swede turnep is a gross feeder, and requires either a rich soil or heavy manuring ; though the use of fresh ma- nures, has been supposed to facilitate the multiplication of enemies. Bones, ground and drilled in with the seed, or a dressing of lime, ashes, gypsupi and salt, are the best applica- tions that can be made. The Swede should be sown from the 20th May to the 16th June, and earlier than the Enghsh turnep, as it takes longer to mature ; and two or three weeks 176 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. more of growth, frequently adds largely to the product. An early sowing also gives time to plant for another crop in case of failure of the first. JEnemies. — The turnep" is exposed to numerous depreda- tors, of which the turnep flea-beetle is the most inveterate. It attacks the plant as soon as the first leaves expand, and often destroys two or three successive sowings. The black caterpillar, slugs, wire-worms, and numerous other insects, grubs and aphides prey upon and greatly diminish the crop. Remedies have been tried to an almost indefinite extent, but none hitherto, with more than very partial success. Liberal sowing and rapid growth best insure the plant from injury ; and to efl"ect this, the seed should be plentifully sown in a rich soil, and if possible, when the ground is moist. Before sowing, the seed should be steeped in some prepara- tion, which experience has shown will the most quickly de- velop the germ. Solutions of the nitrates or sulphates, urine, soot-water, liquid guano, or currier's oil, impregnate the first leaves with substances distasteful to their early ene- mies, and thus a short respite from their attacks will be se- cured. Gypsum, ashes, bone-dust and poudrette drilled in with the seed, are excellent forcers for the young roots. Charcoal dust applied in the same way, has been found to increase the early growth from four to ten-fold. When the fly or bug is discovered, the application of lime, ashes or soot, or all combined, should be made upon the leaves, while the dew or a slight moisture is on them. This leads the young plant along, and kills such enemies as it reaches. Stale urine, diluted sulphuric acid, (oil of vitrei,) and other liquid manures will have the same effect. Ducks, chickens, young turkeys and birds will devour innumerable quantities, and their presence should always be encouraged not only on this, but on most of the fields. Dragging the surface with fine, light brush, will lessen the slugs and insects. The ground should be plowed just before winter sets in, which exposes the worms and the larvae of insects to the frost, when they are unable to work themselves into a place of safety. The seed should not be planted on ground recently occupied by any of the order of plants cruciferce, (cabbage, radish, mustard, charlock and water-cress), as they all afford food for the enemies of turneps, and thereby tend to their multiplication. Harvesting may be deferred till the approach of cold ROOTS. 177 weather ; and in those sections of the country not affected by severe frosts, when on dry soils, they may be allowed to win- ter on the field. Otherwise, they should be pulled during the clear autumnal weather. This is accomplished most expeditiously with a root hook, which is made with two or more iron prongs attached to a hoe-handle. The use of a bill hook or sharp knife will enable the operator to lop off the leaves with a single blow, when they are thrown into convenient piles, and afterwards collected for storage. The Storing may be in cellars or in heaps, similar to po- tatoes, but in a cooler temperature, as slight heat injures them, while frost does not. If stored in heaps, one or more holes should be left at the top, which may be partially stopped by a wisp of hay or straw, to allow the escape of the gases which are generated. The feeding of Ruta-Bagas to cattle and 5te^ is always in their uncooked state. They are better steamed or boiled for swine ; but food for these, should be sought from the more fattening products of the farm. They may be fed to horses in moderate quantities, but they cannot be relied upon for them, as they are too bulky for working animals. Their place is much better supplied for horses, by the carrot or potato. Their true value is as food for store and fattening cattle, milch cows and sheep, as they furnish a salutary change from dry hay ; being nearly equivalent as fodder, to green summer food. They shpuld be washed before feeding, if too much dirt adheres to them ; but if grown on a light soil, the tap roots lopped off, and otherwise properly cleaned, they will not require it. They may be sliced with a heavy knife, or more summarily cut up while lying on the barn- floor, with a sharp spade, or root sheer, which is made with a socket handle and two blades crossing each other in, the centre at right angles, or by some of the numerous improved cutting machines. With an abundance of turneps and a small supply of straw, hay may be entirely dispensed with for cattle and sheep, except during very cold weather. Many of the best English breeds, are kept exclusively on turneps with a little straw, till ready for the shambles. The varieties of turneps are numerous. After selecting such as will give the largest crop of the most nutritous roots, the next object in the choice of particular varieties, should be to adapt them to the most economical use. Some will keep much longer than others, and if wanted to feed late in the season, it maybe necessary to take a variety, intrinsically 8# 178 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. less valuable than another, which must be earlier con- sumed. The English turnep should be first fed, as it soonest wilts and becomes pithy ; then follow with the others accord- ing to their order of maturity and decay. The leaves yield good forage, and if unmixed with earth, may be fed green or dry to cattle. The value of turneps to this country is trifling in compari- son with that of many parts of Europe. In Great Britain alone, this value probably exceeds one hundred millions of dollars annually. But its culture here is much less desirable ; as our drier climate and early and severe winters are not as well adapted to its production, and economical preservation and feeding as those of England, and its numerous enemies render it an uncertain crop. These objections are increased by the important fact, that it enters into competition with Indian corn, which generally gives a certain and highly re- munerating return. It may sometimes, however, take the place of corn with advantage ; and the turnep or some of the other roots should always occupy a conspicuous place as a change, in part, for the winter food of cattle and sheep. THE CARROT (Danotis carota). This is one of our most valuable roots. It is a hardy, easi- ly-cultivated plant ; it grows in almost every soil, and is next to the potato in its nutritive properties. The soil which best suits it is a fertile sand or light loam; but it will grow on such as are more tenacious, if well drained, and deeply worked. The success of this and the parsnep, depends much on the depth to which their roots can reach. Deep spading or subsoil plowing is, therefore, indispensable to secure large crops, and the ground should be thoroughly pulverized. Barnyard manures, composted with the different salts or ashes, or chip dung, are best for them. It is desirable to have the manures well rotted, for the double object of killing obnoxious seeds, and mixing in- timately with the soil. The varieties chiefly used for field culture are the long red, the orange, and white Belgian. The last, under favora- ble circumstances, attains huge dimensions ; and from its roots growing high out of the ground, it is supposed to draw more of its nourishment from the air, and consequently, to exhaust the ground less, while it is more easily harvested. But it is considerably below the others in comparative value. ROOTS. 179 Planting. — The carrot should be sown in drills, 16 to 20 inches apart, when the ground has become warm and dry. The seed is best prepared by mixing with fine mold or pou- drette, and stirring it well together to break off the fine beards ; then sprinkle with water and allow it to remain in a warm place, and occasionally turn it to produce equal de- velopment in the seed. It may remain 10 or 15 days before sowing, and till nearly ready to sprout. It then readily germi- nates, and does not allow the weeds to get the start. The frequent use of the cultivator and entire cleanliness from weeds, are all that is necessary to insure a crop ; unless it be convenient to give it a top dressing of liquid manure, which the Flemings always do, and which no crop better \ repays. Two pounds of good seed will sow an acre. Any deficiency of plants may be supplied by transplanting in moist weather. Six inches is near enough for the smaller kind to stand, and eight for the larger. They are subject to few diseases or enemies, excepting such as can be avoided by judicious selection of soil and careful tillage. The harvesting may be facilitated by running a plow on one side of the rows, when the roots are easily removed by hand. The tops are then cut and the surface moisture upon the roots dried, when they may be stored like turneps and potatoes. They ought to be kept at as low a temperature as possible, yet above the freezing point. On the approach of warm weather, they will sprout early if left in heaps ; and if important to preserve them longer, the crown should be cut off and the roots spread in a cool, dry place. Uses. — Carrots are chiefly grown for domestic stock. Horses thrive remarkably on them, and some judicious farmers feed them as a substitute for oats. But their intrin- sic value in weight, for their fat and flesh-forming properties, is less, in the proportion of about five to one. For their medicinal properties, however, and the healthful effects re- sulting from their regular, but moderate use, they would be advantageously purchased at the same price as oats, or even corn, if they could be procured no cheaper. They are good for working cattle, and unsurpassed for milch cows, produ- cing a great flow of milk, and a rich yellow cream. Sheep and swine greedily devour them, and soon fatten, if plenti- fully supplied. The Dutch sometimes grate them, and with sugar and salt, make a pickle for their choicest table butter. They are also employed in distilling. The average yield, on good land, may be estimated at about 300 bushels of the 180 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. « smaller, and 450 of the Belgian or white, per acre ; but with extra cultivation, 1,000 bushels of the last have beea raised. THE PARSNEP (Pastinaca satira). The parsnep is frequently cultivated as a field crop, and it is nearly equal to the carrot in its value. The sml may he heavier for par sneps than for carrots, and they will even thrive on a strong clay, if rich, well pulverized and dry. Large crops can only be obtained on deeply fertile and »well pulverized soil. They should be sown early, as frosts do not affect them, and they require a long time to come to ma- turity. Drilling, at a distance of 20 inches apart, is the proper mode of planting, and they should be thinned to a space of six or eight inches. It requires four or five pounds of seed per acre, which must be of the previous year's growth, as older does not readily vegetate. No preparation of the seed is necessary. The subsequent cultivation is similar to that of carrots, and they will generally yield more under the same circumstances of soil and tillage. They are little sub- ject to disease or enemies. The best variety for field culture, is the Isle of Jersey. The gathering should be deferred till the following spring,, unless wanted for winter's use ; as they keep best in the ground, where they are uninjured by the intensest frost. But particular care must be observed in allowing no stand- ing water on them, or they Avill rot. When taken up in the fall, the roots should neither be trimmed nor broken, nor should the tops be cut too near the root. They must be stored in a cool place and covered carefully with earth, as exposure to air or even moderate heat wilts them. Uses. — The parsnep is one of our most delicious table vegetables. It is an excellent food for swine, either raw or cooked, and for cattle, milch cows and sheep, it is highly prized. Qualey says, "it is not as valuable for horses, for though it produces fat and a fine appearance, it causes them to sweat profusely ; and if eaten when the shoot starts in the spring, it produces inflamation in the eyes and epiphora, or weeping." The leaves of both carrots and parsneps are good for cattle, either green or dried. Gerarde, who wrote in 1596, says, "an excellent bread was made from them in his time." They have also, like the carrot, been used for distillation, and are said to aflford a very good vinous beverage ROOTS. 181 THE BEET (Beta). There are but two varieties of the beet in general use for the field, the Sugar beet and Mangold-wurzel, both of which have several sub-varieties. They are of various colors, red, pink, yellow, white or mottled, but color does not seem to aftect their quality. The conditions under which they grow are similar. Beets do well in any soil of sufficient depth and fertility, but they are perhaps, most par- tial to a strong loam. If well tilled, they will produce large crops on a tenacious clay. We have raised at the rate of 800 bushels per acre, on a stiiF clay, which had been well supplied with unfermented manure. The soil, cannot be made too rich ; and for such as are adhesive, fresh or un- fermented manures are much the best. The planting should be in drills, 20 to 24 inches asunder, at the rate of four to six pounds of seed per acre, buried not over an inch deep. The seed should be early planted, or as soon as vegetation will proceed rapidly ; but it must first be soaked, by pouring soft, scalding water on it, allowing it to cool to blood heat, and remain for one or two days, then roll in plaster and drill it in. The husk of the seed is thick and scarcely pervious to moisture, and without previous tho- rough saturation the seed will not readily germinate. The culture is similar to that of carrots and parsneps. They should be thinned to a distance of about eight inches, and all vacancies filled with strong thrifty plants. It is ])et- ter to sow thick enough to avoid the necessity of transplant- ing, for in addition to the time and expense of this operation, the new plants will not thrive as well as those which grow in their ranks from the seed. The above distances are suit- able for the sugar beet. The mangold-wurzel attains a larger size, and the spaces may be increased. The practice of plucking off the leaves for cattle-feeding, is objectionable, as it materially interferes with the growth of the plants. Scarcely any disease or enemy troubles it, except when young. It is then sometimes, though rarely, attacked by grubs or small insects. Harvesting may be commenced soon after the first leaves turn yellow, and before the frosts have injured them. The tops must not be too closely trimmed, nor the crown of the roots or its fibrous prongs cut from such as are destined for late keeping. If intended for early winter use, they may be abridged a trifle, and after the surface is dry, stored like other 182 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. roots. They do not need as effectual protection as potatoes ; for if the frost reaches them under a covering of earth, it will gradually withdraw on the approach of warm weather, and leave the roots uninjured ; but they will not keep as long as if untouched by the frost. A slight opening for the escape of the gas, as with other roots, should be left at the top, and partially guarded with straw. Uses. — The beet is a universal favorite for the table, and of great value for stock. Domestic animals never tire of it, and swine prefer it to any other root excepting the parsnep. I have kept a large herd in the best condition through the winter, on no other food than the raw sugar beet. They possess additional merit, from their capability of resisting decay longer than the turnep, and frequently beyond the carrot and parsnep. They will be solid, fresh and juicy, late in the spring, if properly stored ; and at a time too when they are most wanted for ailing sheep or cattle, milch cows or ewes, or for contributing to the support and health of any of the farm stock. When fed to fattening animals, they should follow, and never precede the turnep. It has been found, that animals continue steadily to advance^in flesh, after being carried to a certain point with turneps, if shifted on to the beet ; but in repeated instances, the}- have fallen back, if changed from beets to turneps. Davy found in 1,000 parts, the following quantity of nu- tritive or soluble matter. — White or English turnips, 42 ; Swede, 64 ; mangold- wurzel, 136; sugar beet, 146. This order of nutritive quality is followed by Boussingault, though he places the field beet and Swede turnep, at nearly the same point. Einhof and Thaer, on the contrary, place the Swede before mangold-wurzel. But in feeding to animals, unless for an occasional change, the roots should be given out in the order named. The sugar beet is seen to be more nutritious than the mangold-wurzel ; it is equally hardy and productive, and more palatable to stock, and of course is to be preferred as a farm crop. The former has been largely cultivated in France and Germany, for making into sugar, where it has been en- tirely successful, because protected by an adequate impost on the imported article. Their conversion into sugar, has repeatedly been attempted in this country, but it cannot sustain a successful competition with the sugar cane. From the experiments of Darracq, it has been found that ROOTS. 183 in summer, the beet yielded from 3^0 4 per cent, of sugar ; but in October, after the commencement of frost, it gave only syrup and saltpetre, and no crystalizable sugar. When used for this purpose, the residaum of the pulp, after ex- pressing the juice, is given to cattle. When wilted, the leaves are also fed to them, but caution, and the use of dry food in connection, is necessary to prevent their scouring. What are not thus used, are plowed in for manure. The beet is also distilled and yields about half the product of potatoes. NOTE. On the following pages, I append the table of nutritive equivalents of food, compiled by Boussingault, as a conve- nient reference, though not entirely reliable in all cases. For it will be seen, from what has before been said, that the par- ticular plants, vary, not only according to the season and soil, but frequently also, according to the particular variety, subject to analysis. He says : " In the following table, to the numbers assigned by the theory, I have added those of the whole, which I find in the entire series of observations that have come to my knowledge. I have also given the standard quantity of water, and the quantity of azote, con- tained in each species of food. When the theoretical equi- valents do not differ too widely from those supplied by direct observation, I believe that they ought to be preferred. The details of my experiments, and the precautions needful ni entering on, and carrying them through, must have satisfied every one of the difficulties attending their conduct ; yet all allow how little these have been attentively contemplated, and what slender measures of precaution against error have been taken. In my opinion, direct observation or experi- ment is indispensable, but mainly, solely as a means of checking, within rather wide limits, the results of chemical analysis." 184 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. -mssnog § \ : 1 •ajpay 2 % :i M •3iani\[ 2 \ i s •aojaipjw 2 1 i •aanqos 2 ® i i isSS is § •zviOAvqos 1 2 §1 III: illi: •zjirejx 1 1 S : j : : : •aiSBqiuoa 2 s : : isi w •JsqaAi. 1 § :S i i : : H w PS M •pnjo 1 § is >■ • \ s. i i i§ : •aas g s ;i 1 :i:|§ s iiili & •JapajH 1 § § i: : : : i ill * fi ■ o I: t ; i" i ill ; \ § S : IS g :gg| : 1 iii : •JsqBJ § S§g| «iii3: SS i § illii •a9BqX i ^-?'^ :i ists ; 2 §ill : •aeXaivf 2 i : \% 2 :§22 : : : 1 :ii : S S •u;9j 1 2 I ig:| lii^iiilH iiil j •iiooTa S 2 ;2S^ 1 :|SS : :S : :| •issgigii •iaoaqx |g$S^^i2 = ||pg|||3S|2S||aS«2 = gili 5 Eh •paup ;o" •^0 Jd a^ozv •jo jd 'ajozy ^S23§2 :^??5gSS^iig^S22^SS^S2gSSS§ J.J,c',c!.J--!.:©oo-oo©©-oo--» 5^P : c is t %> 3 ST -J 3 ! .>* 3 3 3 5C H ii 3 St 3< DP CI a 11 ' c M M 5 5P 5 J > P 3 < D =:? f t i s . > J Ii ill B 1 3 5i ii t: 1 a (■ a • c ; C c ■■% 1 I \ 5 £ J i -\ C a < • If c 'a j s •3 2 EQUIVALENTS OF FOOD. 185 11 1! S s ; ' §. : 1 j : : i ; 3 s; § : : i i i § : i ■^ 1- £ : ^ i. £5 ii c5 : • s . s- in ^? s § i S : <0 es «> s s •t^ t § : :S^ s i « ^ i i ; .:SSS§ :SSS t* :g 2 g i c5 • -^ .gg§ : : : :« s S l§ i lis Wi 2-40 1-60 2-20 1-50 1-80 1-18 0-63 5-13 5-50 4-20 4-30 4-40 2-00 2-40 2-02 2-46 2-20 2-20 2-22 1-93 1-70 2-27 2-33 2-30 3- IS 2-lg 0-94 1-3S 6-OC 4-7g 3-63 : I s 2; • • « • • + ; ', t • • t : a ?i c ^- 2 5? 3^ 3 5 3 j 3 j S ''■ » 3 : 5 i 2 ' r >• 8. S ! 3: I-' 3 3^ : 8 S ^' 1! « 3 1 U u 3% 5 a •1 .t: • c • i ' i :1 2i i :* 111 3 w n 1 • a. 1 186 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. THE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Helianthns tuberosus). This plant is a native of Brazil, but it has hitherto been* little cultivated in this country. Loudon says the name Jeru- salem is a corruption of the Italian word girasole, (sun- flower), the blossom of which it closely resembles, except in size. It flourishes in a moist, loose soil or sandy loam, with little care except to thin out the plants and prevent weeds. It is hardy, very productive and easily cultiva- ted in drills, three or four feet apart. The planting may be done in March or April. As it is not injured by frost and is prolific, it will spread rapidly and often becomes a nui- sance in the garden. The product is enormous, sometimes overrunning 2,000 bushels per acre. Its nutritive qualities are much less than those of the potato ; but its greater pro- ductiveness and the facility of raising it, would seem to en- title it to more general favor. Boussingault considers it an improving and profitable crop, from its drawing its nitrogen largely from the atmosphere. It is peculiarly fitted for spring food, as the roots lie uninjured by the vicissitudes of the weather, and may be taken out in perfection after most other roots are gone. The artichoke is used in this country, both for human and animal food. The roots are generally eaten as a pickle or salad. Loudon says, " they may also be eaten boiled, mashed in butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor." The tops when cut and cured as hay, afford a good fodder for cattle, and the roots are excellent for sheep and other stock. Swine will thrive upon them through the winter, and do their own harvesting when the ground is not locked up by frost. BROOM CORN. 187 CHAPTER X. MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS OF CULTIVATION. BROOM CORN (Sorghum saccharatum). So far as I am acquainted with its history, this is a pro- duct peculiar to America. In its early growth and general appearance, it resembles Indian corn. It grows to the height of ten or twelve feet, with a perfectly upright stalk, from which an occasional leaf appears ; and at the top, a long compact bunch of slender, graceful stems is thrown out, familiarly termed the brush, which sustain the seed at and near their extremities. Soil. — The best soil for broom corn, is similar to that required for Indian corn or maize. It should be rich, warm, loamy land, not liable to early or late frosts. Spring frosts injure broom corn more than maize, as the roots do not strike so deep, nor has it the power of recovering from the effects of frost equally with the latter. The best crops are usually raised on a green sward, turned over as late as possi- ble in the fall, to kill the worms. Clay lands are not suita- ble for it. Manui'e. — Horse or sheep manure is the best for this plant ; and if mixed with much straw or other vegetables, they should be well rotted before applying. If the land is in good condition, three cords or eight to ten loads to the acre, is enough for one dressing. This is usually placed in hills, and 12 to 15 bushels of ashes per acre may be added with great advantage. Piaster, at the rate of two to four bushels per acre, is also beneficial. The addition of slacked lime helps the ground, affords some food to the crop, and is destructive to worms. Poudrette, at the rate of half a pint to each hill at planting, or Peruvian guano at the rate of a table-spoonful mixed in a compost with ten times its quantity of good soil, is an excellent application, especially if the land is not already rich enough. Repeating the above quantities around the stalks in each hill, after the last hoemg, will add materially to the crop. 188 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Planting. — Broom corn should be planted in hills two feet apart, in rows two and a half to three feet distant. If the seed is good, drop 15 to 20 seeds in a hil], an inch and a half deep, to ensure eight or ten thrifty plants, which are all that must be left after the second hoeing. The time of planting must de- pend on the climate and season. The 1st of May is about the time in latitude 40°, and 10th to 15th in 42°; but let it be as early as possible, yet late enough to escape spring frost. Mellow the ground well with a harrow before putting in the seed. Thick 'planting gives the finest, toughest brush. After Culture. — As soon as the plants are visible, run a cultivator between the rows, and follow with a hand hoe. Many neglect this till the weeds get a start, which is highly prejudicial to the crop. The cultivator or light plow should be used afterwards, followed with a hoe, and this may be repeated four or five times with advantage. Break the tops before fully ripe, or when the seed is a little past the milk ; or if frost appears, then immediately after it. This* is done -by bending down the tops of two rows towards each other, for the convenience of cutting afterwards. They should be broken some 14 inches below the brush, and allowed to hang till fully ripe, when they may be cut and carried un- der cover, and spread till entirely dry. The stalks remain- ing on the ground, may be cut close, or pulled up and buried in the furrows for manure, or burned, and thus be restored to the earth to enrich it ; or they may be carried to the yard to mix in a compost, with the droppings of the cattle. Cleaning the Brush. — Unless some larger machine is used, this is -most rapidly accomplished by passing it through a kind of hetchel, made by setting upright knives near to- gether, or it may be cleaned by a long-toothed currycomb. By the use of the hetchel, none of the little branches are broken, and the brush makes a finer, better broom. "We have seen horse power machines used for cleaning the seed with great rapidity, in the Miami Valley. The average yield is about 500 lbs. of brush per acre. It varies according to season or soil, from 300 to 1,000 lbs. The price also va- ries materially, ranging from three tb sixteen cents per pound ; the last being seldom obtained unless in extreme scarcity. A good crop of seed is matured in the Connecti- cut Valley, about two years out of five. When well ripened, the seed will average three or four "pounds for every pound of the brush. A single acre has produced 150 bush- els of seed, though 25 to 50 is a more common yield. ' It FLAX. 189 weighs about 50 lbs. per bushel, and is usually sold at 25 to 35 cents. The uses of Broom Corn are limited to the manufacture of brooms from the brush ; and the consumption of the seed when ground and mixed with other grain, in feeding to fat- tening or working cattle, sheep and swine, and occasionally to horses. Brooms manufactured from it, have superseded every other kind for general use in the United States, and within a few years, they have become an article of extensive export to England and other countries. The brush and wood for the handles are imported separately, to avoid high duties, and are there put together, and form a profitable branch of agricultural commerce to those engaged in the traffic. The cultivation of broom corn has, till quite recently, been almost exclusively confined to the northeastern States ; but it is now largely raised in the Western. Their fresh, rich soil, how- ever, does not yield so fine and tough a brush as that grown in the longer cultivated fields. FLAX (Linum usitatissimum, Fig. 43). This is one of the oldest cultivated plants of which we have any record ; and its habitat or re- gion of naturalization, extends from the torrid to the frigid zones. Its long, silken fibres, which come from the outer coating or bark of the stem, have been used for the manufacture of linen, from time immemorial. The absolute quanti- ty at present grown, is probably equal to any preceding age ; but relatively, it is falling behind the product of cotton, which is rapidly on the increase. Flax is still a profitable crop, for in addition to its use as a material of clothing, the seed is of great value for its oil, and the food it yields to cattle ; and for the latter purpose, the whole plant is sometimes fed with decided advantage. The proper soil for Flax, is a good alluvial or vegetable loam, equally removed from a loose sand or tenacious clay. In a very rich soil, the fibres grow too coarse, and on a poor soil, the crop will not make a profitable return. Fresh barn- yard manures are not suited to it, and they should, in all cases where necessary for a proper fertility, be added to the pre- 190 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. ceding crop. A rich sod which has long lain in pasture or meadow, well plowed and rotted, is the best for it. Lime in small quantities, may be incorporated Avith the soil, but the Flemings who raise flax extensively, never allow it to follow a heavy liming till seven years intervene, as they consider it injures the fibre. A good wheat, is gexierally a good flax soil. Salt, ashes and gypsum are proper manures for it. The last has the greatest effect, if applied after the plant is developed and while covered with dew or moisture. All the saline manures used as a top-dressing, benefit the plant and check the ravages of worms, which frequently attack the young plants. Cultivation. — On a finely-prepared surface, either of fresh sod or after corn or roots, which have been well manured and kept clear of weeds, sow broadcast, from sixteen to thirty quarts per acre, if wanted for seed, or two bushels, if wanted for the fibre. When thin, it branches very much, and every sucker or off"shoot is terminated by a boll well loaded with seed. When thickly sown, the stem grows single, and with- out branches, and gives a long, fine fibre. If the soil be very rich, and fibre is the object of cultivation, it may be sown at the rate of three bushels per acre. There is a great diff'erence in seed; the heaviest is the best, and it should be of a bright brownish cast and oily to the touch. It must be lightly harrowed or brushed in and rolled. When three or four inches high, it may be carefully weeded by hand, and for this, it is best to employ children ; or if adults are put on the field, they should be barefoot. Any de- pression of the plants by the feet will soon be recovered by the subsequent growth, which, on good soil, will be sufficient- ly rapid to prevent the weeds again interfering with it. Grass seed or clover may be sown with flax without any detriment to it, but the flax ought to be too thick on the field to allow them to grow well ; and in pulling the flax, they will be very likely to be uprooted. Harvestiiig. — When designed for cambrics and the fiinest linen, flax is pulled in flower ; but in this country it is seldom harvested for the fibre till the seed is entirely formed, and although not ripe, most of it will mature on the stalk without any prejudice to the fibre. If required for seed, it must be left standing till the first seeds are well ripened. It is then gathered and bound in small bundles, and when properly dried, is placed under cover. If it falls HEMP. 191 before ripening, it should be pulled at once, whatever its stage of growth, as this is the only means of saving it. After Management. — After removing the seed by draw- ing the heads through a comb or rake of finely-set teeth, called rippling, the usual method of preparing flax in this country, is by dew-rotting, or spreading it thinly on a clean sward, and turning it occasionally till properly prepared, after which it is put into bundles and stored till a convenient period for cleaning it. This is a wasteful practice and gives an inferior quality of fibre. Water-rotting is the best plan of preparing it, which is done in vats or small ponds of soft water, similar to those used for hemp. This gives a strong, smooth, silky fibre, and without waste, and worth much more either for sale or for manufacturing, than the dew-rotted. Various steeps for macerating, and machines for preparing it have been used, which materially increase its marketable value ; but it is generally got out on the brake by hand, when the farmer is most at leisure. A crop of the fibre may be estimated at 300 to 1,000 lbs.; and of seed, from 15 to 30 bushels per acre. There are no varieties worthy of particular notice for ordinary cultivation. Great benefit is found to result from a frequent change of seed, to soils and situations differing from those where it has been raised. The seed is always valuable for the linseed-oil it yields, and the residuum of the seed or oil-cake, stands deservedly high as a feed for all ani- mals. The entire seed when boiled, is among the most fat- tening substances which the farmer can use for animal food. Flax, like most other plants grown for seed, is an exhaust- ing crop, but is not when pulled or harvested before the seed matures. The Flemings think flax ought not to be raised on the same soil oftener than once in eight years. As a ineans of promoting the industrial interests of the country, the raising of flax, like that of hemp, cotton, wool and raw-silk, is an object of national importance. This value does not, like wheat, pork, butter, &c., end with their preparation for market, but constitutes a basis for other in- dustrial occupations, after leaving the hands of the farmer. Each should be produced to the extent, at least, of supplying our own manufactures with the raw material, for making the fullest amount of fabrics we can consume at home, or profitably export abroad. HEMP (Cannabis sativa). Large portions of our western soils and climate, are pecu- 192 AMERICAN^ AGRICULTURE. Fio. 43. liarly adapted to the production of hemp, and for many years it has been a conspicuous object of agricultural attention.' We have not yet brought the supply to our full consumption; as we have till recently, imported several millions annually, either in its raw state, or as cordage, twine, sail-duck, osnaburgs and other manufactured ar- ticles. But the increased attention and skill bestowed on its cultivation, combined with our means for its in- definite production, will doubtless soon constitute us one of the largest of the hemp-exporting countries. The Soil for hemp may be similar to that of flax, but with a much wider range, from a uniform standard ; for it will thrive in moderately tenacious clay, if fertile, and well pulverized ; and it will do equally well on reclaimed muck beds, when properly treated. New land is not suited to it till after two or three years of culti- vation. A grass sod or clover bed is best for it, when piowed in the fall or early in winter. This secures fine pulveriza- tion by frost and the destruction of insects, and especially the cut- worm, which is very injurious to it. If not already suffi- ciently mellow, it should be re-plowed in the spring, as a deep, fertile tilth is essential to its full vigor and large growth. Cultivation. — Early sowing produces the best crop, yet it should not be put in so early as to be exposed to severe frost ; and where there is a large quantity planted, conveni- ence in harvesting requires that it should ripen at diff'erent periods. The farmer may select his time for sowing, ac- cording to his latitude, and the quantity cultivated. From the 10th of April to 10th June is the fullest range allowed. The choice of seed is material, as it is important to have a full set of plants on the ground ; yet an excess is injurious, as a part are necessarily smothered after absorbing the strength of the soil, and they are besides, in the way of the harvesting, without contributing anything to the value of the crop. Seed of the last year's growth is best, as it gene- rally heats by being kept over, which can be avoided only by spreading thin. From four to six pecks per acre of good HEMP. ■ ■ 193 seed is sufficient. The best is indicated by its weight and bright reddish color. It is usual to sow broadcast, harrow- in lightly both ways, and roll it. A smooth surface is mate- rial in facilitating the cutting. Sowing in drills would re- quire less seed, give an equal amount of crop, and materially expedite the planting. This should always be done before moist weather if possible, as rapid and uniform germination of the seed is thus more certainly secured. If the soil be very dry, it is better to place the seed deeper in the ground, to reach a proper moisture, which can be done with the plow. If sown in drills and well covered, it might be pre- viously soaked so as to secure early germination in the ab- sence of rains. I quote from an excellent article on hemp raising, in the American Agriculturist, by the editor, A. B. Allen. Cutting. — " No after cultivation is necessary. When the blossoms turn a little yellow, and begin to drop their leaves, which usually happens from three to three and a half months after sowing, it is time to cut the hemp ; if it stands a week or ten days longer than this, no other detriment will ensue except that it will not rot so evenly, and becomes more la- borious to break. Cutting is now almost universally prac- ticed in preference to pulling. Not quite so much lint is saved, but the labor is easier and all subsequent operations, such as spreading, stacking and rotting. The lint also is of a better color and finer fibre, and the roots and stubble left in the ground and plowed under, tend to lighten the soil, and are equivalent to a light dressing of manure. If the hemp is not above seven feet high, it can be cut v/ith large and strong cradles, at the rate of an acre or two per day ; but if above this height, strong brush scythes must be used, about two and a half feet long. Drying and Securing. — As fast as cut, spread the hemp on the ground, taking care to keep the butts even, when if the weather be dry and warm, it will be cured in three days. As soon as dry, commence binding into sheaves, and if des- tined for water rotting, it ought to be transported to dry ground convenient to the pools, and then secured in round stacks, carefully thatched on the top to keep out the rain ; but if designed for dew rotting, it should be secured in large ricks, in the same field where grown. The reason why these are to be preferred is, that less of the hemp is thus exposed to the weather, and the more and better the lint when rotted and broken out. 9 194 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. The Ricks should be 30 to 40 feet long, and 15 to 20 feet wide, the best foundation for which is logs laid down for the bottom course, six feet from each other, then lay- across these, rails or poles one foot apart. As the hemp is heund in sheaves, let it be thrown into two rows, with suf- ficient space for a wagon to pass between. While the process of taking up and binding is going on, a wagon and three hands, two to pitch and one to load, is engaged in hauling the hemp to the rick, and stacking it. Thus the pro- cess of taking up, binding, hauling, and ricking, all proceed together. In this way five hands will put up a large rick in two days and cover it. For making the roof of the rick, it is necessary to have long hemp, from which the leaves should be beaten oflf. In this state only will hemp make a secure roof. In laying down trhe hemj/, begin with the top ends of the bundja, inside, and if they do not fill up fast enough to keep the mside of the rick level, add, as occasion may require, whole bundles. Give it a rounded form at each end, and, ^ it rises, it must be widened, so as to make the top courses shelter the bottom ones. After it is twelve feet high, com- mence for the roof, by laying the bundles crosswise, within a foot of the edges of the rick, building the top up roof- shaped, and of a slope at an angle of about forty-five de- grees. For the covering of the roof lay up" the bundles at right angles to its length, the butt ends down, and the first course resting on the rim of the rick as left, one foot in width. Lap the bundles in covering the roof in courses, as if shingling a house. Commence the second course by re- versing the bundles, placing the top ends down, and then go on lapping them as before. Begin the third course of shingling with the butt ends down, letting the first hang at least one foot below the edge of the roof, to shed off the rain from the body of the stack. Unbind the bundles, and lay the covering at least one foot thick with the loose hemp, lapping well as before, and for a weather board, let the top course come up above the peak of the roof about three feet, and be then bent over it, towards that point of the compass from which the wind blows least. If the work has been faithfully performed, the rick may be considered as finished, and weather proof, and it requires no further binding. The rick should be made when the weather is settled, for if rain falls upon it during the process, it will materially injure the hemp. There ought always to be a sufficient number of HEMP. 195 hands in the field to gather, bind the shocks, and finish the ricking in a single day. TiTne of dew rotting. — The best time for spreading hemp for dew rotting, is in the month of December. * It then re- ceives what is called a winter rot, and makes the lint of the hemp a light color, and its quality better than if spread out early. But where a farmer has a large crop, it is desirable to have a part of his hemp ready to take up late in Decem- ber, so that he may commence breaking in January. To accomplish this object, a part of his crop may be spread about the middle of October. It wo^ld not be prudent to spread earlier, as hemp will not obtain a good rot if spread when the weather is warm. The experienced hemp- grower is at no loss to tell when the hemp is sufficiently watered. A trial of a portion of it on the break will be the best test for those who have not had much experience. When sufficiently watered, the stalks of the hemp lose that hard, sticky appearance or feel, which they retain till the process is completed. The lint also begins to separate from the stalk, and the fibres will show themselves, like the strings of a fiddle-bow, attached to the stalk at two distant points, and separate in the middle. This is a sure indication that the hemp has a good rot. Shocking after breaking and rotting. — When the hemp is dry, put in shocks of suitable size, without binding. Tie all the shocks together with a hemp-band, by drawing the tops closely, to prevent the rain from wetting the inside. Each shock should be large enough to produce from fifty to sixty pounds of lint. If the hemp be considerably damp when taken up, leave the shocks untied at the tops until they have time to dry. If not well put up, they are liable to blow down by a strong wind. To guard against this, it is desirable, when commencing a shock, to tie a band around the first armful or two that may be set up and then raise up the parcel so tied, and beat it well against the ground so as to make it stand firmly, in a perpendicular direction. The balance of the shock should now be set regularly around the part as herein directed. If hemp be carefully shocked, it will receive little or no injury till the weather becomes warm. In the meantime it should be broke out as rapidly as possible. If the operation be completed by the middle of April, no material loss will be sustained. If delayed to a later period, loss of lint will be the consequence. Cool, frosty weather is much the best for hemp-breaking. If the 196 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. hemp is good, first-rate hands on the the common hemp- break, will clean two hundred pounds per day. The ordina- ry task for hands is one hundred pounds.' — Beatty. Hemp-brake. — The hand hemp- break is made like that for flax, only much larger ; the under slats on the hinder end are 16 to 18 inches apart, at the fore-end they approach within three inches of each other. The slats in the upper jaw are so placed as to break joints into the lower as it is brought down on to the hemp. After breaking out the hemp, it is twisted into bunches, and sent to the press-house to be bailed, and is then tr^sported to market. Water rotting. — The best plan for water rotting is in vats under cover, the water in which is kept at an equal temperature. The hemp thus gets a perfect rot at all sea- sons of the year, in seven or ten days, and when dried, is of a bright, greenish, flaxen color, and is considered by many, of a better quality than the finest Russian, and it brings as high a price in market. These vats may be easily con- structed and managed, and if built in a central position, by a company of planters on joint account, they would be but of small expense to each, and all in turn could be accommo- dated by them. The hemp is first broken previous to rot- ting, in a machine, which is moved by steam power ; this lessens the bulk greatly, by ridding it of most of its woody fibre ; but the process is not essential to rotting in vats. If to be rotted in spring or river water, artificial pools or vats must be formed for this purpose, which should not be over three feet deep, otherwise the hemp is liable to an unequal rot. It will require plank placed upon it weighted down with timbers or stones, in order to keep it well under water. , Mr. Myerle recommends vats 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and two feet deep. The hemp is thus kept cleaner while rot- ting, and the hands can lay it down in the, vats and take it out without getting wet, which is important to the health of the laborer. These vats greatly facilitate the operation, and they can be fed with water and have it run off at plea- sure, without loss from the hemp. Water rotting in streams, requires a longer or shorter period, according to the season. In September, when the water is warm, ten days is general- ly sufficient ; in October, about fifteen, and in December, thirty days or more. For the latitude of Kentucky, October and November are considered the best months for the opera- tion ; and it is then easiest done, gives more lint, and as good a sample as if deferred later." Raising Hemp Seed. — This requires another system of HEMP. 197 cultivation, but on a similar soil, which should be in the finest condition as to fertility and pulverization. An old pasture or meadow heavily manured and plowed in the fall, and well pulverized in the spring, furnishes the best soil. I quote from Judge Beatty's essay on practical agricul- ture : " The seed should be planted either in hills or drills. 1 prefer the former, because it admits of easier and better cul- tivation, as the plow can be used both ways. It is usual to plant five feet apart, each way, and suffer four or five stalks to stand in a hill until the blossom hemp is -removed, and then reduce the number so as not to exceed two stalks in a hill. Thus there would be two seed plants for each twenty- five square feet. It would be a better practice to make the hills three feet six inches apart, each way, and thin the hemp to three stalks in' a hill, till the blossom hemp appears ; at the proper time, cut out the blossom or male hemp ; and if ne- cessary a part of the seed hemp, so as to reduce the latter to one stalk in the hill. ^ The ground for hemp seed, having been well pulverized by plowing twice, and running the harrow, lay off as above directed, and plant in the same manner as corn. Twelve or fifteen seed should be scattered in each hill. Soon after the hemp comes up, run a small plow both ways, once in a row. If the ground is not foul, the plowing may be delayed till the hemp is a few inches high, which will enable the plowman to avoid throwing the dirt on the tender plants. The hoes should follow the second plowing, and clean away the weeds, in or near the hill, and thin out the hemp to seven or eight stalks. These should be the most thrifty plants, and somewhat separated from each other. Repeat the plowing to keep the ground light and free from weeds. When the plants are about a foot high, the hoes should again go over the ground and carefully cut down any weeds or grass which may have escaped the plow. The plants should be still further thinned out at this time, leaving but four in a hill, and some fine mold drawn around the plants, so as to cover any small weeds that may have come up around them. After seed hemp has attained the height of a foot and a half, it will soon be too large to plow, but it ought to have one plowing after the last hoeing. The ground, by this time, will have become so much shaded by the hemp plants, as to prevent the weeds from growing, and nothing more need to be done but for a man to follow the plow, and 198 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. if three and a half feet be the distance of the hills apart, re- duce the number of plants invariably to three, taking care to remove those which the last plowing may have broken. When the seed hemp has so far advanced as readily to distinguish the male from the female plants, let all the blos- som hemp be cut out, except one stalk in every other hill, each way. This will leave one stalk of male hemp for every four hills. These, together with the stalks which after- wards blossom, will be sufficient to fertilize all the seed- bearing plants, and secure a crop of perfect seed. After the blossom plants have remained until they have discharged their pollen, which can be easily ascertained by dust ceasing to flow from them when agitated, they, also, should be cut down. Some top the seed plants when five or six feet high, to make them branch more freely, but this is not necessary where but one or two seed-bearing plants are suffered to re- main in each hill." A seed-bearing hemp crop is a great exhauster of land, whil^ such as is grown only for the fibre, takes but a moder- ate amount of fertilizing matter from the soil. Unlike most crops sown broadcast, it grows with such strength and luxu- riance, as to keep the weeds completely smothered ; and it may, therefore, be grown for many successive seasons on the same field, without the latter becoming foul. Its entire monopoly of the ground, prevents the growth of clover or the grasses in connection with it. The seed yields an oil of inferior value, but when cooked, it affords a fattening food for animals. COTTON (Gossypium, Fig. 44). Within the last few years, this has become the leading agricultural export of the United States. The total amount of the cotton crop in this country, in 1 845, w^as estimated at about 850,000,000 lbs., and for 1848, nearly 1,000,000,000. This enormous product has mainly grown up within the last 60 years. Even as late as 1825, our total production was within 170,000,000. The introduction of Whitney!s cotton gin, in the latter part of the last century, gave the first decided movement towards the growth of American cotton. Previous to this, the separation of the cotton seed from the fibre was mostly done by hand ; and the process was so slow and expensive, as to prevent any successful competition with the foreign article. This incomparable invention, which cleaned 1,000 lbs. in the same time a few pounds could be COTTON. 199 cleaned without it, overcame the only obstacle to complete success ; and millions of acres of the fertile lands of the South and West are now annually covered with the snowy product. The increase seems to know no check or abate- ment ; as with the lessening price and increasing quantity, the demand seems constantly to augment. Climate and Soil. — Cotton will grow in some of the middle States, but with little profit north of the Carolinas and Tennessee. The soil required is a dry, rich loam. Light sands and tolerably heavy clays will produce cotton, but with much less profit than the loams. FiQ 44.. Planting. — During the winter, the land intended for planting should be thrown up in beds, by turning several fur- rows together. These beds may be four feet from centre to centre for a moderate quality of upland soil, and five feet for the lowlands. But these distances should be increased with the increasing strength of the soil, to seven and eight feet, and in some instances, even to a greater distance for the strongest lands. These may lie until the time of planting, from 20th of March to 20th of April, when no further danger 200 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. from frost is apprehended ; then harrow, and with a hght plow, mark the centre of the beds and sow at the rate of two to five bushels per acre. A drilling machine might be made to answer this purpose better, and save much time. An excess of seed is necessary, to provide for the enemies of the plant and other contingencies. If all the seed germinates, there will be a large surplus of plants, which must be re- moved by thinning. There is an advantage in mixing the seed before it is sown, with moistened ashes or gypsum, as it facilitates sowing and germination. It should be buried about an inch deep, and the earth pressed closely over it. The cotton plant, in the opinion of Dr. Philips, is hardier, even, than corn, when properly treated. He contends, and I must say, with a great deal of apparent reason, that thick planting is to be deprecated, and that but two or three pecks of prime seed should be sown to the acre. This would expose each plant to the atmosphere, and give it op- portunity and room to develop a strong stalk with abundant foliage ; and he asserts, when thus grown, a frost that will cut down corn, will leave the young cotton plant uninjured. There is a great disadvantage in exposing the long, spindling shoots, that have grown up among a crowd of others, to the sun, wind and frost, when they are thinned out. A tempo- rary check is thus always given to the plant, and frequently, a permanent injury is sustained in consequence of it. The varieties of seed wseA for uplands ar£ the Mexican and Petit-Gulf, both of similar origin, but the latter is better selected and has been kept pure. New seed which has been brought from a distance, ought to be substituted for the old as often as once in three years. The beneficial effects of this practice would probably be enhanced by bringing it from a different soil, and more especially, such as had grown upon one of inferior quality to that intended to be planted. The Petit-Gulf, raised near Rodney, in Mississippi, is universally esteemed the best seed, and it will frequently yield from one to two hundred pounds more of cotton per acre than the average of such as is produced elsewhere. This difference has arisen, in part at least, from the great care used in the selection and management of the seed ; and it may be, and probably is, in part due to some peculiar difference in soil or locality, that better prepares the seed for an abundant yield when transferred to remote fields. The cultivation is performed with various instruments, the bull-tongue or scooter, the shovel, double shovel, the sweep, COTTON. 201 the harrow, the cultivator and the hoe. One or more of the former must be used to pulverize the land and uproot and clean off the weeds ; while the last is necessary to carry this operation directly up to the stem of the plants. The culture is thus summarily stated by Dr. M. W. Philips, of Missis- sippi ; *' Commence cleaning the cotton early, and clean it well ; return to it as soon as possible, throw earth or mold to the young plants, and if the ground be hard give it a thorough plowing ; keep the earth light and mellow and the plants clear of grass and weeds." The plants are thinned at every hoeing, till they attain a height of three or four inches, when they are allowed to stand at intervals of about eight or ten inches for a medium quality of soil. This dis- tance should be largely increased when it is richer. Enejnies and Diseases. — Cotton is subject to the cut- worm, the army-worm, and boll- worm, the slug, the cater- pillar, cotton lice, grasshoppers, rot, sore shin and rust. 1 have seen no remedies prescribed for either, but suggest for experiment, the exposure of the two former to frost, by plowing just before its appearance. Late planting, and when the season is so well advanced as to give a rapid and uniform growth, is one of the most effectual preventives against disease or injury from insect enemies. The free use of lime and salt, and similar manures might arrest or miti- gate the effects of all. Birds should also be encouraged upon the fields, as they would destroy numbers of the worm and insect tribes. It has been claimed that the introduc- tion of the Mexican and Petit-Gulf varieties, is the most ef- fectual remedy, as they are hardier kinds, are less the object of attack and have a greater ability to withstand it. Harvesting is commenced when the bolls have begun to expand, and the cotton is protruded. This is continued as the bolls successively ripen and burst their capsules. It is done entirely by hand, the picker passing between two rows and gleaning from each. The cotton is placed in a bag cap- able of containing fifteen or twenty pounds, which is hung UT)on his shoulders or strapped upon his breast. — These are emptied into large baskets which are taken, when filled, to the gin-house. I quote the above authority : •' Having all things ready for picking cotton, I commence early, and as soon as the hands can gather even twenty pounds each. This is advisable, not only in saving a portion of that from being destroyed, if rains should fall, which often do at this season, (about the middle of August), but for another reason ; 9* 202 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. passing through the cotton has a tendency to open out to sun and air, the hmbs that have interlocked across the rows, and hastens the early opening. On low grounds, especially, much loss is incurred in some seasons from the want of the sun to cause an expansion of the fibre within the boll, so as to cause it to open. The boll is composed of five divisions, in each of which there is a parcel of cotton wool surround- ing each seed, there being several in each J^ock of cotton. When green, these fibres lie close to the seed, and as it ri- pens, the fibres become elastic, the boll becoming hard and brownish. The Sea Island has only three divisions, as also the Egyptian, which is only the Sea Island of the best va- riety, with black seed, smooth, and a yellowish tuft of fibres on the small end ; they are both from Pernambuco. Some of the cotton we plant has only four divisions, but I think five generally. There is a peculiar art \ i gathering the cotton from the boll, which can only be acquired by practice ; many gather equally fast with either hand. The left hand seizes the stem near the open boll, or the boll between the two middle fin- gers, the palm of the hand up ; the fingers of the right hand are inserted tolerably low down in the boll, a finger on each lock of cotton ; then, as the fingers grasp it, there is a slight twisting motion, and a quick pull, which, if done well, will extract the contents. Cotton should he gathered from the field as clean as possible, taken to the scaffolds and dried until the seed will crack when pressed between the teeth, not crush or mash, but crack with some noise. It should be frequently turned over and stirred, and all the trash and rotten pods taken out, while this is done, to insure its drying earlier. If seeds are wanted for planting, gin the cotton imme- diately, and spread the seed over the floor some five inches thick, until perfectly dry. If the cotton-seed be not wanted, pack the seed-cotton away in the house, to remain until a gentle heat is discovered, or until sufficient for ginning. After it has become heated, until there is a sensible feeling of warmth to the hand, and it looks as if pressed together, open and scatter to cool. This cotton will gin faster, have a softer feel, is not so brittle, therefore not so liable to break by rapidity of gin, and has a creamy color ; the wool has imbibed a part of the oil that has exuded by the warmth of seed, and is in fact restored to the original color. I have known of a number of sales made of this description of cot- COTTON. 203 ton, and even those who are most strenuous against the heating, admit it bore a better price." The cotton is then ginned and baled, when it is ready for market. Topping Cotton between the 20th July and 20th August is practiced by many planters with decided success. It is generally considered highly beneficial in dry seasons, but not in wet, and that in three years out of five it is attended with particular advantage to the crop. SEA-ISLAND OOTTON. This crop is raised on the islands and low lands that bor- der the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. If removed from this locality, the fibre seems immediately to degene- rate. It requires, in many respects, a treatment unlike that of the upland. I insert an article by Thomas Spalding, Esq., an experienced and intelligent planter, who has long been engaged in its cultivation : " The Sea-Island cotton was introduced into Georgia from the Bahamas. The seed was from a small island near St. Domingo, known as Ar- guilla, then producing the bestcotton of the western world. It in no way resembles the Brazil cotton, which is the kidney-seed kind, introduced some years later, and which, after trial, was rejected in Georgia. It came in small par- cels from the Bahamas, in the winter of 1785 ; and gradually made its way along the coast of Georgia, and passed into Carolina. The winter of 1786 in Georgia was a mild one, and although the plants of the Sea-Island that year had not ripened their seed, it being a perennial, and subject only to be killed by frost, it started the next season from the roots of the previous year, its seed ripened, and the plants became acclimated. Many changes have come over this seed since that time, from difference of soil, culture, and local position, and above all, from careful selection of seed. But the cause is yet to be discovered, why the gain in finenses of wool, is lost in the quality and weight of the product ; for in spite of a zeal and intelligence brought to act upon the subject without parallel, the crops are yearly diminishing, until to grow Sea-Island cotton is one of the most profitless pursuits within the limits of the United States. Planting. — When the first seed was introduced, it was planted in hills prepared upon the level field, at five feet each way ; but it was soon found to be a very tender plant, liable to suffer by storms, by wind, by drought, and by ex- cess of rain. The quantity of seed was therefore increased, 204 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and the plants multiplied. If the seed is at first covered more than two inches, it will not feel the influence of the sun, and will not vegetate later in the season ; that is, in April. You must give from three to four inches of covering to preserve the moisture, or you fail from an opposite cause, the wind and sun drying the soil too much for vegetation. In most countries, after sowing the seed, the roller is applied ; but in cotton-planting, in our ridge-husbandry, the foot in covering tlie seed and pressing down the earth, well supplies its place. Preparing the land. — Early in February, clean the rested fields, and either burn off the fennel-weeds and grass of the previous year, or list them in at five feet apart, to serve as the base of the future ridges or bed. There is much difference of opinion upon the subject of burning or listing in. I am inclined to take the first opinion, believing that the light dressing of ashes the field receives from burning off, is more beneficial to the soil than the decay of the vege- table matter, and renders it less liable to produce what is a growing evil, the rftst ; a species of blight, much resembUng the rust or blight upon wheat, and which takes place about the same period, just as the plant is putting out, and pre- paring to ripen its fruit. For many years it has been the practice, among experienced planters, to divide the enclosed fields into two portions ; the one at rest, the other in culture. Ridging. — The land being listed in short lines across the entire field, at five feet apart, the operation of ridging is com- menced about the first of March. The ridges occupy the entire surface, the foot of one ridge commencing where the other ends, and rising about eight inches above the natural level of the land, thus presenting a surface almost as smooth, and almost as deeply worked, as a garden-bed. This is done but a few days ahead of the planting, and the ridge is from two to two and a half feet broad at top ; it is then trenched on the upper surface with the hoe, six inches wide, and from three to six inches deep, depending upon the period of planting. , * Quantity of seed per a^re. — A bushel of seed is gener- ally sown to the acre, I believe half a bushel is better ; for where the evil comes, whether the worm, wind, drought, or wet, there is no security in the many, but where they come up thin, they soon grow out of the way of injury. After-culture. — The cultivation of Sea-Island cotton is carried on by the hand-hoe, and the quantity is always lim- . COTTON. > 205 ited to four acres to the laborer. The operation of weeding commences as soon as we finish plantings because in our flat and sandy soils the grass-seed springs with the first growth of the cotton, and by the time we finish planting, say the 1st of May, what we planted in March requires the hoe. In the operation of hoeing and weeding, the land is kept, as far as may be, at its original level, the beds neither increased nor diminished, that the heavy rains which gener- ally fall in August, may injure the growing plants, which are then in full bearing, as little as possible. The young cotton is thinned out slowly at from six to twelve inches apart on the ridge, by the 10th of June. As soon as the rains commence, which is about the last of July, it is wise to leave nature to herself, and no longer disturb the soil. Four hoeings, if well done, and the grass well picked at. each hoeing, is enough ; nor does any aftergrowth of grass do injury. Manures and soiling stock. — For ten years past, great efforts have been made by the Sea-Island planters in ma- nuring. Much of the alluvion of our salt rivers has been collected, and sometimes placed directly in heaps through the fields at rest, and at other times placed in cattle-pens on which cotton seed and all waste materials are strewn, and the cattle penned upon it. But what is preferred, is to pen our cattle near the river at night, and cut salt-grass, which covers these alluvion lands, and which is as nutritious as so much clover. Great benefits will hereafter, undoubtedly result from the use of marl. Amount of crop per acre and picking. — It has been sta- ted already, that 500 pounds to the acre, is about the medi- um crop, which at 20 cents per pound (more than the actual price for the last three years), is to the planter, $100 for gross crop; and from this $100 dollars, is to be subtracted bagging, freight, expenses of sale, clothing for his people, medical attention, and too often provisions." The varieties of Cotton in the United States, which have been cultivated with success in addition to those enumera- ted, are the Rio, with a staple about three inches in length, of a glossy, silky texture, brought from South America ; the Egyptian, received from the garden of Mehemet Aii, and grown in Louisiana 15 feet in height ; the Mastadon, lately introduced from Mexico, firm in texture and quite produc- tive ; the Chinese Silk Cotton, white, soft, fine and silky ; the East India^ growing to a height of 14 feet, and produ- 206 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. cing a beatiful fibre ; and the Nankeen, a handsome staple, of a true nankeen color, raised by the late Hon. John For- syth, of Georgia, and some other planters. Cotton seed, like most of our cultivated plants, is the creature of circumstances, and improves or deteriorates within certain limits, according to climate, soil, manner of selecting, &c. Even the long, silken fibre, and the black seeds of the Sea-Island, assume the shorter, coarser staple, and the green seed of the upland, when exposed for two or three years to the same soil and position ; and a correspond- ing change takes place, when the upland is made to grow on the low sea-girt islands of South Carolina and Georgia. The sea-muck, which is full of minute shells (lime), decom- posed animal matter, including many of the phosphates and salt, is one of the best applications for improving the qual- ity of staple, as well as augmenting the quantity of fibre. Salt, by many experienced planters, is deemed the principal ingredient in effecting this improvement. It is believed that it may be applied with equal success to the upland varieties. The amount of ^eed in cotton is large, being nearly 70 per cent, of the entire gathering, the fibre being about 28. This is used for various purposes. Sometimes it is pressed for the oil, of which it yields from 15 to 20 per cent, of its own weight. When thus treated, the cake is used for cat- tle food. The seed is frequently, though improperly fed raw to stock ; and this often proves fatal, especially to swine when fed before the adhering fibre has been decomposed, besides being attended with much waste. It is most advan- tageously prepared by boiling for half an hour, when it will benefit all descriptions of stock. By adding an equal quan- tity of corn, and boiling them together, it will fatten swine rapidly. It is also useful to land as a manure. SUG-AR OANE (Saccharum officinarum, Fig. 45), This plant was cultivated in Louisiana, on the present site of the city of New Orleans, as early as 1726. For more than half a century, however, its use was almost wholly limited to the conversion of its juice into syrup and molas- ses. Sugar was not made within the State of Louisiana, till after 1760. In 1796, the second sugar mill was erected on the plantation now occupie4 by the town of Carrolton. Owing to the revolution in St. Domingo, and the emigration of large numbers of her planters to Louisiana, the cultiva- tion of the cane was largely extended soon after this period ; THE SUGAR CANE. 207 Fig. 45. yet so late as 1818, the entire crop of the State amounted only to 25,000 hogsheads. Steam power was first applied to grinding the cane, in 1822, and since that period, its cul- tivation has been rapidly spreading over the delta of the Mississippi, and the adjoining territory. The product of Louisiana in 1845, reached the enormous quantity of 207,337,000 pounds, and about 9,000,000 gallons of molasses, worth nearly $15,000,000 ; being an increase of over ten times the quantity yielded but 30 years be- fore. Its introduction into other States. — The cane was introduced into Georgia from Otaheite, in 1805, and sugar was for some- time producetS for export. It was an object of attention while it commanded ten cents per pound ; but when the prices declined to five and six cents, it ceased to be manufactured as an article of commerce, though still extensively produced for domestic consumption. It has re- cently engrossed the attention of planters to some extent, in Florida and Texas ; and there are portions of these States eminently calculated, both in soil and climate, to rival the best sections of Louisiana in its culture. The southern portions of Alabama and Mississippi, as well as the Caro- linas, have also begun to plant the cane for the supply of their own syrup, and they have thus far proved it an object well worthy their pursuit. The introduction of the Ribbon Cane, from Georgia into the adjoining States, in 1817, by giving a much hardier variety, has largely extended the area of its cultivation, and render- ed it a desirable crop, where it would not otherwise have been an object of attention. It is probable, too, that it is gradually becoming acclimated, and that hereafter, it will endure an exposure, and yield profitable returns far north of any point where it has hitherto been successfully grown. The total product of sugar has not yet reached over 60 per cent, of our own consumption. But this interest is rapidly extending throughout those portions of the southern States 208 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. adapted to it ; and with the immense area, capable of being reclaimed from the swamps of the Gulf coast and elsewhere, devoted to this object, there is no improbability that the energies of American planters, will soon cany^ our produc- tion beyond the total of the world, in 1844, which was be- low 780,000 tons, or about 1,500,000 hogsheads. Varieties. — The kind most cultivated in the United States, is the striped Ribbon or Java^ which is by far the hardiest and most enduring cane. It grows rapidly, is of large size, and resists the effects of early and late frosts, and the excess of rains or drought and disease, better than any other. It has, however, a hard, coarse rind, and yields juice of only a medium quality. The outer coating is beau- tifully striped with alternate blue and yellow, of varying widths, and changing in every successive joint. The red ribbon, or violet, from Java, is much like the foregoing, ex- cept in having a uniform color, and by many it is preferred for new land. The Creole, crystaline or Malabar, was the first introdu- ced, and though of diminutive size, is a cane of great rich- ness and value. Several varieties of the Otaheite, the pur- ple, the yellow, and the purple-banded, are more or less cul- tivated. Some of these were brought into Georgia at an early day, and thence transferred to Louisiana. Those I have seen have a large stalk of great succulency, but yield- ing a juice decidedly inferior to the Creole. Some additional varieties, such as the grey canes, intermixed with the ribbon, and occasionally others have been introduced, but they are not of superior quality, or of general cultivation. Soil. — The cane will flourish in a great variety of soils, varying between the extremes of a stiff clay and a light sandy loam, provided the former be well drained and fertile. The soil best suited to it is a fertile loam, well supplied with lime, and such as will yield the best crops of Indian corn. Some of the best and most enduring soils in the West In- dies and elsewhere, contain large quantities of lime and the phosphates. The most profitable sugar plantation in Louisiana, has a profusion of shells scattered over it, in every stage of decomposition. Seed Cane. — This plant is always propagated by cuttings. These ought to be provided from the best cane of the pre- ceding season. From the use of the unripe tops and close, negligent planting, it is supposed the Creole cane has degen- erated to its present diminutive size. There is less vigor THE SUGAR CANE. 209 and growth usually from tops than from the ripened cane ; though where these are matured and a portion of the ripe stalk is left with it, the resulting crops, under the most favorable circjumstances, are scarcely distinguishable. Fine growth frequently follows planting the tops, where the land is new and fertile ; but it is the exception and not the rule ; and good husbandry dictates a reliance on sound, mature cane only, for general use. There is no doubt, that in ac- cordance with the general laws of vegetation, the cane crop would be benefitted by a change of the plant cane from one section of country to another. But as this would be at- tended with so much trouble and expense as to preclude the undertaking, the only remaining means available for secur- ing improvement or preventing deterioration, is to be found in planting the best qualities of seed cane. preservation of the Cane. — This is kept from the period of cutting till planting, by simply placing it on the dry sur- face of the field, in beds or mattresses^ as they are techni- cally termed, of about two feet in depth, and having the tops shingling or overlying the ripe portion of the stalk. The tops should lie towards the south, to prevent their being lifted and frozen from severe north winds, which sometimes occur." Thick beds preserve a more uniform temperature, and repel the approach both of frost and the sun's rays ; thus serving the double purpose, besides their preservation from frost, of preventing fermentation during fall and winter, and germination on the approach of spring. It is well to preserve an excess of seed cane, as continued and severe spring frosts may cut down and destroy so many young shoots, as to leave a deficiency, unless partially re- planted. Many assert the cane will keep better by being cut soon after a rain, so as to be bedded with the sap vessels full, and that dry rot follows when cut after a long drought. Some, however, allow it to lie on the ground and wilt for two or three days after cutting, and think when thus treated, it keeps equally well. Cane which is intended for grinding is often thus se- cured, when severe frosts are anticipated. It requires ad- ditional labor to top and trim it when thus harvested ; but a good yield of sugar is in this way often secured, which might otherwise be lost. Preparation far planting. — Where the land is new (as much of it is, that is now appropriated to cane), it is inva- riably light and full of vegetable matter. Shallow plowing, 210 / AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. and wide distances between the rows, are here justified. The cane grows luxuriantly in such soils, and where there is a deficiency of warm weather to mature it fully, as in Louisiana, room is required to allow a free circulation of air, and the full benefit of the sun, to ripen it before the ap- proach of frosts. From seven to ten feet is near enough for the rows, but these should contain from two to three con- tinuous lines of good plant cane. Where the land is fertile, wide rows, if well cultivated, will produce an equal quan- tity as if planted closer, and there is much less expense and labor in planting and tending the crop. Land that has been long in cultivation, may be planted nearer ; but if sufficiently fertile, as it ought always to be, it should never be nearer than six feet, and under certain circumstances, may extend to lyne. It was formerly the practice to plant a single line of seed cane, in rows from two and a half to four feet apart ; but this system has been given up, as it >vas found troublesome in cultivating, slower in ripening, and it is believed materially and permanently to have lessened the size of the cane first introduced. Some planters make their cane beds every sixteen feet, planting in each, two rows at a distance of four feet, and leaving a space between every alternate row of eleven feet. There is a great advantage in these wide spaces, as the trash (tops, leaves, and all dead vegetable matter left on the ground), and bagasse (megasse, [Fr.] the residuum of the cane after expressing the juice), can all be buried between the widest spaces, and remain undisturbed till decomposed, without prejudice to the growing crop. On light or sandy lands, these materials may be burned and the ashes applied to the soil ; but in adhesive or clay lands, good husbandry requires that all this should be buried, as the vegetable de- cay (carbonaceous matter or humus), not only contains every element for the reproduction of the future crop, but it effects a mechanical division in the soil, of great value to its poro- sity, friability and productiveness. Occasionally, the trash is buried at the foot of the plant, in which situation the earth is kept constantly upon it. Some place the cane at a distance of ten or twelve feet, and plant corn between the rows, which matures and withers before the cane reaches its full size. Others sow the cow pea, while still occupied Jwith cane, to renovate the land ; but neither practice seems to meet with general favor, as they interfere with the main purpose of planting, which is to produce the greatest quan- THE SUGAR CANE. 211 tity of mature cane, an object that can only be secured by its thorough and exclusive cultivation on the field. The land should be deeply broken up with a two or four horse plow. If light or sandy, it may be plowed flat ; but if stiff, or too much inclined to wet, it should be thrown into beds. Great advantages have generally followed the use of the subsoil plow, when run a foot below the bottom of the turning furrow, and immediately under the rows to be occupied by the cane. This is the more important, as no opportunity will again occur for breaking up this portion of the field, till the plant is renewed. The plowing may be done at any convenient time between October and March ; but on plantations where the harvesting and grinding are going forward, it is seldom the plows can be started before the last of December, or early in January. The plowing should never long precede the planting, unless in stiff soils, which need the meliorating influence of the atmosphere to crumble the massive clods ; nor in these, beyond the period necessary to efl"ect this object. A fine bed of well-pulver- ized earth is thus secured for the plants to root in, and aflbrd its nourishment to the young shoots. Planting. — This may be done any time between Octo- ber and April. There is a greater certainty of a good crop if in the ground by the first of March. The occupations of harvesting, grinding, plowing, &e., will usually postpone the commencement of planting till January. On the land pre- viously well plowed, open a wide furrow with the fluke or double mold-board plow. Clean this out with the hoe of a uniform width, by the removal of any clods that may have fallen in after the plow. With the increased width now usually adopted by the best planters, not less than three parallel seed stalks should be planted. These ought to be precisely in line, and at least four inches apart ; and it is better to place them so that the eyes may shoot out horizon- tally, and thus come up at the same time and on opposite sides of the stalk. Cover with sufficient earth to prevent freezing from any weather that may follow. On the ap- proach of spring, remove the earth to the depth of one or two inches. Light spring frosts will not otherwise injure the cane, than to cut down the young shoots, and thus de- lay the growth till new leaves appear. The danger is in re- moving so much of the earth as to expgse the roots to freezing. Cultivating. — Throu2:hout most of Louisiana, the cane 212 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. yields three crops from one planting. The first season it is called plant cane and subsequently, ratoons. In the tro- pical climates, the West Indies and elsewhere, ratoons will frequently continue to yield profusely for twelve or fifteen years. On new and peculiarly favorable spots in this coun- try, the ratoons will produce equal to the plant cane foi several years, occasionally for six or eight ; and sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be replanted every year. The cultivation isalike in each, after the young shoots make their appearance ; previous to which, the ratoons should be barred off and 5cr-. one of the most magnificent, as it is one of the longest-lived of the forest tribes. It is to be regretted that many of the species are so slow of growth, that they seldom tempt their cultiva- tion by the utilitarian of this country, who looks only to the speedy enjoy- ment of his labor. Many of those Fig. 65. whicli have descended to us from pre- ceding generations, combine much of the beauty, and all of the grandeur we can expect in a shade tree. The Black Oak (Fig. QQ), on soil adapted to it, is a tree of commanding beauty and stalwart growth. The foliage appears late, but is unsurpassed for depth and richness of color, and highly- polished surface ; and it retains its summer green, long after the early frosts have mot- tled the ash, and streaketl the maple with their rainbow hues. When grown on dry and open land, both fuel and timber are Ficj. 6G. firm, compact and lasting. The Pin Oak (Figs. 67 and 68), of which two speci- mens are given, grows rapidly and with great beauty, when transplanted into an open space. It af- fords a timber of great strength and excellence. Some others of our nor- thern oaks yield a fine Fig. 67. Fio. 68, sliade, and good timber and fuel when grown in open grounds. The Live Oak (Fig. 69) often flourishes as far as 35°. north ; but is not found in perfection north of Louisiana. It grows rapidly, and assumes a great variety of shapes in its earlier growth, but most frequently appears as in Fig. 69 Sometimes, though rarely, it branches stiffly upwards like the ash; occasionally it is seen dipping its long, drooping boughs into the water, some- feet below the surface of Fig. 69. the bank which supports its roots; qjid SHADE TREES, 291 more often it imitates the maple. But it most frequently throws its branches out abruptly, and nearly at right angles with the trunk, like the apple ; or gracefully arches upward till the flexile twigs descend from the outer extremity, form- ing a beautiful and usually flattened dome, with a diameter sometimes exceeding 150 feet. It renews its foliage gen- erally once in two years, and then gradually, thus always affording a dense mass of living green. Many other species of evergreen oaks, which never grow north of about 37° within the States, do not vary materially in appearance or character from the live oak. For ship-building, the live oak is esteemed the strongest and most durable timber. The Elm when standing isolated, is one of our most beau- tiful and imposing trees. It grows to an immense size, with gracefully projecting limbs and long pendant branches. It is liable to few diseases, and the fuel and timber are good for most purposes. Every one who has seen the patriar- chal elms which grace the beautiful villages of the Connec- ticut valley, and other old towns of New England, must wish to see them universally disseminated. The Rock or Su^ar Maple, before mentioned on page 219, (Fig. 70), has a straight trunk and reg- ular upward-branching limbs, forming a top of great symmetry and elegance. Besides the ornament and thick shade it affords, it gives an annual return in its sap, which is converted into syrup and sugar. The fuel is not inferior to any of our native trees, the timber is valuable, yielding the beautiful '^^loT^^ glossy bird's eye maple so much esteemed for furniture, and various other purposes. The Black Walnut (Fig. 71) is a stately, graceful tree, yielding excellent wood and durable timber ; and besides its extensive use for plain, susbtantial furniture, the knots and crotches make the rich, dark veneer- ing, which rivals the mahogany or rose wood in brilliancy and lasting beauty. In a fertile soil, where only it is found in its native state, it bears a rich, highly "^G.Vi flavored nut. The White Ash has a more slender and stiffer top than either of the preceding, yet is light and graceful. The fuel is good, and the timber unequalled in value for the carriage maker. 292 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. There are two species of willow usually cultivated as shade trees. The White Willow (Fig. 72, which is rather a superannuated spe- cimen) generally occupies a low, moist situation, on the brink of some rivulet or stream. It is nearly valueless except in the shade it affords. The bright, orange twigs and branches furnish an unfailing supply of primitive whistles for Fio. 72. the youngsters in the spring. The Weeping Willow is a tree of variegated foliage, and long flexile twigs, sometimes trailing the ground -for yards in length. Its soft, silvery leaves are among the earliest of spring, and the last to maintain their verdure in autumn. But its wood is of little value. The Locust (Fig. 73) is a beautiful tree, of rapid growth, flowering profusely, with its layers or massive flakes of innumerable leaflets of the deepest verdure. The wood is unrivalled for durabili- ty as ship timber, except by the live-oak ; and for posts or exposure to the weather, it is ex- ceeded only by the savin or red cedar. It has of late years, been subject to severe attacks and Fio. 73. great injury from the borer, a worm against whose ravages hitherto, there has been no successful remedy. The Button-wood, Sycamore, Plane-tree or Water-beach, by all of which names it is known in different parts of this country, is of gigantic dimensions when occupying a rich and moist, alluvial soil. One found on the banks of the Ohio measured 47 feet in circumference, at a height of four feet from the ground. Its lofty mottled trunk, its huge irregular limbs, and its numerous pendant balls (in which are com- pressed myriads of seeds with their plumy tufts, that are wafted to immense distances for propagation), have ren- dered it occasionally a favorite. They are often seen on the banks of our rivers, almost constituting a hedge ; and sometimes they completely span streams of considerable size. The wood is cross-grained, and intractable for work- ing, and the timber is of little use except for fuel. The Magnolia {Magnolia grandijlora) is a splendid south- ern evergreen, with a beautiful fir or cone-like top, bearing leaves greatly increased in size and thickness beyond those of the evergreen oaks, and of equally deep, perennial verdure. Among these, the large snow white blossoms, six or seven inches in diameter, and of great fragrance, spangle,in leisure- SHADE TREES. 293 Fio. 75. ly succession, the whole circumference, during most of the months of May and June. Its timber is soft, but useful for some purposes. The Pecan (Fig. 74) is a deciduous, nut- bearing tree, of the walnut tribe, and grows in the same latitudes as the live-oak and magnolia. It is much taller than either," and somewhat resembles in its growth the rock maple of the North. The nuts are of considerable value '°''^^' as an article of food and export. The Paper Mulberry (Fig. 75) i& a handsome shade tree. It is a native of Japan, and was introduced into this country in 1784. Its wood and timber are of little value ; but great merit is claimed for its leaves as forage for cattle ; for its sap as a substitute for glue ; and for its bark as a material for both cloth and paper. It is - hardy enough for any part of the United States, south of 42°. The Lombardy Poplar (Fig. 76) is too well known to need description. It is strictly a foreigner, as its name imports, and was introduced into this country only in the latter part of the last century, to any extent. For many years it was popular, and being of rapid growth and easily propagated by twigs or cuttings, it was soon disseminated through the country. Being short-lived, many of the earliest trees have long since died ; and a judicious taste has nearly exterminated the remainder. It has a prim, grenadier-like stiffness ; but their double files, which some- times line the country roads, add a pleasant feature to the distant landscape. Its wood and timber are almost worthless, being light, porous and unsubstantial. The Tulip Tree (Fig. 77) is one of our most beautiful native shade trees. It abounds on this continent, south of latitute 43°, and a little distance from the Atlantic coast. It grows lofty and large, with a symmetrical top, of great beauty. It has a smooth polished trunk when young, which never becomes very rough or jagged by age. It bears a profusion of delicate, greenish- Fig. 76. 294 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. colored, nearly inodorous flowers, as large and not unlike the outline of the cotton blossom. Its timber is light and soft, but useful for many purposes. The Ailantus {A. glandulosa, Fig. 78) has not been ex- tensively reared in the United States, till within the last few years. It is hardy, and grows rapidly in latitude 42°, and south of it, throwing out its long, pinnated, sumach-like leaf, from 20 to 70 inches in length. It forms a pleasant shade imme- diately after transplanting, and will con- tinue to grow rapidly and with great beau- "fio. Ts! -y till it attains a height of 50 to 70 feet. Some even exceed this size. The Chinese, from whom we get it, give to it the imposing name of the Tree of Hea- ven. Its wood is hard and compact, and of a deep, reddish color. It will receive some polish, and retains a slight lus- tre, sufficient to justify its use for cabinet work. The European Larch as shown in fig. 79, is of many varieties, and is sometimes used in this country as a shade tree. For this object, the Med- coned and Weeping varieties are esteemed the most ornamental! There are several other varieties indigenous to America, close- ly resembling the former in all their peculiari- ties. They are more generally known in this country as the Hackmatack or Tamarack. Fig. 79. They are partial to moist or swampy and cold soils. The timber is among the strongest and most durable; They sometimes grow to thf height of 80 or lOt) feet, and two to three feet in diameter. The Cedar of Lebanon (Fig. 80) endeared to the memo- ry of youth by a thousand incidents of biblical and profane history, is a tree of large size, and peculiar in its widely- outspreading branches. It is frequently used as a shade tree in Europe, but sel- dom in this country. The great value of its timber may be inferred, from the fact that it was almost exclusively used in the building of the temple of Solomon, whose costly ma- terials and elaborate finish has never been equalled before or eince. There is one specimen growing at Throg's Neck, N. Y., two feet in diameter, that procfuces an abundance of cones annually, from which other trees can be grown. WOODLANDS. 295 Fio. 81. The Hemlock, (Fig.. 81), is a native of all the middle and j^ northern States. It is an evergreen, slightly ^^^b resinous ; and when growing in an open space, ^^^BL- has a beautifully symmetrical top. It affords j^^^^K a dense and agreeable sha^ie from its irmumer- ,j^^^^HL able leaflets. As fuel, it is better than the j|^^^^^^ white pines, but inferior to the resinous or pitch SflH^Ht pines, and for timber or lumber it. is inferior to ^^J|j[JJ[^ either for most purposes. The Balm of Gilead (Fig. 82) is a native of this continent, and abounds in low, moist situ- ations, among a great variety of other species of the fir tribe. It grows well when transplanted to open ground, where it is sufficiently moist, and sustains a handsome, pyramidal top, of deep ver- dure. When young and thrifty, it has a thick foliage, but becomes thin and unsightly when old ; before which period, it should be removed Yrom the ornamental grounds. The Long-leaved Pine (Fig. 83) frequently known as Georgia pitch pine, grows in great , abundance from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. Immense quantities of pitch are an- nually gathered from the original forests, through the southern States ; but the princi- pal product is derived from North Carolina. Over 800,000 barrels have been exported from that State in a year, worth nearly $2,000,000. When early transplanted into open grounds, it forms a fine shade tree. While young, the tufts of leaves are very long, bushy and graceful. The White Pine of the North is also a beautiful shade tree, when not too old. The foliage of all the pines and resin- ous trees, becomes thin and scraggy as they advance beyond middle age. WOOD LANDS. There are few farms in the United States, where it is not convenient and profitable to have one or more wood lots at- tached. They su^jply the owner with his fuel, which he can prepare at his leisure ; they furnish him with timber for buildings, rails, posts and for his occasional demands for im- plements ; they require little attention, and if well managed, will yield more or less forage for cattle and sheep. The Fig. 83. 296 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. trees should be kept in a vigorous, growing condition, as the profits are as much enhanced from this cause as any of the cultivated crops. ^ Few American fields require planting with forest trees. The soil is everywhere adapted to their growth, and being full of seeds and roots, when not too long uijder cultivation, it needs but to be left unoccupied for a time, and they will everywhere spring up spontaneously. Even the oak open- higs of the West, with here and there a scattered tree, and such of the prairies as border upon woodlands, when rescued from the destructive effects of the annual fires, will rapidly shoot up into vigorous forests. I have repeatedly seen in- stances of the re-covering of oak barrens and prairies with young forests, which was undoubtedly their condition be- fore the Indians subjected them to conflagration ; and they have indeed, always maintained their foothold against these desolating fires, wherever there was moisture enough in the soil to arrest their progress. In almost every instance, if the germs of forest vegetation have not been extinguished in the soil, the wood-lot may be safely left to self-propagation, as it will be certaia to produce those trees which are best suited to the present state of the soil. Slightly thinning the young wood may in some cases be desirable, and especially by the removal of such worth- less shrubbery as never attains a size or character to render it of any value. Such are the alders, the blue-beach and swamp-willow ; and where there is a redundance of the bet- ter varieties of equal vigor, those may be removed that will be worth the least when matured. In most woodlands, however, nature is left to assert her own unaided preferences, growing what and how she pleases, and it must be con- fessed she is seldom at variance with the owner's interest. Serious and permanent injury has often followed close thinning. In cutting over woodlands, it is generally best to remove all the large trees on the premises at the same time. This admits a fresh growth on an equal footing, and allows that variety to get the ascendancy to which the soil is best suited. In older settled States, where land and its productions are comparatively high, many adopt the plan of clearing off everything, even burning the old logs and brush, and then sow one or more crops of wheat or rye, for which the land IS in admirable condition, from the long accumulation of vegetable matter and the heavy dressing of ashes thus re- WOODLANDS. 297 ceived. They then allow the forest to resume its original claims, which it is not slow to do, from the abundance of seeds and roots in the ground. But unless the crop be valuable, the utility of this practice is doubtful ; as by the destruction of all the young stuff which may be left, there is a certain delay of some years in the after growth of the wood ; and the gradual decay of the old trunks and brush, may minister fully as much to its growth as the ash which their combustion leaves ; and the fertility of the soil is di- minished just in proportion to the amount of vegetable mat- ter abstracted by the grain crops which may have been taken off. The proper time for cutting over the wood must depend on its character, the soil, and the uses to which it is to be applied. For saw-logs or frame-timber, it should have a thrifty growth of 40 or 50 years ; but in the mean time, much scattering fuel may be taken from it, and occasionally such mature timber trees as can be removed without injury to the remainder. For fuel alone, a much earlier cutting has been found most profitable. The Salisbury Iron Company has several thousand acres of land, which have been reserved exclusively for supplying their own charcoal. The intelli- gent manager informed me, that from an experience of sixty years, they had ascertained the most profitable period for cut- ting, was once in about sixteen years, when everything was removed of a proper size, and the wood was left entirely to itself for renewed growth. It has been found that this yielded a full equivalent to an annual interest on $16 to $20 an acre, which for a rough and rather indifferent soil, remote from a wood or timber market, will pay fully as much as the nett profits on cultivated land in the same neighborhood. The wood should be kept entirely free from sheep and cattle, when young, as they feed upon the fresh shoots with nearly the same avidity as they do upon grass or clover ; and when it is desirable to thicken the standing trees by an additional growth, cattle should be kept from the range till such time as the new sprouts or seedlings may have attained a height beyond their reach. When it is necessary to bring into woodland such fields as have not forest roots or seeds already deposited in a condition for germination, the fields should be sown or planted with all the different nuts or seeds adapted to the soil, and which it is advantageous to culti- vate. Transplanting trees for a forest in this country, cannot at 13* 298 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. present be made to pay, from its large expense ; and if the trees will not grow naturally or by sowing, the land should be continued in pastures or cultivation. There are some lands so unfitted for tillage by their roughness or texture, as to be much more profitable as woodland. It is better to retain such in forest, and make from them whatever they can thus produce, rather than by clearing and bringing them into use, to add them to superfluous tillage fields, and become a drain on labor and manures which they indiffer- ently repay. In clearing lands, when it is desirable to reserve trees for a park or shade, a selection should be made of such as are young and healthy, which have grown in the most open places, with a short stem and thick top. It will tend to in- sure their continued and vigorous growth, if the top and leading branches be shortened. Large trees will seldom thrive when subjected to the new condition in which they are placed, after the removal of the shade and moisture by which they have been surrounded. They will generally remain stationary or soon decay ; and the slight foothold they have upon the earth by their roots, which was suffi- cient for their protected situation while surrounded by other trees, exposes them to destruction from violent gales ; and they do not acquire or attain that beauty of top and symme- try of appearance which should entitle them to preservation. If partialities are to be indulged for any, they should be sur- rounded by a copse of younger trees, by which they will be in a measure protected. Young stocks should be left in numbers greater than are required, as many of them will die, and from the remainder, selections can be made of such as will best answer the purpose designed. THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING TIMBER. Nine tenths of the community think winter the time for this purpose, but the reason assigned that the sap is then in the roots, shows its futility, as it is evident to the most su- perficial observer, that there is nearly the same quantity of sap in the tree at all seasons. It is less active in winter, and like all other moisture, is congealed during the coldest weather ; yet when not absolutely frozen, circulation is never entirely stopped in" the living tree. Reason would seem to indicate, that the period of the maturity of the leaf, or from'^the last of June to the first of November, is the sea- son for cutting timber in its perfection. Certain it is, that FARMING TOOLS. 299 we have numerous examples of the timber cut within this period, which has exhibited a durability twice or three times as great as that cut in winter, when placed under precisely the same circumstances. After it is felled, it should at once be peeled, drawn from the woods, and elevated from the ground to facilitate drying ; and if it is intended to be used under cover, the sooner it is put there the better. Wood designed for fuel, will spend much better .when cut within the same periods, and immediately housed ; but as this is generally inconvenient, from the labor of the farm being then required for the harvesting of the crops, it may be more economical to cut it whenever there is most leisure. Preservation of timber. — Various preparations of late years, have been tried for the more effegtual preservation of timber, which have proved quite successful, but the expense precludes their adoption for general purposes. These are kyanizing, or the use of carburetted azote (the base of prus- sic acid) ; a solution of common salt ; the use of corrosive sublimate, (a bi-chloride of mercury) ; pyrolignite of iron, formed from iron dissolved in pyroligneous acid, which is produced from the distillation of wood, or from the condensed vapor that escapes from wood fuel while burning, and which may be obtained in large quantities from a coal pit where charcoal is made. These will be absorbed by the sap pores and universally disseminated through the body of the tree, by sawing or cutting the trunk partially off while erect, and applying the solution to its base ; or it may be out down, leaving a part of the leafy branches above the point of satu- ration, and apply the solution to the butt end. The leaves will continue to sustain the natural flow of the sap, which is both upward and downward, by the different conduits or sap vessels, thus distributing the artificial solution through- out the trunk. Beautiful tints are given to timber which is used for caiai- net work, by saturating it with various coloring matters. Although the expense of these preparations may prevent their use for large, cheap structures, yet for all the lighter imple- ments such as wagons, plows, and tools generally, where the cost of the wood is inconsiderable in comparison with that of making, it would be economy to use such timber only as will give the longest duration, though its first price may be ten-fold that of the more perishable material. FARMING TOOLS. These should form an important item of the farmer's at- 300 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. tention, as upon their proper construction depends much of the economy and success with which he can perform his operations. There have been great and important improve- ments within the past few years, in most implements, which have diminished the expense, while they have greatly im- proved the mechanical operations of agriculture. I have studiously avoided a reference to any of these, as there are many competitors for similar and about equally meritorious improvements ; and in this career of sharp and commenda- ble rivalry, what is the best to-day, may be supplanted by something superior to-morrow. These implements may now be found at the agricultural warehouses, of almost every desirable variety. Of these, the best only should be pro- cured ; such as are the most perfect in their principles and of the most durable materials. Cover the wood work with paint or oil, if to be exposed to the weather, and the iron or steel with paint, or a coating of hot tar, unless kept bright- ened by use. When required for cutting, they should al- ways be sharp, even to the hoe, the spade and the share and coulter of the plow. When not in use, keep them in a dry place. Plows, harrows, carts and sleds should all be thus protected, and by their longer durability they will amply repay the expense of shed room. They ought also to be kept in the best repair, which may be done at leisure times, so as always to be ready for use. [Some additional remarks on this subject will be found under the head of plows.] THE AGRICULTURAL EDUOATION OF THE PARMER. Though last mentioned, this is- the first in importance to the farmer's success. It should commence with the thor- ough, groundwork attainments everywhere to be acquired in our primary schools ; and it should embrace an elemen- tary knowledge of mechanics, botany, entomology, chemistry and geology, nor can it be complete without some acquain- tance with anatomy and physiology. The learner ought then to have a complete, practical understanding of the manual operations of the farm ; the best manner of planting, cultivating and securing crops ; he should be familiar with the proper management, feeding and breeding of animals ; the treatment of soils, the application of manures, and all the best practices and most approved principles connected with agriculture. This will be but the commencement of fhe farmer's education, and it should be steadily pursued v.irongh the remainder of his life. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 'M He must also learn from his own experience, which is the most certain and complete knowledge he can obtain, as he is thus aware of all the circumstances which have led to certain results ; and he should also learn from the experi- ence of his neighbors, and from his personal observation on every subject that comes within his notice. He will be particularly assisted by the agricultural journals of the present day, ;which embrace the latest experience of some of our best farmers, throughout remote sections of country, un almost every subject pertaining to his occupation. To these should be added, the selection of standard, reliable works on the various topics of farming, and of the latest authorities, which can be procured for direction and refer- ence. Agricultural colleges and schools should be added to this list of aids to farming, where experienced and gifted minds could be placed, surrounded by every means for conveying instruction in the fullest, yet most simple and effective manner, and with every requisite for practical illustration. It can hardly admit of a doubt, that ~ this neglected field will soon be efficiently occupied, and thus supply the only link wanting to the thorough education of the farmer. 302 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. / CHAPTER XIll FARM BUILDINGS. Great neglect is manifest in this country, in the erection of suitable farm buildings. The deficiency extends not only to their number, which is often inadequate to the wants of the farm, but more frequently to their location, arrangement and manner of construction. The annual losses which oc- cur in consequence of this neglect would, in a few years, furnish every farm in the Union with barns and out-houses fully adequate to the necessary* demands for both. I will give briefly in detail, the leading considerations which should govern the farmer in their construction. THE FARM HOUSE. If this is required for the occupation of the owner, it may be of any form and size his means and taste dictate. If for a tenant, and to be employed solely with a reference to its value to the farm, it should be neat, comfortable and of con- FARM BUILDINGS. 303 Fig. 85. venient size. It should especially contain a cool, airy and Fig. 86. spacious dairy room, entirely free from access by any foul air from any direction ; unless the owner prefers one inde- pendent of the house, over a clear spring or cool rivulet, where, par- tially protected fi:om the sun by a sheltering bank, half buried in the earth, and made, as it should be, of stone, the cool atmosphere within will afford the best safeguard against flies and other insects, and preserve Fig 87 '^ ^^® butter and cheese in the finest condition. Stone or brick are the best materials for dwellings, as they are cooler in summer and warmer in winter ; and if comfort be the object of the farmer's toil, there is certainly no place -where it should be sooner consulted or more amply provided for, than in his own home. A naked, scorching 304 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. exposure, equally with a bleak and dreary one is to be avoided. The design of a house is protection to its inmates, and if there be no adequate shelter from the elements, it fails in its purpose. It should be tastefully built, as this need not materially increase the expense, while it adds a pleasant feature to the, farm. It ought to occupy a position easily Fi«. 8& accessible to the other buildings and the fields, and yet be within convenient distance of the highway. It is desirable to have it so far removed as to admit of a light screen of trees, and nature will thus add an ornament arid protection in the surrounding foliage, which no skill of the architect can equal. ^ Pio. 89. Note. For cuts 84, 86, 89 and 91, the author is iodebted to A J. Downing, Esq FARM BUILDINGS. 305 Fig. 84 is a plain house, occupying an elevated position, with a slight drapery of trees and shrubbery attached. Fig. 85 is the same house and grounds as the former, with the house altered to conform to the Orne or Gothic style, which has recently come into vogue. Figs. 86 and 87 are plain but neat and ;^retty cottages, t'iG. 90. many of which, nearly similar in appearance, are seen throughout the country. Figs. 88 and 89, of the Orne style, are of about equal pre- Fio. 91. tensions and cost. Fig. 90 is a more imposing country cottage, in the Grecian style ; and fig. 91, a pretty lodge, or tasteful cotage for a small family. 306 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. THE CELLAR. This is an essential appendage to a house, particularly where roots are to be stored. Many appropriate a part of it to the dairy, and if thus employed, it should be high, clean and well ventilated, and wholly free from all earthy smell or odor of any kind. The proper preservation of what is contained in it, and the health of the inmates, demand a suitable dryness and free circulation of air. The cellar is frequently placed on the side of a hill, which renders it more, accessible from without. This is in no respect objectionable, if the walls are made sufficiently tight to exclude the frosts. When on level ground, it should be sunk only three or four feet below the natural surface, and the walls raised high enough to give all the room wanted ; and the excavated earth can be banked around the house, thus rendering it more ele- vated and pleasant. It also provides for the admission of light and air through small windows, which are placed above ground. A wire gauze to exclude ffies, ought to occupy the place of the glass in warm weather, and if liable to frosts, there should be double sashes in winter. Ventilation is important at all times, and it may be se- cured even in winter, by a large aperture connected with the chimney. This may be increased in mild weather or during the warmer part of the day, by throwing open the windows. The cellar should be connected with the kitchen or sheds above, by safe, well-lighted stairs ; and the entire building should be rat-proof. This is easily accomplished. When erecting a building, the carpenter and mason, for less than the additional expense of a year's support for a troop of rats, can forever exclude them from it, by the exercise of a little ingenuity and trouble. A brick floor in a cellar is easily broken up by these insidious, ever-busy vermin ; and a plank ^ or wooden floor is objectionable, from its speedy decay. The most effective and permanent barrier to their inroads, is afforded by a stone pavement, laid with large pieces in ce- ment, closely fitted to each other and to the side walls. This is also secured by placing a bed of small stones and pebbles on the ground and grouting, or pouring over it a mortar made of lime and sand, so thin as to run freely between the stones. When dry, a slight coating of water-lime cement is added, which is smoothed over with the trowel. This can be so laid as to admit of ready and perfect drainage, by a Jepression in the centre or sides, which answers for gutters. FARM BUILDINGS. 307 THE BARN Is the most important addition to the farm. Its size and form and manner of construction must depend on the situa- tion, the means of the owner, and the purposes for which it is designed. It is sometimes essential to have more than one on the premises, but in either case, they should be within convenient distance of the house. They ought to be large enough to hold all the fodder and animals on the farm. Not a hoof about the premises, should be required to brave our northern winters, unsheltered by a tight roof and a dry bed. They will thrive so much faster and consume so much less food when thus protected, that the owner will be ten- fold remunerated for the expense necessary to accomplish this object. Disease is thus often prevented, and if it oc- curs, is more easily removed. The saving in fodder by pla- cing it at once under cover when cured, is another great item of consideration. Besides the expense of stacking and fencing, the waste of the exposed hay in small stacks, is frequently one fourth of the whole, and if carelessly done, it will be much greater. There is the further expense of again moving it to the barn, or foddering it in the field, which greatly increases the waste. It is a convenient mode, to place a bam on a side hill in- clining to the south-east, whenever the position of the ground admits of it. There are several advantages con- nected with this plan. Room is obtained by excavation and underpinning, more cheaply than in the building. An extensive range of stabling may be made below, which will be warmer than that afforded by a wooden building, and the mangers are easily supplied with the fodder stored above. Cellar room can be made next to the bank, in which all the roots required for the cattle can be safely stored, in front of their mangers, and where they are easily deposited from carts, through windows arranged on the upper side, or scut- tles in the barn-floor above. More room is afforded for hay, in consequence of placing some of the stables below, and in thill way a large part of the labor of pitching it upon ele- vated scaffolds is avoided. The barn and sheds ought to be well raised on good underpinnings, to prevent the rotting of sills, and to allow the free escape of moisture, as low, damp premises are injurious to the health of animals. Fig. 92 is a barn placed on a side hill, which is a type of many we see throughout the northern States. The under- 308 AMERICAN AGIIICULTURE. ground space may be used either as a stfercorary (a place for housing manures), or as stables for the cattle or sheep. But one side of the floor is used for stabling, and the re mainder is devoted to the storage of hay, grain, roots, o other cattle food ; or it may be employed for storing wagons plows, and other farm implements. Barns of this style an among the most convenient of the farm buildings. Fig, 100 is an end, and Fig. 101, a side view of an im niense barn, capable of holding 100 tons of hay, and IOC head of cattle and young stock. FARM BUILDINGS. . . 309 Fig 102 is aground plan of the same building, with two Fig. 100. Fig. 101. sheds attached at each end ; a, main floor ; i, 6, mows for storing hay ; c, c, c, c, c, c, stables ; d, d, d, d, passage ways ; '« 4 <» « L 1 o« R- (^ &. o a. s ^ «i rt c« e^ O* a. » « A. I 1 ..i^, I 0*4 1 ISJ. Fig. 102. e, e, e, e, e. e, mangers for feeding ; g, g, g, g, g, doors. This gives a large amount of room for the animals, forage, grain, or implements, in a small compass. Fig. 103 is an enclosed shed, suitable for cattle when the weather is not too cold, and if boarded more closely, would at all times afford desirable accommodations for sheep. It 310 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. is not unlike many southern barns ; though these are more frequently made much wider, with the centre enclosed for Fig. 103. holding the grain and fodder. The roofs projecting far out on either side, furnish shelter for the mules, horses and oxen. Saving all the manure is one of the most important considerations in the arrangement of the barns, sheds and yards. The stables should have drains, that will carry off the liquid evacuations to a muck-heap or tank, and whatever manure is thrown out, should be carefully protected. The manure contains the future crops of the farmer, and unless he is willing to forego the latter, he must carefully husband the former. A low roof, projecting several feet over the ma- nure which is thrown from the stables, will do much to prevent waste from sun and rains. The eaves must be supplied with tight troughs to carry off the Avater, which may all be saved for the use of the stock, by leading it into tight cisterns or reservoirs. The mangers ought to be so constructed as to econo- mize the fodder. Box-feeding for cattle, I prefer, as in addition to hay, roots and meal may be fed in them without loss ; and with over-ripe hay, a great deal of seed may in this way be saved, which will diminish the quantity neces- sary to be purchased for sowing. The fine leaves and small fragments of hay are thus kept from waste, which in racks, are generally lost by falling on the floor. E.acks are objec- tionable, unless provided with a shallow box untlerneath, and they are especially to be avoided in foddering in tho open yards. There is a loss in dragging the forage to them , and too often this is done near a herd of hungry cattie, that gore each other, and are scarcely to be kept at bay by the FARM BUILDINGS. 311 use of the stoutest goad. There is also a waste of the hay that falls while the cattle are feeding, and this is largely increased in muddy yards ; added to which, the animals are exposed to whatever bad weather there may be while eating, which is at all times to be deprecated. SHEDS. Feeding in sheds is far better, and in many instances may take the place of the stall or stable. They are frequently and very properly arranged on two sides of the cattle yard, the barn forming a third, and the fourth opening to the south, unless this is exposed to the prevailing winds. This ar- rangement forms a good protection for the cattle ; and con- necting? the sheds with the barn is of importance in econo- mizino; the labor in foddering. The racks or boxes are placed on the boarded side of the shed, which forms the outer side of the yard, and they are filled from the floor over- head. If the space above is not sufficient to contain the necessary quantity of fodder, it may be taken from the mows or scaffolds of the barn, and carried or dragged over the floor to the place wanted. The floors ought to be perfectly tight to avoid waste, and the sifting of the particles of hay or seed on the cattle and sheep. Unless the ground under the shed be quite dry, it is better to plank it, and it will then admit of cleaning with the same facility as the stables. A portion of the shed may be par- titioned off for close or open stalls, for colts, calves or infirm cattle, and cows or ewes that are heavy with young. A little attention of this kind, will frequently save the life of an animal, and add much to their comfort and the general econo- my of farm management. flThe surplus straw, corn-stalks, and coarse hay can be used for bedding, though it is gener- ally preferable to have them cut and fed to the cattle. WATER FOR THE CATTLE YARD Is an important item, and if the expense of driving the animals to a remote watering place, the waste of manure thereby occasioned, the straying of cattle, and sometimes loss of limbs or other injury resulting from their being forced down icy slopes or through excessive mud, to slake their thirst — if all these considerations are taken into account, they will be found annually to go far towards the expense of supplying water in the yard, where it would at all times be accessible. All animals require water in winter, except 312 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. such as have a full supply of roots ; and though they some- times omit going to distant and inconvenient places where it is to be had, they may, nevertheless, suffer materially for the want of it. When it is not possible to bring water into the yard from a spring, or by means of a water ram, or it is not easily reached by digging, an effectual way of procuring a supply through most of the year is by the con- struction of Cisterns. — Where there is a compact clay, no further pre- paration is necessary for stock purposes, than to excavate the cistern of a sufficient size and depth ; and to keep up the banks on every side, place two frames of single joist around it, near the top and bottom, between which and the banks, heavy boards or plank may be set in an upright position. The earth keeps them in place on one side, and the joist prevents their falling. They require to be only tight enough to keep the clay from washing in, as no appreciable quan- tity of water will escape from the sides or bottom. I have used such for years, without repairs or any material waste of water. They should be made near the buildings ; and the rains carefully conducted to them by the eaves-troughs and pipes from an extensive range, will afford an ample supply. For household purposes, one should be made with more care and expense, and so n constructed as to afford pure filtered water at all times. These may be formed in various ways, and of different materials, stone, brick, or even wood; though the two former are preferable. They should be perma- nently divided into two apartments, one to re- ceive the water, and an- Fio. 104. other for a reservoir to contain such as is ready for use. Alternate layers of gravel, sand, and charcoal at the bottom of the first, and sand and gravel in the last, are sufficient ; the water being allowed to pass through the several layers mentioned, will be rendered perfectly free from all impurities. Some who are particu- larly choice in preparing water, make use of filtering stones, but this is not essential. Occasional cleaning may be ne- FARM BUILDINGS. / 313 cessary, and the substitution of new filtering materials will at all times keep them sweet. THE CARRIAGE HOUSE, STABLE AND GRANARY. The carriage house and horse stable sometimes occupy a building distinct from the barns and other outhouses, which is a good precaution against fire ; and where this is the case, it is frequently convenient to have the upper loft for a gra- nary. The propriety of having this proof against rats is obvious. Yet it should be capable of thorough ventilation, when the grain is damp or exposed to injury from want of air. Entire cleanliness of the premises is the best remedy against weevil and other noxious insects. The corn-crib. — If there be more Indian corn on the prem- ises than can be thinly spread over an elevated, dry floor, it may be stored in a corn-crib. This ought to occupy an isolated position ; and must be made with upright lattice- work, and a far projecting roof, with the sides inclining from a vertical line towards each other, from the roof downwards, to avoid the admission of rain. The corn in the cob is stored in open bins on either side, leaving ample room in the centre for threshing, or the use of the corn-sheller. Close bins may occupy the ends for the reception of the shelled . grain. All approach from rats and other vermin may be avoided, by placing the building on posts, with projecting stones or sheet iron on the top, and so high that they cannot reach it by jumping. A TOOL HOUSE AND WORK SHOP Ought always to have a place about the premises. In this building, all the minor tools may be arranged on shelves, or in appropriate niches, where they ean at once be found, and are not exposed to injury or theft. Here too the various farming tools may be repaired, which can be done in those leisure intervals that often occur. Ample shed room for every vehicle and implement about the farm should always be provided. Their preservation will fully repay the cost of such slight structures, as may be required to house them. A wagon, plow, or any wooden implement, will wear out sooner by exposure to- all weathers, without use, than by careful usage with proper protection. A horse power ^ either stationary or movable, can be made to contribute greatly to the economy of farming operations, ^14 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. where there is much grain to thresh, or straw, hay or corn- stalks to cut. With the aid of this, some of the portable mills may crush and grind much of the grain required for feeding. Even the water may be pumped by it into large troughs for the use of cattle, the fuel sawed, and various other operations performed, which may add much to the con- venience of the farmer and save more expensive labor. A STEAMING APPARATUS. Where there are many swine to fatten, or grain is to be fed to cattle or horses, this is at all times an economical ap- pendage to the farm. It has been shown from several ex- periments, that cattle and sheep will generally thrive as well on raw as on cooked roots ; but horses do better on the lat- ter, and swme will not fatten on any other. For all animals excepting store sheep, and perhaps even they may be ex- cepted, grain or meal is better when cooked. Food must be broken up before the various animal organs can appropriate it to nutrition ; and whatever is done towards effecting this object before it is fed to the stock, diminishes the necessity for the expenditure of vital force in accomplishing it, and thereby enables the animal to thrive more rapidly and do more labor, on a given amount. For this reason, I appre- hend, there may have been' some errors undetected in the experiments in feeding sheep and cattle with raw and cooked roots, which result in placing them apparently on a par as to their value for this purpose. The crushing or grinding of the grain insures more perfect mastication, and is performed by machinery at much less expense, than by the animals consuming it. The steaming or boiling is the jfinal step towards its easy and profitable assimilation in the animal economy. With a capacious steaming-box for the reception of the food, the roots and meal, and even cut-hay, straw and stalks may be thrown in together, and all will thus be most effectually prepared for nourishment. There is another advantasre derivable from this practice. The food may at all times be given at the temperature of the animal system, (about 98*^ of Farenheit), and the animal heat expended in warming the cold and sometimes frozen food, would be avoided. The steaming apparatus is variously constructed. I have used one consisting of a circular boiler five and a half feet long by twenty inches diameter, ujade of boiler iron and laid lengthwise on a brick arch. The fire is placed underneath FARM BUILDINGS. 315 and passes through the whole length and over one end, then returns in- contact with the boiler, through side flues or pockets, where it enters the chimney. This gives an ex- posure to the flame and heated air of about 10 feet. The upper part is coated with brick and mortar to retain the heat, and three small test cocks are applied at the bottom, middle and upper edge of the exposed end, to show the quantity ot water in it ; and two large stop cocks on the upper side for receiving the water and delivering the steam, completes the boiler. . - The steaming-box is oblong, seven or eight feet in length, by about four feet in depth and width, capable of holding 60 or 70 bushels, made of plank grooved together, and clamped and keyed with four sets of oak joist. A large circular tub, strongly bound by wagon tire and keyed, and holding about 25 bushels is also used. The tops of both are securely fastened, but a two inch auger hole, protected by a leather valve, permits the escape of any excess of steam. The steam is conveyed from the boiler into these, by a copper tube attached to the steam delivery-cock, and it is continued into the bottom of the box and tub by a lead pipe, on ac- count of its flexibility, and to avoid injury to the food from the corrosion of the copper. It is necessary to have the end of the pipe in the steaming-box, properly guarded by a metal strainer, to prevent its clogging from the contents of the box. Fig. 105. I find no difficultv in cooking' 15 bushel? of unc^round 316 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. Indian corn in the tub, in the course of three or four hours, and with small expense of fuel. Fifty bushels of roots can be perfectly cooked in the box, in the same time. For swine, fattening cattle and sheep, milch cows and working horses, and perhaps oxen, a large amount of food may be saved by the use of such or a similar cooking apparatus. The box may be enlarged to treble the capacity of the foregoing, without prejudicing the operation, and even with a boiler of the same dimensions, but it would take a longer time to effect the object. If the boiler were increased in proportion to the box, the cooking process would of course be accom* plished in the same time. Fig. 105 is a good form of a steaming apparatus, essen- tially similar in principle to the one described. lOE HOUSES. These, in the rapid progress of improvement and the in- creasing comforts and luxuries of this country, are justly deemed an important addition to the farm buildings. They are frequently essential to the operations of the dairy, and the preservation of milk, butter and cream for a longer time, and in better condition, than is otherwise attainable. They are also useful for keeping meats, fruits, eggs and vegetables unchanged, for an almost indefinite period. Whether this is done with reference to sending the articles to market at the most convenient or advantageous time, or to their con- sumption at home, it is equally consistent with economy. It is not necessary to dig into the earth for the purpose of securing a good ice house. Indeed, a large quantity of ice can be stored more cheaply by constructing the ice house above the surface of the ground. The main object is to secure isolation of the ice, and surround it with an adequate bar- rier of non-conducting materials. To do this effectually, a triple wall of plank or boards must be made, from six to eighteen inches apart, and the spaces between each compact- ly filled with straw or tan bark. The bottom must be equally well secured, and have drains for the escape of the water, yet not for the admission of air. The top has a double roof, and a thick coating of straw is spread over the ice. The preservation of ice depends, in addition to the foregoing, on the observance of principles, of which many are entirely neglectful. There should be no access to the ice except on the top, and the sides and ends must be perfectly tight Cold air being heavier than warm, in the ratio of its dimin- FARM BUILDINGS. 317 ished temperature ; it follows, that air which is near the freezing point, if sustained by tight walls, cannot be displaced by warmer air, unless a current is forced upon it from with- out, which must be avoided. As well may mercury be driven out of a vessel by pouring water into it. The cold air settles upon the ice and remains there permanently, and of course the ice has no tendency to melt even during the hottest weather. By adhering to these principles, ice may be kept for years, and almost without waste. It is important to put up ice in the largest, most compact blocks, and in the coldest weather. By the use of large pieces closely wedged together, there is security against the circulation of air through the mass ; and by doing this in the severest weather, the ice goes into store with a greatly augmented intensity of cold. Some do not consider the difference in the tempera- ture either of snow or ice, when each are equally susceptible of degrees of temperature below 32°, as the atmosphere, metals, or other substances. If put into the store room at zero, ice must be elevated 32*^ before it rises to the melt- ing point, and it has, therefore, all this stock of cold (priva- tion of heat) which it must first exhaust, before it assumes the form of a liquid. A rigid observance of the above rules, will preserve ice anywhere, either above or below ground. The materials for farm buildings I have assumed to be of wood, from the abundance and cheapness of this material generally in the United States. Yet when not too expen- sive, or where capita] can be spared for this purpose, brick or stone should always take their place. They are more durable, less exposed to fire, and they sustain a more equable temperature in the extremes of the seasons. Barns and sheds cannot, like houses, be conveniently made rat proof, but they may be so constructed as to afford them few hiding places, where they will be out of the reach of cats and terriers, which are indispensable around infested premises. These and an occasional dose of arsenic, care- fully and variously disguised, will keep their numbers within moderate bounds. If poison be given, it would be well to shut up the cats and terriers for three or four days until the object is eflfected, or they, too, might partake of it. LIGHTNING- RODS. During the sultry weather of American summers, thunder showers are frequent and often destructive to buildings. This danger is much increased for such barns as have just 318 AMERICAN AGRICULTURE. received their annual stores of newly cut hay and grain. The humid gases, generated by the heating and sweating of the hay, which immediately follows its accumulation in closely-packed masses, offers a strong attraction to electri- city, just at the time when it is most abundant. It is an object of peculiar importance to the farmer, to guard his buildings, at such times, with properly constructed lightning rods ; and they are a cheap mode of insurance against fire from this cause, as the expense is trifling and the security great. It is a principle of general application, that a rod will protect an object at twice the distance of its height above any given point, in a line perpendicular to its upper termin- ation. Thus a rod attached to one side of a chimney of four feet diameter, must have its upper point two feet above the chimney to protect it. Its height above the ridge of a building, must be at least one half the greatest horizontal distance of the ridge from the perpendicular rod. Materials and manner of construction. — The rod may be constructed of soft, round or square iron (the latter being preferable), in pieces of convenient length, and not less than 3-4ths of an inch in diameter. These should not be hooked into each other, but attached either by screwing the ends together, or forming a point and socket to be fastened by a rivet, so that the rod when complete, will appear as one continuous surface of equal size throughout. If a square rod be used, it will attract the electricity through its entire length, if the corners be notched with a single downward stroke of a sharp cold chisel, at intervals of two or three inches. Each of these will thus become a point to attract and conduct the electricity to the earth. A bundle of wires, thick ribbons, or tubes of metal, are more efficient con- ductors, than an equal quantity of matter in the solid round or square rods, as the conducting power of bodies, is in the ratio of their surfaces. No part of the rod must be painted, as its efficiency is thereby greatly impaired. The upper extremity may consist of one finely-drawn point, which should be of copper or silver, or well-gilded iron, to prevent rusting. The lower part of the rod, at the surface of the ground, should terminate in two or three flattened, divergent branches, leading several feet outwardly from the building, and buried at the depth of perpetual moisture, in a bed of charcoal. Both the charcoal and moisture are good conductors, and will ensure the passage of the electricity FARM BUILDINGS. 319 into the ground, and away from the premises. The rod may be fastened to the building by glass or well-seasoned wood, boiled in linseed oil, then well baked and covered with several coats of copal varnish. The co7uluctors of electricity in the order of their con- ducting power, are copper, silver, gold, iron, tin, lead, zinc, platina, charcoal, black lead (plumbago), strong acids, soot and lampblack, metallic ores, metallic oxides, diluted acids, saline solutions, animal fluids, sea water, fresh water, ice above 0°, living vegetables, living animals, flame, smoke, vapor and humid gases, salts, rarified air, dry earth, and massive minerals. The non-conductors in their order, are shellac, amber, resins, sulphur, wax, asphaltum, glass, and all vitrified bodies, including crystalized transparent mine- rals, raw silk, bleached silk, dyed silk, wool, hair and feathers, dry gases, dry paper, parchment and leather, baked wood and dried vegetables. Palladium, reckoned among the noble metals, was first discovered by Dr. Wollaston, in 1803. It has been found to possess a conducting power about 50 per cent, greater than copper, and consequently, is the best conductor known. This metal is not liable to oxidation, and is therefore, in e^^ery respect the most desirable material for the points or upper extremity of the rods, and for this purpose it has recently been extensively introduced. It will be seen above, that water is a tolerable conductor of electricity, and when exposed to rain, all the non-con- ductors are liable to become temporary conductors. To secure them as non-conductors, it is therefore necessary to protect them from contact with rain or moisture. Rust or the oxides of metals, destroy their conducting power, and to secure them as conductors, it is essential to keep the rods free from rust, paint, oil or varnish, leaving nothing on the exterior but the pure metal. INDEX. A. Page Agricultural education 11,300, 301 Agriculture defined • 7 importance of q legislation for. 9 National Board of 10 Ailantus, see trbes. „- o^ Air, essential to the roots of plants 8a, 8b Alluvial soils, character, and man- agement of *2 Ammonia, how composed 58 Amaionical liquor, useful as manure 52 Analyzing soils 11 marls ^ Animal substances for manure "0 Apatite, see phosphate of lime. Apple, see kruits. Apricot, see fbuitb. Arrow-root, how cultivated... . 241, 242 Artichoke, the Jerusalem 186 cultivation and uses 186 Ash, ihe White, see Tkbes. Ashes defined and quantity in vegeta- bles 35 of what composed 35 quantity abstracted from the soil by crops 36, 270 economy of as manure 37 quantity to be applied 37 beneficial for grass and clover .. 37 coal, how applied 38 from marine plants 38 from peat how treated 38 B. Balm of Gilead, see trees. Banyan tree, see fruits. Barley 142—144 varieties, soil, and cultivation.. , 143 harvesting and uses 143, 144 Barns, how made 307—311 Beans, soil and cultivation 164 harvesting 164, 165 uses 165 the English field 165 Beets, varieties, planting, and culti- vating 181 harvesting 181, 182 uses and analysis of. 182, 183 Birds, utility of 281, 282 Bones, of what composed 45 how treated and applied. .. 45 — 47 Breeding, defined 8 Bricks, broken, useful as manure... 49 Broom corn, soil and manure for.... 187 planting and cultivating 188 preparing the brush and uses 188, 189 Page Buckwljeat, cultivation and uses 160,161 Buildings for the Farm 302—319 Buttonwood, see trkeb. C. Calcareous soils, see marls and SOILS. Canada thistle 276 Canary seed, cultivation and uses... 161 Cane, see sugar cane. Carbon, increases in meadows.... 37, 38 described 56 Carbon ates as manures 49 Carbonic acid described 56 its properties 57 caution in using 230 Carburelted hydrogen gas 58 Carriage house 313 CaiTot, soil and varieties 178 planting and harvesting 178 its uses 179,180 Castor bean, cultivation of. 241 Cedar of Lebanon, see trees. Cellars, how constructed... 306 Chal k is carbonate of lime 197 Charcoal for manure 50 Chemical changes illustrated 18, 19 Cherry, see fruits. Chloride of sodium, see salt. Chlorides as manures 49 Chlorine essential in soils 34 combined with soda 7 Cisterns, how made. 312,313 Clay soils described 14, 15 how managed 17 — 20 useful as manure when burned 49, 50 Clovers, cultivation of. 117—127 common red or northern 117 cultivating 117, 120 cutting and curing 119 importance of 120 as a fertiliser 120,121 harvesting seed 121 southern 122 white or creeping 122 yellow or shamrock 122 crimson or French 123 lucern 123,124 sainfoin 124 Bokhara or sweet scented 124 Corn, see Indian corn. Corn planter described 96 Corn crib, how made 313 Cotton, seed for manure 71 quantity raised in U. States 198, 199 climate and soil 199 planting 199,200 varieties of seed.. 200 INDEX. 821 Page Cotton, cultivation of 200, 20 1 enemies and diseases 201 harvesting 201,202 savingseed 202,203 topping 203 Sea-Island, where raised 203 preparation of land and planting 203, 204 afterculture 204,205 manuring and amount of crop. . 205 varieties of cotton seed 205, 206 changes in and uses of ........ 206 Cultivator, use of, and how made 95, 96 Curculio described, how destroyed. . 259 Currant, see fruits. D. Dews, effects of 27, 28, 85 how secured 85 dew-point, when attained ... 27, 28 Draining described, its advantages 83—86 spring and swamp 86, 87 Drill barrows, how used 96 E. Education, agricultural 11, 300, 301 Electricity, conductors and non-con- ductors of 319 Electro-culture considered 279, 280 Elm, see treks. Ergot or cockspur 142 Experiments among farmers . . . 280, 281 F. Fallow system described 77, 78 Farming, good only profitable 41 Feeding defined 7 Feldspar useful as manure . 51 Fences, excess of in U. States 283—288 varieties and materials of . . 284, 285 wire 285,286 hurdle 286 Fibrous covering, its advantages 276—279 Figs, see fruits. Fish for manure 70, 71 Flax, soil for 189, 190 cultivation and harvesting. . 190, 191 water-rotting and varieties of .. 191 its importance for manufacturing 191 Frogs, their utility 282 Fruits 248—269 the apple 248—257 soil for 248,249 planting 249,250 cultivation 250—252 pruning 252, 253 grafting and budding 253 rearing and selecting trees. . 253, 254 gathering and preserving the fruit 254 value for farm stock 254, 255 making cider 255, 256 making vinegar 256 best varieties 256, 257 the pear 257,258 the quince 258 the cherry 258,259 Page Fruits, the plum 259,260 the peach 260,261 the apricot 261 the nectarine 261 the olive 261,262 theorange 203,264 the fig 264,265 the banyan 264 thegrape 265,266 the currant 266 the gooseberry 266, 267 the raspberry 267 the strawberry 267 the cranberry 267,269 G. Geine defined 34 Ginseng described, how reared in the United States 242. 243 Glass, broken, for manure 50, 51 Gooseberry, see fruits. Grain and its cultivation 127—166 Granite useful as manure 51 Grapes, see fruits. Grasses defined 97 number cultivated 97 Timothy 98 meadow fox-tail 99 green (or blue) 99 roughish meadow 100 flat stalked meadow or blue. . . . 100 annual meadow 100 narrow leaved . , lOO red top 100,101 upright bent 101 tall oat 101 the fescues 101, loa orchard or cock's foot 102 American or swamp 102, 130 biennial rye or ray 103 florin 103 sweet scented vernal 104 lawn and mountain 104 ribbon 104 gama 105 Egyptian or Guinea 105 Bermuda 105,106 crab 106 winter 106 muskeet 106 grama 106,107 buffalo 107 tornillo or screw 107 prairie 107 poney 107 wild rice 108 tussac 108 arundo 108 value of American 108, 109 sweet-scented, soft or holy 109 table of 110,111 sowing grass seeds 1 12 lands that should be in 112-114 means of renovating 114,115 pasturing meadows 115 rotation in grasses 115 322 INDEX. Page Grasses, time for cutting 115 loss in curing 115 Gravelly soils, how treated 21 Grazing defined 7 Green crops for manure 71 Green sand, of what composed 44 its beneficial effects 44 Guano, where found and from what derived 52 Peruvian, analysis of 53 African or Ichaboe 53 Patagonian 53 how applied 54 used as steeps 54 Gurneyism, see fibrous covering. Gypsum, (>f what composed 44 beneficial application of 44, 45 H. Harrowing 94 Hedges 287,288 Hemlock, see trees. Hemp 191-198 soil and cultivation 192 cutting, drying and securing 193 ricking 194 dew-rotting and shocking 195 brake and water-rotting 19G raising seed 196—198 Us uses 198 Horse powers, for the farm 313, 314 Hops, cultivation oi 237, 241 Horticulture defined 8 Houses for the farm 302-304 Humus defined 34 Hydrogen described 57,58 useful in ammonia 58 I. Ice houses, utility of 3JG how constructed 316, 317 Implements for the farm 93,94 Indian corn 148—154 quantity raised within the United States 148 varieties of 149, 150 analysis of. 149 soil and preparation for 1 50 selection of seed 150, 151 hybridizing 150 preparation of seed 151 planting 151 cultivation of 152 harvesting 152, 153 kiln-drying 153 for soiling and other uses 154 Indigo, cultivation of 225, 226 Introduction 7—12 Iodine essential in soils 34 Irrigation 79—83 waters suitable for 80 effects of 81 time for applying 81 manner of 82 advantages of. 82,83 quantity of grass from 82, 83 kind of soils for 83 Page K. Kelp described 38 L. Larch, see trees. Lava, useful as manure - 51 Leguminous plants 162 — 166 Lightning rods 317—319 muterials for, and how made 318, 319 conductors of electricity 319 Limedescribed 39 its value to soils 39 its use with clover 40 how applied 41 , 42 magnesian, its effect 42 quantity forland 42 applied to meadows 42 phosphate of— see bones. carbonate of, large quantity in soils 31 Locust, see trees. Loamy soils described 21 Lucern, how cultivated and value of 123,124 Lupine, the white for manure 76 how cultivated for food 166 M. Madder 226—230 soil, preparation and culture 227,228 harvesting 228,229 kiln-drying 229, 230 preparation for market and pro- fits of 230 Maize, see Indian corn. Mangers, how made 300, 311 Magnolia, see trees. Magnesian lime, its effects on land.. 42 Manures 32 — 76 their inartificial effects 32, 33 defined and classed 33 partial, lnsufl[icicnt 34 what is requisite in 34 various inorganic defined and ap- plied 35—55 ashes 35—38 from coal, sea weed and peat. ... 38 lime 39—42 do. magnesian < 41,42 mart 42,43 analysis of 43 shell sand 43,44 green sand 44 gypsum or plaster of Paris 44 bones 45 — 47 phosphate of lime 47 salt 47, 48 sulphate of soda 48 sulphate of magnesia 48 sulphate of potash 48 nitrate of soda 48 nitrate of potash 48 carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, silicates, and chlo- rides 49 old plaster 49 brokenbrick 49 INDEX. 333 Page Manures, burnt clay 49 charcoal 50 broken glass or silicate of potash 50 crushed mica, feldspar, lava, the trap rocks, granite, sienite, &c 51 spent lye of the asheries 52 ammoniacal liquor 52 guano 52 — 55 soot 55 Organic manures 56—78 of what composed.... 56 — 59, 66, 67 barnyard how managed .. 59— 67, 310 analysed 66, 67 longandshort 60,61 decomposition of 61,62 tanks for holding liquid 62 management of 63, 64 value of 04, 65 quantity voided by different ani- mals 65 various solid animal 65—07 quality of food affects 66 analysis of barnyard 66, 67 special manures defined 67 poudrette and urate 67, 69 night soil 68, 69 excrements of fowls 69, 70 flesh, blood, hair, bristles, horns, hoofs, pelts, the waste of wool- en manufactories and tanneries 70 fish 70 cottonseed 7i seaweed 72 peat 72 turf 73 swamp muck 73 green crops for 73 advantages of. 76, 77 clover for 74 the cowpea 75 spurry 76 white lupine 76 Maple sugar where made 219 quantity of in United States... 220 season for and manner of tapping trees 220,221 mokoks for packmg it 220 making sugar 221,222 Maple tree, see trees. Marble is carbonate of lime 19 Marls of what composed, and how applied 42,43 how analysed 43 green sand, see green sand. Marly soils described, and how treat- ed 15, 16,21 Meadows how managed 97—127 Meadow lands should remain 112—114 Means of renovating 114, 115 See GRASSES. Mechanical division of soils.... 87—96 Mica, useful as manure 51 Millet, culUvation of 159, 160 Indian or grand 160 Muck from swamps as manure 73 Mulberry, varieties for siHi worms 244, 245 Page Mulberry for shade trees 236 Mustard, cultivation of the black.. . 293 the white 237 N. Nectarine, see froits. Night soil, how treated 68, 69 See POUDRETTE. Nitrate of potash for manure 48 of soda for manure 48 for steeps 48 Nitric acid described, its utility 59 formed in the shade 278,279 Nitrogen described 58 Nutritive equivalents of food 183 tableof 184,185 O. Oaks, see trees. Oats 144—148 varieties 145, 146 cultivation 146,147 harvesting 147 uses 147,148 analysis of 148 Olive, see fruits. Orange, see fruits. Oxides described 57 Oxygen described 57 P. Parsnip cultivation and uses 180 Pastures 97—127 means of renovating 114, 115 how managed 125 — 127 Peach, see fruits. Pear, see fruits. Peas, soil for, and varieties 162 cultivation 162, 163 harvesting 163 Pea, the cow or stock (Southern) 75, 163 Peanut, uses and cultivation of 161 Peat soils-described 16 cultivating 22—24,87 analysed 72 for manure 72 ashes applied to lands 38 Pecan, see trees. Phosphate of lime, see bones. used as a fossil 47 Phosphorite, see phosphate of limb. Pindar, see pea nut. Pine, the long leaved, see trees. the while, see trees. Planting defined 8 Plaster of Paris, see gypsum. Plows described 88,93 shovel 96 Plowing, principles of 88—92 claylands 89 sandy lands 90 depth of. 91 subsoil 85,86,91,98 Plum, see fruits. Poplar, see trses. 324 rN,DEX. Page Potato, varieties of, and how pro- duced 167,168 soil, and qualities of 168 planting and cultivation 169 harvesting and storing 169, 170 diseases 170—172 prevention of rot 171, 172 its uses 172 Potato, the sweet 1 72—174 soil 172,173 cultivation 173, 174 preservation of. 174 Poudrette, defined and applied 67 Preface 4, 5 Profits from 1 arge crops 40, 41 a Quifice, see fruits. R. Raspberry, see fruits. Rice, varieties of 155 cultivation of lowland 155, 156 of upland 156,157 varieties and value 157 — 159 quantity raised in United Statea 159 Roller, how constructed and used 94, 95 Roots, cultivation of 167—186 Rotation of crops 269—275 systems of. 274, 275 Rust in wheat 133 Ruta baga, see turnip. Rye 139—142 Soil , and cultivation of 1 40, 1 4 1 southern 141 forsoiling 141, 142 diseasesin 142 S. Sainfoin, cultivation of 124 Salt, of what composed, and how used for manure 47, 48 Saltpetre, of what composed . . » 48 for steeps 48, 49 Sandy soils, described and classed.. . 15 management of 20, 21 Seaweed as manure 72 ashes from 38 Sheds, how made 311 necessity for 313 Shel I sand, of what composed 43 its eflects, and how applied.... 44 Sienite, useful as manure 51 Silicates, as manure 49 of lime defined and applied . . 19, 49 alumina 19 potash 50 Silk, quantity imported into the Uni ted States 244 best mulberry for 244, 245 varieties of worms 245 rearing and management of 245, 246 reeling 246, 247 Smutiu wheat 133 Snakes, utility of , 283 Page Soils, defined and texture of. J3 classified and described H — 17 marly, classified and described 15-16 analysed ig vegetable molds.... • jg clay, treatment of 17—^ sand, described 15 how managed 20, 21 gravelly 21 loamy 21 mariy and calcareous 21 alluvial 22 peats 22, 23 subsoils and their management 24—26 made useful by subsoil plow 24—26 change in soils by cultivation. . . 25 change in soils without cultiva- tion f 32, 33 additional properties of 26—29 Jethro Tull's management with 27 friableness and color of 27 surface of soil important 27 dew-point in, when attained^. . . 28 best for imbibing water 28, 29 experiments with 28, 29 necessity of fertilizing materials in 2d analysis of 30, 31 what all fertile soils must con- tain , 34 Sole defined 83 Soot, how applied as manure 55 Spading 87 Spont lye useful as manure 52 Spurry, for green manure 75 cultivation and uses of 125 Steaming apparatus, its utility 314 how constructed 314—316 Strawberry, see fruits. Subsoils and their management. . 24—26 Subsoil-plowing 85,86,91, 92 Sugar, see maple sugar and sugar CANS. Sugar cane 206—219 history of in the United States 206—208 varieties of 208 soil for 208 seed cane 208, 209 preservation of cane 209 preparation for planting. . . . 209, 210 advantages of wide rows 210 renovating the land for.. .. 210, 211 planting 211 cultivating 211—213 advantages of deep and thorough plowing 213 harvesting 213, 214 quantity of sugar from cane. ... 214 composition of cane 214, 215 value for animal food 215 analysis of sugar 215 making sugar 215, 216 manures for cane 216—218 INDEX. 325 Page Sugar cane, analysis of the ash. ... 217 quantity per acre 217 drainage of cane fields. . . . 218, 219 Sulphate of lime, see oypsum. of soda for manure 48 of magnesia 48 potash 48 Sumach, varieties of. 234, 235 cultivation and preparing for market 235 Swamps reclaimed 87 Sycamore, see trees. T. Tanks for liquid manure ... 62 Tares, uses and cultivation of 165 Tea plant, how cultivated 243, 244 Teasle, or fuller's thistle, how culti- vated 235,236 Tillage, husbandry defined 7 Timber, time for cutting 298, 299 Timber, preservation and improve- ment of 299 Toads, utility of 282 Tobacco, soil for 222,223 cultivation, priming, topping, worming, and suckering 223 harvesting 223,224 varieties, qualities, and analysis of 224 quantity produced 224, 225 Tools, the best, most economical, 299, 300 Tool house for the farm 313 Trees, see fruits. forshade 288—295 how arranged 289 varieties of trees in North Amer- ica 289,290 the sugar maple 219—222, 291 the mulberry 244, 245, 293 theoaks 290 the live oak 290,291 the elm 291 the black walnut 291 the white oak 291 the white and weeping willow . 292 thelocust 292 the button wood or sycamore . . 292 the magnolia 293 the pecan 293 the paper mulberry 293 the Lombardy poplar 293 tlie tulip tree 293 the ailantus 294 the larch 294 the cedar of Lebanon 294 thehemlock 295 „, Page Trees, the balm of Gilead 295 the long leaved pine 295 the while pine 295 Tulip tree, 5ee trees. Tull, Jethro, his theory of cultivation 26,27 Turf as manure 37 Turnip, flat English 174, 175 soil for 174 cultivation 175 Rutabaga 175—178 cultivation 175, 176 enemies and remedies 176 harvesting 176,177 storing and feeding 177 varieties of 177,178 value of. 178 U. Under-draining, see draining. Urate defined and applied 68 Urea defined and applied 68 Urine analyzed 68 V. Vegetable molds 76 Vegetables, loss in drying 36 Vetches, cultivation and uses 165 Vinegar, to make 256 W. Walnut tree, tlie black, see trees. Water useful as manure 79—83 rain, how beneficial 84, 85 dissolves minerals 81 time for applying to meadows ... 81 for the cattle yard 311, 312 Weeds, how treated 275, 276 to destroy in grain 143 Weld, cultivation of 232—234 Wheat, qualities of 127—129 preparing land for 129, 130 selection and preparation of seed 130 quantity of seed and time of sowing 131 manner of sowing 131, 132 after culture 132 enemies of 132,133 harvesting 133, 135 thrashing and stacking 135 varieties of seed 135, 138 spring 138,139 Woad, cultivation and use of. . 230—232 Woodlands, how managed .... 295—298 Woolen waste and rags, useful as manure 70 T H F, HASTY-PUDDING; IN THREE CANTOS. WRITTEN AT CHAMRERY, IN SAVOY, JANUARY, 1793, By JOEL BARLOW, MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY TO PRANCE. Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulcu He nii^es a good breakfast who mixes padding with molassefc A MEMOIR OM MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. COMPILED BY D. J. BROWNE, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTB. NEW YORK: C. M. SAXTON, 121 FULTON STREET THE HASTY-PUDDING CANTO I. YE Alps audacious, thro' the heavens that rise. To cramp the day and hide me from the skies ; Ye Gallic flags that o'er their heights unfurl'd. Bear death to kings, and freedom to the world, I sing not you. A softer theme I choose, A virgin theme, unconscious of the Muse, But fruitful, rich, well suited to inspire The purest frenzy of poetic fire. Despise it not, ye Bards to terror steel'd, Who hurl'd your thunders round the epic field; Nor ye who strain your midnight throats to sing Joys that the vineyard and the still-house bring ; Or on some distant fair your notes employ, And speak of raptures that you ne'er enjoy. I sing the sweets I know, the charms I feel, My morning incense, and my evening meal, The sweets of Hasty-Pudding. Come, dear howl. Glide o'er my palate, and inspire my soul. The milk beside thee, smoking from the kine. Its substance mingl'd, married it with thine, Shall cool and temper thy superior heat. And save the pains of blowing while I eat. Oh ! could the smooth, the emblematic song Flow like the genial juices o'er my tongue. Could those mild morsels in numbers chime. And as they roll in substance, roll in rhyme, No more thy awkward unpoetic name. Should shun the Muse, or prejudice thy fame ; HASTY-PUDDING. But, rising grateful to th' accustom'd ear, All bards should catch it, and all realms revere ! Assist me first with pious toil to trace. Thro' wrecks of time thy lineage and thy race ; Declare what lovely squaw, in days of yore, (Ere great Columbus sought thy native shore,) First gave thee to the world ; her works of fame Have liv'd indeed, but liv'd without a name. Some tawny Ceres, goddess of her days. First learn'd with stones to crack the well-dry'd maize, Thro' the rough sieve to shake the golden show'r. In boiling water stir the yellow flour — The yellow flour, bestrew'd and stir'd with haste, Swells in the flood and thickens to a paste, Then puffs and wallops, rises to the brim. Drinks the dry knobs that on the surface swim ; The knobs at last the busy ladle breaks. And the whole mass its true consistence takes Could but her sacred name, unknown so long, Rise like her labours, to the son of song, To her, to them, I'd consecrate my lays, And blow her pudding with the breath of praise If 'twas Oello, whom I sang before, I here ascribe her one great virtue more. Nor thro' the rich Peruvian realms alone The fame of Sol's sweet daughter should be known. But o'er the world's wide climes should live secure. Far as his rays extend, as long as they endure. Dear Hasty-Pudding, what unpromis'd joy Expands my heart, to meet thee in Savoy ! Doom'd o'er the world thro' devious paths to roam. Each clime my country, and each house my home. My soul is sooth'd, my cares have found an end, I greet my long-lost, unforgotten friend. For thee thro' Paris, that corrupted town, How long in vain I wander'd up and down. Where shameless Bacchus, with his drenching hoard Cold from his cave, usurps the morning board. London is lost in smoke and steep'd in tea ; No Yankee there can lisp the name of thee ; HASTY-PUDDING. O The uncouth word, a libel on the town, Would call a proclamation from the crown.* From climes oblique, that fear the sun's full rays, Chill'd in their fogs, exclude the gen'rous maize ; A grain whose rich luxuriant growth requires Short gentle showers, and bright etherial fires. But here, tho' distant from our native shore, With mutual glee we meet and laugh once more The same ! I know thee by that yellow face. That strong complexion of true Indian race, Which time can never change, nor soil impair, Nor Alpine snows, nor Turkey's morbid air ; For endless years, thro' every mild domain. Where grows the maize, there thou art sure to reign. But man, more fickle, the bold license claims. In different realms to give thee different names. Thee the soft nations round the warm Levant Polenta call, the French, of course, Polente ; Ev'n in thy native regions, how I blush To hear the Pensylvanians call thee Musk ! On Hudson's banks, while men of Belgic spawn Insult and eat thee by the name Suppawn. All spurious appellations, void of truth ; I've better known thee from my earliest youth. Thy name is Hasty-Pudding ! thus our sires Were wont to greet thee fuming from their fires ; And while they argu'd in thy just defence With logic clear, they thus explain'd the sense : — *' In haste the boiling caldron o'er the blaze, " Receives and cooks the ready -powder'd maize ; "In Uojste 'tis serv'd and then in equal hoMe, "-iQVith cooling milk, we make the sweet repast. "No carving to be done, no knife to grate *' The tender ear, and wound the stony plate ; ** But the smooth spoon, just fitted to the lip, *' And taught with art the yielding mass to dip, ** By frequent journeys to the bowl well stor'd ** Performs the hasty honours of the board." Such is thy name, significant and clear, A name, a sound to every Yankee dear, ♦ A certain king, at the time when this was written, was publishing proclama- tions to prevent American principles from being propagated in his country. HASTY-PUDDING. But most to me, whose heart and palate chaste Preserve my pure hereditary taste. There are who strive to stamp with disrepute The luscious food, because it feeds the brute ; In tropes of high-strain'd wit, while gaudy prigs Compare thy nursling man to pamper'd pigs ; With sovereign scorn I treat the vulgar jest, Nor fear to share thy bounties with the beast. What tho' the gen'rous cow gives me to quaff The milk nutritious ; am I then a calf ? Or can the genius of the noisy swine, Tj^' nursed on pudding, thence lay claim to mine ? Sure the sweet song, I fashion to thy praise. Runs more melodious than the notes they raise. My song resounding in its grateful glee, No merit claims ; I praise myself in the«. My father lov'd thee thro' his length of days ! For thee his fields were shaded o'er with maize ; From thee what health, what vigour he possess'd, Ten sturdy freemen sprung from him attest ; Thy constellation rul'd my natal morn. And all my bones were made of Indian corn. Delicious grain ! whatever form it take. To roast or boil, to smother or to bake. In every dish 'tis welcome still to me. But most, my Hasty-Pudding, most in thee. Let the green succotash with thee contend. Let beans and corn their sweetest juices blend. Let butter drench them in its yellow tide. And a long slice of bacon grace their side ; Not all the plate, how fam'd soe'er it be, Can please my palate like a bowl of thee. Some talk of Hoe-cake, fair Virginia's pride, Rich Johnny-cake this mouth has often try'd ; Both please me well, their virtues much the same ; Alike their fabric as allied their fame. Except in dear New England, where the last Receives a dash of pumpkin in the paste. To give it sweetness and improve the taste. But place them all before me, smoking hot. The big round dumpling rolling from the pot ; HASTY-PUDDING. The pudding of the bag, whose quiv'ring breast. With suet lin'd, leads on the Yankee feast ; The Charlotte brown, within whose crusty sides A belly soft the pulpy apple hides; The yellow bread, whose face hke amber glows. And all of Indian that the bake-pan knows — You tempt me not — my fav'rite greets my eyes. To that lov'd bowl my spoon by instinct flies. CANTO It. ^ To mix the food by vicious rules of art, To kill the stomach and to sink the heart. To make mankind, to social virtue sour, Cram o'er each" dish, and be what they devour, From this kitchen Muse first fram'd her book. Commanding sweets to stream from every cook ; Children no more their antic gambols tried, And friends to physic wonder'd why they died. Not so the Yankee — his abundant feast, With simples furnish'd, and with plainness dress'd, A numerous offspring gathers round the board, And cheers alike the servant and the lord; Whose well-bought hunger prompts the joyous taste, And health attends them from the short repast. While the full pail rewards the milk-maid's toil. The mother sees the morning caldron boil ; To stir the pudding next demands their care, To spread the table and the bowls prepare ; To feed the children, as their portions cool, And comb their heads, and send them off to school. Yet may the simplest dish, some rules impart. For nature scorns not all the aids of art. E'en Hasty-Pudding, purest of all food, May still be bad, indifferent, or good, As sage experience the short process guides. Or want of skill, or want of care presides, Whoer'er would form it on the surest plan. To rear the child and long sustain the man ; HASTY-PUDDING. To shield the morals while it mends the size. And all the powers of 'every food supplies — Attend the lessons that the Muse shall hring, Suspend your spoons, and listen while I sing. But since, man ! thy life and health demand Not food alone, but labour from thy hand. First in the field, beneath the sun's strong rays, Ask of thy mother, earth the needful maize ; She loves the race that courts her yielding soil, . And gives her bounties to the sons of toil When now the ox obedient to thy call. Repays the loan that fiU'd the winter stall. Pursue his traces o'er the furrow'd plain. And plant in measur'd hills the golden grain. ^ut when the tender germ begins to shoot, And the green spire declares the sprouting root. Then guard your nursling from each greedy foe, Th' insidious worm, the all-devouring crow. A little ashes, sprinkled round the spire, Soon steep'd in rain, will bid the worm retire ; The feather'd robber with his hungry maw Swift flies the field before your man of straw, A frightful image, such as school-boys bring When met to burn the Pope, or hang the King. Thrice in the season, thro' each verdant row Wield the strong plough-share and the faithful hoe — The faithful hoe, a double task that takes, To till the summer corn, and roast the winter cakes. Slow springs the blade, while check'd by chilling rains. Ere yet the sun the seat of Cancer gains ; But when his fiercest fires emblaze the land. Then start the juices, then the roots expand ; Then, like a column of Corinthian mould. The stalk struts upward, and the leaves unfold ; The bushy branches all the ridges fill. Entwine their arms, and kiss from hill to hill. Here cease to ve^ them, all your cares are done ; Leave the last labours to the parent sun ; Beneath his genial smiles the well-dress'd field. When autumn calls, a plenteous crop shall yield. HASTY-PUDDING. Now the strong foliage bears the standards high. And shoots the tall top-gallants to the sky ; The suckling ears their silky fringes bend, And pregnant grown, their swelling coats distend; The loaded stalk, while still the burthen grows, O'erhangs the space that runs between the rows ; High as a hop-field waves the silent grove, A safe retreat for little thefts of love, When the pledg'd roasting-ears invite the maid. To meet her swain 2)eneath the new-form'd shade; His gen'rous hand unloads the cumbrous hill. And the green spoils her ready basket fill ; Small compensation for the two-fold bliss. The promis'd wedding and the present Kiss. Slight depredations these ; but now the moon Calls from his hollow tree the sly racoon ; And while by night he bears his prize away, The bolder squirrel labours thro' the day. Both thieves alike, but provident of time, A virtue, rare, that almost hides their crime. Then let them steal the little stores they can. And fill their gran'ries from the toils of man ; We've one advantage where they take no part, — With all their wiles they ne'er have found the art To boil the Hasty-Pudding ; here we shine Superior far to tenants of the pine ; This envied boon to man shall still belong, Unshar'd by them in substance or in song. At last the closing season browns the plain. And ripe October gathers in the grain ; Deep-loaded carts the spacious corn-house fill, The sack distended marches to the mill ; The lab'ring mill beneath the burden groans. And show'rs the future pudding from the stones ; Till the glad house-wife greets the powder'd gold. And the new crop exterminates the old. CANTO 111. The days grow shoit ; but tho' the falling sun To the glad swain proclaims his day's work done, 1* \ 10 HASTY-PUDDING. Night's pleasing shades his various tasks prolong. And yield new subjects to my various song. For now, the corn-house fiU'd, the harvest home, Th' invited neighbours to the Husking come ; A frolic scene, where work, and mirth, and play. Unite their charms, to chase the hours away. Where the huge heap lies centr'd in the hall. The lamp suspended from the cheerful wall. Brown corn-fed nymphs, and strong hard-handed beaux Alternate rang'd, extend in circling rows, Assume their seats, the solid mass attack ; The dry husks rustle, and the corn-cobs crack ; The song, the laugh, alternate notes resound, And the sweet cider tripsin silence round. The laws of husking ev'ry wight can tell ; And sure no laws he ever keeps so well ; For each red ear a gen'ral kiss he gains. With each smut ear she smuts the luckless swains ; But when to some sweet maid a prize is cast, Red as her lips, and taper as her waist, She walks around, and culls one favour'd beau, Who leaps, the luscious tribute to bestow. Various the sport, as are the wits and brains Of well-pleas'd lasses and contending swains; Till the vast mound of corn is swept away, And he that gets the last ear, wins the day. Meanwhile the house-wife urges all her care, ' The well-earned feast to hasten and prepare. The sifted meal already waits her hand. The milk is strain'd, the bowls in order stand. The fire flames high; and, as a pool (that takes The head-long stream that o'er the mill-dam breaks) Foams, roars and rages with incessant toils, So the vex'd caldron rages, roars, and boils. First, with clean salt she seasoqs well the food, JThen stews the flour and thickens all the flood. "Long o'er the sim'ring fire she lets it stand ; To stir it well demands a stronger hand ; The husband takes his turn ; and round and round The ladle flies ; at last the toil is crown'd ; When to the board the thronging buskers pour. And take their seats as at the corn before. HASTY--PUDDING. li I leave them to tlieir feast. There still belong More copious matters to my faithful song. For rules there are, tho' ne'er unfolded yet, Nice rules and wise, how pudding should be ate. Some with molasses line the luscious treat. And mix, like bards, tiie useful with the sweet. A wholesome dish, and well deserving praise, A great resource in those bleak wintry days. When the chill'd earth lies buried deep in snow. And raging Boreas drives the shiv'ring cow. Blest cow ! thy praise shall still my notes employ, Great source of health, the only source of joy ; How oft thy teats these pious hands have press'd ! How oft thy bounties prove my only feast ! How oft I've fed thee with my fav'rite grain ! And roar'd, like thee, to find thy children slain ! Ye swains who know her various worth to prize. Ah ! house her well from winter's angry skies. Potatoes, pumpkins, should her sadness cheer. Corn from your crib, and mashes from your beer ; When spring returns she'll well acquit the loan. And nurse at once your infants and her own. Milk, then, with pudding, I should always choose ; To this in future I confine my Muse, Till she in haste some future hints unfold, Well for the young, nor useless to the old. First in your bowl the milk abundant take. Then drop with care along the silver lake Your flakes of pudding ; these at first will hide Their little bulk beneath the swelling tide ; But when their growing mass no more can sink ; When the soft island looms above the brink. Then check your hand ; you've got the portion's due. So taught our sires and what they taught is true. There is a choice in spoons. Tho' small appear The nice distinction, yet to me 'tis clear, The deep bowl'd Gallic spoon, contriv'd to scoop In ample draughts the thin diluted soup, Performs not well in those substantial things, Whose mass adhesive to the metal clings ; 12 HASTY-PUDDING. Where the strong labial muscles must embrace, The gentle curve, and sweep the hollow space. With ease to enter and discharge the freight, A bowl less concave but still more dilate, Becomes the pudding best. The shape, the size, A secret rests unknown to vulgar eyes ; Experienc'd feeders can alone impart A rule so much above the lore of art. These tuneful lips, that thousand spoons have tried, With just precision could the point decide, Tho' not in song ; the muse but poorly shines In cones and cubes, and geometric lines. Yet the true form, as near as she can tell. Is that small section of a goose egg-shell. Which in two equal portions shall divide The distance from the centre to the side. Fear not to slaver; 'tis no deadly sin, like the free Frenchman, from your joyous chin Suspend the ready napkin ; or, like me. Poise with one hand your bowl upon your kn«» ; Just in the zenith your wise head project. Your full spoon, rising in a line direct. Bold as a bucket, heeds no drops that fall. The wide-mouth'd bowl will surely catch tharji iii MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN- INDIAN CORN. Synonymes. Zea mayst Of Botanists. Maize, Indian Corn, Britain and Anglo-America. Mal-s, m d'lndie.Bl^ ) j,^^^^^^ Portugal and Brazil. de Turquie, Maiz, Trigo de Indias, Spain. Grano d'India, Grano Turco, \ Italy. Grano Siciliano, Maiz, Milho da India, Milho grande, Mais, Tiirkischer Korn, Germany. Mays, Turksch Koorn, Holland. Turkish Hvede, SweedEn and Denmark. Tureskoichljeb, Russia. Derivations.— Th& generic name Zea is derived from the Greek zao, to live, from the nutritive qualities of this, or some other kind of corn formerly culti- vated in Greece or on the adjacent Archipelago. The wox-d mays, and all its derivatives, according to Clavigero, have been derived from the denomination of this vegetable in the Haitina language, or that of Hispaniola ; but by others, it is thought to come from the Lettish and Livonic mayse, which signifies bread in those languages. The European names BU d'lndie, Trigo de Indias, etc., have been so called on account of this grain having first been brought by Colum- bus from America, which was knoAvn at that time by the name of the " Indies ;" and those names signifying " Turkish Corn," took their origin from the circum- stance that the cultivation of this plant spread from Turkey to the neighbouring countries, and consequently led some writers to believe that it first came from the £ast. Description. The fruitful maize, in verdant vistas rear'd, Its spire majestic, to the playful breeze, Spreading its loosely-waving panicles, while low The purple anthers bending o'er to kiss The silken, tassel'd styles, delight the eye Of watchful Ceres. Traits of the Aborigines. Maize, or Indian Corn, consists of several varieties which are thought to owe their distinctive charac- ters to the accidental modifications of climate, soil, and 16 MEMOIR ON culture, rather than to any original differences. The plant is described by botanists, as a strong, reedy, jointed stalk, provided with large alternate leaves, almost like flags, springing from every joint. The top produces a bunch of male flowers, of various colours, which is called the tassel. Each plant bears, likewise, one or more spikes or ears,, seldom s* f jw as one, and rarely more than four or five, the rn. st usual number being three ; as many as seven have been seen occa- sionally on one stalk. These ears proceed from the stalk at various distances from the ground, and are closely enveloped by several thin leaves, forming a sheath, which is called the husk. The ears consist of a cylindrical substance, of the nature of a pith, which is called the cob, over the entire surface of which the seeds are ranged, and fixed in eight or more straight rows, each row having generally as many as thirty or more seeds. The eyes, or germs of the seeds, are in nearly radial lines from the centre of the cylinder ; from these eyes proceed individual filaments of a silky ap- pearance, and of a b;^ight-green colour ; the aggregate of these hang out from the point of the husk, in a thick cluster, and in this state are called the silk. It is the office of these filaments, which are the stigmata, to receive the farina, which ^rops from the flowers on the top or tassel, and without which the ears would pro- ,duce no seed, — a fact which has been established by cutting off the top previous to the development of its flowers, when the ears proved wholly barren. So soon as their office has been thus performed, both the tassel and the silk dry up, and put on a withered appearance. The grains of maize are of different colours, the pre- vailing hue being yellow of various shades, sometimes approaching to white, and at other times deepening to red. Some are of a deep chocolate-colour, others green- ish or olive-coloured, and even the same ears will some- times contain grains of different colours. Geography and History. — Indian Corn, when due regard is paid to the selection of varieties, may be accounted as a sure crop, in almost every portion of the INDIAN CORN. 17 habitable globe, between the forty-third degree of north latitude, and a corresponding parallel south. Its prin- ciple culture is confined to the United States, Mexico, the West Indies, and most of the states of South A.merica., It is also cultivated with success in Spain, Portugal, Lombardy, and may be grown in southern Europe generally. It is likewise found to thrive in India, China, Japan, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, as well as in the groups of the Azores, the Madeiras, Canaries, and numerous other ocean isles. Roulin, Humboldt, Bonpland, and others, have noticed this plant in its indigenous state in America, and hence have concluded that it was first derived from this country. Mathioli, Ciega, Zeri, and Inca Garci- lasso, have also confirmed this opinion. Fuchs, on the contrary, very early maintained that it came from the East. Michaud, Daru, and Bonafous, state that it was known in Asia Minor before the discovery of America ; and Crawford, in his " History of the Indian Archi- pelago," tells us that maize was cultivated by the in- habitants of these islands, under the name of djagoung, long before that period. In the " Natural History of China," composed by Li-Chi Tchin, towards the middle of the XVIth century, a rude figure is given of the Zea mays, under the title of la-chou-cha ; and Rifaud, in his " Voyage en Egypte, &c., from 1805 to 1807," observes, that he discovered this grain in a subterranean excavation in a remarkably good state of preservation. M. Virey, however, in the " Journal de Pharmacie," refutes these statements, by showing that these authors have mistaken the Indian millet ( Sorghum vulgare) for maize, and that the grain found by Rifaud, was the Sorghum bicolor, which, according to Delile, is a native of Egypt. Regmir and Gregory attempt to present fresh arguments in favour of the Eastern origin of this plant. Among them is the name by which it has long been known in Europe, BU de Turquie ; and varieties of it, they state, have been brought from the Isle of France, or from China. Moreau de Jonnes, on the contrary, has more recently maintained in a memoir 9 18 MEMOIR ON read before the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, that iU origin was in America. The name Bid de Turquie, no more proves it to be of Turkish origin, than the name of the English Horse Bean proves that that plant originally grew wild in Britain. The general cultiva- tion of maize, in southern Europe, and the production of some new varieties, proves nothing with regard to the origin of the species. Nor, where it occurs in the East, there is no proof of its having been carried there previously to the discovery of America. In favour of the x\merican origin of maize, is the fact that it was found in a state of cultivation in most of the places where the first navigators landed. Colum- bus discovered it on the Island of Cuba, and other points, where he touched on his first voyage to America, Vasco Nunez, in Guiana, Navaez and Sottus, in Florida, and Gongalo Ximines, in New Granada, — the latter of whom, says, " The principal food of the natives " was Maiz and Cassave, which first grows on stalks " of the size of canes, bearing very large and weighty *' spikes or ears, each generally yielding seven hundred " grains — a bushel of which, whe^ planted in warm, *' moist land, frequently produces three hundred fold. ** The maize is distinguished into a coarser and a finer "sort, which last is called Moroche, the leaves and " stalks affording wholesome provender for horses, and " the grains or kernels, bread for the inhabitants, who *' make it several ways ; for sometimes they boil the " corn in water, and at other times, parch it in ashes, " or grind it into flour, which, when kneaded into " dough, they make into cakes, biscuits, etc. More- " over, maize steeped in water, boiled, and afterwards " fermented, makes a very strong liquor." All the early historians, both of North and South America, give the strongest testimony that this grain is of American origin, and speak of it as having consti- tuted a great part of the food of the Indians from time immemorial. Inca Garcilasso de la Vega, in treating of the pro- ducts of Peru, says, " Of the fruits that grow above INDIAN CORN. 19 " ground, the chief and principal, is that grain which " the people of Mexico and Barlovento call Mayz^ and " those of Peru, Cara, being the only bread they use. " And this is of two sorts, one called Muruchuj which *^ is hard, and the other Capia, which is tender and " fine, and is eaten as bread, either boiled, baked, or '' parched, over the fire. The hard kind is that which "has been brought to Spain, but not the fine and tender "sort." The corn of the Incas, he says, was ground by women, between two broad stones in the form of a half moon, from the flour of which, they made a kind of hasty-pudding, called Api, a great dish among them, esteemed as high feeding, l3ut was not common at every meal. He mentions another kind of bread, made of maize, called Cara, upon which he was nourished for nine or ten years. This consisted of three sorts, namely, Cancu, used only for sacrifice ; ITuminta, for feasts and great entertainments ; and Tanta or bread of common use. Boiled cara they called Muti,- which is also the name of boiled corn. The virgins or wives of the Sun, were employed in the evening in kneading great quantities of dough, which they formed into small round cakes that were eaten by the Indians only at the feasts of Ray mi and Citua ; for, at other times, they never eat their maize kneaded into bread, nor did they eat it at their meals, with the exception of two or three mouthfuls at the beginning. Their physicians prescribed no other diet to their sick than what was made of maize. They also made plasters or poultices of it, which they applied for the relief of aches, colics, and other pains. Of the flour of maize, mixed with water, the Indians brewed their common beverage, which, by a certain process, they were able to convert into an excellent vinegar. Of the stalks, before the maize was ripe, they made a kind of honey, and some, who loved to be drunk, lay their corn steeping in water, until germination took place, and then, after grinding, boiled it in the same water, drawed it ofl', and kept it until stale. This was the strongest drink the Peruvians had, which was called, in their language, 20 MEMOIR ON Vinnapu, and by some of the neighbouring tribes, Sarck From its intoxicating effects, its use was prohibited by the Incas, who made it a penal offence with all who drank to excess. Francisco Saverio Clavigero, in describing the grain of Mexico, says, " The chief, the most useful, and most ** common, was the maize, called by the Indians Tluolli, " of which there are several varieties, differing in size, " colour, weight, and taste. There is the large and the " small sort, the white, the yellow, the blue, and the <^ black." Captain John Smith, in his account of the Indians of Virginia, says, " The greatest labour they take, is " in planting their come, for the country naturally is " overgrowne with wood. To prepare the ground, they " bruise the barke of the trees neare the root, then doe ** they scortch the roots with fire that they grow no " more. The next yeare with a crooked peece of wood *' they beat vp the weeds by the rootes, and in that " mould they plant their come. Their manner is this. " They make a hole in the earth with a sticke, and into " it they put foure graines of wheate (maize), and two " of beanes. These holes they make foure foote one " from another. Their women and children do con- " tinually keepe it with weeding, and when it is growne " middle high, they hill it about like a hop-yard. In *' Aprill they begin to plant, but their chiefe planta- ** tion is in May, and so they continue till the midst " of lune. What they plant in Aprill, they reape in "August: for May in September; for lune in Octo- " ber. Every stalke of their corne commonly beareth " two eares, some three, seldome any foure,, many but " one, and some none. Every eare ordinarily hath " betwixt 200 and 500 graines. The stalke being " greene hath a sweet iuice in it, somewhat like sugar- " cane, which is the cause that when they gather their " corne greene, they sucke the stalkes ; for as we gather " greene pease, so doe they their corne, being greene, '* which excelleth their old. ***** Their corne *' they rest in the eare greene, and bruising it in morter ^ INDIAN CORN. 21 " of wood with a polt, lap it in rowles in the leaues of " their corne, and so boyle it for a daintie. They also " reserue that corne late planted that will not ripe, by " roasting it in hot ashes, the heat thereof drying it. " In winter they esteeme it being boyled with b^anes " for a rare dish, they call Pausarowmena. Their old '' wheat (maize) they first steepe a night in hot water, *' in the morning pounding it in a morter. They vse a ** small basket for their temmes (sieve), then pound '' againe the great, and so separating by dashing their " hand in the basket, receiue the flower in a platter made " of wood, scraped to that forme with burning and " shels. Tempering this flower with water, they make " it either in cakes, covering them with ashes till they " be baked, and then washing them in faire water, they " drie presently with their owne heat : or else boyle " them in water, eating the broth with the bread which " they call Ponap. The groutes and peeces of the " cornes remaining, by fanning in a platter or in the " wind, away, the branne they boyle 3 or 4 houres with " water, which is an ordinary food they call Vstata- " hamen. But some more thriftie then cleanly, doe " burne the core (cob) of the eare to powder, which " they call Pungnough, mingling that in their meale, " but it never tasted well in bread, nor broth." Mr. Schoolcraft, in his late Report, says, that it is conceded on all hands, that this is a tropical, or at least, a southern plant. He remarks, that it was not known in Europe before the discovery of this country, and that we learned the mode of cultivation from the Indians, and not they from us. It was cultivated by the Iroquois in fields sufficiently large to entitle them to the name of agriculturists. It was un- doubtedly highly prized by them, as an essential article of support, as Mr. Schoolcraft states that the warriors of the Six Nations were in the habit of under- taking journeys of thousands of miles in extent, carry- ing no other food than a little meal from parched and pounded corn, relying on the forest for meat. One tablespoonful of this meal, mixed with a little sugar 22 MEMOIR ON and water, will sustain a warrior for twenty-four hoTirs, without meat. In further proof of the American origin of maize, it may be stated, that it is still found in an indigenous state from the Rocky Mountains, in North America, to the humid forests of Paraguay ; where, instead of having each grain naked, as is always the case after long cultivation, they are completely covered with glumes or husks. Although there has been much writ- ten upon the Eastern origin of this grain, it did not grow in that part of India watered by the Indus, at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition, as it is not mentioned by Nearchus, the commander of the fleet, among the productions of that country. It is not noticed by Arrian, Diodorus, or Columella ; and even so late as the year 1471, Joan. Cuba, in his " Ortus Sanitatis,'' a very carious treatise on plants, trees, ani- mals, stones, &c., does not make the least mention of it. Neither has it ever been found in any ancient tumulus, sarcophagus, or pyramid ; nor has it ever been repre- sented in any ancient painting, sculpture, or work of art, except in America ! But in this country, according to Garcilasso, the palace gardens of the Incas in Peru, were ornamented with images of gold and silver, of all manner of beasts, birds, trees, flowers, and fruit. Some of the trees appeared in blossom, some with their fruit partially or fully grown, and in others it appeared quite ripe, according to the several seasons of the year. They also imitated the maize, with all its grains, spikes, stalks, and leaves ; and in one instance, in the *' Gar- den of Gold and Silver," there was an entire cornfield, of considerable size, represented with the corn in its exact and natural shape. The introduction of maize into Europe, probably dates back to the time soon after Columbus discovered America ; but little attention appears to have been paid there, either to its culture or use, until toward the close of the last century. An amusing, and in many respects, an instructive work, was published some years since, by William Cobbett, upon the merits of Indian INDIAN CORN. 23 corn, whose sanguine wishes upon the subject of its introduction as a field crop into England, led him farther than most people have been inclined to accom- pany him. A cotem£orary writer remarks that, " Cob- bett was corn-mad at one time. He saw too soon by twenty years, and depended on cultivation, rather than importation. He wrote about Indian corn, planted Indian corn, raised Indian corn, ate Indian corn, made paper of Indian corn husks, and printed a book from the Indian corn paper." There is to be seen in this work a very minute and interesting account of the various manipulations which must be attended to by the maize-grower before his grain is ready for sale, as well as very particular directions for turning the pro- duce to the best and most profitable account in domestic economy. The most important feature, perhaps, in the history of maize, is its late introduction from the United States into Great Britain and Ireland, as a cheap and nutri- tious article of human ^od. For this partriotic and philanthropic act, these two nations are highly in- debted to the simultaneous exertions of our friend and countrymen, Henry Coleman, Esquire, who has been engaged for several years in making an agricultural tour in Europe, and Dr. John S. Bartlett, late of the British army, the latter of whom, addressed a letter on the subject, in May, 1842, to Lord Ashburton, in which he arrives at the following deductions : — 1st. That the labouring classes and the poor of Great Britain require a cheaper article of food than wheaten bread. 2nd. That although wheat contains a larger portion of gluten or the nutritive ingredient, hulk is necessary, not only to satisfy the craving of hunger, but to pro- mote digestion by the '* stimulus of distension," which bulk alone can give. 3rd. That the craving of hunger being removed or alleviated by the quantity taken, the mind is more at ease ; the mental irritability consequent upon hunger is assuaged, and man goes to his labour with cheer- 24 MEMOIR ON fulness and vivacity, becoming a more peaceful citizen and perhaps a better man. 4tli. That maize possesses a great superiority over rye, barley, oatmeal, or potatoes — not that it contains a greater quantity of gluten^ but that its constituent parts are better proportioned, and consequently make a better article of food. 5th. That, admitted into -England duty free, it would be a cheaper article of food than any of those above named, besides being vastly superior to them in nutritive and healthful properties. 6th. That it can be obtained in any quantities from all parts of the United States, and particularly from the middle and southern states, on the Atlantic sea-board — as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, whose proximity to the sea and ports of shipment, give them great advantages by saving inland conveyance. The whole valley of the Mississippi also yields it in abundance. 7th. That the people of all parts of the United States are consumers of British manufactures ; for in spite of national asperities, they adopt the habits, tastes, fashions, and dress of their English ancestors. This, I think, is a natural feeling in the human breast, for I never yet knew a son who was offended by being told that he resembled his parent. The imported grain then would be paid for in the products of British industry. 8th. That the rapidly increasing population and limited superficial surface of the British Isles, will speedily render a foreign supply of grain necessary even in the most productive seasons — and consequently a reduction of duties must ensue ; it is therefore advan- tageous to the agricultural interests, as land is becom- ing so ';aluable, to reserve as much of the soil of Eng- land as possible for the cultivation of wheat and more valuable products ; and nothing will tend to promote this object ipore than the introduction of a copious sup- ply of cheaper farinaceous food for the poor and labour- ing classes. INDIAN CORN. 35 In closing the historical part of this memoir, it may not be uninteresting to allude to another countrymen of ours, Elihu Burritt, commonly called " The Learned Blacksmith," who is at present engaged in making a pedestrian tour in various parts of Europe, and giving the result of his observations in the " Christian Citizen," from which we make the following extract : — I have just got out " An Olive Leaf, from the House- wives of America, to the Housewives of Great Britain and Ireland, or Recipes for making Various Articles of Food, of Indian Corn Meal," containing all the recipes I received before leaving home from our kind female friends in different parts of the Union — heaven bless them ! I have had 2,000 of these Olive Leaves struck off, and intended, in the first place, to send a copy to every newspaper in the realm. I shall have a thou- sand, all of which 1 shall put into the hands of those I meet on the road. I have resolved to make it a con- dition upon which only I consent to be any man's guest, that his wife sha^l serve up a johnny-cake for breakfast, or an Indian pudding for dinner. I was in- vited yesterday to a tea party which comes off to-night, where about thirty persons are to be present. I ac- cepted the invitation with the johnny-cake clause, which was readily agreed to by all parties. So to-night the virtues of corn meal will be tested by some of the best livers in Birmingham. Mythology. — The Indians of Peru and the adjacent country, who existed before the empire of the Incas began, were at best but tamed animals, and often they were more brutish than the beasts of the field. They possessed no right of property, no fixed laws, no religion, nor government ; neither did they plough, sow, or till the earth, nor did they understand the art of weaving cotton or wool ; but dwelt together in small hordes as they happened to meet in caves or holes in the rocks and mountains, subsisting on grass, herbs and roots, wild fruits, and the flesh of man, with no other cloth- ing than the leaves and bark of trees, and the skins of beasts. In short, they were altogether savage. 36 MEMOIR ON As ever has been the case with most of the primitive tribes of the human race, these Indians derived their original being from divers objects, animate or inanimate, of which thej entertained respect, admiration, or awe. Some who lived near a great lake which supplied them with a store of fish, called that the parent whence they emerged ; some esteemed, the mighty Andes as their prime mother, who, from her deep caverns, first gave them birth ; ^nd others fancied themselves to be the descendants of the great bird, condor, in token of which, on days of solemnity and festival, they wore its wings fastened to their arms. Every nation, province, tribe, and house among them, had 'its particular idol. For their opinion was, that one god would have enough to do, to take care of its own province, or family, and that its power was so limited, that it could have no virtue or extent within the juris- diction of another. Some adored whatever they saw in which an excellence could be observed, whether good or bad. The tiger, the jaguar,, and the bear, they wor- shipped for their ferocity, and with such submission and humility, that they would not fly from them in time of danger, but offered themselves to be devoured. The fox and the monkey, they adored for their craft ; the stag for his swiftness ; the hawk, for agility and courage ; the eagle, for acuteness of sight ; while other nations were more considerate in the choice of their deities, and worshipped nothing except what afforded them iDenefit or advantage. As fountains and cool springs, which furnished them with drink f rivers, that watered t4ieir pastures ; the earth, which they .called, their mother, because it yielded them food ; the air, be- cause it gave them breath and life ; and fire, because it warmed them, and cooked their food. Some, also, made choice of sheep, cattle, or corn, and everything around them, that served most for nourishment, as a god, and worthy of divine honour. The inhabitants near the coast, made the sea their god, the name of which, interpreted in their language, signifies the " Mother Sea." The whale they deified on account of its pro- INDIAN CORN. 27 digious size. In the Province of Puerto Viejo, they had a high veneration for the emerald ; and near the Cordillera, they worshipped that mountain for its stu- pendous height. The sacrifices which they made to these deities were often as barbarous as the gods were senseless ; for, besides beasts, fruits, and corn, they sacrificed and devoured ajive, men and women of all ages, whom they had taken in war. But other Indians less cruel, and more mild in their character, though they mingled blood with these rites, never took away life, but drew it from the veins of an arm, a leg, or the nostrils, according to the nature or solemnity of the sacrifice required. Others offered sheep and lambs, conies, partridges, and various kinds of fowl, herbs, fruits, and maize, so much esteemed among them, according to the deity they adored. These people, living and dying in the manner above described, were at length reclaimed by Inca Manco Capac, who, probably, was some Indian 'of a more ■ elevated understanding and prudence than ordinary, and who, by carrying a refined manner of deportment toward them, had persuaded them that he and his wife, Mama Oello Hauco, proceeded from the sun, and were come from heaven ; and that his Father, Pachacamac (the Soul of the universe, or the Sustainer of all things), had sent them to instruct and bestow benefits upon the rest of mankind. Manco Capac was the founder of the IncaSy who were the native kings of Peru, and who, according to tradition, reigned in a direct lineage, until they were conquered by the Spaniards, for the space of four hlindred years. The origin of these kings, the majesty and greatness of their empire, their conquests and policies in government, both in peace and in war, together with the laws they instituted for the good and benefit of their subjects, have been recorded by one of their own descendants on the maternal side, Garcilasso de la Vega, surnamed the Inca. Concerning the origin of these kings, he says, th^, when he was about seven- teen years of age, being one day present with his 28 MEMOIR ON kindred in the imperial city of Cuzco, wlio were discours- ing of their ancestors, it came into his mind to ask the most elderly person amongst them, by interrupting him in his discourse, the following questions : — " Inca and " my uncle," said I, " How is it possible, since you " have no writings, that you have been able to preserve " the memory of things past, and the origin of our " kings ? I observe that the Spaniards and their " kindred nations have their sacred and profane his- *^ tories, whereby they learn the time that their own " kings, and the princes of other countries began their " reigns ; when and how empires were changed and " transferred ; nay, so far they go, as to tell us how *'many thousand years are past since God created the '* heavens and the earth ; all of which, and much " more, they have learned from their books ; but as to " yourselves — In what manner can you retain the " memory of your ancestors, or be informed of the " origin of the Incas ? As, for instance, who was the '* first of them, or what was his name ? Of what " lineage, or in what manner did he begin his reign ? " What nations did he conquer, and when did he give ** a being to this great empire, and with what exploits '* did our ancestors achieve their greatness ? " The Inca was much pleased to hear me make these " inquiries, because he took great delight in recounting " these matters, and turning to me, said, ' Cousin, I ' most willingly comply with your request ; for it con- * cerns you to hear them, and keep them in your heart ' Remember, then, that in ages past, all this region or ' country, you see around us, was nothing but moun- * tains and wild forests, and the people in thosS times ' were like so many brutes, without any religion or * government, with no understanding of property, or a * single enjoyment of them ; neither did they sow, * plough, nor clothe themselves, because they had no ' idea of tilling the earth, and knew not the art of ' weaving either cotton or wool. They dwelt two by * two, or three and three together, as they chanced to ^ meet, in caves, or holes in the rocks and mountains. INDIAN CORN. ft9 Their food was herbs or grass, root« of trees, wild fruits, and human flesh ; and all the covering they had, consisted of the leaves or bark of trees, and the skins of beasts. ^ And now, I pray that you listen with due atten- tion, for I would not be troubled to repeat what I am to say. Our Father, the Sun, beholding these Indians as they existed in the state that I have just related, took compassion on them, and sent a son and a daughter of his own from heaven to earth, to in- struct our people in his knowledge, so that they might worship and adore him, and esteem him as their God, giving them laws and precepts, unto which they might conform their lives like men of reason and refinement of manners, that they might live in houses and society, learn to till the earth, culti- vate trees, plants, and corn, feed their flocks, and enjoy them as rational men, and not as brutes. With these orders and instructions, our Father, the Sun, placed his two children by the Lake Titicaca, giving them liberty to go which way they pleased, and that, in what place soever they stopped to eat, or sleep, they should strike a little wedge of gold into the ground, ^which was about half a yard long, and two fingers thick, and where, with one stroke this wedge should sink into the earth, there should be the place of their abode, and the court unto which all people should come. Lastly, he ordered that when they should have subjected these people to the rules of obedience, they should maintain them with reason, justice, piety, clemency, and gentleness, performing all the good offices of indulgent parents towards the children they love ; and that in imitation of him, and by his example who doeth good to all the world, by affording them light to perform their work, and the actions of life ; warming them when they are cold ; making their pastures and their seeds to grow, their trees to fructify, and their flocks to in- crease ; and watering their lands with timely dews. And in order to manifest his earthly care, he said, 30 MEMOIR ON every day I take a turn around the world to see and discover the wants and necessities of all things, in order that, as their true fomenter and parent, I may apply myself to their succour and redress. Thus, after my example, and as my children, sent upon the earth, I would have you imitate me, and to instil such doctrine into this people as may convert them from beasts unto men. And henceforth I constitute and ordain you king and queen over this nation, that by your instructions, reason, and government, they may be preserved. After our Father, the Sun, had thus declared his pleasure to these, his two children, he dispatched them from him ; and, in taking their joui-ney northward from Titicaca, at every place where they came to repose, they tried to strike their wedge into the ground, but to no eflFect ; but, at length they arrived at a little inn or place of rest, in the valley of Cuzco, where they again struck their wedge of gold into the earth, which received it with the greatest ease, and which sucked it in, and they saw it no more. Then, said the Inca to his sister and wife — in this valley, our Father, the Sun, hath commanded that we should stay, and make our abode, and in so doing we shall obey his will ; in pursuance whereof, it is necessary that we now separate from each other, and take different ways that we may assemble and draw the people together in such manner as we may be able to preach and propagate the doctrine among them, which has been committed to us. Our Inca, accordingly, took his way northward, and his wife to the southward, and to all the men and women, whom they met in the wild forests and uncultivated places, they declared to them that their Father, the Sun, had sent them to be teachers and benefactors, and to deliver them from the savage life they led to another, more agree- able to reason, justice, and humanity. And in fur- ther pursuance of the commands of our Father, the Sun, they had come to gather these people from the mountains and rude places, to more convenient INDIAN CORN. 31 habitations, where they might live in human society, * and subsist upon such food as was appropriated to man, * and not to beasts. These, and similar declarations ' were announced to such savages ^s they met in the * mountains and deserts, who, in beholding the grace ^ of their countenances, the jewels, and the gay attire ' with which these two persons were adorned, and in * listening to the gentleness and sweetness of their * words, acknowledged them to be the' true Children of * the Sun, and such as were appointed to cause their * people to assemble into societies, and to administer * such kinds of food as were wholesome, and adapted * to human sustenance. They were struck with such * admiration at the sight of their figure and person, * and allured with the promises they made them, that * they gave entire credence to their words, obeyed ' them as their princes, and adored them as superior * beings. And these poor wretches, relating these ' sayings one to another, the fame so increased, that * great numbers, both men and women, flocked to- *gether, and were willing to follow to what place ' soever they should guide them. * * Thus, great multitudes of people being assembled ' together, the princes commanded that provision ' should be made of such fruits as the earth produced ' for their sustenance, lest they should be scattered * abroad again in small numbers, to gain their food. * Our Inca taught some of his subjects those labours, * which appertain unto men, as to build houses, plough, * sow the land with maize and divers sort of seeds, * that were useful or fit for food ; to which end he in- ' structed them how to make ploughs and other im- * plements necessary for the purpose ; he showed them * also how to make aqueducts and reservoirs for hold- ' ing water, and various other arts tending to the more ' commodious well-being of human life. He employed * others to gather and tame the llamas and more gentle * sorts of cattle into flocks, which ran dispersed and * wild through the mountain^^nd woods, that garments * might be made of their wool, and shoes of their 32 MEMOIR ON * skins. On the other hand, Coya Mama Oello in- * stmcted the women the art of spinning and weaving 'both cotton and wool, to make garments for their * husbands, their children, and themselves, with various * other offices appertaining to a house. In short, * nothing was omitted that would conduce to human * welfare, which she did not teach her women, and the ' Inca his men. ' Being reduced in this manner, these Indians looked * on themselves as much bettered in their condition ; * and with signal acknowledgments of^ the benefits * received, travelled with joy and satisfaction through ' the rocks and woods, to communicate the happy ' tidings of the Children of the Sun, who, for the com- * mon good of all, appeared on the earth, repeating ' the benefits they had received, and showing them * their new habiliments, and diet, and relating to * them that they lived in houses and in political * society. This relation induced these wild people to ' mingle with their civilized brethren, in order to learn * and obey ; and thus, one calling and inviting * the other, the fame spread far and near, and their * number increased to such a degree, that in six or * seven years, the Inca had composed an army sufficient * for war ; and having taught them how to make bows ' and arrows, lances, and such other weapons as we * use to this day, they wore not only capable of defend- * ing, but also to repulse an enemy, and to compel ' those by force, who led a bestial life, to live in * human society. * These were our first Incas and kings in the earlier ' ages of our empire, from whom the succeding princes, ' and we ourselves, are descended ; but how many ' years it may be since our Father, the Sun, sent his ' offspring amongst us, I am not able precisely to say, ' but I imagine that it may be about four hundred * years. ' And thus having satisfied the request you made to * me, at length, dear cousin, allow me to close by tell- * ing you, that in the course of my narrative, in order INDIAN CORN. 33 ' that I might not incline you to sadness, I abstained * from venting tears from my eyes, which, notwith- * standing, drop in blood on my heart, caused by that ' inward grief I feel, to see our Incas, and their empire * ruined and destroyed." ' To this legend, many others of ancient date might be added, one of which, is, that the rays of the sun, after the universal deluge, first fell on the island in Lake Titicaca, before they appeared in any other place, and gave a sign and promise that from that spot the first doctrines of the light of knowledge should eminate, which promise was afterwards accomplished by those kings, who preceded them, and taught the world to throw off their turpitude, and live according to the dic- tates of nature and of reason. By advantage of these, and other similar inventions, it was not difficult for the Incas to persuade the rest of the Indians, that they actually descended from the sun, and to confirm their belief by the manifold benefits and advantages which their doctrine and religion brought with them. On the assurance of these two fables, it is said, the Incas and all their subjects did really esteem this island to be a sacred and holy piece of ground, upon which, with that opinion, they erected a rich temple, all plated with gold, to be dedicated to their Father, the Sun ; where all the Indians of the provinces, subject to the In- cas, generally assembled once a year to offer gold, silver, and precious, stones, in thankful acknowledgments of the great blessings they had received. And so immense was the quantity of gold and silver, which was amassed In that island, besides what was cast and wrought into utensils, for the service of the temple, that the report of it made by the Incas, is incredible, and is more to be admired than believed. Bias Valera, a Spanish histo- jian, in speaking of the riches of this temple, says, that after all the vessels and ornaments were supplied, he was told by the Indians of Copa-Cabano, that there was such a superfluity of gold and silver, after all was ' finished, that another such temple might have been erected without the aid of any other materials ! And 34 MEMOIR ON that, so soon as the Indians had news of the invasion of the Spaniards, and were informed that their object was to despoil them of their treasures, they demolished their temple, and threw all the fragments and the im- mense wealth appertaining thereto, into the great lake. Those Incas, besides the riches they bestowed, and the encouragement they gave for the adornment of this temple, did much to improve the sterile land of this isle, so as to render it more fertile, and fit to produce fruit ; and, in gratitude to the place, on which they believed their ancestors to have descended from heaven, they ennobled it by bringing it into the highest state of fertility and th^ best of husbandry. To this end they levelled and cleared it of rocks and stones, made gardens and covered them over with good earth and manure brought from afar, and thereby made the ground capable of producing maize, which, by reason of its elevation and its consequent coldness of climate, would not grow in the country adjacent. This grain, with flax and other seeds, they sowed in the gardens they had made, which yielded good increase, the fruits of which they sent as sacred presents to the temple of the sun, and to the select virgins, at Cuzco, with orders to distribute them in all other sacred places throughout the dominions. One year they sent presents to Cuzco, the next to another place, and the third year some- where else, which were held in high esteem, as sacred relics, sowing some in the gardens belonging to the temples, and other public houses, and others they divided among the people. A portion of the grain they cast into the public granaries, and those of the sun and of the king, believing that some divine virtue was contained in it, and that it would bless and increase the corn with which it was mixed, preserve it from cor- ruption, and render it more wholesome for human sustenance ; and that Indian who was so happy as to be able to get but one grain of this maize, to throw into his heap, was possessed with the belief that he should never be in want for bread in the course of his life. INDIAN CORN. 35 During the higli feast, Capacraynlj held in the first month, Rayjniy agreeing with our December, no stran- ger was suffered to lodge in Cuzco, to which they again all assembled as soon as the festival was over, to receive cakes made of maize and the warm blood of a white alpaca, h j the MamacunaSj (select virgins,) and distributed by certain priests, who, in carrying them about in dishes of gold, gave each of the Indians one, saying as they delivered it, ^' If you do not reverence the sun and Inca, this food will bear witness against you to your ruin ; but if you worship them, then their bodies, by this pledge, will be united to yours." After which, those that had eaten of the cakes, promised obedience, and thanked the sun and Inca for their food. In the beginning of the month Hatuncuzqui^ which corresponds to our May, the Peruvians gathered their maize and kept the feast Aymorai. They re- turned home, singing from the fields^ carrying with them a large heap of maize, which they called Perua^ wrapping it up in rich garments. They continued their ceremonies for three nights, imploring the perua to preserve their harvest of maize from any damage that might chance to befall it, and also to cause that to grow prosperously which they should next plant. Lastly, their sorcerers consulted their gods whether the perua could last till the next year; and if they did not answer in the affirmative, they carried it into the fields and burned, or parched it with the .view of making a new perua, which they bore to their gra- naries in great triumph, and mingled it with other corn. The corn-plant, or its fruit, also entered into the forms, the ceremonies, and the mythology of many other tribes, which, from the limited length of this memoir, and the want of accurate information on the subject, are necessarily omitted. The following alle- gory, however, which was related to Mr. Schoolcraft by the Odjibwas, will be read with interest by all who have a fondness for this branch of literature :— A young man went out into the woods to fast, at that period of life when youth is exchanged for manhood- 36 MEMOIR ON He built a lodge of bouglis in a secluded place, and painted his face of a sombre hue. By day he amused himself in walking about, looking at the various shrubs and wild plants, and at night he lay down in his bower, which, being open, he couTd look up into the sky. He sought a gift fi'om the Master of Life, and he hoped it would be something to benefit his race. On the third day he became too weak to leave the lodge, and as he lay gazing upwards he saw a spirit come down in the shape of a beautiful young man, dressed in green, and having green plumes on his head, who told him to arise and wrestle with him, as this wfts the only way in which he could obtain his wishes. He did so, and found his strength renewed by the effort. This visit and the trial of wrestling were repeated for four days, the youth feeling at each trial, that, although his bodily strength declined, a moral and supernatural energy was im- parted, which promised him the final victory. On the third day his celestial visitor spoke to him. ' " To- morrow," said he, " will be the seventh day of your fast, and the last time I shall wrestle with you. You will triumph over me, and gain your wishes. As soon' as you have thrown me down, strip off my clothes, and bury me in the spot, in soft fresh earth. When you have done this, leave me, but come occasionally to visit the place, to keep the weeds from growing. Once or twice cover me with fresh earth." He then departed, but returned the next day, and, as he had predicted, was thrown down. The young man punc- tually obeyed his instructions, in every particular, and soon had the pleasure of seeing the green plumes of his sky visitor, shooting up through the ground. He carefully weeded the earth, and kept it fresh and' soft, and in due time was gratified by beholding the matured plant, bending with its yellow fruit, and gracefully waving its green leaves and yellow tassels in the wind. He then invited his parents to the spot, to behold the new plant. " It is mondamin," replied his father "it is the spirit's grain." They immediately prepared a feast, and invited their friends to partake of it, and this is th^ oricrin of !ndi:in corn IMDIAN CORN. 37 Properties and Uses. — There is no species of the Cerealia, which manifests itself under such varied fc^ms, sizes, colours, and chemical ingredients, as maize. While some persons have estimated it in value, equal, if not superior, to all other kinds of grain, others, on the contrary, have placed it in the lowest station in the group to which it belongs. It has been contended by some that it contains no gluten, and little, if any, ready- formed saccharine matter, and hence, could possess but a very small nutritive power, while others have observed that domestic animals, which are^ fed on maize, very speedily become fat, with their flesh, at the same time, remarkably firm ; that horses, which consume it, are enabled to perform their full portion of labour, are exceedingly hardy, and require but little care ; and that the inhabitants of the countries where it forms a large share of their food, are, for the most part, strong, healthy, and long-lived. The investigations of vegetable chemistry, however, have more recently revealed to us many important and interesting facts on these points, yet our knowledge on the subject is far from being complete. According to Marabelli's analysis of Zea mays, made twenty or thirty years ago, it contains a saccha- rine matter of different degrees of purity, from which alcohol^ the oxalic and acetous acids may be obtain- ed 3 a vegetable amylaceous substance ; a glutinous substance ; muriate and nitrate of magnesia ; carbonates of potash, lime, and of magnesia ; and iron. According to the analysis of M. Payen, maize con- sists of the following ingredients. One hundred parts by weight yielded Starch, 28.4 Nitrogenized matter, ----- 4,8 Fatty matter, (oil,) 35.6 Colouring matter, ------ 0.2 Cellular tissue, 20.0 Dextrine, -------- 2.0 Various salts, -------- 7.2 Loss, ---------- 1.8 100.0 38 MEMOIR ON The proportion of oil is evidently overrated in this analysis, and the error is attributed by Dr. Jackson to the solubility of the zeine or gluten of the corn in ether, which Payen used to dissolve the oil. The gluten being taken up by this process, was mistaken for oil, and credited in the analysis as such, when it should have been put under the head of nitrogenized matter. It is not surprising, he remarks that M. Dumas, in quoting this analysis, should observe that '' individuals who eat corn for some time, present symptoms of an accumulation of fkt ;n their tissue, which will not ap- pear astonishing, when we tonsider that a bushel of corn would yield a quart (litre) of oil !" If this doc- triqe were true, those Americans, who derive a great part of their subsistence from Indian corn, would be an excessively fat people. According to the analysis recently made in England by Professor Playfair, some specimens of corn of American growth, yielded, in one hundred parts by weight, the following proportions : — Proteine, -------- 7 Fatty matter, ------ 5 Starch, --76 Water, 12 100 By this analysis it would seem that maize contains less proteine or nutritive matter, than wheat, oats, or barley, but more than either rice or potatoes. In fact, it contains about three and a half times the quantity of nutritive matter that is found in potatoes, and a much larger proportion of starch, and less water. It also contains more fatty matter than any of these pro- ducts, which is a very important consideration where the mere fattening of animals is taken into account. Hence, as an article of food, either for man or animals, it is superior to potatoes and rice, but inferior to wheat, oats, or barley. It is re'lished by all animals that ' are not exclusively carnivorous, and certainly is highly nutritious. INDIAN CORN. ^ 39 According to the researches of Dr. Charles T. Jack- son, of Boston, who stands preminent as a chemist, Indian corn, in general, is composed of variable propor- tions of starch, dextrine, gum or mucilage, sugar, gluten, oil, the phosphates of lime and magnesia, with a little phosphoric acid, silica, potash, and oxide of iron. Some varieties, however, are nearly or quite destitute of gluten, oil, or the salts of iron. Among the curious results of Dr. Jackson's experi- ments, he proved that the relative proportions of phos- phates in grain, depend on the assimilating power of each species, or variety ; for an ear of corn having been selected, which had on it two different kinds, namely, the Tuscarora and the sweet corn, more than double the amount of phosphates were obtained from the latter than from the former, notwithstanding the kernels came from the same ear, grew side by side from the same sap, and were derived from the same soil. Hence it may be inferred that a crop of sweet corn will sooner exhaust a soil of its phosphates than any other variety, sCnd if a soil be deficient in these materials, more must be added to produce it in perfection. Some interesting facts were also noticed by him in the variable propor- tions of phosphates in different varieties of the same species of several kinds of grain, and a greater prepon- derance of them was observed in Indan corn, than in the smaller grains, as barley, oats, wheat, &c. — a fact which seems to explain their peculiar properties as food for animals ; for the more highly phosphatic grains appear to be more likely to surcharge the system of adult animals with bony matter, often producing con- cretions of phosphate of lime, like those resulting from gout. It is conjectured that the stiffness of the joints and lameness of the feet, common in horses, which have been fed to freely with maize, is caused by the preponderance of the phosphates. Granting this to be true, young animals cannot fail to derive more osseous matter from corn than from any other kind qf grain. The horny or flinty portions of corn, when viewed in 40^ MEMOIR ON thin sections under a good microscope, will be found to consist of a great number of six-sided cells, filled with a fixed oil, which has been successfully employed for the purposes of illumination. It is stated that a distillery has been established in the vicinity of Lake Ontario, where this oil is extracted, at the rate of six- teen gallons from one hundred bushels of corn, leaving the remaining portion of the corn more valuable and in better condition for distillation than before the oil is extracted. On this oil depends the POPPING QUALITIES OF CORN. For, when the kernels are heated to a temperature suf- ficiently high to decompose the oil, a sudden explosion takes place, and every cell is ruptured by the expansion of gaseous matters arising from the decomposition of the oil, and the formation of carburetted hydrogen gas, such as is sometimes used in lighting large cities, the grain being completely evoluted and folded back, or turned inside out. This property is remarkably strong in the pop corn, and is common, in a greater or lefes degree, in all kinds of corn that abound in oil ; but those varieties destitute of a horny covering, as the Tuscarora, and white flour-corn, will not pop under any circum- stances whatever. This change in corn is one of considerable im- portance, so far as regards facility of digestion ; for, after the decomposition or extraction of this oil, it is more readily digested by man, though less fattening to poultry, cattle, swine, &c. One important use of the oil in corn is undoubtedly to prevent the rapid decomposition of the kernels, when sown in the soil, and to retain a portion of pabulum or food, until needed by the young plant, and is always the last portion of the grain taken up. It also serves to keep meal from souring, as it has been observed that a flint-corn meal will keep sweet for years, even when put up in large quantities, without being kiln-dried ; while the meal of Tuscarora corn will become sour in a very short time. INDIAN CORN. 41 The colours of Indian corn usually depend on that of the epidermis or hull, and sometimes on that of tho oil. If the epidermis be transparent, the colour may depend either upon the oil, or the combined particles of which the corn is composed ; but if the hull bo opaque, tho grain will present the same colour. For example, the yellow colour of the golden Sioux fs derived from the yellow colour of the oil ; and the Rhode Island white flint-corn on the colourless par- ticles of , its starch and oil, which are distinctly seen through its transparent hull ; but red and blue corn owe their lively hues to the colours of their epidermis, and not to the oil. The proportions of oil in corn, as far as it has been examined, varies from an entire absence to eleven per cent., according to the varieties employed. When corn is hulled by means of potash ley, a por- tion of the oil is converted into soap, and the epidermis becomes detached. The caustic alkali also liberates ammonia from the mucilage around the germ. • Oily corn makes a dry kind of bread, and is not suf- ficiently adhesive to rise well without an admixture of rye, or other flour. The oil of corn is easily convertible into animal fat by a slight change of composition, and consequently serves an excellent purpose for fattening poultry, cattle, and swine. Starch, also, is changed into fat as well as the carbonaceous substances of animals, and during its slow combustion in the circulation, gives out a portion of the heat" of animal bodies ; while, in its altered state, it goes to form a part of the living frame. Dex- trine and sugar act in a similar manner, as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. From the phosphates of grain, the substance of bone and the saline matters of the brain, nerves, and other solid and fluid parts of the body, are, in a great measure, derived. The salts of iron go to the blood, and these consti- tute an essential portion of it^ whereby it is enabled, by successive alterations of its degree of oxidation 42 MEMOIR ON during the circulation through the lungs, arteries, ex- treme vessels and veins, to convey oxygen to every part of the body. By soaking Indian corn, after it has been cut open, in a watery solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) the result will give a decisive proof of the presence of phosphoric acid. The " chits," or parts containing the germs, will be changed to a bluish-green, beautifully defining the limits of the phosphates of lime and of magnesia contained in the grain. By soaking a kernel of corn split open longitudinally and thrown into a solution of sulphydrate of ammonia, the chit is soon changed to a dark olive-colour, which arises from the change of the salts of iron into a sul- phuret of that metal. By cutting open, in a similar manner, a kernel of maize, or any other kind of grain, and dropping upon it a small quantity of the tincture of iodine, a portion of its bulk will be immediately changed to an intense blue, indicating the presence of starch, with here and there a deep port-wine-coloured speck, which will define the parts composed of dextrine. If the oil is extracted from the transparent part of the corn by alcohol, or ether, the tincture of iodine will indicate the presence of starch in that part of the grain associated with the gluten. By these means, we may readily cause any grain to define the extent and precise limits of each of its ingredients ; and by the eye, we can form a pretty cor- rect estimate of their relative proportions in different The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, ex- hibiting every grade of size, colour, and conformation between the shrubby reed that grows on the shores of Lake Superior, to the gigantic stalks of the Ohio'val-- ley, the tiny ears with flat, close-clinging grains of Canada, the brilliant, rounded, little pearl, or the bright-red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed ♦ See Jackson's Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of New Hampshire, pp. 255 et seq. INDIAN CORN. 43 haematite, to the swelling ears of the big white, and yellow gourd-seed of the South. The principal varieties cultivated in the United States, which may be distin- guished by the number of rows of grains on the cob, and the colour, shape, or size of the kernels, may be classified and described as follows : — Yellow Corn. — The colours of the varieties coming under this head, as before observed, are dependent mainly on the shades of the oil, as seen through the transparent epidermis or hull. 1. Golden Sioux or Northern Yellow Flint- C am ^ derived from the Sioux Indians, in Canada, having a large cob, rather short as to length, with twelve rows of moderately-sized grains, abounding in oil, and is regarded as one of the best varieties for fattening animals, or for human food. By skilful tillage, 130 bushels have been raised to an acre, weighing 9,216 lbs. in the ear. When dry, 75 lbs. of ears gave a bushel when shelled. Several valuable hybrid varieties have been produced between the Sioux and the King Philip, the gourd-seed and the Sioux, &c. 2. King Philip or Eight-rowed Yellow Corn ; so called after the celebrated chief of the Wampanoags, of that name, from which tribe the seed was originally obtained. The ears, which contain only eight rows, are longer, the cob smaller, and the grains larger than those of the golden Sioux, and it will yield about the same quantity of oil. It is a hardy plant, much esteemed in New England as a substantial article of food, where it has been cultivated from times anterior to the landing of the Pilgrims. From this variety, a number of superb kinds have beon obtained, among which, are a beautiful ten and twelve-rowed hybrid from the golden Sioux, and the well known Browne CorUy improved by my brother, Mr. John Browne, of Long Island, in Lake Winnipissiogoe. The latter variety was produced by cultivating selected ears for a succession of years, of the King Philip corn, with small but-ends, the second ripe, in the field, and taken from gtalks which bore more than two ears each. The grains 44 MEMOIR ON of this corn are large, the cob small, and the ears usually from ten to thirteen inches in length, with only eight rows. It ripens a little later than the golden Si«ux, and is very prolific, the greatest crop, per acre, that has yet been raised, being 136 bushels, weighing, in the ear, 9,520 lbs., or 70 lbs. to the bushel, and 58 lbs., when shelled. 3. Canada Corn or Eight-rowed Yellow. — This corn, which is smaller, earlier, and more solid than any of the preceding, contains more oil than any other variety, except the rice corn, and the pop corn, properly so called. It is highly valued for fattening poultry, swine, &c., and is grown by many, in gardens, for early boiling or roasting, when green. Notwithstanding it is very prolific in ears, it is seldom planted in fields, except in regions where the larger kinds will not thrive. 4. Button Corn., a variety first brought into notice, in 1818, by Mr. Salmon Button, of Cavendish, Ver- imont. The ears of corn from which it was originally selected, on an average, were from eight to twelve inches long, and contained from twelve to eighteen rows. The cob is larger, and sometimes grows to the length of fourteen or fifteen inches, but the grain is so compact upon it, that two bushels of sound ears have yielded five pecks of shelled corn, weighing 62 lbs. to the bushel. With proper management, an acre of ground will produce from 100 to 120 bushels. As it abounds in oil, gives a good yield, and ripens at least two weeks earlier than the Canada corn, it has long been a fa- vourite for culture at the North. 5. Southern Big Yellow Corn. — The cob of this variety is thick and long, the grains much wider than deep, and where the rows unite with each other, their sides fall off almost to a point. This gives the ouside ends of the grain a circular form, which imparts to the ear an appearance somewhat resembling a fluted column. The grain contains less oil and more starch than the northern flinty kinds, yet its outward texture is some- what solid, flinty, and firm. It comes rather late into maturity, affords an abundant yield, and is mucn used INDIAN CORN. 45 for fattDning swine. Mixed with either of the white gourd-seed varieties the Yellow Gourd- Seed is produced, which is often mistaken for an original form. 6. Southern Small Yellow Corn. — The ears of this sort are more slender, as well as shorter, than the last named variety ; the grains are smaller, though of the same form, of a deeper yellow, more firm and flinty, and contain an abundance of oil, which renders them more valuable for the purposes of shipping, or for feeding to poultry and swine. Although it is less productive than the big yellow, it ripens earlier, and consequently is sooner out of the reach of the autumnal frosts. Some valuable hybrids have been produced between this and the big yellow, the Virginian white gourd-seed, and other large varieties. White Corn. — The varieties which constitute this division are exceedingly variable, both as regards their composition and size, as well as in their yield and times of coming to maturity. 1. Rhode Island White Flint- Corn. — The grains of this variety are about the size and shape of those of the Tuscarora corn, but differ from them in containing an abundance of a transparent and colourless oil, which may easily be seen through their clear, pellucid hulls. The farinaceous parts of the grains are white, and as the qi^uantity of oil they contain is large, the flour is more substantial as an article of» food, and less liable to ferment and become sour. In Rhode Island, where it produces an abundant yield, it is a favourite grain, and stands in high repute. 2. Southern Big White Flint- Corn^ having a large thick cob, with twelve rows of kernels, much resem- bling, in shape and size, those of the big yellow, and like that variety, is less productive than the white Virginian gourd-seed. It contains more starch, and less oil than the northern flint-corn ; but is much softer and a better food for horses, though not so fat- teniug to poultry and swine. When ground into meal, it is apt to become sour, and consequently is unfit to be 46 MEMOIR ON shipped in that state, unless previously prepared by being kiln-dried. From this variety originated the genuine White Flint- Corn, employed for making the excellent hommpny, so much in use in the Middle and Southern States. 3. Southern Little White Flint-Corn. — The kernels of this variety are considerably smaller than those of the preceding, and much resemble them in shape ; but they arc more firm and solid, contain more oil, and consequently are more valuable for feeding poultry and swine, and for human food. Although the cob is smaller in proportion to the size of the ears, the yield, per acre, is less abundant, and hence it is but little grown. 4. Dutton White Flint- Corn, a variety not differing materially from the yellow Dutton corn, except in the colour of its oil. 5. Early Canadian White Flint- Corn, cultivated principally for early boiling or roasting, while green. 6. Tuscarora Corn, a variety obtained from the Tuscarora Indians, in the state of New York. The ears contain from twelve to sixteen rows of grains, which are nearly as deep as they are broad, of a whitish colour on the exterior, and composed entirely within, of pure white dextrine and starch, except the germs. As it contains neither gluten nor oil, it may profitably be employed in the manufacture of starch. It is much softer, and better food for horses than the flinty kinds, and if used before it becomes sour, it may be converted into an excellent bread. 7. White Flour- Corn. — The ears of this variety con- tain twelve rows of rather thick, roundish grains, which are filled with a snowy white flour, composed principally of starch, but does not contain either gluten or oil. It is much used in some parts of the country, particularly in New Jersey, for grinding up with buck-wheat, mixed in proportions of four or five to one of corn, in order to improve the colour and other qualities of the buck- wheat flour. As it possesses similar properties as the preceding variety, it may be profitably employed for the same purposes. 9 INDIAN CORN. B. Virginia White Gourd- Seed Corn. — The ears of this corn, which are not very long, neither is the cob so large as those of the big white or yellow flint, contain from twenty-four to thirty-six rows of very long, nar- row grains of so soft and open a texture, that they will not bear transportation, by sea, unless they are pre- viously kiln-dried, or completely excluded from the moist air. These grains at their exterior ends are almost flat, and grow so closely together from the cob to the surface, that they produce a greater yield than any other variety, in proportion to the size of the ears. They contain more starch and less gluten and oil than those of the flint kinds ; and from their softness, they serve as better food for horses, but are less nourishing to poultry and swine. The colour of this variety is' always white, unless it has been crossed with other kinds, which may invariably be known by a small in- denture in the ends of the grains, when perfectly dried. The oily and glutinous parts of the Virginian gourd- seed always occur on the sides of its elongated grains, while the starch projects quite through to their sum- mits, and by contraction in drying, produces the pits or depressions peculiar to their ends. This variety is later ripe, though more productive than any other kind. Several valuable hybrids have been produced by its cross fecundation with the yellow and white flinty sorts, among which, are the Yellow Gourd- Seed^ and the celebrated Burden and Baden varieties, the latter of which, has produced as many as ten ears to a stalk ! 9. Early Sweet or Sugar Com, sometimes called Pappoon Corn. — This variety was introduced into Massachusetts, in 1779, by Captain Richard Bagnal, of Plymouth, from the country bordering on the Sus- quehannah, on his return from the expedition against the tribes of the Six Nations, under the command of General Sullivan. There are two kinds of this corn, one with the cob red, and the other white. The ears are short, and usually contain eight rows, the grains of which, when mature, are of a light colour, and become shrivelled and appear as if they were unripe. It con- 4S INDIAN CORN. tains an unusually large proportion of the phosphates, and a eonsidorable quantity of sugar and gum, though but little starch. It is extensively cultivated for culi- nary purposes, and serves as a delicious food, either green or dry. H^.MATiTE or Blood-red Corn, and Varieties of Different Shades. — The lively hues, peculiar to the red, blue, and purple corns, generally depend on the shades of the epidermis of the grains, and not the oil. The origin of these colours appears to be purely accidental, as white and yellow varieties have been planted at remote distances from any other kind, and have produced kernels of a brilliant red. The different * shades of colour in corn are supposed to be caused by different proportions of iron, or other metals, com- bined with oxygen and some acid principle, acted upon by the rays of light. 1. Rice Conij a variety with small ears, the grains of which are of various shades of colour, and often are of the size and shape of rice. It contains more oil and less starch than any other kind ; and when ground, its meal cannot be made into bread alone, but is dry like sand. From its oily nature and convenient size, this corn is peculiarly adapted for feeding fowls.* 2. Fop or Parching Coriiy sometimes called Valpa- raiso Com (Zea curagiia^ of botanists.) The cars of this variety are small, the grains of various shades of colour, and contain, next to the ric3 corn, more oil and less starch, than any other kind. Its flavour is pleasant, when parched, for which purpose it is generally prefeiTed. This variety is believed to be the Cara of the Incas of Peru, which, wl^en parched, they call Can- cha, signifying a neighbourhood or street. * See Dr. Jackson's Report, pp. 258 et 25a €. M. SAXTON, PfTRLISHEK, 121 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK, Would respectfully call attention to his Assortment of Works Appertaining to Agriculture, Rural and Domestic Economy, a few of which are enumerated, with the retail prices, from which a liberal discount will be made when a num- ber of copies, are ordered at one time. Any book can be sent by mail. .50 150 6.50 4.50 The American Agriculturist, per vol., $1.25 Allen's, R. L., American Farm Book, . . . . . 1.00 Allen's, L. F., American Herd Book 3.00 A.llen's, R. L., Diseases of Do- mestic Animals, . . . .75 Allen's, J. F., Treatise on the Grape Vine, .... 1.00 Hoare on the Vine, . . . .63 Spooner on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine, and Making of Wine, 38 Downing's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, . .1.50 Coles' American Fruit Book, • .50 Thomas' Fruit Culturist, . . .63 Do. " "with Appen- dix, 1.00 Ives' New-England Fruit Book, .50 Bridgman's Fruit Cultivator's Manual, ^aques' Practical Treatise on the Management" of Fruit Trees, . , . • . Keniick's American Orchardist, Lindley's Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden, C. M. Hovey's Fruit Trees of America, Colored Plates, per vol., .... Browne's Trees of America. Loudon's Arboretum Britan nicum, .... The Complete Gardener and Florist, 25 Bridgman's Florist's Guide, . .60 Kly's American Florist, Buist's Flbwer Garden Direc- tory, 1.25 Sayre's American Flower Gar den Companion, . . . .75 Mrs. Loudon's Companion to the Flower Garden, . . . 1.2i Buist on the Culture of the Rose Prince's Ro'^e Manual, Mrs Gore's Hose Manual, . Parsons on the Culture of the Rose, . . . , Rose Culturist, . Lindley's Theory of Horticul ture, .... Theodoie Thinker's B'irst Les sous in Botany, Darlington's Agricultural Bot any, Gray's Botanical Text Book, Chapin's Vegetable Kingdom, or Hand Book of Plants, Beattie's Essays on Southern Agriculture, Woods' Class Book of Botany, . Partridge's Theory and Prac- tice of Agricul'ture. . .12>^ .75 .75 1.50 1.60 .33 1.00 1.50 1.25 1.00 1 50 .50 .75 1.00 1.00 .75 .50 4.00 10.00 1.00 Rodgers' Scientific Agriculture, $ .76 Boussingault's Rural Economy, 1.50 Boussingault's Organic Natiue,, .60 Falkner's Treatise on the Na- ture and Value of Manures, Buel's Farmer's Companion, Buel's Farmer's Instructor, 2 vols., ..... Gaylord and Tucker's Ameri- can Husbandry, . Fessenden's Complete Farmer, Davis' Text Book of Agricul- ture, Wiggin's American Farmer's Instructor, .... 1.50 Pritt's Farmer's Book and Fa- mily Instructor, . . .* 2.00 Johnson's American Farmer's Encyclopaedia, Donn's Gardener's Dictionary, 4 vols, quarto, ParnelPs Applied Chemistry in Arts, Manufactures, and Do- mestic Economy, . Fresenius and Bullock's Ele- mentary Instruction in Chemical Analysis, Chaptai's Chemistry Applied to Agriculture, 60 Liebig's Agriculture Chemistry, .25 Liebig's Animal Chemistry, . J26 Liebig's Familiar Letters on Chemistry, .... Topham's Chemistry made Easy for the Agriculturist, . Johnson's Catechism of Agri- cultural Chemistry and Geology, .... Johnson's Lectures on Agri- cultural Chemistry, Skinner's Elements of Agricul- ture, Gray's >"'lements of Scientific and Practical Agriculture, Robbin's Complete Produce Reckoner, showing the Value, by Pound or Bushel, of all the Diflerent Kinds of Grain, 75 Whitmarsh on the Mulberry Tree, Dana's Muck Manual, j Dana's Prize Essay on Manures, I The Farmer's it^inc, or Source j of Wealth, .... j Smith's Productive Farming, or ! Familiar Digest of Recent I Discoveries, . I The Farmer's Treasure, I Thompson on the Food of Ani- mals, The Complete Farrier. Coles' A merican Veterinarian, . Tlie American Farrier, The Horse, its Habits, Diseases, and Management, . [.00 .26 Jib 1.26 .25 .50 .60 .60 .12>tf .7.^ .50 .75 .50 .26 .60 .76 .26 C. M. Saxtoii's Catalogue of Books. Touatt on the Horse, . Miles' Horse's Foot, and How to Keep it Sound, Hinds' Farrier and Stud Book, . Mason's Farrier, . . . . Stewart's Stable Economy, C'ater's Every Man His Own Farrier Stable Talk and Table Talk, . Ynuatt'ti Stock Raiser's Manual, Clater and Youatt's Cattle Doc- tor Mills' Sportman's Library, . Skinner's Dog and Sportsman, . Hawker and Porter on Shooting, Frank Forrister's Field Sports, Youatt on the Dog, Youatt on the Pig, Knowlson's Cow Doctor, . Guenon'B Treatise on Milch Cows Randall's Sheep Husbandry, . Morrel's American Shepherd, . Canficid on the Management and Breed of Sheep, . Blacklock's Treatise on Sheep, . Bement's American Poulterer's Companion, . . . . Cock's American Poultry Book, Boswell's Poultry Yard. Miner's Bee Keeper's Manual, . "Weeks' Treatise on the Honey Bee Bevan on the Bee, Townley onthe Bee, . Marshall's Farmer's and Immi- grant's Hand Book, Stephen's Book of the Farm, 2 vols, octavo, .... Ellsworth's Improvements in Arts, Manufactures, &c., in the United States, . Bigelow's Plants of Boston and Vicinity, .... Gardiner's Farmer's Dictionary, Bement's Journal of Agricul- ture Colman's Continental Agricul- ture, ' Colman's European Agricul- tural Tour FesBenden's New American Gardener, .... Mahon's American Gardener's Calandar, .... Bridgman's Young Gardener's Assistant, , - . . Johnson's Dictionary of Modern Gardening, .... Cobbet's American Gardener, . Bridgman's Kitchen Gardener's Instrnctor, .... JJuists Family Kitchen Gar- dener, Thaers Agriculture, . Sraee on the Potato Plant, . Gilpin's Landscape Gardening, . Downing's landscape Garden- ing, Downing's Cottage Residen- ces, Lang's Highland Cottages, . $1.75 .25 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.00 2.50 .50 1.00 .75 2.75 4.00 1.50 65 .25 .38 1.00 1.00 1.00 .50 1.00 .50 1.00 .50 .38 .50 1.00 4.00 .25 1.60 1.50 2.50 1.25 6.00 .84 3.60 1.75 2.25 .50 .75 1.75 .72 2.50 3.60 2.00 1.50 Cottage and Villa Architecture, by Walter and Smith, 4 vols.flO.OO Elliot's Cottages & Cottage Life, 2.50 The American Architect, com- prising Original Designs of Country Residences, 4to., 1st series, .... 3.5(> 2d series, .... 3.60 Peters' Agricultural Account Book, 1.00-. The Canary-Bird Farrier, . . .18^ Bees, Pigeons, Rabbits, and Canary Birds, . . . .38 The Bird Keeper's Manual, . .50 The Birds of Long Island, . .1.00 Gunn's Domestic Medicine, or Poor Man's Friend. This Book points out in plain lan- guage, free from Doctor's Terms, the Diseases of Men, Women, and Children, and the Latest and most Approv- ed Means used in their Cure, and is intended ex- pressly for the Benefit of Families. It also Contains a Description of the Medi- cinal Roots and Herbs in the United States. By John C. Gunn, M. D., 1 vol. 8vo., 3.00 The Use of Brandy and Salt, as a Remedy for Various Inter- nal as well as External Dis- eases, Inflammation, and Lo- « cal Injuries, containing Am- ple Directions for Making and Applying it. By Rev. S. Fenton, 12^ Miss Beecher's Domestic Eco- nomy, 76 Receipt Book, . . . .76 Miss Leslie's Complete Cookery, 1.20 House Book, . . . 1.20 Ladies' Receipt Book, . 1.20 Indian-Meal Book, . . .25 Seventy-Five Receipts, . .30 Mrs. Rundle's Domestic Cook- ^ ery, 50 Mrs. Child's Frugal Housewife, .40 The Cook's own Book, . .1.00 The American Housewife and Kitchen Directory, . . .IS^ The American System of Cook- ery, 75 Domestic Cookery, . . . .50 The Practical Receipt Book, . .62 Miss Acton's Now Work on Cookery, . . . .1,00 Mrs. Abeel's Skillful Housewife, .26 Mrs. Cornelius' Young House- keeper's Friend, ... .60 Alcott's Young Housekeeper, 1.00 The Economical Housekeeper, . .75 " Browne's Memoir on Indian Corn, .25 Pedder's Farmer's Land Mea- surer, showing at one View the Contents of any Piece of Land from Dimensions taken in Yards, with a Set of Useful Agricultural Tables. M Webster's h".ncyclopasdja of Do- mestic Economy, . . . 8 60 THE AMERICAN FARM BOOK: OR, Compend of American Agriculture, Containing a concise and plainly written Exposition of Duties pertaining to the Cultivation of the Earth, the Management of the Farm, &c.. &c., on prac • tical scientific princit)les. BY R. L. ALLEN. The cheapest and most valuable book for a farmer ever printed : being a com plete Guide, both practical and scientific, for the MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM. Besides the varied practical knowledge which this book imparts, and which is indispensable to the proper management of every department of agriculture, it gives the elements of other information highly necessary to a successful farmer, as History, Geology, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Physiology, and Mechanics These branches of knowledge are given as applicable to agricultural pursuits, and when properly understood will essentially aid and assist the fcirmer. In fact, a knowledge of these sciences is a sure key to wealth for any agriculturist. It gives the mode of preparation, and the eftects of all kinds of manures ; the origin, texture, divisions, and description of every variety of soils ; the economy of sowing, reaping, and mowing, irrigation and draining ; cultivation of the grasses, clovers, grains, and roots ; Southern and miscellaneous products, as cot- ton, hemp, flax, the sugar cane, rice, tobacco, hops, madder, woad, Sic. ; the rearing of fruit — apples, peaches, pears, plums, grapes, &c ; farm buildings hedges, &c. ; with the best methods of planting, cultivating, and prepaia.ioi) for market. Illustrated by 100 engravings. The reader can form some idea of the above work, from the fact that it treats of 800 different subjects important to a farmer. It contains 364 pages, and is beautifully bound in cloth, gilt, suitable for a library. Price only One Dollar. Notices of the Pre.ss. The author has been one of the most able contributors to the agricultural pres.^ for the last ten years ; aside from this he is a practical farmer and slock-breeder, and consequently knows from his own experience what he is writing about. Commercial Advertiser. This book is by a gentleman of known experience ; the work is exceedingly cheap, and the farmer will find it a valuable book of reference. — N. Y. Express. It is in fact a brief encyclopedia on the subjects treated, and the farmer will find appropriate information on almost any subject coming within his reach.— X^ew York Observer. Here is a book for the million, precisely what its title indicates. Compasses* within its pages, the reader will find the subject of soils, manures, crops, and animals, treated in a style easily comprehended.— o'pmi of the Times. This work is what might be expected from one so well qualified for the undei- taking.— Boston Cultivator, We are glad to meet a publication which can interest, as well as improve the condition of the human race. We commend the work to every American farmer. — Christian Intelligencer. Why shall not every good farmer economize his muscles by storing his mind ? We hope this book will find its way into many family and school-libraries.— iVe<» York Tribune. It ought to be found in every farmer's library. — Jerseyman. It is really a great satisfaction to get hold of an American treatise on Agricul- ture, that has a plain, practical, common sense character of its own. The author' of this work is already known to the agricultural public as a thorough pracUcai farmer and stock-breeder. That he well knows what lie is about on a farm, these pages abundanty show. No mere book-maker could have written such a book ; and we may add, also, that no mere practical fanner could have written it. A "good practical work" can only be written by a m;m who has both thought and acted well. What distinguishes this volume, is its conciseness, its clearness, and its i»erspicuous treatment of the subject in hand. We think, Lheretore, that Mr. Allen's volume, the basis of which is good practical farming, as practised by tif best cultivators in the United States, with an intelligent reference lo those princi- ples of science which lie at the root of all successful practice, is likely to be of as much or more real service to us, than any work on agriculture vet issued fr(»m the press, and we gladly commend it to the perusal of every on*, oi our reudwrs eogaged in the cultivation of land — A. J Downing's Horticulturist THE AMERICAN ARCHITECTS PUBLISHED MONTHLY AT ^3 PER ANNUM, (Single Xumbers, 25 Cents,) Thk object of this publication is to introduce ORIGINAL DESIGNS of Country Seats adapted to the varied taste and circumstances of an American population : from the elegant Villa to the simple Cottage and plain Farm-House ; from Planters' Mansions to Village Domicils. In a word, every variety of Rural Residences will be embraced, in order to meet the views of every person desiring a Country House. In respect to style, cost, arrangement, finish, &c., utility Mrill never be sacrificed: economy in the outlay, with an appropriate style, will always be kept in view. The requisite details, specifications, plans, and direc tions, with a careful and reliable estimate of the cost, will accompany each design These are essential features of a Practical Work, and no labor will be spared in their preparation. Of the diversity of human dwellings, whether marked by elegance, convenience, or utility, or by the want of them, none can compare in national importance and philosophical interest with the Famv- House— the Homestead of our species. A triple value attaches to that class of men which feeds all others. With pri- meval farmers, man's social faculties were first unfolded. With them society began : and among whatever people its shaft has become polished and its capital enriched, it still rests on the cultivators of the soil. So, of their profession, agri- culture is tlie great parent of the arts, while its prepared products will forever be the most essential of all manufactures. Then it was in their dwellings that Architecture itself had its birth ; it was they who first abandoned the tent with pastoral life, and began to devise and construct fixed and permanent abodes. The estimates we give are based on New York prices ; including the best ma- terials, workmanship, and finish. There is no doubt that in many parts of the country, they may be materially diminished in every one of these respects— eve© to the extent of one-half. The selection of designs by those about to build Country Residences is com monly attended with embarrassment and always with expense. When furnished by professional men, from general ideas communicated by proprietors, they are seldom satisfactory. The AmericOi Architect, by furnishing a collection of designs .adapted to all tastes and means, will remove every difficulty in the choice, and wave money expended on Plans of no use. It will furnish twelve Elevations, Plans, and Specifications in each year, at a price not exceeding one-seventh of the usual charge for one. Every handsome residence adds value to the grounds attached to it ; hence the importance of having such, by those who invest capital in this species of property. With regard to utility — the proper distribution of the apartments and their adaptation to the purposes intended is the most important point to be attended to, and they are governed by the Plans. From among the great number of notices, we select the following: — " The price is only 25 cents for each number, and it is surely next to impossible but that such a periodical will obtain a wide circulation."— iVcw York Tribune. " This work promises to supply a want which has long existed, and to be ol essential value." — Salem Register. " This work cannot fail to be useful and popular."— Boston Bee. *' This is a good and beautiful work, and well adapted to eflfect a much desired reform in American Architecture."— £osion Traveller. Thi? Cost of building from the Plans given, will be from $600 to $5,000, with comp Bte Specifications from a first-rate Mason and Carpenter, and the prices given "^an be depended upon. GUNN'S DOMESTIC MEDICINE, OB POOR MAN'S FRIEND ; IN THE HOURS OF AFFLICTION, PAM AND SICKNESS, A SAFE AND RELIABLE GUIDE. Raymond's copy, price three dollarr This Book points out in plain language, free from doctors' terms the Diseases of Men, Women, and Children, and the latest and most improved means used in their cure ; and is intended expressly for the benefit of families. It also contains descriptions of the Medical Roots and Herbs of the United States, and how they are to be used in the cure of diseases. It is arranged on a new and simple plan, by which the practice of Medicine is reduced to principles of common sense. This invaluable book has passed through many editions ; it has now been re- vised and improved in every respect, and enlarged to nearly double its former size ; and contains nine hundred octavo pages. It does not propose to dispense with physicians in severe cases. But it does propose to save thousands and tens of thousands annually, by putting the means of cure into every man's hands, and of saving many valuable lives (which is of far more importance) by instructing individuals how to check disease in its begin- nings, before it has acquired too much strength to resist and evercftne. Opinions of the Press. " We seldom take up a book of this dlass with any favorable impressions ; for we fear quackery and pretension have been at work for the * poor man ;' but in this work all our prejudices w^ere conquered. Professional men as well as others, we see cheerfully recommend this book ; which has, in its ample pages, much of the necessary instruction to ward off or to cure disease."— iVeio York Express. " It is written in an easy, plain, and familiar style, and points out the diseases of men, women, and children, and the latest and most approved means used in their cure. The language and arrangement are so simplified as to bring it within the capacity of .those who possess a very limited education. The object and de- sign of the author seems to be to remove all that technical phraseology which is used in medical works generally, and thus simplify the practice of that science which the head of every family should be acquainteEl with. It is generally recom- mended to our professional readers as a guide in cases where it is not deemed necessary te have the services of regularly educated practitioners. This book should find a place in every family."— ^o5.— This does the same work as the hands per- form on a rice plantation with trenching hoes, equally well, and with much greater rapidity than a negro can work. No Planter $6to6.fiO SQUARE HaBAOW. New York Agricultural Warehouse. Rollers of various kinds— wood, stone, or iron ; single or double ; and to mnve by hand or horse-power $10 to $6ft. Field Rollee. Cultivators, hand or horse, of various patterns $3.00 to b.OO Horse-Powers. — KmUess chain, single horse 75.00 to 85.00 « " two-horse 100.00 to 120.00 " C ast-iron, single or two-horse 50.00 to 6O.O0 « " four-horse 90.00 Grain Threshers 25,00 to 40.00 " with Separators 35.00 to 50.00 Clover-MilU. for cleaning seed 30.00 to 65.00 Fanning- Mills, for winnowing grain 12.00 to 27.00 Burr-stone Mills, for grinding grain » 30.00 to 125.00 Cast-iron Mills, a new and most admirable invention. They work either by hand or other power, and are well adapted for grinding all kinds of grain, except Rim-Horse Power. flouring wheat for market , 5.00 to 30.00 Com and Cob Crushers, for grinding cob in the ear 30.00 to 60.00 Sugar Crushers, for pulverizing sugar 7.50 to 20.00 Paint Mills, of various patterns 7.00 to 17.00 Corn Shellers. — Will shell from 50 to 200 bushels of ears per hour, in the best manner. These work bv horse or other power 30.00 to 60.0© The same worked by hand, made of wood or cast-iron 6.00 to IQ.M Vegctahli Cutters, for slicing potatoes. beet."5, turnips, &c 8.00 to 12 00 STORIES ABOUT ANIMALS IBT fflSAMSHS ©„ WdDdJIBWdDIETIEI, EDITOR OF THE YOUTH's CABINET. This is a duodecimo volume of some 360 pages, containing characteristic anecdotes of animals belonging to the race of quadrupeds. The anecdotes, gleaned from various sources, are designed not only to amuse and entertain the reader, but to afford him some idea of the habits, dispositions and intelli- gence of the different animals introduced. It is illustrated and embellished with Si:STT,BEAUTIPUL EITaRAVIlT<^S. The publisher confidently recommends it to parents, teachers, and others interested in the selection of books for the young, as one of the most fascinat- ing and valuable works in the whole range of juvenile literature. " Few living writers are, in our judgment, so well adapted to interest, and at the ?iame time instruct the young in useful knowledge, as the author of this pleasing volume." — American Biblical Repository. " We know of no better book to place in the hands of the young, nor one with which they would be more delighted." — Godeyh Lady^s Book. " We commend it for its clearness and simplicity of style, its happy adapta- tion to young readers, and its pure and wholesome moral tendency." — N. Y. Tribvii::. " These stories are pleasantly told, and cannot fail to have a humanizing tendency." — N. Y. Jour, of Com. " A charming volume, in which Mr. Woodworth's facility and experience in writing for the young, are turned to good account. The Stories are told with that felicitous simplicity and elegance of diction which few writers ac- quire, and which cannot fail to charm both young and old." — N. Y. Commer- cial Advertiser. " A book of great cleverness and interest for youthful readers — precisely such a collection of anecdotes as will prove highly instructive and attractive." — N, Y. Presbyterian.' Price, iu Pli»in Binding;, .... 75 Cents. " Paper Coirers, (Maid Edition,) . 50 *' TO rURCHASERS AT A DISTANCE. The book will be sent by mail, to every part of the country. The postage is not increased by distance ; so that any one, residing anywhere in the United States, Ua's only to enok)se the money in a letter to the publisher, and he will receive the book at a t?^fling expense for transportation. D. A. WOODWORTH, PUBLISHEI^, 135 Nassau Street, N. Y. ID* The Trade supplied by C. M. Saxton, 121 Fulton Street. ' RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (415)642-6233 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW MAY 2 1989 '"■::r-i\,pr. LD 21A-38»i-5 .'68 .. General Library YB 76989 GENERAL LIBBARY-U.C. BERKELEY BOOmSDMMU