UC-NRLF 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 OR 
 
 r\ 
 1 
 
 Class 
 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN GRASSES 
 
 (WITH ILLUSTRATIONS), 
 
 BY 
 
 FRED. TURNER, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., 
 
 it 
 
 ETC., ETC., 
 
 Author of the "INDIGENOUS FORAGE PLANTS OF AUSTRALIA" (illustrated); 
 "A CENSUS OF THE GRASSES OF NEW SOUTH WALES"; 
 
 "NEW COMMERCIAL CROPS FOR NEW SOUTH WALES" (illustrated); "Noxious WEEDS: 
 INDIGENOUS AND EXOTIC" (illustrated) ; 
 
 "SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANTS OF NEW SOUTH WALES" (illustrated); etc. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ' 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 SYDNEY: CHARLES POTTER, UU'NMENT PRINTER, PHILLIP STREET. 
 
 1895. 
 
 lib 22-95-0 A [5-S.] 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THIS volume of Australian Grasses is published under the authority 
 of the Honorable Sydney Smith, M.P., Minister for Mines and 
 Agriculture, New South Wales. 
 
 During recent years I have been often asked by scientists and 
 pastoralists to publish an illustrated and descriptive work on 
 Australian grasses for general information, and in some of the 
 press reviews of my work on the " Indigenous Forage Plants of 
 Australia" (non-grasses), a hope was expressed that at no distant 
 date a similar work on Australian grasses would be forthcoming 
 from the same writer. Through the New South Wales Govern- 
 ment I have the opportunity of placing such a work before the 
 public, and I venture to think it will not only be a text-book on the 
 subject but a medium of making Australian grasses and their 
 economic properties better known throughout the world. My 
 descriptions of Australian salsolaceous plants (salt-bushes) have 
 been widely republished in this and in other countries for general 
 information, and there is now a great demand for salt-bush seeds, 
 not only for sowing in places on this continent, where the plants 
 have become scarce, but for sowing in South Africa, India, South 
 Europe, and some of the warmer States of North America. 
 
 During the past twenty years I have travelled over thirty 
 thousand miles in New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria. 
 Some of this time was devoted to botanical excursions. For some 
 time I was inspecting and reporting on the capabilities of Crown 
 lands, and the best way of utilizing them, for the Government of 
 New South Wales, and last, but not least, I have written many 
 special reports on the pastoral areas of this country. A synopsis 
 of three of these reports, on important grazing districts, is embodied 
 in this book. I have also grown in an experimental way upwards 
 of one hundred species of Australian grasses, which, I believe, 
 
 88 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 cannot be said by any one else in Australia who has written any- 
 thing about them. It will be gathered from the above that the 
 facilities for acquiring information and making observations have 
 given me the necessary qualifications to write with authority on 
 the subject. Since the experiments already referred to were 
 carried out, the publication of my essay on the " Forage Plants 
 and Grasses of Australia," which I read at the Melbourne 
 University before the Australasian Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, and the publication by the New South Wales 
 Government of my " Census of the Grasses of New South Wales,'' 
 and of my work on the " Indigenous Forage Plants of Australia," 
 together with figures and descriptions of some Australian grasses, 
 there has certainly been a great amount of interest awakened in 
 the subject, not only in Australian scientists and pastoralists, but 
 in those resident in other countries. Not long since I wrote a 
 voluminous report on the herbage of this country, at the request of 
 the American Consul, for the information of the United States 
 Government. 
 
 Many successful pastoralists have told me that they knew little 
 or nothing about the economic value of the herbage oh their grazing 
 areas until they saw my figures and read my descriptions of it, and 
 are now convinced that the indigenous herbage is better suited to 
 the conditions of the climate than a great many of the exotics 
 which have been introduced and recommended for cultivation in 
 many parts of the country. What are known as English grasses 
 will succeed well enough in those parts of Australia which have a 
 climate and rainfall somewhat similar to those of Northern Europe ; 
 but these comprise an exceedingly small area in comparison with 
 the whole of the continent. To sow such grasses on most of the 
 grazing areas in this country would only be courting failure. 
 
 It would appear that in the early days of settlement the value of 
 the native forage plants and grasses occupied some attention, and 
 different views were entertained on the subject. Sir Joseph Banks, 
 to whom Australia is so much indebted for its early settlement, and 
 for the development of its vegetable resources, remarks in one of his 
 papers : " The herbage of the Colony is by no means so well 
 adapted to sheep farming as that of Europe, and therefore the 
 progress of the flocks will be slow." This opinion, however, was 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 soon controverted, for Captain Waterhouse, in writing to Captain 
 Macarthur in the early part of the century, says : " That he had 
 kept sheep, and found them do well on the natural pasturage, and 
 he believed that good pasturage would be found for any number of 
 sheep that may be raised. He, therefore, ridiculed the idea of 
 artificial grasses being necessary." The opinions entertained by 
 Captain Waterhouse nearly 100 years ago have been amply verified 
 by subsequent experience. 
 
 Those who have done original w r ork to popularise Australian 
 grasses are : Mr. Walter Hill, late Colonial Botanist of Queens- 
 land, and Director of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, who was, I 
 believe, the first person in Australia to recommend the systematic 
 cultivation of, and carry out experiments with, the indigenous 
 grasses. Mr. F. M. Bailey, F.L.S., and the late Mr. K. T. Staiger, 
 F.L.S., who published electrotypes of some Queensland grasses, 
 with a few notes on their importance in pastures. The late Mr. 
 W. H. Bacchus, who published figures of some Victorian grasses, 
 with notes of his observations of them, and the late Rev. Dr. W. 
 Woolls, F.L.S., who published a paper on the grasses of New 
 South Wales. In none of these illustrations are any anatomical 
 drawings shown. 
 
 It would be superfluous in this preface to enter upon the present 
 condition of Australian pastures and pasture plants, for in the 
 introduction, and in the synopsis of three special reports already 
 referred to, this subject is treated in a comprehensive way. 
 
 In the present volume I have not only endeavoured to show the 
 habit of growth of each grass that is figured and described a very 
 important matter from a pastoral and agricultural point of view 
 but to give full dissectional details of the inflorescence of each 
 species, so that no possible mistake can occur in identifying it. 
 The anatomical drawings are the first that have ever been made of 
 Australian grasses, and I have no doubt that they will be fully 
 appreciated by scientists, students, and others who have a desire 
 to be better acquainted with this important part of the Australian 
 flora. There is both a scientific and a popular description of the 
 economic value of each species that is figured ; the etymology of 
 the scientific names is also a feature of the book, it being my desire 
 to make it as popular as possible without in any way taking from 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 its value as a standard work upon the subject. A glossary of the 
 technical terms used in the description of Australian grasses is 
 also embodied in the book, so that any person can soon become 
 thoroughly acquainted with the subject should he be desirous of 
 so doing. 
 
 All the drawings, from which the engravings were taken, were 
 made from herbarium specimens which I have collected, or have 
 had collected, in their native habitats. The anatomical parts have 
 been greatly magnified and drawn with the aid of the Camera 
 lucida, so that they can be depended upon as being correct. Those 
 persons Avho have had experience know the difficulty there is in 
 making accurate botanical drawings from herbarium specimens, 
 and will, I think, agree with me that great credit is due to Mr. E. 
 M. Grosse, the artist, for the careful way in which he has done his 
 part of the work. 
 
 To Messrs. F. and C. Bennett, the proprietors of the Town and 
 Country Journal, my thanks are due for the excellent engravings 
 which have been prepared at their establishment. The printing 
 and binding have been done at the Government Printing Office, 
 and it affords another proof of the excellence of the work performed 
 at that establishment. 
 
 The nomenclature adopted is the same as that used in Bentham's 
 " Flora Australiensis/' and I am indebted to that valuable work 
 for the botanical diagnosis of genera and species. 
 
 FRED. TURNER. 
 
 September, 1895. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IT is aii old proverb that &ays " comparison's are odious," but I think 
 I will be pardoned if I preface this introduction by quoting the following 
 official figures from Mr. T. A. Coghlan's, " Seven Colonies of Australasia, for 
 1894," which show at a glance the value of five of the principal products 
 that were raised in Australia during the year 1892 : Wool, 17,855,824 ; 
 gold, 5,703,064 ; silver, 2,520,220 ; coal, 1,605,740 ; copper, 301,241. 
 These figures clearly indicate from, what product the principal wealth of this 
 country is obtained. The number of sheep in Australia in 1892 was 
 estimated at 101,637,179; and the number of cattle in the same year at 
 11,351,967. The value of the pastoral property was estimated in 1893 
 at over 200,000,000 (two hundred millions) sterling. If this enormous 
 sum represents the value of the pastoral industry, what must be the value of 
 the indigenous forage plants and grasses which provide feed for the millions 
 of animals that are now r grazing in this country ? I think it may be safely 
 said that very few, even amongst the most experienced pastoralists, ever look 
 at the matter from this point of view, yet it is the most important one. It 
 is the valuable herbage that is growing in this country, though it is not so 
 plentiful and varied in some districts as it used to be, that has made 
 Australia noted throughout the world for its rich pasturage. Shrewd business 
 men have been often heard to make the remark, " What would Australia do 
 without its wool " ? but very few persons, however, ever pause to think what 
 Australia would do without the indigenous herbage, which is really the 
 principal factor in creating this valuable product. It is also often remarked, 
 that the Australian climate is peculiarly favourable for the production of 
 high class wool. Admitted that this may have some influence, thoughtful 
 persons cannot close their eyes to the fact that good pasture is a more essential 
 factor. 
 
 Considering that the prosperity of the people on this continent greatly 
 depends, and will do so for many years to come, upon the quantity and also 
 the quality of the wool, beef, mutton, butter, tallow, hides, &c., that are 
 raised here, both for home consumption and for export ; it has been a subject 
 for remark that so little practical information, with the exception of my own 
 publications, about the comparative merits of the different species of forage- 
 plants and grasses that are indigenous to this country has been disseminated. 
 Many successful pastoralists and dairymen have admitted to me that they 
 knew very little about the forage-plants and grasses in their districts until 
 they saw my figures and read my descriptions of them. 
 
 As a means of giving reliable information to the rising generation, the 
 comparative merits of the indigenous forage-plants and grasses, indeed the 
 vegetation in general, might form a part of the curriculum of the national 
 education. If there were placed in all country State schools an enlarged 
 drawing of each valuable species of forage-plant and grass, that is peculiar 
 to the district in which the school was situated, with its botanical and common 
 name, together with a short popular description, and if possible analysis, it 
 might make a lasting impression upon the young mind, and would, most 
 probably, lead to valuable results in after years. 
 
viii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 As long as a greater portion of this continent is devoted to depasturing 
 sheep and cattle and Australia intends to hold her own against the world in 
 the production of high-class wool, also in the matter of the frozen meat 
 export trade, it becomes of vital importance to the population that more 
 attention should be paid to the native forage plants and grasses than has 
 hitherto been the case and that some of them should be saved from exter- 
 mination by a proper system of conservation and even cultivation. There is 
 no gainsaying the fact that during the past twenty years or so large tracts 
 of country in the interior have been so overstocked and overrun with rabbits 
 and many valuable pasture plants have become so scarce that it would take 
 some years of careful conservation to bring many of them back to anything 
 like their original state. Being so closely fed down and often trampled 
 under foot the plants have little chance to recuperate, and their only natural 
 means of reproduction namely, by seed is also partially destroyed, and 
 every decade under present conditions will make matters worse. Moreover, 
 the paddocks being so constantly trampled upon are sometimes as hard as 
 the roads throughout the country. Under these circumstances it can hardly 
 be wondered at that some of the native grasses often present a harsh appear- 
 ance, and if it were not for the sharp points on many of their seeds some of 
 them would probably have been extinct long ago. These sharp-pointed seeds 
 naturally penetrate the earth and when rain falls to soften it they germinate, 
 and so the grasses are perpetuated in a sort of way. An occasionally good 
 season may to a slight extent remedy this, but observant and thoughtful 
 persons can see that in the near future more vigorous action will have to be 
 taken to keep the pastures up to something like their pristine condition or 
 the number of sheep and cattle will have to be considerably lessened, which 
 of course means the production of less marketable produce. It should also 
 be borne in mind that every fleece of wool which is produced takes a certain 
 amount of potash and other fertile substances out of the earth, and very 
 little so far has been done to restore these elements to the soil, except the 
 little that is returned in a natural way. 
 
 Overstocking and the rabbit pest on certain pastoral areas in the interior 
 of this country have already had an injurious effect upon some of the natural 
 herbage. On such areas some of the more valuable plants have been so 
 persistently eaten down that they are gradually dying out. Nor is this all, 
 for many noxious weeds, both indigenous and exotic, bad grasses, and pine 
 scrub are gradually occupying their place. So plentiful, indeed, have some 
 of these pests become that laws have been directed towards their extermina- 
 tion. In certain parts of the interior the native " spear," " corkscrew," 
 " wire," and " three-awned spear " grasses, and also the " burr " weeds are 
 increasing. It is easy to account for the ever-widening area of their occu- 
 pation, because when old they are seldom or never eaten and are allowed to 
 seed at their own sweet will. The ground in many places being bare of 
 more nutritious herbage, the seeds of these noxious plants germinate readily 
 tinder ordinary conditions, and soon take possession of any unoccupied 
 land. Their dissemination in many parts of the country may be accounted 
 for by the fact that sheep and other animals will carry the " burrs " and 
 " spear-grass seeds " in their wool and often deposit them miles from the 
 jplants that bore them. I have recorded and published the names of over 
 200 exotic weeds that have become acclimatised in this country. All these, 
 of course, have not a prejudicial effect on wool or on the health of stock, 
 therefore I shall only list a few of the really bad ones. Should any persons 
 be desirous of consulting my published list of exotic weeds I would refer 
 them to the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for 1890, vol. I, 
 page 303. 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 Exotic Weeds. 
 
 Botanical Name. Common Name. 
 
 Argemone mexicana, Linii. ... ... Mexican Poppy. 
 
 JBidens pilosa, Linn Cobblers' Pegs. 
 
 Centaurea calcitrapa, Linn. ... ... Star Thistle. 
 
 Centaurea melitensis, Linn Cockspur Thistle. 
 
 Centaurea solstitialis, Willd Cockspur Thistle. 
 
 Gircium arvense, Scop Corn Thistle. 
 
 Circium lanceolatum, Scop. Burr Thistle. 
 
 Emex australis, Steinh Three-cornered Jack. 
 
 Galium aparine, Linn. ... ... ... Burr-weed, Cleavers. 
 
 Kentrophyllum lanatum, D'C "Woolly Thistle. 
 
 Medicago minima, "Willd. Burr medick. 
 
 Nicotiana glauca, Grah Tree Tobacco. 
 
 Onopordon acanthium, Linn. ... ... Scotch Thistle. 
 
 Opuntia vulgar is, Mill Prickly Pear. 
 
 Rosa rubiginosa, Linn. ... ... ... Sweet Briar. 
 
 Tayetes glan dulifera, Sch. Stinking Eoger. 
 
 Xanthium spinosum, Linn. ... ... Bat-burst Burr. 
 
 Xantliium strumarium, Linn Ditch Burr. 
 
 The following is a list of some of the worst of the indigenous weeds : 
 Acce-na ovina, A. Cunn, Ac&na sanguisorbce, VM,Anisacantka bicupsis, F.V. M., 
 Anisacantha divaricata, E. Br., Anisacantlia muricata, Moq., Calotis cune- 
 folia, E. Br., Calotis dentece, E. Br., Galotis hispidula, F.V.M., Calotis 
 lappulacea, Benth., Calotis scabiosifolia, Sond., Calotis scapigera, Hook, 
 Sclerolcena bicornis, Lincll., Tribulus terrestris, Linn., Tribulus cistoides, 
 Linn., and Tribulus liystrix. E. Br. 
 
 Undesirable grasses. It has been often remarked that several of the 
 native grasses whilst young are really good pasture plants, but at the season 
 of ripening their seeds, the latter are irritating and dangerous to the eyes 
 of sheep and often cause blindness. Moreover, the seeds with their adherent 
 awns not only become entangled in the wool which somewhat depreciates its 
 value, but they often enter vital parts and cause death, and no doubt 
 this, in a great measure, is correct. Unfortunately, when the grasses that 
 bear these long seed-awns become old, cattle and sheep seldom or never 
 eat them, consequently they grow and produce seed almost undisturbed. 
 After many years of careful observation, I have arrived at the conclusion 
 that the following species are most to be dreaded on account of their seed- 
 awns or sharp-pointed leaves : Aristidaarenana, Gaud. ; Aristida behriana, 
 F.V.M. ; Aristida calycina, R. Br. ; Aristida depressa, Retz. ; Aristida hygro- 
 metrica, E/. Br. ; Aristida leptopoda, Benth. ; Aristida ramosa, B>. Br. ; Aristida 
 stipoides, E/. Br, ; Aristida vagans, Cav. ; (these Aristidas are commonly 
 known as " three-awned spear grasses"); Heteropogon contortus, Eoern. et 
 Schult ; Heteropogon insiffnis, Thu. ; Pollinia irritans, Benth. ; Stipa 
 aristiglumis, F.Y.M. ; Stipa flavescens, Labill. ; Stipa micrantJia, Cav. ; Stipa 
 pubescens, E. Br. ; Stipa scabra, Lindl. ; Stipa semibarbafa, E. Br. ; Stipa 
 setacea, E.Br. (these Stipas are commonly known as "spear," "corkscrew," and 
 "wire" grasses) ; Triodia cunningliamii, Benth.; Triodia irritans, E. Br. ; 
 Triodia mitchellii, Benth. ; Triodia microstachya, E. Br. ; Triodia procera, 
 E. Br. ; Triodia pungens, E. Br. (these Triodias are commonly known as 
 " porcupine" and " spinifex" grasses ; the latter term, however, is a generic 
 one given to quite distinct grasses, therefore, must not be confounded with 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 them) ; and 'Eriaclme squarrosa, B. Br. ; thus making, in all, twenty-six 
 species, which is a little over 7 per cent, of the total recorded for the whole 
 of Australia not a very formidable array it must be admitted, still, of 
 sufficient importance to make their position felt, and somewhat dreaded, by 
 the sheep-owner. 
 
 Supposed poisonous plants and fungoid growths. There are many trees, 
 shrubs, and herbs, which are largely used as fodder, especially so during 
 long droughts ; though there is still much to be cleared up with respect to 
 the actual value of certain of them. Even in the same district some persons 
 will assert that a particular species of plant is poisonous, while others, 
 whose testimony is equally reliable, will assert that it makes capital feed. 
 There are, perhaps, no more conflicting statements made than with regard 
 to the species of the genus Eremophila; and of the allied one Myoporum. 
 "Whilst I must admit that very little is known of the physiological properties 
 of the order Myoporinece, still I cannot close my eyes to the fact that both 
 cattle and sheep kept in country where these shrubs are plentiful eat them 
 with avidity and thrive on them, without any ill effects. Some persons 
 assert that these Myoporinous plants develop their poisonous properties 
 when in fruit, but whoever has studied the habits of the birds of Central 
 Australia will assure them that certain of these greatly depend upon the 
 fruits of these plants for their sustenance, which, in fact, are, in some 
 seasons, their principal food supply. Moreover, the aborigines, before they 
 tasted the sweets of civilisation, used to eat the fruits of several Myoporinous 
 plants. 
 
 There is no doubt that when cattle and sheep are taken from one district 
 to another where the natural herbage is somewhat dissimilar, it must have, 
 for a time at least, some effect upon their systems, especially when they are 
 taken from rolling downs of grass to country where shrubs and herbs pre- 
 dominate ; and this brings to mind a question which I think has not received 
 that attention from stock-owners that its importance justifies. It is the 
 mechanical action that hard-foliaged shrubs have upon the larynx of both 
 cattle and sheep which are not used to eating them. This irritation of the 
 larynx not only brings on laryngitis, but sometimes tends to bring on inflam- 
 mation of the intestines. Partner, when hungry sheep or cattle have partaken 
 too freely of some leguminous plants, especially when in flower or seed, they 
 have died. But this is caused during the process of digestion, when great 
 quantities of gases are made, which cause an abnormal distention of the 
 stomach, thus preventing the lungs working freely, and, of course, strangling 
 the animals. On this account many leguminous plants are called poisonous 
 which are not really so. Still these causes could not account for all the 
 sheep that die somewhat mysteriously. I use the word mysteriously advisedly, 
 for many plants have been received by me marked poisonous which, on 
 examination, have proved to be quite harmless. Nor is my case a singular 
 one. Others have had the same experience. No doubt there are some 
 poisonous plants in the country ; but unless animals are sickly, weakly, or 
 hard pressed for food, their natural instincts will lead them to avoid browsing 
 upon them. There is a far more insiduous enemy to contend against in the 
 parisitic fungi which affect certain grasses and other herbage, not only in 
 the damp coastal districts, but even into the far interior. Some years ago I 
 drew attention to the increase of parasitic fungi on certain valuable grasses, 
 and I then said, what I think now, that fungoid growths on grasses and 
 other herbage is the primary cause of many sheep dying so mysteriously. 
 For there is abundant proof of the destructive agency of microscopic fungi 
 both on animals and flowering plants that have not sufficient vigour to repel 
 
INTRODUCTION. xi 
 
 them. The life history of these native fungoid growths is well worth studying 
 by specialists, if only to show what their effects are upon animals. The 
 following is a list of the native grasses which I have seen badly affected with 
 parasitic fungi: Aristida ramosa, B. Er., " Three- awned spear grass"; 
 Chloris truncata, B. Br., "Star" or " windmill grass" ; Eragroslis leptostachya, 
 Steud, " Love grass " ; 'Eriocliloa punctata, Hamilt, " Early spring grass " \ 
 Hierocliloa rarifl-ora, Hook, " Sweet-scented holygrass " ; Panicum effusum, 
 B. Br., " Branched panick grass " ; Panicum mitckeUii, " Mitchell's panick 
 grass " ; Paspalum scrobiculatum, Linn., " Ditch millet " ; Sporobolus indicus, 
 B. Br. ; and the variety elongahts, " Parramatta " or "Tussock grass." 
 
 I have been often asked whether I favour the annual burning off of grasses. 
 Except in three cases, I am decidedly against burning off, for the following 
 reasons : 1. It destroys millions of grass seeds which occasional good seasons 
 may have brought to maturity, thereby destroying the only natural means 
 for the reproduction of the grasses. A fire also destroys many valuable 
 salsolaceous and other plants. 2. After burning off, if favourable weather 
 ensues, new growth is made quickly, and sheep turned into such pasturage 
 eat greedily of it, which often gives them what is commonly termed the 
 scours or diarrhoea, which sometimes becomes chronic, and of course has 
 such a weakening effect upon them that many die. ]N~or is this all, for in 
 biting out the young growth from the heart of the grass, much of the latter 
 is often brought with it, which, of course, partially destroys it. If a fire 
 should take place, sheep should never be turned into the pasture until it has 
 made considerable growth, though cattle may be turned in without any 
 serious damage being done, for they never eat grasses so low as do sheep. I 
 may here mention the fact that sheep destroy the natural grasses and herbage 
 in much less time than horses, and the latter much sooner than cattle. 
 
 I am in favour of burning off annually under three such conditions as the 
 following : (1st) Where grasses and other herbage are much diseased with 
 parasitic fungi ; (2nd) where there is a predominance of " spear," cork- 
 screw," "wire," and " three-awned spear" grasses; and (3rd) where rank- 
 growing grasses are abundant, which is generally on wet or undraiiied land, 
 for along with this coarse growth many noxious plants and fungoid pests 
 are destroyed (very rarely good pasture plants, other than grasses, will grow 
 in such situations) . Pasturage treated in this way becomes more healthy, 
 the fire acting as a disinfectant, and contagious diseases disappear. Grasses 
 that grow in low, damp situations are often a valuable stand-by for stock 
 during protracted droughts. 
 
 The practice of wholesale and indiscriminate ringbarking, I feel certain, 
 exercises a most injurious effect upon both animals and the herbage which 
 they browse upon. Do not let it be understood that I condemn judicious 
 ringbarking, because experience has proved the beneficial effects of it when 
 carried out in a systematic way. What I wish to impress upon pastoralists 
 is the necessity for leaving large groups of trees here and there as we see 
 them in English parks, but, of course, on a much more extensive scale. This 
 would not only give shelter to animals against the fierce heat of the tropical 
 sun in summer, and the other extreme in winter, but would be a means of 
 checking bush fires and mitigate the blighting effects of the hot parching 
 winds that periodically blow over the interior, besides forming a pleasing 
 feature in the landscape. 
 
 Having considered the state of the pastures and pasture plants, I shall 
 now review the grasses and salsolaceous plants (salt bushes) and offer 
 suggestions which I think would make a decided improvement in, and help 
 
Xii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to bring, many of the grazing areas to something like their pristine condi- 
 tion. It cannot be said that we have no material to work upon, for there 
 are upwards of 360 species of grasses indigenous to this country. All 
 these, of course, are not valuable for fodder, but they have their uses in the 
 economy of nature, which will be afterwards referred to. Amongst many 
 other native fodder plants the most numerous and valuable are to be found 
 in the natural order Chenopodiacce, numbering as they do for all Australia 
 about 112 species, arranged under fifteen genera, eight of which are endemic. 
 Some of them are found on the littoral sands, while others grow on the 
 arid plains of the interior, and are remarkable for their drought-enduring 
 qualities. 
 
 By the following figures some idea may be formed of the number of grass 
 seeds required for 1 acre, supposing it to be sown at the usual rate of 36 Ib. 
 which, approximately stated, is equal to about 22,000,000 of grains. This 
 applies to ordinary grass seeds, such as some species of Andropogon, Chloris, 
 Eragrostis, Panicum, &c. The number of grains vary somewhat one way or 
 the other (no other seeds in the vegetable kingdom vary more, either in 
 weight or number) according to the good or bad season they were harvested 
 in. An acre well clothed with grass would contain from 15,000,000 to 
 20,000,000 plants, though in some exceptional cases as many as 40,000,000 
 plants have been recorded to the acre. Such facts as these are suggestive, 
 and cannot be trifled with, and it is no wonder that thinking persons are 
 apprehensive as to the future condition of our pastures, unless some radical 
 change takes place. The present system of eating out the best native 
 grasses on some sheep runs cannot go on for ever. Many persons have 
 thought that by introducing exotic fodder-plants and grasses these would, 
 in a great measure, supersede, and be an improvement upon, the indigenous 
 ones. But it has often struck me as being a most remarkable thing that 
 those persons who have written up the supposed virtues of exotics have 
 given no guarantee that our high-class wool, beef, and mutton, would be 
 maintained under this new diet. Keeping these circumstances in view, is it 
 not much better to systematically conserve, and even cultivate, the best of 
 our native forage-plants and grasses than introduce others of which we have 
 only a superficial knowledge ? Many exotic species have been introduced as 
 good forage plants, which have proved a positive pest to the country. Everyone 
 must be painfully reminded of this fact when they see that ubiquitous Cape- 
 weed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum, H. Br.) which already covers large areas of 
 pasture land, and the area of its occupation widens from year to year to the 
 gradual extinction of some of our native herbs and grasses. The prickly 
 comfrey (Sympliytum asperrimum, Bbrst.) was heralded throughout Australia 
 a few years ago as a fodder plant that was to supersede all others. What is the 
 consequence, after years of careful nursing ? It has proved a positive failure 
 in the country after all the money expended in introducing and cultivating 
 it. A Canary Island shrub called Tagosaste (Gytisus proliferus, Linn.) has 
 occupied much attention for some years past in certain places, which experi- 
 ence will eventually prove to have been misdirected. I have observed this 
 shrub for a number of years, having raised from seed some of the first plants 
 ever seen in Australia. I once had a shrub under my charge which was about 
 15 feet high ; but I can firmly assert that the "old man" salt-bush (Rhagodia 
 parabolica, E/. Br.) would at the same age have produced about twice the 
 amount of a superior forage, and would even grow in more adverse seasons 
 of drought and heat. Of late a great deal of attention has been directed to 
 another exotic forage plant, called Lathyrus sylvestris, Linn., and commonly 
 known as " Wagner's Flat Pea." Seeds of this plant were imported into 
 New South Wales, but it is reported from nearly every part of the Colony 
 
INTRODUCTION. Xlll 
 
 where the seeds were distributed that the plants raised from them have 
 proved a comparative failure, notwithstandiDg the soil being carefully prepared 
 previous to the sowing taking place. Do not let it be understood that I 
 decry all the plants that have been introduced for forage purposes, because 
 that would not be in accordance with facts. What I do mean to say is, that 
 hundreds of pounds have been sent out of this country to introduce seeds of 
 exotic forage plants and grasses which, after careful cultivation, have proved 
 a failure. To give even a synopsis of all the exotic forage plants and grasses 
 which I know have been introduced and, when cultivated, proved unsuitable 
 to the climate would occupy too much space. If the money and the labour 
 that have been expended upon such plants had been devoted to the systematic 
 conservation of the best of our native forage plants and grasses, many of our 
 pastures would be in a better condition than they are at present. 
 
 I must confess that at one period I held the views of those persons who 
 thought to supplant the native herbage by a free introduction of exotics ; 
 but after an observation extending over twenty years, during which time I 
 have travelled over thousands of miles in this country and conversed with 
 many interested persons in New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria, I 
 hare outlived those erroneous ideas. My first observations were made some 
 years ago when Mr. W. Hill, late Colonial Botanist of Queensland, and 
 Director of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, gave me charge of a series of 
 experiments that were carried out with both native and exotic forage plants 
 and grasses, with a view of proving their true qualities by comparison. The 
 exotic forage plants and grasses experimented with were some of the best 
 that could be obtained in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. All of them 
 were sown or planted in spaces exactly 1 yard square, which gave an 
 accurate way of computing the yield of produce per acre of each species. 
 When they arrived at maturity they were cut and weighed whilst in a green 
 state, and also when they were dry. To enumerate all the species experi- 
 mented with nearly 100 together with a detailed description, would 
 occupy many pages ; but to sum up briefly, I may state that the native 
 ones yielded more at the rate per acre than did the exotics, with the 
 exception of such tall-growing grasses as Panicum maximum, Jacq., 
 " Guinea grass " ; Panicum spectabile, Nees, " Angola grass " ; JReana 
 luxurians, Dur., " Teosinte," ; Sorghum vulgare, Pers., " Guinea corn " ; 
 Zea mays, Linn., " Maize " ; and some of the larger kinds of millet. But 
 these were run very close by the following native ones : AntJiistiria 
 avenacea, F.V.M., "Tall oat grass"; Astrebla pectinata, F.V.M., "Mitchell 
 grass " ; Heteropogon insignis, Tim., " Giant spear-grass " ; Panicum crus- 
 galli, Linn., "Barn-yard "grass" ; Pollinia fulva, Benth. "Sugar grass"; 
 Jiottboellia ophiuroides, Benth. " Barroii River grass," Sorghum hale- 
 pense, Pers., "Aleppo grass;" and Sorghum plumosum, Beauv., "Wild 
 sorghum." It is a well-known fact, however, amongst agriculturists, that 
 tall growing grasses are not always, in fact, scarcely ever so useful in 
 pastures as the more dwarf ones, though they are of the greatest value for 
 ensilage, where bulk is a great consideration. Another fact to be related 
 with regard to these forage plants and grasses I experimented with is, that 
 horses picked out and ate the native ones in preference to the exotics after 
 they were mixed together and given to them, which I think proved con- 
 clusively that with cultivation, native grasses will become as succulent and 
 tempting to the appetite and as nutritious as the best of exotics. The 
 species experimented with that were indigenous to Northern Europe and 
 North America proved most unsuitable, with two exceptions, one an annual 
 growth in some situations, Ceratochloa unioloides, D'C. "Prairie grass," a 
 capital winter and spring species, and the other a perennial Poa pratensis, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Linn. Var. virqiniana, the " Kentucky blue grass." This species has under- 
 ground stoloniferous roots like our native Cynodon dactylon, Pers. " Couch 
 grass," so on this account it is not easy to exterminate, whilst it affords 
 excellent forage for sheep. The grasses from South Africa did fairly well, 
 especially TricTiolcenct rosea, Nees, the " Red-topped grass" of Natal, which 
 has become quite acclimatised in some situations. Its ripe seeds, being 
 light, are easily disseminated by every wind that blows. Some South 
 American species did well, as also did the " California!! bunch grass," 
 Elymus condcnsatus, Pers. ; but it must be borne in mind that all these 
 exotic grasses were tested in the coastal districts, and it is a question 
 whether they would have grown at all if they had been sown or planted on 
 the arid, central plains of Australia. All these experiments were carried 
 out on a black, loamy soil, but I saw , other experiments carried out on 
 different soils, and the results were much the same, except in the case of 
 pure sand, which appears less favourable to their growth than any other. 
 Even this has species peculiar to itself. I mention these facts, for undue 
 importance has been given by some persons to the different geological 
 formations necessary for the growth of particular pasture plants. Of course, 
 where soils are naturally very light, or very heavy, very dry, or excessively 
 wet, it is than necessary to make a selection of the most suitable species for 
 such situations; but to advise fifty different geological formations for growing 
 the same number of pasture plants is mere pedantry. 
 
 Grasses and other forage plants have been recommended by persons who 
 had formed their judgments of their merits upon imperfect trials or upon 
 everyday evidence. This has caused much disappointment and has discouraged 
 many persons from further endeavours at improvements of their pastures. 
 To this also may be attributed the general indifference towards obtaining a 
 knowledge of the comparative merits of grasses and other forage plants. 
 There is one good thing, however, those persons have done for the country 
 who have recommended exotic grasses for cultivation: they always give 
 directions for the soil to be broken up and brought to a fine tilth before the 
 sowing takes place. But what a contrast this is to the continual struggle 
 for existence the native grasses have to undergo, for the paddocks are often 
 as hard as the roads throughout the country. 
 
 There is no doubt that the pastures in the coastal districts and colder parts 
 of the country can be improved by introducing some exotics, especially those 
 that make their growth during winter and early spring, for as a general rule 
 most of the grasses make their growth during the summer season. Amongst 
 the exceptions are Ag ropy rum scabrum, Beauv., "Wheat grass"; Andro- 
 pogon ctffinis, R. Br., "Blue grass"; Bromus arenarius, Labill, "Barley 
 grass " ; Eriocliloa annulata, Kunth., " Early spring grass " ; Eriocliloa 
 punctata, Hamilt., "Early spring grass"; JLchinopogon ovatus, Beauv., 
 " Bough- bearded grass" ; Danthonia semiannularis, K. Br., "Wallaby grass"; 
 Deyeuxia billardicri, Kunth., " Bent grass " ; Deyeuxia forsteri, Kunth., 
 " Bent grass " ; Diclielachne crinita, Hook,, " Long hair plume grass " ; Diclie- 
 lacJine sciurea, Hook., " Short hair plume grass '' ; Festuca Iromoides, Linn., 
 "Barren fescue"; Lappago racemosa, Willd., "Small burr grass"; and 
 MicrolcBna stipoides, R. Br., " Meadow rice grass." 
 
 Many have thought to improve their grazing areas by introducing English 
 grasses ; but a number of these grasses have been sown in districts and on 
 soils quite unsuited to their growth. Hundreds of acres have been sown with 
 such grasses in this country, and notwithstanding all the money and labour 
 that have been expended in this way over a series of years, there are hardly 
 half a dozen species of agricultural importance that 'have been successfully 
 
INTRODUCTION. XV 
 
 introduced and acclimatised in our pastures even in the most favoured 
 districts. The only districts in this country where English grasses are at all 
 likely to succeed are those having a climate and rainfall similar to those of 
 Northern Europe ; but these districts form only an extremely small portion 
 of the country compared with the whole. It will be readily inferred from 
 this that we shall have to look for grasses other than English ones to provide 
 good feed for the majority of our stock. The valuable indigenous forage 
 plants and grasses hitherto have been, are now, and will be the principal 
 mainstay of the pastures. Without them, the millions of sheep, cattle, and 
 horses that are depastured in this country would die of starvation, and the 
 country would then be deprived of its greatest wealth in the form of wool, 
 tallow, hides, beef, mutton, and butter. It has been observed that the native 
 grasses are wild. Of course they are, and so are the cultivated grasses wild 
 in their native habitats. 
 
 Before an attempt is made at the systematic cultivation of the indigenous 
 forage plants and grasses, it will be necessary to have some data to work 
 upon. For the benefit of those persons who desire to enter upon their 
 cultivation, I will divide them into groups, and give a synopsis of those 
 species which, after twenty years' study, have led me to believe will be most 
 suited to the requirements for general pasture and hay-making, cultivating 
 for grain, species suitable for wet or undrained soils, also for dry soils, and 
 for binding the littoral sands. I have already mentioned those species most 
 suitable to cultivate for ensilage. 
 
 Those species suitable for general pasture and hay-making are : Agro- 
 pyrum sci ;???, Beauv., " "Wheat grass" ; Andropogon affinis, E. Br., " Blue 
 grass" : Andropogon erianthoidcs, K V. M., " Satin heads" ; Andropogon inter- 
 medius, E. Br., " Blue grass" ; Andropogon pertusus, Willd., " Pitted blue 
 grass" ; Andropogon refract us, E. Br., a " Kangaroo grass" ; Andropogon 
 sericeus, E. Br., " Blue grass" ; Anthistiria ciliata, Linn., " Kangaroo grass" ; 
 Anthistiria meinbranacea, Lindl., " Landsborough grass" ; Astrebla elymoides, 
 F.V.M, " Mitchell grass'? ; Astrebla pectinata, F.V.M., "Mitchell grass"; 
 Astrebla triticoides, F.V.M., and the variety lappacea, "Mitchell grasses" ; 
 Chloris acicularis, Lindl., " Spider grass' 1 ; Chloris truncate^ E. Br., " Star" 
 or "Windmill grass" ; Chloris ventricosa, E. Br., " Blue star grass" ; Chry- 
 sopogon gryllus, Trin., " Golden beard" ; Cynodon dactylon, Pers., " Couch 
 grass" ; Dantlwnia longifolia, E. Br., " White top" ; Dantnonia pallida, 
 E. Br. " Silver grass" ; Dantlionia pilosa, E. Br., " Hairy oat grass" ; 
 Dantlionia semiannularis, E. Br., " Wallaby grass" ; Dichelaclme crinita, 
 Hook, " Long hair plume grass" ; Eleusine agyptiaca, Pers., " Finger grass" ; 
 Eragrostis brownii, Nees., "Brown's love grass"; Eragrostis leptostacliya, 
 Steud., " Love grass" ; Eragrostis pilosa, Beauv, "Weeping grass"; Erio- 
 cliloa annul at a > Kunth., "Early spring grass"; Eriocliloa punctata, 
 Hamilt., "Early spring grass"; Microlcena stipoides, E. Br., "Meadow 
 rice grass"; Panicum decompositum, E. Br., "Australian millet"; Pani- 
 cum distachyum, Linn., " Two-spiked panick grass" ; Panicum divarica- 
 tissimum, E. Br., " Umbrella grass" ; Panicum effusum, E. Br., " Branched 
 panick grass"; Panicum Jlavidum, E. Br., " Warrego summer grass"; 
 Panicum gracile^ E. Br., " Slender panick grass" ; Panicum leucopliceum, 
 H. B. et K., "Cotton grass"; Panicum rnacractinium, Benth , "Eoly 
 poly grass"; Panicum melanantJium, F.v.M., "Black seeded panick 
 grass" ; Panicum reversum, F.v.M., " Reversed panick grass" ; Panicum 
 mitchellii, Benth., "Mitchell's panick grass"; Panicum proluttim, F.v.M., 
 "Eigid panick grass"; Panicum tracliyrhachis, Benth., "Coolibar grass"; 
 Poa c<zspitosa, Forst., " Tussock poa" ; and Setaria f/lauca, Beauv., " Pigeon 
 grass". 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 GBASSES TO CULTIVATE FOE 
 
 It is a most remarkable fact that the native countries of wheat, oats, and 
 barley, should be entirely unknown. Many eminent botanists are of opinion 
 that all our cereals are artificial productions, obtained accidentally, but 
 retaining their habits, which have become fixed in the long course of ages, 
 and the following observations seem to bear out this theory. It has been 
 observed that when oats are grown on poor land and shed their grain, the 
 progeny will, if left uncultivated for a generation or two, revert to the wild 
 form, but that cultivation will bring the grain back to its proper standard. 
 JEgilops ovata, "Willd., (of which I have cultivated specimens of three 
 generations in my herbarium, two of w r hich show a marked tendency towards 
 improvement,) is said to be the origin of all our cultivated wheats, and as a 
 convincing proof of this it is remarkable that this genus of grass is subject to 
 the attacks of the same species of parasitic fungi which affect the wheat 
 crops of the present day, and render them somewhat precarious in some 
 districts during certain seasons. 
 
 "When these plants can be so changed with cultivation as to afford us 
 useful grain, it seems a most feasible thing that out of 360 species of grasses 
 found on this continent, some could be cultivated that would yield good grain 
 without its attendant drawbacks, in the way of parasitic fungi, especially in 
 some parts of Australia where wheat and other cultivated cereals are often a 
 precarious crop. During the experiments already referred to, I observed 
 that the grains of some of the native grasses developed very much under 
 cultivation, more especially in the case of one species, Astrebla triticoides, 
 F.v.M., var. lappacea, (Danthonia lappacea of Lindley) . This grass produced 
 ears nearly 6 inches long, well filled with a clean-looking, firm grain, 
 which separated easily from the chaff, somewhat like wheat. During long 
 observation I have never seen any species of parasitic fungi attack either the 
 straw or grain of this grass, nor from enquiries made have I ever heard that 
 it is affected with fungoid growth. All our common cereals are of 
 annual growth, but this species is perennial, and attains a height of about 3 
 feet. It has a stout clean straw which would, after the grain was thrashed 
 out, make good fodder. Other native grasses that might be cultivated for 
 grain are : Antliistiria avenacea, F.v.M., " Tall oat grass " ; Leersia 
 hexandra, Swartz., " Native rice grass;" Eragrostispilosa, Beauv., "Weeping- 
 grass"; Panicum decompositum, E.Br. "Australian-millet"; Panicum 
 flavidum Eetz., " Warrego summer grass," Panicum sernialatum, E.Br., 
 " Cockatoo grass" ; Panicum tracfy/rhachis,i$en.tli., " Coolibar grass"; Setaria 
 ylauca Beauv., " Pigeon grass " ; and Setaria macrostacJiya, H.B. et. K., 
 " Large-headed millet." 
 
 The following species are the most suitable for growing on wet or 
 undrained lands: Antliraxon ciliare, Palis, "Swamp grass"; Diplaclme 
 fusca, Beauv., " Brown-flowered swamp grass " ; Elionurus cifreus, Munro, 
 "Lemon scented grass"; G-fyceria fluitans, E.Br., "Manna grass"; 
 Glyceria fordeana, F.v.M., "Sweet grass"; Glyceria ramigera, F.v.M., 
 " Cane grass" ; Hemarthria compressa, E.Br., '" Mat grass" j Imperata 
 arundinacea, Cyr,, " Blady grass" ; Isachne australis, E.Br., " Swamp 
 millet"; Ischamum attstrale, E.Br., "Southern grass"; Leersia hexandra, 
 Swartz., " Native rice grass" ; Leptocliloa chinensis, Nees, " Weeping grass"; 
 Lcptochloa subdigitata, Trin., " Finger grass" ; Panicum indicum, Linn., 
 " Indian panick grass"; Panicum melananthum,H?.'vMi., " Black-seeded panick 
 grass"; Paspalum distichum,~Lmu., " Watercouch"; P asp alum scroliculatum, 
 Linn., " Ditch millet" ; Pennisetum compressum, E.Br., " Swamp foxtail 
 grass" ; Phragmites communis, Trin,, " Common reed" ; Pollinia fulva, 
 
INTRODUCTION. xvii 
 
 Benth., " Sugar grass" ; Sporololm diander, Beauv., " Tussock grass" ; 
 Sporobolus virginicus, Kunth., " Salt-inarsh couch grass" ; and Sporobolus 
 indicus, E.Br., " Parrainatta grass". The latter is an exceedingly tougli grass 
 which I have often recommended for paper-making. 
 
 Grasses suitable for growing on dry stony ridges, or on poor soils, are : 
 Amphipogon strictus, R.Br., "Bearded heads"; Andropogon lachnatherus, 
 Benth., " Hairy blue grass" ; Anisopogon avenaceus, E.Br., " Oat grass" ;, 
 Arundinella nepalensis, Trin., "Nepal grass"; Chrysopogon parviflorus; 
 Beuth., "Golden beard"; Deyeuxia quadrisela, Benth., " Bent grass" , 
 Echinopogon ovatus, Beauv., "Eough heads" ; Eragrostis cJuetophylla, Steud., 
 "Love grass"; Erag rostis eriopoda. Benth., "Love grass"; Eragrostis falcata 
 Gaud., "Love grass"; Eragrostis laniflora, Benth., "Love grass"; Eragrostis 
 lacunaria, F.v.M., " Never fail" ; Eriachne oUusa, E.Br., Lappago racemosa, 
 Willd., " Burr grass" ; Neurachne mitclielliana, Nees., " Mulga grass" ; 
 Panioum qracile. E.Br., " Slender panick grass" ; PappopTiorum nigricans, 
 E.Br., "Black heads"; Spinifex paradoxus, Benth., "Curious spinifex" ; 
 and Tetrarrhena juncea, E.Br., "Scrambling grass." 
 
 Grasses that will grow on the littoral sandy wastes of this continent, are 
 of especial value, not only as forage plants, but because they assist in 
 binding, and thus preventing the loose sand from being blown inland by the 
 fury of sea winds. The following are amongst the best for this purpose : - 
 Disticlilis maritima. Eafn., " Sea-side couch grass" ; Imperata arundinacea, 
 Cyr., " Blady grass" ; Lepturits repens, E.Br., "Salt-marsh grass" ; Paspalum 
 distichum, Linn., " AVater couch" ; Schedonorus littoralis, Beauv., " Coast 
 fescue" ; Spinifex liirsutm, Labill. 6 , 2 , " Spiny rolling grass" ; Sporololus 
 virginicus, Kunth., " Salt-marsh couch grass" ; Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers., 
 " Coast couch grass"; and Zoysia pungens, Willd,, " Coast couch grass". 
 
 SALSOLACEOUS OK CHENOPODIACEOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Salt-~bushes These most valuable plants are becoming more scarce on 
 the inland plains of this continent, from year to year. Being so closely fed- 
 down, and often trampled down, they get little chance to mature seed, which 
 is their only natural means of reproduction. When left unmolested for a 
 time, however, they quickly recover, and after a time produce seed in 
 abundance, which germinates readily under ordinary conditions. Many of 
 them are also readily increased by cuttings, so that it would require no great 
 outlay to enter upon a proper system, of conservation, or even cultivation of 
 these most useful plants. Moreover, once the plants are well established, 
 they will continue to grow under the most adverse circumstances of drought 
 and heat. In fact, very few kinds of plants so useful for forage purposes 
 could exist under such adverse conditions as do most kinds of the salt bush 
 family. There is abundant proof that when sheep are depastured in country 
 where plenty of salinous plants are growing amongst the natural grasses, 
 fluke and other allied ailments are almost unknown. It has been said that 
 horses which are subject to swamp cancer on the low coast lands, when 
 turned into pasture where salinous plants are growing plentifully, soon lose 
 this disease. While on the subject of distoma diseases and other allied 
 ailments, I may mention another genus of plants which should not be over- 
 looked in any system of conservation. It is that of Zijopliyllum, some 
 species of which act as vermifuges. There are very few plants arranged 
 under the order Chenopodiacece which are not available for forage, though 
 exception might be taken to the following species. During protracted 
 droughts balls of cotton-like substance form on KocJiia aphylla, E. Br., 
 Enchylana tomentosa, E. Br., and a few other plants oE the order. It is 
 
 B 
 
XVlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 generally supposed that this adventitious growth is caused by some insect. 
 The fulvous tomeritum on some species of Sclerolcena, and the woolly covering 
 of the fruits of some species of Chenolea have been known to kill sheep when 
 they have partaken too freely of this indigestible stuff, along with parts of 
 the plants. The dorsal spines of all species of Anisacantha often cause some 
 trouble to the salivary glands of sheep and other small herbivora, if they eat 
 too greedily of these plants when the fruits are near maturity. Anisacantha 
 muricata, Moq., when dry, makes the troublesome " roley poleys" of the 
 plains. The following is a synopsis of those species which I have had long 
 experience with, and observation of, and can, therefore, recommend as being 
 worthy of conservation, and even cultivation : Rhaqodia billardieri, R. Br., 
 " Coastal salt bush" ; Rhagodia hastata, R, Br., " Halbert-leaved salt bush" ; 
 Rhagodia ?mtas, R. Br., " Nodding salt bush" ; Rhagodia par abolica, R. Br., 
 " Old man salt bush" ; Ckenopodium carinatum, R. Br., "Rough-leaved goose- 
 foot" ; Chenopodimn auricomum, Lindl., " Blue bush" ; Chenopodium atri- 
 plicinum, F.v.M., " Atriplex-like goose foot"; Chenopodium triangulare, 
 R. Br., " Triangular-leaved goose foot" ; Atriplex cinerea, Poir., " Grray salt 
 bush"; Atriplex halimoides, Lindl., " Halimus-like salt bush"; Atriplex 
 holocarpa, F.v.M., " All fruited salt bush" ; Atriplex muelleri, Benth., 
 "Mueller's salt bush"; Atriplex nummularia, Lindl., " Round-leaved salt 
 bush" ; Atriplex rhagodioides, F.v.M., " Silver salt bush" ; Atriplex semi- 
 Jmzta,R.Br., "half-berried saltbush"; Atriplex leptocarpa, F. v.M.," Slender- 
 fruited saltbush"; Atriplex vesicaria, Hew., "Bladder saltbush"; and 
 Atriplex stipitata, Benth., " Kidney -fruited saltbush." Many of these 
 Atriplexes, when cooked, are excellent table esculents. Kochia aphylla, 
 R.Br., " Cotton-bush" ; Kochia ciliata, F.v.M., " Hairy-fruited saltbush" ; 
 Kochia pyramidata, Benth., *' Grey bush" ; Kochia planifolia, F.v.M., 
 " Broad-winged saltbush" ; Kochia sedifolia, F.v.M., " Blue bush" ; and 
 Kochia villosa, Lindl., " Silky saltbush". All these and many more valuable 
 salinous and other forage plants are figured and fully described in my 
 work on the " Indigenous Forage Plants of Australia." 
 
 It will be gathered from this review of the indigenous herbage that there 
 is in this country some splendid material to conserve and cultivate, and it 
 only awaits intelligent management to clothe our pastoral areas with herbage 
 if not like their pristine grandeur, to, at least, make them far more valuable 
 possessions than they are at the present time. As a preliminary under- 
 taking towards the conservation of indigenous grasses, salt-bushes and other 
 herbage, reserves should be established in various parts of the country for 
 the purpose of raising seeds to be disseminated in places where the herbage 
 has been eaten out. Such reserves need not occupy large areas. It is aston- 
 ishing the quantity of seed that can be harvested from a few acres. It 
 would be a wise thing for the Governments of the Australian colonies to 
 make grass reserves a compulsory undertaking when granting new leases 
 for Crown lands. That such reserves would have a most beneficial effect 
 upon the pastoral areas in this country cannot be gainsaid by thinking 
 persons. In fact, there is already valuable data to work upon. All the railway 
 enclosures throughout the country are excellent reserves for the preserva- 
 tion of the indigenous grasses and other herbage, and the most superficial 
 observer cannot fail to have seen the amount of seed that is matured and 
 distributed on the adjacent land by winds and other agencies. "When this 
 seed germinates it cannot fail to enhance the grazing capabilities of the 
 pastures for miles around. 
 
 The present system of keeping sheep on the pastoral areas of this country 
 will have to^ be much improved upon before the herbage becomes a"s 
 luxuriant as it was some years ago. I would recommend the small-paddock 
 
INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 system in country that is suited for pasturing sheep, and where the natural 
 herbage is still fairly plentiful. For those areas which have deteriorated so 
 much that sheep have a difficulty to eke out an existence it would be a 
 wise thing to rest them for a period until the better kinds of herbage 
 recuperate. It may not be generally known, but it is an almost invariable 
 fact, that where horses are constantly allowed to graze such undesirable 
 plants as the "spear" and " three-awned spear" grasses are not nearly so 
 plentiful as they are on those areas from which these animals are excluded. 
 Sheep, on the contrary, that are allowed to roam over large areas, eat out 
 the very best grasses and other herbage, and it is not until they become 
 pressed with hunger that they will eat of the coarser vegetation. It is this 
 constant " nibbling off" of the superior kinds of herbage that has made 
 them scarce in some parts of the country. Having so little chance to 
 recuperate and perfect seed, their only natural means of reproduction is 
 partially destroyed. 
 
 It would depend upon the size of the pastoral holding and the number of 
 sheep that is grazed upon it as to the size of the paddocks to be adopted, but 
 I would certainly not recommend any larger than 2,000 acres, smaller areas 
 being preferable. The paddocks should be so arranged that each one should 
 have at least from three to four months' rest in a year. This would give 
 the herbage an opportunity to produce seed, which in time would germinate, 
 and new plants would spring up to cover the ground. Unless the paddocks 
 were in a very bad state before the system was adopted, it is astonishing how 
 quickly some of the herbage would recuperate, drought time, of course, 
 excepted. Another very great advantage to be taken in consideration by 
 adopting the close-paddocking system is that sheep could be kept, if not near 
 shearing time, a little longer than usual in any paddock which might have a 
 number of noxious plants growing in it, during which time they would 
 trample most of them down. This would give a better chance for the 
 superior grasses and other herbage to grow when that particular paddock 
 was resting. By adopting the close-paddocking system it would also be found 
 that fine crops of grass could be cut in some of the paddocks in propitious 
 seasons, which could be made either into hay or ensilage. Some pastoralisls 
 may say that this idea is all very well in theory, but would not pay 
 in practice. Notwithstanding this, however, many experienced pastoralists 
 think with me that some such means will have to be adopted to provide teed 
 for stock during adverse times, unless stock-owners are prepared to lose 
 thousands of cattle and sheep during every recurring drought. Wi T h the 
 appliances, in the shape of labour-saving machinery, that are now obtainable 
 at a moderate cost, thousands of tons of fodder could be saved in times 
 of plenty. Whether the grass or other herbage is turned into hay or 
 ensilage it would be advisable to make the stores of fodder some distance 
 apart, so that when it became necessary to artificially feed stock the animals 
 would not be congregated in such large numbers at any particular point. It 
 is easy to imagine, if such a thing did take place, that scores of the weaker ones 
 would be trampled to death. The stacks should, of course, be protected 
 with fencing, in order to keep the animals off during the time that herbage 
 was plentiful in the pastures. Another plan might also be adopted to 
 provide feed for stock during drought timo. It is a well known fact to most 
 Australian pastoralists that a great number of the salt-bush familv are 
 exceedingly tenacious of life, and withstand a phenomenal amount of dry 
 weather ; in fact, the drier the season the more luxuriant many of these irrow, 
 provided that they are not persistently eaten down. I would recommend 
 salt-bush reserves to be made from half a mile to a mile in length, about 2 
 chains in width, and from 3 to 6 miles apart, according to the size of the 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " Eun," and for the reasons stated above. The land might be broken up 
 with a disc-harrow, spade-harrow, or scarifier, preparatory to sowing th.e 
 seed. The best time to sow salt-bush seed is in the spring of the year if the 
 weather and the soil are favourable ; failing this, early autumn will do. It 
 is not advisable to sow the seed all over the land all that is necessary is to 
 sow a few together at distances of about 9 feet for the tall-growing kinds, 
 and 5 feet for the dwarf-growing sorts. The seeds should be left only 
 lightly covered with soil. Under ordinary conditions the seeds will germinate 
 readi)y enough, and the seedlings will soon grow into good-sized plants. If 
 the soil should be of a light, friable nature it will not be necessary to scarify the 
 whole of the area ; portions broken up with a hoe and a few seeds dropped in 
 will answer very well. Many of the salt-bushes are readily propagated by 
 cuttings if made of the half- ripened wood and inserted in the soil in the usual 
 way. They strike root best in autumn if the weather is favourable. It 
 is astonishing the amount of excellent forage that can be cut, if done in a 
 systematic way. from a few acres of salt-bush even in the driest of seasons. 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. xxi 
 
 A Synopsis of three specially written Articles 
 on Important Grazing Districts in New South 
 Wales. 
 
 ILLAWARRA PASTURES. 
 
 ALTHOUGH a great deal has been written about the dairying industry in 
 Australia, the question of pasture plants and grasses has hitherto been 
 entirely ignored by most writers, or has been dismissed with a few common- 
 place remarks. Why this should be so it is hard to conceive, since herbage 
 is the principal factor in creating this great industry. Prom the number of 
 inquiries that are now being made it is quite evident that at no previous 
 time in the history of this country has the subject of forage plants and 
 grasses occupied so much of the attention of those who have stock to feed 
 as it does at the present time. Even those dairymen who are fortunate 
 enough to possess homesteads in the South Coast district, where the average 
 rainfall is good, and where the pasturage grows on the naturally rich, 
 basaltic hills and alluvial flats, have assured ine that the . continuous grazing 
 has had a serious effect upon some of the best of the herbage, and the more 
 thoughtful of them are now beginning to see that unless the grazing areas 
 are periodically rested, manured, and otherwise attended to, they will further 
 deteriorate. 
 
 It cannot be expected that herbage which is continually cropped down 
 will always be rich and succulent, and most experienced dairymen are now 
 convinced of the fact that unless milch cows are regularly supplied with 
 good herbage they will not yield a great quantity of milk. It becomes, 
 therefore, very necessary, if the industry is to be carried out on successful 
 commercial lines, for many consecutive years, to pay a great deal more 
 attention to the pastures than has hitherto been the practice. In going 
 through the Illawarra district it was my good fortune to converse with 
 dairymen who had been carrying on their vocation for very many years. 
 Therefore, when I refer to some of their remarks it will be a sufficient 
 guarantee that the information is the result of many years' practical 
 experience. 
 
 PEESENT CONDITION OF PASTTJEES. 
 
 Some of the grazing areas are in a very good condition, and show that 
 they have been carefully attended to, whilst others are in a very bad state. 
 Many dairymen destroy all noxious plants immediately they make their 
 appearance, whilst others appear to let them grow at their own sweet will 
 until they become a nuisance on the areas they occupy, and a menace to 
 the adjacent land. When the seeds of these noxious plants are ripe they 
 are often distributed by various agencies on clean paddocks, where they 
 
XX11 INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 germinate, and it is only by constant care and watchfulness that the plants 
 are prevented from spreading and injuring the healthy pasturage. Several 
 paddocks are so infested with large tussocks that their grazing capabilities 
 are considerably below what they would be under better management, and 
 it is no exaggeration to say that quite two-thirds of some areas are, for all 
 practical purposes, rendered almost useless for grazing on account of the 
 tussocks. Paddocks were shown to me that had been once greatly infested 
 with tussocks, but since they had been taken out the pasturage had become 
 very good and healthy. Next to the tussocks the so-called dandelions 
 (Hypochceris radiata. Linn., and II. glabra, Linn.) are the most common 
 pests in pastures. The leaves of these plants lie flat on the surface, and 
 where the plants are very plentiful they choke out the more tender and 
 nutritious grasses. Singular to say, so far as I could find out, no dairymen 
 have ever observed any bad effects on cattle that have eaten these plants, 
 although I have received scores of specimens for identification from other 
 parts of the country, with letters statiag that both horses and cattle show 
 signs of great distress after eating the plants. In some pastures " Paddy's 
 lucerne " (Sida rJiombifolia, Linn.) is very plentiful. A few dairymen seem to 
 think that " Paddy's lucerne" is a good forage plant. The majority of the 
 persons 1 spoke to, however, spare no pains to destroy the plant, as they 
 contend it occupies the place whore much better herbage would grow, which 
 is very true. Lantana and sweetbriar have become established in some places, 
 and also the English blackberry ; but, so far as I saw, none of these pests 
 are very plentiful. Sorrel (Rumex acetosella, Linn.) is very plentiful, and in 
 some places it has become a great pest. Many persons seem to think that 
 this plant gives cattle the scours when they eat too ravenously of it. The 
 "vervain" (Verbena venosa, Gr. et H.) and the "blue top" (Verbena bonari- 
 tfwm, Linn.) are spreading in places. The former is likely to prove a great 
 pest if no check is put upon its growth. This pretty flowering plant has 
 escaped from gardens, and being of prostrate habit chokes out the more 
 nutritious herbage. Once it becomes well established it is difficult to exter- 
 minate, since its underground roots ramify in all directions, and from the 
 smallest particle of roots a new growth will develop, which soon forms a large 
 plant. In places the " blue top " is a great pest, and some persons seem to 
 think it gives red water to cattle that eat it. Some beekeepers also complain 
 that when the plant is in bloom bees work it very industriously, but the 
 honey secreted by the flowers is not of good flavour. On some of the rich 
 flats the " bushy starwort " (Aster dumosus, Willd.) is very plentiful, and on 
 many of the hillsides there is a dwarf plant with grass-like leaves called the 
 "yellow rush lily" (Sisyrincliium micranthum, Cav.), which is said to be 
 spreading very fast. In addition to these weeds there are docks of various 
 kinds, which are generally found growing near moist places, and a number of 
 other undesirable plants of less account. 
 
 THE BETTER CLASS OF PASTURAGE. 
 
 This is composed of different kinds of herbage in varying proportions. In 
 newly-laid down pasture perennial rye predominates, but the reason is that a 
 greater percentage of seeds of this grass is generally sown in mixture for per- 
 manent pasture. Cocksfoot forms a fair percentage of the herbage in some 
 permanent pastures, and it appears to withstand dry weather better than rye- 
 grass. It is coming more generally into favour with dairymen, and where it 
 is well kept down it certainly does not grow into objectionable tussocks, 
 which is characteristic of the grass when it is allowed to grow undisturbed 
 or any length of time. White clover forms a large percentage of the herbage 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. xxiii 
 
 of many pastures, more particularly those that have been laid down for a few 
 years. Under ordinary conditions it produces an abundance of seed, and 
 when the autumn rains set in they germinate readily. During the spring 
 months, should rain fall at frequent intervals, the clover grows rank, and 
 when cows eat ravenously of it in this state it sometimes produces hoven. 
 "With this exception dairymen look upon clover as a valuable pasture plant. 
 Prairie grass is conspicuous in most pastures. It is a valuable winter and 
 early spring grass, and its rich succulent herbage is much relished by stock. 
 Trifolium procumiens, Linn, is very common in some pastures, but it is not 
 considered to be of very high feeding value. Bib grass (Plantago lanceolata> 
 Linn.) is very plentiful. Most dairymen look upon this plant as excellent 
 feed for cows, and it is considered to increase the flow of milk of dairy cattle 
 that eat it. Perhaps the most useless grass, from a dairyman's point of view, 
 that has ever been introduced to the South Coast is the " meadow soft grass " 
 or " Yorkshire fog" (Holcus lanatus, Linn.). During the recent propitious 
 seasons it has spread over large areas, much to the disgust of many persons. 
 Its light seeds are distributed far and wide by every wind that blows, so that 
 it is easy to account for the extensive area of its occupation. It is said that 
 the seeds in the first instance were introduced with cocksfoot seed from New 
 Zealand. These are the principal exotic forage plants and grasses which 
 form a great part of the permanent pasture in the South Coast. In both old 
 and new pastures, but more particularly in the former, there is a large 
 percentage of indigenous grasses and forage plants, and in dry seasons these, 
 especially "couch grass" (Cynodon dactylon, Pers.), often prove the main- 
 stay of many of the pastures. Andropogon affinis, R. Br., one of the native 
 blue grasses, is highly spoken of. Many plants that I saw were much eaten 
 down, notwithstanding that other herbage was plentiful, " Meadow rice 
 grass," (J&Licrolcena stipoides" B/. Br.), is another valuable pasture grass 
 which is very common in some places, and so are Eragrostis leptostachya, 
 Steud., Poa ccespitosa, Porst., and many others. Perhaps the least liked of 
 all the native grasses is the " Parramatta" or " tussock grass (Sporobolus 
 indicus, R. Br.). Whilst young it is really good herbage, but when it become 
 old the stems and leaves are very tough and harsh. When cattle eat it in 
 this state for any length of time it often loosens their teeth, so much so 
 that sometimes they drop out. It is said that horses' teeth are also affected 
 though in a less degree, should they be kept on pasture where this grass 
 predominates. In some pastures that had been laid down with exotic grasses 
 many years ago, the " Parramatta grass" and the "couch grass" have almost 
 taken possession of the land. Still, some persons think these plants make 
 fairly good pasture in dry seasons. 
 
 SUPPOSED Poisonous PLANTS. 
 
 Fungoid pesls. 
 
 Much of the original vegetation of the Illawarra district was of a semi- 
 tropical nature when the early settlers took up the land for homestead pur- 
 poses. On the rich, basaltic hills and in many of the valleys the vegetation 
 formed a perfect jungle, and many of the trees were of gigantic proportions, 
 the clearing of which was very laborious and costly. In stony places, and on 
 some of the steep hill sides, much of the original vegetation is still to be 
 seen growing in all its native luxuriance. Amongst such a diversity of 
 plants it can easily be supposed that when any cattle died in a somewhat 
 mysterious way different kinds of this luxuriant vegetation have at one time 
 or another been suspected of having poisonous properties, and certain plants 
 
xxiv INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 are probably not suspected without some reason. Several shrubs and trees 
 were shown to ine that are said to have poisoned or caused injury to cattle 
 when they have fed too ravenously upon them, more particularly in very 
 adverse seasons when the pastures become dry and the grasses are hard and 
 wiry. In such seasons many of the native shrubs, by their green appearance, 
 have offered a tempting bait to stock, and when cattle have eaten too freely 
 of certain of them, it may have had some injurious effect upon their systems, 
 and the more weakly beasts may have died, not from actual poisoning, but 
 from the mechanical effects this kind of herbage may have had upon their 
 systems. Should severe irritation take place in the alimentary canal, it 
 would most likely tend to bring on inflammation of the intestines, which in 
 some instances might develop into dangerous gangrene. However this may 
 be, it must be said that there is much diversity of opinion regarding certain 
 shrubs, and although I give a list, with common descriptions of a few of 
 the plants that were shown to me as being suspected of poisoning or causing 
 injury to cattle, it must be left for future careful investigation before 
 anything very definite can be stated. 
 
 Croton verreauxii, Baill. This is a tall shrub or small tree with some- 
 what variable leaves of a rather yellowish green colour and from 2 to 4 or 
 more inches long. The fruit is a three-celled nearly globular capsule, usually 
 containing one seed in each cell. This shrub and also other Euphorbiaceous 
 plants have on several occasions been sent to me for identification as being 
 the cause of red water in cattle. There is, perhaps, no disease in cattle in 
 the South Coast which has caused so much controversy amongst dairymen as 
 red water, and probably no disease upon which there exists such a diversity 
 of opinion. Some persons scout the idea of plants being the cause and 
 attribute the disease to the water the cattle drink, whilst others argue the 
 very opposite. When the disease has assumed an acute form, a change of 
 pasture, with a liberal supply of green succulent herbage, has sometimes had 
 a beneficial effect. Indeed, this appears to be the best remedy yet adopted. 
 The croton is common in some places, more particularly on the banks of 
 streams. 
 
 Goodia lotifolia, Salis. This is a rather tall, straggling shrub, with 
 pinnately three-foliate leaves, and many-flowered racemes of yellow flowers. 
 The pods are nearly an inch long and about a quarter of an inch broad. It 
 is commonly known as "yellow pea" or "yellow indigo." It is not very 
 common, but what there is of it is generally found on hillsides. 
 
 ' Indigofera australis, Willd. This is an erect branching shrub of from 
 two to four or more feet high, with leaves composed of numerous small 
 leaflets and pink or purple flowers arranged on axiliary racemes. The pods 
 are about 11 inches long, terete, and nearly straight. This plant is called 
 " wild indigo," and is suspected of causing red water in cattle, and also of 
 bringing on premature labour. In some places it is fairly plentiful on both 
 high and low lands. 
 
 Omalanthus populifolius, Grdh. This is a tall shrub or small tree, with 
 large poplar-like leaves which often turn beautifully red when they become 
 old. The young shoots, too, have a reddish tint, which gives quite a character 
 to the plant. This shrub is commonly known as " poison poplar " or " poison 
 bush." It is very common in some places, but principally where little 
 clearing has been done. 
 
 Trema aspera, Blume. This is a tall shrub or slender tree, attaining 
 sometimes a height of 20 feet or more. It is commonly known as the "peach- 
 leaved poison bush " and is plentiful in some places both on high and low 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXV 
 
 land. The vivid green of its foliage in the driest of seasons no doubt offers 
 a tempting bait to stock. A successful dairyman told me that he has had 
 cattle poisoned through eating the leaves of this plant. He came to this 
 conclusion after he had made a post-mortem examination on a beast that had 
 died somewhat suddenly. Singular to say, the leaves of a very closely-allied 
 tree (Ficus aspera, Forst.), are considered by some persons to be good forage ; 
 indeed, I saw plants that had been very closely cropped by cattle. Premature 
 labour in cattle has been prevalent in some places, and many theories have 
 been advanced as to the cause of it. One dairyman I spoke to had been very 
 unlucky, and attributed it to planters' friend which he had liberally fed to 
 his cattle. Many experienced men, however, think that something else has 
 been the cause of the trouble, and no doubt think so with reason. Planters' 
 friend, although a very exhausting crop, is largely grown as auxiliary feed for 
 dairy cattle, and is considered very fattening ; but, of course, it should always 
 be fed to stock with discretion. 
 
 Some years ago I called attention to certain parasitic fungi which affect 
 grasses at certain seasons of the year, and suggested that plants in such a 
 diseased condition might be the cause of some ailments among stock. From 
 observations made in the South Coast during recent years, it would appear 
 that fungi on grasses is really the cause of a lot of trouble. One stock- 
 owner tells me that after many years of observation and experience he is 
 positive that ergot (fungus) on rye grass is the cause of premature labour in 
 cattle. Some time ago he experienced losses from this cause, and again 
 lately. This fungus is more prevalent in wet than in dry seasons. Therefore, 
 it is not always possible to burn any diseased patch in pasture on account of 
 the humid climate. Where the seed stems of grasses, however, are attacked 
 by ergot they should be mown down, raked up and burned, more particularly 
 where breeding cattle are kept. I was shown a paddock of rye grass that 
 was very badly infested with a fungus (not identical with the ergot.) So 
 red was the grass that one dairyman thought it interfered with his milk 
 supply. These fungus diseases are well worth studying, more particularly 
 with regard to their effect upon stock. 
 
 IMPEOYEMENT or PASTURES. 
 
 There is nothing occupying the minds of progressive dairymen at the pre- 
 sent time more than the improvement of their pastures. During my recent 
 visit to the South Coast I was frequently asked for information as to the 
 relative merits of different grasses and pasture plants. In answer to these 
 inquiries I have invariably advised that those grasses which experience has 
 proved to be the best suited for the requirements of the district should not 
 be superseded until it had been proved that better ones could be found to 
 take their place. It will already have been noticed in this series of articles 
 that a good percentage of the Illawarra pastures more particularly those 
 that have been laid down for a number of years is composed of indigenous 
 grasses, some of which prove to be the mainstay during very dry seasons. 
 I would certainly recommend the conservation of the best of these grasses, 
 more particularly on the hills and hillsides, where the more tender exotics 
 suffer most during the hottest and driest part of the year. New ones also 
 might be grown in an experimental way, and when found suitable for any 
 particular locality larger areas might be devoted to their cultivation. It 
 should be borne in mind, however, that the best grasses in the world will fail 
 to yield good herbage 'under bad management. Too much stress cannot be 
 laid on the fact that most of the good and nutritious grasses require as good 
 
XXvi INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 cultivation and attention as do most other crops, and unless pastures are 
 manured and periodically rested it cannot be expected that they will continue 
 for ever in a satisfactory condition. In most cases it is simply throwing 
 money away to try and renovate old pastures by sowing grass-seeds on the 
 surface in moist weather, and putting a bush-harrow over the land to settle 
 the seeds in the soil. G-enerally the seeds germinate readily enough, but 
 the surface becoming hard in dry weather, the delicate roots of the young 
 grass cannot penetrate easily, consequently a great percentage dies off. 
 Should pasture be thought to be too poor to renovate by judiciously manur- 
 ing it, the best plan would be to plough it deeply and carefully till it as if 
 for any other crop, and sow it down with a good mixture of grass-seeds to 
 form new permanent pasture. 
 
 MANURING PASTURES. 
 
 Taking into consideration the fertility of the Illawarra District, and the 
 very little competition in the dairying industry until late years, it is not to 
 be wondered at that some persons have ridiculed the idea of using manures 
 on pasture-lands. Things have changed very much of late years, and com- 
 petition in the dairying industry is now very keen. Creameries and butter- 
 factories have been established in many districts where it was thought such 
 institutions could not nourish, and where land is rented or acquired on easier 
 terms than in the South Coast. With these facts staring the Illawarra 
 dairymen in the face they cannot now afford to be content with a good 
 supply of herbage at one season of the year and a great falling off at 
 another, which, in other words, means a plentiful supply of milk for a season 
 and a diminished supply at another season. Pastures must now yield a good 
 crop of nutritious grass a greater part of the year to make the dairyman's 
 occupation a profitable one. To obtain this end, manures must be judi- 
 ciously applied to pastures to stimulate the growth of good grasses and 
 other forage-plants. By encouraging the better class of herbage it will 
 enable it to smother and choke out many of the weed-pests that now infest 
 pastures. Some persons seem to have lost sight of the fact that a very large 
 amount of nutritious herbage is required to build up the frame and body of 
 young cattle that are raised for dairy purposes, and also that every gallon of 
 milk takes a certain amount of fertility out of the land. Until this is 
 restored to the soil in some form or another the pasturage, both as regards 
 quantity and quality, must deteriorate sooner or later. Amongst a number 
 of constituents that fodder plants and grasses remove from the soil the most 
 valuable are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. These should be 
 returned to the land in the form of dried blood, bonedust, and kainit, or 
 similar manures. The proportion to use will, of course, depend upon cir- 
 cumstances, and must be determined by those who use them. Some soils 
 are naturally richer in one or more of these constituents than other soils 
 are, and when this has been ascertained the proportions to apply to the land 
 can be gauged to a nicety. Lime can be applied to heavy or tenacious soils 
 with most beneficial results. Its mechanical and ameliorating effect on such 
 soils are well known to persons who have used it. There are large areas in 
 the South Coast that would be benefited by a dressing of lime, if it was 
 applied at the rate of about 1 ton to the acre. It should not be applied to 
 the same piece of land too often ; once in about five years will be found quite 
 sufficient to give the desired results. The natural manure that is made on 
 a dairy-farm is often considerable, and if this was carefully conserved it 
 would be of the greatest value as a top-dressing for pastures, and, in a great 
 measure, replace the losses caused by cattle consuming the herbage. 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXvii 
 
 NEW ENGLAND PASTURES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 New England, as comprised in that portion of New South "Wales which 
 extends northwards along the Dividing Range from Armidale to Tenterfield, 
 is about 120 miles in length by about 40 in breadth, and has an area of about 
 3,000,000 acres. The configuration of this area consists of a series of plateaux 
 and stretches of both steeply and gently undulating country. It rises from 
 an altitude of 3,313 feet at Armidale to 5,000 feet at Ben Lomond, and falling 
 again to 2,827 feet at Tenterfield. The average elevation is about 3,500 feet. 
 Although the distance is only about 80 to 90 miles in a straight line from the 
 South Pacific Ocean, the high altitude makes the district one of the coldest 
 in New South Wales. The geological formations consist of granitic and 
 porphyritic rocks, which may be said to form the backbone of the range. In 
 some places extensive areas of these rocks are covered with trap and basalt, 
 which have resulted from great volcanic disturbances at some period of the 
 earth's history. Excepting on the bare granitic hills, the soil varies in different 
 localities. A great deal is good and some of it is very rich, and under culti- 
 vation is capable of yielding a great variety of crops such as are peculiar to 
 temperate climates. About one-third is composed of a rich, deep, red soil, 
 which has resulted from the disintegration of the basaltic rocks. A large 
 area of the low flat land is composed of a stiff, retentive, black soil, which 
 appears in the form of a deposit, and has most probably been washed down 
 from the surrounding high lands. There is also a large area composed of 
 light, friable loam, which is the result of wash from the granitic hills. These 
 are the principal soils of New England. 
 
 TEMPERATURE AND KAINFALL. 
 Temperature at Armidale. 
 
 Mean, temperature ... ... ... ... ... 56'9 
 
 Mean summer temperature ... ... ... ... 69*0 
 
 Mean winter temperature ... ... ... ... 45'9 
 
 Highest temperature (shade) ... ... ... lOO'O 
 
 Lowest temperature (shade) 11-2 
 
 Temperature at Tenterfield. 
 
 Mean temperature ... ... ... ... ... 57'5 
 
 Mean summer temperature ... ... ... ... 67'3 
 
 Mean winter temperature ... ... ... ... 464 
 
 Highest temperature (shade) 1040 
 
 Lowest temperature (shade) ... ... ... IG'O 
 
 These temperatures will give a good idea of the climate of New England. 
 In the vicinity of Ben Lomond of course it will average a few degrees colder 
 on account of the greater altitude. 
 
 Rainfall. The mean annual rainfall is 35*8 inches at Armidale, and 
 30'8 inches at Teuterfield, which may be considered a fairly good one for 
 a district situated at such" an altitude. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 New England is fairly well watered by several perennial streams, some of 
 which form tributaries to the western rivers. In several localities there are 
 springs of good water, and on some of the low flat lands water is easily 
 obtained by sinking a few feet into the earth. At Gruyra, which is situated 
 
XXVlll INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 at an altitude of 4,328 feet, there is a very large lake which contains a never- 
 failing supply of good water which is as clear as crystal. The only thing 
 that detracts from this grand sheet of water, from an aesthetic point of view, 
 is the quantity of so-called rushes (Heleocharis spkacelata, B. Br.) which 
 grow over a greater part of it. It is probable that if the overflow of the lake 
 was raised several feet, which would raise the level of the water, it might 
 prove too deep for these so-called rushes to grow. 
 
 PRESENT CONDITION OE PASTUKES. 
 
 During the summer months many of the grazing areas of New England 
 can hardly be surpassed for the rich, succulent, and varied character of the 
 indigenous grasses and forage-plants which clothe them. It is during the 
 winter months that the want of green succulent herbage in the pastures is 
 most felt, for at this period of the year most of the indigenous vegetation 
 is at rest. One of the most common grasses is the " wild sorghum " 
 (Sorghum plumosum, Beauv.) This grass is highly spoken of. Not only are 
 cattle and sheep fond of the herbage, but it is said that horses eat the seed- 
 heads with avidity and fatten on them. The " kangaroo -grass" (Antkistiria 
 ciliata, Linn.) is common in many places, and grows to a great height when 
 left unmolested for a time. It is well known all over Australia as a good 
 forage-grass, but does not stand well in pastures that are heavily stocked. 
 Danthonia semiannularis, H. Br., the " wallaby- grass," is common in many 
 pastures. Is has a high reputation as a forage-plant, and is capable of with- 
 standing a long " spell " of dry weather without its growth being checked to 
 any serious extent. The " blue-grass" (Andropogon sericeus, R. Br.) is very 
 prominent in many pastures, and is deservedly held in great esteem both by 
 pastoralists and farmers. It it well worth conserving in places where it is 
 already growing and the seeds disseminating in places where it does not 
 already exist. Poa ccespitosa, Forst., var., ausfralis, the " tussock poa," is 
 common in some places, and whilst young makes excellent forage. When it 
 becomes old it is often rather harsh and tough ; then cattle will not touch it 
 if other herbage is plentiful. The "star" or "windmill grass" (Ohloris 
 truncata, R. Br.) is fairly abundant in some pastures. This is a valuable 
 sheep-grass and stands the dry weather well. Agropyrum scalrum, Beauv., the 
 " wheat-grass," is plentiful in many pastures. This is one of the first native 
 grasses to start into growth in spring. The " bent grasses" (Deyeuxia forsteri, 
 Kunth., and D. billardieri, Kunth.) are very common over nearly the whole 
 of the district. Although these are only annual grasses they yield rich, 
 succulent herbage during the early summer months, and on this account are 
 valuable additions to the pasturage. The native "couch grass" (Cynodon 
 dactylon, Pers.) occurs in the warmer and more sheltered parts of the district. 
 Eragrostis leptostachya, Steud. is another valuable grass which I saw in 
 several places. The "long hair plume grass " {Dichelachne crinita, Hook.) 
 when in flower is a very conspicuous plant in pastures. On good soils it 
 produces a great amount of rich succulent herbage which is greedily eaten 
 by all herbivora. On the banks of some creeks and in low damp places the 
 " water couch" (Paspalum distichum, Linn.) is plentiful. This quick-growing 
 grass is highly spoken of both by pastoralists and dairymen. Its rich, succu- 
 lent herbage is greedily eaten by cattle. Besides these there are other native 
 grasses, which occur in varying proportions and add to the valuable herbage 
 of New England. There are a number of native herbs other than grasses 
 which are eaten by stock ; but, perhaps, the most useful are Geranium dis- 
 sectum, Linn., " crow foot," and Plantago varia, E. Br., " native rib grass." 
 In most localities these plants are highly spoken of as forage for stock. 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXIX 
 
 Amongst exotic forage plants that have become acclimatised in pastures, 
 white clover forms a very large percentage. Indeed, many of the pastures 
 in spring are literally white with the flowers of this plant. Both pastoralists 
 and farmers look upon clover as a valuable pasture plant. In many localities 
 prairie grass is conspicuous in pastures. It is a valuable winter and early 
 spring grass, and its rich succulent herbage is much relished by stock. 
 Trifoliumprocumbens, Linn., has spread much of late years in pastures, but 
 it is not considered to be of very high feeding value. "Yorkshire fog" 
 (Holcus lanatus, Linn.), "soft brome grass " (Bromus mollis, Linn.), " burr 
 niedick " (Medicago denticulate^ Linn.), and several other plants are now 
 established in pastures. 
 
 NOXIOTTS WEEDS. 
 
 In New England, as in most of the settled districts of Australia, many 
 exotic weed pests of a more or less aggressive character have found a con- 
 genial soil and climate to vegetate in, and certain of them have become so 
 plentiful in some localities as to cause anxiety to land-owners. At first sight 
 it no doubt appears very remarkable to most persons that the worst weed 
 pests Australian pastoralists and farmers have to contend against are either 
 of European or American origin. On reflection, however, it will be noted that 
 most of these plants have no natural enemies in Australia, such as keep them 
 within certain limits in their native habitats, consequently they soon grow 
 and occupy large areas, where the conditions are favourable. Many of these 
 pests have been introduced in an accidental way with agricultural seeds, 
 garden seeds, &c. Some plants have been imported for their supposed 
 usefulness, but on account of the enormous amount of seed which they pro- 
 duce, and the prolific way in which they multiply in this genial climate, they 
 prove a pest instead of a blessing, both in cultivation and in pastures. A 
 few years ago a plant of this description, commonly known in this country 
 as "Hexham scent," and to botanists as Melilotus parviflora, Desf., was 
 introduced into the northern districts as a valuable forage plant, but it has 
 now over-run thousands of acres, and the area of its occupation gradually 
 widens from year to year. In some wheat fields it has proved to be a great 
 pest, inasmuch as the seeds ripen about the same time as wheat, and they 
 often get mixed with that grain at harvest time. The " Hexham scent" 
 has a peculiar odour, due to the presence of a chemical principle ''called 
 " coumarin," which is sometimes imparted to wheat, and, of course, some- 
 what depreciates its value from a commercial point of view. Indeed, I have 
 been told that millers have sometimes refused to grind wheat owing to the 
 presence of a number of these scented seeds. Some persons assert that the 
 " Hexham scent" plant produces partial paralysis in sheep and horses when 
 they have eaten too ravenously of it. This statement, however, I think, 
 requires confirmation. I have just mentioned these circumstances to show 
 how necessary it is for experimenters to be exceedingly careful in introducing 
 new plants for cultivation in Australia. 
 
 Perhaps the most common weed pest in New England is the sorrel (Itumex 
 acetosella, Linn.). It seems to luxuriate on almost any kind of soil, and in 
 almost any situation. So far as I could find out, it has produced no ill 
 effects upon stock that have eaten it. In many pastures the so called dan- 
 delions (Hypochceris radiafa, Linn., and H.glalra, Linn.) are very plentiful, 
 and they seem to be spreading in some localities. I was shown pastures 
 where these plants had not made their appearance until a few months ago, but 
 now they appear as if they had come to stay. Although no bad effects on 
 cattle that graze in pastures where these plants occur have been observed, still 
 they are very undesirable weeds, for where they grow very thick the more 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 tender and nutritious herbage is of ten choked out. The "sweet briar" (Rosa 
 rubiffinosff, Linn.) is very common in some localities. There seems to be a very 
 general opinion that this is one of the worst, if not the worst, pest in the 
 district. Once it becomes well established it is both difficult and costly to 
 eradicate. Every one of its long underground roots have to be taken out 
 before the plant can be safely said to be destroyed. It is said to be spreading 
 in different localities, but this is easily accounted for. 
 
 Various kinds of birds eat the fruits of the "sweet briar," and often void 
 the seeds miles from the plants that bore them, where they germinate, and 
 form new colonies. The " English blackberry" (Rubus fruticosus, Linn.) 
 is growing in several localities, and, although not nearly so common as the 
 " sweet briar," it would be advisable to keep it in check to prevent it spreading 
 in the district. Verbascum thapsus, Linn., the " great mullein," has estab- 
 lished itself in some places, and although it is not very common, still, as it 
 produces a great amount of seed in most seasons, it might become a great 
 pest if allowed to grow at its own sweet will for a lengthened period. The 
 prickly pods of the "burr medick" (Medicago denticulata, Willd.) are some- 
 times troublesome to get out of wool, with this exception the plant is 
 considered good herbage. It is common in many localities. In addition to 
 these exotic weeds there are docks of various kinds, which are generally to 
 be seen growing near moist places, and a number of other undesirable plants 
 of less account. Two rather undesirable native plants, from a sheep-owner's 
 point of view, appear to be common in some localities. Unfortunately, I 
 never heard any common name given to either of these plants, so that I shall 
 have to record them under their botanical names: 1 is Accena ovina, A. 
 Cunn. The ovoid fruits of this plant are covered with short barbed prickles, 
 which are sometimes troublesome to get out of the wool. 2 is Arcena 
 sanguisorbce, Vahl. The numerous barbed prickles on the fruits on this plant 
 sometimes cause trouble to the salivary glands of the smaller herbivora that 
 browse upon it. I have seen these barbed fruits carried long distances on 
 the backs of sheep and dogs, so that it is ea?y to account for its distribution 
 in many districts besides JNew England. 
 
 A SUPPOSED POISONOUS PLANT. 
 
 Swainsona galegifolia, E. Br., " Indigo," " Cranky Pea," "Darling Pea," 
 &c. There is probably no other supposed poisonous plant in Australia which 
 has caused so much controversy as the one above referred to. As this plant 
 was figured and fully described by me in the Agricultural Gazette, and in 
 the Town and Country Journal, some time ago, I will just refer to the remarks 
 made by some New England pastoralists whose long experience of the plant 
 entitle them to speak with authority. For analysis of the plant and for 
 further information I would refer my readers to the articles in the above- 
 named journals. Mr. W. H. Walker says "that the 'Darling Pea' is 
 sometimes very troublesome, and cattle, horses, and sheep all suffer from 
 eating it". Mr. G-. H. Gordon says : "In the 'Darling Pea' there certainly 
 exists in a most marked degree constituents injurious to stock, which causes 
 an annual and heavy loss to the pastoralist." Captain A. S. Menzies says : 
 " I have had twenty years' experience of the ' Darling Pea,' or ' Indigo,' and 
 am convinced it is nothing else but poison. When stock eat it they will eat 
 nothing else as long as they can get ' Indigo.' They soon fall awny, have a 
 wild, distressed look, an awkward, quivering gait, distorted limbs and features, 
 and die at last in an emaciated state. It appears to me a narcotic poison, 
 acting on the nerves and brain. The losses on stock all through these 
 districts are large from this cause, especially among young sheep, and the 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXXI 
 
 plant seems to be increasing. It is worse in sheep country than where cattle 
 are run, probably because the latter country is never so heavily stocked. It 
 should be noted that the poison has a marked effect on the fleece of an 
 * Indigo' eater. The wool is nearly always very clean, peculiarly soft, light 
 in condition, and fine in quality. The growth of the wool, so far as length 
 is concerned, does not seem to be at all checked ; but the fleece generally is 
 much lighter. The effects generally of the poison pea through these districts 
 are simply disastrous. It is impossible to properly stock the country, and 
 even with all precautions, and with constant care, the losses are at all times 
 very large." 
 
 IMPROVEMENT or PASTUEES. 
 
 Although many of the pastoral holdings in New England are of con- 
 siderable area, there are a number of farmers who possess feir-sized home- 
 steads, and who combine agriculture with grazing. Until so many fine 
 cattle were fattened in the district, and creameries and butter factories were 
 established in different localities, very little attention appears to have been 
 given to the improvement of pastures. In ordinary seasons the natural 
 herbage always provides an abundance of rich succulent feed in summer; 
 but it is during the cold winter months, when most of the native grasses 
 cease to grow, that the want of green feed in pastures is mostly felt, more 
 particularly so now that New England has entered largely into competition 
 with those districts which have a milder climate in winter, and are more 
 conveniently situated to large centres of population. To keep cattle in good 
 health and condition in the colder parts of the country they must be 
 regularly supplied with good feed during the winter months, as well as in the 
 summer season. In the face of the great competition that there is at the 
 present time, neither graziers, especially those who fatten stock, nor dairy- 
 men, who depend upon a good milk supply, can afford to allow their cattle 
 to fall seriously out of condition at any season of the year. Although a 
 great amount of oats and wheat is grown for hay, and largely used as 
 auxiliary feed for stock during the winter season, cattle that are always 
 allowed to graze in pastures during the summer months, require some green 
 and succulent feed to keep them in a healthy condition during the cold 
 weather. To show how green feed in pastures is valued in the winter-time 
 I will just mention three grasses which are favourably looked upon and 
 encouraged in many localities. They are (I) "Yorkshire fog" or "meadow 
 soft grass" (Holcus lanatus, Linn.) ; (2) " Barren fescue" (Festucabromoides, 
 Linn.); and (3) one of the "barley-grasses" or "squirrel-tail grass" 
 (Hordeum murinum, Linn.) In most parts of the world these grasses are 
 not considered of much value as pasture-plants. The two last-named are 
 annuals, and generally die out on the approach of hot weather. In places 
 where th( j y have grown very thickly on the ground large bare patches are 
 left in the pastures in the summer-time. The Illawarra dairymen look upon 
 " Yorkshire fog" as a great pest in pastures. In some parts of Europe the 
 " squirrel-tail grass" is common by waysides, and its ripe awns or heads are 
 so injurious to the gums of horses in the Isle of Thanet that one of the 
 greatest recommendations of an inn is having " hay without any admixture 
 of squirrel-grass." So one may gather from this that a grass which is 
 considered to be a pest in one country or district proves useful in other 
 localities Many experienced pastoralists say, and with reason, that there 
 are no better grasses in the world for summer feed than those that are 
 indigenous to New England, and it is only because they do not grow during 
 the winter months that stock-owners are at all anxious about their pastures. 
 The want of green feed in pastures during winter has forced itself very 
 
XXXii INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 prominently on graziers during recent years, and it has led some pastoralists 
 to experiment with different kinds of grasses and other herbage that were 
 thought to be likely to grow in cold weather. Probably nowhere in New 
 England has more attention been paid to this subject or more experiments 
 been carried out than at Tenterfield Station. It was my good fortune to 
 inspect these pastures and the experiments which have been carried on for 
 a few years past. Although a great deal of money has been spent on some 
 grass mixtures which have not given the results that were anticipated, still 
 it has proved what kinds are best suited to the district, and has also given 
 valuable data on which to carry on any further work in this direction. The 
 work already accomplished is an object-lesson for the whole of the district, 
 and the example set might be more generally adopted with advantage by 
 both graziers and dairymen. Of the great number of exotic grasses that 
 have been sown on this station the following appear to have grown the best : 
 Prairie-grans, different varieties of rye-grass, and cocksfoot-grass. 
 
 SYSTEM OP GRAZING. 
 
 Most of the cattle-stations in New England are not too heavily stocked, so 
 that in any ordinary season the herbage is not only plentiful but it has a 
 chance to produce seed for its perpetuation, which cannot have but a marked 
 effect for good on the pasturage. Many pastures are grazed in rotation, 
 and the effects of such a system cannot be too highly estimated, as it allows 
 the more tender and often most nutritious plants time to recuperate. This 
 plan might be more generally adopted all over the country to advantage. 
 Where the pasturage becomes scanty through unavoidable causes it is a 
 good plan to close paddocks against stock for a time, to allow the grasses 
 and forage-plants to seed. By adopting such a method it is astonishing 
 the good results that would follow in a short time, should the weather 
 be favourable. 
 
 Nearly all over New England there seems to be a general interest taken in 
 pasture plants, and grasses, and information is eagerly sought after as to the 
 merits of any particular grass or plant. This augurs well for the future 
 development of both the pastoral and dairying industry of this fertile 
 
 district. 
 
 CAMDEN AND PICTON PASTURES. 
 
 Both these districts are situated within an easy distance of Sydney, and are 
 much frequented as health-resorts. The scenery is charming and the 
 climate is salubrious. The configuration of this part of New South Wales 
 consists of steeply and gently undulating country and a considerable area of 
 flat land. Almost since the foundation of the Colony these districts have 
 been noted for their fertility, and at one period they w r ere looked upon 
 as the granary of Sydney and the surrounding settlements. Some years ago 
 wheat was extensively grown, and fine crops were harvested, both on the high 
 and on the low lands ; but the " rust " has rendered this crop an uncertain 
 one. Most of these, at one time wheat-lands, are now devoted to 
 pasturage, and the dairying industry is now a very important one. 
 The Picton district supplies Sydney with a great quantity of milk, and 
 creameries and butter-factories are established in the Camden district, and 
 appear to be flourishing institutions. Probably the first person to recognise 
 the value of this part of New South Wales for grazing purposes was the late 
 Captain Macarthur. In a letter written nearly one hundred years ago, and 
 which is now in the possession of Mrs. Onslow, of Camden Park, C'aptain 
 Macarthur says that " the 'kangaroo-grass' is so plentiful here that when in 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXXlil 
 
 seed it puts me in mind of the wheat-fields in the old country." " Kangaroo- 
 grass " may now be seen growing six or more feet high in places that are 
 protected against cattle and other herbivora ; so it would appear that this 
 species has in no way deteriorated during the past one hundred years when 
 it is allowed to grow undisturbed for a time. 
 
 PBESENT CONDITION OF PASTURES. 
 
 Since the dairying industry has developed into such large proportions 
 many of the pastures have received careful attention. Progressive stock- 
 owners in these districts, as in other parts of the country, have found out 
 by practical experience that unless the pasturage is good, cattle cannot thrive, 
 nor can the dairying and allied industries flourish. Although many of 
 the grazing areas are in a very good condition, some appear to be in a 
 rather neglected state. Many land- owners destroy all noxious plants 
 immediately they make their appearance, whilst others allow them to grow 
 as they like until they become a nuisance on the areas they occupy, and a 
 menace to the adjoining land. Some paddocks are very much infested with 
 large tussocks, and in consequence their grazing capabilities are much below 
 what they would be under better management. The better class of pas- 
 turage is composed almost wholly of indigenous herbage, which is plentful, 
 and of a rich and varied character. The most common grass is couch 
 (Cynodon dactylon, Pers.). It grows on both high and lowland; on the 
 latter, however, it appears to predominate. In an ordinary summer this 
 grass grows quickly, and it will stand close feeding better than many other 
 kinds. Herbivora of all descriptions are remarkably fond of it, and fatten, 
 on it, whilst in a growing state. Couch-grass almost ceases to grow, however, 
 during the winter months, and should only very slight frosts occur the 
 herbage turns brown. When in this state it has not a very high feeding- 
 value. The "kangaroo-grass" (Anthistiria ciliata, Linn.) 'is plentiful in 
 some pastures, but it rarely produces seed unless protected against cattle. 
 It is a valuable grass, and stock keep it closely eaten down in pastures they 
 have access to. Eragrostis leptostacliya, Steud., is very abundant in most 
 pastures, more particularly on hillsides, where it often forms a very close 
 turf. It grows in bunches, but never develops into objectionable tussocks. 
 Milch-cows are particularly fond of this grass, and they keep it eaten close 
 to the ground even if other herbage is plentiful. This grass should be 
 encouraged on every dairy-farm in the colony. The " blue-grass" (Andro- 
 pogon senceus, R. Br.), is fairly plentiful in some pastures, and is highly 
 spoken of by dairymen. Dantlionia semi annular is, R.Br., the "wallaby-grass," 
 is common in most pastures. It has a high reputation as a forage-plant, 
 and is capable of withstanding a long " spell" of dry weather without its 
 growth being checked to any serious extent. The "star" or "windmill" 
 grasses (Qliloris truncata, R. Br., and C. ventricosa, 11. Br.), are fairly plentiful 
 in some places. These are valuable grasses, which stock of all descriptions 
 are remarkably fond of, and fatten on. Deyeuocia forsteri, Kunth., the 
 " bent-grass" is common over nearly the whole of these districts. Although 
 this is only an annual grass it yields rich succulent herbage during the 
 winter and early spring months, so on this account it is a valuable addition 
 to the pasturage. The "tussock poa" (Poa c&spitosa, Forst.) is common 
 in many pastures, and whilst young it makes excellent forage ; but when it 
 becomes old it often grows into objectionable tussocks, which choke out the 
 more tender herbage. Under the shade of trees this grass keeps beautifully 
 green during the driest of weather. On the banks of some streams and 
 in many low damp situations the " water-couch" (Paspalum distichum, Linn.) 
 grows very plentifully. The rich succulent herbage of this quick-growing 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 grass is greedily eateu by all herbivora. Dairy-cows are said to increase 
 their flow of milk after eating plenty of this grass. The " water-couch" is 
 well worth planting iu low, damp situations where it may not already be 
 growing, and where few other good pasture-grasses will grow. The "barn- 
 yard-grass" (Panicum crus-galli, Linn.) grows in moist places, and often 
 attains a height of 8 feet. Although it is only an annual grass, it yields, 
 during the summer months, a great amount of rich succulent herbage, 
 which cattle are remarkably fond of. The " long-hair plume-grass"' 
 (DicJielachne crinita, Hook.) is fairly plentiful in some pastures. On the 
 low flat lands this grass produces a great amount of herbage which is readily 
 eaten by stock. Sorghum plumosum, Beauv., " wild sorghum," grows in some 
 pastures that are not heavily stocked. It is a good grass, and well worth 
 encouraging in pastures. 
 
 Two " panick grasses" (Panlcum effusnm, E. Br., and P. gracile, H. Br.) 
 are fairly plentiful in some situations. On good soils these grasses yield a 
 great amount of succulent herbage which stock are fond of. The " wheat- 
 grass" (Agropyrum scabrum, Beauv.) is conspicuous in some pastures. This 
 is one of the first native grasses to start into growth in spring. Besides 
 these there are other native grasses which occur in varying proportions and 
 add to the valuable herbage of these districts. There are a number of native 
 herbs, other than grasses, which are eaten by stock, but perhaps the most 
 useful are enumerated below. Two plants of the saltbush family are fairly 
 plentiful in some pastures. One of them, Rhagodia linifolia, E. Br., is a 
 procumbent herb, and appears to be much eaten by stock. The other is 
 Chenopodium triangulare, R. Br., which also has procumbent stems, which 
 are readily eaten by cattle. Geranium dissectum, Linn., " crow-foot," and 
 Plant ago varia, H. Br., "native rib grass," grow in many pastures. Amongst 
 exotic forage-plants that have become acclimatised in pastures, white clover 
 (Trifolium repens, Linn.) forms a very large percentage, indeed, many of the 
 pastures in spring are literally white with the flowers of this plant. The 
 " burr iiiedick" (Medicac/o denticulata, Linn.) is common in some situations, 
 and during the early spring months makes good forage for stock. It is only 
 an annual plant, however, and dies out on the approach of hot weather. 
 Plantago lanceolata,Ijiirm., "rib grass," is plentiful in many pastures. Most 
 dairymen regard this plant as excellent feed for cows. "Prairie grass" is 
 conspicuous in many pastures. It is a valuable winter and early spring 
 grass, and its rich succulent herbage is much relished by stock. Trifolium 
 procumbens, Linn., is plentiful in some situations, but it is not considered to 
 be of very high feeding value. 
 
 Noxious WEEDS A]*D SUPPOSED Poisonous PLANTS. 
 
 Although most of the grazing areas in these districts are comparatively 
 free from noxious weeds, there are some pastures where these plants are 
 more plentiful than many owners care to see. In some situations, as have 
 already been referred to, few attempts have been made to eradicate them, or 
 even keep them in check. This is not very encouraging to those persons 
 who strive by every means in their power to keep their pastures clean. It 
 is, of course, a rather costly undertaking to destroy weed pests once they 
 have become fairly established, but it is a comparatively easy task to eradicate 
 them, or keep them within bounds, before they make too much headway. 
 All thoughtful stock-owners are fully alive to the necessity of keeping 
 noxious weeds in check, as they contend, and with reason, that such plants 
 occupy land which would grow much more valuable herbage. Where weed 
 pests are growing plentifully in pastures it must, of course, depreciate their 
 grazing capabilities to a considerable extent. 
 
INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. XXXV 
 
 Two common weeds that grow in many pastures are the so-called dandelions 
 (Jlypochazris radiata, Linn., and H. glabra, Linn.). Although no bad effects 
 have been observed on stock that graze in pastures where these plants occur, 
 still they are very undesirable weeds, for where they grow very thick the 
 more tender and nutritious herbage is choked out. A year or two ago the 
 Cape weed (Cryptostemma calendulaceum, E. Br.) was likely to become as 
 great a pest in some of these pastures as it had proved to be in the southern 
 colonies, but owing to the prompt measures taken to prevent the plant from 
 seeding it has not spread very much beyond the railway enclosures. It is 
 still advisable, however, to keep a sharp eye on the plant to prevent any 
 possibility of its spreading to pastures. In some situations " Paddy'skicerne" 
 (Slda rliomlifolia, Linn.) is fairly plentiful. Some dairymen seem to think 
 it is a good forage plant. The majority I spoke to, however, spare no pains 
 to destroy the plant, as they contend it occupies the place where much better 
 herbage would grow, which is very true. On some of the rich flat lands the 
 "blue top" (Verbena bonariensis, Linn.) has become established, but it is not 
 very plentiful, still it would be advisable to destroy such an undesirable plant 
 to prevent its spreading. In some parts of the country the " blue top" is a 
 very great pest, both in pastures and in cultivation. The "sweet briar" 
 (^Bosa rubiginosa, Linn.), although not nearly so plentiful as it used to be, 
 may still be seen growing in some situations. This is one of the exotic 
 plants that land-owners have made a [systematic attempt to get rid of, and 
 with great success. Aster dumosus, Willcl., the " bushy starwort," has 
 appeared in several pastures during recent years, but it is not very plentiful 
 anywhere, and from observations made it does not appear to spread very 
 fast. In some places sorrel (Rumex acetosella, Linn.) is a great pest, but, so 
 far as I observed, it is not so plentiful as in many other parts of the country. 
 In addition to these weeds there are thistles of various kinds, different 
 species of docks which are generally found in or near moist places, and 
 several other undesirable exotic plants of less account. In a few of the 
 pastures the native " blackthorn" (Bursaria spinosa, Cav.) is a great pest, 
 and some land-owners have gone to great expense and trouble in trying to 
 exterminate it. Experienced men tell me that it is of little use to cut this 
 prickly scrub down and leave the roots in the ground, for new growths will 
 often spring up from them, and grow thicker than ever on the land. To 
 destroy this plant all the roots should be carefully grubbed up. 
 
 SUPPOSED PoisoNors 
 Altogether only three native plants were pointed out to me that have ever 
 been suspected of having poisonous properties, but as they now occur only 
 very sparingly here and there, it is many years since any ill effects were 
 observed on cattle that had eaten any of them. They are : 
 
 1. Adriana acerifolia, Hook, is a rather coarse-growing shrub, usually 
 attaining a height of from 3 to 4 feet. The whole plant has a reddish 
 appearance, more particularly when it is in fruit. Its large plane-like leaves 
 are rather ornamental, and give quite a character to the shrub. This plant 
 is dioecious, that is, the male and female organs are borne on separate 
 plants. The male flowers are arranged 011 rather long spikes, and the 
 females on short spikes or heads. Fruit, a three-celled capsule. 
 
 2. Euphorbia drummondii, Boiss., is a prostrate growing plant, with 
 vivid green foliage, and very small flowers arranged in the upper leaf axils. 
 This plant is commonly called "milk weed," " spurge wort," &c., and is 
 well-known to most Australian stockmen : and 
 
XXXVI INTRODUCTION GRAZING DISTRICTS. 
 
 3. Indigofera australis, Willd., commonly known as " wild indigo." 
 It is an erect branching shrub of from 2 to 4 or more feet high, with leaves 
 composed of numerous small leaflets, and pink or purple flowers arranged 
 on auxilary racemes. The pods are about an inch and a half long, terete, 
 and nearly straight. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURES. 
 
 Ever since the early settlement of these districts, but more particularly 
 since the dairying industry has become such an important one, there has 
 been a great amount of w r ork done by most land-owners to improve the 
 grazing capabilities of their properties. Many attempts have been made, 
 and some persons have gone to great expense and trouble, to acclimatise 
 exotic forage plants and grasses in the pastures, but after repeated trials all 
 those kinds known as English grasses have been a failure, notwithstanding 
 the land having been carefully tilled preparatory to the seed being sown. 
 Since it has been found out that these exotic grasses do not grow satis- 
 factorily, land-owners have devoted more attention to the indigenous herbage, 
 and it has been proved by practical experience that there are no grasses 
 equal to the native ones either for enduring the climatic conditions of the 
 district or for their fattening properties. Since I published figures and 
 descriptions of Australian forage plants and grasses many land-owners are 
 now able to recognise a great deal of the herbage their pastures are com- 
 posed of, arid are now familiar with many of those plants which are worth 
 conserving and encouraging. In some of those pastures where tussocks are 
 growing plentifully, the owners have already commenced to take them out. 
 Any work that is done in this direction cannot but have a good effect on the 
 pastures, and considerably increase the grazing capabilities of such areas. 
 In ordinary seasons the indigenous herbage is both plentiful and varied 
 throughout a greater part of the year in those pastures that are not heavily 
 stocked, but during a short time in winter, should it be a very cold one, 
 green feed sometimes becomes rather scarce. It is during this period that 
 auxiliary crops are grown and fed to stock to keep them in good condition. 
 Stock-owners and dairymen in these districts, as in other parts of the 
 country, are well aware that if good results are expected cattle must be as 
 well provided with feed in winter as in summer. There are certain auxiliary 
 crops grown for ensilage, and a lot of fodder is preserved by this means 011 
 some estates. Pastures have not hitherto received much attention in the 
 way of manuring, though many persons seem to think that something will 
 have to be done to fertilise grass land if the grazing areas are to carry as 
 many animals as they do now for many consecutive years. One or two 
 persons I spoke to have put a chain harrow over their pastures, which 
 pulverises the cow manure, and distributes it evenly over the grass. The 
 results have already justified the labour, and the example set might be more 
 generally practised in these and other districts to advantage. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Although perennial streams meander through parts of these districts, 
 there has been a great amount of money expended in making dams, and now 
 there are some splendid sheets of water in many pastures. From some of 
 these dams water is pumped, either by steam or wind power, to higher levels, 
 from which considerable areas are irrigated. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PACIE. 
 
 Alopecurus geniculatus, Linn. "Knee-jointed Foxtail," " Water 
 
 Foxtail Grass" 1 
 
 Amphipogon strictus, R. Br. ''Bearded Heads" ... ... ... 2 
 
 Andropogoii affinis, R. Br. " Blue Grass" ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 Audropogoii bombycinus, R. Br. " Silky Heads" ... ... ... 4 
 
 Andropogon intermedius, R. Br. A " Blue Grass" ... ... ... 5 
 
 Andropogoii lachnatherus, Bcntli. "Hairy Blue Grass" ... ... 6 
 
 Andropogoii refractus, R. Br. A "Kangaroo Grass" ... ... 7 
 
 Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. M. " Tall Oat Grass" 8 
 
 Antbistiria ciliata, Linn. " Kangaroo Grass"... ... ... ... 9 
 
 Anthistiria membranacea, Lindl. " Laiidsborougli Grass" 11 
 
 Astrebla pectinata, F. v. M. u Mitchell Grass" 12 
 
 Astrebla triticoides, F. v. M. " Mitchell Grass" 13 
 
 Bromus arenarius, Lalill. " Brome," " Oat," or " Barley Grass" ... 15 
 Bromus arenarius, Lalill. Yar. macrostachya. "Brome," "Oat," 
 
 or " Barley Grass" 15 
 
 Chloris acicularis, Lindl. " Umbrella," or " Spider Grass" ... ... 36 
 
 Chloris truiicata, R. Br. " Star," or " Windmill Grass" 17 
 
 Danthonia carplioides, F. v. M.. " Oat Grass" 18 
 
 Dantlionia semiannularis, R. Br. " Wallaby Grass" ... ... ... 19 
 
 Deyeuxia billardieri, Kunth. " Bent Grass" ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 Dichelachne crinita, Hook. " Long-hair Plume Grass" ... ... 21 
 
 Dichelachne sciurea, Hook. i; Short-hair Plume Grass" ... ... 22 
 
 Diplachne fusca, fieauv. " Brown -flowered Swamp Grass" ... ... 23 
 
 Eleusine inclica, Gartn. " Crowfoot," or " Crab Grass" 21 
 
 Eragrostis leptostachya, Steud. A " Love Grass" 25 
 
 Eragrostis pilosa. Beauv. " Weeping Grass," " Lore Grass" ... 2G 
 
 Eriochloa punctata, Ilaniilt. "Early Spring Grass" ... ... ... 27 
 
 Hemarthria compressa, R. Br. " Mat Grass" ... ... ... 28 
 
 Irnperata arimdinacea, Cyr. " Blady Grass" 30 
 
 Isachne australis, E. Br. " Swamp Millet" 31 
 
 Ischrernum laxum, R. Br. " E-at-tail Grass" ... ... ... ... 32 
 
 Neurachne rnitchelliaua, Nees. " Mulga Grass" 33 
 
XXXV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Oplisinenus compositus, Beauv. "Awned Panick Grass" ... ... 34 
 
 Panicum bicolor, E. Br. " Two-coloured Panick Grass" 35 
 
 Panicum decoinpositmn, E. Br. " Australian Millet" 36 
 
 Panicum effusum, It. Br. " Branched Panick Grass" ... ... 37 
 
 Panicum gracile, R. Br. " Slender Panick Grass" ... ... ... 38 
 
 Panicum leucophoeum, R. B. et K. " Cotton Grass" 39 
 
 Panicum melananthum, F. v. M. " Black-seeded Pauick Grass" ... 40 
 
 Panicum parvinorum, 2?. J3r. " Small- flowered Pauick Grass" ... 41 
 
 Panicum prolutum, F. v. M. " Rigid Panick Grass" 42 
 
 Panicum sanguinale, Lin n. " Summer Grass" 43 
 
 Pappophorum nigricans, H. Br. " Black Heads" ... ... ... 44 
 
 Paspalum disticluim, Linn. " Water Coucli" 45 
 
 Pentapogon billardieri, E. Br. " Eive-awned Grass" 4G 
 
 Pollinia fulva, Bentli. " Sugar Grass" 47 
 
 Setaria glauca, Seam. " Pigeon Grass" 48 
 
 Sorghum plumosuni, Beauv. " Wild Sorghum" 49 
 
 Sporobolus diander, Beauv. " Tussock Grass" 51 
 
 Sporobolus inclicus, E. Br. " Parramatta," or " Tussock Grass" ... 52 
 
 Sporobolus lindleji, Bentli. " Pretty Sporobolus" 53 
 
 Triraphis mollis, E. Br. "Purple Heads" 54 
 
v\? 
 
 3ITV 
 
Alopecurus geniculatus, Linn. 
 " Knee-jointed Foxtail," " Water Foxtail Grass." 
 
AUSTRALIAN GRASSES 
 
 ALOPECURUS, Linn. 
 
 (From two Greek words signifying " a fox " and " a tail.") 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, flat, densely crowded into a cylindrical spike or 
 spike-like panicle. Glumes three, two outer complicate, keeled, acute but 
 not awned ; third under the flower shorter, keeled, with a short slender 
 dorsal awn. No two-nerved palea or lodicules. Stamens three. Styles 
 distinct. Grain enclosed in the scarcely hardened glumes 1 , but free from 
 them. 
 
 Alopecurus geniculatus, Linn. (Kef erring to the bent stems.) "Knee- 
 jointed Foxtail," "Water Foxtail Grass." A perennial or sometimes annual 
 only, glabrous except the spike. Stems usually procumbent at the base, 
 bending upwards at the lower node?, sometimes only 3 or 4 inches, often 
 1 foot high or more. Leaves narrow, the upper sheaths broad and loose. 
 Spike 1 inch to 2 inches long, closely imbricate but slender. Outer glumes 
 hairy on. the keel, scarcely pointed, usually but little more than 1 line long, 
 free or scarcel} 7 ' united at the base, the hair-like awn of the flowering glume 
 not projecting above 1 line beyond them. No palea or lodicules. Grain 
 enclosed in the scarcely hardened glumes, but free from them. 
 
 This annual, though in moist places sometimes perennial, grass is found in 
 all the Australian Colonies, and is common also in the temperate regions of 
 the northern hemisphere. It is found principally in the interior, and 
 generally growing very plentifully around shallow pools of water. In the 
 most favoured situations its stems will sometimes grow 3 feet high. It is 
 essentially a winter and early spring growing grass, so on this account it 
 proves serviceable during the lambing season, when succulent herbage is 
 often scarce, for at that time of the year many of the superior pasture grasses 
 have not started into growth. The "knee-jointed foxtail" is not considered a 
 valuable grass as regards its nutritive qualities, although all herbivora seem 
 very fond of it, and eat it down close to the ground. In the " Hortus 
 G-ramineus Woburnensis," Mr. Sinclair states " that the produce of this grass 
 per acre was 6,806 lb. 3 which, when dry, amounted to 2,892 lb., and, on 
 analysis, yielded, of nutrient matter, 292 lb." It will therefore be seen from 
 these figures that the grass does not yield a very large amount of herbage 
 in comparison with many other kinds of grasses. "Where this species grows 
 naturally, and is in danger of being eaten, out, it is worthy of conservation 
 for the reasons stated above ; but I would not recommend it for cultivation, 
 as I do not think it would give adequate returns for such outlay, more 
 especially as we have such a number of valuable species that would well 
 repay systematic cultivation. The " knee-jointed foxtail grass " yields a fair 
 amount of seed, which usually ripens in September and October. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhaehis. B, A 
 spikelet opened out, showing the three glumes, c, Flowering glume. D, Grain, side and 
 end views. All variously magnified. 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 AMPHIPOGON, R. Br. 
 
 (Referring to the hairs round the rhachis of the spikelet.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, nearly sessile in a dense panicle contracted into a 
 head or short spike, the rhachis of the spikelet articulate above the two 
 outer glumes, and not continued beyond the flower. Glumes three, two 
 outer persistent, membranous, three-nerved, acute or tapering to an awn- 
 like point, rarely three-fid ; flowering glume raised on a short hairy stipes 
 (the rhachis of the spikelet), closed round the flower, deeply divided into 
 three narrow lobes tapering into straight points or awns. Palea usually as 
 long as the flowering glume, deeply divided into two narrow rigid lobes or 
 awns. Styles united at the base, free upwards. Grain enclosed in the 
 slightly hardened upper glume. Perennial grasses with convolute terete or 
 subulate leaves. 
 
 Amphipogon strictus, R. Br. (Referring to its upright growth.) 
 " Bearded Heads." Stems from a horizontal rhizome or tufted branching 
 base, erect and slender, usually above 1 foot high. Leaves rather short, 
 erect, subulate, glabrous. Spike-like panicle dense, oblong or cylindrical, 
 ^ inch to 1^ inches long, but little branched. Outer glumes broad, concave, 
 faintly three-nerved, almost scarious, entire when perfect ; the outer one 
 about 2 lines long, the inner one rather longer and more acute. Flowering 
 glume on the short hairy stipes shorter than the outer glume, with two short 
 rows of hairs on the back, divided into three rigid ciliate linear lobes or 
 awns longer than the entire part. Palea narrow, deeply divided into two 
 rigid lobes similar to those of the flowering glume. Seed separable from 
 the membranous pericarp. 
 
 This perennial grass is found all over Australia, from the coastal districts 
 to the arid interior. As might be supposed, a grass growing under such 
 varied conditions of soil and climate is very variable as regards its stature and 
 the size of its inflorescence. I have received specimens from the Darling 
 River, in New South Wales, for identification that were over two feet high, 
 and others from different parts of the country that were only about 6 inches 
 high when in flower. This species was collected in the Victoria Desert by the 
 Elder exploring expedition. Although there are several forms of the grass, 
 none of them afford a great amount of herbage, and what there is, is often 
 harsh and wiry. The grass will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry 
 weather, however, and often when many other kinds of herbage are dried up 
 it may be seen beautifully green, then stock will eat it ; so that on this 
 account it proves of some value in pastures, especially in the interior, during 
 adverse seasons. Whether there is any nutriment in the herbage, however, 
 I am not prepared to say. It is not a grass which I would recommend for 
 cultivation, though it may be worth conserving with other grasses in the arid 
 interior for the reasons stated above. It produces a fair amount of seed, 
 which usually ripens in the interior during November and December, and in 
 the coastal districts one month or two months later. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet opened out. B, Flowering glume, flattened out; c, Palea 
 flattened out. D, Showing grain covered with membranous pericarp. E, Grain, back and 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 
Amphipogon strictus, R. Br. 
 "Bearded Heads." 
 
Andropogon affinis, R. Br. 
 "Blue Grass." 
 

 Australian Grasses. 
 
 ANDROPOGON, 
 
 (From ff0r, a man, andjpeyoft, a beard ; referring to the tufts of hair on the 
 
 spikelets.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one flowered or empty, in pairs in the alternate notches of the 
 articulate rhachis of simple spikes, one sessile hermaphrodite (or rarely 
 female ?) and fertile, the other pedicellate and barren, either male or empty ; 
 the spikes either solitary or clustered and sessile or very shortly pedunculate 
 at the end of the common peduncle. Glumes in the fertile spikelet four, the 
 outer one the largest, awnless, several-nerved, but often two nerves near the 
 margin much more prominent than the others ; second glume keeled, rarely 
 produced into a short, straight awn ; third much smaller, very thin and 
 hyaline, always empty ; fourth or terminal glume under the flower very 
 slender, flexuose, and stipes-like at the base, or if dilated very thin and 
 hyaline, entire or bifid at the top, with an awn either terminal or from the 
 notch ; rigid and twisted in the lower part, bent back and very fine above 
 the middle. Palea small and hyaline or none. Glumes of the barren 
 spikelets four or fewer, the outer one the largest and many-nerved; the 
 second keeled ; the third and fourth when present small, thin, and hyaline, 
 all awnless. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed in the glumes, but free from 
 them. Grasses usually tall, and often scented ; simple or paniculately 
 branched. 
 
 Andropogon affinis, E. Sr. (Affinity to another grass.) "Blue 
 Grass." Very near A. sericeus, and perhaps a variety, with the same habit, 
 the nodes less bearded, and sometimes quite glabrous. Spikes usually three 
 or four, not quite sessile, 1^ to 2 inches long ; the spikelets rather longer 
 and narrower than in A. sericeus, and not so closely imbricate ; the long 
 silky spreading hairs only on the pedicles and at the base of the sessile 
 spikelets, not on the backs of the glumes ; the third glume more developed 
 in the spikelets examined ; the awn f inch to 11 inches long. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in New South "Wales, Victoria, and Queens- 
 land, but principally in the coastal districts and colder portions of those 
 colonies. It generally grows from 1 foot to 2 feet high, and in many parts 
 of the continent it is fairly plentiful. It is to be found growing on various 
 soils, but it seems to grow best and yield more herbage 011 moderately strong 
 loams of good depth, where its roots can penetrate the earth easily, and thus 
 get out of the reach of the drying influences of the sun's rays. I have had 
 this grass growing on lawns, and notwithstanding that they were constantly 
 kept mown it was almost irrepressible during the summer and autumn 
 months. It is a valuable pasture grass, and in sheltered situations will 
 make considerable growth during the winter months ; therefore it is doubly 
 valuable to the grazier. During the summer months in an ordinary season* 
 it yields a fair amount of rich, leafy bottom-herbage, which all herbivora 
 are remarkably fond of and fatten on, sheep particularly so. It makes 
 capital hay if cut when the flower stems first make their appearance. It 
 will stand close feeding, and will continue to grow during a long period of dry 
 weather. The "blue grass " is well worth disseminating in the coastal districts 
 and in the colder portions of the continent where it may not already be 
 growing. "When it is allowed to grow undisturbed for a time it produces an 
 abundance of seed, which ripens during the summer months. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachig. B, The 
 sessile fertile spikelet and the pedicillate barren one. C, The fertile spikelet (opened out), 
 showing the arrangement of the glumes. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 Audropogon bombycimis, R. Br. (Referring to the inflorescence 
 resembling masses of silk.) " Silky Heads." An erect rigid perennial grass 
 of H to 3 feet, usually glabrous, except a little silky pubescence on the 
 lower leaf -sheaths, the nodes glabrous or shortly bearded. Leaves narrow, 
 flat, rather rigid, the liguia very prominent, entire. Panicle shortly branched, 
 3 to 6 inches long, with sheathing bracts of 1 inch to 2 inches under the 
 branches. Peduncles usually shorter than the bracts, bearing each a narrow 
 sheathing bract and two very densely woolly-hairy spikes of ^ to 1 inch, at 
 first erect, but soon spreading or reflexed. Sessile spikelets two to five, 
 concealed by the silvery-silky hairs. Outer glumes acute, many-nerved, but 
 the two lateral nerves much more prominent, especially as the flowering 
 advances, and the intermediate ones .becoming almost obliterated or visible 
 only towards the end of the glume ; second glume thin, with a prominent 
 keel produced into a short point ; third very thin, faintly three-nerved ; 
 terminal flowering glume very thin and hyaline, shortly bifid, with a very 
 fine awn scarcely exceeding the spikelet, or entire without any awn. Pedi- 
 cellate spikelets reduced to a single, narrow, many- nerved glume of 2| to 
 3 lines. Grain enclosed in the glumes but free from them. 
 
 This erect-growing perennial grass is found all over Australia, but princi- 
 pally on the plains in the far interior. It generally grows on the richest soils, 
 though I have occasionally seen it growing on stony ridges. It will withstand 
 a phenomenal amount of dry weather in any situation where its strong wiry 
 roots can penetrate easily into the earth. I have seen it flowering in the interior 
 when many other grasses had withered up through drought. The white 
 woolly spikelets give the panicles a singular appearance when seen from a 
 distances, and they are often a feature in the landscape in a fairly good 
 season. Like many other species of the genus Andropogon, the base of the 
 stems on being bruised emits a strong aromatic perfume. During the early 
 summer, and sometimes in the autumn months, this grass makes a quantity 
 of succulent, leafy herbage which stock are fond of. When the grass 
 becomes old, however, the herbage is somewhat harsh, and then it is seldom 
 or never eaten unless other feed is scarce. I have had this species under 
 experimental cultivation, where it proved a very prolific grass, and the 
 herbage lost that harshness, even when it was old, that characterises it when 
 grown on uncultivated land. If cut before the flower-stems appear it should 
 make tolerably good hay. It appears to hold its own in pastures, but this 
 may be accounted for by the fact that under ordinary circumstances it pro- 
 duces a great amount of seed, which, when ripe, germinates readily when 
 there is any moisture in the soil during the spring of the year. The seeds 
 usually ripen during November, December, and January. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the two spikes and sheathing bract. 
 I}, Showing the arrangement of the sessile and pedicellate spikelets on the rhachis (opened 
 out), c, The sessile and pedicellate spikelets. D, The sessile fertile spikelet showing the 
 four glumes and terminal aAvn (opened out). E, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Andropogon bombycinus, R. Br. 
 
 " Silky Heads," 
 
. 
 
 V-Wv 
 
 
 .CM > 
 
Andropogon intermedius, R. Br. 
 
 A "Blue Grass," 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 Andropogon intermedius, ~R. Br. (Intermediate between two other 
 species.) A "Blue Grass." An erect grass of 2 feet or more, with the 
 narrow leaves and general habit of A. isch&mum, the nodes varying with or 
 without beards. Spikes slender, 1 inch to 1| inches long, usually numerous, all 
 shortly pedicellate in an oblong terminal panicle of 3 to 6 inches without 
 sheathing bracts, the common rhachis glabrous, and always more or less 
 elongated, the pedicels and base of the sessile spikelets more or less ciliate. 
 Spikelets under two lines long, narrow and acute, or scarcely obtuse, and 
 often purplish, as in A. isclicemum. Outer glume often, but not always, 
 even in the same spike, marked with a dorsal pit, as in A. pertusus. Awn 
 small and slender. Pedicellate spikelet more developed than in A. ischamum, 
 and often enclosing a male flower. Grain enclosed in the glumes of the 
 sessile spikelet, but free from them. 
 
 This strong-growing perennial grass is found in all the Australian colonies, 
 both in the coastal districts and some distance into the interior ; and in some 
 places it is very plentiful. This may be accounted for by the fact that it 
 produces, under ordinary circumstances, an abundance of seed, which, when 
 ripe, germinates readily when there is moisture in the soil, either ill the 
 spring or autumn months. It is generally found growing on low-lying, rich 
 soils, bordering rivers or creeks, or on land that is liable to periodical 
 inundations. I have collected the plant, however, on soils of quite an 
 opposite character. During the summer, and often till late in the autumn 
 months, in a good season, this grass yields a great quantity of coarse herbage, 
 which, however, is readily eaten by cattle. It is a good grass to encourage 
 in pastures where dairy cows are kept, and from its great yield it would 
 probably pay to cultivate for ensilage at least, it is well worth a trial. 
 There would be no difficulty in bringing the "blue grass" under systematic 
 cultivation, to be cut for green feed, or for ensilage, as plenty of seed could 
 be gathered at the proper time of the year from a small reserved area. The 
 seeds usually ripen in December, but in a good season they will continue to 
 ripen during the summer months, and often till late in the autumn. 
 
 Some specimens of this grass which I recently received for identification were 
 thought to belong to a new species. I think the mistake arose from the fact 
 that Mr. Bentham, in the Nora Australiensis^ describes the panicle, most 
 probably from not very well developed specimens, as only from 3 to 4 inches 
 long. Mr. F. M. Bailey, Colonial Botanist, Queensland, in his synopsis of 
 the Queensland flora, however, describes the panicle as being from 3 to 6 
 inches long. I have not only collected many specimens of this grass with 
 panicles 6 inches long, but I have received such for identification. The 
 dorsal pit in the flowering glume is not to be depended upon as a means to 
 identification. I have examined a number of specimens collected in New 
 South Wales and Queensland from which the pits in the flowering glumes 
 were entirely absent. Mr. Bailey's remarks bearing on this matter are 
 worth quoting. He says : " The length of the panicle varies much even in 
 the same field, so do the dorsal pits ; at times these are altogether absent. 
 This is frequently the case with the plants near Brisbane." 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. B, The 
 sessile and pedicellate spikelets. c, Sessile spikelet opened out, showing the three glumes 
 and terminal awn. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
6 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Andropogon lachnatherus, Senth. (Keferring to the hairy inflorescence.) 
 " Hairy Blue Grass." Stems rather slender, erect, about 2 feet high. Leaves 
 narrow, glabrous or sprinkled with long hairs. Nodes not bearded. Panicle 
 looser than in A. refract us, with slender but not very long branches, solitary 
 or clustered, within sheathing bracts, or floral leaves. Peduncles exceeding 
 the last sheathings bracts, bearing each two spikes, but not digitate, one 
 attached lower down than the other, each -} to -f- of an inch long without the 
 awns. Sessile spikelets three or four, the lowest sometimes containing only 
 a male flower, the others with a hermaphrodite flower, 2 to 2|- lines long, 
 slightly hairy. Outer glume obtuse, about nine-nerved ; second rather 
 shorter, obtuse, three-nerved ; third very narrow, thin, and hyaline ; awn or 
 terminal glume on a short filiform base, 1 inch to 2 inches long, the lower 
 part rigid and hirsute with rufous hairs. Pedicellate spikelets narrow, acute, 
 2|- to 3 lines long, usually containing a male flower, the outer glume many- 
 nerved, often produced into a fine point. Grain enclosed in the glumes of 
 the sessile spikelet, but free from them. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in the coastal districts of New South Wales 
 and Queensland, but only in the northern portion of the former Colony. It 
 is generally found growing on low-lying, rich soils, but I have occasionally 
 seen it growing on dry stony ridges. On the former class of soils, however, 
 it yields a greater bulk of herbage, which is generally of a more succulent 
 nature. During the early summer, and often in the autumn months, it 
 produces herbage, of which, when young, all herbivora seem very fond. 
 When the stems become old, however, they are generally harsh, and when 
 in that state stock will seldom or never eat them if other succulent 
 herbage is plentiful. I have seen the " hairy blue grass " growing in places 
 from which cattle for a time were excluded, atid there the herbage was much 
 superior to that seen in ordinary pastures. This led me to believe that the 
 grass could be improved under cultivation. In the northern coastal districts 
 it is worth encouraging in pastures where dairy cows are allowed to graze. 
 Under ordinary conditions the grass produces plenty of seed, which usually 
 ripens in November and December ; but in a good season I have seen the 
 seeds ripen throughout the summer months, and until as late as May. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing tlie two spikes and sheathing bract. B, The terminal 
 fertile sessile spikelet between two pedicellate male spikelets. c, Sessile spikelet opened out, 
 showing the three glumes and terminal awn. D, Grain, back and front views. All 
 variously magnified. The awn is shortened at B and C. 
 
Andropogon lachnatherus, Benth. 
 " Hairy Blue Grass." 
 
Andropogon refractus, A'. Br* 
 A " Kangaroo Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 Andropogon refractus, E. Br. (Referring to the reflexed spikes 
 appearing to be broken.) A " Kangaroo Grass." A glabrous erect grass 
 about 2 feet, with the narrow leaves paniculate inflorescence and sheathing 
 bracts of A. sclicenanthus, and the spikes similarly two together about 
 i an inch long on short bracteate peduncles, but much more divaricate, 
 soon reflexed, and glabrous, except a small tuft of short hairs at the base of 
 the sessile spikelets*. Sessile spikelets 2 to 5, 2^ to 3 lines long; outer 
 glume acute, many-nerved ; second narrow and keeled ; third thin and 
 hyaline ; terminal or flowering glume hyaline, narrow, either two lobed with 
 an awn slightly exceeding the spikclet, or more frequently entire or nearly 
 so and awnless. Pedicellate spikelets neuter or rarely with a male flower, 
 the outer glume many-nerved. 
 
 This perennial species, which I have occasionally seen growing from 3 to 
 4 feet high, is found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and 
 Northern Australia, but principally in the coastal districts. On one occasion, 
 however, I received a specimen for identification that had been collected in 
 the interior of New South Wales, so that this " kangaroo grass " may have a 
 wider range of growth in this country than is generally supposed. The base 
 of the stems and roots of this grass, like that of several other species of the 
 genus, are highly aromatic. In the summer months during ordinary seasons 
 it yields a great amount of herbage, which while young is relished by all- 
 pasture animals; when it becomes old, however, the herbage is harsh, and 
 cattle or sheep seldom or never touch it, if other grasses are plentiful. 
 Under cultivation it is a most productive grass, and, if cut when it shows 
 its flower stems, makes fairly good hay, with a slightly aromatic perfume. 
 It might also be recommended for stuffing mattresses, &c. This grass is not 
 particular as to soil or situation, for it may as often be found growing oil 
 dry, stony ridges, as on rich, alluvial flats, but of course on good soils it 
 grows taller and yields a superior herbage. On the uplands it often gets 
 very dry during the summer months, and when in that state it is very 
 inflammable, so that care should be taken when making fires in the bush at 
 such times, or a great amount of damage might be done. Unlike some other 
 species of the genus, this "kangaroo grass" makes little or no growth during 
 the winter months, either on the flats or ridges. It produces plenty of seed, 
 which usually ripens during November and December, but which in a wet 
 season is generally a month or two later in ripening. 
 
 Reference, to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the two spikes and sheathing bract. 
 B, Showing the arrangement of the sessile and pedicellate spikelets on the rhachis (opened 
 out), c, The sessile and pedicellate spikelets. (In some strong growing specimens from 
 the Northern districts I have seen two pedicellate spikelets, one arranged on either 
 side of the sessile one.) D, The sessile spikelet showing the four glumes (opened out). 
 E, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
8 Australian Grasses. 
 
 ANTHISTIRIA, Linn. 
 
 (The Greek name for a species of grass.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered or empty, seven rarely six in a spike or cluster, four 
 male or barren, either sessile or pedicellate in a whorl at the base of the 
 hairy rhachis ; two or sometimes one pedicellate and male or barren on the 
 top of the rhachis, with an intermediate sessile fertile one. Glumes in the 
 barren spikelets usually two, the outer one several-nerved, the inner thin 
 and hyaline, in the male spikelets usually a third smaller hyaline one ; in 
 the fertile spikelet glumes four, the two outer ones nearly equal, usually 
 rigid and coriaceous, the outer one obscurely five or seven nerved, the second 
 with two prominent nerves, the central one very faint ; third glume much 
 smaller, very thin and hyaline ; fourth very narrow and thin at the base, 
 thickened into a long twisted awn usually bent above the middle. Palea 
 very small and hyaline, sometimes scarcely conspicuous. Styles distinct. 
 Grain free, enclosed in the hardened outer glumes. Erect, leafy, branching 
 grasses, the spikes or clusters singly pedunculate within sheathing bracts, or 
 sessile in the bracts, and collected many together in compound clusters 
 forming short almost cyme-like leafy panicles. 
 
 Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. M. (Resembling an Oat.) "Tall Oat 
 Grass." Stems from a more or less silky -hairy, or woolly base, 2 tcr 5 
 feet high. Leaves very narrow, glabrous.. Sheathing bracts narrow, mem- 
 braneous, glabrous, 1 inch to 2 inches long. Spikes or clusters all on rather 
 long, slender, glabrous, or ciliate penduncles within the last bract. Barren 
 spikelets either reduced to a single several-nerved rigid glume, with a small 
 hyaline one inside, or more developed, enclosing a male flower, the four in- 
 volucral ones sessile. Fertile spikelets about four lines long, the rigid outer 
 glumes, especially the lowest, densely villous with brown hairs. Awn long 
 and rigid as in AntJiistiria ciliata and A. frondosa. 
 
 This perennial grass is found all over Australia, from the coastal districts 
 to the far interior, but principally in the latter portion of the continent. It 
 is only found on the richest of soils, and often in a good season may be seen 
 growings feet high. Between Nyngan and Bourke I once saw the "tall 
 oat grass" growing higher than the railway fences. It mostly grows in 
 tussocks, and produces a quantity of leafy herbage at the base, which, when 
 young, cattle are remarkably fond of, and fatten on. During the early 
 summer months, in an ordinary season, its herbage appears to be more 
 nutritious and succulent than at any other time. After the flower stems 
 have developed, however, they soon become hard and cane-like ; and when this 
 takes place, if other grasses are plentiful, cattle will leave the plant for more 
 tender herbage. Mr. Bailey says : " This is one of the best fodder grasses of 
 Australia." It will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry weather, but this 
 may be accounted for by the fact that its strong roots penetrate the earth to 
 a great depth, and thus get away from the drying influences of the sun's rays. 
 
Anthistiria avenacea, F. v. M. 
 ''Tall Oat Grass." 
 
Anthistiria ciliata, Linn. 
 " Kangaroo Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 9 
 
 It is fairly plentiful in many parts of Australia, especially iu the interior* 
 The reason of this, however, is easily explained. Under ordinary conditions 
 it produces a great amount of seed, which, when ripe, germinates readily, if 
 the ground is anyway moist, during the spring of the year. I can highly 
 recommend the grass for systematic cultivation, either in the coastal districts 
 or in the interior. Its rich, succulent herbage, if cut before the flower 
 stems are developed, should make capital hay. I think, if the grass were 
 cultivated for a few consecutive years, it would yield a grain large enough 
 to be classed amongst the cereals we at present cultivate. The seeds are large, 
 and in appearance somewhat resemble oats ; and, as they separate easily from 
 the chaff, I think I am justified in classing it amongst those Australian 
 grasses which I have already suggested might be cultivated for the grain they 
 yield. The seeds of this grass are well worth disseminating in those parts 
 of the country where it may not already be growing, and, as before explained, 
 as it produces an abundance of seed, if allowed to grow undisturbed for a 
 time, there would be no difficulty in bringing it under systematic cultivation. 
 The most likely places at the present time to collect the seeds of this grass 
 would be within the railway enclosures in different parts of the country. In 
 the interior the seeds usually ripen during October, November, and Decem- 
 ber. In the coastal districts they are generally one month or two months 
 later in ripening. 
 
 Reference to plate . A, Cluster of male or barren spikelets, and the fertile one, opened out 
 to show how they are arranged ; B, Fertile spikelet opened out, showing the three glumes 
 and terminal awn ; c, Male spikelet ; D, Grain, back and front views. All the details 
 natural size, with the exception of the cluster of spikelets, which is reduced. 
 
 Anthistiria ciliata, Linn. (Referring to the hairs bordering the sheaths.) 
 " Kangaroo Grass. " Stems 1^ to 4 feet high. Leaves narrow, glabrous or 
 the sheaths hairy ; ligula very short, sometimes ciliate. Spikes or clusters 
 of spikelets not numerous, sessile, or the lower ones pedunculate in a short 
 terminal leafy panicle ; the leafy bracts subtending each spike, sheathing at 
 the base, and tapering into points longer than the cluster ; the short rhachi* 
 bearded with long brown hairs. Spikelets narrow, 4 to 5 lines long; four 
 male or barren sessile at the base of the bearded rhachis ; two or one pedi- 
 cellate at the top, glabrous or sprinkled with a few long hairs ; outer glume 
 the largest, acute, many-nerved ; second shorter, thin and three or fire- 
 nerved ; third thin and hyaline. Fertile terminal spikelet glabrous or 
 shortly pubescent at the end ; outer glume broad, obtuse, rather thick, about 
 seven-nerved ; second rigid, rather shorter and narrower, with two prominent 
 lateral nerves and a faint central one ; third narrow-oblong, very thin and 
 hyaline ; awn or fourth glume very long and rigid, the attenuate base not 
 dilated. Grain free, enclosed in the hardened outer glumes. 
 
 This is one of the most widely distributed grasses oil the Australian 
 Continent, and, at one time, was supposed to be exclusively Australian. It 
 is, however, not only to be found in New Guinea, but Mr. Bentham says it 
 is spread over tropical Asia and Africa. It is very plentiful in many places 
 in the coastal districts of this continent, but it is more sparingly distributed 
 in the interior. It might be supposed that a grass growing under such varied 
 conditions of soil and climate would develop many forms. This is not the 
 
10 Australian Grasses. 
 
 case, however, for, with the exception of such slight differences as some of 
 the forms being darker green, others more glaucous, and some more hairy 
 than others, their qualities are much the same. In good seasons, within the 
 railway enclosures, and on country that is not heavily stocked, this " kangaroo 
 grass " will sometimes attain a height of 6 feet. In the tropical parts of the 
 continent it grows more or less all the year round. In the southern portion 
 of the continent it is essentially a summer-growing grass, for it seldom starts 
 into growth before October or November. In ordinary seasons this " kangaroo 
 grass " remains beautifully green during the summer months. This is to be 
 accounted for by its strong roots, which penetrate the earth to a great depth, 
 thus getting away from the drying influences of the sun's rays. If the grass 
 is cut when the flower stems first appear, it can be made into excellent hay. 
 If it should not be cut for hay, it will, soon after the flower stems have 
 developed, turn slightly brown, when its nutritive qualities are said to be 
 at the highest. It is an excellent pasture grass, of which herbivora of all 
 descriptions are remarkably fond, and fatten on. Horses may frequently 
 be seen browsing upon the young flower panicles, which they eat with great 
 relish. Horses and bullocks, when allowed to graze in pastures where this 
 " kangaroo grass " is growing plentifully, can be worked very hard, and still 
 keep in good condition, which is a proof of its nutritive qualities. This 
 grass will not stand close grazing, and, in paddocks that are heavily stocked 
 all the year round, it gradually becomes scarce. An instance of this may be 
 f>eeu any day along the lines of railway. Within the railway enclosures this 
 grass may be seen growing 3 and 4 feet high, but outside there is often not 
 a vestige of it to be seen. 
 
 Although this grass develops a number of flowering stems, and to the 
 casual observer it would appear to mature a quantity of seed, unfortunately 
 this is far from being the case. The most remarkable thing is, as far as my 
 observations have gone, that some plants will produce a little seed, whils*t 
 others are completely sterile, the latter very much predominating. The 
 few seeds that are matured will germinate under favourable conditions, but 
 the most reliable way to propagate this grass is by division of its roots when 
 it begins to make growth in spring. This may seem to be a tedious process, 
 but it would well repay in places where it has become scarce through over- 
 stocking for the outlay by the immense yield it would give in a very short 
 time. 
 
 Baron von Miieller and L. Rummel give the following chemical analysis 
 of this grass during its spring growth : Albumen, 2'05 ; gluten, 4 67 ; 
 starch, 0'09; gum, 1 ; (57; sugar, 3'06 per cent. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Compound cluster of spikelets. B, A cluster of male or barren 
 spikelets and the fertile one, opened out to show how they are arranged, c, The fertile 
 spikelet, opened out to show the three glumes and awn. D, Grain, back and front views. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Antbistiria membranacea, LindL 
 
 11 Landsborough Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 11 
 
 Anthistiria membranacea, Lindl. (Referring to tlie thin glumes.) 
 " Landsborough G-rass." Quite glabrous, sometimes forming dense, leafy 
 tufts of 6 inches, the branching stems often elongated to 1 foot or 2 feet. 
 Leaves flat, appearing almost articulate on the short, flat, prominently striate 
 sheaths. Moral leaves or bracts with coriaceous sheaths and short lanceolate 
 laminae. Panicles small, dense, almost cyme-like, as in Apluda, with very 
 numerous small spikes or clusters, each subtended by a scarcely longer 
 bract. Spikelets scarcely 2 lines long, glabrous, the four involucral ones 
 pedicellate, the fertile one rather longer than the two pedicellate barren ones 
 beside it. Grlumes all thin, the outer one acute with several green nerves ; 
 the second with one or three nerves, the awn very fine, scarcely more than 
 as long again as the spikelet. Grain enclosed in the hardened outer glumes, 
 but free from them. 
 
 An annual species found in the arid interior of all the Australian colonies 
 except Victoria. It is fairly plentiful in many parts of the continent, and it 
 is generally found growing 011 rich soils. It generally grows in small tufts, 
 but in a favourable season the weak stems lengthen out very much, and 
 form an entangled mass often over a foot deep. It is essentially a summer- 
 growing species, and generally makes most of its growth during the hottest 
 part of the season. I have had this grass under experimental cultivation, 
 and raised an excellent crop of herbage in less than three months from seed. 
 It was grown on a black, loamy soil, and during a period of very dry weather 
 it produced a great amount of rich, succulent herbage, which horses were 
 very fond of. When cut, just as the flower stems first appeared, it made 
 excellent hay. It is worthy of extensive cultivation in the arid interior, 
 either for temporary pasture or to be cut at the proper time, and made into 
 hay. It is considered a most nutritious grass, and towards autumn it often 
 gets so exceedingly dry and brittle that it breaks up .in to innumerable pieces, 
 but even then stock of all kinds are said to be so fond of it that they lick 
 the broken stems and leaves from the ground. There would be no difficulty 
 in bringing this species under systematic cultivation, for, under ordinary 
 circumstances, it produces an abundance of seed, which usually ripens in 
 November, December, and January. If a large quantity of seed is required, 
 it would be advisable to fence off a small area where the grass grows plenti- 
 fully, from which as much ripe seed could be gathered as would sow an 
 immense area. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Compound cluster of spikelets. B, Cluster of male or barren 
 spikelets and the fertile one, opened out to show how they are arranged, c, Fertile spikelet, 
 opened out to show the three glumes and terminal awn. D, Male spikelet, opened out to 
 show three glumes. E, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
12 Australian Grasses. 
 
 ASTEEBLA, F. v. M. 
 
 (Eeferring to the awu being untwisted.) 
 
 SPIKELETS few-flowered, sessile or nearly so in the alternate notches of the 
 continuous rhachis of one or two simple secund spikes, the rhachis of the 
 spikelet articulate above the two outer glumes. Outer empty glumes two, 
 glabrous, acute, many -nerved, unawned. "Flowering glumes silky-hairy, three- 
 lobed, the central lobe with a broad base tapering into a straight or curved 
 not twisted awn, the lateral lobes erect, rigid, two or three nerved. Palea 
 with two prominent ciliate nerves or keels. Styles distinct, very short. In 
 the three species the spikes are usually single, very rarely two together at 
 the end of the peduncle. 
 
 Astrebla pectinata, F. v. M. (Referring to the comb-like spike.) 
 " Mitchell Grass." An erect glaucous grass of 1 to 3 feet, glabrous, except 
 sometimes a few hairs at the orifice of the sheaths. Leaves flat, ending in 
 long points, smooth or scarcely scabrous. Spikelets sessile in the alternate 
 notches of a secund spike of 2 to 3 inches, closely imbricate and turned to 
 one side. Outer glumes 4 to 5 lines long, glabrous, acute, nine or eleven 
 nerved, with scarious margins. Flowering glumes three or four, the entire 
 part scarcely 1 line long, densely villous outside, as well as the broad base of 
 the middle lobe ; lateral lobes semi-lanceolate, glabrous, rigid, 4 to 5 lines 
 long, acute, two or three nerved, with the outer margin broadly scarious ; 
 central lobe broad, ovate, concave, keeled, tapering into a slender straight 
 awn about as long as, or rather longer, than the lateral lobes. Bhachis of the 
 spikelet articulate only above the outer glumes, very hairy between the 
 flowering ones, continued and less hairy above the perfect flowers, with one 
 or two glabrous glumes and paless empty or with rudimentary flowers. 
 
 This is one of the famous "Mitchell grasses" which some pastoralists and 
 stockmen in the interior regard as the best of all native grasses, both for its 
 drought-enduring qualities and for its fattening properties. On rich, 
 chocolate soils this perennial grass grows into large tussocks, and in ordinary 
 seasons will yield a great amount of rich, succulent herbage, which is much 
 relished by all herbivora. Its thick wiry roots penetrate the earth to a great 
 depth, which enable the plant to withstand the most protracted drought, and 
 for this reason it is a most valuable stand-by for the pastoralist during 
 adverse times. "When the grass becomes so dry, during a long period of 
 drought, that the stems and leaves break to pieces stock may be seen licking 
 them off the ground, and they seem to fatten on this feed notwithstanding 
 its uninviting appearance. An experienced drover once told me that stock 
 would travel further and keep in better condition when fed on this than on 
 any other grass in Australia. Although its natural habitat is 011 the central 
 plains of the continent it will grow equally as well in the coastal districts 
 
Astrebla pectinata, F. v. J\l. 
 
 "Mitchell Grass." 
 
Astrebla triticoides, F. v. M. 
 "Mitrhell Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 13 
 
 under certain conditions. This I have proved by cultivating it on the 
 eastern side of the Dividing Range, although only in experimental stage?, 
 still over a series of years. To ensure the successful cultivation of this grass 
 in the coastal districts the land on which it is grown must be thoroughly 
 drained, if not naturally so situated, for nothing appears to harm the 
 Mitchell grass so much as stagnant moisture. If cut just- as the flower- 
 spikes appear, it makes excellent hay, and if left growing a little longer 
 before it is cut, it should make good ensilage. When left undisturbed for a 
 time it produces a great amount of seed, so that there would be no difficulty 
 in collecting any quantity for dissemination in those parts of the country 
 where it may not already' be growing. 
 
 The most likely places at present to collect the seeds are within the railway 
 enclosures in the interior. Those pastoralists who are fortunate enough to 
 have this grass growing on their runs, would do well, by conserving small 
 areas from which a supply of seed could be obtained, to sow it in places where 
 the plant may have been eaten out through over-stocking. The seeds of the 
 Mitchell grass when ripe are like small grains of wheat, and at one time they 
 formed an article of food for the aborigines. 
 
 The seeds usually ripen in November and December. 
 
 Reference io plate. A, Spikelet. B, Floret closed, c, Floret open. D, Grain, back anl 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 
 Astrebla triticoides, F. v. M. (Wheat-like.) "Mitchell Grass." An 
 erect glaucous grass of 2 to 3 feet ; very near A. pectinatct, the leaves more 
 or less scabrous or ciliate on the edges. Spikes 3 to 6 inches long. S pikelets 
 alternate, not closely imbricate, and often almost erect, and at some distance 
 from each other. Outer empty glumes usually very unequal, the lowest short, 
 the secoDd 4 or 5 lines long. Flowering glumes shorter, the lateral lobes 
 shorter and more rigid than in A. pcctinata, and the awn much exceeding 
 them, the dorsal hairs appressed and silky. 
 
 A perennial grass found on rich soils nearly all over the interior, but 
 nowhere is it reported to be plentiful. This is to be regretted, for it is one 
 of the best of the native grasses. It is well worth systematic conservation, 
 and even cultivation, in places where it may not already be growing. I 
 have had it under experimental cultivation for a number of years, and can 
 highly recommend it for cultivation either in the coastal districts or in the 
 interior. If grown on the eastern side of the Dividing Eange, however, the 
 land must be thoroughly drained, if not naturally so situated, for it is very 
 susceptible to stagnant moisture. Under good cultivation, this grass yields 
 a phenomenal amount of rich, succulent herbage, which herbivora of all kindy 
 are remarkably fond of. Pastoralists and stockmen hold this grass in high 
 repute, and it is said that cattle will fatten on its dry, broken stems and 
 leaves. If it is cut when it first shows its flower stems, it makes excellent 
 hay, and from its great yield when under cultivation it should be valuable 
 for making into ensilage if cut when the flower stems are well developed. 
 
14 Australian Grasses. 
 
 "When this grass is allowed to grow undisturbed for a time, it produces 
 plenty of seed, so that there is no difficulty in the way of systematically 
 cultivating it. The most likely places to collect the seed at the present time 
 are the railway enclosures in the interior. So as to have an annual supply 
 of good seed for dissemination on stations, it would well repay pastoralists 
 to have small areas set apart as nurseries for the cultivation of this and many 
 other grasses. This would not be an expensive undertaking ; in fact, it is 
 astonishing the quantity of seed that could be saved from a very small area. 
 Some such system will have to be adopted before long, to save many of the 
 most valuable grasses from extermination. The seeds, when ripe, are like 
 small grains of wheat, and at one time formed an important article of food 
 for the aborigines. There is a variety (var. lappacea, DantJionia lappaceci, 
 of Lindley) of this grass which I have often recommended to be cultivated 
 for the grain it yields. These grains are like small grains of wheat, and they 
 separate very easily from the chaff. The ears (which are often more than 
 6 inches in length) are something like large wheat ears, and where the latter 
 would not grow, owing to great heat, the former might after a few years of 
 careful cultivation and selection, be found an excellent substitute. The 
 grain of this variety also was at one time largely used by the aborigines as 
 an article of food. 
 
 The seeds of this species and its variety usually ripen during October, 
 November, and December. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Floret closed, c, Floret open. D, Grain, back and 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 
f c 
 
 Bromus arenarius, Labill. Var. macrostachya. 
 " Brome," " Oat," or " Barley Grass." 
 
Bromus arenarius, Labill. 
 " Brome," " Oat/' or " Barley Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 15 
 
 BROMUS, Linn. 
 
 (From a Greek name for the Wild Oat.) 
 
 SPIKELETS several-flowered, oblong or lanceolate, pedicellate, erect or 
 drooping, in a more or less branched panicle, the rhachis of the spikelet 
 articulate between the flowering glumes, glabrous or scabrous-pubescent. 
 Outer empty glumes acute or tine-pointed, unawned. Flowering glumes 
 convex on the back, five or seven nerved ; the hyaline apex usually shortly 
 bifid; the mid-rib produced into a straight or curved awn, free from a little 
 below the apex. Palea nearly as long as the glume, the two prominent 
 nerves usually scabrous-ciliate. Ovary obovate, crowned by a hairy mem- 
 branous appendage, the very short distinct styles more or less lateral. 
 Grain flattened, adhering to the palea, and often more or less to the base of 
 the glume. 
 
 Bromus arenarius, Labill. (Found on sandy soil.) " Broine, Oat, or 
 Barley Grass." An annual, from 1 foot to about 1^ feet high. Leaves 
 flat, flaccid, softly hairy or pubescent. Panicle at first erect, at length 
 drooping ; the capillary branches clustered, the longer ones 2 to 3 inches 
 long, with one to four spikelets on capillary pedicels. Spikelets lanceo- 
 late, i to | of an inch long without the awns, flat, five to nine flowered. 
 Glumes all pubescent or glabrous, the lowest about 3 lines long and 
 five-nerved, the second longer and seven-nerved, both empty and acute ; 
 flowering glumes rather longer, about seven-nerved, convex on the back, the 
 awn free from a little below the scarious tip % to f of an inch long. 
 
 There is a variety (var. macros lacliij a) of this species with spikelets 1 inch 
 long, each with fifteen to twenty flowers, found only, as far as I know, in 
 the interior. The specimen, from which the accompanying drawing was 
 made, was collected near the Darling lliver, in New South Wales. Both 
 the species and the variety are annuals only. The former may be found 
 growing nearly all over Australia and also in New Zealand. The variety, 
 however, appears to be restricted to the habitat already indicated. These 
 grasses make their growth during the winter and early spring months, and 
 on this account are good additions to the pastures, especially in the interior, 
 for during that time of the year most of the superior indigenous grasses are 
 id a dormant condition. On rich lands in the interior that are liable to 
 periodical inundations, these grasses, whilst young, yield a fair amount of 
 succulent herbage, of which herbivora of all kinds are remarkably fond. 
 The early spring growths are valuable forage for sheep at the season of 
 lambing, which helps to tide over a critical time, until the superior grasses 
 start into growth. For this reason pastoralists in the interior speak in 
 favourable terms of them. In the coastal districts, however, where most 
 other kinds of grasses are plentiful nearly all the year round, the " brome 
 grass " is not so favourably spoken of. When left unmolested for a time 
 these grasses produce plenty of seed, which usually ripens in the interior in 
 September and October, but in the coastal districts generally one month 
 later. 
 
 Reference to plate of Bromus arenarius. A, Spikelet. B, Floret, c, Grain, back and 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 
 Reference to plate of Bromus arenarius, var. macrostachya. A, Spikelet. B, Floret, 
 c, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
18 Australian Grasses. 
 
 CHLORIS, Linn. 
 
 (From chloros, green, alluding to the colour of the herbage.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, awned, singly sessile in two rows on one side of 
 simple spikes, either solitary or digitate at the end of the peduncle, the 
 rhachis of the spikelet articulate immediately above the outer glumes. 
 Outer empty glumes two, keeled, persistent, awnless. Flowering glume pro- 
 duced into a fine straight awn, entire or with a tooth lobe or short awn on 
 each side of the terminal awn. Palea folded or with two prominent nerves. 
 [Rhachis of the spikelet produced behind the palea, and bearing one or more 
 empty glumes, all awned, and usually with their ends on a level with that of 
 the flowering glume. 
 
 Chloris acicnlaris, Lindl. (Eef erring to the needle-like spikelets.) 
 "Umbrella," or "Spider Grass." A glabrous erect grass of 1 foot to 2 feet. 
 Leaves flat, the lower sheaths broad and flattened. Spikes 6 to 12 or even 
 more, at first erect but at length horizontally spreading as in C. divaricata, 
 3 to 4 inches long, slender and often purplish. Spikelets rather distant. 
 Outer glumes narrow, keeled, tapering to fine points, the lowest 1^ to 2 lines, 
 the second 3 lines long. Flowering glume about 2 lines, narrow, three- 
 nerved, tapering into. an awn of about | an inch, with sometimes, but not 
 always, a short point on each side at the base. Palea long, narrow, promi- 
 nently two-nerved. Terminal empty glume with an awn sometimes as long 
 as that of the flowering glume, but usually shorter. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, 
 South and West Australia, but principally in the interior of those colonies, 
 and generally growing on rather sandy or light, loamy soils, though I have 
 occasionally seen it growing on land of a stiff, loamy nature. Its strong 
 fibrous roots penetrate the earth to a great depth, which enable it to with- 
 stand a protracted drought. During the summer months, in an ordinary 
 season, the " umbrella grass " yields a great amount of succulent herbage, of 
 which herbivora of all kinds are fond. Owing to its free-seeding qualities, 
 and the easy germination of its seeds under ordinary circumstances, it is 
 fairly plentiful in many parts of the continent. This grass is well worth 
 conservation, and even cultivation, on the arid central plains of this con- 
 tinent, for pastoralists could nearly always depend upon some herbage from 
 it for their flocks even during adverse times of drought and heat. There 
 would be no difficulty in collecting any quantity of the seed of the " um- 
 ibrella " grass from a reserved area, for dissemination in those dry parts of 
 the country where it may not already be growing, or for redissernination 
 where the plant may have died out through over-stocking. A few smart 
 iboys could collect enough seed in one day to sow several acres. Judging 
 from the succulent herbage this grass yields in an ordinary season, I should 
 think it would pay to cultivate for hay in the interior ; at any rate, it is well 
 worth a trial. 
 
 The seeds of this grass usually ripen in November and December. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of tlie spikelets on tlie rliachis. B, A 
 epikelet. c, Flowering glume and palea. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Chloris acicularis, LindL 
 
 " Umbrella," or " Spider Grass," 
 
Chloris truncata, R. Br. 
 " Star," or " Windmill Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 17 
 
 Chloris truncata, E. Br. (Keferring to tlie abrupt termination of the 
 
 flumes.) " Star" or " Windmill Grass." A glabrous erect grass of 1 foot to 3 
 eet. Leaves usually flat, but narrow, with flattened sheaths. Spikes, 
 six to ten, slender, 3 to 6 inches long, at length horizontally spreading. 
 Spikelets numerous, but not crowded, cuneate, 1 line to 1| lines long, without 
 the awns. Lowest outer glume very small, almost setaceous, the second 
 narrow and fine-pointed, about as long as the spikelet. Flowering glumes 
 oblong, obtuse, keeled, slightly ciliate, with a fine awn of 3 to 6 lines. Ter- 
 minal empty glume much shorter and broader, raised to the level of the 
 flowering glume and flat-topped, giving the spikelet its cuneate truncate 
 form. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in South Australia, Victoria, ]N"ew South 
 Wales, and Queensland, and in some situations it is fairly plentiful. It is 
 generally found growing on the richest of soils, both in the coastal districts 
 and in the arid interior. As might be supposed, a grass growing under such 
 varied conditions of soil and climate is very variable as regards its height and 
 the size of its inflorescence. In some situations it grows 3 feet high, with 
 the inflorescence a foot across. In other situations it grows only from 6 
 inches to a foot high, with the inflorescence only 4 inches across. The latter 
 form is generally found in the interior. In all its varied forms, however, it 
 yields a rich succulent herbage, which is much relished by all herbivora, 
 sheep being particularly fond of it. On loose soils this grass tillers well. I 
 have had this species under experimental cultivation for several consecutive 
 years, and the quantity of rich succulent herbage it yielded was enormous. 
 When cut just as the flower-spikes appeared it made excellent hay. I can 
 highly recommend this grass for permanent pasture, or to be grown and 
 made into hay. It is well worth conservation in those parts of the country 
 where it is already growing, and redissemination in those parts where it may 
 have become scarce through overstocking. When the "star grass" is allowed 
 to grow undisturbed for a time it produces an abundance of seed. From a 
 small reserved area, or within the railway enclosures, as much ripe seed could 
 be collected in a few hours as would suffice for sowing large areas. The 
 .seeds usually ripen in October and November in the interior; in the coastal 
 districts one month or two months later, though occasionally in autumn. I 
 have sown the seeds of this grass in spring-time with excellent results, but, 
 generally speaking, I prefer sowing them in the early autumn months say 
 March or April, when there is moisture in the soil. Seeds sown at that 
 time of the year usually germinate readily, and the young plants becoming 
 well established in the soil are better "able to withstand the succeeding 
 summer, should it prove a dry one, than plants raised from seed sown in the 
 spring-time. 
 
 Reference io plate. A, Spikelet. E, Flowering glume, and the pedicellate terminal 
 empty one. c, Flowering glume and palea. i>, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
18 Australian Grasses. 
 
 DANTHONIA, & C. 
 
 (Named in honor of M. Danthoine, a French botanist.) 
 
 SIKELETS several flowered, pedicellate or rarely almost sessile, in a panicle 
 either loose or reduced to a single raceme, the rhachis of the spikelet articu- 
 late above the outer glumes, hairy round the flowering ones. Outer empty 
 glumes two, narrow, keeled, acute, unawned, usually as long as the spikelet. 
 ^Flowering glumes convex at the back, usually nine-nerved, with two rigid or 
 scarious terminal lobes more or less one or three nerved at least at the base, 
 and a twisted and bent awn between them (almost reduced to a point in 
 one species). Palea broad, as long as or usually longer than the entire part 
 of the glume, obtuse or two-pointed. Styles distinct. Ovary glabrous. 
 Grain free. 
 
 Danthonia carphoides, F. v. M. (Carpha-like ; having some resemblance 
 to Carpha, a Cyperaceous plant.) " Oat- Grass." Stems from 3 or 4 inches 
 to 1 foot high. Leaves very narrow, not long, glabrous. Panicle ovate, 
 dense, 1 inch to 1^ inches long. S pikelets few, very shortly pedicellate. 
 Outer glumes 4 to 5 lines long, rather broad, with scarious margins. Plower- 
 ing glumes 3 to 6, with a broad oblique base, as in D. bipartita, the ring of 
 hairs almost broken into clusters ; lateral lobes shorter than the base, the 
 very fine awn scarcely exceeding them. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in New South Wales, Yictoria, and South 
 Australia ; but it is not reported to be very abundant anywhere, except in 
 the south-eastern portion of New South Wales, where it grows plentifully, 
 and where it is highly spoken of as a forage-grass. It is generally found 
 growing in the colder or mountainous parts of Australia, and in such places 
 it is really well worth conservation, and dissemination where it does not 
 already exist. During the summer months, and under ordinary circum- 
 stances, it makes a quantity of fine leafy feed, of which sheep are particularly 
 fond, as also are horses and cattle ; but it is not bulky enough to recom- 
 mend for pasture, except in mixtures, where these larger animals are allowed 
 to graze. The "oat-grass" produces an abundance of seed when it is allowed 
 to grow undisturbed for a time, so that there would be no difficulty in col- 
 lecting any quantity by those persons desirous of so doing, either for re- 
 dissemination where the grass may have been eaten out through over- 
 stocking, or for laying down new sheep-pastures. I have had several species 
 of the genus Danthonia under experimental cultivation, and they produced 
 herbage which was much superior to that seen in ordinary pastures. Many 
 of them I can highly recommend as being worth cultivation, either for 
 general pasture or to be grown and made into hay. Most of them produce 
 an abundance of seed if they are allowed to grow undisturbed during the 
 early summer months, so that there would be no difficulty in bringing them 
 under systematic cultivation. The seeds of the " oat-grass " usually ripen, 
 during November, December, and January, according to situation. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Back view of floret. C, Open floret. D, Grain, 
 back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
B 
 
 Danthonia carphoides, F. v. M. 
 " Oat Grass." 
 

Danthonia semiannularis, R. Br. 
 " Wallaby Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 19 
 
 Danthonia semiannularis, E. Br. (Keferring to the half -ring of hairs 
 oil the floret.) " Wallaby-grass." A variable plant, the stems usually 2 to 3 
 feet high, but sometimes much lower. Leaves very narrow, flat or convolute, 
 never so fine as in D. setacea ; the sheaths glabrous or hairy, more or less 
 ciliate at the orifice. Panicle sometimes loose and spreading, more frequently 
 narrow and compact. Outer glumes acute, above half an inch, and some- 
 times nearly 1 inch long. Flowering glumes usually 4 to 8, not exceeding 
 the outer ones ; the lobes lanceolate, with a broad or narrow hyaline margin, 
 acute or tapering into a point, or rather short fine awn ; the long hairs or 
 cilia copious at the base and margins and forming a ring round the back 
 immediately under the lobes, the twisted awn varying from i to 1 inch. 
 Palea longer than the entire base of the glume, often two-pointed. Styles 
 distinct. Ovary glabrous. Grain free. 
 
 This perennial grass is found over nearly the whole of Australia, and in 
 some situations it is fairly plentiful. It grows both in the coastal districts 
 and in the arid interior ; I have also seen it growing plentifully on some of 
 the high mountain ranges where snow falls occasionally. As might be 
 supposed, a grass growing under such varied conditions of soil and climate 
 is very variable as regards stature. In all its varied forms, however, it is 
 one of the most nutritious grasses of Australia, and, unlike most other 
 species of this genus, it will grow more or less all the year round. Stock of 
 all descriptions are remarkably fond of it, and sheep often crop it so close 
 down in the colder parts of Australia that it gets little chance to perfect any 
 seed. In the warmer parts, however, and under ordinary circumstances, it 
 produces an abundance of seed, which germinates readily after showery 
 weather in the autumn or spring months. I have had this grass under 
 experimental cultivation, and the rich succulent herbage it produced was 
 much superior to that generally seen in pastures. If cut immediately the 
 flower-stems appear it makes capital hay. I can highly recommend the 
 " wallaby grass " for systematic cultivation, either for permanent pasture 
 or for making into hay. On good soils the roots of this grass penetrate to a 
 great depth, which enable the plant, when growing in the arid interior, to 
 withstand long spells of dry weather. Although it is not particular as to 
 soil or situation, for it may as frequently be seen growing on dry ridges as 
 on the better classes of soils, still it produces a superior herbage when grown 
 on moderately rich, strong loams of gcod depth. As has already been 
 indicated, this grass produces a great amount of seed when allowed to grow 
 undisturbed for a time, and within the railway enclosures, or in any reserved 
 area, enough seed could be collected in a short time to sow large areas. 
 There would, therefore, be no difficulty in bringing it under systematic 
 cultivation in those parts of the country where it may not already be 
 growing, or where it may have been eaten out through over-stocking. In 
 the interior this grass usually ripens its seeds in October, but in the coastal 
 districts and in the colder parts of the country generally one month or two 
 months later. 
 
 Reference to plate, A, Spikelet. B, Closed floret, showing the three semi-annular rings 
 of hairs on the back of gluuie. c, Open floret. D, Grain, back and front views. All 
 variously magnified. 
 
20 Australian Grasses. 
 
 DEYEUXIA, Clarion. 
 
 (Named in honor of Nicholas Deyeux, a French chemist.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, pedicellate, or rarely sessile in a panicle, either 
 loose and spreading or narrow and spikelike ; the rhachis of the spikelet 
 articulate above the outer glumes, usually bearing a tuft of hairs round the 
 flowering glume, and usually produced beyond it in a small ciliate or rarely 
 glabrous bristle, very rarely bearing, an empty glume or imperfect flower, 
 sometimes very minute, rarely deficient. Glumes three, two outer ones 
 persistent, keeled, unawned ; flowering glume shorter and very thin, about 
 as long or rarely longer and membranous, broad, enclosing the flower, five- 
 nerved, with a fine dorsal awn usually bent and twisted, rarely short and 
 straight, or very rarely deficient. Palea thin, more than half as long as the 
 glume, faintly or prominently two-nerved. Styles distinct, short. Grain, 
 enclosed in the glume and palea, and sometimes partially adhering to them. 
 
 Deyeuxia billardieri, Kuntli. (After J. J. Labillardiere.) " Bent-grass." 
 Stems sometimes very short and tufted, usually about 1 foot high or more ; 
 leafy to the inflorescence, which is usually enclosed at the base in the broad 
 sheath of the upper leaf. Panicle when fully out often nearly 1 foot long, 
 though sometimes much smaller, with long capillary-divided branches in 
 regular whorls. Outer glumes very narrow and pointed, about 3 lines long ; 
 flowering glume not half so long, quite glabrous, with two narrow pointed 
 teeth ; the dorsal awn attached much below the middle, and rather longer 
 than the outer glumes. Palea shorter and narrow. Rhacbis produced into a 
 hairy bristle. 
 
 This species and Dcyeuxia forsteri (Eamth.) having many intermediate 
 forms are often closely connected, but in the typical species the plants are 
 so structurally different as to be easily distinguished. The details of the 
 inflorescence of this species are much larger than those of D. forsleri. 
 "When growing together even the most superficial observer cannot fail to 
 distinguish between the two ; D. billardieri has wide leaves and a slightly 
 reddish inflorescence, while D. forsteri has narrow leaves and a light-coloured 
 inflorescence. The " bent-grass " has an extensive range of growth, being 
 found in the coastal districts and on some of the high table-lands in all the 
 Australian Colonies, also in New Zealand and Tasmania. In some parts of 
 New England, and, indeed, in many other districts, it is very plentiful, and 
 in the summer-time, where it is protected from stock, it is quite a feature 
 in the pastures. It usually grows from 6 to 18 inches high, according to 
 the soil or situation it is found in. On rich moist pasture-land it will grow 
 throughout a greater part of the year, but on high dry land it will die about 
 the beginning of December. It is a capital winter and early spring grass, 
 and on good soils it yields a fair amount of rich succulent herbage, of which 
 sheep are very fond. It produces a quantity of seed, which usually ripens in 
 October, November, and December, according to situation. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelcl. B, Floret, c, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Deyeuxia billardieri, Kunth, 
 "Bent Grass." 
 
Dichelachne crinita, Hook. 
 "Long-hair Plume Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 21 
 
 DICHELACHNE, Endl. 
 
 (From two Greek words signifying a "cloven hoof" and " chaff," in allusion 
 to the bifid palea or gluine.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, numerous in a narrow usually dense panicle ; the 
 rhachis of the spikelet articulate immediately above the two outer glumes, 
 and not continued beyond the flower. Glumes three, narrow, the two outer 
 ones persistent, membranous, acute, keeled. Flowering glume raised on a 
 short hairy stipes (rhachis of the spikelet), membranous at the time of 
 flowering, hyaline and entire or two-lobed at the end, with a fine scarcely 
 twisted dorsal awn a little below the end, slightly hardened round the fruit. 
 Palea two -nerved. Stamens three or fewer; anthers glabrous. Styles dis- 
 tinct. Grain enclosed in the glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 Dichelachne crinita, HooJc. (Hairy), "Long Hair-plume Grass." Stems 
 2 to 3 feet high. Leaves flat, glabrous or softly pubescent, the upper ones 
 rather long with long sheaths. Panicle very dense and spikelike, 4 to 8 
 inches long ; the spikelets imbricate on the short erect branches, but con- 
 cealed by the numerous long hair-like awns. Outer glumes very narrow, 
 hyaline with a slightly scabrous keel, nearly equal, about 2-|- lines long. 
 Flowering glumes shorter, glabrous, the hyaline tip entire but readily split- 
 ting. Awn dorsal, very slender, bent but scarcely twisted, above 1 inch long. 
 
 A perennial grass, which is found in all the Australian colonies, but prin- 
 cipally in the coastal districts and colder parts of the continent. According 
 to Hooker, it is abundant throughout the island of Tasmania. It is fairly 
 plentiful in many parts of Australia, and may be found growing on various 
 soils. On good land I have often seen this grass growing nearly 4 feet high. 
 When in flower it is a prominent feature in the pastures, and it may be 
 easily recognised by its long panicles of flowers with purple hairy-like awns. 
 In the hot, dry districts this grass is often harsh and somewhat scanty of 
 foliage, but in the more humid districts its character is changed for the better. 
 On good soils near the coabt and in the colder parts of the continent it pro- 
 duces a great amount of rich succulent herbage, which is greedily eaten by 
 all herbivora. The " long hair-plume grass " will continue to grow throughout 
 the year on good pasture-land that is fairly well sheltered, and where frosts 
 are not too severe. It is a good grass for the dairy-farmer, and if cut when 
 the flower-stems first appear it can be made into excellent hay. It is worth 
 conservation in those parts of the country where it may already be growing, 
 and dissemination in places in the coastal and colder portions of the conti- 
 nent where it may not already exist. It is a prolific seed-bearing grass, so 
 that there will be no difficulty in collecting any quantity of seed by those 
 desirous of so doing, either in* the railway reserves or in specially -reserved 
 areas. The seeds usually ripen during October, November, and December. 
 
 Reference to plate. \, Spikelet. B, Floret. C, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
22 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Dichelachne sciurea, Hook. (Squirrel-tailed) ''Short Hair Plume Grass." 
 Steins densely tufted, slender, 1 foot to If, rarely 2 feet high, quite glabrous, 
 the nodes usually dark-coloured. Leaves short, chiefly at the base of the stem, 
 scabrous-pubescent or glabrous. Panicle narrower and looser than in D. 
 crinita, 3 to 6 inches long, the rhachis and filiform branches scabrous. 
 Outer glumes very narrow, about 2| lines long, the outermost rather shorter 
 than the second. Fruiting glume rather more rigid than in D. crinita, and 
 minutely pitted-rugose. Awns 6 to 8 lines long, not nearly so crowded as 
 in that species. 
 
 This slender- growing perennial grass is found in all the Australian colonies, 
 but principally in the coastal districts and colder parts of the continent. 
 According to Hooker it is abundant throughout the island of Tasmania. It 
 is fairly plentiful in many parts of Australia, and may be found growing on 
 both rich and poor land, but of course on the former it yields a much superior 
 herbage. It generally grows about 1% or 2 feet high, but I have often seen 
 it growing nearly 3 feet high in a good season. It is a most variable species 
 as regards the arrangement of its inflorescence ; sometimes it is dense and 
 spike-like, at other times it is very loose and somewhat spreading, and to the 
 casual observer the extreme forms would look as if they belonged to distinct 
 species ; but it can never be mistaken under close examination. It is a very 
 quick-growing succulent grass, and a valuable one to have in pastures, as it 
 makes considerable growth during the winter and early spring months, ere 
 many of the indigenous grasses show signs of growth. If cut when it first 
 shows its flower stems, it can be made into excellent hay. This grass is 
 worth conserving where it is already growing, and disseminating in the 
 coastal districts and colder parts of the continent where it does not already 
 exist. It produces a fair amount of seed, so that there would be no difficulty 
 in collecting a quantity in any reserved area. 
 
 The seeds usually ripen in October and November, but in some of the 
 colder districts as late as January. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Floret, c, Grain back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Dichelachne sciurea, Hook. 
 
 " Short-hair Plume Grass." 
 
Diplachne fusca, Beanv. 
 " Brown -flowered Swamp Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 23 
 
 DIPLACHNE, Eeauv. 
 
 (Beferring to the two-lobed flowering glume.) 
 
 SPIKELETS several, often many-flowered, linear, sessile or very shortly pedicel- 
 late, but distant along the rhachis of a simple spike, or of the elongated branches 
 of a simple panicle, the rhachis of the spikelet articulate and usually hairy 
 under the flowering glumes. Outer empty glumes keeled, acute, nnawned ; 
 flowering glumes with a hyaline shortly two-lobed apex, the keel produced 
 into a short point or awn between or shortly below the lobes. Palea thin, 
 prominently two-nerved. Styles short, distinct. Grain smooth, free. 
 
 Diplachne fusca, ~Beauv. (Referring to the spikelets having a brownish 
 tinge.) " Brown Flowered Swamp Grass." A glabrous erect grass of several 
 feet. Leaves narrow, convolute when dry, with long loose sheaths; 
 the ligula jagged. Panicle narrow, (j inches to 1 foot long, with erect 
 branches, the lower ones long. Spikelets sessile, or nearly so, rather distant, 
 erect, linear, six to ten flowered, about 4 lines long, or rather more, and straw 
 coloured, or longer and dark, the rhachis glabrous, or slightly hairy under 
 each glume. Flowering glumes nearly 2 lines long, shortly ciliate on the 
 margins in the lower part, prominently three-nerved, the keel produced 
 into a short point between or just below the short hyaline terminal lobes. 
 Keels of the palea shortly ciliate. Grain smooth and free. 
 
 This annual (?) grass is found in all the Australian colonies, also In Asia 
 and Africa. In the coastal districts of this country it is generally found 
 growing in, or about brackish swamps ; in the interior, in shallow pools of 
 water, or in damp situations, and in some places it is fairly plentiful, 
 During the summer mouths, and under ordinary circumstances, it yields a 
 great amount of rich succulent herbage, of which cattle are particularly fond. 
 This grass is worth disseminating on swampy land, where it may not already 
 be growing, and where very few other grasses that are so nutritious would 
 grow. G-rasses that will grow in such situations are a valuable stand-by for 
 stock during drought time, when the surrounding country is dried up, and 
 almost destitute of tender herbage. It is at such times that many of the 
 grasses, which are overlooked when herbage is plentiful on the plains, play a 
 most important part in the economy of nature, and are the means by which 
 many animals are saved from dying of starvation during adverse seasons. I 
 have no doubt that this grass would pay to cultivate on low-lying w T aste lands. 
 From its succulent stems and leaves it should not only make good hay, but 
 also good ensilage. At any rate, it is worth a trial. There would be no diffi- 
 culty in bringing this species under systematic cultivation, for if it is allowed 
 to grow undisturbed for a time it produces a great amount of seed. From a 
 small reserved area a few boys could collect enough seed in a few hours to 
 sow several acres. On swampy land in the interior the seeds usually ripen 
 during January, February, and March ; in the coastal districts about one 
 month later ; but in drier places they generally ripen in November and 
 December. 
 
 Reference to plate. k, Spikelet. B, Floret, c, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
24 Australian Grasses. 
 
 ELEUSINE, Gartn. 
 
 Mythological ; from Eleusis, where was a celebrated temple of Ceres, 
 
 (Demeter.) 
 
 SPIKELETS several flowered, flat, imbricate in two rows along one side of 
 the digitate or scattered branches of a simple panicle ; the rhachis of the 
 spikelet articulate above the outer glumes. Glumes spreading, keeled and 
 complicate, thin but rigid, the two outer empty ones usually shorter, unequal, 
 obtuse, acute or tapering to a short point. Flowering glumes obtuse or less 
 pointed, the terminal one usually empty or rudimentary. Palea folded. 
 Styles short, distinct. Seed rugose within a loose membranous pericarp, 
 which either persists round the ripe seed or breaks up and falls away, or 
 otherwise disappears as the ovary enlarges. 
 
 Eleusine indica, Gcertn. (Indian) " Crow-foot " or " Crab Grass." A 
 coarse, erect, tufted grass from 1 foot to 2 feet high. Leaves narrow ; 
 the sheaths flattened and distichous, ciliate with a few long hairs. Spikes 
 five to seven, 2 to 3 inches long, digitate, with usually one inserted rather 
 lower down ; the rhachis prominent on the upper or inner side ; the spikelets 
 loosely imbricate on the opposite side. Each spikelet 11 to 2 lines long, 
 containing three to five flowers. Glumes obtuse, the lowest small and 
 one-nerved, the second an empty one, aucl the lower flowering ones usually 
 three-nerved. Pericarp persistent, very loose and membranous, enclosing 
 the rugose seed. 
 
 This coarse, perennial grass is found in the coastal districts of New South 
 "Wales, and Queensland, and also in the warmer parts of the new and the 
 old world. Quite recently I received specimens from New Caledonia for 
 identification, that being, I believe, the first time it was recorded for that 
 island. It is found only in the warmer portions of Australia. I never 
 remember seeing it growing any further south than the Hunter River, in 
 New South Wales. It is generally found growing on rich, moist lands 
 bordering rivers, creeks, lagoons, &c., and in some places it is very plentiful. 
 
 The "crab grass " maybe recognised by its dark green colour, strong stalks, 
 and digitate panicles, the spikelets of which are flat, and overlap each other. 
 It grows nearly all the year round, but during the summer months yields 
 a great amount of rich, succulent herbage, which is much relished by cattle. 
 It is said that if cut when it first shows its flower stems, it can be made 
 into excellent hay. A gentleman at Kenipsey, forwarded a specimen of this 
 grass to me for identification quite recently, with a note to the effect that it 
 was a " very good grass for cattle, and that they ate it greedily." It is 
 worth disseminating on moist lauds in the coastal districts ; and as it 
 produces a great amount of seed if left undisturbed for a time, there would 
 be very little trouble in collecting any quantity. Besides its value as a 
 forage grass, it is useful for binding the banks of rivers, dams, and loose 
 earth. Its tough fibrous roots penetrate deeply into the soil, and in time 
 form a perfect mat, so that flood-waters would have little effect upon the 
 land where it was firmly established. It will even undergo partial submer- 
 sion for a few days without the slightest injury. The seeds usually ripen 
 during the summer and autumn months. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spike showing tlie arrangmont of the spikelets on the rhachls. 
 B, Spikelet. c, Floret showing the grain enclosed in the very loose and membranous, but 
 persistent, pericarp. D, Grain, three different views. All variously magnified. 
 
Eleusine indica, Gcertn. 
 "Crowfoot," or "Crab Grass," 
 
Eragrostis leptostachya, Steud. 
 A " Love 
 
AustraMan G?^asses. 
 
 ERAGrROSTIS, Beauv. 
 
 (From eros, love, and agrostis, grass, alluding to the pretty panicles.) 
 
 SPIKELETS several, usually many-flowered, pedicellate or sessile in a loose 
 and spreading or narrow and clustered panicle, the rhachis of the spikelet 
 usually glabrous and articulate under the flowering glumes, but often very 
 tardily so and sometimes inarticulate. Outer empty glumes unequal and 
 rather shorter than the flowering ones, keeled, without any or only faint 
 lateral nerves. Flowering glumes obtuse or acute, unawned, three-nerved, 
 the keel prominent, the lateral nerves in a few species very faint. Palea 
 shorter than the glume, with two prominent nerves or keels, often persisting 
 after the glume and grain have fallen away. Grain free, ovoid or oblong, 
 not furrowed. 
 
 Eragrostis leptostachya, Sfcud. (Eeferring to the slender spikelets.) 
 " Love Grass." Stems slender, usually about 1 foot high. Leaves at the 
 base narrow, convolute, or setaceous, glabrous. Panicle loosely pyramidal, 
 3 to 5 inches long, Avith slender divided spreading branches. Spikelets on 
 capillary pedicles of 1 line to 3 lines, loosely spreading, about 2 lines long, 
 narrow, but much broader than in E.pilosa, much smaller than in~E. browim, 
 loosely six to ten flowered, usually dark- coloured. Glumes acute, more 
 spreading than in 2?. pilosa, the lateral nerves faint and almost marginal. 
 Palea nearly as long, glabrous. Grain ovoid, smooth. 
 
 A slender, perennial species, growing about H feet high, although I have 
 occasionally seen it 2 feet high. It is found in the coastal districts of New 
 South Wales and Queensland, in the New England district, and also on the 
 Blue Mountains of the former colony. In. some situations it is fairly 
 plentiful, and on good soil it yields a rich, succulent herbage, much sought 
 after by ail pasture animals. On the Hon. Dr. Norton's estate on the Blue 
 Mountains it is growing very plentifully, and cattle eat it in preference to 
 any other kind of grass. When I was there a short time since, I saw that 
 this particular species was cropped very close down to the ground, although 
 there were several other species of grasses growing there, and some of them, 
 rather tall, and affording a bulk of herbage. The grass under notice forms 
 a large percentage in some of the pastures in the southern parts of New 
 South Wales, and will grow on land where it is partially shaded with trees, 
 and in such circumstances will afford a tender herbage during the winter and 
 early spring months. It is much improved by cultivation, and if cut when 
 the flower-stalks first appear it makes good hay. It produces an abundance 
 of seed, which usually ripens in October and November, but in good seasons 
 the seeds ripen all through the summer and autumn months. 
 
 The Hon. Dr. Norton, M.L.C., says : "After an experience of upwards of 
 ten years at Euchora, Springwood, I feel justified instating that the above- 
 named grass is one of the most valuable of all the Australian grasses. Mixed 
 with other native grasses, it grows freely on my land, and is greedily devoured 
 by the cattle in preference to all other kinds. The milk produced by the cows 
 which feed on these grasses is particularly rich, and makes excellent 
 butter. The growth in places protected from the cattle is so great as to 
 supply me in ordinary seasons with an abundance of hay for the winter, and 
 both cows and horses seem almost more fond of this than of the grass in its 
 green state." 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet ; B, Floret; C, Grain, back and front view. All 
 variously magnified. 
 
26 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Eragrostis pilosa, Beauv. (From the hairs at the base of the branches 
 o the panicle, which are not observable in the Australian grass. " Weeping 
 Grass." " Love Grass." A tufted erect or ascending annual, 1 foot to near 
 2 feet high. Leaves narrow, usually flat. Panicle inches to 1 foot long, 
 narrow at first, spreading when in fruit, with numerous long capillary divided 
 branches. Spikelets 2 to 4 lines long, narrow-linear, usually of a dark- 
 leaden colour, but pale when old, loosely six to twenty flowered; the rhachis 
 scarcely articulate. Glumes thin, distinctly keeled, the lateral nerves faint and 
 short. Palea nearly as long, slightly ciliate on the keels, often persistent 
 after the glumes have fallen away. Grain ovoid-oblong, smooth. 
 
 Mr. Bentham says, " This species is common in the warmer and some 
 temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, chiefly in the old world. The 
 hairs at the base of the branches of the panicle, which originally gave rise to 
 the specific name, are not observable in any of the Australian specimens, and 
 not constant in European ones." This annual grass is found in all the 
 Australian colonies, both in the coastal districts and in the arid interior. 
 On rich soils in a good season I have occasionally seen it 3 feet high. It 
 generally starts into growth about the end of September, and if the season is 
 a fairly moist one it will continue growing till March or April, when it 
 gradually dies away. If, however, the season is a dry one, it may die out by 
 the end of December, but will grow again from the ripened seed if rain 
 should fall in January, and yield a fair amount of herbage during the late 
 summer months. It is not particular as to soil or situation, as it may 
 frequently be seen growing both on stony ridges and on rich meadow land. 
 On good soils, however, it is a most prolific grass, and during the summer 
 months affords a large amount of rich succulent herbage, which is much 
 relished by stock of all kinds. On poor soils it takes very little root hold, 
 and when being browsed upon is easily pulled up by the roots. I have had 
 this grass under experimental cultivation, and it gave an enormous yield, 
 and on being cut, when the flower stems first appeared, it made very good 
 hay. I can recommend this grass to be grown for hay, for it not only gives 
 a quick but, 011 good soils, a heavy return. There would be no difficulty in 
 bringing it under systematic cultivation, for, under ordinary circumstances, 
 it perfects a great amount of seed, which can be collected at almost any time 
 during the summer and autumn months. An allied grass, the Teff of 
 Abyssinia, is extensively cultivated for the sake of its grain, which furnishes 
 food in the form of bread, to a great portion of the population of Abyssinia. 
 On comparing the seeds of these two grasses I find that the Teff: seeds are 
 the larger, but the Australian grass would, no doubt, develop seeds quite as 
 large after a few years of cultivation and selection, and as the grain separates 
 very easily from the chaff I think I feel justified in classifying it with other 
 Australian grasses, which I have already suggested, might be cultivated for 
 the grain they yield. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet ; B, Floret ; c, Grain, front and side views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Eragrostis pilosa, Beauv. 
 11 Weeping Grass," " Love Grass." 
 
Eriochloa punctata, Hamilt. 
 "Early Spring Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 27 
 
 ERIOCHLOA, Humb and Kuntli. 
 
 (From two Greek words, erion, wool, and chloa, grass.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, without protruding awns, with a callous annular 
 or almost cuplike base ; articulate on a short pedicel, in one or two rows 
 along one side of the slender branches of a simple panicle. Glumes three, 
 two outer ones empty, usually membranous, equal or nearly so ; the third 
 or flowering glume shorter, of a firm, coriaceous texture, obtuse, but tipped 
 with a point or short awn not exceeding the outer glumes. Palea within the 
 flowering glume coriaceous and involute. Styles distinct, rather long. Grain 
 enclosed in the hardened palea and flowering glume, and free from them. 
 
 Eriochloa punctata, JfamiU. (Dotted.) " Early Spring Grass." 
 An erect grass, attaining 2 or 3 feet; glabrous, except the inflorescence, and 
 sometimes a slight pubescence in the upper part. Leaves rather long, flat, 
 or convolute when dry. Spikes or panicle-branches about 5 to 8, distant, 
 erect, secund, the lowest often above 2 inches long, the others gradually 
 shorter; the rhachis, as well as the main axis, pubescent or hairy. Spikelets 
 all pedicellate, but often rather close ; the pedicels I line to 2 lines long, 
 usually bearing a few long hairs ; the spikelet ovoid, acute, or shortly acumi- 
 nate, rather above 1^ lines long, seated on a thick annular or almost cupular 
 disk articulate on the pedicel. Empty glumes membraneous, broad, and 
 usually five-nerved, or the inner one rather narrower and sometimes only 
 three-nerved, both more or less hairy outside, and sometimes rather densely 
 covered with long hairs. Flowering glume much shorter, coriaceous, faintly 
 three or five nerved, obtuse, but the midrib produced into a point or awn 
 as long as the outer glumes. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in all the Australian Colonies from the 
 coastal districts to the arid interior, and in many places it is fairly plentiful. 
 It may be found growing on various soils, but the kind of land on which I 
 have seen it growing best was a good rich loam. In the coastal districts, 
 during its early growing period, it may be easily recognised amongst other 
 herbage by the glaucous appearance of its stems and leaves. I have fre- 
 
 auently identified the grass by this means alone. In sheltered situations in 
 le coastal districts it will grow all the year round, but in the arid interior 
 it generally grows during the summer months. On good soils its tough, 
 fibrous roots penetrate the earth to a great depth, which enable the plant 
 to withstand a very long spell of dry weather. In an ordinary season, both 
 in the coastal district and in the far interior, it produces a great bulk of rich 
 succulent herbage which all herbivora are remarkably fond of, and fatten on. 
 I have seen this grass growing in cultivated places, and the he-rbage was 
 superior to that which is usually seen in pastures. This led me to believe 
 that it would well repay systematic cultivation by dairy-farmers and others. 
 Its rich, succulent herbage should make excellent hay if cut before the 
 flower-stems are too much developed. The grass is well worth disseminating 
 in those parts of the country where it does not already exist, and as it 
 produces an abundance of seed when it is allowed to grow undisturbed for a 
 time there would be no difficulty in collecting any quantity by those desirous 
 of so doing. In the interior the seeds usually ripen during November and 
 December. In the coastal districts they are generally one month or two 
 months later. In the interior the inflorescence of this grass is sometimes 
 affected with a parasitic fungus probably some species of Ustilago. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet opened out showing the three glumes and palea. 
 B, Floret. C, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
28 Australian Grasses. 
 
 HEMARTHRIA, E. 3r. 
 
 (Half -jointed ; referring to the spike.) 
 
 SPIKELETS in pairs, in the alternate notches of a simple spike, one sessile 
 and half embedded in a cavity of the scarcely- articulate rhachis with one 
 hermaphrodite flower, the other on a closely-appressed and often adnate 
 pedicel reduced to two or three empty glumes, the spikes single on each 
 peduncle above a sheathing bract and often flattened. Glumes in the sessile 
 spikelet four, the outer one appressed and covering the cavity of the rhachis, 
 the second thinner and concave or keeled, the third and fourth and the palea 
 in the fourth thin and hyaline. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed in the 
 glumes, but free from them. 
 
 Hemarthria compressa, E. Br. (Compressed spikes.) " Mat-grass." 
 Stems decumbent or creeping at the base, rather rigid, ascending to 1 foot 
 or rather more, slightly branched. Leaves narrow, glabrous, or the lower 
 ones sprinkled with a few long hairs. Spikes solitary on the branches or 
 nearly so, more or less compressed, rigid, 3 to 5 inches long, often 1^ lines 
 broad. Spikelets all closely appressed, 3 to 3^ lines long. Outer glume 
 many-nerved, tapering into a very variable point, sometimes very short and 
 straight, especially in the sessile spikelet, sometimes elongated and fine, or 
 minutely hooked at the extremity; or in southern specimens, especially to- 
 wards the end of the spike, terminating in a rather long inflexed rigid hook. 
 In the pedicellate spikelet the point of the outer glume is often longer, finer, 
 and straight, but occasionally that also is hooked, and more rarely the 
 second glume ends in a small hook. Grain enclosed in the glumes of the 
 sessile spikelet, but free from them. The hook at the end of the glumes, upon 
 which Dr. Brown separated his H. uncinata from the H. compressa is 
 exceedingly variable. In the southern specimens generally it is long and 
 very rigid on some of the glumes, at least towards the upper end of the 
 spike; most of the northern specimens have all the outer glumes fine-pointed 
 without hooks. 
 
 This grass is found in all the Australian colonies, but principally in the 
 coastal districts, and in some places it is very plentiful. It is generally found 
 growing on the margins of swamps, on marsh lands, and on the banks of rivers 
 or creeks, which its underground stems and roots assist in binding, and thus 
 in a measure prevent injury from floods or heavy rains. It may also be 
 found growing down near the brink of the ocean, above high-water mark on 
 tidal rivers, and sometimes on what may be called saline land. Under some 
 circumstances its stems lengthen out to 5 or 6 feet, and the branches often 
 ascend to 2 or more feet. On wet undrained soils it forms a beautiful green 
 sward during the summer months, and often when the surrounding vegetation 
 
s 
 
 Hemarthria compressa, R. Br. 
 " Mat Grass," 
 
Australian Grasses. 29 
 
 is languishing for want of rain it affords very good herbage. At the first 
 glance this rather harsh, wiry-looking grass would not impress anyone as 
 being a valuable forage-plant ; nevertheless it is a fact that cattle eat it 
 greedily, and it is said that horses will leave all other herbage to browse upon 
 its stems and leaves. I received some specimens of this grass from Victoria 
 a short time ago for identification, and it was stated that some Victorian pas- 
 toralists spoke highly of it, both as a good grass for stock and as a suitable 
 one to encourage on moist lands. From long observation of the "mat-grass" 
 I can recommend ft for planting on moist undrained lands where it may not 
 already be growing, and also on the banks of rivers or dams, where its strong 
 underground roots would soon form a perfect mat which could not be easily 
 dislodged by flood-waters or heavy rains. It will bear several degress of 
 frost and submersion for a few days without much injury. There would be 
 no difficulty in bringing this grass under systematic cultivation, for not only 
 does it produce plenty of seed, which germinates readily if sown in the 
 spring of the year, but it can be easily propagated by division of its stems 
 and roots in spring. The seeds of this grass usually ripen during the 
 summer and autumn months. 
 
 Reference, to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis, 
 opened out. B, A pedicellate spikelet, dorsal view, c, A pedicellate spikelet, open, 
 side view. D, Outer glume of a sessile spikelet, dorsal view. E, A sessile spikelet, open, 
 side view. F, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
30 Australian Grasses. 
 
 IMPERATA, Cyr. 
 
 (Named in honor of Ferranti Imperati.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one or rarely two flowers, usually in pairs, one sessile the 
 other pedicellate, along the slender continuous rhachis of the short branches 
 of a long cylindrical spikelike panicle, densely silky with the long hairs sur- 
 rounding and seated on the spikelets= Glumes four, all thin hyaline and 
 awnless, two outer empty ones usually hairy, the third empty or rarely 
 enclosing a flower smaller and without hairs ; terminal flowering glume still 
 smaller. Palea usually truncate and jagged at the top. Stamens two, or 
 one only in species not Australian. Styles distinct. Grain small, free, 
 enclosed in the outer glumes. 
 
 Imperata arundinacea, Cyr. (Reed-like.) " Blady-grass. " A. stiff, 
 erect, perennial, I foot to 3 feet high, glabrous, except sometimes a tuft of 
 hairs at the nodes, which, however, is not so common in Australian as in 
 Indian specimens. Leaves erect, narrow, often longer than the stem. Spike- 
 like panicle very dense, 3 to 8 inches long, regularly cylindrical, silvery 
 white with the long silky hairs concealing the glumes, the dark-coloured 
 stigmas and oblong-linear anthers alone protruding. Spikelets li to near 2 
 lines long; outer glume five or seven nerved, the second three or five 
 nerved, the third usually empty ; terminal flowering glume still smaller. 
 Palea usually truncate and jagged at the top. Grain small, free, enclosed 
 in the outer glumes. 
 
 This perennial grass is found all over Australia, and also in the temperate 
 and tropical regions of the Old World. It is very common in the coastal 
 districts of this country, but I have not observed it growing very far into the 
 interior. It is generally found growing on low-lying, rich^ moist land, though 
 I have occasionally seen it growing on hillsides. In some instances it covers 
 large areas of undrained land, and if the old stems and leaves are burnt off 
 in October or November, the result will be a capital growth of succulent 
 herbage during the greater part of the summer, which cattle eat with avidity. 
 When the stems and leaves become old, however, they are very tough and 
 harsh, and in that condition are seldom or never eaten if other herbage is 
 obtainable. The ' k blady-grass" has sometimes proved a valuable standby for 
 stock during prolonged drought!?, especially after being burnt off in spring- 
 time. I know of an instance where a number of sheep and cattle almost 
 depended upon this species for forage for a time during a very dry period. It 
 would be a good grass to plant for binding the littoral sands, as its under- 
 ground stems form a perfect network, and are most difficult to eradicate. It 
 can also be recommended for planting on railway embankments, the banks 
 of rivers or dams, or on any loose earth, which it would bind and prevent 
 injury from heavy rains or flood- waters. It should never be encouraged near 
 cultivated land, however, for once it becomes established on good soil it would 
 prove almost irrepressible'; every small joint of its underground stems that is 
 left in the ground is capable of producing a young plant. When the " blady- 
 grass " is in flower it is easily recognised amongst other herbage by its silvery- 
 white spike-like panicles. It produces a fair amount of seed, which usually 
 ripens in the autumn months. It is easily propagated by division of its 
 roots. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. B, A 
 spik4et opened out showing the four glumes ani palea. c, Grain, back and front view. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Imperata arundinacea, Cyr. 
 "Blady Grass." 
 
Isachne australis, /?. Br, 
 " Swamp Millet." 
 
Australian Grasses. 31 
 
 ISACHNE, R. 
 
 (From two Greek words signifying " equal" and a " glume.") 
 
 SPTKELETS two-flowered, both flowers hermaphrodite, or the upper female, 
 or the lower male, small, in loose panicles ; the rhachis of the spikelet 
 articulate above the empty glumes, glabrous, and not produced above the 
 flowering ones. Glumes unawned, convex, faintly nerved, two outer empty 
 ones nearly equal ; flowering ones of a firmer consistence, closely sessile, or 
 the upper one slightly raised. Palea as long as the glume. Styles distinct. 
 Grain enclosed in the hardened glume and palea, and free from them. 
 
 Isachne australis, E. Br. (Southern species.) " Swamp Millet." 
 Stems rather slender, decumbent, creeping, and rooting at the lower nodes, 
 ascending to 1 foot or more. Leaves lanceolate, rough with a minute pubes- 
 cence. Panicle loose, spreading, ovoid in circumscription, 1| to 3 inches 
 long, with numerous filiform branches. Spikelets all pedicellate, nearly 1 line 
 long. Outer glumes quite glabrous. Lower flower usually male, with a 
 glabrous glume, the upper female, shortly stipitate, with the glume usually 
 minutely and slightly pubescent; the rhachis slightly dilated and articulate 
 immediately under the upper glume. Palea as long as the glume. Grain 
 enclosed in the hardened glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 This perennial grass is generally found growing by the sides of streams, 
 and on swampy lands in the coastal districts of Queensland, New South 
 Wales, and Victoria. Mr. Bentham says it is found also in tropical Asia 
 from Ceylon and the Peninsula to the Malayan Archipelago and South 
 China. In the settled districts in the Australian Colonies it is not nearly so 
 abundant as it was a few years ago, especially in places where cattle have 
 had easy access. When collecting botanical specimens a few days ago I had 
 a striking prooE of this. In a district where it used to grow abundantly 
 not very long ago the only place that I observed it growing luxuriantly was 
 protected on one side by a steep bank, and on the other side by a fence. 
 Not only are horses and cattle remarkably fond of the " swamp millet," but 
 pigs eat it with avidity. It is well worth conservation on wet lands in the 
 coastal districts of all the Australian Colonies, and I can highly recommend 
 it also for planting on the banks of rivers or dams to protect them from 
 injury by heavy rains or floods. Its underground stems and roots form a 
 perfect mat in a very short time, and when it becomes well established in 
 the soil it is not easily dislodged. It will bear submersion for a few days 
 without the slightest injury. When this grass is allowed to grow undis- 
 turbed for a time ifc procluces plenty of seed, so that there would be no 
 difficulty in collecting a quantity for dissemination in different parts of the 
 country. It should be sown in the spring of the year. This grass will also 
 propagate readily from pieces of the root if planted during the spring of the 
 year. Its seeds usually ripen during November, December, and January. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Showing the sessile male and stipitate female floret 
 with the outer glumes removed, c, Male floret. D, Female floret. E, Grain, back and front 
 views. All variously magnified. 
 
32 Australian Grasses. 
 
 ISCHJEMUM, Linn. 
 
 (From ischein, to check; said to have derived the name from, the woolly 
 seeds of a species having been used to stop bleeding at the nose.) 
 
 SPIKELETS in pairs in the alternate notches of the articulate flexuose rhachis 
 of simple spikes, one sessile with one hermaphrodite terminal flower and a 
 male one below it, the other pedicellate, and either similar or with only on 
 hermaphrodite or one or two male flowers or reduced to empty glumes, the 
 spikes either solitary or two or more, sessile or nearly so at the end of the 
 common peduncle. Glumes in the sessile spikelet four, the outer one the 
 largest, awnless, truncate or two-toothed at the top ; second glume keeled, 
 and sometimes produced into a short straight awn ; third glume rather 
 smaller, thin, enclosing a palea and three stamens ; terminal glume a twisted 
 and bent awn, attenuate or hyaline, and bifid at the base as in Andropogon. 
 . Palea small and thin, or none. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed in the glumes, 
 but free from them. 
 
 Ischsemum laxum, E. Br. (Referring to the loose habit of the grass.) 
 "Rat-tail Grass." A rather slender grass of 2 to 3 feet, the Australian 
 specimens quite glabrous. Leaves narrow, often subulate, the ligula short, 
 ciliate. Spike single, dense, sometimes slightly curved, 2 to 4 or rarely 
 5 inches long; rhachis and pedicels ciliate. Sessile spikelet narrow, scarcely 
 flattened, 3 to 4 lines long ; outer glume acutely acuminate, with two 
 rather prominent nerves and obscure ones between them ; second glume 
 thin, produced into a long, fine, straight awn ; third hyaline, enclosing a 
 palea and a male flower ; terminal glume hyaline, narrow, bifid, with a long 
 bent awn. Pedicellate spikelet more conspicuous, much flattened as well as 
 the pedicel. Glumes acutely acuminate, the outer one broadly lanceolate, 
 with five very prominent nerves ; the second thin, scarious, faintly three- 
 nerved ; two flowering glumes and palea's thin and hyaline, both with male 
 flowers, or the third empty. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in New South "Wales, Queensland, and 
 North Australia, and, according to Bentham, it is found also in tropical 
 Asia and Africa. It is abundant in many parts of Queensland, but, as far 
 as I am aware, is not very plentiful in New South Wales. I was the first 
 to record it for the latter colony, and that only quite recently. 
 
 The specimen from which the drawing was made was collected near 
 Tamworth, in the northern part of New South Wales. The growth of this 
 grass is much more slender in the last-named colony than in the adjoining 
 one of Queensland. On rich alluvial soils in the latter colony it produces a 
 great amount of herbage, which, though rather coarse, make tolerably good 
 feed for cattle ; for sheep it is not so highly spoken of. I have had this 
 grass under experimental cultivation, and although it produced plenty of 
 herbage which was superior to that generally seen when it is growing 
 naturally in pastures, still I never looked upon it as a first-class forage 
 grass. It will withstand a long spell of dry weather, and is valuable in this 
 respect, because it can be depended upon when some other kinds of grasses 
 fail. It is well worth conservation along with other grasses, but it is not 
 one that I would recommend for cultivation in any portion of the continent. 
 If the grass is allowed to grow unmolested for a time it produces a fair 
 amount of seed, which usually ripens in November and December. But 
 if the season should happen to be a wet one, the seeds may not mature until 
 January or February. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangements of the spikelcts (opened out) on the 
 rhachis. B, Sessile and pedicellate spikelet. c, Sessile spikelet showing the glumes, awn, 
 and palea. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
Ischsemum laxum, R. Br. 
 "Rat-tail Grass." 
 
Neurachne mitchelliana, Nees. 
 " Mulga Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 33 
 
 NEUEACHNE, E. JSr. 
 
 (From neuron, a nerve, and achne, a covering; in allusion to the hairs on 
 the nerves of the glumes.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one terminal hermaphrodite flower, and very rarely a second 
 male one below it, sessile along the continuous rhachis of a simple ovoid or 
 cylindrical spike. Glumes four, the second the largest, fringed on each side, 
 at least in the lower half, with long spreading cilia on the mtramarginal 
 nerve ; third glume smaller and thinner, usually with a small palea in its 
 axil. Fruiting glume smaller, thin, and often hyaline. The palea also very 
 thin, as long as or longer than the glume. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed 
 in the thin palea and glume, but free from them. 
 
 Neurachne mitchelliana, Nees. (After Sir Thomas Mitchell.) "Mulga 
 Grass." Stems from a knotty woolly branching base erect, leafy to the 
 inflorescence, or nearly so. Leaves flat, short, spreading, ciliate with a few 
 long hairs, or the lower ones woolly-hairy. Spike narrow-cylindrical, 1 
 inch to nearly 2 inches long. Spikelets about 2 lines long, with a tuft 
 of hairs at their base. Outer glume as long as the others, many-nerved, 
 ciliate, marked in the centre on the back with a transverse callosity, bearing 
 long rigid horizontally spreading hairs, with a broad cavity underneath it, 
 very thin and almost hyaline, bordered by a prominent nerve on each side ; 
 second glume broad to above the middle, pubescent on the back, and densely 
 fringed on each side by long spreading hairs, the upper part narrow, and 
 glabrous, or nearly so ; third glume shorter, thin, faintly nerved, and not 
 ciliate, either empty or enclosing a small palea. Fruiting glume and palea 
 thin and almost hyaline. 
 
 A perennial species, which rarely exceeds 1 foot in height. It is found 
 in all the Australian Colonies, but is peculiar to the far interior. It w T as 
 collected in Central Australia by the Elder Exploring Expedition, but is 
 not reported to be very abundant anywhere. Its stems rise from a thick 
 woolly rhizome, which probably acts as a storage reservoir to the plant in 
 very dry weather, for it will withstand, and remain green throughout, a very 
 severe drought even when growing on rather poor soil. It is generally 
 found growing in what is termed " mulga country," that is, where the "mulga 
 tree" (Acaca aneura) is the predominant vegetation, hence stockmen call it 
 "mulga grass." It is a general favourite amongst pastoralists in the interior, 
 and it can nearly always be depended upon to yield a fair amount of herbage 
 during early springtime, of which sheep are very fond. It is well worth 
 disseminating all over the arid interior where it does not already exist, and 
 also on dry, sandy land. It might be conserved with advantage to supply 
 feed during dry seasons. When allowed to grow undisturbed for a time the 
 " mulga grass " produces a fair amount of seed, which usually ripens during 
 October, November, and December, according to the season. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Open spikelct, showing the four glumes, and the very thin palea. 
 B, Outer glume, c, Second glume, v, Back and front views of the grain. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
34 Australian Grasses. 
 
 OPLISMENUS, Beauv. 
 
 (From lioplismenos, awned ; referring to the awns on the spikelets.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one terminal hermaphrodite flower, and a rudimentary one 
 below it, awned, clustered along the secund distant branches of a simple 
 panicle. Glumes four, the lowest empty one not much shorter than the 
 others and with a longer awn, the flowering glume awnless and hardened 
 with the palea round the grain as in Panic urn. 
 
 Oplismenus compositus, Beauv. (Composite.) "Awned Pauick Grass." 
 Usually a weak grass, softly pubescent or villous, but sometimes nearly 
 glabrous. Stems decumbent or creeping and rooting at the base, ascending 
 sometimes to above 1 foot. Leaves from linear-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, 
 4 to 5 inches long in the larger specimens, but more frequently under 2 
 inches. Panicle slender, consisting of 4 to 8 or rarely more distant one- 
 sided branches or spikes, of which the lowest slender ones are 2 inches 
 long in the most luxuriant specimens, scarcely i an inch long in others, the 
 upper ones, or sometimes the greater number, reduced to short clusters. 
 Spikelets glabrous pubescent or hirsute, rather above 1 line long, in distinct 
 clusters of two or three each along the longer branches, crowded on the 
 shorter ones. G-lumes, three lower ones membranous, five-nerved, the lowest 
 not much shorter than the others, tapering into a rather long smooth awn, 
 the second with a small point or short awn, or only acuminate, the third 
 rather larger, awnless, with a small hyaline palea or rudimentary flower in 
 its axil ; flowering glume nerveless, smooth, and hard, as well as the palea 
 round the grain. 
 
 A slender, perennial, somewhat hairy grass, with decumbent or creeping 
 stems, nearly always found growing under the dense shade of trees, and 
 principally in scrubs in the coastal districts of New South Wales, Victoria, 
 and Queensland, but also on the Blue Mountains in the former colony. 
 This species is of very little value for forage purposes, as stock seldom or 
 never touch it, but it is a most useful grass for planting under the dense 
 shade of trees or buildings, where very little else would grow. If used for 
 that purpose it would soon form a pleasing feature in what is often a great 
 eyesore in shady places, as it makes a great amount of growth in a very 
 short time. This grass is easily propagated by pieces of its stems or from 
 seed. The best time to plant is in spring and autumn, and the best time to 
 sow is in August, after rainfall if possible. In the coastal districts of this 
 country I have seen acres of scrub-land covered with this grass, which formed 
 a most beautiful carpet of green under the dense growing trees. 
 
 There are two other species (Oplismenus setarius, JR. et $., and Panicum 
 pygmceum, JR. Br.) of grasses indigenous to Australia, which grow under 
 similar conditions to the one under notice, and I would particularly draw 
 the attention of Australian foresters to the value of these grasses for planting 
 in forests as preventives against bush-fires. If these grasses were estab- 
 lished in young plantations of cedar, beech, cowrie, hoop-pine, and other 
 coastal growing trees, they would prove a great safeguard to the plantations 
 during the summer months, when bush-fires are sometimes prevalent. There 
 is a beautiful variegated form of the Oplismenus compositus which is well 
 worth cultivation in gardens. The typical form of this grass bears a fair 
 amount of seed, which ripens during the late summer and autumn months, 
 so that there would be little difficulty in collecting seed for dissemination in 
 any portion of the continent where it may not already be growing. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. B, An 
 open spikelet showing the four glumes and two paleas. c, Grain, back and front views. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Oplismenus compositus, Beauv. 
 "Awned Panick Grass." 
 
Panicum bicolor, R. Br. 
 "Two-coloured Panick Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 35 
 
 PANICUM, Linn. 
 
 (The old Latin name, derived by Pliny from paniculum, a panicle ; alluding 
 to the usual form of inflorescence.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one terminal hermaphrodite flower, and occasionally a male 
 or rudimentary flower below it, rarely awned, variously arranged along the 
 branches of a simple or compound panicle rarely reduced to a simple spike, 
 the partial rhachis very rarely produced beyond the last spikelet ; barren 
 awn-like branches none, or very rarely a single one. Glumes usually four, 
 the outer one smaller than the others, not awned, often very small, deficient 
 only in P. gilbosum, the second and third very variable in relative propor- 
 tions, the third occasionally w^ith a palea with or without three stamens in 
 its axil ; fourth or fruiting glume smaller or as long as the third, of a firmer 
 consistence, enclosing a palea and hermaphrodite flower. Styles distinct or 
 very shortly united at the base. Grain enclosed in the hardened fruiting 
 glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 Panicum bicolor, R. Br. (Two-coloured.) " Two-coloured Panick 
 Grass." Usually a small slender tufted grass, with much the habit of some 
 species of Air a or Agrostis, but sometimes above 1 foot high, approaching in 
 habit the P. melananthum. Leaves linear, usually very narrow, more or less 
 hairy, especially at the orifice of the sheath, rarely quite glabrous ; the ligula 
 very short, ciliate. Panicle usually only 2 or 3 inches long, loose and 
 slender, but rather narrow, but sometimes larger and spreading; the branches 
 capillary and flexuose, not clustered, and not much divided. Spikelets all 
 pedicellate, about 1 line long, glabrous. Outer glume acute, three-nerved, 
 fully half as long as the spikelet ; second and third glumes nearly equal, 
 acute, about five-nerved ; the third with a palea, but 110 stamens. Eruiting 
 glume smooth and shining. Grain enclosed in the hardened fruiting glume 
 and palea, but free from them. 
 
 A perennial grass found in the coastal districts of New South Wales and 
 Queensland, and in some situations it is fairly abundant. It is found also in 
 the New England and south-western portions of New South Wales, but not 
 so plentifully as in the coastal districts. It is not particular as to soil or 
 situation, for I have seen it growing as often on iron-stone ridges as on good 
 pasture land ; but, of course, in the latter situation it yields a larger amount 
 of superior herbage. It is a capital sheep grass, but it is not bulky enough 
 to make good pasture for cattle, although all herbivora are remarkably fond 
 of it. In sheltered situations it will yield a fair amount of herbage during 
 the winter and early spring months, so on this account it is well worth 
 conservation. I have seen this grass growing plentifully in cultivated land, 
 and the herbage was much superior to that which is usually seen under 
 ordinary circumstances. This led me to believe that the grass could be much 
 improved if brought under cultivation. It produces a fair amount of seed, 
 which usually ripens in November and December. 
 
 This grass may be easily recognised, amongst other herbage, by its parti- 
 coloured spikelets. They are mostly purple, pink, and light green. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of tire spikelets on the panicle. B, 
 Spikelet opened out, showing the four glumes and two paleas. C, Showing the relative 
 size of the outer glume on the spikelet. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
36 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Panicum decompositum, E. Br. (Kef erring to the much-divided 
 panicle.) " Australian Millet." A semi-aquatic glabrous grass, often tall 
 and stout. Leaves mostly long, flat, and rather broad, especially when grow- 
 ing in water, narrow in drier situations ; ligula very short and broad, 
 ciliate. Panicle 6 inches to 1 foot long, or even more, with numerous 
 crowded filiform divided branches, the lower ones clustered, at first erect 
 and enclosed at the base within the last leaf sheaf; at length sometimes very 
 loose and spreading to the breadth of 1 foot. Spikelets all on slender 
 pedicels, narrow, acute, IT to 1| lines long ; usually of a pale straw colour. 
 Outer glume very short, broad and truncate, thin and nerveless ; second 
 and third glumes nearly equal, acute, thinly membranous, five or seven 
 nerved, the third with a palea from a quarter to one-third its length, but no 
 stamens. Fruiting glume very smooth and shining. Grain enclosed in the 
 hardened fruiting glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 This valuable grass is found all over Australia from the coastal districts to 
 the far interior, and in some places it is very plentiful. It was collected by 
 the Elder Exploring Expedition in Central Australia. In moist places and 
 by the side of watercourses, I have seen this grass growing 4 feet high ; on 
 the plains, however, it rarely exceeds 2 feet in height. In all its varied 
 forms it yields most valuable herbage which stock of all kinds are remarka- 
 bly fond of, and fatten on. I have had the " Australian millet " under 
 experimental cultivation for several years, and the amount of herbage 
 it yielded in a few months was really astonishing. The hay that was made 
 from it was equal to three tons per acre. I can highly recommend it for 
 systematic cultivation either in the eastern or central portion of the con- 
 tinent. When allowed to grow undisturbed for a time it produces a great 
 amount of seed, so that there would be no difficulty in collecting any 
 quantity either for systematic cultivation or for re-dissemination in those 
 parts of the country where it may have become scarce through overstocking. 
 The seeds usually ripen during the summer and autumn months. At one 
 time the aborigines used to collect the seeds in great quantities, grind them 
 between stones, make them into cakes, and use them as an article of food. Sir 
 Thomas Mitchell (" Three Expeditions," vol. I. pp. 237 and 290), alluding 
 to this grass, says : " In the neighbourhood of our camp the grass had been 
 pulled up to a very great extent and piled in hay-ricks, so that the aspect of 
 the desert was softened into the agreeable semblance of a hay-field. The 
 grass had evidently been thus laid up by the natives, but for what purpose 
 we could not imagine. At first I thought the heaps were only the remains 
 of encampments, as the aborigines sometimes sleep on a little dry grass ; but 
 when we found the ricks, or hay-cocks, extending for miles, we were quite 
 at a loss to understand why they had been made. All the grass was of one 
 kind, and not a spike of it was left in the soil over the whole ground. * * : 
 We were still at a "loss to know for what purpose the heaps of one particular 
 kind of grass had been pulled, and so laid up hereabouts. Whether it was 
 accumulated by the natives to allure birds, or by rats (as their holes were 
 seen beneath), we were puzzled to determine. The grass was beautifully 
 green beneath the heaps and full of seeds, and our cattle were very fond of 
 this hay." 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the relative size of the outer glume to the spikelet. B, A 
 spikelet opened out, showing the position of the four glumes and two paleas. C. Grain, 
 back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
Panicum decompositum, R. Br. 
 
 " Australian Millet." 
 
Panicum effusum, R. Br. 
 " Branched Panick Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 37 
 
 Panicum effusum, R. Br. (Eeferring to the numerous branches of the 
 compound panicle.) " Branched Panick Grass." An erect perennial, from 
 1 foot to 2 feet high. Leaves lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, scabrous and 
 hairy as well as the sheaths, the nodes bearded with long spreading hairs ; 
 ligula very short and ciliate. Panicle much-branched, sessile within the last 
 leaf, 3 to 4 inches long when first in flower, at length twice as long j the 
 filiform, divided branches very spreading and flexuose, the lower ones densely 
 clustered but not verticillate, the upper ones scattered and distant. Spikelets 
 all pedicellate, acute, about 1 line long, glabrous. Outer glume acute, one 
 to three nerved, about half the length of the spikelet or rather more ; second 
 and third glumes nearly equal, five or seven nerved ; a palea within the third 
 about half its length. Fruiting glume smooth and shining. Grain enclosed 
 in the hardened fruiting glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in all the Australian Colonies, both in the 
 coastal districts and in the far interior, and in many places it is very plentiful. 
 There are two distinct forms of this grass. The typical one is very hairy, and 
 is peculiar to the coastal districts, and has, so far as I am aware, not been 
 found at many stations very far inland. The variety convallium is much less 
 hairy, and is more or less glaucous, and, as far as at presenb known, is found 
 only in the interior. The typical form is not particular as to soil or situation, 
 for it may as often be seen growing on ridges as on the more fertile low 
 lands ; but, of course, in the latter situation it yields a superior herbage. 
 The inland form is generally found growing on rich, chocolate soils. 
 Under ordinary circumstances both these grasses yield a fair amount of rich 
 leafy herbage, of which cattle and sheep are very fond, the latter particularly 
 so. I have seen the typical form of this grass growing 2 feet high in culti- 
 vated fields, and its herbage was much superior to that seen in ordinary 
 pastures, which led me to believe that it could be much improved under 
 cultivation. During ordinary seasons both these grasses grow and produce a 
 quantity of leafy herbage for a considerable time before they develop their 
 flower panicles, which is a decided advantage in any grass, and both are well 
 worth conservation in those parts of the country where they may already be 
 growing, and of dissemination in those parts of the country where they do 
 not already exist. There would be no difficulty in bringing them under 
 systematic cultivation, for, under ordinary circumstances, they yield an 
 abundance of seed. The seed of the variety which is peculiar to the interior 
 ripens in October, November, and December. The seed of the typical form, 
 in the coastal districts, usually ripens one month or two months later. I 
 have seen small areas, from which cattle had been excluded for a time, where 
 any quantity of the seed of this grass might have been collected in a very 
 short time. On two occasions I have had specimens sent to me for identifi- 
 cation that were terribly smitten with fungi. These specimens came from 
 Queanbeyan and near Braid wood, in New South Wales. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet opened out, showing tlie four glumes and two paleas. 
 B, Showing the relative size of the outer glume on the spikelet. c, Grain, back and front 
 views. All variously magnified. 
 
38 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Panicum gracile, E. Br. (Slender.) " Slender Panick Grass." 
 Erect, much branched towards the base, quite glabrous, usually slender, 
 from under 1 foot to above H feet high, but exceedingly variable'in stature 
 and aspect. Leaves from very narrow to rather broad. Panicle usually long 
 and slender, the branches or sessile spikes or clusters erect, distant, the 
 lower ones 3 to 4 lines, or rarely | to 1 inch long, the upper ones smaller, 
 often reduced to short clusters or to single spikelets towards the end of the 
 panicle, the rhachis of the branches often but not always produced beyond 
 the last spikelet into a point sometimes as long as the spikelet. Spikelets 
 singly sessile or in pairs, one pedicellate the other sessile along the rhachis, 
 rarely more or less distinctly in two rows almost as in P.fiavidum, ovoid, 1 line 
 to IT lines long, nearly straight, the outer glume ovate, acute, rather less or 
 more than half as long as the spikelet, the second and third nearly equal, 
 both empty, membranous, and about five-nerved. Fruiting glume as long or 
 rather longer, minutely transversely rugose. Grain enclosed in the hardened 
 fruiting glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 A perennial grass, found in all the Australian Colonies from the coastal 
 districts to the far interior, and is fairly plentiful in some situations. 
 As might be supposed, a grass growing under such varied conditions of 
 soil and climate as this one does is very variable as regards stature and 
 appearance. Some forms of it might readily be mistaken for the variety 
 tenuior of P. flavidum. In fact I have myself often been puzzled at first 
 sight until I examined the spikelets, when its distinctive characters can 
 at once be recognised. Mr. Bentham, writing about this grass, makes 
 the following remarks : " The variations of P. gracile are sometimes 
 so great that it is difficult to reduce all the forms to one species with- 
 out having seen the almost insensible gradations which unite them." 
 In all its varied forms, however, it is an excellent pasture-grass, which 
 stock of all descriptions are remarkably fond of, and fatten on. It does 
 not seem particular as to soil or situation, for it may often be found 
 growing on dry stony hillsides. On rich pasture-land, however, it yields a 
 very superior herbage. On poor soils and in dry situations its leaves are 
 very narrow, and in dry seasons its stems are somewhat harsh ; still, when 
 in this condition, cattle seem fond of it. On rich soils in the interior this 
 grass will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry weather, and on this 
 account it is well worth conservation in those parts where it is already 
 growing, and also dissemination in those parts of the country where it may 
 not already exist. "When allowed to grow undisturbed for a time it pro- 
 duces a fair amount of seed, which, in the interior, "will usually ripen during 
 October and November, and in the coastal districts during December and 
 January. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. 
 B, A spikelet opened out, showing the four glumes and palea. C, Showing the relative 
 size of the outer glume on the spikelet. P, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Panicum gracile, R. Br. 
 "Slender Panick Grass." 
 
Panicum leucophoeum, //. B. et K. 
 "Cotton Grass." 
 
.Australian Grasses*^**" 39 
 
 Panicum leucophoeum, H. B. et K. (Referring to the silvery and 
 purplish hairs on the spikelets.) " Cotton-grass." Stems from a branching 
 base 1 foot to 2 feet high. Leaves narrow, long or short, usually glabrous. 
 Panicle of a few long, slender, and erect spikelike branches, very unequal, 
 and sometimes reduced to two nearly equal ones, or to a single one, the 
 longest 3 to 4 inches or in some very lax Queensland specimens 5 inches 
 loDg ; secondary branches short, slender, erect, the lower ones with four or 
 five sessile or pedicellate spikelets, the upper ones with only one or two. 
 Spikelets scarcely \\ lines long, rather acute, densely covered with long, 
 silky, silvery, or purple hairs, often spreading when in fruit. Outer glume 
 scarcely \ line long, obtuse ; second and third glumes nearly equal and 
 empty, both densely hairy ; the second usually three-nerved ; the third five- 
 nerved. Fruiting glume shorter, smooth, rather acute, and often slightly 
 gibbous at the base. Grain enclosed in the hardened fruiting glume and 
 palea, but free from them. 
 
 This perennial grass is found all over Australia, from the coast to the far 
 interior. It appears to be much more abundant, however, in the latter than 
 in the former portion of the continent. According to Mr. Bentham this 
 species is also found in tropical Africa and America. As might be supposed, 
 a grass growing under such varied conditions of soil and climate has de- 
 veloped into many forms. It appears to be most variable in" the degree of 
 development of its inflorescence. I have received specimens for identification 
 with the panicles composed of seven or eight spikelike branches, others with 
 two branches only, and a few secondary short ones ; others again with only 
 a simple spike. The latter specimens belong to the variety monostachyum, 
 and are found only, as far as I am aware, in the far interior. Both the 
 typical form and the variety were collected in West Australia by the Elder 
 Exploring Expedition. This grass is easily recognised in pastures when in. 
 flower by its spikelets being densely covered with long, silky, silvery, or 
 purple hairs, which give it quite an ornamental appearance. It is generally 
 found growing on rich, chocolate soils in the interior, and in such situations, 
 in a good season, it will often attain a height of 3 feet. In all its varied 
 forms it is a valuable pasture-grass, and during an ordinary season it will 
 yield a quantity of rich herbage which is much relished by stock of all kinds. 
 I can recommend it for general pasture, or to be grown and made into hay. 
 I have had this species under experimental cultivation for several consecutive 
 years, and it proved a very prolific grass. When cut as the flower-stalks 
 first appeared it made excellent hay, of which horses were very fond. When 
 the grass is allowed to grow undisturbed for a time it produces a great 
 amount of seed, which usually ripens in November and December, but 
 occasionally in the autumn months. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on tlie rhachis. B, 
 Showing the relative size of the outer glume on the spikelet. C, A spikelet opened out, 
 showing the four glumes and palea. D, Grain back and front views. All rariously 
 magnified. 
 
40 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Panicum melananthum, F. v. M. (Eeferring to the dark-coloured 
 spikelets.) " Black-seeded Panick Grass." A glabrous grass of 2 feet or 
 more, decumbent at the base, and perhaps annual. Leaves flat and rather 
 broad, the ligula exceedingly short, ciliate. Panicle sessile or nearly so 
 within the last leaf, large and loose, with very numerous much-divided 
 capillary branches scattered along the main rhachis, and very rarely clustered. 
 Spikelets all pedicellate, about 1 line long, acute, glabrous, often dark- 
 coloured. Outer glume ovate, acute, one or sometimes three nerved, nearly 
 half the length of the spikelet ; second and third glumes nearly equal, acute, 
 rather broad, membranous, with usually five not prominent nerves, the third 
 quite empty without any palea. Fruiting glume smooth and shining. 
 
 This grass is found in the coastal districts of ]X"ew South Wales, Victoria, 
 and Queensland, and also in New England, and on a few south-western 
 stations in the first-named Colony, but nowhere is it reported to be very 
 plentiful. It generally grows on moist lands, and in the warmer parts of 
 Australia will attain a height of about 3 feet. During the summer months 
 it yields a fair^ amount of succulent herbage which is much relished by stock. 
 Although it is* not adapted for cultivation in ordinary pastures, still it is 
 worth dissemination on low moist lands in the warmer parts of the continent 
 where it may not already be growing. On such lands it would yield good 
 herbage during the most adverse seasons of drought, and might be the means 
 of saving a number of stock from starvation during such periods. This grass 
 would, no doubt, pay to cultivate on irrigated land, for like most other 
 grasses it would improve in quality and yield under cultivation. I would 
 not recommend it for growing on the banks of rivers or dains, with an idea 
 of binding them, to prevent injury against the fury of flood-waters, because 
 its roots generally do not take such a firm hold of the ground as do those of 
 some other kinds of grasses which grow on moist land. 
 
 The species under notice is easily distinguished from other grasses by its 
 large panicles of dark-coloured seeds. With this peculiarity, and with the 
 aid of the engraving, no one, even those who have no pretensions to a know- 
 ledge of grasses, will have any difficulty in identifying it. 
 
 This grass produces a fair amount of seed, which usually ripens in Decem- 
 ber and January. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the relative size of the other glume on the spikelet. B, 
 An open spikelet, showing the arrangement of the four glumes and palea. c, Grain, back 
 and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
Panicum melananthum, F. v. M. 
 " Black-seeded Panick Grass," 
 
Panicum parviflorum, R. Br. 
 " Small-flowered Panick Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 41 
 
 Panicum parviflorum, E. Br. (Keferring to the small flowers.) " Small- 
 flowered Paniek Grass." A tall, but slender, usually glabrous grass. 
 Leaves long and narrow ; the ligula scarious, often long, jagged at the end. 
 Panicle branches often numerous, spreading, simple, filiform, 2 to 4 inches, 
 or in some specimens 5 to 6 inches long ; the lower ones distant, the upper 
 ones often crowded. Spikelets ovoid, glabrous, 1 to f lines long, mostly in 
 pairs along the flexuose rhachis, one on a longer pedicel than the other ; but 
 in the lower part of the branch often clustered, the longer pedicel bearing 
 two or three spikelets. Outer glume very small, ovate, usually one-nerved ; 
 second and third glumes nearly equal, both empty, membranous, obtuse ; the 
 second usually three-nerved, the", third five-nerved. Fruiting glume as long, 
 more acute, smooth. 
 
 A slender, glabrous, perennial grass, growing from 1 foot to 3 feet high, and 
 found generally in the coastal districts of New South "Wales and Queensland, 
 and in some places it is fairly plentiful. It is generally one of the first 
 native grasses to make its appearance after a clearing has been made in the 
 scrub. It is not particular as to soil or situation, for I have seen it growing 
 on dry stony ridges and on rich alluvial bottoms ; but, of course, on rich 
 soils it yields a far superior and a greater bulk of herbage. Its strong 
 penetrating roots enable it to remain green during a long spell of dry 
 weather. In sheltered situations it will grow nearly all the year round, and 
 during an ordinary summer will yield a quantity of rich succulent herbage, 
 which is greedily eaten by all herbivora. It is well worth conserving, and 
 even cultivating, where dairy-cows are kept, and it should make good hay if 
 cut when the flower-stems first appear. It might also be grown for ensilage. 
 It produces an abundance of seed, which ripens during the summer and 
 autumn months. There is a variety (var. pilosa) of this grass which is some- 
 times found in the coastal districts, but with the exception of being hairy it 
 has nearly all the characteristics of the species. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the flexuose rhachis. 
 B, Showing the relative size of the outer glume on the spikelet. c, An open spikelet, 
 showing the four glumes and palea. D. Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
42 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Panicum prolutum, F.v.M. (Referring to tlie grass being found in wet 
 places.) " Rigid Panick Grass." Stems from a branching base erect, rigid, 
 1 foot to 2 feet high. Leaves rather rigid, the margins involute when 
 dry, glabrous and glaucous ; ligula very prominent, scarious, truncate or 
 slightly jagged. Panicle 3 to 6 inches long, of numerous slender divided 
 branches, the lower ones clustered, erect, and enclosed at the base by the 
 last sheath, or at length exserted and spreading. Spikelets on filiform 
 pedicels, ovoid, acute, glabrous, about 11 lines long. Empty glumes rather 
 rigid, prominently nerved, the outer one obtuse, with scarious margins, more 
 than half the length of the spikelet, three or five nerved, the second and 
 third nearly equal, acute, five or seven nerved, no palea in the third. 
 Fruiting glume smooth and shining. 
 
 This erect, rather rigid, perennial species is found growing principally 
 in the interior of -New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, and South 
 Australia, and in some situations it is moderately plentiful. It is generally 
 found growing on good land that is liable to periodical inundations, and, as 
 it makes most of its growth during the summer months, it is a valuable 
 stand-by for stock when many other grasses are somewhat scarce. It is a 
 valuable addition to other herbage, and, under ordinary circumstances, will 
 retain its greenness far into the autumn months. It is not considered a 
 good grass to make hay of, as its stems and leaves are too rigid when fully 
 developed, but as a pasture-grass in the interior it is much valued. Before 
 the aborigines tasted the sweets of civilisation they used to collect the seeds 
 of this grass in large quantities, and use them as an article of food, after 
 grinding them between two stones, which converted them into a kind of 
 meal. The rigid panick grass is well worth conserving where it is already 
 growing, and disseminating in suitable districts where it does not already 
 exist. There would be no difficulty in collecting seeds of this grass, for 
 under ordinary circumstances it produces an abundance, which ripen in the 
 summer and autumn months. As much seed as would sow several acres 
 could be collected in a few hours in a reserved area or within the railway 
 enclosures. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelefc opened out, shoAving the four gl nines and palea. B, 
 Showing the relative size of the outer glume on the spikelet. c, Grain, back and front views. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Panicum prolutum, F. v. M. 
 " Rigid Panick Grass." 
 

Panicum sanguinale, Linn. 
 
Australian Grasses. 43 
 
 Panicum sanguinale, Linn. " Summer Grass." Decumbent, and often 
 shortly creeping and rooting at the base, ascending to 1 foot or rather 
 more. Leaves flaccid, flat, usually pubescent, and sprinkled with long 
 hairs especially on the sheaths, but sometimes nearly glabrous, Spikes 
 or panicle-branches three to eight, crowded at the end of a long peduncle, all 
 from nearly the same poinb or shortly distant, 1^ to 3 inches, or, in some 
 varieties, above 4 inches long ; the rhachis slender but angular, flexuose, 
 scabrous-ciliate. Spikelets in pairs, one nearly sessile, the other pedicillate, 
 oblong, rather acute, and about 1^ lines long. Outer glume minute, 
 rarely above i line long ; the second glume lanceolate, three-nerved, from 
 one-half to three-quarters the length of the spikelet ; the third glume usually 
 five-nerved, glabrous, or slightly ciliate, in the Australian specimens, empty. 
 Fruiting glume shorter, smooth. 
 
 An annual species, which is common all over the eastern and northern 
 portions of Australia, also in many districts in the interior. The " summer 
 grass" is found also in Asia, Africa, and America. It is a creeping, quick- 
 growing grass, and a great pest in cultivated land to farmers, orchardists, 
 and gardeners. It will grow on almost any kind of soil and in any situation, 
 provided that it is not too cold. This grass produces a great amount of 
 forage in an incredibly short space of time, which, being of a succulent 
 nature, is relished by all pasture animals. In. America the " summer grass " is 
 highly spoken of, and it is said that horses are so fond of the hay made from it 
 that they leave all other fodder for it. This species produces an abundance 
 of seed, which ripens in January, February, and March. It is said that 
 Linna3iis gave the specific name " sanguinale" to this grass, from a trick that 
 the boys had in Germany of pricking one another's noses with the spikes 
 until they bled. 
 
 In the Hortus Gramineus Wolurnensis occurs the following passage with 
 reference to this grass : " It produces much seed, of which birds are very 
 fond, and requires to be protected by nets, or otherwise, during the time of 
 ripening. The smaller birds pick out the ripe seed, even when only a small 
 quantity is formed among the blossoms. The common method of collecting 
 it and preparing it in Germany is as follows: At sunrise the seed is gathered 
 or beaten into a hair sieve from the dewy grass, spread on a sheet, and dried 
 for a fortnight in the sun ; it is then gently beaten with a wooden pestle in 
 a wooden trough or mortar, with straw laid between the seeds and the pestle, 
 till the chaff conies off ; they are then winnowed. After this, they are again put 
 into a trough or mortar in rows, with dried marigold flowers, apple and hazel 
 leaves, and pounded till they appear bright ; they are then winnowed again, 
 and being made perfectly clean by this last process, are fit for use. The 
 marigold flowers are added to give the seeds a fine colour. A bushel of seed 
 with the chaff yields only about two quarts of clean seed. When boiled 
 with milk and wine it forms an extremely palatable food, and is in general 
 made use of whole in the manner of sago, to which it is in most instances 
 preferred." 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. B, An 
 open spikelet, showing the three outer glumes, the fruiting glume, and palea. C, Showing 
 the relative size of the outer glunic on the spikelet. D, Grain, back and front views. All 
 variously magnified. 
 
44 Australian Grasses. 
 
 PAPPOPHORUM, Schrel. 
 
 (The plumose awns on the flowering glumes resembling the pappus 
 (hairy tufts) on some fruits of Composites.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one hermaphrodite flower, and one or more male or rudi- 
 mentary flowers or empty glumes above it, in a short dense and spike-like or 
 narrow and loose panicle ; the rhachis of the spikelet articulate above the 
 outer glumes, and hairy round the flowering glume. Outer glumes mem- 
 branous, many-nerved, awnless, as long as the spikelet. Flowering glume 
 broad, membranous, with nine, or in species not Australian, more nerves 
 produced into more or less plumose awns. Palea two-nerved, as long as the 
 glume, or longer. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed in the glume and palea, 
 and free from them. 
 
 Pappophorum nigricans, R. Br. (Inflorescence often of a dark colour.) 
 " Black Heads " Stems from under 1 foot to 1% feet high. Leaves flat or 
 convolute, usually narrow, sometimes quite setaceous, glabrous, pubescent, 
 or villous ; the nodes glabrous or bearded. Panicle dense and spike-like, 
 varying from ovoid-oblong, and under half an inch long, to narrow cylin- 
 drical and 3 inches long, or broader, more branched, and 2 to 3 inches 
 long, but always dense, pale or dark-coloured. Outer glumes varying 
 from 1 line to rather above 2 lines long, obtuse or acute, striate with 
 usually seven or nine nerves, but sometimes, especially on the lowest 
 glume, reduced to five and two of those short. Flowering glume not 
 above 1 line long, more or less hairy outside, especially at the base, 
 with nine fine spreading plumose awns, varying from the length of the 
 glume to twice as long. Above the flowering glume, and enclosed in it, is 
 usually a similar smaller one, with a male or rudimentary flower, and one or 
 two still smaller empty ones. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in all the Australian Colonies, from the 
 coastal districts to the far interior, and in many pastures forms a good 
 percentage of the herbage. As ifc grows under such varied conditions of soil 
 and climate, it is not remarkable that there are many forms of it. Some- 
 times the inflorescence is perfectly black, which circumstance led to the 
 specific name nigricans being given to it. At other times it is almost white, 
 but this grass can never be mistaken under careful examination. In all its 
 varied forms, however, it is a capital drought-resisting grass, and during the 
 summer months, in an ordinary season, it yields a fair amount of good 
 herbage, which, stock eat with avidity, and fatten on. When the stems of 
 this grass become old they often become very hard, and the foliage harsh, 
 and in that state, if other herbage is plentiful, stock seldom eat it. 
 
 The " black heads" is well worth conservation in those parts of the country 
 where it may already be growing, and redisseminating in those parts where 
 it may have been eaten out through overstocking. As it produces an abun- 
 dance of seed when allowed to grow undisturbed for a time, there would be 
 no difficulty in collecting any quantity from a reserved area for these pur- 
 
 Eoses. The seeds usually ripen during October, November, and December, 
 ome forms of this grass are very ornamental, and are worth the attention of 
 horticulturists. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, A spikelet with the outer glumes taken away, 
 showing the flowering glume and a similar smaller one, with a male or rudimentary flower 
 above that, c, Flowering glume and palea. D, Grain, back and front views. All yariously 
 magnified. 
 
Pappophorum nigricans, R. Br. 
 "Black Heads." 
 
UMViRSfTY 
 
 OF 
 
Paspalum distichum, Linn. 
 "Water Couch." 
 
Australian Grasses. 45 
 
 PASPALUM, Linn. 
 
 (From Paspalos, one of the Greek names for Millet.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, not awned, not callous at the base, in. one or two 
 rows along one side of slender spikes, either forming the branches of a 
 simple panicle, or rarely solitary. Glumes three, two outer ones empty, 
 usually membranous, and equal or nearly so, the third flowering of a firmer 
 texture. Palea within the flowering glume smaller and more involute. 
 Styles distinct, rather long. Grain enclosed in the hardened palea and 
 flowering glume, and free from them. 
 
 Paspalum distiehum, Linn. (Arranged in two rows.) " AVater Couch." 
 Stems often creeping and rooting in the sands to a great extent, the 
 ascending extremities varying: from short, and entirely covered with the 
 leaf-sheaths, to slender 1 foot long or more, with the leaves distant. Leaves 
 either linear-lanceolate and flat or involute and almost subulate, glabrous, 
 or with a few long hairs at the orifice of the sheath and base of the lamina. 
 Spikes two, close together, or the lowest at a distance of 1 lir.e to 2 lines, 
 quite glabrous, the rhachis not above | line broad. Spikelets sessile, in two 
 rows, oval-oblong, acute, or acuminate, flat, l- to nearly 2 lines long. 
 O liter empty glumes equal, and distinctly three-nerved. Fruiting glume 
 hardened, and very faintly three-nerved, or the central nerve alone per- 
 ceptible. 
 
 This creeping, rapid-growing, perennial grass is found in New South 
 "Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia, and generally in swampy places 
 or on moist land, and sometimes in water, but always in the coastal districts, 
 and sometimes close to the sea. It is particularly well adapted for covering- 
 waste moist lands, the banks of rivers and dams, which it binds very firmly 
 once its underground stems get well established in the soil. Periodical 
 inundations will not destroy it, but it is injured by severe frosts. This grass 
 yields a great quantity of valuable herbage, which stock of all descriptions are 
 remarkably fond of, and fatten on. It is highly spoken of by the dairymen in 
 the coastal districts of this country. It is not a good grass, how ever, for making 
 into hay, as it turns black in drying. It is said that butter made from the 
 milk of cows fed exclusively on its herbage is quite white, but in no other 
 way is it affected. Under ordinary circumstances this species remains 
 beautifully green throughout the summer months, and some persons have 
 been tempted to plant it on lawns, with rather serious consequences, however, 
 for to keep it in anything like order during the summer months it requires 
 cutting two or three times a week, and is as bad as ordinary couch lo get out 
 of cultivated land. It produces an abundance of seed, which ripens in 
 January, February, and March. There is a variety (var. littoralc) of this 
 grass, which is found only in, or near, brackish swamps, and differs only from 
 the one here described by its narrower leaves ; with these exceptions, its 
 qualities are much the same. 
 
 Baron von Mueller and L. Hummel give the following chemical analysis 
 of Paspalum distichum, Linn., made during the spring time of the year : 
 Albumen, 2'20; gluten, 771; starch, 156; gum, rtM.j sugar, 5'00 percent. 
 
 Reference, to plate. A, A portion of the spike, showing the arragement of the spikelets 
 on the rhachis. B, A spikelet, showing the cuter glumes, fruiting glume, and palea. 
 c, Grain, back and front views. All variously magnified. 
 
46 Australian Grasses. 
 
 PENTAPOGON, ft. Br. 
 
 t-. (Referring to the five lobes or awns at the end of the flowering glume.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, numerous in a rather dense, much-branched panicle ; 
 the rhachis of the spikelet articulate above the two outer glumes, with a tuft 
 of hairs surrounding the flowering glume, and not continued above it. 
 Glumes three, two outer persistent, membranous, acute, or shortly pointed. 
 Flowering glume narrow, rolled round the flower, divided at the .end into 
 five lobes or awns^ the central one rigid, at length twisted, continuous with 
 the keel and sometimes slightly dorsal, the lateral ones shorter and straight. 
 Palea narrow, enclosed in the flowering glume. Lodicules two. Styles short, 
 distinct. Grain enclosed in the glume, but free from it. 
 
 Pentapogon billardieri, R. Br. (After J. J. Labillardiere.) " Five- 
 awned Grass." An erect annual, from under 1 foot to above 2 feet high. 
 Leaves narrow, hairy, pubescent, or rarely glabrous. Panicle narrow, erect 
 or somewhat nodding, 2 to inches long. Spikelets numerous, nearly 
 sessile on the branches. Outer glumes narrow, varying from 3 to 6 lines 
 long, almost hyaline, with a prominent, shortly ciliate keel, often produced 
 into a short point. Flowering glume on a very short hairy stipes, the central 
 awn terete, rigid, -| to 1 inch long; the lateral lobes two 011 each side, much 
 shorter, erect, slightly flattened, and one-nerved. ; Grain enclosed in the 
 glume, but free from it. There is a variety (var. parvlfiorus) with the outer 
 glumes scarcely two lines long, the flowering glume and awns in proportion. 
 
 This grass is found in New South "Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and 
 Tasmania, but nowhere is it reported to be very plentiful. It is generally 
 found in the coastal districts or on the mountain ranges throughout the 
 southern portion of Australia. The specimen from which the drawing was 
 made was collected on the Bod alia Estate, in the southern portion of New 
 South Wales, where it is stated that cattle eat it greedily during the early 
 summer months. It is essentially a spring and early summer-growing grass, 
 and until November, December, or January, when its seeds begin to ripen, 
 it produces a fair amount of herbage, which is eaten by all herbivora. After 
 the flower-stems have developed, however, the herbage becomes harsh ; then 
 stock seldom or never touch it, if other grasses are plentiful. The " five-awned 
 grass" may often be found gro\ving on sandy soils, and if sheep are depastured 
 in such places they sometimes pull the plant up when eating it, as its roots 
 have such a slight hold upon the ground. It is not a grass that I would 
 recommend for cultivation, although it is worthy of conservation with other 
 pasture plants. It appears to hold its own in pastures that are not heavily 
 stocked ; .but this may be accounted for by the fact that it produces, under 
 ordinary circumstances, an abundance of seed which, when ripe, germinates 
 readily during the autumn or spring months. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Floret, c, Flowering glume flattened out, show- 
 ing the position of the five awns. D, Grain, back and front views. All variously 
 magnified. 
 
Pentapogon billardieri, R. Br. 
 " Five-awned Grass." 
 

Pollinia fulva, Benth< 
 " Sugar Grass," 
 
POLLINIA, Trin. 
 
 (Named in honour of Cyrus Pollini.) 
 
 SPIKELETS one-flowered, in pairs in the alternate notches of the articulate 
 rhachis of simple spikes, one sessile or shortly pedicellate, the other on a 
 longer pedicel, but the two otherwise similar; the spikes sessile and 
 clustered, or rarely solitary at the end of the common peduncle. Glumes 
 four or three, outer one the largest, membranous, awnless, with a truncate 
 toothed or ciliate tip ; second usually thinner, keeled, acute, or produced 
 into a fine straight awn, third thin and hyaline or deficient ; terminal or 
 fourth glume a twisted and bent awn, contracted and flexuose or hyaline, 
 dilated, and two-tobed at the base as in Andropogon. Palea small and 
 hyaline or none. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed in the outer glumes, and 
 free from them. 
 
 Pollinia fulva, Bentk. (Referring to the brown-coloured inflorescence.) 
 " Sugar Grass." Stems either slender and 1 foot to If feet high, or stouter, 
 more branching at the base, and attaining 2 to 4 feet, the nodes glabrous, or 
 shortly bearded. Leaves rather narrow tapering to fine points, the orifice 
 of the sheaths and ligula usually ciliate, and sometimes the sheaths hairy. 
 Spikes 2 or 3 sessile, and near together in a terminal cluster, but not quite 
 digitate, H to 2| inches long, covered with silky hairs of a rich brown. 
 Spikelets mostly about 2 lines long, but variable in size, all similar, or the 
 pedicellate ones rather narrower. Outer glume truncate or denticulate at 
 the end, faintly nerved ; second nearly as long, narrower, slightly keeled, 
 truncate; third very minute, or more frequently entirely deficient. Awn or 
 terminal glume slender, rarely f inch long, contracted into a flexuose stipes 
 or slightly dilated at the base, hyaline and bifid. Styles very shortly united. 
 
 A perennial grass which is Bound in all the Australian Colonies from the 
 coastal districts to the far interior. It is much more common, however, in 
 the latter than in the former portion of the continent. I have collected 
 specimens within a few miles of Sydney. It is easily recognised, when in 
 flower, amongst other grasses by its rich, brown, silky spikes. The " sugar 
 grass" is generally found growing on the richest of soils, and often on deep 
 alluvial flats bordering rivers and creeks. It is a superior pasture grass, and 
 is much praised by stockowners, who have given it the name of " sugar 
 grass," on account of the sweetness of its stems and foliage. During the 
 summer months, in an ordinary season, it produces a great bulk of rich, 
 succulent, sweet herbage, which is much relished by all herbivora. Under 
 experimental cultivation this grass produced a great amount of herbage, 
 much superior to that usually seen in pastures, and when cut just as the 
 flower-stems appeared it made excellent hay. I can highly recommend the 
 " sugar grass" for systematic conservation, and even cultivation, on good 
 land, especially in districts suited for grazing cattle. Erom its great yield 
 of herbage it ought to pay to make into ensilage, at any rate it is worth a 
 trial. It is a good grass to encourage on the banks of rivers, creeks, and 
 dams, as its strong penetrating roots Would help to bind the soil and prevent 
 it being washed away by the fury of flood-waters. "When left unmolested for 
 a time the " sugar grass" produces a fair amount of seed, which ripens in 
 November and December. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing the arrangement of the spikelets on the rhachis. B, The 
 sessile and pedicellate spikclet. c, Sessile spikclet, showing the arrangement of the glumes 
 and terminal awn. D, Grain. All variously magnified. 
 
48 Australian Grasses. 
 
 SET ARIA, Beam. 
 
 (Eroin seta, a bristle ; alluding to the involucre of bristles surrounding the 
 
 spikelets.) 
 
 SPIKELETS with one terminal hermaphrodite flower, and sometimes a second 
 male one below it, crowded in a cylindrical dense, or rarely interrupted 
 spike-like panicle not awned, but surrounded by numerous awn-like barren 
 branches, persistent on the main rhachis ; the spikelets sessile near the base 
 of the branches, and falling away from them. Glumes four, the outer one 
 small, the second usually shorter than the third. A palea, and sometimes 
 three stamens in the axil of the third. Terminal or fruiting glume of a 
 firmer consistence, with a perfect flower. Styles distinct. Grain enclosed 
 in the hardened glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 Setaria glauca, Beauv. (Referring to the pale bluish-green colour of 
 the plant.) " Pigeon Grass." An erect annual, of a pale green, 1 foot to 
 2 feet high. Leaves flat, with scabrous edges, and often ciliate with a few 
 long hairs. Spike-like panicle simple, cylindrical, 1 inch to 1-| inches long, 
 the spikelets solitary at the base of numerous awn-like branches, many of 
 which are barren and all scabrous with minute teeth directed upwards. 
 Spikelets ovoid, about 1% lines long. Outer glume very small, the second 
 not quite so long as the third. .A palea, and very rarely stamens (in the 
 northern and more vigorous growing specimens the stamens are generally 
 present) in the third. Fruiting glume more or less gibbous, marked with 
 prominent transverse wrinkles. 
 
 This annual grass is found growing over nearly the whole of Australia, but 
 nowhere is it reported to be very plentiful. It is not endemic in this 
 country, but is found growing in most of the warmer parts of the earth, but 
 whether it is under cultivation anywhere I am unable to say. It may be 
 found growing naturally on various soils in this country, but of course it 
 yields a superior and larger amount of herbage on rich alluvial flats than on 
 hillsides or on poorer land. On land that has been newly broken up it 
 yields a rich, succulent herbage during the summer months, which is much 
 relished by all kinds of stock. The " pigeon grass " is well worth systematic 
 cultivation, either to be cut for green feed, or for making into hay. If 
 grown for the latter it should be cut when the flower-steins first appear. I 
 have had many specimens sent to me for identification from various parts of 
 the country, and they were accompanied with notes to the effect that it was 
 an excellent forage grass. Some of the specimens that had been collected in 
 cultivated fields were 3 feet high. There would be no difficulty in bringing 
 the grass under systematic cultivation, for if allowed to grow undisturbed 
 for a time it produces a great amount of seed. Besides the value of the grass 
 for forage purposes, the seeds are good feed for many domestic birds. The 
 seed ripens during the summer and autumn months, and the best time to sow 
 is in September or October, according to situation. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet partly surrounded by awn-like barren branches. B, 
 Open spikelet, showing the four glumes and two paleas. c, Grain, back and front views. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
Setaria glauca, Beam** 
 '" Pigeon Grass." 
 
Sorghum plumosum, Bcauv, 
 
Australian Grasses. 49 
 
 SORGHUM, Pers. 
 
 (Said to be from Sorglii^ the Indian name.) 
 
 FERTILE spikelet one-flowered, sessile between two pedicellate male or 
 barren ones, at the end of the simple or divided branches of a terminal 
 panicle, with one to five pairs or triplets of spikelets below the terminal 
 three. Glumes on the fertile spikelets four, the outer one the largest, 
 awnless, lanceolate or broad, hard and shining, obscurely nerved ; second 
 glume rather hard, keeled, and acute ; third glume shorter, very thin and 
 hyaline ; fourth or terminal glume very thin, hyaline and two-lobed at the 
 base, with an awn between the lobes, twisted in the lower half, bent above 
 the middle, as in Andropogon. Palea very small or none. Styles distinct. 
 Grain enclosed in the hard and shining outer glumes, free from them. 
 
 Sorghum plumosum, Heauv. (Eeferring to the feather-like panicle.) 
 " Wild Sorghum." Stems erect, varying from 4 to 5 feet ; the nodes 
 bearded with a dense tuft of hairs, and the leaves long and narrow. Panicle 
 from 3 to 4 or more inches long, loose and branched ; the smaller 
 branches, pedicels, and spikelets more or less villous, with hairs usually 
 rufous, besides the dense tuft at the base of the sessile spikelets. Spikelets 
 varying from 2f- to 4 lines long, lanceolate, but not very flat, and usually 
 narrow. Outer glume at first several- nerved, at length rigid, shining, 
 and apparently nerveless, except two ciliate nerves near the top, often 
 turning almost black when ripe. Awn often short and capillary , but some- 
 times 2 inches long. Palea very small or none. Styles distinct. Ovary 
 flabrous. Grain enclosed in the hard and shining outer glumes, but free 
 rom them. I am inclined to think that Sprengel's name, Andropogon 
 australis (Syst. I, 287), is a more appropriate one for this grass than 
 Eeauvois' name, Sorghum plumosum. I have retained the latter, however, 
 which is in keeping with the nomenclature used in the Flora Australiensis. 
 The terminal fertile sessile spikelet between two pedicellate, male or barren 
 ones (a characteristic of the genus Sorghum), is not constant. In fact, in 
 many specimens that I have examined only one pedicellate spikelet, above 
 the fertile sessile one, was present, which is a characteristic of the genus 
 Andropogon. 
 
 This perennial grass is found in all the eastern colonies, and also in North 
 Australia, and in some districts is very plentiful, especially on the coastal 
 lands and in the colder parts of these colonies. In the New England 
 district the " wild sorghum," when in flower, is quite a feature in the pastures, 
 and is described as a valuable grass. Horses are said to eat the seeds with 
 avidity, and to thrive on them. In the colder parts of Australia it is essen- 
 tially a summer-growing species, for, generally speaking, it does not start 
 into growth before September or October. In the warmer parts, however, 
 
50 Australian Grasses. 
 
 it grows more or less all the year round, and during an ordinary season 
 will yield a bulk of valuable herbage which the larger herbivora eat with 
 avidity. This grass grows too strong in the warmer parts of the continent 
 to be classed as a valuable sheep-grass, although in the colder parts, where 
 it does not grow so strong, sheep eat it readily enough and thrive on it. 
 In those parts of the country where it may have been eaten out through 
 over-stocking, it is well worth redissemination, and in places where it may 
 not be growing in abundance it is worth conservation. There would be no 
 difficulty in bringing this grass under systematic cultivation, for if allowed 
 to grow undisturbed for a time it matures a great amount of seed, which 
 ripens during the summer and autumn months. I should think, judging by 
 the enormous amount of valuable herbage this grass will yield during an 
 ordinary season, it would pay to cultivate for ensilage at any rate, it is 
 worth a trial. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, The sessile fertile spikelet between two pedicellate, male or 
 barren ones. B, A sessile fertile spikelet and a pedicellate, male or barren one. c, Fertile 
 spikelet opened out, showing the three glumes and terminal awn. D, Grain, back and 
 front views. All variously magnified. 
 

Sporobolus diander, Beauv. 
 "Tussock Grass." 
 
Australian Grasses. 51 
 
 SPOROBOLUS, E. 13r. 
 
 (From sporos, a seed, and bolus, a casting ; the seeds are loose and easily 
 
 scattered.) 
 
 SPIKELETS small, one-flowered, nearly sessile or pedicellate in a narrow 
 spike-like or loose and pyramidal panicle, the rhachis of the spikelet very 
 short, glabrous, scarcely articulate, not continued beyond the flower. Glumes 
 three, persistent, or separately deciduous, unawned, slightly keeled or 
 convex, and obscurely nerved, two outer empty ones usually unequal; 
 flowering glume as long or longer. Palea about as long as the glume, with 
 two nerves usually prominent and readily splitting between them. Styles 
 very short. Grain free, readily falling away from the glume, the pericarp 
 loosely enclosing the seed, or very thin and evanescent. 
 
 Sporobolus diander, Beauv. (Eeferring to its having but two stamens 
 in the flower.) "Tussock Grass." An erect glabrous grass of ] foot to 2 
 or even 3 feet. Leaves chiefly at the base, narrow, the upper sheaths not 
 covering the stem. Panicle narrow but loosely pyramidal, 6 inches to above 
 1 foot long, the branches scattered, at length spreading. Spikelets very 
 shortly pedicellate or almost sessile, f to 1 line long. Outer empty glumes 
 very obtuse ; hyaline, the upper one about line, the other shorter. Flowering 
 glume longer, slightly keeled, obtuse, or almost acute. Palea broad, obtuse, 
 faintly two-nerved, and not so readily splitting as in the other species. Grain 
 broadly obovoid, the pericarp not readily separable. 
 
 This grass is found in the coastal districts of New South Wales and 
 Queensland, and is also common in some parts of India. On rich, moist 
 soils, and on land that is liable to periodical inundations, it forms good-sized 
 tussocks of deep green herbage, and, whilst young, is greedily eaten by 
 horses and cattle. When it becomes old, however, the herbage is very 
 tough, and stock will then seldom or never touch it whilst other grasses are 
 plentiful. If the old stems of this grass are burnt off in September or 
 October it will, under some circumstances, continue to produce a fair amount 
 of good feed for several months if kept well eaten down. After it has been 
 allowed to grow undisturbed for some time its herbage becomes very tough 
 and harsh, and consequently of little value for forage purposes. I can 
 highly recommend this grass, however, for planting on the banks of rivers 
 or dams, to prevent their being washed away by heavy rains or flood-waters. 
 The strong, wiry roots form a perfect mat on almost any kind of moist land 
 after it has been planted a very short time, and when once established it 
 requires an unusual effort to eradicate. There would be no difficulty in 
 bringing this grass under cultivation, for not only does it bear transplanting 
 well, but under ordinary conditions it produces an abundance of seed which, 
 when ripe, germinate readily if sown during the spring months. The seeds 
 ripen during the summer and autumn months. 
 
 From the tough nature of the matured herbage of this grass it might also 
 be recommended to paper manufacturers for a trial in making some kinds of 
 paper. If it should prove useful for this purpose, there are thousands of 
 acres of low-lying land in the coastal districts of this continent suitable for 
 its cultivation, besides the large supplies that are now available in many 
 districts. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Showing tlio ai'rangeinent of the spikelets on the panicle. B, A 
 spikelefc opened out, showing the three glumes and palea, c, Grain, two different views. 
 All variously magnified. 
 
52 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Sporobolus indicus, B. Br. (Indian.) " Parramatta" or " Tussock Grass." 
 An erect tufted grass of 1 foot to 2 feet, glabrous except a few cilia at the 
 base of the leaves. Leaves chiefly at the base of the stem, narrow, ending 
 in fine points, the upper ones few with long sheaths. Spike-like panicle 
 very narrow, 3 to 8 inches, or even longer, continuous throughout, or when 
 long often much interrupted. Spikelets very numerous, crowded along the 
 very short, erect, almost imbricate or distant branches. Outer glumes 
 almost hyaline, obtuse, one-nerved, the lowest about j a line, the second 
 line long ; flowering glume about 1 line, of a firmer consistence, broad, but 
 almost tapering to a point, one-nerved (the whole spikelet rather smaller in 
 some specimens). Palea nearly as long, faintly two-nerved. Grain broadly 
 obovoid, the very thin pericarp sometimes appearing loose, though often 
 evanescent or undistiuguishable in the dried state. 
 
 An erect-growing, tussocky grass, sometimes attaining a height of 2^ feet, 
 and found in all the Australian Colonies from the coastal districts to the 
 far interior, and in some situations very plentifully. In fact, in some places, 
 where land has been broken up and sown with exotic grasses, this species is 
 now master of the situation, much to the disgust of dairy farmers. Whilst 
 in a young state it affords capital feed, but when old the herbage is very 
 tough and harsh, so much so that it will loosen the teeth of horses and 
 cows when kept too long in pastures where this grass predominates. Owing 
 to the tough nature of the tussock grass, I have often recommended it for 
 paper-making. If it should prove valuable for this purpose there is plenty 
 of material in Australia to fall back upon. The Sporobolus is a prolific seed 
 bearer, and the seeds are eaten by many small birds. They ripen at various 
 times of the year, but principally in the summer and autumn months. There 
 is a variety (var. elongatus) of this grass with narrower leaves, and a longer 
 and looser panicle. With these exceptions, however, its qualities are much 
 the same. 
 
 During certain seasons the inflorescence of both these grasses is badly 
 affected with a black mould-like growth. This is a fungus known to botanists 
 Selminthosporium ravcnelii, curtis. 
 
 Reference to plate. A. A portion of panicle, showing the arrangement of spikelets on the 
 rhachis. B, Spikelefc the caryopsis being ejected, c, Showing the relative size of the 
 outer glume on the spikelet. D, Two different views of the grain. All variously magnified 
 
Sporobolus indicus, R. Br. 
 
 ' Parramatta," or "Tussock Grass," 
 
^ 
 
 
 
 
Sporobolus lindleyi, Bcnth. 
 " Pretty Sporobolus/' 
 
Australian Grasses. 53 
 
 Sporobolus lindleyi, BentJi. (After Dr. John Lindley.) " Pretty 
 Sporo bolus." Stems tufted, 6 inches to 1 foot high, and nearly allied to 
 3. pulchellus. Leaves narrow, not at all or only very shortly eiliate. Panicle 
 very loose, broadly pyramidal, 3 to 5 inches long, and broad when fully out, 
 the branches capillary, the lower ones elongated in a dense verticil, the 
 upper ones more scattered. Spikelets ^ to f line long. Glumes very acute, 
 the lowest outer one very small and narrow ; the second also empty and the 
 flowering glume nearly equal, usually dark coloured. Palea usually divided 
 to the base into two, even at the time of flowering. Seed enclosed in a loose 
 pericarp. With regard to this grass, Mr. Benthani remarks as follows : 
 " In general this species is very distinct from S. pulchellus, both in foliage 
 and in spikelets, but some specimens of Bowman's seem almost to connect 
 the two. They are, however, far advanced, and not perfect. Mitchell's are 
 also far advanced, and not so characteristic as younger ones." 
 
 This exceedingly pretty grass is found in all the Australian Colonies, and 
 principally on land in the interior liable to periodical inundation. It does 
 not yield a great bulk of herbage ; what there is, however, is sweet and 
 succulent, and sheep are particularly fond of it. I have occasionally seen 
 it eaten down to the roots, which is a proof that it is much sought after by 
 herbivora. Oil some of the inland plains after a heavy rainfall had taken 
 place succeeding a long spell of dry weather this grass might have been seen, 
 some years ago, springing up like cultivated wheat in spring time, but since 
 the general over-stocking of runs it has become scarce in many places where 
 once it was growing plentifully. It is a grass that is well worth conserva- 
 tion along with many other valuable species which are peculiar to the inland 
 plains of this country, and which has made them such valuable feeding 
 grounds for stock. This grass quickly recuperates, for if left undisturbed 
 for a time it produces a great amount of seed, which germinates readily 
 during the spring of the year if there should happen to be any moisture in 
 the soil. At one time the aborigines collected the seeds of this grass and 
 used them as an article of food. The seeds usually ripen in October and 
 November. 
 
 I can recommend this grass to be cultivated for decorative purposes. It 
 is quite as pretty as many of the ornamental exotic grasses cultivated here 
 for that purpose, the seeds of which our florists have to import from Europe 
 or America. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet opened out, showing the three glumes, divided palea, 
 and grain. B, Showing the relative size of the outer glume on the spikelet. c, Two 
 different views of the grain. All variously magnified. 
 
54 Australian Grasses. 
 
 TRIRAPHIS,.^. Br. 
 
 (Referring to the needle-like awns of the flowering glumes.) 
 
 SPIKELETS several-flowered, in a terminal panicle, the rhachis of the spikelet 
 articulate above each glume, the terminal glume usually empty or with a 
 male flower. Outer empty glumes unawned, entire or the second occasionally 
 notched with a short point in the notch. Flowering glumes with three narrow 
 lobes tapering into straight awns, the central occasionally with a short lobe 
 or point on each side, or all three reduced to small teeth. Palea narrow. 
 Styles distinct. G-rain enclosed in the thin or coriaceous glume and palea, 
 but free from them. 
 
 Triraphis mollis, E. Br. (From the soft appearance of the panicle.) 
 "Purple Heads." A glabrous rather slender erect grass attaining 2 feet, 
 but sometimes much smaller. Leaves long and narrow, ending in fine 
 points. Panicle narrow, dense, 6 to 10 inches long, with a soft look owing 
 to the slender awns and hairs of the glumes. Spikelets crowded on the 
 short erect branches, narrow, about i inch long without the awns, with eight 
 to ten, or even more, flowers. Glumes narrow, membranous, about 1| lines 
 long, the two outer empty ones glabrous, entire, or the second with a short 
 tooth on each side of the point. Flowering glumes sprinkled with a few long 
 hairs, the central capillary awn 3 to 4 lines long, with a pointed lobe or short 
 awn on each side, the lateral awns rather shorter. Palea narrow. Grain 
 enclosed in the thin or coriaceous glume and palea, but free from them. 
 
 This perennial grass is found all over Australia, but principally in the arid 
 interior. In the northern portion of the continent, however, it is found at a 
 few stations near the coast, but so far as I am aware it is not very plentiful. 
 In many parts of the interior it grows fairly abundantly, particularly on good 
 soils. It is a capital drought-resisting species, and during the early summer 
 months yields a fair amount of good herbage, of which sheep and other 
 herbivora are very fond. After the flower panicles have developed, however, 
 the stems become harsh and tough, then stock will seldom or never eat the 
 grass whilst other herbage is plentiful. It is not a species that I would 
 recommend for cultivation in pastures, though it is well worth conservation 
 along with other grasses. When in floAver this grass is easily recognised, as 
 the panicles often assume a purplish colour, which gives the plant a very 
 ornamental appearance. It might be introduced into gardens with good 
 effect in fact, there are many less ornamental grasses cultivated in gardens. 
 It produces an abundance of seed, which usually ripens in November and 
 December. There is a variety (var. Immilis) of this grass which I have 
 received on several occasions for identification ; it rarely exceeds 6 inches 
 in height, and has a flower panicle of only 2 or 3 inches in length. It is 
 a somewhat uncommon grass, and generally found growing on sandy soils in 
 the interior, but it is not of much value for forage. This delicate little grass 
 might be introduced into gardens, where its charming purple panicles would 
 be sure to be admired. The seeds of this variety usually ripen in October 
 and November. 
 
 There is a grass which grows in the northern portion of the continent, and 
 is known to botanists as Ectrosia leporina, E. Br., that is often mistaken for 
 Triraphis mollis, E-. Br., and vice versa. To the casual eye the purple 
 panicles of both these grasses are similar. The dissectional details of the 
 inflorescence, however, are totally distinct, as may be inferred from the 
 names these grasses have received. 
 
 Reference to plate. A, Spikelet. B, Floret, c, Flowering glume flattened out, showing 
 the arrangement and relative size of the awns. D, G-rain, back and front views. All 
 variously magnified. 
 
Triraphis mollis, R. Br. 
 ''Purple Heads." 
 

 - 
 
 v^|U* 
 
 CM^S> 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 55 
 
 A Glossary of the Technical Terms used in the 
 Description of Australian Grasses. 
 
 Abnormal ... Differing from the usual growth or structure. 
 Abortive ... Imperfectly developed. 
 
 Acicular ... Slender, but stiff and pointed at the end like a needle. 
 Acuminate ... Gradually narrowing, and then more or less prolonged 
 
 into a point. 
 Acute ... ... Sharp pointed. 
 
 Adnate ... Not easily separated. 
 
 Affinity . . . Plants, or their organs, that bear some striking resemblance 
 
 to each other. 
 
 Alternate ... Placed on the opposite side of a stem on a different level. 
 Amplexicaul ... Stem-clasping. 
 Annual ... Living but one year. 
 
 Anther . . . The terminal hollow of a stamen, the case which contains 
 
 the pollen of a plant. 
 Apex ... ... The opposite extremity of any organ to that by which it is 
 
 attached. 
 
 Apiculate ... With a little point. 
 Aristate ... Having a fine point, like a hair. 
 
 Articulate ... Having joints places where spontaneous or easy separa- 
 tion takes place. 
 Awn ... ... Bristle. 
 
 Axil The angle formed between a stem and any organ that 
 
 grows from it. 
 
 Axis The stalk 011 which the flowers are disposed. 
 
 Barbate ... Bearded. 
 
 Bifid ... ... Split half-way down into two parts. 
 
 Blade ... ... The expanded part of a leaf. 
 
 Bracteate ... Having Bracts. 
 
 Bracts ... ... The leaves immediately below a flower if they are at all 
 
 altered from their usual form. 
 Bristles ... Sharp stiff hairs. 
 
 Crespitose ... Growing in tufts or patches, as the common daisy. 
 Callous . . . Hardened and usually thickened. 
 
 Capillary ... Having the form of a thread or hair. 
 Capitate ... Growing in heads, or terminal close clusters. 
 Caryopsis ... Seed or grain of grasses. 
 Ciliate ... ... Bordered with thick hairs, or fine hair like teeth. 
 
 Compressed ... flattened lengthwise. 
 Contorted ... Twisted. 
 Convolute Rolled inwards, 
 
56 
 
 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Cordate ... Heart shaped. 
 
 Coriaceous ... Tough, leathery, firm. 
 
 Crinite ... Covered with long weak hairs. 
 
 Culm ... ... The stalk or stem of a grass. 
 
 Cuneate ... Wedge shaped. 
 
 Cuspidate ... Ending in a sharp, stiff point. 
 
 Cylindrical . . . Having a tubelike body of uniform diameter. 
 
 Decompound ... Having various compound divisions. 
 
 Decumbent ... Reclining upon the earth, and rising again from it. 
 
 Denticulate ... Having- very fine marginal teeth. 
 
 Diandrous ... Two stamened. 
 
 Dichotomous ... Having the divisions always in pairs. 
 
 Diffuse ... Spreading widely. 
 
 Digitate ... Having several distinct spikes radiating from the point of 
 
 a stalk. 
 
 Dioecious ... Having the sexes borne in different flowers by distinct 
 
 individuals, as in Spinifex. 
 
 Distichous ... Arranged in two rows. 
 
 Divaricate ... Straggling, spreading abruptly. 
 
 Dorsal... ... Belonging to the back. 
 
 Echinate ... Furnished with numerous rigid hairs, or straight prickles. 
 
 Effuse ... Spreading widely. 
 
 Emarginate . . . Having a notch at the end, as if a piece had been taken 
 
 out. 
 
 Exserted . . . Extended beyond standing out. 
 
 Palcate ... Curved like the blade of a reaper's sickle. 
 
 Fertile ... Having the power o producing perfect seeds. 
 
 Filament . . . Any kind of thread-like body. 
 
 Filiform ... Thread-like. 
 
 Fimbriate ... Fringed. 
 
 Flaccid ... Bending without elasticity. 
 
 Flavescens ... A pure pale yellow. 
 
 Flexuose ... Bending freely. 
 
 Floret ... ... Sometimes used to designate the flowers of grasses. 
 
 Fluitans ... Floating upon the surface of water. 
 
 Frondose ... Bearing a number of leaves. 
 
 Fulvous ... Dull yellow, with a mixture of gray and brown. 
 
 Furrowed ... Marked by longitudinal channels. 
 
 Geminate ... Growing in pairs. 
 
 Geniculate . . . Bent abruptly, like a knee. 
 
 Gibbous ... More convex in one place than another. 
 
 Glabrous ... Smooth, having no hairs. 
 
 Glaucous ... Pale bluish green. 
 
 Glomerate ... Clustered in roundish heads. 
 
 Glumes ... The outer series of scales which constitute the flower of 
 a grass. 
 
 Hermaphrodite . Containing both stamens and pistil. 
 
 Hirsute ... Set with thick long hairs. 
 
 Hispid ... Covered with stiff hairs. 
 
 Hyaline ... Transparent, or nearly so. 
 
 Imbricate ... Overlapping like the tiles of a roof. 
 
 Inflorescence ... The arrangement of flowers. 
 
 Inserted ... Growing out of. 
 
 Internode ... The space which intervenes between the nodes. 
 
Australian Grasses. 
 
 67 
 
 Interrupted ... Flowers in distinct clusters along a simple stem. 
 
 Involucre ... Outer whorl. 
 
 Keel ... ... A sharp projecting ridge. 
 
 Keeled ... Having a sharp projecting ridge. 
 
 Laciniate ... Having a deep, taper-pointed incision. 
 
 Lamina ... The blade of a leaf. 
 
 Lanate AYoolly. 
 
 Lanceolate ... Compared to the head of a lance. 
 
 Lateral ... Fixed near or upon the side. 
 
 Ligula . ... Scale-like projection at the base of leaf -blade. 
 
 Ligulate ... Strap-shaped. 
 
 Line The twelfth part of an inch. 
 
 Linear... ... Narrow, line-like. 
 
 Lobe ... ... Division of a glume. 
 
 Lodicule ... A scale at the base, of the ovary of grasses. 
 
 Membranous ... Thin and semi-transparent. 
 
 Mollis Soft. 
 
 Monoecious ... Having the stamens and pistils in different flowers on the 
 
 same plant. 
 
 Mucronate ... Terminated abruptly by a hard, short point. 
 
 Nerve ... ... The rib or principal vein of a leaf. 
 
 Neuter... ... Having both stamens and pistil imperfect or wanting. 
 
 Node ... ... That part of a stem from which the leaf arises. 
 
 Nut A hard covering, usually containing only one seed. 
 
 Obovate ... Opposite of ovate. 
 
 Obtuse... ... Blunt ended. 
 
 Orbicular ... Perfectly circular. 
 
 Ovary That part of the pistil which contains the seed. 
 
 Ovate ... ... Having the shape of the longitudinal section of an egg. 
 
 Ovoid Egg-shaped, with the broad end downwards. 
 
 Ovule ... ... The young seed. 
 
 Palea ... ... Inner flower scale of grasses. 
 
 Panicle ... Branched flower stalk. 
 
 Paniculate ... Having a branched flower stalk. 
 
 Pectinate ... Having the segments close and narrow, like the teeth of a 
 
 comb. 
 
 Pedicel ... A secondary flower stalk. 
 
 Pedicellate ... On a pedicel. 
 
 Peduncle ... The stalk of a flower. 
 
 Pedunculate ... On a peduncle. 
 
 Penicillate ... Consisting of, or covered with, hairs which are nearly 
 
 parallel to each other. 
 
 Perennial ... Lasting for several years, and yet flowering every year. 
 
 Pericarp ... The rind of a fruit, or a thin skin covering a seed. 
 
 Persistent ... Not falling off. 
 
 Pilose ... ... Covered with hairs. 
 
 Pistil ... ... The female organ of a fertile flower. 
 
 Plumose ... Feathery. 
 
 Procumbent ... Lying flat upon the ground. 
 
 Pubescent ... Covered with soft hair or down. 
 
 Eaceme ... The arrangement of flowers singly on a distinct stalk along 
 
 a common stem. 
 
 Reflexed ... Bent backwards. 
 
 Eefractus ... Bent backwards suddenly. 
 
58 
 
 Australian Grasses. 
 
 Retuse ... Terminating in a round end, the centre of which is 
 
 depressed. 
 
 Revolute ... Rolled backwards. 
 
 Ehachis ... The stem of an inflorescence. 
 
 Rhizome ... A prostrate, rooting stem, progressively throwing up 
 
 leaves. 
 
 Rudimentary ... In an incomplete condition. 
 
 Rugose ... Covered with wrinkled lines. 
 
 Scabrous . . . Slightly rough to the touch. 
 
 Scarious ... Having a thin, dry, shrivelled appearance. 
 
 Scattered ... Dispersed. 
 
 Secund . . . Having all the flowers turned to the same side. 
 
 Sericeus ... Covered with soft, silky hairs. 
 
 Sessile "Without any stalk. 
 
 Setaceous ... Bristle like. 
 
 Sheath ... That part which closes round a stem. 
 
 Spike ... ... Mowers without any stalk, arranged along a simple stem. 
 
 Spikelet ... The terminal collection of florets among grasses. 
 
 Stamen ... That organ of a flower with which the anther is connected. 
 
 Stigma... ... The surface to which the pollen adheres before it fertilises 
 
 the ovules. 
 
 Stipes Stalk. 
 
 Style ... ... The part of the pistil which bears the stigma. 
 
 Subulate ... Awl-shaped. 
 
 Sulcate ... Furrowed. 
 
 Terete ... .,, Free from angles. 
 
 Tomentose ... Covered with dense, rather rigid short hairs. 
 
 Transverse ... Crossing. 
 
 Truncate ... Terminating very abruptly, as if a piece had been cut off. 
 
 Verticil ... A ring of organs on the same plane. 
 
 Verticillate ... Growing out from the same node at regular intervals 
 
 along a stem. 
 
 Villous... ... Covered with long weak hairs. 
 
 Yirgate ... Twiggy. 
 
 Viscid ... ... Glutinous, clammy. 
 
 Whorl The same as verticil. 
 
 Woolly ... Clothed with long and matted hairs. 
 
Australian Grasses. 59 
 
 Opinions of the Press on the Indigenous Forage- 
 Plants of Australia" (non-grasses). 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOK. 
 
 " THE work contains no less than ninety-one engravings with descriptive letter-press of the 
 most valuable forage-plants in Australia, including all the famous salinous plants of the 
 
 country To pastoralists and landowners generally this work must be of 
 
 immense value, as by its aid the more valuable of our indigenous forage-plants can be 
 readily identified by any resident in the country. Both the Latin and common name of 
 each plant are given, so that the ordinary reader may not be mystified by high-sounding 
 Latin terms, to the exclusion of the more simple English names. Mr. Turner is to be 
 
 congratulated on the excellence of this work Mr. Turner has a great work 
 
 before him in collecting and describing the various economic and ornamental plants of 
 this country. The accuracy of detail and industry shown in collecting and describing 
 the forage-plants of Australia is an assurance that his future work will be practical, 
 
 valuable, and accurate We have much pleasure in recommending Mr. 
 
 Turner's able volume to the consideration of the landowners of Australia, fully believing 
 that they will receive much valuable information from its perusal." Town and Country 
 Journal. 
 
 "A very useful work, by F. Turner, F.L.S., which has just been published under 
 the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, affords another proof of that gentleman's 
 labours in the direction of forage-plants indigenous in Australia. It is a subject which 
 has engaged the attention of the writer for the last fifteen years, and his various papers 
 and pamphlets in connection with it (especially the paper read before the Australasian 
 Association for the Advancement of Science, 1890, and his 'Census of the Grasses of New 
 South Wales,' 1890) prove that he has studied the vegetation of Australia to good effect. 
 . . . . Mr. Turner's book may be regarded as a valuable contribution to the study 
 of our forage-plants ; and being got up in a popular manner it seems to meet the require- 
 ments of those who have not the leisure to follow the technicalities of systematic botany. 
 His introduction is worthy of attentive perusal, as it clearly shows the value of native 
 pastures, the necessity of preserving them, and the intimate connection there is between 
 the forage-plants of Australia and some of our most important exports, such, for instance, 
 as high-class wool, frozen meat, &c. The author also, in his enumeration of the native 
 grasses, points out the various purposes for which the species may be utilised and the 
 localities for which they are best adapted, thereby indicating a very practical knowledge 
 of the subject." Sydney Mail. 
 
 " The subject is one of considerable economic and commercial interest, and it is time 
 that something was done to direct attention in some systematic way to the value of these 
 plants. . . . The numerous illustrations, many of them representing plants that 
 have never before been so reproduced, lend a special value to the book, which has been 
 issued with the special approval of the late Minister for Agriculture. "Sydney Morning 
 Herald. 
 
 "Pastoralists and farmers have good cause to thank Mr. Fred. Turner, the botanist, for 
 the large amount of excellent information he has compressed within the covers. Close 
 upon 100 of the chief fodder-plants and shrubs of Australia are described, and the 
 description in each case is accompanied by a carefully-drawn engraving of the specimen. 
 
 The printed matter is thoroughly readable ; it is more than that, it is 
 
 interesting. All the facts necessary for a competent understanding of the subject under 
 discussion are plainly and concisely set down. The book bristles with information 
 regarding the uses, habits, and habitats of the forage-plants of the continent. The 
 introductory pages, in which the subject of fodder and fodder-plants are dealt with in a 
 general manner, form a valuable feature of the book." Sydney Dally Telegraph. 
 
60 Australian Grasses. 
 
 " Mr. F. Turner's book contains ninety descriptions of plants (not grasses) which are 
 regarded as being useful fodder-plants, each of which is illustrated by a capitally- 
 executed portrait in black and white. The descriptive matter is written in plain 
 
 English Pastoralists and graziers will find in this work a great deal of most 
 
 important information, and doubtless many of them will be as anxious to conserve and 
 multiply the native forage-plants as foreign inquirers are eager to procure seeds of the 
 same for propagation in their own countries." Adelaide Observer. 
 
 " We are very pleased to see that Mr. Turner advocates the preservation from total 
 extinction of the best of the native fodder plants and grasses by a proper system of 
 conservation, and even cultivation. This is a subject which has received far too little 
 attention, and we are glad to see the author of this work calling attention to the danger 
 of the complete destruction of some of them; Most disappointing and unfortunate have 
 been the consequences of the injudicious introduction of plants supposed to possess 
 economic value. Many of these are not merely useless weeds, but they are covering the 
 
 country in some places to the serious detriment of the native pastures 
 
 Attempts to introduce exotic plants, even when successful, have not been attended with 
 such excellent results as had been expected. . . . Salsolaceous plants, which are so 
 good for sheep, are disappearing from the plains of the interior, because they are so 
 closely fed down the seed cannot get time for maturing. . . . The letter-press 
 descriptions of the forage-plants mentioned in the volume are clear and precise. They 
 are accompanied with excellent full-page illustrations. These have been carefully pre- 
 pared and reproduced with great nicety." Roclchampton Bulletin. 
 
 "When grass fails both sheep and cattle suffer, and then owners have to fall back upon 
 native plants of drought-resisting capabilities. It is desirable, therefore, they should 
 know plants which may safely be fed to stock. Such knowledge in times of dearth 
 cannot fail to prove valuable. It cannot, however, be easily or accurately acquired, 
 except by a botanist of practical experience. Even he must spend much time and be at 
 great pains before he can with confidence impart his information to others. Mr. F. 
 Turner, F.L.S., is in this happy position. He ha"s been paying particular attention to 
 the forage-plants of Australia, and after writing at considerable length on the subject in 
 the columns of the Agricultural Press, he has revised the articles and made them up into 
 a handsome volume of nearly a hundred large pages. " Capricornian. 
 
 "This book is full of the most valuable information for pastoralists and farmers. 
 Nearly 100 of the chief fodder-plants and shrubs of Australia are described, and the 
 description in each case is accompanied by an excellent engraving of the specimen. The 
 book from beginning to end is interesting in the extreme. The introductory pages, in 
 which the subject of fodder and fodder-plants is dealt with in a general manner, form a 
 very valuable feature of the book. . . . Mr. Turner is a botanist of high standing, 
 and fifteen years' careful study of the subject has fitted him to speak with authority. 
 Those engaged in pastoral pursuits should possess this book." Australasian Pastoralists' 
 Review. 
 
 "We have received a useful work on the 'Forage-Plants of Australia,' by Mr. F. 
 Turner, F. L. S. The book contains upwards of 100 illustrations, and very full descriptions 
 of various native fodder- plants and their comparative merits and values, forming a very 
 useful work of reference." The Australasian. 
 
 "The 'Forage-Plants of Australia' is a valuable work. . . . The book is copiously 
 illustrated, and the author has admirably succeeded in producing a work which will do 
 much to popularise the native economic products." Brisbane Courier. 
 
 " The study of our indigenous herbage, except in a casual way, has hitherto been almost 
 entirely neglected by graziers and others who are interested in the pastoral industry of 
 Queensland. The importance of the subject was some time ago recognised in New South 
 Wales, and the result is an illustrated volume entitled, 'The Forage-Plants of Australia,' 
 by Mr. F. Turner. Almost every known plant of economic value indigenous to this 
 country is described in plain everyday language, scientific expressions being avoided 
 wherever possible, and every plant described is also illustrated. The aim of the author, 
 to render the work so simple that ' anyone knowing the alphabet might be able to take 
 up the book and glean instruction from it,' has been well carried out." Queenslander. 
 
 " ' The Forage-Plants of Australia ' should be of especial value to those pastoralists the 
 grass on whose runs from overstocking shows signs of giving out. The book is neatly 
 got up, and the engravings are clean and well drawn." The Western Advocate. 
 
 " The work contains a complete description of fodder-plants peculiar to Australia, 
 together with well-executed illustrations. The object of the work is to induce pastoralists 
 and agriculturists to take a more active interest in the cultivation of these products for 
 
Australian Grasses. 61 
 
 the benefit of themselves. We trust that those interested in that direction here will 
 make use of the work, and endeavour to improve this important industry by carrying out 
 the latest improvements and discoveries which have been made by considerable pains by 
 our scientific men." The Clarence River Advocate. 
 
 " The book contains a full account of our indigenous fodders, with illustrations of same, 
 and is well worth the attention of farmers and dairymen. In the introduction matters 
 are mentioned in connection with native grasses which have been too long lost sight of, 
 and cannot be too carefully considered by the farmers of this district. . . . After 
 fifteen years' experience, Mr. Turner has come to the conclusion that in most cases the 
 native grasses are the best fodder-plants ; and he warns pastoralists and agriculturists to 
 be careful lest the want of proper attention in conserving these leads to the extinction of 
 most valuable grasses. It would be worth any farmer's while to read the introduction 
 to the book, as a further perusal would almost be certain." Clarence and Richmond 
 Examiner. 
 
 " Nearly a hundred different forage-plants are treated of, both by letter-press and illus- 
 tration, in an admirable manner, and the information conveyed ought to lead to increased 
 attention being directed to the cultivation of indigenous pasturage plants. What enhances 
 the value of the volume is that the author did not confine his attention to the plants of 
 his own colony, but has caused it to embrace the whole of Australia, thereby rendering it 
 a work of great utility to the agriculturist, pastoralist, and stockowner in all parts of the 
 continent." The West Australian. 
 
 " There are various practical remarks 011 the conservation of native grasses and salso- 
 laceous plants. Then follow descriptions of a large number of forage-plants, with accom- 
 panying engravings. As far as possible technicalities have been avoided, and the illus- 
 trations are excellent. Such a publication must be of great utility in itself, and also as 
 possibly providing an incentive for further effort on the part of other workers." Adelaide 
 Advertiser. 
 
 " Mr. F. Turner, F. L.S., has become so impressed with the value of the natural grasses 
 of Australia that he has fairly bubbled over, and in a neat volume of ninety-four pages 
 gives us a mine of most valuable information. Accurately estimating the busy life of those 
 for whom the book is specially intended, the subject matter is presented in the most 
 attractive way, there being no less than ninety-one full-page illustrations, with descriptive 
 letter-press on the opposite page. Having compared the engravings with some of the 
 plants with which we are most familiar, we can speak with pleasure of their faithfulness 
 to nature. In fact the work requires to be seen to be appreciated, and it should be on 
 the table of every woolgrower and farmer in the Colony. We are not aware whether it 
 is the intention of the Department of Public Instruction to make it a class-book, but we 
 certainly think that every Australian child should be made familiar with the contents. 
 With a view to promote a love for the study, it is our intention to give a prize for the 
 child attending any of the schools in this district who shall make the best collection of 
 forage-plants to be classified and properly named, according to this book, to be exhibited 
 at the next Gunnedah Show." Gunnedah Advertiser. 
 
 "A useful work, and very conscientiously has the task been performed. It will probably 
 be news to a good many colonists to learn that in grasses alone no less than 360 species 
 have been classified, all indigenous to Australia. Not all of these are suited for fodder, 
 and it has been part of the author's task to indicate which are the more valuable. The 
 same information is afforded with regard to the various edible plants and shrubs growing 
 in different parts of the country, snowing which kinds are the most worthy of being 
 conserved. The description of every plant given is clear and concise, rendering identifi- 
 cation easy to any person of ordinary capacity, but in order to make it absolutely certain 
 in the case of many species, well-executed engravings accompany the letter-press. The 
 book is of interest to all, and should be of much practical value to landowners." The 
 Albury Banner. 
 
 "Some idea of the scope of Mr. Turner's work may be gleaned from the fact that it 
 contains full descriptions of no less than ninety-one plants, with a clearly-executed 
 
 engraving of each With the aid of these any ordinarily intelligent 
 
 person should have no difficulty whatever in the identification of plants. In addition to 
 a description of each plant, given in language as little scientific as possible, and an 
 account of its properties as food, there will be found much valuable information as to 
 the most suitable mode of propagation, the districts best adapted for its growth, and 
 directions for its cultivation and conservation. Further, as in the case of some of the 
 gums and acacias, when a plant possesses economic value besides that of fodder pure and 
 simple its uses and commercial value are discussed. A large portion of the book is 
 devoted to the plants of the order Chenopodiacece, commonly known as salt- bush, for 
 
02 Australian Grasses. 
 
 these Mr. Turner considers of the first importance on account of their drought-resisting 
 properties. The native grasses are briefly alluded to in the introduction. A work on these, 
 treated in the same as the one under review, would be a valuable companion handbook, 
 
 find we trust will be forthcoming at no very distant date The book should 
 
 have an extensive circulation, not only in Australia, but in the pastoral provinces of the 
 ether continents." The Bathurst Daily Times. 
 
 " A very useful handbook on the forage-plants of Australia. . . . The illustrations 
 certainly make such works very much more useful to the ordinary student. The book 
 will be interesting to all who take an interest in the subject it treats of, \vhich, we may 
 add, is one of great importance to the country." The Northern Sto.r. 
 
 " A most valuable publication on the forage-plants of Australia by F. Turner, F.L.S. 
 . ... It contains a full and perfect account of ninty-one forage-plants. The publi- 
 cation should engage the most earnest attention of all pastoralists, stockowners, and 
 agriculturists, and should result in increased attention being given to our valuable 
 indigenous fodder-plants." St. Mary's Gazette. 
 
 "The climate of many parts of Australia is of a character which renders the cultivation 
 of recognised foreign plants impossible, and too much attention cannot therefore be paid 
 to the preservation and propagation of such forms of natural herbage as have proved, in 
 addition to their drought-resisting properties, to be of great nutritive value. It is with 
 the object of bringing the most important of such native plants before the notice of 
 interested people that the well-written volume of over ninety-one pages has been prepared. 
 It is illustrated by some ninety-one lithographic plates." Garden and Field. 
 
 " This volume contains well-executed lithographic illustrations of some ninety plants 
 which serve as fodder to stock. The orders to which they belong are far more varied 
 than would occur to any botanist who has not given much attention to the matter. 
 Much information is given that is interesting from the point of view of the stockowner, 
 as well as of the botanist." The Chemist and Druggist of Australasia. 
 
Australian Grasses. 63 
 
 Opinions of the Press on A Census of the Grasses 
 of New South Wales, together with a popular 
 description of each Species." 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 " THIS very useful work, published by the Government under the auspices of the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, may be regarded as a valuable instalment towards the botany of 
 New South Wales. . . . The author is not a novice in these matters, for many years 
 ago he compiled a list of Australian grasses, and acquired some reputation in Queensland 
 by his experiments in cultivating useful species. . . . Mr. Turner informs us there 
 are 197 species of grass found in New South Wales. Of these he gives a popular account 
 arranged alphabetically. To settlers and pastoralists the descriptions of our grasses are 
 likely to prove serviceable for the determination and preservation of such species as are 
 most nutritious for sheep and cattle. Hitherto little attention has been paid to this 
 subject, and so great has been the destruction of forage-plants, owing sometimes to the 
 prevalence of droughts and sometimes to the overstocking of runs, that Mr. Turner justly 
 remarks : ' It is generally admitted by all observant persons that something in the way of 
 cultivation or conservation must be undertaken ere long to save some of our most valuable 
 grasses from extinction.' . . . Mr. Turner has given a figure of the ' Mitchell Grass,' 
 and he states that the Minister for Mines and Agriculture has made arrangements for the 
 preparation of an illustrated monograph of the grasses of Nw South Wales. This will 
 be a great assistance to those who cannot appreciate written descriptions for the identifica- 
 tion of species, whilst the promised work on supposed poisonous plants is still a great 
 desideratum for New South W T ales. The Department of Agriculture has done much 
 service by the publication of Mr. Turner's book, whilst the writer has shown himself 
 fully capable of advancing the interests of the Colony by making known in popular lan- 
 guage the plants best adapted for forage, their nutritious or other properties, the range 
 of their distribution, and the time of their seeding." Sydney Mail. 
 
 This valuable work ought to be in the hands of every agriculturist and pastoralist in the 
 Colony. ... So large a part of New South Wales being peculiarly a grazing country, 
 all information in regard to its natural resources in the way of food for stock is of 
 general interest. We therefore hail this publication of the Agricultural Department as a 
 matter of national importance, and deem it a fortunate circumstance that a man of so 
 much practical knowledge and so capable of putting what he has to say into clear and 
 popular shape as Mr. Turner was available for the work. All that is known about our 
 grasses he has brought together in the " Census " in a form to be " understand ed of the 
 people. ' The study of Australian grasses is a very interesting one to the botanist, as 
 well as to the agriculturist. . . . We ought to have in our local museum actual 
 specimens of all the native grasses which flourish in the district. ... As a supple- 
 ment to this work on our grasses it is proposed to publish at an early date a list of all the 
 introduced weeds, with instructions to farmers as to the best means of extirpating them. 
 This will be followed by a descriptive list of all the supposed poisonous plants which 
 grow in New South Wales. " The National Advocate, Bathurst. 
 
 Sydney : Charles Potter, Government Printer. 1895. 
 

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