LIBRARY 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 Marie B. Wol ford
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS 
 ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED 
 
 LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. 
 
 TORONTO
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 AN ADDRESS 
 
 DELIVERED BEFORE THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNION 
 
 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT ITS 
 
 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY AT BERKELEY 
 
 CALIFORNIA, AUGUST 27, 1914 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSIAH ROYCE 
 
 ALFOBD PROFESSOR OF NATURAL RELIGION, MORAL 
 
 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVIL POLITY AT 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 AND NOTES 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1914 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1914, 
 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1914. 
 
 Nortoooto tyrees 
 
 J. 8. Gushing Co. Berwick & Smith Co. 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 
 LifOfUUlI 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOR 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 As a preparation for an address which I 
 had been invited to deliver on the occasion 
 of the twenty -fifth anniversary of the Philo- 
 sophical Union of the University of Cali- 
 fornia, I read to a general audience, at the 
 summer session of that University at Berke- 
 ley (during the last fortnight of July, in the 
 present year) a series of six philosophical 
 lectures. These six preparatory lectures 
 contained a restatement of the theory of 
 what I had called, in a recent book of mine, 
 the " Process of Interpretation," and, in par- 
 ticular, discussed the nature and functions 
 of " Communities of Interpretation." What 
 this last term means the reader of this present 
 book may learn, if he pleases, on pages 47-64. 
 
 I had intended to continue and to sum- 
 marize the main theses of these six lectures 
 in my anniversary address before the Union. 
 
 iii
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The summer session ended. The war began. 
 
 My address, in the form in which I had 
 intended to read it, was thus rendered use- 
 less, and was thrown aside. But the theory 
 both of the "process of interpretation" and 
 of " the communities of interpretation " had, 
 during the last two years, seemed to me ca- 
 pable of a wide range of practical applica- 
 tions ; and some of these, including a sketch 
 of certain very general philosophical aspects 
 of banking and of insurance, had been already 
 presented to my audience at Berkeley during 
 the July lectures just mentioned. 
 
 Abandoning, then, my previous plans for 
 the address before the Union, I wrote this 
 present address, partly in the neighborhood 
 of Los Gatos, in the Santa Cruz mountains 
 of the California Coast Range, and partly 
 at Berkeley. This writing took place be- 
 tween August 2 and August 27, under the 
 immediate influence of impressions due to the 
 events which each day's news then brought 
 to the notice of us all; and yet with a 
 longing to see how the theory of " interpre- 
 
 iv
 
 PREFACE 
 
 tation" which I owe to the logical studies of 
 the late Mr. Charles Peirce, would bear the 
 test of an application to the new problems 
 which the war brings to our minds. 
 
 I have to thank my friend, Mr. John Gra- 
 ham Brooks, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
 as well as my colleague, Mr. H. B. Dow (lec- 
 turer on Insurance at Harvard University) ; 
 and, above all, my philosophical colleague 
 at the University of California, Professor 
 Charles H. Rieber (who was my host while 
 I was at Berkeley, and who is also the presi- 
 dent of the Philosophical Union), for some 
 careful criticisms of this address; and for 
 their aid in preparing it for publication. 
 
 JOSIAH ROYCE. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, 
 September 15, 1914.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ADDRESS ON WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 SECTION J'A'iK 
 
 I. THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE . . 4 
 
 II. THE NEIGHBOR : LOVE AND HATE . . 12 
 
 III. THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS AND 
 
 COMMUNITIES 28 
 
 IV. THE COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION . 42 
 V. SPECIAL COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 55 
 
 VI. MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE . 65 
 
 NOTES 
 
 I. STEINMETZ'S " PHILOSOPHY OF WAR " . 83 
 II. KANT'S DOCTRINE CONCERNING "ANTAG- 
 ONISM " AS A SOURCE OF SOCIAL DE- 
 VELOPMENT 83 
 
 III. LOVE FOR COMMUNITIES .... 85 
 
 IV. EFFORTS ALREADY MADE TO USE THE FOUR 
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION IN 
 
 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS ... 86 
 
 V. "THE FIRST ACT OF WAR" 93 
 
 Vll
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 TITT'HEN a number of persons are subject 
 to risks, they may contribute to a 
 common fund, and then use this fund as a 
 means of making good certain of the losses 
 which, in consequence of these risks, fall upon 
 one or another member of the company of 
 adventurers who thus contribute. The con- 
 tributions themselves form an insurance fund. 
 The method of business in question con- 
 stitutes the basis of the modern institution 
 called insurance. The special ways in which 
 the adventurers are brought into association, 
 and the sorts of risk against which the indi- 
 vidual members of a group of insurers are 
 protected, vary widely. But at the basis of 
 any systematic modern method of insurance 
 lie considerations which belong to the general 
 theory of probability, and which are every- 
 where in question in the statistical sciences. 
 Since risks, and the adventures of individual 
 
 ix
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 men, are amongst the most practical matters 
 with which we are acquainted, while the 
 theory of probability and the principles of 
 statistical science involve some of the most 
 abstruse problems of logic and mathematics, 
 insurance, viewed either as a mode of business 
 or as a social institution, is one of the most 
 momentous instances of the union of very 
 highly theoretical enterprises with very con- 
 crete social applications. 
 
 Furthermore, as experience shows, the 
 insurance principle comes to be more and more 
 used and useful in modern affairs. Not only 
 does it serve the ends of individuals, or of 
 special groups of individuals. It tends more 
 and more both to pervade and to transform 
 our modern social order. It brings into new 
 syntheses not merely pure and applied science, 
 but private and public interests, individual 
 prudence, and a large regard for the general 
 welfare, thrift, and charity. It discourages 
 recklessness and gambling. It contributes 
 to the sense of stability. It quiets fears and 
 encourages faithfulness. 
 
 x
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 But this principle of insurance has not yet 
 been applied to international affairs, and, in 
 so far as the present writer is aware, no one 
 has heretofore proposed that a group of nations 
 should form an organization for the mutual 
 insurance of its members against any kind of 
 risks. 
 
 The present essay offers reasons why such 
 a proposal is both timely and feasible. Since 
 the whole subject is new, what is attempted 
 in this brief discussion cannot be a mature 
 plan. This paper is preliminary, is tentative, 
 and intends to be subject to a thoroughgoing 
 revision. Its whole present purpose is gained, 
 in fact, if it leads to a serious revision of its 
 own imperfections. It wishes to attract the 
 attention of some wiser minds than that of 
 its author to the fact that, at the moment of 
 an unprecedented crisis in the world's history, 
 the possibility of precisely this new mode of 
 international cooperation which is here out- 
 lined is worthy of a somewhat careful study. 
 
 Nations, viewed as corporate entities, are 
 as subject to risks as are individual human 
 
 xi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 beings. Some of these risks are principally 
 moral in their nature ; but many of them can 
 be more or less exactly estimated in economic 
 terms. Thus, floods, famines, pestilences, 
 earthquakes, and volcanoes may interfere, in 
 various fashions, with the economic as well 
 as with the rest of the social life of the peoples 
 thus afflicted. Apart from actual famines, 
 the considerable failure of their crops may 
 impair, for a season, the normal supplies of 
 individual nations. Internal crises, social and 
 political, may interrupt their healthy develop- 
 ment in ways involving not only moral 
 disasters, but heavy expenses. Such evils 
 come upon various nations with irregularly 
 recurrent, but also with widely different, 
 weight and seriousness. Only a vast and 
 long-continued collection and an exceedingly 
 difficult statistical analysis of the facts regard- 
 ing such calamities could determine the regu- 
 larities which a sufficiently large number of 
 instances of national disaster- would be, if 
 properly studied, certain to show. Such 
 regularities, however, if once discovered, 
 
 xii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 would furnish an "actuarial basis" upon 
 which an insurance of individual nations 
 against such risks could conceivably be 
 undertaken. 
 
 But in order that an insurance could be 
 actually undertaken, there would have to be 
 in existence a vast and well-secured fund, 
 contributed by a great number of individual 
 nations, and held, under established rules, 
 ready to supply the means of paying to an 
 insured nation perhaps the whole of its loss 
 in case of any previously defined sort of dis- 
 aster ; or perhaps such a portion of that loss 
 as an equitably devised insurance contract, 
 duly adjusted to the contribution previously 
 made by the nation in question, declared to 
 be payable from the common fund in case a 
 certain definite disaster befell one of the 
 nations which had subscribed to the insur- 
 ance agreement. 
 
 Since all irregularly distributed phenomena 
 of a given type, if sufficiently numerous, 
 so long as they are indeed finite in number, 
 show some kind of statistical regularity, 
 
 xiii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 this "actuarial basis" for various forms of 
 international insurance could be furnished 
 by the patient study of the economically de- 
 finable risks and losses of a sufficiently large 
 group of nations, followed through a long 
 enough period of time. 
 
 But an essay which, like the present one, 
 proposes a new international enterprise, gains 
 little from a mention of this purely the- 
 oretical possibility. The fortunes of nations, 
 their risks and their calamities, in so far 
 as such matters are estimable in economic 
 terms at all, might indeed be studied 
 historically and statistically (as if by an 
 observer from another planet), in case we 
 had any hope that a group of nations could 
 be induced to contribute to a common fund 
 to be used for the insurance of individual 
 nations against any special sorts of disaster. 
 And a sufficient study of duly collected his- 
 torical and statistical materials could indeed 
 indicate to an expert actuary the way in 
 which a group of nations could make pro- 
 vision for compensating the individual mem- 
 
 xiv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 bers of the group for certain disasters. But 
 the main concern of this essay lies in propos- 
 ing as a topic for further study and confer- 
 ence the practical question whether any 
 valid grounds can be given why various 
 nations ought to be urged to contribute to 
 such a common insurance fund. 
 
 The proposal seems so far away from our 
 present habits of international intercourse, 
 and so unlikely to meet approval, that one 
 who glances at the title of the present essay 
 is likely to turn away from it without further 
 reading. The only hope of the author lies 
 in the fact that the topic of the essay may be 
 approached from various sides, and may 
 consequently arouse the interest of several 
 sorts of people. Where one possible reader 
 finds himself forthwith repelled, another may 
 be induced to give to the topic a second 
 thought even because of the very aspect of 
 the matter which his neighbor has thought 
 fantastic, or abstruse, or unpractical. The 
 business of this word of introduction consists 
 simply in indicating how many sided the 
 
 xv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 topic is, and so how many and varied are the 
 chances that the author's proposals are 
 worthy of being submitted to scrutiny as 
 much when they ought to be rejected as 
 when, by chance, some of them are worthy 
 of approval. For the principal value of 
 these proposals lies in the fact that they have 
 a certain novelty (although they are also 
 the outcome of a lengthy process of previous 
 reflection) ; that they set forth a method of 
 practical action suited to the present crisis 
 (although they are also founded on the theses 
 of a student of philosophy) ; that they refer 
 to matters which the experience of the busi- 
 ness world has long since tested (although 
 they also speak of issues which the tragedies 
 of the present moment show to be infinitely 
 ideal and pathetic) ; and finally that, while 
 they are written down in the midst of a world 
 war, they expressly analyze and attempt to 
 use that motive which, in the history of 
 humanity, has thus far most made for peace. 
 
 xvi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 I 
 
 Now the body of this essay approaches 
 our main thesis from the side of "War." It 
 discusses in a way which I believe to be 
 somewhat novel some of the deepest motives 
 which render war at present so fatally recur- 
 rent and dangerous. Hereupon it draws a 
 contrast between these essentially war-pro- 
 ducing motives of human life and those 
 motives which are exemplified in certain 
 of the well-known and important social 
 and commercial institutions of the world. 
 Amongst those motives it dwells in particular 
 upon the ones which are represented by the 
 modern institution of insurance. Hereupon 
 it outlines, with necessary brevity and incom- 
 pleteness, a plan whereby a possible future 
 organization for mutual insurance amongst 
 the nations may be devised and may tend 
 towards the gradual establishment of more 
 pacific relations among the nations than 
 they now possess. 
 
 To the plan thus submitted certain obvious 
 objections arise. While leaving to the essay 
 
 xvii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 itself its own part in the exposition and 
 defense of the plan for international insur- 
 ance which is set forth, this Introduction 
 will best serve its purpose if it briefly empha- 
 sizes certain of these most obvious objections 
 to the plan proposed, and then points out 
 why they are not final, and how they may 
 be in a measure obviated. 
 
 The first of these objections will occur to 
 every reader. If one supposes that for any 
 reason a group of nations were considering 
 whether to contribute to a common fund for 
 the insurance of the individual nations 
 belonging to this group against any class of 
 evils, it would be natural to say: "All inter- 
 national peace, under existing conditions, is 
 fragile. A fund contributed by individual 
 nations for their insurance against disasters 
 would constitute a possible object of preda- 
 tory attacks. In other words, the safety of 
 the insurance fund would have to be pro- 
 vided for. This would be as difficult as to 
 provide for the carrying out of any other 
 international agreement in which large inter- 
 
 xviii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ests were involved. Concerning the admin- 
 istration of the fund differences of opinion 
 would arise. Since the fund would be inter- 
 national, these differences would have to be 
 submitted to arbitration or else to war. To 
 the already existing obstacles which the Hague 
 tribunal has to meet new obstacles would be 
 added. Differences of opinion concerning the 
 use of the insurance funds would frequently 
 involve what is usually called national honor. 
 They would, therefore, be hopeless differ- 
 ences. And this initial defect would appear 
 to belong to any international insurance 
 scheme." 
 
 It is worth while in this Introduction to 
 call especial attention to the fact that the 
 plan outlined in the main body of this essay 
 undertakes to meet this very objection by a 
 novel proposal. This proposal contemplates 
 the founding of an entirely new but very 
 easily comprehensible kind of international 
 corporation, a distinctively new entity 
 which would be neither a nation, nor a 
 court of arbitration, nor an international 
 
 xix
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 congress, nor a federation of states, nor 
 any such body as at present exists. The 
 new body would be a Board of Trustees, 
 with powers and duties which would be 
 in the main fiduciary and with no political 
 powers or obligations whatever. 
 
 The new proposal depends upon a con- 
 sideration which I believe to be deeply 
 founded in human nature, and which can be 
 best understood only if the reader is kind 
 enough first to become acquainted with what 
 this essay sets forth concerning those human 
 relations which I call "dangerous" and those 
 which, as I believe, experience shows to be 
 essentially peaceful in their tendencies. 
 Common sense well recognizes, and all human 
 history, so far as it is applicable to the prob- 
 lem at all, exemplifies the fact, that it is dif- 
 ficult to find, for purposes of dealing with 
 delicate and controversial matters, a trust- 
 worthy politician, or a trustworthy diplomat, 
 or a trustworthy ruler, or (in case of matters 
 that involve sufficiently pressing and passion- 
 ate issues), an entirely trustworthy and 
 
 xx
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 unprejudiced arbitrator or judge. But it is 
 much easier to find, under suitable social 
 conditions, a faithful and enlightened and fair- 
 minded trustee. This essay contains many 
 illustrations of the reasons why this assertion 
 is true. 
 
 This essay proposes that a certain fund, 
 contributed by various nations, should be 
 put into the hands of a board of international 
 trustees. The constitution and the mode 
 of selection of the members of this board is 
 briefly set forth in the text. The board, 
 according to the scheme proposed, would 
 have a minimum of judicial powers. These 
 judicial powers would never refer to ques- 
 tions which could be called questions of 
 national honor. The judicial problems of 
 the 'board would be limited to questions 
 referring to the actual interpretation of cer- 
 tain contracts. These contracts would be 
 either of the nature of insurance policies, or 
 else of other forms of trust agreements. 
 When these contracts had put certain funds 
 into the hands of the board, the funds being 
 
 xxi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 held in trust for certain insured nations, or 
 for other nations that intrusted funds to the 
 board, the board would have the sole right, 
 in controversial cases, simply to decide what 
 the terms of the contract, or of certain con- 
 nected duties of trust, established as the right 
 of the nation or nations of whose funds the 
 board was trustee. 
 
 The tentative proposal of this essay is 
 that the decision of the board regarding these 
 matters a decision which would always 
 be made by a public procedure and in accord- 
 ance with established rules would be a 
 final decision, so that no nation should have 
 any authority, under its agreement, to appeal 
 from the decision in question. Reasons 
 appear in the essay why such confidence in 
 trustees regarding the interpretation of their 
 own fiduciary duties would be well founded, 
 if once the international agreement under 
 which the board was constituted had been 
 reasonably well devised, and if once the 
 board had been carefully selected by the 
 insuring nations and if the board were suf-
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ficiently large and varied, and if its proceed- 
 ings were public. 
 
 The board of international trustees in 
 question would possess, or would gradually 
 and naturally acquire, various fiduciary duties 
 in addition to those determined at any stage 
 by its relation to the business of international 
 insurance. Insurance is in many cases 
 naturally combined with various forms of 
 investment, and with various devices for 
 serving the common ends of the members of 
 a mutual insurance company. Every such 
 fiduciary duty of the board would be deter- 
 mined by special agreements and would be 
 administered according to the rules and 
 decisions of the board. Inevitably the board 
 ought to have a right to proceed against its 
 own members by whatever judicial methods 
 it chose, in case an individual act involving 
 breach of trust was in question. But the 
 board as a whole would not have to report to 
 any nation. It would act deliberately and 
 'publicly, but in the light of its own conscience 
 and discretion. This entire autonomy of the 
 
 xxiii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 board with regard to its duties and acts as 
 trustee would be correlated with an entire ab- 
 sence of any political functions or powers. 
 
 The international board of trustees which 
 my plan contemplates would have no police 
 to guard it, no international army or navy 
 to protect it, no direct interest in interna- 
 tional controversies, and no reason for diplor 
 matic relations with any existing powers. 
 It would receive its funds in trust as volun- 
 tary contributions of the nations. It would 
 administer its trust in accordance with poli- 
 cies of insurance and deeds of trust. It 
 could neither declare war nor make peace. 
 Nominally it might hold its sessions, after 
 the manner of the Hague tribunal, in some 
 neutral state, and be regarded as possessing 
 a peculiarly close although essentially ideal 
 and, so to speak, sentimental connection 
 with that state. But its obligations would 
 be to its own conscience, guided by the 
 deeds of trust which it had undertaken to 
 administer. 
 
 Its members would be selected by inter- 
 xxiv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 national agreement. Its rules would be sub- 
 ject to change only in such fashion as did 
 not abridge the rights already acquired by the 
 nations who had entered into the agreement. 
 
 Just as the individual holder of the pol- 
 icy of an insurance company has, if he is dis- 
 satisfied with the conduct of his company, 
 the freedom to surrender his policy and to 
 receive in turn the "surrender value" of 
 that policy, so, subject to certain general 
 and reasonable rules regarding due notice 
 and a proper period of time allowed for with- 
 drawal, any nation that found itpelf dissatis- 
 fied with the procedure of the international 
 board of trustees would be free to withdraw 
 its interest in the entire enterprise and to 
 receive the "surrender value" of its policy, 
 and a return of its funds held in trust. 
 
 I submit that an international board of 
 this kind would be at present a novelty, and 
 that, if some form of international insurance 
 proves to be feasible, such a body might 
 become, in the end, one of the most potent 
 international enterprises on earth. 
 
 xxv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 But all the foregoing is subject to the very 
 obvious objection, that if the board had no 
 army, no navy, and no political powers, it 
 would be helpless to defend the funds com- 
 mitted to its trust from the assaults of any 
 power that desired to use these funds for its 
 own purposes. In fact, the powers of the 
 board of trustees in question would be indeed 
 financial and fiduciary in case the nations 
 respected these powers. But such powers, 
 an objector might insist, would be wholly 
 spiritual. Wherein would lie their temporal 
 safeguard ? 
 
 To this perfectly obvious objection this 
 essay proposes an equally obvious plan by 
 which the funds committed to the trustees 
 could be so invested that they were actually 
 inaccessible to any power on earth which 
 was not actually in a position to conquer 
 all of the powers who had entered into the 
 insurance agreement or who had deposited 
 funds with the trustees. The funds could 
 be invested as widely in the world as one 
 pleases, and could be made subject to the 
 
 xxvi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 order of tjie board of trustees and of that 
 board only. If an individual capitalist, fear- 
 ing that a war of the nations might endan- 
 ger his private fortune, desired tp keep that 
 fortune safe, he could, even in the present 
 troubled world, guarantee that result with 
 reasonable safety by investing his funds 
 widely enough, in various countries, and 
 securely enough in each of his selected deposi- 
 tories. The new entity which this essay 
 proposes to institute, the international board 
 of trustees, would have far more varied 
 opportunities to keep its funds in places 
 where the armies and the navies of i^he 
 various existing powers would threaten it 
 in vain despite the publicity of all its official 
 proceedings. 
 
 The board would possess no territory which 
 could be seized, it would lay claim to no 
 neutrality which could be violated. Its 
 absence of political power would secure it 
 against direct armed assault. Its individual 
 trustees might be made prisoners or executed ; 
 but such efforts might well kill its body 
 
 xxvii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 without touching its essentially intangible 
 soul. 
 
 Since its acts of investment would all be 
 made according to established rules and 
 under the public charge of the board, its 
 individual trustees would have no power to 
 surrender its funds, no matter how much 
 they wished to do so. Only the board, 
 acting in its corporate power as trustee, 
 would have any power to dispose of the 
 funds that were put into its trust. 
 
 II 
 
 The next objection which readily occurs to 
 the mind, and which the reader of the plan 
 for international insurance herein expounded 
 is especially asked to notice, is founded upon 
 the fact that if the nations, by large contribu- 
 tions to the common fund, won for them- 
 selves large and important rights through 
 their insurance agreements, they would win 
 hereby no safety against the dangers of war, 
 and in particular of conquest. Yet amongst 
 all the evils against which nations could 
 xxviii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 insure, if a scheme for mutual insurance 
 proved to be successful, some at least of the 
 evils due to war would surely be the most 
 important. The objector might well con- 
 tinue that, if it were possible to give to the 
 plan such a development as to enable the 
 international board to insure an individual 
 nation against any considerable portion of 
 the losses and expenses which war might 
 entail, the very success of the plan, up to 
 that point, would tend to render individual 
 nations careless, and so more disposed, if pos- 
 sible, than they otherwise would be, to engage 
 in war. For the man whose house is insured 
 may thereby be rendered less rather than 
 more careful with regard to the risk of fire. 
 To both these objections the plan out- 
 lined in this essay provides what may be 
 regarded as at least a partial answer. This 
 answer must be judged in the light of the 
 few passages in the essay which directly 
 deal with these aspects of the question. I 
 call attention to these passages, and expressly 
 point out that what I propose involves a 
 
 xxix
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 tentative suggestion, which is proposed for 
 the sake of revision. 
 
 What it is worth while to mention in this 
 Introduction is that this essay suggests an 
 extension to international insurance of devices 
 which are already known in the insurance of 
 individuals. In particular, a part of the 
 plan here tentatively set forth would involve 
 a way in which the life of every one of the 
 insured nations was, so to speak, insured by 
 the general insurance organization for the 
 benefit of mankind. 
 
 That is, the more rights an individual 
 nation had acquired by virtue of previous 
 insurance, the less motive a conqueror would 
 have for finding this nation attractive prey. 
 For the insurance board of trustees might 
 undertake, by special agreements, functions 
 which were not only those of insurance but 
 also those of investment, so far as concerned 
 an individual nation. That is, an individual 
 nation might put a portion of its property in 
 trust, and under the administration of the 
 board. One could even now conceive that 
 
 xxx
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 some South American republic might find 
 such an investment of a portion of its wealth 
 possible and useful. In the future still 
 greater nations might be attracted into simi- 
 lar undertakings. 
 
 But if either insurance rights or trust 
 funds thus belonged to a nation which hap- 
 pened to suffer the accident of occupation 
 or of conquest, the conqueror of such a nation 
 would not, according to this plan, be able to find 
 so much of the conquered nation's property, 
 or to use it. For the plan defined in this 
 essay includes the provision, that, if a nation 
 loses its life, then its insurance rights, and 
 of course its funds deposited in any form 
 in trust with the international board, simply 
 revert to the common fund of mankind, and are 
 henceforth used and held in trust by the inter- 
 national board for the benefit of all the insuring 
 nations. 
 
 Closely connected with this provision of 
 the plan here outlined, is another, whereby 
 whatever nation won in a war would be pre- 
 vented from extorting from any vanquished 
 
 xxxi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 nation, by means of any sort of treaty, either 
 its insurance rights or any other funds which 
 it had, before the war, put in trust with the 
 board. This Introduction may well call 
 attention to these aspects of the plan 
 involved in this essay, since in case of the 
 success of such a plan as the one here out- 
 lined, these provisions might become valu- 
 able allies to the cause of peace. 
 
 Finally, so far as the present set of objec- 
 tions is concerned, the important provision 
 that any nation committing the "first act 
 of war" with which a given contest began, 
 would thereby vitiate so much of its policy 
 as related to any possible insurance that it 
 might possess against any of the costs or 
 expenses of this particular war, this im- 
 portant provision would tend to introduce 
 a restraining motive against war. And many 
 other such restraining motives could be 
 readily devised and added to this first motive 
 by means of insurance agreements. How 
 far-reaching such a provision would prove 
 may be left for the further study of the 
 
 xxxii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 reader of this essay and for such future 
 discussions as this essay, by good fortune, 
 may arouse amongst students of the ques- 
 tions thus proposed. It is enough at this 
 point simply to insist that there are here 
 international questions which are worthy 
 of careful consideration, and which do not 
 involve any of t^he difficulties which have 
 already played so large a part in the history 
 of arbitration, and of other attempts at inter- 
 national agreements. 
 
 Ill 
 
 A colleague of mine, and a high authority 
 upon problems of insurance, in replying to 
 my request for his criticisms upon this essay, 
 has pointed out, as a serious objection to any 
 plan for international insurance, that strong 
 nations would be likely to prefer to insure 
 themselves, while if only the weak nations 
 joined in the international agreement, little 
 would be accomplished. The direct rejoinder 
 to this objection which is suggested in the 
 text of the present essay, consists in pointing 
 xxxiii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 out, that if there were any evils, whether or 
 not evils of war, against which international 
 insurance proved to be feasible, and if the 
 plan here proposed began, even very 
 modestly, to accomplish something in the 
 way of bringing several nations together for 
 purposes of mutual insurance, every such 
 mutual insurance would involve the nations 
 in new forms of cooperation, whose motives 
 would be of the essentially peace-making 
 kind analyzed in the text of this essay. 
 
 But precisely in so far as such motives 
 appeared at all as a result of international 
 insurance, they would tend to make, more 
 and more, national evils insurable. For if 
 the nations begin thus to cooperate, they will, 
 for the first time, learn what that sort of honor is 
 which is involved in keeping agreements such 
 as the insurance business exemplifies. What 
 is called national honor is at present alto- 
 gether too much a matter of capricious, 
 private, and often merely personal judg- 
 ment, simply because the nations are not as 
 yet self-conscious moral beings. 
 
 xxxiv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 They have not learned, as corporate enti- 
 ties, what mutual loyalty is, because they 
 have not begun to come together in those 
 communities whose type is described in this 
 essay. 
 
 Personal honor is always the correlative 
 of some practical form of loyalty, and of some 
 recognition of an obligation, a recognition 
 that one acquires through actual business 
 of the sort that does not go on in those dan- 
 gerous relations which this essay somewhat 
 elaborately analyzes. 
 
 If the international body of trustees had 
 in its charge any large trust in which a num- 
 ber of nations were interested, these nations, 
 working through their board, would become 
 clearly conscious of the sort of loyalty and 
 hence of the sort of honor which is found 
 upon the highest levels of the business world. 
 
 Thus a genuine and reasonable sense of 
 honor would begin automatically to enter 
 international relations. And the more it 
 entered, the more chances there would be 
 for mutual insurance. This mutual insur- 
 
 xxxv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ance, if it once extended to any of the evils 
 of war at all, would tend in time to extend to 
 more and more of them. And in this way 
 the community of mankind would be formed, 
 and would gradually grow by methods and 
 in accordance with principles which are at 
 once ideal and businesslike. 
 
 So, even if one began with the mutual 
 insurance of a comparatively few nations 
 which were relatively weak, a new sort of 
 international relation would begin to exist. 
 And the more this relation existed, the more 
 new international insurance enterprises would 
 be possible. The whole very wonderful his- 
 tory of insurance tends to show this, and to 
 warrant the somewhat enthusiastic predic- 
 tion with which this essay closes. 
 
 IV 
 
 One further remark remains for this Intro- 
 duction to emphasize. Important as it seems 
 to the present writer that some beginning 
 should be made in inducing a group of na- 
 tions to contribute to a common fund for 
 xxx vi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 insurance against some of the evils of war 
 (however few of such risks may be as yet 
 insurable) still this essay, in dealing with 
 "war and insurance," certainly does not 
 intend to confine itself solely to the possi- 
 bility of insurance against the risks of war. 
 A widely varied list of natural calamities 
 against which insurance is possible has al- 
 ready been presented. 
 
 It is noticeable that any international 
 insurance, which dealt with natural calami- 
 ties, would involve a contract in which the 
 individual nation was indeed to receive some 
 definable insurance payment in case of cer- 
 tain disasters ; but that, as a fact, the indi- 
 vidual subjects would, in most such in- 
 stances, be obviously, at least in part, 
 the natural beneficiaries who would receive 
 from their government the payments which 
 would first come to the nation in ques- 
 tion from the international board of insur- 
 ance. 
 
 From the nature of the case, the inter- 
 national board would have no authority 
 xxxvii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 whatever to direct any sovereign state how 
 it was to distribute to its subjects funds 
 delivered by it as proceeds of the payment 
 made to it by the board, in accordance with 
 the insurance policy. No possible interna- 
 tional controversy could arise regarding the 
 use which any sovereign state made of any 
 of its insurance benefits when once they were 
 received. 
 
 But, on the whole, any modern sovereign 
 state would be inevitably much influenced 
 by the prevailing public opinion of its own 
 people with regard to the distribution of 
 its insurance funds. Consequently, the exist- 
 ence of insurance benefits and, in turn, the 
 existence of contributions made by the indi- 
 vidual state to the international insurance 
 fund, would be of great possible benefit to 
 any individual state, in dealing with its most 
 pressing social problems. For whether a na- 
 tion was amply able to insure itself against a 
 risk or not, an insurance policy would con- 
 stitute a convenient means of providing, in 
 advance, by a single financial device, for a 
 xxxviii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 definite class of the needs or the risks of its 
 subjects. 
 
 A single example will suffice to indicate 
 the way in which a system of international 
 insurance, once established, would furnish an 
 extremely simple mode a wholly new sort 
 of machinery by means of which an indi- 
 vidual state might deal with some of its most 
 intimate internal problems and issues. 
 
 The various forms of workmen's insur- 
 ance are now becoming of great importance 
 in the life of individual states. Such prob- 
 lems are dealt with by different nations in 
 modes which vary and ought to vary accord- 
 ing to the special social problems which 
 occupy the consciousness of the individual 
 nations, and which also vary with the sys- 
 tems of legislation and of government which 
 characterize different nationalities. 
 
 Every effort to apply the experience of one 
 sovereign state with regard to the best form 
 of workmen's insurance to the life of another 
 sovereign state, has at present to involve 
 new legislative or administrative decisions, 
 xxxix
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 and constitutional difficulties of the most 
 varied sort. 
 
 Now international insurance, without in 
 the least interfering with the discretion, with 
 the constitution, or with the independence 
 of any nation concerned, would furnish, if it 
 existed, a most convenient mode whereby 
 various nations could learn from one an- 
 other's experience, how to deal with such a 
 problem as that of workmen's insurance, and 
 how to apply what they learned through such 
 experience to the special modes of adminis- 
 tration and of legislation which were suited 
 to the constitution of each state. 
 
 Thus, suppose that the international board 
 of trustees existed, and that the individual 
 state was willing to contribute a fund to the 
 general fund, thereby taking out a policy 
 which insured to it, at suitable intervals, a 
 payment adequate to cover the total cost of 
 a given class of accidents occurring to its 
 workmen in the various dangerous occupa- 
 tions. The form of such a policy, its costs 
 and conditions, would depend entirely upon 
 
 xl
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 what proposal the international board was 
 prepared to entertain, and what contribu- 
 tion to the common insurance fund the 
 sovereign state in question was willing to 
 make. The insurance payments, when duly 
 made, would be wholly at the disposal of the 
 state receiving them. 
 
 Only, instead of devising some elaborate 
 legislation of its own, hampered perhaps by 
 numerous constitutional and legal restric- 
 tions, determined by the whole past history 
 of its laws and customs, the insured sovereign 
 state would now have on its hands simply 
 the problem of distributing the fund paid to 
 it as the result of its workmen's insurance 
 policy, to the people to whom, in its opinion, 
 this sum should be equitably distributed. 
 
 In a country such as the United States, 
 where any plan for workmen's insurance of 
 any type must at present pass through the 
 slow ordeal of adjusting itself to the laws and 
 customs of each separate state of the Union, 
 and where a constitutional amendment, au- 
 thorizing a general federal law on the subject, 
 
 xli
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 would involve awkward and possibly danger- 
 ous complications, the whole subject could be 
 much more simply dealt with if the interna- 
 tional board of insurance, after due investi- 
 gation of the facts about accidents, about 
 old age, or about any other topic involving 
 matters of interest to bodies of workmen in 
 any state of the Union, named, not upon 
 constitutional grounds, and not upon the 
 ground of any treaty with any foreign power, 
 a sum in return for which the international 
 insurance board would be willing to pay, at 
 stated intervals, into the treasury of the 
 United States, a certain sum called for by a 
 certain policy, in case the United States 
 Congress simply appropriated the money to 
 pay for the policy in question. 
 
 Now there is no doubt that the United 
 States is amply able to insure itself against 
 all risks and expenses that are due to disease 
 or to accident or to old age, in so far as these 
 things affect its various classes of laborers. 
 It is equally sure that manifold constitutional 
 difficulties and varieties of custom he in the 
 
 xlii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 way of carrying through any scheme affect- 
 ing workmen's insurance throughout the vari- 
 ous states of the American Union. 
 
 It would be, therefore, of advantage to the 
 United States if an international insurance 
 board existed, and if it had the opportunity 
 to pay for any policy that might at any time 
 seem good to it affecting workmen's insur- 
 ance anywhere within its borders. For the 
 constitutional difficulties and the varieties 
 of state legislation which stand in the way 
 of carrying out any one plan for workmen's 
 insurance in the United States would not 
 stand in the way of a plan for appropriating 
 a certain sum to be paid by the authority 
 of Congress to the international insurance 
 board. Nor would such difficulties be nearly 
 as great when the problem arose as to how 
 the proceeds received from such a policy 
 were to be distributed to individual workmen 
 throughout the United States, or to any part 
 of it. The insurance policy would not be 
 needed as a financial investment. But it 
 would furnish a new and valuable machinery 
 
 xliii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 for devising and carrying out possible social 
 reforms. 
 
 This is but a single example. As soon as 
 one considers the possible uses of an interna- 
 tional insurance board, in case that, while it 
 did its business with the nations, their indi- 
 vidual subjects were the natural beneficiaries 
 of the insurance in question, one sees that, 
 without the least interference with the discre- 
 tion or the independence of any nation, a vast 
 simplification of the machinery whereby each 
 nation might deal with its own social prob- 
 lems would be furnished. 
 
 While the various nations took out policies 
 for any such social purpose by putting cer- 
 tain sums in trust with the board, they would 
 very naturally take counsel together, by com- 
 paring their various modes of social insur- 
 ance, and of other socially beneficent pro- 
 cesses. Every word spoken in such counsel 
 would tend toward mutual understanding among 
 the nations and towards simplification of the 
 social problems of each, or of the ways in which 
 these problems were to be dealt with. Yet at 
 
 xliv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 no moment would such conference in the 
 least interfere with the honor of the indi- 
 vidual nations, or involve new disputes, or 
 stand in the way of any national ambi- 
 tion. 
 
 It will be clearly observed that the inter- 
 national board of insurance would have no 
 hostility to the growth of international arbi- 
 tration, or to the authority of the Hague tri- 
 bunal. Its existence would imply no hin- 
 drance to any other influence that at pres- 
 ent furthers, or that may in future further, the 
 substitution of peace for war in international 
 life. 
 
 Therefore the strong nations could use, and 
 could profitably use, international insurance 
 quite as much and quite as hopefully as 
 the weak. For it would provide them a 
 new machinery for the financial care of re- 
 forms. 
 
 The more it was used, the more it would be- 
 come useful. And the genuine community of 
 mankind would indeed be begun, not as a 
 merely fantastic hope, but as an institution 
 
 xlv
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 whereby part of the world's daily business 
 was done. 
 
 It seems well to close this Introduction 
 with the words of a great authority on the 
 theory of insurance, words by which the 
 present writer's thoughts have been con- 
 stantly guided in the writing of this essay. 
 The words are those of Charlton Thomas 
 Lewis, Ph.D. They appear in the article 
 on "Insurance," which the eleventh edition 
 of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" prints on 
 page 658 of Volume XIV: 
 
 "The value of insurance as an institution 
 cannot be measured by figures. No direct 
 balance-sheet of profit and loss can exhibit 
 its utility. The insurance contract produces 
 no wealth. It represents only expenditure. 
 If a thousand men insure themselves against 
 any contingency, then, whether or not the 
 dreaded event occurs to any, they will in the 
 aggregate be poorer, as the direct result,, by 
 the exact cost of the machinery for effect- 
 ing it. The distribution of property is 
 changed, its sum is not increased. But the 
 
 xlvi
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 results in the social economy, the substitu- 
 tion of reasonable foresight and confidence 
 for apprehension and the sense of hazard, the 
 large elimination of chance from business 
 and conduct have a supreme value. The 
 direct contribution of insurance to civili- 
 zation is made, not in visible wealth, but in 
 the intangible and immeasurable forces of 
 character on which civilization itself is 
 founded. It is preeminently a modern insti- 
 tution. Some two centuries ago it had 
 begun to influence centers of trade, but the 
 mass of civilized men had no conception of its 
 meaning. Its general application and popu- 
 lar acceptance began within the first half of 
 the 19th century, and its commercial and 
 social importance have multiplied a hundred- 
 fold within living memory. It has done 
 more than all gifts of impulsive charity to 
 foster a sense of human brotherhood and of 
 common interests. It has done more than 
 all repressive legislation to destroy the gam- 
 bling spirit. It is impossible to conceive 
 of our civilization in its full vigor and pro- 
 
 xlvii
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 gressive power without this principle, which 
 unites the fundamental law of practical econ- 
 omy, that he best serves humanity who best 
 serves himself, with the golden rule of reli- 
 gion, 'Bear ye one another's burdens." 
 
 xlviii
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 RE AT tragedies are great opportunities. 
 The new griefs which to-day beset the 
 civilized nations call for new reflections and 
 for new inventions. Our past methods of 
 furthering the cause of peace on earth have 
 disappointed many hopes that, in their day, 
 seemed both fascinating and reasonable. We 
 must not expect, at any time in the near 
 future, to make an entire end of war, but we 
 need to understand better than we now do the 
 depth, the gravity, and the true nature of 
 the motives which have thus far made war- 
 like tendencies so persistent in the life of 
 mankind. We also need to discover, if we 
 can, methods not yet tried, whereby the wars 
 of the nations may be gradually rendered 
 less destructive, and less willful. 
 
 This essay is to be devoted to both the 
 tasks thus indicated. The main part of this 
 B 1
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 paper will give an account of some of the 
 familiar, but too little heeded, and too ill 
 defined reasons why wars are, despite our 
 civilization, so fatally recurrent incidents of 
 our international life. This first part of our 
 paper must be somewhat lengthily stated ; 
 for, as the old Buddhist scripture says : 
 
 " Long is the night to him who is awake ; long is a 
 mile to him who is tired ; long is life to the foolish who 
 do not know the true law." l 
 
 And our poor human nature is still on the 
 level on which we are often wakeful in the 
 night and often have yet to seek after the 
 knowledge of the true law which may some 
 day bring us nearer to the life of peace. 
 
 This earlier and also lengthier part of our 
 paper will gradually lead us, however, to the 
 definition of some principles bearing on a 
 fragment of the true law both of war and of 
 peace. And so far this paper will be a con- 
 tribution to what has been called, by the 
 Dutch Ethnologist Steinmetz, the "Philos- 
 ophy of War." But, at the very close of our 
 
 1 MAX MULLER, " Sacred Books of the East," Vol. X, p. 20.
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 discussion, we shall be led to an application 
 of these principles which I believe to be in 
 certain respects new. We shall then, in the 
 second and much shorter part of our discus- 
 sion, propose a method of practically further- 
 ing the gradual growth and reenforcement of 
 the cause of peace on earth. This method 
 has not yet been tried. I believe that the 
 principles upon which it is founded are, in 
 certain concrete instances, as familiar to the 
 modern civilized man as are his most char- 
 acteristic forms of prudence, of thrift, and of 
 cooperation. But the application of these 
 principles to the philosophy of war remains 
 still inadequate ; and, at the present moment, 
 this field for further efforts to form plans that 
 look towards peace is still open. This paper 
 will thus close with a brief indication of the 
 nature of one such plan. 
 
 3
 
 THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE 
 
 rriO propose any way for furthering the 
 cause of universal peace is to arouse the 
 objection that all such proposals, if definite 
 in their formulation, and universal in their 
 intention, have thus far always proved uto- 
 pian. As has often been asserted, man ap- 
 pears in history as essentially a fighting ani- 
 mal. When he becomes civilized, he changes, 
 indeed, the fashion of his fighting, and, in 
 the course of time, gradually improves both 
 the morals and the methods of his warfare. 
 Cruelty, pillage, and extermination become 
 less prominent amongst the aims which ab- 
 sorb the warrior's mind. Wars are waged for 
 purposes which become more ideal as time 
 goes on. Humanity of mood directs, in a 
 measure, the plans of rival nations. The 
 modern national spirit itself sometimes appears 
 
 4
 
 THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE 
 
 to be a sort of preparation for some larger 
 enthusiasm which, as we often hope, may, in 
 a far-off future age, make the community 
 of mankind its main object of fraternal devo- 
 tion, and the whole earth its country. 
 
 But, on the other hand, as the nations grow 
 in power and in self -consciousness, some of the 
 disastrous but profoundly human motives 
 which most tend to make men fight with their 
 neighbors, not only survive in the midst of 
 the highest cultivation which we have yet 
 reached, but are even intensified by the 
 very intelligence, by the loyalty, and by 
 the resoluteness, which lie at the basis of 
 what our civilization most needs and prizes. 
 Nobody can rightly consider the problem 
 of war who regards the war spirit as a mere 
 relic of barbarism, or as due solely to the evil 
 side of our nature. The mystery of war and 
 of its fascination can be fathomed only in case 
 we first observe that although, of old, wars 
 were often due in a large part to the passions 
 and ambitions of rulers and of the ruling 
 classes of the warring peoples, modern wars, 
 
 5
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 however much princes may take part in their 
 beginnings, are, on the whole, waged by 
 peoples, and are in part the expressions of 
 the recently acquired power of an intelligent 
 democracy. Ancient wars were frequently 
 the result of ignorance, and of blind popular 
 passion, of superstition, or of the greed of 
 individuals. Modern wars are in many cases 
 deliberately and thoughtfully planned by 
 patriots who love their country's honor, who 
 are clearly conscious of well -formulated ideals 
 which they think righteous, and who fight 
 in the name of the freedom of the people, 
 and in the service of what they suppose to be 
 the highest human culture. World-wide sym- 
 pathies do not prevent warlike passions from 
 seeming to many who cultivate them not 
 only necessary, but morally indispensable; 
 not only honorable, but holy ; not only fasci- 
 nating, but rational. 
 
 Let us remember then that, whatever the 
 mere form of any national government may 
 be, it is at present the democracy itself, or 
 at all events, the prevailing popular will, 
 
 6
 
 THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE 
 
 however it is expressed, which, in the more 
 warlike modern nations, actually prepares 
 for war, which dreams of it in advance, which 
 tries cheerfully to bear the burdens of its 
 expenses, which glories in its risks and in its 
 victories, and which frequently and con- 
 sciously justifies it as the highest, as the com- 
 pletest, and so as the most ethical expression of 
 national loyalty. Let us remember too that 
 modern democracy, or whatever else expresses 
 the will of a people, does this not because it 
 lacks a sympathetic interest in the concerns 
 and in the sentiments of the men of other 
 nations, but because our modern form of 
 human solidarity is such that international 
 hate travels as far, as fast, and as persuasively 
 as does love. The civilized world thrills 
 with sympathy for the calamities of obscure 
 or of distant men ; but it also thrills with a 
 common admiration for high spirit, and for 
 warlike enthusiasm. Sympathy implies a dis- 
 position to imitate, and so, just because of 
 our present degree of solidarity, we tend to 
 imitate whatever is impressively vigorous 
 
 7
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 about the will and the power of interesting 
 men and nations. Such imitation is, in many 
 cases, an imitation of the war spirit. 
 
 Only in case we keep in mind both the vast 
 masses of popular interest and the very high 
 grade of intelligence which are now devoted, 
 in many great nations, to the cultivation of 
 warlike motives, and to the preparation for 
 war, can we see how far away is the Utopia 
 of universal peace. 
 
 As a fact, the advance of civilization not 
 only brings with it motives which tend to 
 check and to control the barbarous aspects of 
 war, but also motives, some of them new, 
 which tend to make war appear, to many 
 individuals and nations, more ideal, more 
 righteous, more significant, than ever. The 
 modern world, wherein every great human 
 experience of passion, of sorrow, and of love 
 arouses a warm response in the most distant 
 parts of the inhabited earth, this same 
 world echoes the warlike passions as readily 
 as it does the humane ones, longs to imitate 
 the powerful peoples as well as to relieve 
 
 8
 
 THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE 
 
 the sufferers from an earthquake, and is 
 stirred by its far-reaching rivalries as much as 
 by its other expressions of solidarity. Its 
 social problems are common to all the civ- 
 ilized lands ; but so too are the dispositions 
 to encourage and to feel the contrasts of 
 races, and the rivalries of commerce and of 
 cultivation. The democracies are vast; but 
 so too are the conflicting interests for which 
 these democracies are ready to fight. Science 
 brings all men near to each other ; but science 
 also originates new industrial arts, and these 
 arts can be used for war as well as for peace. 
 Civilization makes men more thoughtful about 
 both social and moral issues. But such 
 thoughtfulness, if once inspired by patriotism, 
 and by international jealousies, can both 
 counsel and wage war deliberately, and with a 
 self-righteous assurance such as our element- 
 ally passionate or simply superstitious ances- 
 tors never knew. 
 
 So, of themselves, neither cultivation, nor 
 thoughtfulness, nor humane breadth of sym- 
 pathies, nor the discoveries of science, nor the 
 
 9
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 aspirations of the democracy, have been able 
 to make wars cease on the earth. Modern 
 wars may, as we now know, become more 
 widespread, more democratic in spirit, more 
 ideally self-righteous, than ever they were 
 before. 
 
 Whoever undertakes, then, to plan any 
 method of decreasing the evils of war, must 
 take account of these facts and must consider 
 how deeply rooted in civilized man the ten- 
 dency towards war still remains. One may 
 well begin such an enterprise by asking 
 whether it is not indeed altogether hopeless. 
 In view of the facts thus summarily sketched, 
 is not this great disease of mankind, the love 
 of war, beyond cure, and perhaps beyond any 
 lasting relief ? 
 
 And yet : The spectator who to-day wit- 
 nesses the tragedy entitled "Man," watches 
 a scene wherein both the events and the char- 
 acters arouse, side by side with many old 
 emotions and reflections, certain wholly new 
 movings of pity, of fear, and of wonder. 
 Can one remain a merely passive spectator? 
 
 10
 
 THE UTOPIA OF UNIVERSAL PEACE 
 
 Must one not seek, at least in imagination, 
 some more active means whereby he may 
 transform his pity into charity, his fear into 
 an inspiring hope, his wonder into some sort 
 of interpretation of the meaning of what he 
 witnesses ? In such an effort lies the task of 
 this essay. 
 
 11
 
 n 
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 facts just cited, the prominence of 
 warlike motives in modern men, the 
 stubborn survival in culture of the ten- 
 dencies which express themselves in arma- 
 ments, in the jealousies of nations, and in 
 actual wars, all these things call for further 
 characterization in terms of a principle which 
 shall be sufficiently general in its scope, and 
 sufficiently important in its practical appli- 
 cations, to serve as a guide in our search for 
 a way of giving to humanity a measure of 
 relief from its most dangerous social burdens. 
 The higher religions have long sought for 
 an expression of such a principle. Two of 
 them in particular, namely Buddhism and 
 Christianity, have found and used a formula 
 which is, in fact, extremely general in its 
 statement, and very highly practical in its 
 
 12
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 demands, as well as in some of its applications. 
 In its Christian expression this formula is as 
 familiar as is its failure to guide men, and lies 
 at the basis of the counsel which Christian 
 teachers of the most various creeds daily give 
 to each of the faithful regarding his relation 
 to his fellow man. Just because of this 
 familiarity of the best known forms of the 
 Christian formula, we may be aided to make 
 the principle in question momentarily vivid 
 in our minds, if we here refer to one of the 
 simplest and most popular of the scriptures 
 of the original Southern Buddhism, the work 
 from which I have already quoted the passage 
 about those who find the night long. The 
 name of this book is the Dhammapada. 
 Let me cite from this scripture a mere frag- 
 ment of a single text. At a moment when 
 the world is at war, this ancient Buddhist 
 word may awaken, by the very contrast 
 between its spirit and that of the passing 
 mood of modern European patriots, a com- 
 ment which will help us to see where our real 
 problem lies : 
 
 13
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 " * He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he 
 robbed me ' ; in those who do not harbor such 
 thoughts hatred will cease. 
 
 " For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time : 
 hatred ceases by love, this is an old rule." * 
 
 Such, then, is the formulation of the greatest 
 of human practical problems by the Dham- 
 mapada ; such is the solution of this problem 
 which that ancient Buddhist scripture proposed, 
 several hundred years before Christ. You 
 have but to think of the best known words 
 of the parables and of the Sermon on the 
 Mount in order to recall other and now dis- 
 tinctively Christian forms of this same rule 
 for ending wars and for saving mankind. 
 "Little children, love one another:" these 
 words, in another part of the New Testament, 
 restate this view of the escape from all the 
 horrors which war entails. In an equally 
 simple, and, as I may at once add, in an equally 
 imperfect shape, Tolstoi's version of the 
 Christian spirit not long since filled with a 
 sad longing the very European world whose 
 
 1 MAX MCLLER, "Sacred Books of the East," Vol. X, p. 5. 
 
 14
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 destinies have, since then, been so domi- 
 nated by preparation for war, and by acts 
 of war. 
 
 Considered by itself, and apart from all 
 theological formulations, this lore which is 
 common to Buddhism and to Christianity may 
 be summed up in the assertion that the moral 
 destiny of man depends upon a certain pair 
 of relations, the relation of love towards 
 his neighbor, and the relation of hate. 
 In so far as man is dominated by the hate- 
 relation, this doctrine tells us that he is lost. 
 In so far as the love-relation becomes his 
 guide, he is, according to the same teaching, 
 saved ; for then he enters the realm of inner 
 as well as of outer peace, and his life wins its 
 only true sense, its only possible fulfillment. 
 There is, then, so this view of life teaches, a 
 good relation of man to his neighbor; it is 
 the relation of lover to beloved. There is 
 a relation to his neighbor which is not only 
 dangerous, but deadly to man; and that is 
 the relation of an enemy to the neighbor 
 whom he hates. The whole problem of life 
 
 15
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 lies here. Let men become lovers, and then 
 whatever men's mere fortunes may be, all is 
 well. Let them remain enemies, and then 
 not only wars are waged, but also the shadow 
 of death is upon the whole inner and outer 
 life of man. The dead lie waiting burial. 
 The mourners wail and cannot be comforted. 
 Such, I say, is the substance of that view of 
 our problem which Christianity and Southern 
 Buddhism share in common. 
 
 Now this doctrine of life is so ancient, and 
 is, in mere words, so widely accepted, that 
 just because we are deadened by the mere 
 repetition of such words, we have difficulty 
 in making very vivid to our minds how far 
 this common Buddhist and Christian lore 
 is from telling us the whole truth about the 
 way whereby the .winning of peace and the 
 fruitful union of human souls is to be sought, 
 if ever such peace and union is to take place 
 in the world of daily life at all. 
 
 In order to illustrate this contrast between 
 real life and this ideal of life, let us simply 
 fancy that some supernatural stranger, having 
 
 16
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 an angel's tongue, and bearing a flag of truce, 
 appears to-day upon a battlefield in Belgium 
 or in Servia, and, having first somehow mirac- 
 ulously caused the conflict to cease for a 
 time, announces to all present, so that they 
 hear him, the news of how he has in his pos- 
 session the formula for ending all wars, includ- 
 ing the present strife on this field. Let him 
 then read, over the heaps of the wounded and 
 of the dead as they lie there the words I have 
 just read from the Dhammapada : 
 
 "Hatred does not cease by hatred; hatred ceases 
 by love ; this is an old rule." 
 
 As soon as this angel of peace has finished 
 his message and has departed, the warriors, 
 so far as they are not yet helpless, will of 
 course return to the tasks wherein they find 
 their honor and their duty, as well as their 
 own fierce joy and pain, their own bitter 
 weariness, and their own passionate obedience 
 and devotion. As they do so, will they not 
 feel, along with us the spectators, that the 
 words of this angel visitant, spoken during 
 c 17
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 the brief truce, are not only impotent, but 
 irrelevant ? 
 
 In fact, these words do not even touch, 
 by themselves, upon the real practical prob- 
 lem of this battlefield and of all battlefields. 
 
 This problem obviously is : how shall the 
 hate-relation come to be forgotten, and how 
 shall the love-relation come to be the dominant 
 motive of a human life such as is ours ? When 
 not only our worst motives, but also our 
 patriotism, our love of all that we hold dearest, 
 our honor, when all these counsel us, if we 
 be men, to treat as enemies those who are 
 the foes of this honor, we see that we are in 
 the presence not only of passion, but of fate ; 
 and that this passive form of the law of love 
 can successfully address its words only to 
 those who, like the Buddhist monks, or like 
 the Christian saints of the desert, have first 
 abandoned, as Schopenhauer said, the will 
 to live, have parted company with whatever 
 makes a man's character vigorously active 
 and unsparingly and constructively creative; 
 have also parted company with whatever 
 
 18
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 makes us ready to be like those angels who 
 excel in strength. Hate, after all, is but one 
 aspect of war. War's other aspect, what 
 one may call its spiritual aspect, is the loyalty 
 to which it gives active employment, the fear- 
 less faith in life which it converts into works, 
 the endurance which it transforms into crea- 
 tive deeds. In this other aspect of war lies 
 its appeal to what is best in man. 
 
 The real problems of war cannot be solved, 
 then, merely in terms of this contrast between 
 the love-relation and the hate-relation, and 
 in terms of the mere condemnation of the 
 hate-relation. For there are human relations 
 which call out our most active loyalty, our 
 most constructive devotion, our highest 
 energy, and which cannot be defined merely 
 in terms of the contrast between loving and 
 hating a man's individual neighbor. Such 
 are the human relations which are exemplified 
 when many men are together devoted to 
 one common although by chance unwarlike 
 task, such as the task of an art, or of a science, 
 or of some church wherein there is present a 
 
 19
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 genuine communion of the faithful. Such 
 tasks may indeed be called tasks of love, but 
 they are not tasks of the merely self -forgetting 
 and passive love which the Dhammapada 
 contrasts with hate. They are the tasks of 
 a sort of Pauline charity whose object is not 
 merely the individual neighbor, but a whole 
 community of many men viewed as a super- 
 personal, and yet also as somehow a personal 
 being. The one who loves in this spirit 
 loves a spiritual body wherein individual 
 men exist as members, and wherein he also 
 is a member. He seeks not his own, but he 
 loves, as Paul said, "Not after the flesh but 
 after the spirit." He loves as Paul also said 
 that Christ loved the church. Therefore he 
 is above both the hates and the loves which 
 contrast and which contend on the battle- 
 field. When a company of artists or of scien- 
 tific men work together upon the common 
 tasks of their calling, they are not merely, as 
 "little children," loving one another, nor yet 
 are they hating, each his neighbor. Their 
 human relations are those of the loyalty of 
 
 20
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 individuals to the communities wherein the 
 true tasks of life are found. The relation 
 which is here present is expressed in the devo- 
 tion of the individual's life to the spirit of 
 some community, wherein he lives and moves 
 and has his being. 
 
 Now such human relations, namely those 
 which bind a patriot to his country, a warrior 
 to his service, an artist to the community 
 of all who love art, a scientific man to the 
 community of all who study nature, these 
 are indeed, as we have said, the highest 
 human relations. These express the best in 
 man. I have already said that the motives 
 underlying these human relations often lead 
 to the worst of warlike hatreds. This is as 
 sad a fact as it is prominent in human history. 
 But we have gained something for the under- 
 standing of our problem if we have first seen 
 that this problem involves not merely the 
 contrast between love and hate, but the con- 
 trast between those relations which an in- 
 dividual man bears to his individual neighbor, 
 and the relation which a patriot bears to his 
 
 21
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 country, or the individually faithful saint to 
 the visible or invisible church to which, as 
 he believes, all the faithful belong. 
 
 It is therefore not by mere love of one's 
 neighbor that hatred can be made to cease. 
 And in fact historical Christianity has never 
 been merely a religion of such passive love. 
 The Pauline charity involves a relation of 
 the individual to the whole mystical body 
 of the faithful. This relation is viewed by 
 Paul as so important that he tells us how, 
 without this charity, without this relation 
 of the believer to the whole spiritual body 
 of the faithful, no form of the love of an 
 individual man for his neighbor, no giving 
 of one's body to be burned, would really 
 profit either a man or his neighbor in any 
 respect. The Pauline charity involves a rela- 
 tion whose type profoundly differs from the 
 type which the author of the Dhammapada 
 has in mind. Paul does not say: "Think of 
 that neighbor yonder, and love him ; and then 
 the hate- thoughts and the wars will cease." 
 Paul says, in substance, "Be loyal to the 
 
 22
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 spiritual body whereof you are a member. 
 Gird on the whole armor of loyalty. Practice, 
 meanwhile, not mere self-sacrifice, but posi- 
 tive virtues which, in form at least, are essen- 
 tially although not merely militant. And 
 then you will rise above petty hate as much 
 as above merely private and individual love. 
 /V\OM will perhaps wage war, but not because 
 If you are greedy ; rather because you love the 
 \ union, the community of all the loyal, the 
 \ spiritual body of those who are one in faith 
 and in service. Then you will be a man with 
 a country; and for your country you will 
 be ready, on occasion, both to fight and 
 to die. 
 
 If our angel visitor on the battlefield pro- 
 claimed the words of Paul rather than those 
 of the Dhammapada, he would express what 
 I believe to be the really higher spirit of his- 
 torical Christianity. And the warriors, beforf 
 they returned to their awful tasks, would 
 that, while he had not indeed justified tl 
 slaughter of men as anything that is in its( 
 a good, he had given them some glimpse of 
 
 23
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 the reason why the warlike spirit has its 
 spiritual meaning, as well as its tragic horror 
 of great darkness. He would have hinted 
 that, if ever relief is to come to humanity's 
 great woe of combat, it will come not merely 
 through a cessation of hate and a prevalence 
 of love for individual men, but through the 
 growth of some higher type of loyalty, which 
 shall absorb the men of the future so that the 
 service of the community of all mankind will 
 at last become their great obsession, while 
 this world-patriotism, when it comes, will 
 remain still as active, and on occasion as 
 militant and as businesslike in its plans and 
 in its devotion as is now the love of warring 
 patriots for their mutually hostile countries. 
 
 In facing the problem as to how this possible 
 future world-patriotism, how this distant but 
 eagerly desired result can ever come to be, 
 I will not say reached, but gradually ap- 
 proached, we have gained, I believe, some- 
 thing, however little, by seeing that we have 
 not here chiefly to do with two contrasting 
 relations of pairs of individual men, namely 
 
 24
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 the love-relation, and the hate-relation. Our 
 fiction of the angel visitant on the Belgium 
 or Servian battlefield helps to remind us 
 wherein consists the contrast between his 
 advice, as we first stated it, and the sort of 
 counsel which we ourselves in the present 
 discussion are seeking. He says, to every 
 warrior: "Love your neighbor, even if he 
 has thus far been your enemy. Since you 
 cannot love him and also willfully kill him, you 
 have only to follow, all of you at once, my 
 word, and then not only this, but all battles 
 will automatically cease. You will all return 
 to your homes. Then peace will come on 
 earth." 
 
 But, as we have seen, the instinctive senti- 
 ment which the warriors, after their momen- 
 tary truce, and even while the thunders of 
 the captains and the shouting begin again, 
 will feel (whether they have wit and patience 
 to articulate their reply or not), this senti- 
 ment may well take the form of saying: 
 "I am not merely related to my neighbor 
 here, who seeks my life as I seek his, and who 
 
 25
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 is a hateful man hunter as I also am. My 
 highest and deepest relations are to my coun- 
 try and to its allies and foes, to our common 
 service, to my honor, and (if you will) to our 
 forefathers and to our posterity, yes to the 
 whole world of man." 
 
 And so, for the warriors, and for us who 
 now study the philosophy of war, the genuine 
 problem relates not so much to the contrast 
 between the love-relation and the hate-rela- 
 tion, as to the contrast between our relations 
 to our individual neighbors, and our relations 
 to our honor, or to our duty, or to our country, 
 or to mankind, or to whatever community 
 you may choose to consider. 
 
 Here, at length, we enter the region where 
 the issues of war and of peace must be faced 
 and thought out, if anywhere we are to find 
 a reasonable guide towards a solution. My 
 greatest question is not: "Do I love my 
 neighbor or do I hate him?" but "Have I, or 
 have I not the right, the worthy, the saving 
 relation to my community, to my family, to 
 my country, to mankind?" If we want to 
 
 26
 
 THE NEIGHBOR: LOVE AND HATE 
 
 learn to answer this question, we next need 
 to consider some very plain and familiar, but 
 neglected, facts about the nature of com- 
 munities, and about the social relations of 
 men.
 
 Ill 
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS AND 
 COMMUNITIES 
 
 TT^ANT, in one of his more practical and 
 popular works, has used a well-known 
 expression, which has often been cited, but 
 which has little been heeded. This expression 
 bears upon the natural relation of the individ- 
 ual man to his individual neighbor. Hobbes, 
 in the seventeenth century, had said: "By 
 nature every man is at war with his neighbor. 
 Only some special social device can make him 
 behave as if he were a peaceful creature." 
 Rousseau, in Kant's own time, had asserted 
 that by nature men love to be in harmony 
 with one another, so that only the artificial 
 customs of society are the source of the mutual 
 hatreds and rivalries which lead to war. Kant, 
 in the remark to which I now refer, goes deeper 
 than both of these conflicting theses. Kant 
 
 28
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 says, in substance: "By nature man both 
 hates and loves his neighbor." And Kant 
 goes on to point out that, in real life, each of 
 these tendencies, the loving tendency as well 
 as the hating tendency, actually both nour- 
 ishes and inflames the other. 
 
 For man, as a social animal, cannot do 
 without his neighbor. In solitude he pines 
 or starves. It is not good for man to be alone. 
 Yet, if you give man a companion, it is equally 
 natural that the two should, erelong, quarrel ! 
 
 Their quarrel need not be due to the fact 
 that they are naturally malicious. But^per- 
 haps by mere accident, they soon get in each 
 other's way. Then they easily begin to 
 quarrel, and their quarrel tends to inflame its 
 own motives. Hence Kant's formula for the 
 natural relations of a pair of human beings 
 is that the natural man can "Neither suffer 
 his fellow nor do without him." Deprive 
 a man of his mate, and he finds the world 
 intolerably lonesome. Give him a com- 
 panion, and the two irritate each other. For, 
 if only by mere accident, they erelong become 
 
 29
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 rivals in some quest ; or perhaps they interrupt 
 each other in a conversation and then each, 
 if sufficiently eager, begins to say (out of pure 
 love both for his fellow and for the sound of 
 his own voice): "Do not interrupt me. 
 Listen to me." Herewith begins a possible 
 quarrel. Such a quarrel, if two nations were 
 concerned, might lead to war. 
 
 This last example of social friction is not 
 Kant's example, but it well illustrates why what 
 one may call the dyadic, the dual, the bilateral 
 relations of man and man, of each man to his 
 neighbor, are relations fraught with social dan- 
 ger. A pair of men is what I may call an 
 essentially dangerous community. 
 
 A man may, at any time, love his neighbor. 
 They may both feel kindly towards each other. 
 It may be that neither is malicious, that 
 neither is, as people say, a totally selfish 
 creature. All that is needed, however, to 
 make serious friction possible between the 
 two men is that each shall be active, and 
 watchful, and that he shall have some sort 
 of "business and desire, such as they are." 
 
 30
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 It is tolerably certain that, if this condition 
 is fulfilled, the business and desire of the two 
 men shall be, in whatever way you please, 
 different, and in some way contrasting. Even 
 if they love each other, they will then be dis- 
 posed not to do precisely the same thing at 
 the same time. Or if, as in a conversation 
 between two people, each of them does desire 
 to say, at any moment, the very same thing 
 which the other desires to say, this same act 
 will have different relations to the conversation 
 according to the intents which each of them 
 has as he speaks to the other. 
 
 Now, in any such case, the perfectly natural, 
 and in fact inevitable contrast, between the 
 acts, or between the results of action, on the 
 part of the two neighbors who love each other, 
 will of itself tend to create friction. 
 
 A certain social tension is therefore a per- 
 fectly natural accompaniment of any concrete 
 social relation between two people. How- 
 ever friendly they are, at the outset of a social 
 task, to disagree in some respect is the normal 
 result of any social intercourse between two 
 
 31
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 neighbors. If two men are neighbors, each 
 of them inevitably tends, in some respect, 
 to get in the other's way. 
 
 Let the two eager speakers, who long to 
 talk together, but who automatically tend 
 to interrupt each other, just because each 
 loves to have the other as his listener, let 
 them serve as a perfectly elementary example 
 of a tendency which you find assuming all 
 grades of importance, from the most trivial 
 to a furious quarrel which may lead to a death 
 grip of two fighters, or to a war between two 
 nations. 
 
 There is, therefore, a law of the social 
 intercourse between the members of a pair 
 of individual men, or (for that matter) of the 
 social intercourse between the members of a 
 pair of individual groups or nations of men, 
 a law for which I have long used the name : 
 The law not only of the danger, but also of the 
 original sin, of the dual, or dyadic social rela- 
 tions of men. The law is this : When two 
 men, or two consolidated groups of men, are 
 set at some such social task as observing each 
 
 32
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 other, or playing a game together, or debating 
 a question, or buying and selling, or borrowing 
 and lending, or hunting for food, or even when 
 they explicitly undertake the task of helping 
 each other, then, at any one stage of this 
 dual or bilateral activity, one of the two 
 will indeed be either loving the other, or 
 else not loving him. And when a new and 
 interesting relation to a neighbor first comes 
 in sight, love is quite as natural as is 
 antipathy. 
 
 But as the two individuals pass from one 
 stage to another of the activity in question, 
 the natural contrast between the two men or 
 groups tends to lead to some mutual interrup- 
 tion, of jostling, or to some other vexatious 
 contrast of behavior. Each therefore tends, 
 in some fashion, to surprise the other pain- 
 fully, to snub his activities, and so to get in 
 the other's way. We naturally do such things 
 not because we are by nature either mainly 
 selfish or primarily malicious or even greedy. 
 We do all this merely because, if taken in 
 pairs, we are, in each pair, two different and 
 D 33
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 contrasting people or groups. Our whole 
 self-consciousness, in fact, depends upon not- 
 ing how different from our neighbors each of 
 us is. But contrasts that strongly interest 
 us can easily become unpleasant. There- 
 fore mutual love and agreement between the 
 members of a pair of human beings is an easily 
 interrupted relation. Our differences can 
 readily come at any moment to seem mutual 
 challenges. If love between a pair of friends 
 survives such endless trials, it does so through 
 patience, or through the aid of other rela- 
 tions which are naturally more stable, or 
 because love takes on the form of true loyalty. 
 But loyalty, which is the love of a self for an 
 united community, always involves relations 
 which concern more than two people. 
 
 Taken by itself, the mutual love of a mere 
 pair of people tends, like physical energy, to 
 run downhill ; to be baffled by personal con- 
 trasts, to be thwarted by mutual interruptions, 
 to give place to a consciousness of painful 
 differences, to be worn out by time. As 
 Griselda says to her cruel lord : 
 
 34
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 "But sooth is said; algate I find it true, 
 For in effect it proved is on me, 
 Love is not old as when that it is new." 
 
 This assertion constitutes the first half of the 
 law of the original sin of the dyadic human 
 relations. Love, when it is a merely dyadic 
 relation between a pair of lovers, is essentially 
 unstable and inconstant. For the two tend 
 in the long run to interrupt, to bore, or collide 
 each with the other. 
 
 The second half of our law is easily stated. 
 When mutual friction once arises between 
 a pair of lovers or of rivals or of individuals 
 otherwise interestingly related, whether they 
 be men or groups of men, the friction tends to 
 increase, unless some other relation inter- 
 venes, or unless more than a pair of members 
 belong to the community wherein mutual 
 love ought to be sustained, or mutual jealousy 
 averted. 
 
 "Never any more 
 While I live, 
 
 Need I hope to see his face 
 As before. 
 
 35
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 Once his love grown chill, 
 Mine may strive 
 
 Bitterly we reembrace, 
 Single still." 
 
 So laments the lonely wife in Browning's 
 " Men and Women." The situation is human. 
 It daily occurs, and is even commonplace. 
 It illustrates the natural fortune of a pair 
 either of lovers or of human beings otherwise 
 related, who remain merely a pair. When, 
 through any accident, mutual antipathy 
 chances to arise in such a pair, then each of 
 the members of the now distracted community 
 of two irritates the other to new antipathies. 
 Thus in such cases love grows old while hate 
 renews its impish youth. 
 
 The only possible renewal of the youth of 
 such an old love depends upon establishing 
 new and creative social ties between the two 
 who once loved, or else upon enlarging and 
 enriching the community, so that it is no 
 longer merely a community of two. 
 
 But at this moment we are reminded of a 
 new consideration. As a fact, the natural 
 
 36
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 unit of human society, in all its stages of evo- 
 lution, is the family. But the normal family 
 is not a pair, but is at the least a triad, a 
 group of three persons : Father, Mother, 
 Child. What one might call the molecule of 
 the most lasting and simply instinctive human 
 social groups is, so to speak, an union wherein 
 at least three individual persons, three social 
 atoms, or, in higher stages, three social groups, 
 participate. In such a community love can 
 indeed readily assume its more stable forms, 
 and can turn into a more ideal loyalty. In 
 a mere pair of persons, love, while frequently 
 both present and intense, is essentially un- 
 stable; while hate, when once it appears, 
 tends to grow with what it feeds on, namely 
 with the natural contrasts between individuals, 
 and because of their mutual interruptions, 
 and by virtue of the constantly growing con- 
 sciousness wherewith each of the two anti- 
 pathetic persons observes how the other 
 regards him. But in the family triad, the 
 winning and common care for the child 
 may charm away many of the most beset- 
 
 37
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 ting influences that tend to wreck home 
 unity. 
 
 Let us sum up the results thus far reached : 
 The advice which the Dhammapada gives 
 us, about love and hate, ignores an essential 
 fact, namely, the fact of the dangerousness 
 of the dyadic human relations ; and forgets 
 this reason why antipathy is so readily 
 growing a weed in our social relations. We 
 hate not^merely because we remember injuries. 
 Many of our sources of antipathy seem to be, 
 in the single case, much more petty than is 
 a desire for revenge; but are actually deeper 
 in their meaning than is such a desire. Very 
 often we tend to hate simply because there 
 are so many of us, and because we are so dif- 
 ferent one from the other; and so because, 
 when we are taken in pairs, we thus appear 
 in each pair as interrupters and intruders, 
 each member of the pair annoying his fellow 
 even while trying to express whatever love he 
 chances to possess for the other, and each em- 
 phasizing his own hatred when he feels it, by 
 dwelling on these dual or bilateral contrasts. 
 
 38
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 Such is thus far our result ; here then is the 
 fundamental principle of the philosophy of 
 war. The deepest reason why war is so per- 
 sistent is that the nations,, thus far in history, 
 are related chiefly in pairs, pairs of com- 
 mercial rivals, pairs of borrowers and lenders, 
 pairs of stronger and weaker nations, pairs of 
 superiors and inferiors, pairs of plunderers who 
 do not understand each the other, pairs of 
 plotters, each of whom suspects his opponent. 
 
 And the deepest reason why what is best 
 in individual men does not destroy but often 
 inflames the warlike spirit, lies in the fact 
 that the best in individual men depends upon 
 their loyalty to their own groups, upon their 
 patriotism, and also upon their interest in 
 groups which are not mere pairs. In such 
 interests in groups which are larger and richer 
 than pairs, consists men's very desire for human 
 solidarity. For human unions can become 
 stable and fruitful only through the establish- 
 ment of relations which are very different from 
 the dangerous dyadic relations of lovers, of 
 rivals, and of warriors. 
 
 39
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 The sound advice to men is then not com- 
 pletely expressed by the word: "Little 
 children, love one another" ; but rather by the 
 Pauline advice to love some united community 
 which has the characters ascribed by Paul to 
 the church. War itself persists because the 
 nations still cultivate dyadic relations too ex- 
 clusively . 
 
 We have thus seen wherein lies the basis 
 of the problem of war. War is simply one 
 case whereby to illustrate how dangerous the 
 dyadic relations are in the social world ; 
 and how dangerous a community is one which 
 has the form of a pair either of individual men 
 or individual nations. 
 
 In the social world which consists of pairs, 
 love indeed finds many temporary dwelling 
 places; but it also finds no continuing city, 
 and so has to seek in Utopia for a city out of 
 sight; while hate is indeed not universal, 
 and not all powerful, but is grounded in the 
 natural diversities and in the mutual observa- 
 tions of men, and is therefore always ready to 
 be aroused in those who had been, until it 
 
 40
 
 THE DANGEROUS SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
 appeared, friends and brothers; while if once 
 aroused, hate tends to grow more intense and 
 distracting as it observes its own life. In 
 those communities which are mere pairs, time 
 is the consumer of love but the nourisher of 
 hate. Love between the members of a mere 
 pair tends to wax old as does a garment; 
 while hate, when once it comes, flourishes in 
 a malicious youth, witch-like and death- 
 dealing. 
 
 41
 
 IV 
 
 THE COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 r I THE outlook for humanity would indeed be 
 dark, if our social relations were limited 
 to mere pairs of individuals or of nations or 
 of other groups of men, whether petty or 
 vast. But, as a fact, this is not the case. 
 
 We have already seen that there is at least 
 one human community which has characters 
 and relations such as no mere pair of human 
 beings can possibly possess. This is the com- 
 munity consisting of father, mother, and child. 
 This natural and instinctively originated com- 
 munity is never perfect, and is never entirely 
 stable. And hate can find a place in it as 
 well as love. But we also know that this 
 natural community possesses, even in the life 
 of barbarous and uncultivated man, a normal 
 stability, and a normal fruitfulness, as a basis 
 of family peace and loyalty, which lies at the 
 
 42
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 root of many very vast social organizations. 
 Out of an aggregation and perfectly natural in- 
 terconnection of such triadic family groups, or 
 of what you may call triadic social molecules, 
 a patriarchal social order can be built such 
 as several very great and stable Oriental 
 civilizations have richly illustrated. Time 
 and fecundity favor the family. Its form 
 tends to abide. It favors a type of love which 
 forms a model for all the loyal. 
 
 It behooves us then next to consider whether 
 there are other groups of human beings, 
 other communities, perhaps artificial, but 
 essentially sound and progressive, which have 
 characters such as the triadic union of father, 
 mother, and child illustrates. And here- 
 with our quest enters upon a new stage. 
 Pairs are dangerous communities. Are there 
 triadic communities which are less dangerous ? 
 Are there many instances of such triads ? 
 Can we name such ? 
 
 As a fact, all of us depend for the opportu- 
 nity to do our daily business upon the existence, 
 upon the stability, and upon the fruitfulness 
 
 43
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 of such relatively peaceful and loyal triadic 
 social groups. Let us name a few of them; 
 for in this field concrete examples are espe- 
 cially instructive. Let us talk then no more 
 of pairs of lovers or of rivals. Let us consider 
 some communities which are essentially groups 
 of three individuals, or of three groups of 
 men. 
 
 Suppose that somebody, let us call him 
 A, desires to do business with another man, 
 whom we will call C. So far, some relation 
 involving the pair consisting of A and C is 
 sought. But perhaps A and C are dwellers 
 in different cities, or in different countries. 
 Perhaps they are not on speaking terms. 
 Perhaps they speak different languages. Per- 
 haps each is too busy about his own affairs 
 to dream of interrupting the other. In such 
 cases the dual relation whereby A might do 
 business with C, cannot readily be established. 
 What shall A do ? 
 
 A form of business which daily grows, in 
 the modern world, more and more important, 
 hereupon suggests itself to our minds. Sup- 
 
 44
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 pose that A finds some third man, let us 
 call him B, who undertakes to represent 
 A's plans to C, to interpret, to explain, to urge 
 them in C's presence; to act, in a word, as the 
 agent of A in the proposed dealing with C. 
 Let the business hereupon be carried out 
 according to this method. That is, let A 
 find the agent B. Let this agent, let B do 
 the proposed work. 
 
 Hereupon there will be formed a community 
 consisting essentially of three persons, A, B, C, 
 who occupy different places in this community. 
 Their relations will be not merely dual or 
 dyadic, but treble or triadic. And each will 
 have, in the resulting triadic transaction, an 
 unique place. Each can be named by this, 
 his special function in this triadic community. 
 
 This community will consist of what is 
 usually called a principal, of an agent, and of 
 a client, or other such man, to whom the agent 
 represents the principal. The relations of these 
 three persons are such as need to be expressed 
 in triadic terms. This community cannot be 
 reduced to a mere collection of pairs. If you 
 
 45
 
 try to understand its structure, you will find 
 that you have to think in terms and in rela- 
 tions with which the study of mere pairs of 
 persons cannot make you familiar. 
 
 And now, this community is such that its 
 relations have a most instructive practical 
 value. To observe what this value is, you 
 have first to observe that this community 
 is naturally a peace-loving community. Every 
 business involving a stable type of agency 
 depends upon mutual respect and confidence. 
 And you then have also to remember that in 
 our modern world we daily come to be more 
 and more dependent upon finding and using 
 agents. New forms of agency, new classes of 
 agents, accompany every advance of civi- 
 lization. And you have still further to re- 
 member that agents tend on the whole to further 
 international as well as personal peace and good 
 will. 
 
 The type of community here in question 
 needs in view of its vast power, effectiveness, 
 and fruitfulness, a name of its own. Let me 
 suggest a name. I need a very general name, 
 
 46
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 for this type of community in question is also 
 exemplified by triads of men, or groups of 
 men, whose relations you would hardly think 
 of defining by means of the term agent. Com- 
 mon to all the communities of this type is 
 their tendency to further peace, good will, 
 and loyalty, and to have an unifying influence 
 both upon individuals and upon nations. 
 
 I venture to call a community such as 
 that consisting of principal, agent, and client 
 exemplifies, a Community of Interpretation. 
 It is a community having a very wonder- 
 ful adaptation to the most various social 
 tasks. It is the best type of community 
 that we know, just because of its general 
 tendency, illustrated in widely various special 
 examples, towards stability, unity, and practi- 
 cal effectiveness. Our most productive as 
 well as our most ideal sorts of business daily 
 require us either to become members of some 
 sort of community of interpretation, or, when 
 we are already members, to act loyally in 
 accordance with the place that we occupy 
 in such a community. Such communities 
 
 47
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 are not merely convenient. They are indis- 
 pensable to civilized life. They are not merely 
 so frequent as to be commonplace, but they 
 are socially so potent as to seem, in some of 
 their exemplifications, almost superhuman 
 in the skill and in the humane sort of social 
 unity which they create and sustain. Having 
 begun with the extremely well-known instance 
 of the community consisting of a principal, 
 an agent, and a man, sometimes called a 
 client, to whom the agent represents the 
 principal, we may at once characterize in very 
 general terms the mere form which any com- 
 munity of interpretation possesses. 
 
 A community of interpretation consists 
 of three persons, or groups of persons, who 
 are its members. We may call these members 
 A, B, and C. We may first think of them 
 as individual men. We shall find, however, 
 that in general, each of the members of a 
 community of interpretation not only may 
 also be a group of men ; but that this indi- 
 vidual group in such a community may be 
 much more numerous than is any now exist- 
 
 48
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 ing nation. Our present interest lies in the 
 form of the community of interpretation, in 
 its relations to the warlike, to the peaceful, 
 and to the loyal tendencies and dispositions 
 of men. We wish to show that, on the whole, 
 a community of interpretation, not only is, 
 in itself, a peaceful group of men, but also 
 may be, and frequently is, a very highly 
 active and strenuous and creative community ; 
 and that its life ' essentially tends to enrich 
 both the power and the unity of mankind. 
 A community of interpretation is a sort of 
 artificially created but marvelously fruitful 
 family. Of social molecules, each of which 
 consists of three atoms, or individuals united 
 in a community of interpretation, the most 
 potent and peaceful and reasonable social 
 orders in the modern world consist. 
 
 We also wish to show that, if the world's 
 peace is to be furthered, such progress must take 
 the form of creating and sustaining certain 
 definable communities of interpretation. We 
 shall be able to show that this our main thesis, 
 in this paper, is at once a philosophical prin- 
 E 49
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 ciple, and a perfectly practical and business- 
 like proposal, whose truth and value the mar- 
 ket place exemplifies as well as does any 
 rightly constituted theory of society. By 
 this thesis our philosophy of war will be at a 
 stroke converted into a philosophy of peace, 
 and that without our confining ourselves to 
 any merely Utopian dreams or plans. We 
 shall show, not indeed how universal peace 
 is at once to be attained, but how the human 
 world is now actually on the way towards 
 a possible, even if very distant, universal 
 peace ; and we shall also show that this way 
 lies along the very lines of progress which the 
 form and the functions of any community 
 of interpretation exemplify. 1 
 
 A, B, and C, the members of any community 
 of interpretation, work together upon a task 
 
 1 The idea, although not the name of the "Community of 
 Interpretation," is derived by me from certain essays of the 
 late logician, Mr. Charles Peirce. The philosophical bearing 
 of this idea, and its relations to very deep and far-reaching 
 philosophical issues, have been discussed in Vol. II of my 
 recent work entitled the "Problem of Christianity" (New 
 York, 1913). The present application of Peirce's theory of 
 interpretation to the philosophy of war and peace is, so far as 
 I know, new. 
 
 50
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 which is at once theoretical and practical, 
 at once businesslike and ideal, a task 
 which may be as unemotional and imper- 
 sonally stern in its requirements as is any 
 serious business of men, but which may also 
 require all the passionate devotion, and all 
 the eager loyalty, which any man can give. 
 This task, in its simplest expression, is this. 
 A and C, to use again the phrase of Ham- 
 let, have their own individual "business and 
 desire, such as they are." The remaining 
 member of the community, whom I now call 
 B, has, as his peculiar business in this com- 
 munity, the task of addressing C, and of 
 explaining or interpreting to C what A's 
 desire or business is, to the end that C may 
 be brought into some definite sort of coopera- 
 tion with A. 
 
 This cooperation, if it occurs at all, will 
 bring A and C into some kind of social unity, 
 such as will make them act as if they were, 
 in a certain respect, one man. To bring 
 about this sort of solidarity, and this cooper- 
 ation of C with A, is the interpreter's main 
 
 51
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 aim and interest, so far as he is indeed 
 the interpreter of this community. He 
 desires, just as any reasonable agent desires, 
 not to do A's will alone, nor C's will alone, 
 but at once to create and to make conscious, 
 and to carry out, their united will, in so far as 
 they both are to become and remain members 
 of that community in which he does the work of 
 the interpreter. 
 
 Since B has this united will of A and C 
 as his aim and inspiration, he must be what 
 I call loyal. That is, he must be the willing, 
 and, for the purposes of this special task of 
 interpretation, the thoroughgoing servant 
 of the cause of uniting the will of C, to whom 
 he represents the ideas of A, with the plans 
 of A, whom he interprets. B, the interpreter, 
 is therefore the most important member of 
 the community in question. For he both 
 defines and expresses its united purpose. 
 He brings C into touch with A. He holds 
 them together. His essential aim as inter- 
 preter is that not his own private will, but 
 the will of the whole community, should be 
 
 52
 
 COMMUNITY OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 done, and that A and C should act as one man, 
 while, in bringing A and C together, he usually 
 discovers or in some measure creates their 
 common will. Hence B is above all the most 
 obviously and explicitly loyal member of the 
 community. On the other hand, "in his 
 will," when he finds and expresses it, "is the 
 peace" both of A and of C. His success lies 
 in this peace. His "business and desire," if 
 he is indeed a successful interpreter, create, 
 sustain, and constantly increase their 
 harmony. "To this end he comes" into this 
 community. He incarnates and furthers and 
 enlightens its aims, precisely in so far as he 
 worthily fulfills his business as interpreter. 
 
 In the single case, as in the market place 
 or in the office, the business or the idea which 
 B interprets to C, and the common will of 
 the community of interpretation which B 
 discovers, expresses, or carries out, may relate 
 to matters of a commonplace, or even of a 
 sordid character ; but on the whole there is no 
 ideal activity of man which is too lofty to be 
 expressed or furthered through a community 
 
 53
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 of interpretation. For all rational plans in- 
 volve the cooperation of pairs of men, the 
 union and the unity and harmony of the 
 wills of those who are to cooperate. But, for 
 the very reasons heretofore pointed out, such 
 union and such unity cannot be stable, secure, 
 and enlightened, unless to the pair of men who 
 are to cooperate there is added the third man 
 whose business and desire it is to bring and 
 to keep these two in touch each with the 
 other. Such a mediator is precisely an inter- 
 preter of one of the two men to the other. 
 The interpreter has then the function to 
 transform the essentially dangerous pair into 
 the consciously and consistently harmonious 
 triad. 
 
 Because the interpreter B at once discovers 
 or creates and expresses the one meaning and 
 will of A and C, I have called him "The Spirit 
 of the Community." 
 
 54
 
 SPECIAL COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 T ET me next return from the generaliza- 
 tion which the mention of the ideal 
 business of an agent has suggested to us, to 
 further special examples of communities of 
 interpretation. Let me call your atten- 
 tion to three such communities. They are 
 both practical and ideal in their nature. 
 They are both businesslike and redeeming 
 in their influence. 
 
 The civilized world has long depended, 
 for some of its most characteristic and precious 
 life, upon one of these communities. 
 
 The two other communities are modern. 
 Until very recently the world knew only the 
 most rudimentary beginnings of them. But 
 they have already transformed, in certain 
 profoundly significant respects, the modern 
 world. They dominate our social order more 
 
 55
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 and more; and they will continue to do so, 
 transforming it at a rate which promises for 
 a long time to increase. 
 
 The three communities of interpretation 
 which are now in my mind are these : 
 
 1. The judicial community. 
 
 2. The banker's community. 
 
 3. The community of insurance. 
 
 All of these three communities are coordinated 
 with the agent's community, and cooperate 
 with various forms of the latter, so that you 
 may say : Our present civilization depends, 
 for all its most peaceful, worldly, and practical 
 activities, upon these four distinct sorts of 
 communities of interpretation. If you re- 
 moved all four from our social order, then 
 this our human world, precisely upon its most 
 practical and constructive side, would degen- 
 erate into a vast aggregate of the dangerous 
 communities which are pairs. The family 
 triads aforesaid would indeed remain as the 
 principal basis for the loyal life of mankind ; 
 while a few other less visible and less obviously 
 practical types of triads would characterize 
 
 56
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 so much of our civilization as still would be 
 left to us. 
 
 Let us look a little closer at the communities 
 of interpretation now before us. The agent's 
 community we have already characterized. 
 
 The judicial community consists of a pair 
 of contending individuals or social groups, 
 while the third member of the group is a judge, 
 or umpire, or arbiter, or mediator, whose 
 office consists in interpreting to a defendant 
 the will, the case, and the legal or social 
 rights of a complainant or plaintiff. 
 
 The judicial community is the most ancient 
 and familiar of the communities of inter- 
 pretation. Upon the dignity and authority 
 of judges and umpires the social world de- 
 pends for the control and transformation of 
 certain well -known consequences of the original 
 sin of the dyadic relations. From social 
 conditions, which, if uncontrolled, directly 
 lead to elemental warfare, the judicial com- 
 munity actively leads the way to other social 
 conditions which constitute peace. The peace 
 thus won is not in general the peace which 
 
 57
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 the Dhammapada advises us to seek by sub- 
 stituting love for hate. But it is the peace 
 which incites men to new cooperations as 
 soon as the contention is thus judicially settled. 
 Hence the judicial community is indispensable 
 to civilization. 
 
 The banker's community consists of a bor- 
 rower, of a lender, and of a third person whose 
 life and interest it is, in general, to make the 
 relation of the borrower and the lender a re- 
 lation that is profitable to both of them. This 
 third person is that active interpreter of 
 credits, that expert as to the safety of loans, 
 who is known as a banker. The lender de- 
 posits with the banker. The banker ac- 
 commodates the borrower. Or, if the borrower 
 and the lender are that very dangerous pair 
 consisting of persons known as a promoter 
 and an investor, the banker may then appear 
 as a broker, whose business it is to bring and 
 to keep investors in profitable and fruitful 
 touch with those who undertake or promote 
 novel enterprises, for which they need capital. 
 
 Apart from the banker or broker, acting as 
 58
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 interpreter, the pair consisting of a borrower 
 and a lender is a peculiarly dangerous pair. 
 The advice of the Dhammapada, the "old 
 rule" that hatred ceases by love, becomes not 
 merely ineffective but bitterly and tragically 
 humorous, when applied to the natural re- 
 lations which tend to arise within this pair 
 consisting of borrower and lender. The an- 
 cient and medieval social world knew of 
 borrowing and lending mainly as calamitous 
 social relations, which seemed fatally to lead 
 to avarice, to fraud, and to the bondage of 
 those debtors whom want or overconfidence 
 had thrown into the hands of their creditors. 
 
 One of the most dramatic of all social trans- 
 formations has been that which has been due 
 to the appearance, in the modern world, of 
 the banker's community of interpretation. 
 Out of an aggregation of the social molecules 
 which are, in one way or another, banker's 
 communities, the whole vast and productive 
 system of modern credit has grown. The 
 result is that, as a noted publicist some years 
 ago said to me : "Ours is the age, and ours is 
 
 59
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 the civilization of the broker." You easily 
 see what this publicist meant. You all know 
 how, despite all the unhappy social accidents 
 that interrupt the workings of the modern 
 system, an4 that mar both its morals and its 
 success, the modern credit system is, on the 
 whole, both a result of loyalty and a trainer 
 of loyalty. 
 
 For, necessary to the great banker's endur- 
 ing success is his steadfast loyalty to his 
 function as interpreter and so as the "spirit 
 of his community." Just as he may other- 
 wise fail, so he may defraud. But, on the 
 whole, banking has made not only for thrift, 
 for cooperation, for the constant increase of 
 investment, for confidence, and so for the 
 unity of mankind, but it has also made for 
 loyalty; and has in fact both taught loyalty 
 to the business world and exemplified loyalty, 
 as only the work of a community of inter- 
 pretation can do. The banker's community, 
 then, is the social molecule of a vast organism, 
 whose life is, on the whole, a life of peaceful 
 construction, and in that sense a life of a true 
 
 60
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 love of mankind. If war ever ceases, if peace 
 ever comes, the banker's community will 
 have had an important share in the process. 
 
 It remains next to speak of the community 
 of insurance. Everybody knows in general 
 of its vast and transforming influence, and 
 of its recently acquired social importance. 
 Few notice the reason why it has become so 
 important Our previous study of the general 
 characters of the community of interpreta- 
 tion can be easily applied to the community 
 of insurance. 
 
 Men take risks. They are often obliged 
 to do so. Sometimes they take them merely 
 because they love risks. But when a man 
 takes a risk and loses, there is in general some- 
 body else who has to bear the consequences 
 of this loss. It may be his creditor, his assign, 
 his heir, or his next friend, upon whom the 
 loss falls ; but, since nobody liveth unto him- 
 self, and nobody dieth unto himself, the man 
 who takes a risk is seldom the only man who 
 pays for the loss. Now let us call the man who 
 takes the risk A. Then let the man who has 
 
 61
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 to bear the loss if A loses, but who of course 
 might correspondingly win if A won, be named 
 C, and let us call him A's possible beneficiary, 
 who of course may be, if A loses, quite the 
 opposite of a receiver of benefits. 
 
 Now the relation of A to C, the relation of 
 the man who takes the risk, to the man who 
 may win if A wins, but who will lose if A loses, 
 is a dyadic relation. Like the other human 
 social relations of pairs, it is dangerous. It 
 daily embitters the relations of debtors and 
 creditors. It daily makes some people penni- 
 less, and inspires others with hate. Its very 
 danger makes it morbidly fascinating to those 
 who have once learned to gamble. It fills 
 the social order with fears and suspicions. 
 It wrecks souls. And you cannot escape 
 from the poison of this dangerous relation by 
 merely loving the man whose risks lead to 
 losses which you have to bear. Love seldom 
 cures any such fool of his folly, and the one 
 who loves him suffers the more because of 
 the love. 
 
 Now the community of insurance comes to 
 62
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION 
 
 exist when somebody, let us call him B, under- 
 takes to bring the man who takes the risk 
 into a true and active union of interest with 
 his possible beneficiary. The members of 
 the community of insurance are the ad- 
 venturer A, that is the man who takes the risk, 
 the beneficiary C, and the insurer, who is the 
 spirit of the community, and who is commonly 
 incarnate in some corporate community. 
 
 The insurer B estimates or interprets the 
 insurable value of the risk which A takes. 
 For a consideration corresponding to this 
 insurable value, B undertakes to make C not 
 only A's possible beneficiary, but A's actual 
 and reasonably secure beneficiary. That is, 
 B insures the beneficiary C against any loss 
 due to the risk which A takes. 
 
 For reasons which can only be stated in 
 terms of the theory of probability this result 
 can be reached only in case many risks are 
 estimated, and insured by the same insurer B. 
 Hence the insurer's community tends, far 
 more than even the banker's community, to 
 demand some larger union of the social 
 
 63
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 molecules whereof the single community of 
 interpretation consists. In consequence in- 
 surance very largely takes the form of mutual 
 insurance. It brings men together in vaster 
 and in more highly organized and articulated 
 groups than the banker's world knows. It 
 leads to constantly new social expressions. 
 It contributes to peace, to loyalty, to social 
 unity, to active charity, as no other community 
 of interpretation has ever done. It tends, in 
 the long run, to carry us beyond the era of 
 the agent and of the broker into the coming 
 social order of the insurer. We cannot predict 
 all that it will yet accomplish; but we can 
 already see that of all the business relations 
 and of all the practical communities yet devised, 
 the insurance relations and the insurance com- 
 munities most tend to bring peace on earth, 
 and to aid us towards the community of mankind. 
 
 64
 
 VI 
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 TN the search for influences that might 
 further the cause of international peace, 
 well-known efforts have already been made to 
 devise practical and international uses of the 
 judicial community, of the banker's com- 
 munity, and of the agent's community. Each 
 of these efforts has so far proved both con- 
 ditionally useful and frequently disappoint- 
 ing. No adequate effort has yet been made to 
 further the cause of peace through the deliberate 
 application of the form of the insurer's com- 
 munity to international business. Now this is 
 what I propose as my present contribution to 
 these dark problems. 
 
 The foregoing study of the triadic communi- 
 ties of interpretation, and of the dangerous 
 character of those communities which are 
 pairs, has been needed to enable us to show 
 F 65
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 why this newest of the great communities of 
 interpretation has so rapidly acquired its 
 vast influence over the social destinies of men 
 and why we need to put it to new uses. 
 
 Our whole discussion up to this point has 
 prepared the way, therefore, for our final 
 thesis, which is this : 
 
 There is a still untried method of gradually 
 leading towards international peace, and of 
 rendering wars progressively less destructive 
 and less willful. This is the method to which 
 I call your attention. It is in general the method 
 of undertaking mutual international insurance 
 against some of the common calamities to which 
 all mankind, or certain large portions of man- 
 kind, are subject. Stated in terms of our 
 theory of the communities of interpretation, 
 this method may assume the form of a maxim, 
 or if you like, of a proposed constitution or 
 international agreement upon which a new 
 community of insurance may be founded, as 
 follows : 
 
 Apply to international relations, gradually 
 and progressively, that principle of insurance 
 
 66
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 which has been found so unexpectedly fruitful 
 and peaceful and powerful and unifying in the 
 life and in the social relations of individual men. 
 
 Begin to make visible the community of 
 mankind, not merely, as at present, in the 
 form of alliances which are ambiguous, and 
 at times irritating, and of arbitration treaties 
 which are likely to be broken at some passion- 
 ate moment when they are most needed, but 
 in the form of a sufficiently large board of 
 financially expert trustees, whose membership 
 is international, whose services are duly com- 
 pensated from the funds of the trust, and whose 
 conduct is guided by plainly stated rules 
 which have the substantially unanimous con- 
 sent of all the nations concerned in the plan 
 of mutual insurance which is in question. 
 Let these rules be changeable only by the sub- 
 stantially unanimous consent of the members 
 of the already existing community of insur- 
 ance, or in such wise as not to abridge rights 
 which the already existent body of rules have 
 created. 
 
 Let the funds of the mutual insuranceorgani- 
 67
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 zation in question be put, in form, into the 
 charge of some well-known and, so to speak, 
 essentially neutral power, such as Sweden, or 
 Switzerland. Let this fund be protected from 
 merely predatory assaults by the fact that 
 under the rules, it would, from the first, be 
 invested by the board of international trustees, 
 that is by the incorporated insurance com- 
 munity, in decidedly various investments, and 
 in various parts of the world, so that it could 
 not be found or used by any one power unless 
 this power had first violently conquered all of 
 the nations that had contributed to the trust, 
 and that had, under the rules thereby acquired, 
 a definite interest in its distribution. 
 
 Let rules be formulated, as such became 
 needful, to regulate the conditions under 
 which one of the partners in the plan of mutual 
 insurance could surrender, with or without 
 notice, its already acquired rights under the 
 insurance agreement. 
 
 Let the international insurance community 
 in question have no direct political powers or 
 duties whatever. Let it be purely a financial 
 
 68
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 and fiduciary body, with a minimum of in- 
 evitable judicial functions. 
 
 Let its fidelity to its trust and to its rules 
 be guaranteed simply by the size of its con- 
 trolling board, by the personal character, the 
 experience, and the mode of selection of the 
 members of this board, and by the entire 
 publicity of all its proceedings and official 
 acts. 
 
 Let it have no powers as an arbitrator in 
 case of international disputes, but entire 
 autonomy, under general rules, regarding those 
 judicial decisions which it would inevitably 
 have, from time to time, to render, when disputes 
 arose as to what rights the individual members 
 of this international union for mutual insurance 
 had acquired or forfeited by their own acts as 
 sovereign powers. 
 
 Let it lay down no arbitrary rules for inter- 
 national morality; let it not undertake to 
 codify international law; let it hold aloof 
 from all politically colored international dis- 
 putes. 
 
 On the other hand, let there be simply no 
 69
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 appeal from its deliberate and judicial deci- 
 sions as to the financial and fiduciary matters 
 which were left to its decision and discretion 
 by the international agreement for mutual 
 insurance. 
 
 Let any and all the sovereign states of the 
 world, great or small, at war or not at war, 
 whether accused or not of present or past 
 barbarism by their neighbors, be at any time 
 at liberty under general and financially pre- 
 cise rules, to enter the international insurance 
 community as new members, to contribute 
 to its fund, and to receive in turn an amount 
 of insurance against a definite sort of national 
 calamities an amount which, as in case of 
 ordinary mutual insurance companies, should 
 be duly proportioned to the deposit made. 1 
 
 Finally, so far as this first outline sketch 
 
 1 Let it freely cooperate, when it chose and in so far as its 
 functions permitted, with the plans, the influences, and the 
 undertakings of the Hague tribunal. But, since its own 
 business is thus financial and fiduciary, let it not itself be 
 subject to the Hague tribunal and let it carefully avoid, 
 so far as possible, the actual taking part in arbitration or 
 "judicial settlement of international disputes." 
 
 70
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 of our plan is concerned, let a provision be 
 made for emergencies as follows : A nation, 
 insured under the agreement, might undergo 
 revolutions, or might be conquered in war, 
 or might be divided into several states, or 
 might be lost in some new federation of vari- 
 ous states. This transformed sovereign state 
 might already have acquired, before its dis- 
 appearance, larger or smaller rights to an 
 insurance payment, under conditions which 
 might have come to be actually realized. In 
 this case, the trustees of the mutual international 
 insurance organization would have sole power 
 to decide what state or states, if any, had inherited 
 the insurance payment or payments due to the 
 state which had thus passed away from the now 
 visibly represented family of nations. If, how- 
 ever, the trustees of the fund decided, formally 
 and judicially, and of course after due investi- 
 gation, and quite publicly: "No now exist- 
 ing state has justly inherited the insurance 
 rights which belonged to the formerly existing 
 state. The dead state is now unrecognizable 
 among the living states" then the insurance 
 
 71
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 rights of the dead state would simply lapse; 
 and its insured funds would return to the 
 general fund, to be used by the remaining 
 members of the community of mutual insur- 
 ance under the general rules. Thus a motive 
 would be furnished whereby both internal revolu- 
 tions and external conquests would be made less 
 attractive to disturbers of the social or of the 
 international peace of mankind. 
 
 Furthermore, if, at the end of a war, the 
 vanquished power had some right under the 
 mutual insurance agreement to certain funds, 
 and if the victor hereupon insisted upon forc- 
 ing the vanquished to surrender, as a spoil 
 of war, its rights under the contract of mutual 
 insurance or the funds due to it under these 
 rights, then a treaty thus to surrender the prop- 
 erty rights or the money due to the vanquished 
 under the insurance agreement, would auto- 
 matically make void the whole insurance contract 
 which the vanquished had made. From the 
 moment the vanquished had been forced to 
 surrender its funds, now due, or its rights 
 acquired under the insurance contract, from 
 
 72
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 that moment the insurance trustees would 
 simply pay nothing of the funds in question 
 either to tfie vanquished power or to any other 
 single power. The whole fund in question would 
 simply return to the common fund, and be used 
 for the common benefit of all the nations that 
 participated. 
 
 So much for a first sketch of the proposed 
 agreement of mutual insurance. You will 
 ask: Against what evils should this mutual 
 international insurance company, when once 
 organized, attempt to insure its clients? 
 
 In answer, first, think of the long possible 
 list of evils from which directly or indirectly 
 all the nations suffer, and with which, in the 
 first place, war itself has perhaps little, 
 perhaps nothing to do. Such evils are widely 
 distributed, have an incidence which affects 
 now this people and then that people, are 
 capable of a careful statistical study, and are 
 therefore in principle insurable. Individual 
 nations cannot in general insure their subjects 
 against them. A community of nations could 
 insure an individual nation against them, and 
 
 73
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 could pay over a guaranteed sum to the insured 
 and suffering nation. 
 
 A brief and inadequate list of such calami- 
 ties is as follows : 
 
 1. Destructive earthquakes and volcanic 
 eruptions. 
 
 2. Certain of the migratory pestilences, and 
 in particular, certain of the tropical diseases. 
 
 3. Some of the destructive storms of the 
 type which follow, in general, known tracks 
 but strike special localities by chance (such 
 for instance as the West India hurricanes, 
 and the China Sea typhoons). 
 
 4. Recurrent famines and great crop 
 failures. 
 
 5. Marine disasters. (For the ocean exacts 
 a statistically definable toll from the commerce 
 of the whole world.) 
 
 Herewith varying a little the type of cases, 
 we may further mention : 
 
 6. The destruction in war time of the private 
 property belonging to the subjects of unques- 
 tionably neutral states. (This is a first men- 
 tion of the "war risks" which our insurance 
 
 74
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 company might learn, in its gradual growth, 
 more and more to insure.) 
 
 Now suppose a community of mutual 
 international insurance once instituted upon 
 such general lines. To the foregoing list 
 of internationally insurable losses, a great 
 number of others can and would soon be added. 
 What would be the general result ? 
 
 The mutual insurance community would be 
 sure to do what other mutual companies have 
 done. 
 
 1. It would proceed carefully to investigate 
 such losses both from a statistical point of view 
 and with regard to their causes. 
 
 2. It would attempt to reduce the number and 
 magnitude of these causes. To this end it 
 would use all possible moral influences con- 
 sistent with its functions as a trustee. Being 
 no political state, and having no protection 
 except the fact that its funds were nearly 
 inaccessible to any predatory power, it could 
 use none indeed but moral influences. But 
 on the other hand, being no Hague tribunal, 
 although often cooperating with that tribunal, 
 
 75
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 it would not be likely to irritate its clients 
 by unwelcome judicial decisions about already 
 bitterly controversial matters. It would need 
 to ask for no new arbitration treaties. It 
 would leave to the Hague tribunal the work 
 of formulating international law. Its own 
 function would be the higher one of cultivating 
 international cooperation through mutual in- 
 surance against common evils and thereby 
 teaching by example the meaning and the 
 attractiveness of the loyalty of each indi- 
 vidual nation to the community of all nations. 
 Mutual insurance would make this community 
 visible. 
 
 3. But these, its non-controversial and 
 purely moral influences, would still be influ- 
 ences whose source would be the first spirit of the 
 community of all mankind which would ever 
 yet have won permanent and visible presence 
 on earth. In its efforts not only to alleviate 
 but to prevent pestilence and famine, the 
 board of trustees, representing all the nations 
 in the community of insurance, would inspire 
 all the nations actually to work together, at once 
 
 76
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 in a charitable and in a businesslike way, as 
 they have never worked before. As the spirit 
 of this triadic community, the insurance organi- 
 zation would both exemplify and teach loyalty. 
 Now the nations, living, thus far, in dangerous 
 pairs, and in groups of pairs, have never yet 
 had any chance of acquiring international 
 loyalty. 
 
 We have then a vast experience of business- 
 like activities behind us when we assert that 
 this triadic community, once founded, would 
 ceaselessly tend to increase, to discover new 
 powers, and to exercise new and peaceful 
 influences. 
 
 But you will ask : Could it go farther ? 
 Could it insure its members against any of the 
 evils of actual war? And if it did so, would 
 that still more directly tend towards the 
 diminishing of wars ? 
 
 I answer that, if large enough, this com- 
 munity of mutual international insurance could 
 insure its members progressively against more 
 and more of the evils and destructive calamities 
 due to war, by the simple addition of one very 
 
 77
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 important rule to the rules so far laid down : 
 If a nation had a war with another, the insur- 
 ance trustees would never directly inquire 
 as to the moral justification of this war, but 
 would ask : Who committed the first act of war? 
 No nation would receive insurance compensation 
 for any expenses due to a war in which it com- 
 mitted the first act of war. This rule would, 
 in each case, require judicial interpretation. 
 But this again would be no arbitration of a 
 Hague tribunal, but purely a financier's 
 decision as to whether or no an insurance 
 policy was at least temporarily or in a single 
 case vitiated by an act of a nature known 
 beforehand. 1 
 
 For the rest, in so far as our insurance com- 
 pany undertook to pay any war expenses, it 
 would get a businesslike interest in averting 
 the causes of war which would express the 
 will of all the insuring nations, and which 
 would possess a fecundity, an ingenuity, and 
 a wisdom of which we shall know nothing 
 until we get such a community of interpre- 
 tation formed to teach the nations, by the potent 
 
 78
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 devices of mutual insurance, the art of loyalty 
 to the community of mankind. 
 
 But you will say, such a community would 
 need to begin with very vast financial re- 
 sources. How shall the nations, now absorbed 
 in greed and in rivalries, the dangerous pairs, 
 be induced to invest their funds in so prodi- 
 gious and humane an undertaking ? 
 
 To this question the present moment fur- 
 nishes the fitting answer. Herein lies the very 
 core of the present practical proposal. For, 
 when the present war is ended, one side 
 will be the victor. That side will include 
 more than one nation. The victors will jointly 
 or severally demand an indemnity or several 
 indemnities from the vanquished, and might 
 raise some new quarrel over the division of 
 the spoils. Well, let the victors make their 
 demand together. Let them demand one indem- 
 nity from all the vanquished. When it is paid, 
 let the victors at once begin and actively establish 
 the first mutual international insurance com- 
 pany against national calamities, including 
 wars. Let them devote this whole indemnity 
 
 79
 
 WAR AND INSURANCE 
 
 to forming the initial fund of this company. 
 Let them deposit the fund with the trustees, 
 and under the formal care of Switzerland or of 
 Sweden. Then let them draw up their rules, 
 and thenceforth invite all sovereign states, great 
 or small, including the vanquished states, to 
 insure by payments and enjoy all the advan- 
 tages of the insurance. This act of thus using 
 the war indemnity will be much less wasteful 
 than to waste it in preparations for future war. 
 The vanquished will not hope to make it an 
 object of future plunder. It will henceforth 
 be the fund of the community of all mankind. 
 And this community of all mankind will begin 
 to take on visible form, presence, and power to 
 save. 
 
 Lincoln on a famous occasion used a triadic 
 phrase. He spoke of "government of the 
 people, by the people, and for the people." 
 
 My thesis is that whenever insurance of the 
 nations, by the nations, and for the nations begins, 
 it will thenceforth never vanish from the earth, 
 but will begin to make visible to us the holy city 
 of the community of all mankind. To such a 
 
 80
 
 MUTUAL INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE 
 
 vision perhaps we have a right, even while 
 the slain lie awaiting burial. Let us dwell 
 upon this vision, at once ideal and practical. 
 Let us say of this vision, of this holy city, 
 "Even so, come quickly. For then, none of 
 these dead will have died wholly in vain." 
 
 81
 
 NOTES 
 
 I. (See page 2) 
 
 STEINMETZ'S "PHILOSOPHY OF WAR'* 
 Sebald Rudolf Steinmetz is professor of Ethnology 
 at the University of Amsterdam. His "Philosophic 
 des Krieges" was first published in 1907 and has much 
 influenced the train of thought which was first set 
 forth in the present writer's "Philosophy of Loyalty 
 (New York, 1908), "and which has gradually led, through 
 a series of intermediate books, to the present Address. 
 That this influence has partly been due to my own op- 
 position to certain of the theses of Steinmetz is obvious. 
 But I hope that Section II of this Address clearly shows 
 that in certain respects I stand greatly indebted to Stein- 
 metz for some of his views regarding the war-like aspects 
 of human nature. 
 
 II. (See page 28) 
 
 KANT'S DOCTRINE CONCERNING "ANTAGONISM" AS A 
 SOURCE OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The Kantian views cited in the text of this Address, 
 are outlined in his essay of 1784 entitled: "An Idea 
 of an Universal History from a Cosmo-political Point 
 of View." The " Fourth Principle " which Kant defines 
 
 83
 
 NOTES 
 
 regarding "the means which nature uses to bring hu- 
 man powers to full development," declares that this 
 means is furnished especially by the "Antagonism of 
 men in society." Kant continues, "I mean by Antag- 
 onism the anti-social sociability of mankind, that is, the 
 tendency of man to enter social relations, accompanied 
 as this tendency is with a constant resistance which 
 perpetually threatens the very society thus formed." 
 A little further on Kant continues: "It is this inner 
 conflict which stirs all a man's powers and forces him 
 to overcome his own natural sloth so that, driven by 
 the love of fame, or of power over other men, or of 
 greed, he seeks to win a rank among his fellow men, 
 whom he can neither endure nor do without." " Thus 
 begin the first true steps from crudity to cultivation. 
 For cultivation consists in the social worth of man." 
 
 Somewhat parallel considerations are urged by 
 Steinmetz in his study of the way in which the warlike 
 spirit of early man was the source of all his early virtues, 
 including his kindliness, and his disposition to help his 
 comrades in war and his dependents at home. A little 
 later in the passage just cited from Kant's essay, Kant 
 says, that without the distinctly unamiable qualities 
 involved in this inner conflict of human nature, primi- 
 tive man might have lived in some arcadian form as 
 shepherds live, or as sheep. But, as Kant adds, on 
 the basis of such an amiable nature men would hardly 
 have reached a life of higher value than the life of their 
 cattle possesses. "Let us thank nature," says Kant, 
 
 84
 
 NOTES 
 
 "that man was quarrelsome and vain, greedy and a 
 lover of power ! Without these qualities all man's 
 noblest natural powers would have remained forever 
 slumbering. Man desires harmony ; but nature knows 
 better what is good for a race such as the human race 
 is. Nature demands conflict. Man longs to live in 
 comfort and pleasure, but nature gives him labor and 
 painful strife, even in order that he may find the means 
 of raising himself beyond these sorrows." Kant closes 
 the passage with a sketch of the way in which these 
 unamiable tendencies of men, leading to conflict, and 
 even thereby beyond conflict, fit man for a rational 
 life of peace. 
 
 III. (Seepages?) 
 
 LOVE FOR COMMUNITIES 
 
 The definition of Loyalty as a willing and practical 
 devotion of a self to a community has formed the 
 theme of several of my own recent philosophical dis- 
 cussions. Without accepting Kant's account of strife 
 as the main source of human reasonableness, I have 
 endeavored to make use of his view that the inner 
 conflicts of the individual man as well as the dual con- 
 flicts of man and man, arouse problems for which the 
 solution is found only when a loyalty takes the place 
 of this natural turbulence. The present Address differs 
 from any of my former efforts to define the nature of 
 loyalty through its very explicit use of the ideas of 
 Charles Peirce, with special application to some com- 
 
 85
 
 NOTES 
 
 munities of the social and business world, and to the 
 sort of devotion at once prosaically businesslike, and 
 capable of the most exalted piety which communi- 
 ties of this type especially exemplify. The more highly 
 theoretical problems connected with the communities 
 of interpretation find their place in the second volume 
 of my recent book, "The Problem of Christianity." 
 
 IV. 
 
 EFFORTS ALREADY MADE TO USE THE FOUR 
 
 COMMUNITIES OF INTERPRETATION IN 
 
 INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS 
 
 The oldest of the communities of interpretation, the 
 judicial community, has very naturally been the one 
 to which recent advocates of "the substitution of 
 judicial methods for warlike methods in the settle- 
 ment of international disputes" have most appealed. 
 Here the highest hopes of the so-called "Pacificists" 
 have centered. The Hague tribunal undertakes to 
 play its part in such a judicial community. It is no 
 part of the purpose of this Address to ignore, or in any 
 way to slight the importance of such judicial com- 
 munities in international undertakings. Arbitration 
 has played already a great part in the movement 
 towards peace. It will in future come to play a still 
 greater part. But I believe that it needs auxiliaries. 
 It is one main purpose of this Address to insist upon 
 the fact that the modern social and business world 
 
 86
 
 NOTES 
 
 already possesses such auxiliaries in the form of the 
 other types of communities of interpretation. 
 
 The limitations of the judicial communities as a 
 means of ending war have been skillfully pointed out 
 by Steinmetz. Stated in my own terms, these limita- 
 tions are as follows : (1) International disputes often con- 
 cern matters, which, at the moment, appear to those 
 concerned too passionate in their interest to admit of 
 arbitration. Even if previous arbitration treaties have 
 been made, the "dangerous pair" which happens to 
 be involved in a given controversy may be too much 
 disturbed in its relations to take for the moment any 
 interest in its former treaties. (2) At such moments 
 the lover of peace may be disposed to appeal to national 
 honor. But without entering upon any of the endless 
 controversies as to what individual modern nations 
 have behaved most honorably, or, on the other hand, 
 have broken most treaties, it is enough to say that, in 
 the relations of contending individual men, who happen 
 to be members of the same social order, the judicial 
 community appeals to the consciences of disputants, 
 especially because they are already clearly aware of 
 some sort of loyalty, which they owe to then* own social 
 order, as it is represented to them by their clan, by 
 their nation, by their gods, or by their patriotism. If 
 the contending individuals are nations, they at present 
 do not form a community to which the most of them 
 are consciously and practically loyal. But where no 
 conscious loyalty exists to a community to which an 
 
 87
 
 NOTES 
 
 individual nation belongs, it is simply idle to talk of 
 "national honor," because nobody can define "national 
 honor" except in terms which presuppose the recogni- 
 tion of a definite loyalty on the part of an individual 
 nation to a community of nations. The present inter- 
 national problem is to form such a community. The 
 judge, where individual men are concerned, is espe- 
 cially able to bring the contending parties loyally 
 together, because he has other forms of loyalty to the 
 social order to which he may appeal and which he may 
 use as aids. Otherwise the litigants may simply decline 
 to acknowledge his authority. If hereupon he appeals 
 to promises which they have formerly made, they may 
 very naturally say that, unless the judge and the dis- 
 putants already possess a common country, a common 
 social order, a common devotion to recognized reli- 
 gions or customs, they, the contending litigants, see 
 nothing binding in their former promises. In fact, 
 as soon as the judge has to contend with one of the 
 litigants with regard to the litigant's obligation to sub- 
 mit the cause of contention to the judge, the rebellious 
 litigant and the judge become a dangerous pair. In 
 brief, the judicial community is very important in 
 securing peace at the moment when its general authority 
 is already recognized. It is less capable than are the 
 other communities of interpretation of advancing its 
 powers, and increasing the love which contentious and 
 passionate individuals, or nations, may entertain for its 
 value and for its dignity. 
 
 88
 
 NOTES 
 
 But if the judicial community finds that at some 
 moment the passions of the contending parties lead 
 them to disregard its authority, and to fail to realize 
 that their former agreements honorably bind them to 
 submit to its decision ; then the international tribunal, 
 like the judge who sees before him a litigant in con- 
 tempt of court, must if possible appeal to force. 
 Whence, however, can the international court derive 
 its force ? From an international army ? But the 
 great moral forces upon which armies depend for their 
 existence are forces of the sort now represented by 
 patriotism. Will it be easy for the international army 
 to arouse the enthusiasm which patriots now give to 
 such demands as their country makes upon them for 
 service ? In other words, when the great stresses come, 
 the international tribunal has to depend upon motives 
 which seem, at best, drearily reasonable just at the mo- 
 ment when they most need to seem ideally inspiring. 
 We may look to the future for an alteration of this 
 situation, and for a gradual evolution of a genuine de- 
 votion to institutions such as those which the Hague 
 tribunal represents. But the community of mankind 
 has first to be formed, to become visible, and so to be- 
 come a factor in the daily business of the nations. 
 
 Steinmetz further insists that since the nations, if 
 prosperous, are constantly growing, in wealth, in popu- 
 lation, and in undertakings, new problems will con- 
 stantly arise. International law cannot be settled 
 once for all. It must adjust itself to constantly chang- 
 
 89
 
 NOTES 
 
 ing matters of controversy. An international court 
 cannot undertake to do all the work of a legislator. 
 But if there are no legislative bodies, new controversies 
 will constantly arise in which the two litigants, if they 
 consent to arbitrate at all, will come before the inter- 
 national court with some such case as this : "We both 
 of us want that to which, under existing international 
 laws, neither of us has any clearly definable right." 
 The comparatively recent controversy between Japan 
 and Russia concerning the future of Korea, suggests a 
 type of controversy which is not easily to be ruled out 
 of the world, if various nations continue to prosper at 
 all. Under such circumstances the international court 
 may follow either one of two courses. It may decide 
 arbitrarily in favor of one of the litigants as against 
 the other. It may rule that they are both of them 
 wrong and that they are required to compromise the 
 question. But then it may be precisely the wise com- 
 promise upon which nobody can agree with his neigh- 
 bor. At this point we do not say that arbitration must 
 necessarily fail. We can say, however, that we should 
 like to find and use some other sort of community of 
 interpretation as an auxiliary to the work of the tri- 
 bunal. 
 
 The banker's community has been proposed as an 
 aid by a number of recent students of the problem of 
 peace. In the long run, as many argue, war will 
 cease, because a limit will come to the willingness of 
 the banker to advance the necessary expenses. Thus 
 
 90
 
 NOTES 
 
 bankers will be the peacemakers of the future. The 
 questions here involved are enormously complex. If 
 a limit exists, and a permanent limit, not merely a tem- 
 porary hindrance, to the power of bankers to advance 
 money for warlike purposes, such a limit does not very 
 clearly appear visible to the unaided eye. Not merely 
 the interest but the duty of the banker tends to make 
 him willing, in the long run, to advance money to a 
 nation for purposes which he himself views as legitimate, 
 in case, acting as the interpreter of his banking com- 
 munity, he believes that the loan can be disposed of 
 in the open market. Therefore, so long as the patriot- 
 ism and the prosperity of a nation enable it and perhaps 
 inspire it to pay the interest on new bonds, the banker 
 will not permanently interfere with the power of this 
 nation to express its will through warfare. The 
 bankers' community is itself a useful auxiliary to peace, 
 but it certainly needs such a supplement as shall render 
 the community of mankind not only visible, but a 
 community doing a daily and interesting, a reasonably 
 united form of business, and of business which involves 
 at any moment a far-reaching cooperation among the 
 nations. 
 
 Hereupon, one may very naturally think of the 
 numerous different forms of the agent's community. 
 As a fact, the agent's community is a powerful factor 
 in the promotion of the motives that lead towards 
 peace. It will constantly become more powerful. 
 Commerce aids mutual understanding in ways which 
 
 91
 
 NOTES 
 
 began to be potent at the very outset of civilization, 
 and which increase some of the most beneficent of 
 their powers, as we use agents more and more. But 
 the agent's community does not of itself lead to that 
 consolidation of various agent's communities into one 
 system that consolidation which is characteristic 
 of the banker's community. A large increase in the 
 number and complexity of agent's communities is com- 
 patible with a large increase in the rivalries of these 
 communities. There are various dangerous pairs of 
 such communities which one finds in the commercial 
 world; and these have emphasized a large number of 
 international jealousies. 
 
 Before the minds of all lovers of humanity there has 
 long stood a vision of a Federal State formed on the 
 basis of the existing states. Kant discussed this 
 Federal Union of the future in his well-known essay on 
 "Universal Peace." But the history of federal gov- 
 ernment, and the modern rise of the intensely vigorous 
 national consciousness which characterizes the world 
 of to-day, and the connection of this modern national 
 patriotism with the rise of an intelligent democracy, 
 and with those very forms of human solidarity which 
 otherwise seem most encouraging, all these considera- 
 tions taken together make the Federal State of man- 
 kind seem farther away to-day than it could have seemed 
 to Kant. It is not likely that the world peace will come 
 in the form of a political federation of all the principal 
 nations of mankind. 
 
 92
 
 NOTES 
 
 The lesson is that we need to consider whether the 
 community of mankind cannot become visible in the 
 form of some other union than an international tri- 
 bunal can adequately represent, than the growth and 
 importance of banking can fully exemplify, than the 
 evolution and significance of the modern communities 
 of agency can insure, or than any political union 
 of venous nationalities can sufficiently exemplify. 
 
 This is why the community of insurance, and the 
 international board of trustees, with its wholly non- 
 political type of union, and with its freedom from the 
 obligations of an international court of arbitration, seem 
 worthy of consideration. 
 
 V. (See page 78) 
 "THE FIRST ACT OF WAR" 
 
 I lay no stress upon any detail regarding the formula- 
 tion of the rule which I thus tentatively state. I my- 
 self do not know how to define with any generality 
 wherein a first act of war should consist. For the pur- 
 poses of the present Address I lay no stress whatever 
 upon any question regarding the moral guilt of any 
 nation that is supposed to begin a war. It would be 
 no part of the interests which the international board 
 of insurance would represent, to read to the nations 
 any moral lesson regarding the rights and wrongs of 
 their past and future wars. The whole case upon 
 which the present Address insists is this : 
 
 93
 
 NOTES 
 
 The nations will gradually acquire a definite loyalty 
 to the community of nations, and a definite conscience 
 regarding their obligations to one another whenever 
 they begin doing such business with one another, as 
 insurance at present best exemplifies and tends to foster. 
 Whenever such forms of business come to exist, the 
 reasons why a wise nation will be indisposed to make 
 warlike trouble for itself and for other nations will 
 become, with time, clearer and clearer. On the other 
 hand, as soon as the nations are in a position to begin 
 any form of the business which insurance represents, 
 there will be more and more objects coming into sight 
 to which such forms of business can be extended. The 
 process thus initiated will be cumulative. If such a 
 process once were initiated, it would not be subject 
 to the explosive accidents, which have suddenly, and 
 with a discouraging violence, interrupted the advances 
 heretofore made towards substituting judicial settle- 
 ment of disputes for war. For this cumulative pro- 
 cess would not wholly be founded upon the authority 
 of judges, nor upon the fragile interests which might 
 for a time make some form of international federation 
 attractive, but which would be only too likely to be 
 interrupted, whenever dangerous pairs of peoples or 
 of races became too conscious of their hostilities, and 
 hence reasoned that these hostilities must be "holy." 
 The cumulative tendency towards organization which a 
 board of trustees would exemplify, when once it 
 had been made trustworthy (which is humanly pos- 
 
 94
 
 NOTES 
 
 sible), safe, and independent of political responsibilities, 
 this cumulative tendency would not be subject to 
 such explosions and catastrophes as have beset all the 
 forms of international organization thus far devised. 
 
 In order to form a plan for making this type of organ- 
 ization efficacious in discouraging the beginning of 
 war, I have proposed, merely as one of numerous pos- 
 sible provisions, the plan of writing the international 
 policies subject to some such rule as the one mentioned 
 regarding the "first act of war." Any other formula- 
 tion which made a desirable policy such that it would 
 be vitiated in case the nation holding the insurance 
 rights in question voluntarily did anything which 
 experience showed to be productive of an actual war 
 any other formulation of an analogous rule would 
 serve the purpose here in question. This purpose would 
 be not directly to vindicate the moral law, or any partic- 
 ular principle of international law, but to issue a 
 policy of a form that tended to discourage the begin- 
 ning of a war. For the best teaching of international 
 morality must take, at present, indirect forms. 
 
 The principles of the insurance trustees would be 
 wholly business principles. They would teach loyalty 
 by keeping loyally their trusts themselves, both to 
 the nations that were their clients and to mankind; 
 and by putting the nations, so far as they could, in 
 such business relations with one another that the na- 
 tions concerned would find it advantageous to behave 
 in a businesslike fashion. The nations have grown 
 
 95
 
 NOTES 
 
 self-conscious enough to form at present pairs that 
 are more dangerous than ever before in the world's 
 history. I propose, by certain devices, to get them 
 to do plain and profitable business with one another 
 by means of some community of interpretation. I 
 emphasize the community of insurance simply upon 
 empirical grounds. That community has now proved 
 itself the most fruitful of all communities of interpre- 
 tation, in substituting businesslike motives which turn 
 out to be both reasonable and ideal, for motives which, 
 until insurance was invented, were hopelessly subject 
 to capricious interferences and to dangerous conflicts. 
 
 If any other community of interpretation can be 
 named which will serve this purpose better than a 
 community of insurance, and an international board 
 of trustees, the purpose of this Address and of these 
 Notes will have been wholly accomplished, so soon as 
 any one can successfully define such a community and 
 induce a group of nations to give it suitable work. 
 
 96
 
 ''I "'HE following pages contain advertisements of a 
 few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects
 
 The Problem of Christianity 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES 
 By JOSIAH ROYCE, LL.D., Litt. D. 
 
 Professor of the History of Philosophy, Harvard University; Author of " Out- 
 lines of Psychology," " The Philosophy of Loyalty," " William James," etc. 
 
 Vol. I. The Christian Doctrine of Life. 
 
 Vol. II. The Real World and the Christian Ideas. 
 
 Cloth, I2mo, Set, $3.50 net; carriage extra 
 
 A work of great importance to all students of religion and philosophy 
 and to the general reader who keeps abreast with progress in these fields 
 is Dr. Josiah Royce's "The Problem of Christianity," in two volumes, 
 the first, "The Christian Doctrine of Life," and, the second, "The Real 
 World and the Christian Ideas." 
 
 Volume I is a study of the human and empirical aspects of some of the 
 leading ideas of Christianity; Volume II deals with the technically 
 metaphysical problems to which these ideas give rise. The two volumes 
 are contrasted in their methods, the first discussing religious experience, 
 the second dealing with its metaphysical foundations. They are, how- 
 ever, closely connected in their purposes, and at the end the relations 
 between the metaphysical and the empirical aspects of the whole under- 
 taking are reviewed. 
 
 The "Christian Ideas" which Dr. Royce treats as "leading and es- 
 sential" are, first, the Idea of the " Community," historically represented 
 by the Church; second, the Idea of the "Lost State of the Natural Man," 
 and the third, the Idea of "Atonement," together with the somewhat 
 more general Idea of "Saving Grace." 
 
 "These three," Dr. Royce says, "have a close relation to a doctrine 
 of life which, duly generalized, can be, at least in part, studied as a purely 
 human 'philosophy of loyalty' and can be estimated in empirical terms 
 apart from any use of technical dogmas and apart from any metaphysical 
 opinion. . . . Nevertheless no purely empirical study of the Christian 
 doctrine of life can, by itself, suffice to answer our main questions. It is 
 indeed necessary to consider the basis in human nature which the religion 
 of loyalty possesses and to portray the relation of this religion to the 
 social experience of mankind. To this task the first part of these lectures 
 is confined, but such a preliminary study sends us beyond itself. 
 
 The second part of these lectures considers the neglected philosophical 
 problem of the sense in which the community and its Spirit are realities." 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
 
 " A POWER IN THE BUSINESS OF LIVING," says the New York Tribune of 
 
 The Philosophy of Loyalty 
 
 By JOSIAH ROYCE, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 Professor of the History of Philosophy, Harvard University ; author of 
 
 " Outlines of Psychology," " The Conception of God," 
 
 " The World and the Individual," etc. 
 
 Cloth, i2tno, $1.50 net; postage extra 
 
 "The ethical value of loyalty needed discussion, especially as so 
 much so-called loyalty is mere self-delusion. To be loyal in mere 
 words, or negatively, to the shell of an outworn convention is not to be 
 loyal at all, or wise. Moreover, true loyalty must express itself practi- 
 cally, in the way of a man's life, in his deeds. Cherished without rea- 
 soning, and to no really practical purpose, it avails nothing. The drift 
 of circumstances that may make a man of high and strong personal 
 qualities a power for lasting good in a community, or develop him as a 
 harmful influence to society, does not escape Professor Royce's attention. 
 The present significance of his book, therefore, is evident. . . . The 
 author disclaims the idea of making a text-book or an elaborately tech- 
 nical work of philosophical research. The appeal of the book is to all 
 readers." New York Times. 
 
 " A thoroughly sincere attempt to set clearly before the American 
 people the need for aiming at the highest ethical ideals in their daily 
 life, in their intercourse with one another, and in their relations with 
 the outside world. Believing that certain present-day conditions and 
 tendencies indicate a lowering of individual and national standards, 
 Professor Royce gives himself resolutely to the task of remedial and 
 constructive criticism. His programme of reform is summed up in the 
 single phrase the cultivation of a spirit of loyalty. . . . His work is 
 immediately and concretely inspiring to the man not at all concerned 
 with the subtleties of metaphysical disquisition, but very much concerned 
 in the affairs of every-day existence. It helps him to appreciate the 
 poverty of egotistical ideals such as the ideal of power and it 
 plainly propounds means whereby life may be made really worth 
 living." The Outlook. 
 
 " It gives beautiful and forceful expression to ethical idealism, and 
 grandly fulfils its purpose ' to simplify men's moral issues, to clear their 
 vision for the sight of the eternal, to win hearts for loyalty.' . . . There 
 is moral enthusiasm in it, there is patriotism in it, there is love of hu- 
 manity in it. It comes from the heart of a man, from the big heart of a 
 big man, from a fine loyal soul. Fichte never spoke with greater fer- 
 vor and eloquence than does this idealist of Cambridge, and it is to be 
 hoped that his words will sink deep into the hearts of the nation." 
 DR. FRANK THILLY in The Philosophical Review. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 "THE GOSPEL OF IDEALS" 
 
 William James and Other Essays 
 On the Philosophy of Life 
 
 Cloth, izmo, $f.jo net ; postage extra 
 " The Essays are full of interest and sympathy." The Continent. 
 
 " For students this volume will have abounding interest, and serious 
 readers, even if not technically trained, will follow the discussions with 
 profit. Professor Royce has, with Professor James, the rare gift of translat- 
 ing the thinking of the scholar into the language of the plain people." 
 Chicago Record-Herald. 
 
 " All of the Essays are keen, eloquent, and suggestive." Boston Herald. 
 "A BOOK FOR EVERY PARENT AND THINKER" 
 
 Outlines of Psychology 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE WITH 
 SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 
 
 Cloth, I2mo, 379 pages, $2^5 net 
 
 " Obviously a treatise upon psychology that deals with the subject with 
 this broad, free, strong handling is suggestive and constructive ; helps us 
 to organize our ideas ; throws out new light ; cannot be disregarded by the 
 students of the mind. The treatise, however, has a special value in practical 
 applications. These are not ' helps to the teacher,' they are criticisms upon 
 life and society and are helps to the thinker who is a teacher." W. E. 
 CHANCELLOR in the Journal of Pedagogy. 
 
 " The reader of this book, who, wishing to make an elementary study 
 of the inner mind of the world, takes Professor Royce for his guide, will 
 find himself increasingly in serious companionship with a winsome as well 
 as a knowing leader." Chicago Tribune. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork
 
 Race Questions, Provincialism, and Other 
 American Problems 
 
 By JOSIAH ROTCE 
 
 Professor of the History of Philosophy, Harvard University; author 
 of "The Philosophy of Loyalty," etc. 
 
 Cloth, i2tno, $1.25 net; postage extra 
 
 "This volume makes a plain and important appeal to any 
 intelligent man or woman, and should be read by many." The 
 Nation. 
 
 " The point of view and discussion are original and refreshing." 
 Chicago Record-Herald. 
 
 " A book of original thought." Argonaut. 
 
 " These essays are fearless and profound studies of our Ameri- 
 can civilization." Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 " It should appeal to any person who has the least bit of inter- 
 est in his country, as it reveals a wider field of vision than many 
 enjoy, every page opening a vista of life." Boston Globe. 
 
 OTHER WORKS BT THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 The World and the Individual. Two volumes 
 
 Gifford Lectures delivered before the University at Aberdeen 
 
 First Series : The Four Historical Conceptions of Being $3.00 net 
 Second Series : Nature, Man, and the Moral Order $2.25 net 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
 
 TWO IMPORTANT BOOKS ON INSURANCE 
 
 Insurance and the State 
 
 By W. F. GEPHART, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor of Economics, Washington University; Author of 
 " Principles of Insurance " 
 
 Cloth, i2tno, index, $1.25 net ; postage extra 
 
 Professor Gephart is already well known as the author of 
 " The Principles of Insurance. " In the present volume he 
 presents with equal clearness a comprehensive and impartial 
 discussion of the various relations of insurance to the body 
 politic. The arguments for and against a State monopoly of 
 insurance are carefully stated, and the diverse views of legis- 
 lators and the insurance fraternity on the question of the 
 proper relation of the State to the insurance business are 
 discussed fairly, analyzed thoroughly. Legislators, insurance 
 men, policy holders, and the general public will, therefore, 
 find in this book an interesting description and discussion 
 of facts and conditions upon a knowledge of which they may 
 form their own conclusions. 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 The Principles of Insurance 
 
 Cloth, izmo, 313 pages, index, $f.6o net ; postage extra 
 
 " It is a book along distinctively new lines in that it in- 
 cludes in one volume a concise and logical treatment of the 
 fundamental principles and practices of life insurance to- 
 gether with a chapter on Health and Accident Insurance 
 and a chapter on Employer's Liability Insurance." S. E. 
 STILWELL, Ph.D., F.A.S., Actuary of the Ohio Insurance 
 Department. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork
 
 Sea Insurance According to British Statute 
 
 By WILLIAM GOW, M.A., Ph.D. 
 
 Author of " Marine Insurance " 
 
 Cloth, $4.25 net; postage extra 
 
 FROM THE PREFACE 
 
 The passing of the Marine Insurance Act of 1906 (6 Edw. VII. Ch. 41) 
 was the commencement of a new era in the law and practice of Marine In- 
 surance in Britain. ... It has therefore appeared to the writer that in the 
 present state of opinion the most useful kind of guide to the law and prac- 
 tice of Marine Insurance would be a detailed statement of the provisions 
 of the Marine Insurance Act with a supplement consisting of the essential 
 parts of the leading judgments upon which the Act has confessedly been 
 constructed. It is thought that such a supplement may be of value, not only 
 historically, but as affording an explanation of points in the Act which may 
 in the course of years become less clear than they were to the framers of the 
 Bill and to the various authorities and bodies to whom it was submitted 
 before it assumed its final form. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE ACT, 1906. 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE (GAMBLING POLICIES) ACT, 1909. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH. 
 
 COMMENTARY ON THE MARINE INSURANCE ACT, 1906. 
 
 NOTE ON THE MARINE INSURANCE (GAMBLING POLICIES) ACT, 1909. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF LEADING CASES. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF LEADING CASES. 
 
 SUBJECT LIST OF LEADING CASES. 
 
 INDEX OF CASES CITED IN THE COMMENTARY. 
 
 INDEX OF EXTRACTS FROM JUDGMENTS IN LEADING CASES ON MA- 
 RINE INSURANCE. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM JUDGMENTS IN LEADING CASES. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXTRACTS FROM JUDGMENTS IN LEADING CASES 
 ON GENERAL AVERAGE. 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
 
 THE GREAT WAR IN ALL ITS PHASES 
 
 The following books, covering all sides of the war, make up a small yet 
 complete reference library, touching on the history, policy, military strength 
 and tactics, and the geographical peculiarities of the various powers in- 
 volved. Supplementing these works are many books of a more general 
 character showing the effect of war on property, commerce, and trade, and 
 treating such topics as the Far East Question and international law. 
 
 The Case of Belgium in the Present War 
 
 Paper, izmo, $ .25 net 
 
 An account of the violation of the neutrality of Belgium and of the laws of 
 war on Belgian territory, published for the Belgian delegates to the United 
 States. 
 
 Why Britain is at War 
 
 By Sir EDWARD COOK 
 
 Paper, izmo, $ .JO net 
 
 Set out in brief form, from the Diplomatic Correspondence and Speeches 
 of the Ministers. 
 
 ADAMS, GEORGE B. The Growth of the French Nation. 
 
 Maps izmo, #1.25 net 
 
 ALTHAM, (Major General) E. A. Principles of War. 
 
 VoL I. With maps bound separately . . . 8mo, #3.50 net 
 
 BASTABLE, C. F. Theory of International Trade. 4th 
 
 Ed. izmo, $1.00 net 
 
 BECA, (Colonel). A Study of the Development of In- 
 fantry Tactics I2mo, $ .75 net 
 
 BETHELL, (Colonel) H. A. Modern Artillery in the 
 
 Field 8mo, $2.50 net 
 
 BUXTON, NOEL. With the Bulgarian Staff . . . I2mo, #1.25 net 
 
 COXE, W. History of the House of Austria. Portraits. 
 
 4 vols. each I2mo, $1.00 net 
 
 CROSS, ARTHUR LYON. A History of England and 
 
 Greater Britain. Maps 8mo, $2.50 net 
 
 DENISON, (Colonel) GAGE T. The Struggle for Im- 
 perial Unity 8mo, $2.50 net 
 
 A History of Cavalry from the Earliest Times. 
 
 ad Ed . 8mo, $3.00 net 
 
 Full descriptions of any of the above books sent on request.
 
 DILKE, (Sir) CHARLES. Greater Britain . . . 8mo. $1.10 net 
 FORD, EDWARD, and HOME, GORDON. England In- 
 vaded 8mo, $2.00 net 
 
 GARNETT, LUCY M. J. Home Life in Turkey . . i2mo, $1.75 net 
 
 Gow, WILLIAM. Marine Insurance .... izmo, $1.25 net 
 
 HASSALL, ARTHUR. European History (476-1910) . i2mo, $2.25 net 
 
 HENDERSON, E. FLAGG. A Short History of Germany 8mo, $2.50 net 
 HENGELMULLER, (Baron) LADISLAS. Hungary's Fight 
 for National Existence. Maps. With Introductions 
 
 by the Rt. Hon. James Bryce and Colonel Roosevelt 8mo, $3.25 net 
 HERSHEY, AMOS S. The Essentials of International 
 
 Public Law 8mo, $3.00 net 
 
 JAMES, HERMAN GERLACH. Principles of Prussian 
 
 Administration i2mo, $1.50 net 
 
 LATIFI, ALMA. Effects of War on Property . . 8mo, $1.50 net 
 LAWRENCE, THOMAS J. A Handbook of Public Inter- 
 national Law. 8th Ed. rev i6mo, $ .75 net 
 
 War and Neutrality in the Far East . . . 8mo, $1.10 net 
 
 LOWELL, A. LAWRENCE. The Government of Eng- 
 land. Rev. ed. 2 vols . 8mo, $4.00 net 
 
 LYDE, LIONEL W. The Continent of Europe . . 8mo, $2.00 net 
 
 The Balkan Peninsula. Maps .... i2mo, $1.40 net 
 
 Making of Nations, Series 
 
 France. By C. HEADLAM ...... 8mo, 2.00 net 
 
 Germany. By A. W. HOLLAND 8mo, $2.00 net 
 
 MARRIOTT, J. A. R. The Remaking of Modern Eu- 
 rope (1789-1878) I2mo, $ .75 net 
 
 Makers of Modern Italy i2mo, $ .50 net 
 
 MAURICE, (Sir) FREDERIC. Russo-Turkish War 
 
 (1877). Maps izmo, $1.60 net 
 
 OGG, FREDERICK A. Social Progress in Contemporary 
 
 Europe I2mo, $1.50 net 
 
 The Government of Europe 8mo, $3.00 net 
 
 ORMOND, S. W. T. Peeps at Belgium. Col. 111. . . i2mo, $ .55 net 
 
 PATTISON, D. Leading Figures in European History . i2mo, $1.60 net 
 
 PHILLIPS, W. A. Modern Europe (1815-1909) . . i2mo, $1.60 net 
 
 PRATT, S. C. Saarbruck to Paris (1870). Maps. . 12010, $1.60 net 
 RAPPAPORT, (Dr.) ANGELO S. Home Life in Russia. 
 
 Ill 8mo, $1.75 net 
 
 Full descriptions of any of the above books sent on request.
 
 REMINGTON, (Major-General) M. F. Our Cavalry 
 
 (British) 8mo, $1.50 net 
 
 RICHARD, ERNST. History of German Civilization . 8mo, $2.00 net 
 
 ROYCE, JOSIAH. War and Insurance .... 
 
 SEDGWICK, (Capt.) F. R. The Russo-Japanese War 
 
 First Period The Concentration. Maps . . . i2mo, $1.60 net 
 
 The Campaign in Manchuria (1904-5). 2 vols. Maps i2mo, $3.20 net 
 
 SHAW, STANLEY. William of Germany. Frontispiece. 8mo, $2.50 net 
 SIDGWICK, (Mrs.) ALFRED. Home Life in Germany. 
 
 Ill 12010, $1.50 net 
 
 SIME, J. Geography of Europe i2mo, $ .80 net 
 
 SMYTH, W. Lectures on Modern History . . . 12010, $1.00 net 
 
 SPAIGHT, J. N. War Rights on Land .... 8mo, $3.50 net 
 
 Aircraft in War 8mo, $2.00 net 
 
 Statesman's Year Book. Statistical and Historical 
 
 Annual of the States of the World, 1914 . . . i2mo, $3.00 net 
 STOBART, (Mrs.) ST. GLAIR. War and Women: From 
 
 Experience in the Balkans and Elsewhere. 111. . 12010, $1.50 net 
 
 WALLIS, B. C. A Geography of the World. 111. . . i2mo, $ .90 net 
 
 WEALE, B. L. PUTNAM. The Coming Struggle in East- 
 ern Asia. 2d Ed. Ill 8mo, $3.50 net 
 
 Manchu and Muscovite (1903) .... 8mo, $3.00 net 
 
 The Reshaping of the Far East. 2 vols. 111. . 8mo, $6.00 net 
 
 The Conflict of Colour i2mo, $2.00 net 
 
 The Truce in the Far East and its Aftermath . $3.50 net 
 
 IMPORTANT FICTION HAVING A DIRECT BEARING 
 ON THE PRESENT WAR 
 
 LUTHER, MARK LEE. The Sovereign Power. 111. . i2mo, $1.30 net 
 
 WELLS, H. G. The War in the Air. 111. ... i2mo, 1.50 net 
 
 ZOLA, EMILE. The Downfall i2mo, $1.50 net 
 
 Full descriptions of any of the above books sent on request. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York
 
 
 D/ 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 Santa Barbara 
 
 STACK COLLECTION 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW. 
 
 =8 
 
 30m-8,'65(F6447s4)9482
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 A 001 443 748 7