'. LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS // cieniife Skjwols in CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR PREVALENCE, UTILITY. SCOPE AND DESIRABILITY IN AMERICA. BY DANIEL C. GILMAN, A. M. [From Barnard's Journal of Education, March, 1856. t|00I$ in CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR PREVALENCE, UTILITY, SCOPE AND DESIRABILITY" IN AMERICA. BY DANIEL C. OILMAN, A. M. [From Barnard's Journal of Education, March, 1856. LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS IN EUROPE, BY DANIEL C. OILMAN, A. M., NEW HAVEN CONN. EVERT American who studies the educational systems of Europe, remarks with surprise the universal prevalence of schools intended for instruction in theoretical and practical science. In contrast with his own country, where until quite recently, ar- rangements have been made for the special training of but three pro- fessions, known in consequence as " the learned professions," he finds that abroad, definite courses of instruction, equally thorough and sys- tematic, are provided for engineers, architects, miners, chemists, farm- ers, foresters, and the like. Educational institutions for these objects are not confined to any one country. France, Prussia, Austria, and the smaller German states, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Greece, and recently England, have all recognized the im- portance of such schools. For their liberal maintenance, annual appropriations are made by the state with as much regularity as in this land for the support of Common Schools. The usefulness of such institutions, wherever they have been com- menced, is unanimously admitted. The material prosperity of many European countries is manifestly dependent upon the extent and character of their systems of scientific education. In illustration of this point, let a few instances be cited. Notwith- standing various adverse circumstances, the limited extent of its mines of iron and coal, its long protracted and oft repeated wars, and its frequent changes in government, France holds the foremost place among enlightened nations. It excels in the perfection of manufac- tured articles, in the triumphs of modern architecture, in the con- struction of rail roads, in the administration of its mines, in the supe- riority of its army, in the diffusion of elegance and taste, and in the general enjoyment of the comforts and luxuries of civilized life. All this is owing in a great measure to the number and variety of those institutions in which scientific investigations are encouraged or ap- plied. The capital has its Polytechnic Institution, its Conservatoire of Arts and Trades, its Central School of Arts and Manufactures, its Academies of Pesign, and of the Fine Arts, its Engineering School SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. for Roads and Bridges, its Garden of Plants, with museums and courses of lectures, its School of Miners, besides the various scien- tific chairs established in the university. While Paris is thus provi- ded with schools for the highest kind of instruction, the provincial cities and towns have their subordinate institutions, often directed by the graduates of the metropolitan establishments. Thus, throughout the whole empire, industrial education is provided ; sometimes of a theoretical character, and sometimes exceedingly practical, as in the schools of weaving, at Lyons and Nismes, of ship building at La Ro- chelle, and of lace making at Dieppe. The little kingdom of Saxony affords another good illustration of the effects of industrial training. Apparently shut out by its interior position from all foreign commerce, and suffering from an over- crowded population, the country is prosperous and happy, its trade is active, its manufactures celebrated, its fields well tilled, its mines well worked. The cause of this is found in the fact that the Polytechnic School at Dresden, the Forest School at Tharandt, and the Mining Academy at Freiberg, are all institutions of a superior order, the in- fluence of which is not only directly exerted upon the material wel- fare of the country, but also indirectly, by supplying a multitude of schools of lower grades, with properly trained instructors. It is sur- prising to notice the number of these industrial seminaries. According to Dr. Barnard,* Saxony, with a population about equal to that of Connecticut, Massachusets, and Rhode Island, had a short time since, a university with 85 professors, and 835 students ; six academies of the arts and of mining, with 43 instructors, and 1400 pupils ; eleven gymnasia ; six higher burgher and real schools ; three special institu- tions of commerce and military affairs, with 43 teachers and 240 pupils ; nine normal schools ; seventeen higher schools of industry or technical schools, with 72 teachers and 779 pupils; sixty-nine lower technical schools with nearly 7000 pupils ; and 24 schools of lace making, with 37 teachers and nearly 2000 pupils ; in addition to more than two thousand common schools, a large number of private schools, and public establishments for the blind, deaf, and other unfor- tunate persons. The experience of Belgium, sometimes called " The work-shop of Europe," confirms the importance of industrial and scientific educa- tion. According to Dr. Playfair, one hundred of its leading manu- facturers have been trained in the elevated course of the Central School in Paris, while the Belgian institutions themselves have been well attended, and have given to still larger numbers of men * National Education in Europe. Page 260. SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. 317 engaged in industrial pursuits, education of a superior order. In the Engineering school of Ghent, the Mining school of Liege, and the various Agricultural institutions, the highest principles of science are taught in their applications to industry, with evident benefit to the whole material prospects of all the country. The experience of Russia may likewise be cited. Notwithstanding that the empire is deficient in the means of popular education, a sys- tem of technical instruction has been inaugurated in the capital, which is exerting a most important influence upon the development of the country. The results of the training which is given in the schools at St. Petersburg, of applied theoretical science, were evinced in the remarkable contributions from Russia, exhibited in the Crystal Palace, at London, in 1851, and drew forth a general acknowledgement that schools of Mines, of Agriculture, of Forestry, and the Poly- technic Institute, have already effected the useful arts in that country, to an extent which is surpassed only by the influence which the ad- mirable schools of military science have had upon the arms of the empire. Prussia, Austria, and the lesser powers of Germany, likewise unite in testifying that the agricultural and manufacturing prosperity of those countries, other things being equal, has been in direct propor- tion to the efficiency of their schools of special training. What now has been the consequence of an opposite course of pro- cedure, to that pursued in the nations that have been mentioned ? It is not necessary to refer to Spain, Portugal, and Italy, where sci- entific education, although commenced, is still far behindhand. England, commercial and industrial England, may be brought up as an illustration of the bad effects of neglecting industrial instruction. Its mines of coal and iron, and other metals, the foundation of man- ufacturing success, are abundant, its inhabitants are eminently prac- tical, its institutions, are free ; all this tending to the maintenance of its once preeminent position in the world of industrial art. But what is its real condition ? Without quoting the expressions of M. Cocquiel, a Belgian gentleman, commissioned to study the establishments of Great Britain, nor those of other foreign observers, who might be in- fluenced by jealousy or hostility, it is quite enough to say that Eng- lishmen the best qualified to judge, agreed at the close of the Lon- don Exhibition of 1851, that Great Britain was losing its relative position ; and instead of remaining superior in manufacturing skill to all nations upon the continent, was in danger of becoming in- ferior to many. The Royal Commissioners of the World's Fair, even went so far as to state in their Report to the Crown, that Eng- VOL. I, No. 3. 22. 318 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. land "would lose its strength and pride" unless some new measures should be taken for instruction in theoretical and practical science. Dr. Lyon Playfair, of London, a gentleman distinguished for his high attainments and wide observation, in a lecture on the results of the English exhibition, took for his especial theme, " Chemical Manufac- tures, as indicating the necessity of Industrial Education." Among other things he remarks, " The result of the exhibition, was one that England may well be startled at. Wherever, and (that implies in almost every manufacture,) Science, or Art, was involved as an element of progress, we saw as an inevitable law, that the nation which most cultivated them was in the ascendant. Our manufacturers were justly astonished at seeing most of the foreign countries rapidly approach- ing, and sometimes excelling us in manufactures, our own by heredi- tary and traditional right." In surgical instruments, and some kind of edge tools ; in swords and guns ; in plate and flint glass ; in woolens ; in calico printing and paper staining ; in china and porce- lain ; and even in hardware, the lecturer acknowledged that England if not surpassed, was closely rivaled by nations once obviously in the rear. As a remedy for all this he forcibly urges " Instruction in Science," upon the attention of the people of Great Britain. A few months afterward, Dr. Playfair visited the Scientific Schools of the continent, and in making known their admirable features to the people of England, he showed conclusively that the " experience " in manufacturing, which his own countrymen self-confidently relied on, was immediately made use of by foreign states, and diffused, moreover, by what was wholly neglected in England, industrial edu- cation. Consequently, the continent, he says, has a growing element in production, we a decreasing. The practical character of the English was never better illustrated than by the manner in which this humiliating lesson of their indus- trial inferiority was received throughout the kingdom. There was no denial of the truth, no avoidance of the remedy. The Board of Trade was immediately authorized to organize a Department of Science and Art, to which a Parliamentary appropriation of 80,000 was made, for the expenses of last year and by means of which elevated instruction in theoretical and practical science will soon be liberally provided. Having thus alluded to the general establishment in Europe of Schools of special training and their acknowledged advantages, it is important, before enquiring what lessons our own country should de- rive from them, to distinguish between the different kinds of educa- tional establishments to which the term " Industrial," is applied. SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. 319 The terminology as well as the system of education varies in different countries, but in a general way it may be said that industrial schools are of three kinds, intended for the wants of different social ranks. The lowest of these are schools for children so poor or degraded that they are not able or ought not to give up work for study, but who may be taught to read, write, and cipher, while acquiring the rudi- ments of some simple trade. A second class of these industrial schools, is intended for pupils who have received a good elementary education, and who are willing, either at its close, or during its pro- gress, to spend some time in special training for their future occupa- tions. Such scholars, without entering upon the highest branches of science, become familiar with the applied laws of chemistry, mechan- ics, and the like; and can immediately command in the mine, the work-shop, or the field, far higher positions than those who have merely received a so-called practical education. The highest class of special schools have, sometimes, when based upon independent foundations, received the name of " industrial uni- versities," and at other times have been recognized in the highest in- stitutions, as legitimate parts of the philosophical faculty, coordinate with schools of law, medicine, and theology. These alone deserve the name of " scientific schools." In many countries, the degrees or certificates which they grant, are far more essential to success in va- rious practical callings, than good diplomas or fair examinations are in this country, for admittance to the bar, the pulpit, or the faculty of medicine. The thorough and yet comprehensive character of the instruction that is given in these scientific schools, is worthy of remark, in con- trast with what has thus far been provided in our own country. The utmost which has been done in our institutions, has been to establish a professorship of agriculture, or a professorship of engineering ; but in the best continental institutions such sciences would be considered as demanding the attention of several well trained men ; and in some coun- tries would each be taught in a separate school with several professors, and all the necessary accompaniments of buildings and apparatus. For any one man to be willing to "profess" a knowledge of two such sciences as " mining " and " metallurgy " would in Germany be con- sidered an indication of emptiness of mind or emptiness of purse. But these remarks will be better understood by a more particular reference to one or two callings in life, and the preparation required for entrance upon them. Let us take for example, the profession of architecture. Whoever wishes to enter upon it in our country, seeks admission to the office of some man of acknowledged reputation, 320 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. where in the most desultory manner, he is allowed to pick up such items of information as he can, relating to his future calling. The most which he can command in any college or university of this country, is instruction in those principles of engineering, which are applicable to architecture. After pursuing such a course, as long as it is agreeable to him, he opens an office of his own, and commences in a half pre- pared manner, to practice his profession. Is it any matter of wonder that ambitious and costly edifices, wholly wanting in good taste, and combining all orders of architecture in no order of arrangement, abound in this country ; that legislative and other public bodies, church and school trustees, as well as private persons, are continually misled by the estimated cost of buildings which they wish to con- struct, and that serious errors are often made in so fundamental a matter as the strength and stress of materials ? All this might be remedied by such an architectural school as there is in Berlin, or even by such architectural instruction as is given in the Polytechnic schools of many other cities. The Royal Prussian Architectural Academy was established by the ministry of commerce, agriculture, and public works, as an expansion of the architectural school which had previously existed. Its num- ber of pupils is not far from 1*75, for whose instruction there are 19 regular professors. Seven " extraordinary " instructors announced their courses for the winter of 1854-5. The subjects which are taught in their relations to architecture, are the following : Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, the nature of Materials, Descrip- tive Geometry, Perspective, Analytical Geometry, Statics, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Hydraulics, Aerodynamics, Machinery, Laws of construc- ting all parts of edifices and machines, the Monuments of Antiquity, and the Comparative History of Architecture, Architectural Machine drawing in its full extent, the Construction of Roads, Rail Roads, and Canals, Country, City, and Ornamental Architecture, the Plans, Calculations, and Estimates for all kinds of building, higher Geodesy and the management of Architectural business. The annual income of this magnificent institution is about 21.000 thalers, which may be considered as representing a capital of not less than 350.000 thalers, or 245.000 dollars. Pupils of advanced educa- tion only are received into the school ; while to render valuable the de- grees which it confers, the Prussian government recognizes as " Build- ers,'' those only who have pursued with credit a two years course of instruction with one of practice, and as " Architects," those only who have followed an additional year of theoretical instruction, and two years practice as builders. Seven years is the average time, after SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. 32 1 leaving a gymnasium, before a young man is acknowledged as an " Architect." The effect of such regulations and instruction upon the architecture of the country, is too obvious to be mentioned. As an illustration of what is doing for another profession, wholly neglected in the educational systems of this country, but yet of the greatest importance to our national prosperity, let the school of Miners, in Saxony, be cited. That celebrated establishment, now in its 90th year, is located at Freiberg, in the immediate vicinity of mines of silver, copper, cobalt, lead, &c, Thirteen instructors deliver lectures upon Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Descriptive and Prac : tical Geometry, Crystallography, Mining Machinery, Metallurgy, the Blow Pipe, Geognosy, Assaying, Mining jurisprudence, Drawing, and the French Language. The reputation of the school is so great that it is attended by pupils from far distant countries ; and on the cata- logue of 1854, for example, will be found the names of scholars from England, Russia, Sweden, Spain, Tuscany, Wallachis, Chili, Mexico, and the United States of America. The Mineralogies! and Geologi- cal Cabinet, including the collection of Werner, the physical and chemical apparatus, and the laboratories are ail of a high order. Let us take another illustration of the special instruction which is given abroad, in a school for a profession not less important in our own country, than engineering, or mining, the profession of Agricul- ture. Every one knows what is done, or what is not done for the farmers of our country. In Europe, almost every state has its chief agricultural school, where scientific instruction is given, and its smaller schools where only the practical duties of a farm are taught. The smaller schools can never live until the higher school is estab- lished. Among agricultural institutions of an elevated order, that at Hohen- heim, near Stuttgardt, was pronounced by Prof. Bache as the most complete. It is divided into two parts, one for practical and the other for scientific instruction ; the number of pupils in the former being limited to 27, and that in the latter being less than one hundred. A farm of nearly 1000 acres is appropriated to the school, and is pro- vided with the necessary buildings for the lectures and the museums, as well as for stables, work-shops, beet sugar manufactories, cider presses, ,, ttk'.|, \ v h. T<- timber is scarce, it is a matter of the highest importance for the rnv.'nun. -nt t<> provide for the protection and cultivation of for- ests. It is not. too early for portion-; of onr n\\ n country u> pny attention to the same subject. 322 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. ing : First, Agriculture, the general principles of farming and horticul- ture, including the culture of the vine, the breeding of cattle, growing of wool, raising of horses, rearing of Bilk-worms, arrangement and direction of farms, estimation of the value of farms., book-keeping ; Second, Forestry, including the Encyclopaedia of Forestry, Botany of Forests, Culture and Superintendence of Forests, Protection of Forests ; Uses of trees for timber, fuel, dyes, &c. ; Laws and Regulations per- taining to forests ; ' Third, accessory branches ; veterinary art ; agri- cultural technology, especially the manufacture of beet sugar, brew- ing, vinegar making, and distilling ; the construction of roads, drains, and hydraulic works. Beside these specialties, more general sciences, like Geology, Botany, Natural History, Chemistry, Physics and Meteorology, Algebra, Trigonometry and Geometry, are all included in the course of studies. Enough has now been said to show the extent to which special training may be carried in single branches of applied science. But, architecture, mining, and agriculture, are riot the only departments thus provided for in Europe. Engineering, especially in reference to Roads and Bridges ; Chemistry in its relations to the Arts ; the Laws of Me- chanics ; the Principles of Design ; Zootechny or the peculiarities and care of Animals ; Commerce, and even the Post Office system are made in different countries the theme of long and systematic study. Frequently, instruction in several specialties, orfdcher, is given in the same institution. The Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, the Trade Institute of Berlin, the Polytechnic Schools of Dresden, Carlsruhe, Munich, and Vienna, are all of that character. They really merit the designation of Industrial Universities. The limits of this article will not allow of an account of more than one such establishment, and the first which has been named may be taken as a fair example both of what is done abroad and of what is needed at home. Many of the peculiarities in its administration are of course adapted to a different state of society from that which exists among us ; but, its general system of organization, providing in one establishment for instruction both in general science and in several specialties, viz. : Mechanics, Architecture and Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, and Chemistry, applied in all its branches, including agri culture, has already met with approbation in this country in the plans of the Yale and Lawrence Scientific Schools. The Central School of Arts and Manufactures was commenced at Paris, in 1829, as a private institution; but, its usefulness was so great that the Chamber of Deputies proposed its adoption by the Government, " as a sequel to the Polytechnic School, and an adjunct to schools for special arts and trades.'' SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 323 The money was granted by the Minister in 1838, and in 1842 it ap- pears that nineteen of the Counseils Generaux in different departments in France voted funds to send up to this college a certain number of young men from their towns ; and the Minister had, it seems, provided for forty, whose previous instruction and good conduct, and the positions of their families, has entitled them to the favor of the State. The STUDENTS of the establishment are of three classes viz., those who are brought up by the State 5 those for whom funds have been voted by the Councils General of departments 5 and those received at the expense of their families. In order TO OBTAIN ADMISSION, Government and departmental candidates are examined at Paris, before a jury named by the Minister of Commerce for this purpose each year. The candidates must have been registered and recommended by the department whence they come 5 and they must prove that they are between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one. They undergo two examinations one oral, the other written 5 and they must solve with ease certain problems in elementary mathematics and geometry. They must write and describe their problems and theories well ; draw by rule and compass ; sketch and color. Without these qualifications it is impossible to be admitted as a Government student, and the juries are instructed to select those who shew most literary attainments, and who u appear to have that deception of intelligence which promises an aptitude for in- dustrial science, rather than mathematical acquirements." A great preference is given to those who have obtained the necessary qualification in a high degree, and whose means are limited, and the administration is not to aid those whose families are in a position to defray the expenses of their education. All students may participate in an " Encouragement Fund" for the first year, but afterwards only those who shew the greatest amount of merit ; and an augmentation may be accorded to those who are remarkable for still higher qualities. PRIVATE STU- DENTS are admitted at any age above sixteen. They, too, submit to both oral and written examinations. They must execute certain problems, and write clearly and correctly the theories as set forth in the programme. Foreigners as well as French students are admitted, provided they can write and read the language. In Paris, these examinations are made by a board named yearly by the Council of Studies, in the departments by public professors of mathematics, and in foreign countries by the university professors 5 and all applicants must produce proper tes- timonials as to their morality. The AUTHORITY OF THE SCHOOL is vested in a director and a Council of Studies, consisting of nine professors. The director lives in the college, and is charged with its administration and correspondence, but he can not appoint professors ; these are selected for their practical as well as theoretical experience. The Coun- cil admit or reject candidates after reading the statement of their examinations, and they report on the progress of each student as to his aptitude and capabili- ties, and whether he is eligible to be transferred to a superior division, or whether his friends shall be requested to remove him. The students bind themselves by a solemn declaration to take no part in any conspiracy to oppose the execution of the decisions of their superiors, and they promise to enter into no coalition for im- posing on the junor or senior branches of the college. No students are lodged within the college, and they are not permitted to wear any description of uniform. The COURSE OF INSTRUCTION is limited to three years, during which period it is obligatory. It includes lectures, daily examinations, drawing and graphic exer- cises, chemical manipulations, working in stone and wood, physics and mechanics, the construction of buildings and other works, and general annual examinations. The students are, in addition, expected to make notes and reports, and to visit the workshops and manufactories. They are boarded and lodged at respectable houses in the immediate vicinity, at their own expense. Each year there are general examinations in every branch of science and art. In the middle of the second year the studies are subdivided one course is general, the other has spe- cial relation to the ultimate destination of the scholar. The specialities are four in number : 1 . Mechanicians. 2. Constructors, as architects, engineers. 3. Mining and metallurgy. 4. Chemistry, applied in all 324 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. its branches, including agriculture. After that period, the whole energies of the student are devoted to those branches of science on which the profession he is about to adopt depends. With respect to DIPLOMAS and CERTIFICATES, the students of the third year are admitted to competition for diplomas, a programme of examination being made out for each speciality. The competitors are allowed thirty-five days within the college to make out their designs and compose their memoir, and then they are examined by five professors in public and before the students of two years. After the examination, the professors in council grant diplomas to those who have ex- celled and who have passed with the greatest honors, and " certificates of ca- pacity" to those who have given less general proof of the highest talent. At each examination those who do not advance sufficiently, or are idle, are recommended to retire. All the examinations are kept for reference in the archives of the college. The FEES FOR EACH STUDENT, including several extras, are altogether 870 francs ($174) per annum. That the institution is flourishing, is proved by its being mainly self-supporting ; and that the country benefits by it, the long array of emi nent graduates who might be named together with a statement of their present employments, would most satisfactorily illustrate. The following is the programme of instruction somewhat more in detail : FIRST YEAR. Descriptive Geometry. Theory and application to perspective, drawing, and shading ; one-cuttingdetails ; carpentry details. Analytical Geometry and Mechanics generally. Theory of motion and equilibrium of stone-cuttingdetails ; carpentry details. Analytical Geometry and Mechanics gt forces ; velocity, acceleration, force, mass; general principles of motion, gravity, power, ef- fect ; statics of solid bodies. Construction of Machines. Transformation and Modification of Motion. Physics generally. Laws of gravity, balances, pendulum, and its application ; hydrosta- tics, hydrodynamics, heat, magnetism, electricity, electrodynamics and electro-magnetism, molecular action, acoustics, light, optics. For the first year the students are made to manipulate, in determining the density of solids, liquids, and gasses, the construction and use of barometers, thermometers, and hygrometers ; determination of refractive powers, photometers; power of rotation in liquids, saccha- rometers. Chemistry generally. Minerals, and the study of all objects not metallic ; the atmosphere, gasses. Metallic ; general methods for extraction of metallic oxides ; general properties of sulphurets, chlorides, &c. ; general properties of the salts ; metals useful either alone or in their combination for the arts. Organic chemistry. Methods of analysis ; principal organic products : their uses in the arts ; acids, and their applications. One day in the week in the laboratory, to practice the experiments they have seen in the lecture-room. Medicine and Natural History applied to Industry. Hygeian Science and Physiology, as far as Public Health is concerned : First Part. Food, clothing ; influence of heat and cold ; dampness, and a dry atmosphere ; sun and winds; the health in different professions; sanitary regulations and legislation. Second Part. Natural History. The animal creation in all that relates to industry, the arts and agriculture ; power, produce, and nutriment. The vegetable creation ; substances employed in the arts ; wood, textiles, cereals, wines, tanning, dyes. Drawing and Design in its various Branches. During the vacation, plans and elevations of buildings and works are executed, which must be presented at the commencement of the term. SECOND YEAR. The same as the first year, besides modeling in plaster for stone-cutting, &c. Industrial Physics. Properties and construction of furnaces of all kinds for different de- scriptions of fuel, transmission of heat, sublimation, distillation, evaporisation, heating air and liquids, refrigeration, lightning, ventilation, and sanitary arrangements of towns ; construc- tions of all kinds in model bricks and plaster of Paris. During the recess the students visit works and manufactories, and are obliged to present detailed reports on them. The students of the third year complete five different projects, with drawings, calculation and estimates on which there are conferences, one on each' speciality every month. Second and Third Year. Applied mechanics in great detail, applied hydrodynamics, con- struction and setting up of machines, analytical chemistry in different branches for different professions, industrial chemistry both mineral and organic, agricultural chemistry. Public Works. Roads, bridges in stone, wood, iron, and suspension ; natural inland navi- gation, artificial inland navigation. Architecture. Geology and Mineralogy. Mining, Working, and Ventilation. Metallurgy and fabrication in iron, steel, zinc, and copper ; furnaces and founderies for all metals. Tethnology. Manufacture of cordage ; stone and wood sawing ; textile manufactures in 30 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 325 cotton., wool, flax, silk; cotton spinning ; expression of oils; grinding, felting, ceramic works, Special Courses for the Third Year. Steam-engines of all descriptions; railways and dif- ferent systems for locomotion ; the students visiting the most important works with their professors. The students are examined daily upon the subjects of their lectures, by the pro- lessors and repeaters (Repetiteurs.) The utility of this latter class of teachers is well established in France, and they are found in every institution in which lec- turing is practiced to a great extent as a means of instruction ; they prevent the burthen of teaching from falling upon professors, whose duty it is to be engaged in advancing, as well as in propagating science, and who would be prevented from following one or other of these honorable and useful careers, by having the duty of teaching superadded to that of lecturing. So well is the necessity of relieving the professor understood, that in all courses requiring preparation, special persons are appointed, called preparers, who take off this burthen also from the professor. The result is, that many men of high eminence are thus enabled to diffuse their knowledge among students by lecturing, and are willing to do so, though they have other and more profitable employments, to which they would exclusively confine themselves, if this were connected with teaching by interrogation and the task of preparing experimental illustrations. The pupil is thus greatly the gainer, and has at the same time the special examination upon the lecturers which is so necessary to complete the instruction, and to which a repeater is entirely compe- tent. Young men of talent seek the situations of repeaters as the best method of showing their particular qualifications, and the most certain road to a professor- ship. For each recitation the. pupil receives a mark, and the roll of the class with these marks being preserved, its indications are combined with the results of the examination, to decide upon the fitness of a pupil when he conies forward for a diploma. The graphic exercises consist in the drawing of ornamental work, in India ink drawing, in drawing with the steel pen and instruments, and in sketching the diagrams of the lectures to a scale. Great importance is attached to this part of the course, and much time spent in it. The rooms for these exercises are con- veniently arranged, and the pupils are superintended during them by a professor or a repeater, and visited occasionally by the director of studies or his deputies. The drawing-tables are so arranged that the pupils stand while at work, which at their age is very desirable. The arrangements for chemical manipulation by the students are very complete ; they have access not only to the laboratories of the two professors, but to others which are devoted to special branches. During the first year every student is employed in laboratory duty once a week, and has also the opportunity of per- forming some of the principal physical experiments. They are superintended, while thus occupied, by repeaters. During the first half year of the second course the students are called, in turn, to general duty in the laboratory ; and during the second half of the same year, and the whole of the third, the two sections who follow the courses of chemistry applied to the arts and metallurgy, are employed in manipulations connected with them. There is an officer for their superintend- ence, called the director (chef) of the chemical exercises, who is subordinate to the professor of chemical analysis. The opportunities thus afforded of acquiring a general practice under the guidance of the distinguished professors of this school are invaluable, and form one of the most important features of the establishment. The materials for constructing models of some of the more useful works, and apparatus relating to the arts, are furnished to the pupils, and used under the di- rection of their instructors. The annual number of students entering varies from 130 to 160. They work eight hours and a half in the college, and four at their residences. Four inspec- tors are constantly occupied in surveying, independently of those superintending the graphic department. * The above account of the SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, at Paris, is copied from Barnard's National Education in Europe, to which the reader is referred for a full descrip- tion of the Polytechnic School of France at Paris, the Central Institute of Arts at Berlin, and the Polytechnic Institute at Vienna. 326 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. Having thus considered the universal prevalence in Europe of sci- entific schools, their acknowledged value, and their comprehensive scope, let us briefly inquire into the wants of our own country, now almost wholly deficient in the higher and lower schools of special training, with the exception of law, medical, theological, and normal seminaries. If England, from which we annually import so large an amount of manufactured articles, became alarmed about its industrial prosperity, what may we not fear ? We are a new country, it is true, doing in years the work of centuries ; but, for this very reason, every day of labor should be spent in the most effective manner. No time should be lost in trying experiments whose value has already been decided upon elsewhere. The science as well as the experience of every other nation should be brought to use in our own. Communication with the old world is so frequent, that it is not only our loss but our fault, if we fail to make the most of European discoveries. But, how do we compare, in most of our manufactures, with France, England, Bel- gium, and Germany ? Let the commercial statistics of our country reply. The slightest examination of such tables will show that for many articles not merely of luxury, but of almost universal consump- tion we are wholly dependent upon European countries. The recent Exhibitions of Industry and Art, made in London, New York, and Paris, have confirmed this fact. Upon these occasions, op- portunities of a favorable character have been afforded for the compari- son of the industrial attainments of different lands ; and, although, in London and Paris, our own countrymen did not avail themselves to the full extent of the advantages of such an exhibition, yet, any one who was acquainted with the character of American manufactures, needed only a glance at the displays which were made by European nations, to be convinced that, notwithstanding the number of ingenious inventions which have originated in this country, the productions of our shops and factories are, except a few cheap staple goods, inferior to what are made at a corresponding cost abroad. There are many branches of useful manufacture in which, as yet, we have scarcely made a commencement. Now, to what is the undeveloped state of our mines, the imperfect character of our agriculture, the inferior quality of our manufactures, and the disappearance of our forests, to be attributed? .Surely, not to the lack of general intelligence among the people, to the want of popular instruction, unjust laws, nor to any deficiency in natural re- sources. Without boasting, we may claim to be a nation of enter- prising and industrious freemen, in a land preeminently favored in its SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. 327 productive capacity. But, have we the educational means which we require ? Granting that our common schools, our colleges, and our " professional " institutions are, for the most part, excellent, are there not great wants still unsupplied ? Even with the good beginnings which have been made in several places, what have we in our whole land to compare with the Scientific Schools of European countries? Why is it that scores of young men are annually visiting Europe to pursue those special courses of instruction which are there so liberally provided? Why is it that the munificent endowment of Mr. LAWRENCE, at Cambridge, has immediately attracted so many pupils ? Why is it that the Schools of Engineering and Applied Chemistry, commenced at New Haven, without any funds for the endowment of professorships, the erection of buildings, the collection of museums, and the purchase of apparatus, have already been so well attended ? Because the young men of this country, as the professions of law, medicine, and theology become crowded, are eager for the proper training to excel in other sciences, and also because the producers of every kind, are rapidly learning that for a long and successful competition with the manufac- turers of Europe, the same union must be established in this country which exists abroad, between Applied and Theoretical Science. It is a characteristic of our citizens to do upon a liberal scale what- ever is attempted. Our colleges, our popular schools, our public libra- ries, our observatories have often received munificent endowments. In the present condition of our country, it is not less important that a Scientific School of the highest order should receive a corresponding degree of sympathy and support. Anything less than a liberal provis- ion for its wants, would but half accomplish the task that is to be performed. Large investments, on the other hand, will re-act most efficiently on the welfare of the land. With the greatest wisdom, the Fathers of New England, in the earliest days of their colonial existence, commenced not merely the school for elementary instruction, but the grammar school, and the college, in which more elevated departments of knowledge might thoroughly be taught. In those branches of science which have been discovered since their day, we need to follow their example. The rudiments of science are already taught in various institutions and experimental knowledge is attained in the shop and the field. But, more than this is needed. We need higher courses of instruc- tion, which, alone, will secure our continued advancement, or even our permanent prosperity. It has been sagely said that nothing is more prolific in utilities 328 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS. than abstractions. Of this truth, the whole history of science is an illustration, its generalizations being scarcely conceived in the mind of the philosopher, before the practical world has made therefrom the most serviceable deductions. A school which, rising above those common places which are universally known, should sup- ply an education of the most elevated order, and should stimulate original inquiries and investigations, would confer unspeakable bene- fits upon every portion of our country, and would not be without its influence upon the progress of humanity. NOTE. For the further illustration of this subject we merely add in this connection, a list of the Fach-Schulen, or schools of Special Professional Training, which are established in Germany. Schools of Law, Medicine, Theology, and Teachers' Seminaries, are not included in the list. SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE. Berlin, Breslau, Chemnitz, Crefeld, Dantzic, Dresden, Eise- nach, Erfurt, Halberstadt, Hechingen, Holzminden, Kaltennordheim, Carlsruhe, Kb'nigsberg, Leipsic, Magdeburg, Munich, Nienburg, Plauen, Tubingen, Weimar, and Zittau. Total, 22. SCHOOLS OF MINING. Berlin, Claustbal, Freiberg, Halberstadt, Leoben, Przibram, Steben, Total, 7. SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. Aschaffenburg, Ausser, Berlin, Brunswick, Clausthal, Dreissig- acker, Diiben, Eisenach, Freiburg, Giessen, Hohenheim, Carlsruhe, Kiel, Konigsberg, Maria- brunn, near Vienna, Melsungen, Neustadt-Eberswalde, Tharandt. Total, 18. SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE. Berlin, Bremen, Chemnitz, Darmstadt, Dessau, Dresden, Fiirth, Hamburg, Insterburg, Carlsruhe, Leipsic, Liibec, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Nuremberg, Rostock, Rothenburg, Triest, Vienna. Total, 19. MILITARY SCHOOLS. Beusberg, Berlin, (three), Brunswick, Culm, Darmstadt. Dresden, (two), Hainburg, Hanover, (two), Carlsruhe, Cassel, Cracow, Ludwigsberg, Marburg, in Austria, Munich, New Cilli, Oldenburg, Olmiitz, Potsdam, Stralsund, Wahlstadt, near Lieg- nitz, Vienna, Neustadt, near Vienna, (four), Wiesbaden. Total, 30. SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. Amberg, Ansbach, Aschaffenberg, Augsburg, Bamberg, Bay- reuth, Beberbeck, Carlshof, near Rostock, Darmstadt., Dreissigacker, Dresden, Eldena, near Greifswald, Erlangen, Freysing, Hof, Hohenheim, Jena, Kaiserslautern, Cannstatt, Carls- ruhe, Kaubeuern. Kempten, Landau, Landshut, Mockern, near Leipsic, Moglin, near Wrie- zen, Munich, Neudeckerhof, Nordlingen, Nuremberg, Passau, Poppelsdorf, near Bonn, Proscow, in Silesia, Regensburg, Regenwalde, Schleisheim, Schweinfurt, Speier, Straubin- gen, Tharandt, Waldau, near Konigsberg, Weiheustephan, Wiesbaden, Wunsiedel, Wiirz- burg, Zweibriicken. Total, 46. SCHOOLS OF Music. Hamburg, Cologne, Leipsic, Luxemburg, Munich, Prague, Vienna. Total, 7. SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION. Bremen, Cattaro, Dantzic, Emden, Fiume, Grabow, near Stettin, Hamburg, Hanover, Konigsberg, Liibec, Lussinpiccolo, Memel, Papenburg, Pillau, Ragusa, Rostock, Spalato, Stettin, Timmel, Triest, Wustrow, Zara. Total, 22. VETERINARY SCHOOLS. Berlin, Dresden, Giessen, Gottingen, Hanover, Carlsruhe, Mar- burg, Munich, Miinster, Schwerin, Stuttgardt, Vienna. Total, 12. SURGICAL SCHOOLS. (Distinct from medical faculties in the Universities). Berlin, (two), Brunswick, Breslau, Dresden, Frankfort, Hamburg, Hanover, Laibach, Linz, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Vienna. Total, 13. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. Augsburg, Berlin, (two), Bochum, Brunswick, Breslau, Briinn, Chemnitz, Danzic, Dresden, (three), Echternach, Elberfeld, Erfurt, (two), Gratz, Hanover Jena, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Konigsberg, Magdeburg, Munich, Nuremberg, Prague, Rostock^ Stuttgardt, Vienna, Wiesbaden. Total t 30. SUMMARY. Architecture 22 Music, 7 Mining, . . ' 7 Navigation, 22 Forestry, 18 Veterinary, 12 Commerce, 19 Surgery, 13 Military, ..-.... 30 Polytechnic, 30 Agriculture 46 Total, 226 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE RECALL UCD LIBRARY DUE SEP 29 1983 LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS Book Slip-50m-8,'63(D9954s4)458 .PAMPHLET BINDER ^T Syracuse, N. Y. . E Stockton. Calif. '* jiaoss Call Number: T105 Gi|2 Oilman, D.C. ^ Scientific schools in = -4 _^_ ^li cn| oi 1 01= vi= 318055 : : \