n LIBRARY OF THE University of California. BIOLOGV c j R c UL A TING B K A AT // . Eeturn in i#5 weW ; or a week before the end of the term. NATURAL HISTORY. A MANUAL OF ZOOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND THE GENERAL READER. BY SANBORN TENNEY, A.M., AUTHOR OF "GEOLOGY, ETC.," AND PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IK VASSAR FEMALE COLLEGE. Illustrated with over Five Hundred Engravings. ' O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches." Ps. civ. 24. NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER & CO., 124 GRAND ST. 1866. Tf L^ Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865, by SANBORN TENNEY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, BIGELOW, & Co., CAMBRIDGE. TO THOSE WHO BELIEVE THAT THE LEADING FACTS AND PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL HISTORY SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN ALL THE SCHOOLS OF THIS COUNTRY, THIS VOLUME * V ?. ' IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. THIS work is intended to give a general idea of the Animal Kingdom, especially as it is represented in North America, and thereby to make the learner ac- quainted with the leading facts and principles of the department of Natural History properly called Zoology. In its preparation, I have freely used all the materials at my command, but have taken special pains to con- sult and select from original papers. The general plan of the work is essentially that of Cuvier, with such modi- fications as have received the sanction of eminent natu- ralists. For the special way in which the plan is carried out, the writer alone is responsible. In treating of the Mammals, I have followed mainly the writings of Cuvier and Baird ; of the Birds, those of Baird, Audubon, and Wilson ; of the Reptiles and Batrachians, those of Hoi- brook, Agassiz, Baird & Girard ; of Fishes, those of Cuvier, Storer, and DeKay ; of Insects, those of Harris and the authors named in connection with each order ; of Crustaceans, those of Dana ; of Worms, those of Cu- vier, Agassiz, and Weinland ; of Mollusks, those of Wood- ward, Gould, and Lea ; of Echinoderms, those of Desor, Agassiz, and Forbes ; of Acalephs, those of Agassiz ; of VI PREFACE. Polyps, those of Dana, Verrill, and Milne-Edwards. Great prominence is purposely given to the Mammals and Birds of this country, that all may have at least an accessible catalogue of these two groups, in which every one is interested ; the other groups, however, are not neglected. The wood-cut illustrations have been designed mainly from original papers, and from nature, and, with few exceptions, have not before appeared in hand-books of natural history. The cuts of the Mammals are mainly from Schinz, Audubon & Bachman, and Richardson ; of the Birds, mainly from Audubon and Wilson ; of the Reptiles and Batrachians, from Holbrook ; of the Fishes, from Storer, Holbrook, DeKay, and from nature ; of the Insects, mainly from Harris, Say, Sanborn, and from nature ; of the Crustaceans, mainly from nature and Re- ports ; of the Mollusks, from Binney, Woodward, Gould, Lea, Conrad, and from nature; of the Echinoderms, from nature, Agassiz, and M tiller ; of the Acalephs, from Agassiz ; of the Polyps, from Dana, Milne-Edwards, and Verrill ; of the Protozoa, mainly from Ehrenberg and Huxley. The drawings were made with great skill and faith- fulness by Mr. Edward S. Morse, well, known as a natural- ist, Mr. N. Brown, Mr. E. Burrill, and Mrs. J. W. Dickin- son. The engraving was done by Messrs. Henry Marsh, N. Brown, and J. F. Richardson. It is sufficient praise for Mr. Morse to say, that the Grizzly Bear, Prong- horn, nearly all of the Mollusks, the Echinoderms, and many others, were drawn by him ; for Messrs. Burrill PREFACE. Vii and Marsh, that the Birds were drawn by the former and engraved by the latter ; for Mr. Brown, that the Wapiti, Beaver, Otter, Weasel, Wolverine, Lobster, Aca- lephs, and many Insects, were both drawn and engraved by him, and that he also engraved most of the Fishes ; for Mrs. Dickinson, that the Reptiles and Fishes were mainly drawn by her ; and for Mr. Richardson, that he engraved many of the Mammals and Insects, and all of the Mollusks and Polyps. I desire to express my sincere thanks to my personal friends and others who have encouraged and aided me in this undertaking. To Professor Jeffries Wyman I am under obligations for information on several im- portant points, and for the privilege of figuring a beau- tiful specimen of Astrophyton ; to Professor A. E. Ver- rill, of Yale College, for aid in selecting the cuts of the Mammals, for important suggestions, and for read- ing and criticising the proofs relating to Polyps; to F. W. Putnam, Esq., Superintendent of the Essex In- stitute, for reading the proofs relating to the Reptiles and Fishes, and adding most useful notes on nomen- clature and other not less important points ; to A. S. Packard, Jr., M. D., for aid in the classification of In- sects, and for other favors ; to Samuel H. Scudder, A. M., Custodian Boston Society of Natural History, for aid in selecting the cuts of the Insects, and for reading and correcting the proofs treating of that group ; to Edward S. Morse, Esq., for reading the proofs relating to Mollusks, and for other favors ; and to Professor H. James Clark, for reading the proofs relating to Acalephs. I would Vlll PREFACE. also thank my beloved wife, and Hon. Joseph White, Professor A. Crosby, Mr. J. Gove, L. R. S. Gove, A. B., T. D. Adams, A. M., and Mr. F. G. Sanborn, for special favors in connection with the work. I am under obli- gations -to Captain Alpheus Hyatt, and the Library of Harvard College, the Library of the Boston Society of Natural History, the State Library, the City Library of Boston, and to Messrs. Piper & Co. of Boston, for the use of rare books. Nor would I omit to express my thanks to the gentlemen of the University Press, whose skill in proof-reading, electrotyping, and printing has done so much to make the book accurate and attrac tive. And I would here thank my Publishers for their generosity in willingly making the large outlay neces- sary to issue the work in its present form. I take this opportunity to say that I shall soon ask my Publishers to issue another volume on Zoology. It will contain the same illustrations as the present one, and will be especially adapted to the wants of Gram- mar Schools, and to the younger classes of readers. Hoping that the present work may meet, in some degree, a want which has long been felt, and aid the youth and others of our whole country in the delightful study of Natural History, and thereby advance the cause of Learning, I submit it to the kind consideration of the friends of Popular Education. S. T. CAMBRIDGE, MASS., August i, 1865. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Page STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT i . CHAPTER II. THE BRANCH OF VERTEBRATA, OR VERTEBRATES . . 6 SECT. I. THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA, OR MAMMALS . . 8 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Bimana, or Man ... 9 II. The Order of Quadrumana, or Monkeys . .15 III. The Order of Cheiroptera, or Bats . . 23 IV. The Order of Insectivora, or Insect-eaters . 26 V. The Order of Carnivora, or Flesh-eaters . 33 VI. The Order of Marsupialia, or Marsupials . 54 VIL The Order of Rodentia, or Gnawers . . 57 VIII. The Order of Edentata, or Edentates . . 82 IX. The Order of Pachydermata, or Pachyderms 86 X. The Order of Ruminantia, or Ruminants . 93 XL The Order of Cetacea, or Cetaceans . . 109 SECT. II. THE CLASS OF BIRDS , .,; 3 * is-' '1 "5 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Raptores, or Birds of Prey . 120 II. The Order of Scansores, or Climbers . 143 III. The Order of Insessores, or Perchers . -154 IV. The Order of Rasores, or Scratchers . . 230 V. The Order of Cursores, or Runners . . 242 VI. The Order of Grallatores, or Waders . 243 VII. The Order of Natatores, or Swimmers . . 264 SECT. III. THE CLASS OF REPTILES .... 285 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Testudinata, or Turtles . . 286 II. The Order of Sauria, Saurians, or Lizards . 293 III. The The Order of Ophidia, or Serpents . 300 SECT. LV. THE CLASS OF BATRACHIA, OR BATRACHIANS 308 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Anoura, or Tailless Batrachians 309 CONTENTS. Page Sub-Sect II. The Order of Urodela, or Tailed Batrachians 313 III. The Order of Apoda, or Csecilians . . 317 SECT. V. THE CLASS OF FISHES . . . . . 318 Sub-Sect I The Order of Acanthopterygians . . .326 II. The Order of Abdominal Malacopterygians 341 III. The Order of Sub-brachian Malacopterygians 348 IV. The Order of Apodal Malacopterygians . 351 V. The Order of Lophobranchiates . . 352 VI. The Order of Plectognathes . . . -353 VII. The Order of Sturiones . . . . 355 VIII. The Order of Plagiostomi, or Selachians . 356 IX. The Order of Cyclostomes, or Suckers . 359 CHAPTER III. THE BRANCH OF ARTICULATA, OR ARTICULATES . . 361 SECT. I. THE CLASS OF INSECTS 361 Sub-Sect. I. Hymenoptera, or Bees, etc 369 II. Lepidoptera, or Butterflies and Moths . 381 III. Diptera, or Flies, etc 412 IV. Coleoptera, or Beetles .... 420 V. Hemiptera, or Bugs, -etc 435 VI. Orthoptera, or Grasshoppers, etc. . . 443 VII. Neuroptera, or Dragon-Flies, etc. . . 449 VIII. The Order of Arachnida, or Spiders . . 455 IX. The Order of Myriapoda, or Centipedes . 458 SECT. II. THE CLASS OF CRUSTACEA, OR CRUSTACEANS 460 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Decapods . . . .461 II. The Order of Tetradecapods ... 464 III. The Order of Entomostracans . . . 465 SECT. III. THE CLASS OF WORMS 466 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Annelides . . . .467 II. The Order of Nematoids .... 468 III. The Order of Trematods . . . .468 CHAPTER IV. THE BRANCH OF MOLLUSCA, OR MOLLUSKS . . -47 SECT. I. THE CLASS OF CEPHALOPODA, OR CEPHALOPODS 471 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Dibranchiata .... 472 II. The Order of Tetrabranchiata . . . 475 CONTENTS. XI Page SECT. II. THE CLASS OF GASTEROPODA, OR GASTEROPODS 476 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Gasteropoda proper . l . /*. 477 II. The Order of Heteropoda .... 488 IIL The Order of Pteropoda -' .v ; ' V" ! . 489 SECT. IIL THE CLASS OF ACEPHALA, OR ACEPHALS . 489 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Lamellibranchiata . . .489 IL The Order of Tunicata, or Ascidians . . 495 III. The Order of Brachiopoda, or Brachiopods . 496 IV. The Order of Bryozoa, or Bryozoans . . 497 CHAPTER V. THE BRANCH OF RADIATA, OR RADIATES . . . .498 SECT. I. THE CLASS OF ECHINODERMATA . . . 498 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Holothurioids, or Holothurians 499 II. The Order of Echinoids, or Sea-Urchins . 500 III. The Order of Asterioids, or Star-Fishes . 503 IV. The Order of Ophiurioids, or Ophiurans . 504 V. The Order of Crinoids . . .; . 505 SECT. II. THE CLASS OF ACALEPHS, OR JELLY-FISHES . 506 Sub -Sect I. The Order of Ctenophorae, or Beroid Medusae 508 II. The Order of Discophorae, or Medusas proper 509 III. The Order of Hydroidae, or Hydroids . . 512 SECT. III. THE CLASS OF POLYPI, OR POLYPS . . . 517 Sub-Sect I. The Order of Alcyonaria . !: ~V - . . 519 IL The Order of Actinaria . / . . . 522 III. The Order of Madreporaria . . '" . . 524 CHAPTER VI. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS . . 529 CHAPTER VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS 533 INDEX 536 ENGRAVINGS, TITLES, ETC. WITH comparatively few exceptions, the animals figured in this work are American. The Ruminants are drawn approximately one thirty-second of their nat- ural dimensions ; the Rodents, from about one twelfth, as in the Beaver, Porcupine, Pouched Gopher, &c., to one fourth, as in the Squirrels ; the Cheiroptera and Insectivora, generally from about one fifth to one fourth; the Cetaceans, from one hundredth to one fiftieth ; and the other Mammals, with few exceptions, about one sixteenth. The Birds of Prey, Waders, and Swimming Birds are drawn about one eighth of their natural dimensions ; all the other Birds about one fourth. The Reptiles, varying so much in size, are represented on different scales ; but as the dimensions of each are given in the text near the cut, no misap- prehension of size need occur. The same is true of Fishes ; but in both these classes, however, the smallest species are represented as small as con- venient and the larger species as large as convenient, and the intermediate ones graded as well as possible between the two. The Invertebi-ates Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates are drawn natural size ; except where the size is indicated by a line beside the cut, or the scale of the reduction is marked by the words "one half," "one third," &c., under the cut ; or where, as in the case of the Lobster and a few others, the size is so evident from the context that no mistake can arise from the omission of the words or figures indicating the reduction. The Protozoa, however, excepting the Sponges, are highly magnified. For the running title on each left-hand page the English names of the Branch and Class under consideration are given ; on each right-hand page, generally the scientific names of the Order and Family. These, with the Index containing the names of the principal groups, and the more impor- tant genera and species, will enable the reader to find every subject with facility. The authority for the name generally follows each Species ; in some cases the authority for the generic name is also given ; and in Insects proper, that for each Family. The abbreviations of the authorities are generally the same as in works which the student may have occasion to consult. GOOD BOOKS FOR REFERENCE : Cuvier's Animal Kingdom ; Baird's Mammals of North America, 8th vol. Pacific R. R. Report; Audubon and Bachman's Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America ; Jardine's Naturalist's Library ; Baird's Birds of North America, gth vol. Pacific R. R. Report ; Audubon's Birds of America, 7 vols., 8vo. ; Cassin's Illustrations of the Birds of California, &c. ; Wilson's American Ornithology ; Herpetology ; all of the Smithsonian Natural History Publi- cations ; Natural History Reports of the different States; Storer's Fishes of Massachu- Holbrook's North American Herpetology ; all of the Smithsonian Natural History cations ; Natural History Reports of the different States; Storer's Fishes of Mas setts ; Harris's Insects Injurious to Vegetation ; Boisduval and Le Conte's North American of the Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. ; Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoology ; Proceed, of the Essex Institute ; Trans. Acfad. of St. Louis ; Dana's Crustacea ; Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca ; Lea's Conchology ; Binney's Terrestrial Mollusks ; Gould's Invertebrata of Massachusetts; Morse's Terrestrial Pulmpnifera of Maine ; Forbes's British Star- Fishes ; Agassiz's Contributions to the Natural History of the United States ; Dana's Zoophytes ; Verrill's Revision of the Polyps of the Coast of the United States ; Dana's Classification of Animals based on the Principle of Cephalization ; Dana's Coral Reefs and Islands : Darwin's Coral Reefs ; Guyot's works on Physical Geology ; and Todd's Cyclopaedia. NATURAL HISTORY. ZOOLOGY. CHAPTER I. STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. NATURAL History is the science which treats of the earth and all natural objects upon its surface and within its crust. Zoology is the department of Natural History which treats of animals. It embraces the study of their forms, structure, development, habits, names, classification, geo- graphical distribution, and the relations which animals lower than himself sustain to Man, the highest represent- ative of the Animal Kingdom. This science has been established and brought to its present high state of perfection through the labors of such masters as Aristotle, Linnaeus, Cuvier, and others scarcely less renowned. Zoology is a science of the highest importance, not only on account of its direct practical relations to the material interests of human society, and its inseparable connection with the great problems of Geology, but espe- cially as an educational branch, securing to its true votaries a spirit of earnest inquiry, habits of accurate observation and careful comparison, vigorous and logical thought, and power of broad generalization ; and deal- ing, as it does, with the highest expressions of matter 2 STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. and of life, its study is eminently adapted to enlarge our ideas of creation and its Great Author. It makes known to us the Plan of Creation, as exhibited in the highest department of nature ; and thus we are led to know more of Him who suffers not even a sparrow to fall with- out his notice. The Animal Kingdom comprises all organized bodies endowed with sensation and voluntary motion, that is, all organized bodies except plants. In addition to sen- sation and voluntary motion, which depend upon special systems of organs peculiar to animals, the nervous sys- tem and the muscular system under its influence, there are also other characteristics which belong exclusively to members of the Animal Kingdom, and which show still further the differences between them and plants. All, or nearly all, animals possess a more or less well- defined digestive cavity, and most of them other well- defined cavities, which have special functions, or which contain organs which have special functions. In plants, the organs for special purposes are not concentrated and placed in well-defined cavities, but are more or less distributed over the body. Animals feed directly upon plants, or upon other animals that feed upon plants. Vegetation, on the contrary, is nourished by the mineral kingdom. It is the chief province of the vegetable king- dom to convert mineral substances earth and gases into food upon which animals can subsist. In animals, the food is received at once into the digestive cavity, whence, after proper elaboration, it traverses and nour- ishes the whole body. In plants, most of the fluids trav- erse the whole extent of the body and branches before reaching the foliage, where the process of elaboration is carried on. In respiration, animals consume oxygen, and give off carbonic acid, a gas poisonous, and, when abun- dant, destructive to animal life ; while plants consume STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 3 carbonic acid, and give off oxygen, so essential to ani- mals. All animals are developed from more or less spherical eggs ; plants from seeds, or something analo- gous to seeds ; and the mode of development, and the extent to which growth goes on, are essentially different in the two cases. It was stated above, that all animals are endowed with sensation. Some, the lowest, have only general sensibil- ity ; while others, and all the higher ones, are also en- dowed with special kinds of sensation, called special senses, of which there are five in number, the sense of sight, of hearing, of smell, of taste, and of touch, and dependent upon special organs. The natural divisions of the Animal Kingdom are Branches or Types, Classes, Orders, Families, Genera, and Species. That is, the animal kingdom is divided into branches, each branch into classes, each class into orders, each order into families, each family into genera, each genus into species, the latter group being composed of individuals essentially alike. These divisions are not the contrivance of man, but exist in nature. According to Agassiz, Branches are characterized by plan of structure, Classes, by the manner in which that plan is executed, as far as ways and means are concerned, Orders, by the complication of that structure, Families, by form, Genera, by details of execution in special parts, Species, by the relation of individuals to one another, and to the world in which they live, as well as by the proportion of their parts, their ornamentation, &c. That is, certain characters determine the Branch, cer- tain others determine the Class, others the Order, others the Family, others the Genus, and others still the Spe- cies. These principles of classification, however, are not 4 STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. as yet generally recognized and fully applied ; but most writers designate at least the subordinate groups by a combination of characteristics more or less different in their nature. The number of species of animals is not known, but may safely be estimated as high as a million, or even more, of which the small and microscopic comprise an immense majority. Cuvier has shown that the animal kingdom comprises four great Branches or Types, Vertebrata, Articulata, Mollusca, and Radiata. All the animals in any one of these branches are constructed upon the same plan. The Branch of Vertebrata comprises all animals which have an internal skeleton with a backbone for an axis. Man and all the higher animals belong to this branch. The Branch of Articulata comprises all animals whose bodies are made up of similar rings or segments, placed transversely to the longitudinal axis ; and whose parts which correspond to a skeleton are external. All In- sects, Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, and Worms belong to this branch. The Branch of Mollusca comprises soft-bodied animals, such as Cuttle-fishes, Squids, Snails, Mussels, Oysters, and Clams. The Branch of Radiata comprises animals whose parts are more or less symmetrically arranged around a verti- cal axis. Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, Crinoids, Jelly-fishes, Coral animals, and Sea-anemones belong to this branch. Baer has shown that for each of these branches there is a special mode of development in the egg. In Ver- tebrates the germ divides into two folds, one turning upward and the other downward. In Articulates, the germ lies with its back portion upon the yolk, and ab- sorbs the latter into that part of the body. In Mol- lusks, the germ lies upon the yolk, and absorbs the latter STATEMENT OF THE SUBJECT. 5 into the under surface of the body. In Radiates, the germ occupies the whole periphery of the sphere. Of the four branches of the Animal Kingdom, the Vertebrates are unquestionably the highest in rank, and the Radiates lowest ; while of the other two it is not easy to say which, on the whole, is the higher, and which the lower branch. And here a word of explanation is due in regard to the rank of animals. In one sense, all animals are alike perfect. Each is perfectly adapted to fulfil its own peculiar office in the great economy of nature. In this sense, every animal is perfect. But in regard to organization there is every grade, from those of the most extreme simplicity, and with the most simple functions, to those of .the highest possible complication, and with the most numerous, va- ried, and complicated functions. Now an animal is higher according to its higher complication of structure, and hence more numerous and varied functions. In the subsequent pages we examine somewhat care- fully these four branches of the Animal Kingdom, taking them in the order named above. One chapter is de- voted to each Branch, one section to each Class, one sub-section to each Order. Paragraphs marked with small capitals introduce each Family. The Genera are given in italics, the popular name of Species in ordi- nary type, and the scientific name immediately follows in italics. CHAPTER II. THE BRANCH OF VERTEBRATA, OR VERTEBRATES. THE Vertebrata embrace all animals which have a bony or cartilaginous axis, called the spinal column, with an elongated cavity above it, containing the great nervous centre, the brain and spinal cord, and an- other below it, containing the organs of respiration, di- gestion, circulation, and reproduction. From the brain and spinal cord branch the nerves, in the form of threads, to every part of the body. In all the Vertebrates the skeleton is internal, and constitutes the frame upon which the muscles are placed, the skin, with its appen- dages, covering the whole. The axis of the skeleton is made up of parts, which are more or less movable upon one another. Each of these parts is called a vertebra, and hence the axis is often called the vertebral axis, or A vertebra vertebral column, as well as spinal column and backbone. All Vertebrates have red blood, which is propelled through the system by a muscular heart. The mouth is furnished with two jaws, usually armed with teeth, which are more or less bony, and often enamelled. Vertebrates exhibit perfect bilateral symmetry, that is, the organs are arranged in pairs on the two sides of the body. The eyes are two, ears two, and the locomotive appendages never exceed four. The animals of this VERTEBRATES. 1. a Arm of Man. Arm of Gorilla. Wing of Bat. Leg of Turtle. Fin of Fish. 8 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS. branch are characterized by higher intelligence than those of any other. Vertebrates comprise five * classes, Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fishes. Many writer's group the ' Batrachians and Reptiles to- gether, and give the latter name to the class, thus mak- ing the classes only four in number. In all these the fundamental idea of a Vertebrate is plainly mani- fested, and the principal parts of the skeleton corre- spond, part to part, head to head, spinal column to spinal column, locomotive members to locomotive members, the members in each case modified according to the function to be performed, whether it be that of standing, or grasping, or walking, or running, or leaping, or spring- ing, or flying, or creeping, or swimming, but the general plan always the same. Figures 2-12, where corre- sponding parts are marked by the same letter, show clearly that the anterior locomotive members of differ- ent Vertebrates are expressions of one and the same fun- damental idea. SECTION I. THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA, OR MAMMALS. THE Class of Mammalia comprises all Vertebrates which bring forth their young alive, and nourish them with milk from their own bodies. They are all furnished with a solid skeleton, which is divided into well-defined regions, as the head, trunk, and extremities ; the upper jaw is fixed to the cranium, the lower formed of only two pieces ; the teeth are enamelled, and the neck, with few exceptions, has only seven vertebrae. The brain is com- * Agassiz, in his "Essay on Classification," recognizes eight classes in the Branch of Vertebrates, Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Selachians, Ganoids, Fishes proper, and Myzontes. MAN. 9 posed of two hemispheres, and a muscular diaphragm separates the cavity of the chest from that of the ab- domen. They all breathe air by mearts of lungs ; the blood is warm, and their circulatory system consists of a heart with four cavities, arteries which carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body, veins which con- duct the blood back to the heart, and capillary vessels which connect the termination of the arteries with the beginning of the veins. The nose of mammals forms part of the face ; the eyes are protected by two lids, which are generally furnished with eyelashes ; the ears are composed of three parts ; and they are all endowed with vocal organs. Mammals are the highest in rank of all the animals of the globe. The number of spe- cies is about two thousand, distributed among the follow- ing orders : Bimana, or Man ; Quadrumana, or Monkeys ; Cheiroptera, or Bats ; Insectivora, or Insect-eaters ; Car- nivora, or Flesh-eaters ; Marsupialia, or Marsupials ; * Rodentia, or Gnawers ; Edentata, or Edentates ; Pachy- derm ata,f or Pachyderms ; Ruminantia, or Ruminants ; and Cetacea, or Cetaceans. SUB -SECTION I. THE ORDER OF BIMANA, OR MAN. THE structure of Man is essentially the same in kind as that of other mammals, differing only or mainly in de- gree ; yet the degrees of difference separate him widely from all other animals, and place him in an order by himself, and far above all other organized beings. He is the only animal to which the erect position is natural ; * Marsupials are now considered as a Sub-Class parallel with other mam- malian quadrupeds. In fact, Cuvier so regarded them, but treated them as an Order. f Many modern systematists unite the Pachyderms and Ruminants in one Order, called Herbivores, or Plant-eaters. IO VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS. sc-cl Fi s- J 3- his whole organization is adapted to that atti- tude. His brain is the largest in the Animal Kingdom, excepting on- ly that of the elephant and of the whale, and in its organization is far superior to that of any other animal. His face is a model of beau- ty, and endowed with a wonderful power of ex- pression. The hand of man is superior in its structure and in its func- tions to the correspond- ing member of any oth- er animal. Man alone truly speaks a language. Even physically consid- ered, he is the highest possible expression of a vertebrate. But Man is Skeleton of Man. the highest represent- cv, cervical vertebrae; sc-cl, scapula and cla- ative of the Animal vicle ; h. humerus ; Iv, lumbar vertebrae ; p, pel- -\r i i vis; u, ulna; r, radius; c, carpus; ,, meta- Kingdom, not Only On carpus; ph, phalanges;/?, femur; t, tibia;/ aCCOUllt of hlS Superior fibula ; ts, tarsus ; nit, metatarsus ; ps, phalanges. r , - . , form and higher phys- ical organization, but, above all, on account of those high mental and spiritual endowments which belong to him alone, and which enable him to understand and appre- ciate the wonderful and sublime harmonies of the ma- terial and moral world, and his own relations to the Author of Nature and of Revelation. II Molars. While each species of the lower animals is limited to a given region or country, and in many cases can- not survive a remov- al, Man's home is the whole earth, he alone is truly cosmop- olite. But while Man is found in all zones and climates, he dif- fers greatly both in his physical and men- tal nature in different regions. In the ex- amination of vegeta- ble life, and life as revealed in animals lower than Man, we find that both reach their highest expres- sion in the hot regions. Not so with Man. It is not in the moist, Pre-molars. Canine. Human Teeth. Fig- 15- Incisors. Nervous System of Man. a, cerebrum, or principal brain, called the hemi- warm air of the trop- spheres: *' c< * ebellum > or smaller brain ' c > cord giving off its branches of nerves. 12 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS. ics, where all his wants are supplied by the spontaneous productions of the soil, nor in the frigid regions, where he wages a constant warfare with nature to secure food and clothing, that Man appears in his highest stage of development ; but it is in the temperate regions that he reaches his highest expression physically, mentally, and morally. Ethnologists recognize three principal varieties, or types, of Man, each having certain characteristics not possessed by the others, the Caucasian, the Mongo- lian, and the Ethiopian. Besides these, there are the Malayan and the American, which are regarded as sub- ordinate types, and derived from the Mongolian. With this explanation, we may regard the human family as composed of five types, or races, the Caucasian, Mon- golian, Ethiopian, Malayan, and American. The Caucasian race occupies Europe, except Lapland and Finnland, Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa, Ice- land, and the United States. The Caucasian type is characterized by a round or oval head, smooth skull, ver- tical and symmetrical features, fair complexion, ample beard, and medium stature. The facial angle varies from 75 to about 90, and the capacity of the skull from 75 to 109 cubic inches. The Caucasians are possessed of a considerable degree of muscular strength, energy, and endurance, and in many cases these exist in a marked degree of superiority. They are more beautiful in per- son, and exhibit higher intelligence and refinement, than any other race. They are represented in Southwestern Asia by the Hindoos, Persians, and Syro-Arabians ; in Europe by the Teutonians, who inhabit Iceland, Scan- dinavia, Germany, the eastern and southeastern portions of Scotland, the eastern part of England, and the north- eastern part of Ireland ; and by the Celts, who inhabit Western and Southern Europe, including most of Scot- land and Ireland, Wales, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, MAN. 13 and adjacent islands ; and by the Slavonians, who in- habit Turkey, part of Prussia, Poland, and Russia. The Mongolian race embraces the inhabitants of Cen- tral, Eastern, and Northern Asia, the Laplanders and Finnlanders of Europe, and the Esquimaux of Greenland and North America. The Mongolian type is character- ized by a broad head, angular face, oblique eyes, tawny skin, rough, straight hair, scanty beard, rather low stature, long body, and short extremities. The facial angle is from 70 to 80, and the capacity of the skull from 69 to 73 cubic inches. The Mongolians have less physical strength and energy, and less mental power, than the Caucasians. They are shrewd, crafty, insincere, obsti- nate, cruel to vanquished foes, and contented with a sta- tionary civilization. The Ethiopian race embraces the inhabitants of Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer, together with their de- scendants in the United States. The Ethiopian type is characterized by an elongated, narrow cranium, crisp, curly hair, projecting jaws, thick lips, and black or dusky skin. The true Negroes of Western and Central Africa, and the Caffres and Hottentots of Southern Africa, are two prominent divisions of the Ethiopian race. The Negroes/ in addition to the characteristics just men- tioned, have the skull thick and heavy, the facial angle from 65 to 70, the mouth wide, face narrow and lower part greatly projecting, the chin retracted, eyes promi- nent, iris black, and the vessels of the eye suffused with a bilious "tinge. Their beard is scanty, and chiefly con- fined to the point of the chin. The body is muscular, strong, and symmetrical. The bones of the forearm are somewhat elongated, the shin-bones slightly bent forward, the calves placed high up, the feet broad and heavy, the soles flat, and the heel bone considerably projecting. They can endure hard and protracted labor under a 14 VERTEBRATES: MAMMALS. v broiling sun, and in marshy districts, where other races would sink under disease. They are patient, honest, and passionately fond of simple melodies. The Caffres have the cranium higher and more round- ed, the jaws less prominent, and the nose less depressed,, than the true Negroes, and the skin varies from dark brown to clear yellowish brown. The Hottentots are low in stature, the head is flatter and the body less ath- letic than in the Caffre, and the color is brownish-yellow, besides various other marked peculiarities. The Malayan race extends from Madagascar on the west to Easter Island in the Pacific, and from the island of Formosa to New Zealand. Within these limits there are two or three well-marked divisions of the inhabitants, the Malays proper, the Papuans, and the Australians. The Malayan type proper is characterized by a rather small head, with a capacity of 64 to 89 cubic inches, the dome of the skull high and rounded, the forehead low, face broad and flat, cheek-bones high, nose short and ex- panded, but not flat, mouth wide, upper jaws projecting, angle of lower jaw very prominent, the auditory open- ing placed high up, and the orbital ridges prominent and overhanging. The Malayans are short and robust, the skin varies from clear brown to dark olive and bright yellow, the hair is black, straight, shining, generally rough, and the beard scanty. The Malay proper is treacherous, ferocious, and implacable. The more civil- ized indulge in narcotics to great excess, and the more savage in cannibalism and piracy. The Papuans constitute the sole inhabitants of New Guinea and the smaller islands immediately adjacent. They so much resemble the Negroes and Caffres that they are popularly known as the Papuan Negroes. The native Australians are characterized by a spare form, a marked lankness of the limbs, large head, projecting QUADRUMANA. 1 5 brows, broad nose, wide mouth, straight, dark hair, and a skin varying from chocolate-brown to black. The Australians and Papuans may truly be considered among the lowest specimens of the human family. The American race includes all the aboriginal inhab- itants of America except the Esquimaux. The native American head resembles that of the Mongolian, but is more rounded than the latter ; the forehead is low and narrow, cheek-bones high, the hair straight and black, the body of good size and well-proportioned, and the complexion copper-colored. The members of this race are active, but not capable of long-continued hard labor. Though some tribes exhibit a good deal of ingenuity, as a race they have never made much progress in the arts of civilized life. SUB-SECTION II. THE ORDER OF QUADRUMANA, OR MONKEYS. THE Order of Quadrumana comprises all animals pop- ularly known as apes, baboons, and monkeys. As the name indicates, they have their four extremities hand- like, the fingers being long and flexible, and the thumb opposable to the fingers. Some of the animals of this order bear a general resemblance to the members of the human family ; but there are the widest differences be- tween the highest of the Quadrumana and Man, even when physically considered. The erect posture is natural to Man ; riot so with any of the Quadrumana. Although some of them may stand,. and even walk, somewhat erect, it is an unnatural and insecure position, the foot then resting on its 'outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis being unfavorable to an equilibrium. Their so-called hands, it is true, resemble human hands ; but although admirably adapted to grasping and climbing, they are i6 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS. Fi s- t6 - vastly inferior to the perfect hand of Man in delicate structure and functions. In many species the face presents some- thing human -like in appearance ; but the elongated muz- zle in most cases reminds us rather of the quadrupeds. The Quadrumana are generally self- ish, crafty, mali- cious, and thievish. Many species are docile, and can be trained to perform remarkable feats ; but none have ever been trained to ren- der useful service for man. They in- habit the warm re- gions of both hemi- spheres, and are most numerous on the wooded table- lands. They may be divided into three families, the Simiadse, or Simiae catarrhinae, comprising all the true monkeys of the Eastern Hemisphere ; the Cebidae, or Simiae platyrrhinas, comprising all the monkeys of Amer- ica ; and the Lemuridae, comprising monkey-like animals, which are known under the name of Makis, and which are found most numerous in Madagascar. , OR OLD-WORLD MONKEYS. The Old- World Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoff. QUADRUMANA. monkeys proper, that is, all except the Lemuridae, are characterized by oblique nostrils, which are near to- gether, a human-like system of teeth, thirty-two in num- ber, by the presence of cheek-pouches in many species, and by the absence in all cases of a prehensile tail. They comprise the highest of the Quadrumana, or those which bear the closest resemblance to Man, and may be divided into two groups, according to the absence or presence of a tail. i. Tailless or Anthropoid Apes. The members of this group have no cheek-pouches, no callosities, and their fore legs or arms are much longer than the hind ones. The Genera are Troglodytes, including the Chimpanzee and Gorilla, and Simla, which includes the Orang- Outang, and Hylobates, including the Gibbons. The Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoffroy, of tropical West- ern Africa, is four to five feet high when erect, cov- ered with dark hair, lives in troops, con- structs huts of leaves and branches, arms it- self with clubs and stones, and thus re- pulses the attacks of man and other ene- mies. When domesti- cated, the Chimpanzee learns to walk, sit, and eat like a human be- ing. The Gorilla?, T. gorilla, Savage, of tropical Western Africa, is five to six feet high, and its heavy frame, large and powerful jaws, wary and ferocious disposition, and gigantic muscular strength, render it one of the most for- midable of all the apes. Skull of Chimpanzee, T. niger, Geoff. i8 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS. Fig. 18. The Orang-Outang, 5. satyrus, Linnaeus, of Borneo and vicinity, is about five feet high when erect, and is covered with coarse, red hair ; the face is bluish, and the hind thumbs are very short compared with the toes. Its home is among the trees, and it has the habit of weav- ing branches together in or- der to form a resting-place. The leading characteristic of Genus Hy- lobates Long- armed Apes, or Gibbons is very long arms, reaching even to the ground, when the ani- mal is stand- ing erect. The Gibbons rarely exceed four feet in height, and inhabit the se- cluded parts of India and the Eastern Archi- pelago. 2. Tailed Monkeys of the Old World. The Genus Semnopithecus Solemn Apes is characterized by a long, slender body, and long, slender, straight tail, and by the absence of cheek-pouches. The solemn apes are remarkable for their mildness of disposition and great Orang-Outang, S. satyrus, Linn. QUADRUMANA. Kahau, 6". nasica, Schr. intelligence. They belong to Asia and the Asiatic Archi- pelago. The Kahau, S. nasica, Schr., is celebrated for its ex- tremely long nose. Fig. 19. The Genus Presbytis is repre- sented by the Tailed Gibbon, which inhabits Sumatra. The Genus Cercopithecus Gue- nons is characterized by a mod- erately prominent muzzle, long tail, and the last of the inferior molars with tubercles like the rest. The species are numerous, and of great variety of size and color. They live in troops, and commit great havoc in gardens and culti- vated fields. They are easily tamed. The Genus Colobus Thumbless Apes comprises a few African species closely related to the solemn apes. The Genus Macacus Macacos is characterized by a fifth tubercle on their last molars, and their limbs are shorter and thicker and muzzle more projecting than in the Guenons. The Genus Imms comprising the Barbary Ape differs from the Macacos mainly in having a small tuber- cle instead of a tail. This ape inhabits the precipitous sides of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Genus Cynocephahis Baboons is characterized by a dog-like muzzle. The Ba- boons are mainly inhabitants of Africa and the Philippine Islands, and are large, fero- cious, and dangerous ani- mals. They are essentially constructed to live upon the ground, and are inferior to Fig. 20. skuii of Baboon. 2O VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS. the preceding apes and monkeys, approaching more nearly ordinary quadrupeds. They are known as Dog- headed Monkeys and Mandrills. CEBID^E, OR NEW-WORLD MONKEYS. This group com- prises the monkeys of the New World, in all ninety-one species. They are characterized by a more or less rounded head, by nostrils opening on the sides of the nose and wide apart, by thirty-six teeth, and in many cases by a long prehensile tail, and by the absence of cheek-pouches and callosities ; they are in general smaller and less fero- cious than those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and as a whole seem to be inferior to them. They inhabit almost the whole territory from Central America to 35 or 38 south latitude. Only one species, however, is found west of the Andes. The prehensile tail of these monkeys is capable of being twisted firmly around branches of trees, and some species are thus able to sustain the entire weight of the body. The tail is also sensitive, and thus becomes both an organ of feeling and prehension, enabling the pos- sessor to obtain small objects which are in situations where the hand cannot be inserted. i. Sapajous, or those with a prehensile tail. The Genus Mycetes Howlers is prominent among the New-World monkeys, and found throughout the whole length of the territory occupied by the Ameri- can monkey tribes. Howlers have the head pyramidal, and are provided with a vocal apparatus by which they produce the loudest and most frightful yells or howls, often making night hideous. These monkeys are mostly of large size, three feet long, with a tail about as long as the body, and they are more ferocious than any other American species. The Genus A teles Spider Monkeys comprises those which inhabit chiefly Brazil and Guiana, and which are QUADRUMANA. 21 Spider Monkey, A . belzebutk, Briss. mild, timid, and slow in their movements. They take their name from their long and sprawling legs, and correspond to the Semnopitheci of Asia and the Colubi of Africa. The Genus Lagothrix com- prises the Gluttonous Mon- keys of the interior of South America. The Genus Cebus Weepers comprises monkeys which derive their name from their plaintive cry. They are mild in disposition, quick in their movements, and easily tamed. This genus is the richest of all in species, and is most fully represented in Guiana and Brazil. 2. The Sagouins, or Sakis, or those with non-prehen- sile tails. The Genus Pithecia comprises the Fox-tailed Monkeys, so called from their long and bushy tails. The Genus Callithrix comprises the Squirrel Monkeys, which are of small size and prettily colored. They are found chiefly on the banks of the Orinoco. The Gertus Nyctipithecus comprises the Night-Monkeys, characterized by their large nocturnal Fig 22 eyes. The Genera Hapale and Midas com- prise diminutive monkeys of an agree- able form, and known respectively as Ouistitis also as Jacchus and Tam- arins. The term Marmoset is also ap- plied to the members of both genera. They have the tail longer than the body, the fur long and bushy, soft, and f . . . , _, Marmoset, H. chrysonte- of beautiful and brilliant colors. They ^ Pr Max. 22 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS. Fig. 23. live chiefly in Brazil, but extend also to the northern countries of South America. LEMURID^E, OR MAKIS. This group comprises Quad- rumana which differ from the true monkey tribes both in their more general resemblance to ordinary quadru- peds, and in their teeth ; and their first hind finger is armed with a pointed raised nail. The Lemuridae com- prise all the Quadrumana of Madagascar and adjacent islands. They are also found in Central and West- ern Africa, Southern Asia, and in the Indian Archipel- ago. The Genus Lemur Lemurs or Makis proper com- prises those which have six inci- sors in the lower jaw, compressed and slanting forward ; four in the upper that are straight, the canines trenchant, six molars on each side above, and six on each side below. These belong wholly to Madagas- car and vicinity, and feed upon fruit. The Genus Indris comprises those which have only four teeth in the lower jaw. The only Species in- habits Madagascar. It is tamed, and used like a hound. The Genus Loris has sharper points to the grinders, the body slender, the tail wanting, and the eyes near together. The Lorises live in the East Indies, are noc- turnal, and feed upon insects. The Genera Galago Galagos of Africa, and Tar- sius Tarsiers of the Moluccas, are distinguished from other Lemuridae by elongated tarsi, tufted tail, large eyes and ears. They are nocturnal, and feed upon in- sects. Lemur, L. catta, Linn. CHEIROPTE 23 Fig. 24. The Genus Galeopithecus Flyings-Lemurs, so called is placed here by De Blainville and others. The Galeo- pitheci are .closely related to the Bats, but differ from the latter by the fingers of the for- ward extremities being furnished with trenchant nails, which are no longer than those of the feet, so that the membrane which occupies the spaces between them, and which is continued as far as the tail, can per- form no other functions than those of a parachute. Hence they can- not properly fly, but are able, by the sustaining membrane, to make leaps of several hundred feet in ex- tent. They live on trees in the In- dian Archipelago, and feed upon insects, and probably fruits to some extent. Galeopithecus. SUB-SECTION III. THE ORDER OF CHEIROPTERA, OR BATS. The Order of Cheiroptera comprises mammals whose distinguishing characteristic consists in a fold of skin which, commencing at the sides of the neck, and extend- ing between the four members and fingers of the anterior extremities, supports the animal in the air, and enables it to fly. In most cases they have the arms, forearms, and fingers excessively long, forming, with the membrane mentioned above, true wings of great extent of surface, so that they are able to fly long and rapidly, and execute movements as varied and complicated as those of birds. Their eyes are excessively small, ears generally large, thumbs short and armed with a sharp hooked claw, hind feet weak and divided into five toes armed with trenchant 24 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS. and pointed nails. They are nocturnal in their habits, and during the day remain in caves, hollow trees, or other dark places, suspended by their hooks, or by the nails of their hind feet. In cold and temperate regions they pass the winter in a state of lethargy. Although their eyes are so small, their large ears and broad wings possess such a delicate sensibility that bats are enabled to fly unharmed through the most winding and compli- cated passages, and that, too, after their eyes have been destroyed. Bats may be divided into two great groups. 1. Frugivorous Bats, or Rousettes, have trenchant in- cisors in each jaw, grinders with flat crowns, and feed chiefly upon fruit, but also capture birds and small quad- rupeds. About forty species are known, inhabiting mainly the East Indies and tropical Africa. They are the largest of the bats, and the flesh of some is used for food. The Genus Pteropus is the principal one. The Black Rousette, P. edulis, Geoff., of the Straits of Sunda and the Moluccas, is of a blackish-brown color, and measures nearly four feet between the extremities of the wings. Its loud cry resembles that of the goose. 2. Insectivorous Bats have three grinders on each side in each jaw, bristled with conical points, that are preceded by a variable number of false molars. About two hun- dred species are known. The Genus PJiyllostoma Vampires is characterized by a membrane in the form of a leaf, which is reflected crosswise on the end of the nose. They belong wholly to tropical America, and have the reputation of inflicting severe wounds upon men and animals, which they bite in order to suck their blood. The Vampire Bat, P. spectrum. Linn., is of the size of a magpie, reddish brown, and has the leaf in the form of a funnel. The Genus Vespertilio Common Bats has the muz- CHEIROPTERA. 25 zle without leaf or other appendages, the incisors two to four above, six beneath, and the tail involved in the mem- brane. This is the most numerous genus of all, its spe- cies being found in all parts of the world. A half-dozen or more North American bats are usually referred to this genus. The Red Bat, V. noveboracensis, Linn., is three to four inches long, with a spread of wings of ten to twelve inches ; color reddish tawny. The Hoary Bat, V. pruinosus, Say, is over four and a half inches long, the spread over fifteen inches ; color grayish above, the throat with a fawn- Hoary Bat, r. pruinosus^ bay. colored band. The Little Brown Bat, V. subulattts, Say, is over three inches long, the spread nine inches ; color olive-brown above, grayish beneath. - The Silver-Haired Bat, V, noctivagans, Le Conte, is about three and a half inches long, spread ten to eleven inches ; the color black, with a whitish collar across the shoulders. The Carolina Bat, V. carolinensis, Geoff., is nearly four inches long, the spread twelve inches, and the color chest- nut. V. monticole, Bach., of a fulvous color, and V. virginia- nus, Bach., sooty brown, are additional species, from Vir- ginia. The Genus Molossus, comprising M. cynoccphalus and M. fuliginosus, Cooper, of the Southern States, is char- acterized by a large head and muzzle, canines two to four in the upper jaw, none in the lower, and bifid upper in- cisors. 26 VERTEBRATES : MAMMALS. ' The Genus Plecotus, comprising P. Lccontii of the Southern States and P. Townsendii of Oregon, is char- acterized by greatly dilated ears, and by two fleshy crests between the eyes and nostrils. The rapid flittings, turnings, and curious gyrations of bats, observable in early evening, or on cloudy days, or in the deep shade of woods, are for the purpose of cap- turing insects, of which they devour immense numbers. SUB-SECTION IV. THE ORDER OF INSECTIVORA, OR INSECT-EATERS. THE Order of Insectivora comprises mammals which feed wholly or mainly upon worms and insects. They are mostly nocturnal in their habits, and in cool climates many of them remain in a torpid state during the winter. Their incisors and canines vary in proportion and rela- tive position ; their molars are studded with acute points, feet short, plantigrade, and clavicles perfect. Wagner Fi 26 has recognized five families : Dermoptera, characterized by the body being margined with a hairy membrane. Such are the Galeopithici, already no- ticed with the Lemuridae. Scandentia, characterized by a Teeth of an Insectivorous Animal. squirrel-like appearance, except that the muzzle is attenuated and elongated. They climb trees with agility, and in this respect differ from all the other Insectivora. Such are the Banxrings and their allies, confined wholly to the Indian Archipelago. These two families demand no further attention in the pres- ent work ; but the three remaining ones Soricidae or Shrew Family, Talpidae or Mole Family, and Aculeata or Hedgehog Family which are universally recognized as distinct families, require somewhat special attention. INSECTIVORA ! SORICID.E. 2/ SORICID^E, OR SHREW. FAMILY. This Family is charac- terized by a general mouse or rat-like appearance, elon- gated and tapering muzzle, ears with distinct concha, and fore feet smaller than the hind ones. On either flank, or at the base of the tail, are situated peculiar glands which emit an unpleasant odor. In true Shrews the teeth vary from twenty-eight to thirty-two in number. The dental formula is generally regarded as, incisors --^, premolars to , molars . The two large incisors 2-2 2-2' 3-3' in each jaw are directed nearly horizontally forwards, the upper pair curved into a hook, and the lower are straighter, and with the trenchant upper edge more or less lobed. Shrews are found all over the world, and more than twenty species belonging to North Amer- ica, and distributed among three genera, have been de- scribed. They live under rubbish, and in burrows which they dig in the earth. The Genus Neosorex is characterized by rather short, valvular ears, partly furred on both surfaces. The Water Shrew, N. navigator, Cooper, found at Fort Vancouver, is two and one twelfth inches long to the tail, which is three inches ; the color dark sooty-brown above, Water Sh "^ grayish-white beneath. N. navigator, The Genus Sorex is characterized by large valvular ears, concha directed backwards, tail about as long as the body without the head, feet of moderate size and not fringed, the upper forward incisor with a second basal hook, and a small angular process on the inner side near the point. Trowbridge's Shrew, vS. Trowbridgii, Baird, of West- ern North America, is two and a half inches long to the tail, which is two inches ; the color sooty-brown above, paler beneath. 28 VERTEBRATES I MAMMALS. The Wandering Shrew, 5. vagrans, Cooper, of Western North America, is two inches long to the tail, which is one inch and two thirds ; the color above olive-brown varied with hoary, dusky yellowish-white below. Suckley's Shrew, 5. Suckleyi, Baird, of Western North America, is two and a quarter inches long to the tail, which is about one inch and a half; the color light chest- nut-brown above, grayish white beneath. The Thick-tailed Shrew, 5. pachyurus, Baird, of Min- nesota to Fort Ripley, is two and a quarter inches long to the tail, which is one inch and three quarters ; the color light olive-brown above, ashy white beneath. Forster's Shrew, 5. Forsteri, Rich., of Eastern North America, is two and three quarters inches long to the tail, which is one inch and two thirds ; the color smoky-brown above, pale grayish-ash beneath. Richardson's Shrew, S. Richardsonii, Bachm., of North- ern North America, is two and three quarters inches long to the tail, which is about one inch and a half ; the color above rusty iron-gray, paler beneath. The Eared Shrew, S. platyrhimis, Wagner, of North- eastern United States, is two inches long to the tail, which is one inch and a half; the color chestnut above, pale cinereous beneath ; ears large. Cooper's Shrew, 5. Cooperi, Bach., of Labrador to Ne- braska, is about two inches long to the tail, which is less than two inches ; the color light chestnut-brown above, lighter beneath. Hayden's Shrew, 5. Haydeni, Baird, of Western North America, is one inch and three quarters long to the tail, which is less than one inch and a half ; the color grayish chestnut-brown above, whitish beneath. The Masked Shrew, . personattis, Geoff., of the South- ern Atlantic States, is one inch and three quarters long to the tail, which is over one inch ; the color light chest- nut-brown above, dull white beneath. INSECTIVQRA I MpRK}JDjE. " 2Q Hoy's Shrew, S. Hoyi, Baird, oFWisconsin, is one inch and three quarters long to the tail, which is one inch and a quarter ; the C9lor olive chestnut-brown above, dull rusty white beneath. Thompson's Shrew, S. Thompsonii, Baird, of Nova Scotia to Ohio, is two inches long to the tail, which is one Thompson's Shrew, inch and a quarter ; the color dark olive-brown above, ashy white beneath. 5. palustris, Rich., of Hudson's Bay, is three and a half inches long to the tail, which is over two and a half inches ; the color hoary black above, ash-gray below. 5. fanbripes, Bach., has been found only in Pennsyl- vania. It is two and one eighth inches long to the tail, which is one inch and three quarters ; the color brown above, buff below. The Genus Blarina is characterized by a stout body, tail shorter than the head, or nearly equal to it, and coated with short bristly hairs, and with a small bunch at the tip. The hands are large in proportion to the feet, the palms as broad or broader than the ^soles, and the latter usually hairy at the heels. The fore claws are longer than the hind ones, external ear and auditory opening invisible, the skull short and broad, anterior upper incisors with the points simple, teeth rarely in contact, and the lower anterior process of the lower jaw short and stout. The Mole Shrew, B. talpoides, Gray, of Nova Scotia to Georgia, is three and a half inches long to the tail, which is one inch ; the color dark ashy-gray. The Short-tailed Shrew, B. brevicauda, Gray, of Illinois to Nebraska, is four inches to the tail, which is over one inch ; the color dark brownish-plumbeous ; feet and edge of lips whitish. The Carolina Shrew, B. carolinensis, Bach., of South 3