Miss Sue Dunbar 1 THE CLASS BOOK OF NATURE; COMPRISING LESSONS ON THE UNIVERSE, THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE, AND TETE FORM AND STRUCTURE OP THE HUMAN BODY. WITH QUESTIONS AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. EDITED BY J. FROST. ^ THIRD EDITION. HARTFORD. BELKNAP AND HAMERSLEY. 1838. Entered according to Act of Congress, iu the year 1836, by BELKNAP & HAMERSLET; in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. CASE & TIFFANY, PRINT. PREFACE. THE following work was originally published, as one of a series of school books, by the Committee of General Literature and Education appointed by the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge. Altera- tions and additions have been made to adapt it to the use of schools in this country, and it is now offered to the public as a suitable class-book of natural science, for popular use ; presenting the pupil with a general survey of the universe as a system ; of the three king- doms of nature, and the classes of objects comprised m each ; and, finally, of the form and structure of the human frame. The editor believes that a work of this description will be acceptable to parents, teachers, and pupils. The summary views of the universe, and of the several classes of objects comprised in the departments of zoology, botany, and mineralogy, will supply a want which has been frequently complained of by persons interested in education. That part of the volume which is devoted to a description of the human form and structure, is, perhaps, the most important of all, though it relates to a subject which has been surpris- ingly neglected in our schools and academies. While our children are taught many branches of learning which are nearly useless, not a single school book in common use contains that amount of information concerning the physiology of man which is essential 5 6 PREFACE. to the preservation of health and the intelligent obser- vation of those natural laws on which much of our comfort and tranquillity depends. If there is any natural object in the wide creation worthy of the attention and study of youth, it is the human system. Certainly there is no other material object which more fully displays the Creator's wis- dom, power, and goodness. The slightest study of our mortal frame draws forth that reverent and feeling exclamation "We are fearfully and wonderfully made!" Yet our children are too often suffered to grow up, and finish their term of school instruction, without ever having their attention called to this sub- ject. Such ignorance should not be suffered any longer to exist. It is unworthy of rational beings to spend months and years in acquiring frivolous and useless accomplishments, while they remain wholly uninformed concerning the organs, powers, and facul- ties which the all- wise Creator has given them ; and of the most obviously necessary precautions for their preservation. The editor believes that the members of the medical profession will approve of that part of the volume to which he at present refers ; as one of the most fre- quent causes of their want of success, is the deplorable ignorance of their patients on those points of physiology with which every one should be acquainted. CONTENTS. LESSONS ON THE UNIVERSE. Page The Universe 11 The Sun ; the solar System 13 The Planets; Comets; fixed Stars 15 Form and and Magnitude of the Earth 19 The Sea, Rivers, &c 24 The Atmosphere ; Winds, Dew, Fogs, and Clouds 26 Evaporation ; Rain, Snow, Hail 31 Electricity ; Thunder, Lightning 33 Different Races of Mankind 37 The Polar Race 39 The Mongol Race 42 The Negro Race - 45 The Red, or Copper-coloured Race 47 The White Race 50 Savage, pastoral, and civilized Nations 52 THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE. Natural Objects in general 55 The three Kingdoms of Nature 57 Productions of hot Countries , . .* 59 Productions of cold Countries 62 Productions of temperate Countries 65 Of Animals in general 68 On the Senses of Animals 71 7 8 CONTENTS. . Page Clothing of Animals 74 Sleep of Animals 77 Migration of Animals ; Birds of Passage 80 First Class of Animal ; Mammalia 83 Mammalia of the Sea. . < 87 Utility of the Mammalia to Man 90 Birds in general 93 Structure of Birds 96 Food of Birds; the Condor 99 Plumage of Birds ; Song Birds 102 Birds' Nests ; Age t)f Birds 106 Services rendered by Birds 110 Reptiles ; Poisonous Animals 113 Habits of Reptiles 117 Age of Reptiles 121 Fishes ; their Migrations 125 Fins of Fish ; Air-bladder ; Electric Fish 128 Herrings ; Salmon ; Remora 131 Insects in general 134 Trunk or Tongue of Insects ; Wings ; Feet 137 Habits of Insects 140 Changes of Insects 145 Usefulness of Insects. 148 Molluscous Animals 151 Shells ; Pearls 1 54 Zoophytes ; Coral ; Sponges 157 The vegetable Kingdom 160 Roots; Seeds; Buds 163 Flowers ; Structure, Size, Odour 166 Periods of Flowering ; Diffusion of Seeds 170 Trees ; their Usefulness 173 Fruit ; Grasses ; Vegetables 177 Moss ; Fungi ; Ferns ; Lichens. ; Sea-weed 180 The Mineral Kingdom 183 Metals t 186 Iron, Copper, Tin, and Lead 189 Coal, Sulphur, and Naphtha 192 Rocks; Slate, Clay, Salt 195 CONTENTS. 9 THE FORM, STRUCTURE, AND SENSES OF MAN. Page Of Man in general 198 Structure of the human Body ~ 201 Organs of Support and Motion 204 Standing, Walking, Running, Leaping, Sitting 207 Vessels of the human Body 210 The Nerves, Glands, Secretion 213 The Skin, Hair, Nails 216 The Organs of Digestion 219 The Teeth, Digestion, &c 222 The Heart, Circulation of the Blood, &c 225 The Lungs ; Respiration 228 Organs of Voice ; Warmth of the human Body 232 The Brain ; Superiority of Man 234 The Senses 238 The Tongue, Nose, Ear 241 The Eye ; Vision ..^ 245 Changes of the human Iff 248 Differences in the Form oOtankind and the inferior Animals 252 Instinct of Man and Animals ; Reason 255 The Beauty and Perfection of Body and Mind 258 Of Eating and Drinking 261 Of Clothing 41 264 Of Exercise and Rest 267 Of Cleanliness in Person and Dress 270 Of pure Air * 273 Of the Preservation of our Bodies 276 The Temper and Passions , 280 -V THE UNIVERSE. LESSON I. THE UNIVERSE. WE understand by the word universe, the entire system of things which God has created. The world in which we live forms a very small part of the universe. There are numberless other worlds, far surpassing ours in magnitude. Many of these worlds, that cannot be seen in the day-time, may be seen with the naked eye, in a clear night. They appear, indeed, like points of light; but, if they were not very large, we should not be able to discern them at all: they are always moving about in that vast blue vault which is above our 11 12 THE UNIVERSE. heads. We call that vault the heavens; and we know it to be a space which is without any limit, or end. We name the world in which we live, the earth ; we name the bodies which give or reflect light, the sun, the moon, and the stars. These bodies are sjhaped like balls, and, from their shape, are called globes, or orbs. Some of the heavenly orbs are supposed to be inhabited, but they are unfit for the abode of such a being as man, who lives on the earth. Their inhabitants must, therefore, be of a different nature from ourselves. The Almighty Maker, we may be assured, has adapted these worlds to the nature of the beings whom he has placed in them. Men who observe the stars and the other heavenly bodies are called astronomers. The science which they cultivate is called astronomy. Astronomers call the space in the heavens, through which an orb moves, its orbit. They call any straight line passing through the centre of an orb, and ended at each extremity by the cir- cumference, a diameter ; and the diameter round which an orb is supposed to move, they call its axis. The circumference of a globe or circle is the distance round it. Questions. What is the universe ? Does the world in which we live belong to the universe? THE SOLAR SYSTEM 13 Are there other worlds besides ours t When are they to be seen ? What is their appearance ? Do the heavenly bodies stand still or move ? What is the world in which we live called ? WTiich are the bodies that give, or reflect, light? Of what shape are they ? What are they called in consequence *? Is it probable that any of the heavenly bodies are inhabited ? What is the space called through which they move 1 What is the diameter of an orb ? What is the axis of an orb 1 What is the meaning of circumference ? LESSON II. THE SUN THE MOON THE SOLAR SYSTEM. THE sun is the largest of all those orbs which we behold in the heavens. It is supposed to be surrounded by a luminous atmosphere, from which light and heat are transmitted to the earth which we inhabit, as well as to the other orbs, which all move round the sun as their centre. The diameter of the sun is 888,000 miles; a space so vast that it is difficult to convey a correct idea of it. If a man were to travel at the rate of 100 miles a day, he 14 THE SOLAR SYSTEM. would be able to go round the whole earth In three quarters of a year; but the sun is so large that, even travelling at the same speed, he would be 75 years in making a journey round it. Next to the sun, the moon is, to us, the most interesting object among the heavenly bodies. The dazzling splendour of the sun renders a full view of it painful to the human sight. The bright- ness of the moon, on the contrary, arising from the light which it reflects, is grateful and pleasing to the eye, and its silvery beam relieves with a cheer- ing influence the dulness of our long winter nights. Its changes from the thin crescent to the full orb, and its waning from the full to the crescent again, lead us to admire the wisdom and power of God, by whom all these wonderful things were made, and who regulates all their motions. The earth, and the other orbs which move round the sun, compose what is called the solar system. Twenty -three of these orbs may be dis- tinctly seen : they are called planets. Planet means moving star. Primary planets move round the sun : secondary planets move round some one of the primary planets, and are called their moons, or satellites. All the planets move also round their own axis ; some in a longer, others in a shorter time ; and the length of their days varies accordingly. Questions. What is the sun 1 How great is its diameter * THE PLANETS. 15 What does it give to the earth? In what respect does the light of the moon differ from that of the sun ? What season is relieved by the influence of the moon ? What alterations in form does the moon undergo ? What does all this lead us to admire ? What do you understand by the solar system ? How many of the heavenly bodies move round the sun ? What are they called ] W r hat is a planet 1 What are primary planets 7 What are secondary planets ? What other names are given to them ? What determines the length of the days in the planets ? LESSON III. THE PLANETS COMETS THE FIXED STARS. THERE are eleven primary planets, named Mer- cury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, which is also called the Georgium Sidus. Mercury, the nearest to the sun, being distant from it thirty-four millions of miles, is 3,200 miles in diameter, and performs its journey round the sun in about eighty-eight days, moving in a single second nearly thirty of our miles. Venus is 7,700 miles in diameter, and revolves round the sun in 224 days 16 hours, at the distance of nearly sixty-nine millions of miles. This is the Brightest of all the planets, and is sometimes to be een in the day-time with the naked eye. It is 16 THE PLANETS. called, from the splendour of its appearance, the morning star, when it is to the^ westward of the sun, and therefore rises before him ; and the evening star, when it is to the eastward of that luminary, and sets after him. The Earth, on which we live, is nearly eight thousand miles in diameter. It revolves upon its axis in twenty-four hours, which is our day, and completes its journey round the sun in 365 days, six hours, and some minutes, which constitute our year ; and it travels in that time 550 millions of miles. The moon is the constant attendant of the earth, round which it revolves at the distance of 240,000 miles, and is about 2000 miles in diameter. The moon is the nearest to us of all the heavenly bodies; and in size about one sixty -fourth part of the earth. Mars is 4,220 miles in diameter, and about one-iifth as large as the earth. It is 145 millions of miles from the sun, and revolves round it in 686 days. Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, are four small planets, discovered in the present century, which revolve between Mars and Jupiter. Juno, the largest of them, is supposed to have a diameter of about 200 miles, while that of Pallas does not exceed seventy. Their distances from the sun vary between 223 and 260 millions of miles. Jupiter is nearly 500 millions of miles distant from the sun, around which it revolves in about twelve years. It has a diameter of almost 90,000 COMETS. 17 miles, and is 1470 times as large as the earth. This planet, the largest of the solar system, is re- markable for four moons, which move round it, as our moon moves round the earth, and during its nights, reflect upon it light received from the sun. Saturn is at the distance of nearly 900 millions of miles from the sun, about 80,000 miles in diameter, and requires twenty-nine years and a half to perform his journey. Saturn has seven moons revolving round it, and reflecting upon it the sun's light, and it is encircled also by a broad ring, that is always brilliant. The ring is com- posed of two distinct parts, separated by a space of about 250 miles. It is in breadth about one- third of Saturn's diameter, and at the same distance from the planet. The planet Uranus takes eighty-three years to complete its revolution round the sun. Its dis- tance from that luminary is 1803 millions of miles. Being about 40,000 miles in diameter, it is seventy- eight times as large as our earth. COMETS. A class of moving bodies, occasionally seen, followed by a train of light, which bears a fancied resemblance to flowing hair, are thence called comets. At their first appearance, comets are scarcely perceptible, but as they approach the sun, they increase in size and velocity; and then, by degrees, diminish and disappear. Their motions B2 18 THE FIXED STARS. are very irregular. It is supposed that there are at least a thousand comets belonging to our system. THE FIXED STARS. The other heavenly bodies which are seen in the firmament are called fixed stars. The num- ber of stars which may be seen at any time by the naked eye is not much above one thousand ; but 44,000 have been discovered by the aid of the telescope. These stars have been arranged by astronomers into various collections called constel- lations, and names are given to them, as, the great bear, the virgin, the scales, &c. All these constel- lations are delineated on the celestial globe. Questions. How many primary planets are there! What are their names ? Which of them is nearest to the sun ? Which is the next? For what is Venus remarkable ? What other names are given to this planet 1 What is the diameter of the earth ? In what time does it make its journey round the sun? What do we call that period of time 1 How does the moon move! Is it larger or smaller than the earth ? Which is the next of the planets ? What is the size of Mars 1 * Which are the lately discovered planets ? Which is the largest of them ? What is its diameter? Which is the largest of the planets of the solar system? For what is it remarkable ? How far is Saturn distant from the sun 1 THE EARTH. 19 What is there remarkable about Saturn ? Which of the planets is the farthest from the sun ? How long is Saturn in performing its revolution 1 What are comets ] What is the nature of their course ? Are their motions regular 1 What are the fixed stars ] What number may be seen by the naked eye ? How many have been discovered with the telescope '? What is a constellation? LESSON IV. FORM AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. IT is difficult to discover the form of the earth by merely looking upon it, because we can see but a small part of it at once, and because we are too near to it. The general form of an object is, however, to be ascertained by the form of its shadow. Now, whenever the earth, in its journey round the sun, happens to be in a straight line between the sun and the moon, it always casts a circular shadow upon the face of the moon, and thus we know that the earth is round, like a globe. The circumference of the earth is about 25,000 miles. It is possible, then, to travel round the earth. If you turn your back on your home, and continue to travel with your face to the w^st, the quarter in which the sun sets, you will arrive at home again from the east, or the quarter in 20 LAND AND WATER. which the sun rises. A voyage round the world may be performed in a year, if a ship does not stay long in a place, and wind and weather prove favourable. LAND AND WATER. The earth consists of two parts, land and water. It has an uneven surface, occasioned by the many mountains which are upon it. But the mountains, though many of them seem to us very lofty, are, when compared to the size of the earth, as small as grains of sand would be in comparison of a cricket-ball. The water occupies about twice as much space on the surface of the earth as the land. Representations of the surface of the earth are called maps. On a map which represents the whole world you see two large circles. But you must not on that account imagine that the earth consists of two such circles. The whole surface of a globe or ball cannot be shown in any other way. Suppose you wanted to represent the whole surface of an orange, you would be obliged to draw it as two circles. Each of the circles which represent the earth is called a hemisphere. The word hemisphere means half a globe. The land of the earth is divided into five great parts, sometimes called quarters of the world. Each part has a distinct name. The smallest part, situate towards the top of the hemisphere on the right LAND AND WATER. 21 hand, is called Europe. In the same hemisphere are situate three other parts of the world, ASIA, AFRICA, and part of AUSTRALIA. In the hemi- sphere on the left lie AMERICA and part of Aus- tralia. We live in America. You find upon a map outlines of countries, with their names, and the names of their principal cities. The names of countries are distinguished by capi- tal letters. Black crooked lines show the courses of rivers, and dark patches in the midst of the land are large lakes. Land surrounded by water is called an island ; and land nearly surrounded by water is called a peninsula. HILLS, MOUNTAINS, MINES, CAVERNS. In most parts of the earth there are hills and mountains. Some of these are composed wholly of stone, which is useful to man for many purposes. In different places, both the hills, which rise above the ground, and the earth, which is beneath it, con- 22 LAND AND WATER. tain copper, iron, and other valuable substances, mixed with earthy matter. In many places, coal, salt, and various other productions of great value, are found deep in the bowels of the earth. The large and deep openings made to obtain them are called mines, and the earthy or stony matter, among which the metals and minerals are found, are called ores. Men employed in digging mines are called miners. Mountains which send forth flames and clouds of smoke are called volcanoes. These sometimes discharge also streams of liquid matter called lava, which look like rivers of fire, and spread terror, death, and destruction around. The principal vol- canoes in Europe are Vesuvius and ^Etna. Fire and water have formed in the earth many extraordinary caverns, some of which run for miles under ground, and terminate in abrupt precipices. The water incessantly dropping from the roofs of caverns, sometimes forms what are called stalac- tites, which hang down in a variety of curious and beautiful shapes. In some parts of the earth mighty torrents have broken through and rent asunder huge mountains, the sides of which now form, as it were, immense gateways. Such was the origin of the straits by which some countries are separated, and seas have become connected : the straits of Gibraltar supply an instance, where Europe and Africa approach near to each other, and by which the Mediterra- nean sea is connected with the Atlantic ocean. LAND AND WATER. 23 Questions. How may the shape of a body be discovered ? How do we know that the earth is round ? What is the circumference of a globe ? What is the extent of the earth's circumference ? If we were to set out and keep travelling in one direction, what would happen ? W 7 hat are the parts of which the earth consists ? What proportion does the water bear to the land 1 Is the surface of the earth even or uneven 1 What occasions the inequality ? How is the earth represented in maps ? What name is given to each of the circles ? What is the meaning of hemisphere ? Into how many principal parts is the world divided ? What are their names ? Which is the smallest of them] In which of the hemispheres is Europe? What other parts of the world are in the same hemisphere? Which of them are in the other hemisphere ? How are rivers marked in maps ? What is an island ? What is a peninsula ? Of what are mountains composed? Where are metals and minerals found ? What is a mine ? What are volcanoes ? Which are the principal European volcanoes ? By what means have caverns been formed ? What has been the effect of torrents ? 24 THE SEA. LESSON V. THE SEA, RIVERS, ETC. THE water which encompasses the land is called the sea. This purifies the earth from unwhole- some vapours by drawing them into itself, and it is for the most part of vast depth. Its depth, however, is very unequal ; for, like the surface of the land, the bottom of the sea consists of moun- tains and valleys. Wonderful masses of rode are often raised from the bottom of the sea, in which little animals make their habitations. As the boundless extent of the sea, and its majestic movement, fill the mind with delight, as- tonishment, and awe, so in the dark, its luminous appearance is inexpressibly grand. Very often the sea, as far as the eye can reach, seems to be on fire. This wonderful appearance is produced by very small animals, scarcely so big as a pin's head, with an extremely delicate, transparent, jelly-like body, mixed with others, called Medusas and Sea- nettles, which emit light from their long feelers, while their bodies remain quite dark. The saltness of the sea water renders it less liable to freeze than other water. But the sea at both RIVERS, ETC. 25 poles, or the north and south points of the earth, forms islands and mountains of solid ice, which never melts, even in the midst of summer. All the countries of the world are supplied with fresh water, by streams which run through them. Larger streams are called rivers, and run into the sea: smaller streams are called rivulets. Many rivers are very broad and deep. When a river is so deep that large ships can sail upon it, we call it a navigable river. The hollow in which the water of a river flows is called its channel, or bed. The margin of the bed is called the bank. In many rivers there are places where the water tumbles over steep precipices to a great depth. Such places are called waterfalls, or cataracts. Pieces of water, surrounded by land, are termed lakes. There are lakes more than one hundred miles in length and breadth. Questions. "What does the bottom of the sea consist of ] What is the appearance of the sea at night ? By what is this produced 1 "Why is sea-water less liable to freeze than other water? What appearance has the sea at the two poles of the earth ? How are the countries of the world supplied with fresh water ? What names are given to the streams of fresh water ? What is a navigable river 1 What are waterfalls, or cataracts ? What name is given to large pieces of water surrounded by land* C 26 THE ATMOSPHERE. LESSON VI. THE ATMOSPHERE THE WINDS DEW FOGS CLOUDS. THE earth is surrounded on all sides by air. The air, with the vapours that it contains, is called the atmosphere. The higher we ascend into this atmosphere, for instance, upon high mountains, the more does the air become rarefied, and the less does it press upon the body. The pressure of the atmosphere upon the human body is equal to fifteen pounds upon every square inch ; and, as a man's body contains, upon an average, fifteen square feet of surface, he must sustain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or sixteen tons, for his usual load. By this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in a moment, if every part of our body were not filled either with air, or with some elastic fluid, the spring of which is just sufficient to counteract the weight of the atmosphere. On the tops of high moun- tains, the pressure of the atmosphere is considera- bly less than what it usually is on the plain. The height to which the atmosphere extends is gene- rally supposed to be about sixty miles, above which elevation, there are neither clouds nor wind, and where the lightness of the air would render it impossible for any animal to breathe. The vapours, which are continually rising from THE WINDS. 27 the earth, and from every thing upon the earth, collect in the atmosphere, and, uniting together, produce rain, snow, fog, and all other changes of weather. WINDS. The winds which are continually blowing over the earth are nothing but air put in motion chiefly by means of heat. When any part of the air is heated by the rays of the sun, or any other cause, it is expanded and becomes lighter ; and as the lightness causes it to ascend, it leaves a partial void, into which the surrounding air rushes, to fill up the void and restore the balance. For air, like water and every other fluid, never rests until it has found its level. This simple process, the effects of which are very extensive, meeting with various checks and interruptions from numberless obstacles, causes those agitations of the air, which are called wind. When the wind is violent, it is called a storm, or tempest ; and when it is very furious, a hurricane. Storms and hurricanes some- times break and uproot the strongest trees, over- throw houses, and lay waste large tracts of coun- try. What is commonly called a high wind, which does not amount to a storm, generally moves at the rate of about thirty -five miles an hour ; and in a hurricane the velocity of the wind is calcu- lated at one hundred miles in an hour. 28 DEW FOGS. DEW. Dew arises from the watery vapours which ascend in the daytime from the earth, and, being condensed by the cold at night, fall down again. When, therefore, the night is very warm, there falls little or no dew. When it is so cold that the dew is frozen, it is then called hoar-frost ; and the trees and grass appear as white as if they were powdered. The reason is this : when trees and other bodies are extremely cold, the vapours falling upon them are changed into particles of ice. In very severe cold, even the vapours issuing from our mouths are frozen, and fasten themselves in that state to the hair, as the dew does to the grass. FOGS. Fogs, or mists, consist of watery particles, which are raised into the air, where, not being completely dissolved, they form a vapour, which extends itself in the lower part of the atmo- sphere, and is so thick that objects cannot be seen through it. Fogs are more frequent in low, wet, and marshy situations, near rivers and ponds, than in those parts of a country which are high and dry. Fogs are much more common in cold seasons and in cold climates than in such as are warm ; because, in the former, the watery particles, being con- densed almost as soon as they proceed from the sur- CLOUDS. 29 face of the earth, are prevented from rising into the higher parts of the atmosphere. The light mists which are observed in serene summer evenings are composed of the same kind of watery exhalations, rendered visible by the cooling of the air. In winter, when it freezes sharply, rivers that are not yet frozen appear to smoke, because the upper layers of water, on account of their greater heaviness, sink to the bottom, and cause the warmer water below to rise to the top ; and the particles rising from the warmer water assume the appearance of smoke. CLOUDS. When vapours rise to a height in the atmo- sphere, and are collected in a dense state, they form clouds, which float in the atmosphere at a greater or less height, according to their weight. As the atmosphere is heaviest 'below, dense and thick clouds, which are on the point of melting into rain, float near the surface of the earth, while the thin fleecy clouds soar far above them. Both kinds may be frequently seen at different heights in the atmosphere at the same time. Clouds, being formed of water, are produced in greatest abundance where the air has most opportunity of acting upon water. Winds, there- fore, which blow from the east and south-east, over the Atlantic ocean, bring more clouds to this country than westerly winds, which pass over the land. c 2 30 CLOUDS. The wonderful variety of colours displayed by the clouds, arises from the different ways in which the sun's light is reflected among them. Many of the clouds rise to the height of fifteen miles from the surface of the earth ; but their general height is not above a'mile. Questions. By what is the globe of the earth surrounded ? What general name is given to the air and the vapours which it contains ? What is calculated to be the pressure of the atmosphere upon a man's body ? How is this enormous pressure counteracted ? To what height is the atmosphere supposed to extend ? What is produced by the vapours that rise from the earth into the atmosphere 1 What is wind 1 What effect is produced upon the air by heat? What is the consequence of the air being rendered lighter ? What do we call the agitations caused in the air 1 When the wind is violent what is it called ? What name do we give to the most furious winds ? What are their effects ? At what rate does a high wind move ? What is the velocity of the wind in a hurricane? From what does dew arise 1 How is dew formed ? When the dew is frozen what is it called ? Of what do fogs consist ? Where are fogs most frequent? When are they most common ? How are clouds formed ? . Where are they produced in greatest abundance ? What winds bring most clouds to this country ? EVAPORATION RAIN. 3 1 What causes the variety of colours in clouds ? What is the general height of clouds above the earth ? To what height do they often rise ? LESSON VII. EVAPORATION RAIN SNOW HAIL RAINBOW. THERE is a process, according to the wise de- crees of the Creator, constantly going on, by which a portion of all liquids is converted into steam, or vapour. This process is called evaporation. It is much greater in warm than in cold climates. Now God has provided that the whole of the water that is raised by evaporation shall not subsist in the atmosphere at one time in the state of va- pour. A portion of it is continually returning to the earth, and not a day passes without rain falling in some part of the world. The secondary cause of 32 SNOW HAIL. rain is the condensation of the clouds through the effect of cold. When they are greatly condensed, they become too heavy to float in the air, and de- scend in drops. The cold of the higher regions of the atmosphere is sometimes so great as to freeze the particles which form clouds. If the particles become frozen before they have had time to unite into drops, they de- scend in the shape of small stars with six points ; and several of these, joined together, form flaky masses, which are called snow. The quantity of matter contained in snow is small in proportion to its bulk. Snow, therefore, meets with great resistance in passing through the atmosphere, and consequently falls very slowly. Its great surface, also, renders it very susceptible of evaporation, which considerably diminishes its weight, even in the coldest weather. If the cold is so moderate as to allow the particles of water to unite into drops before freezing takes place, they form pieces of ice called hail. Hail, when first formed, is not larger than the drops of water which fall in rain ; and, being formed from a fluid, it must be perfectly round ; but when it arrives at the earth it is often sharp-cornered, and as large as nuts, or even as hens' eggs. In these cases, either the particles composing such hailstones have begun to dissolve, or they were sufficiently cold to con- geal and attach to their surface the particles with which they came in contact during their fall. If, when the sun is shining, a shower of rain falls RAINBOW ELECTRICITY, 33 either around or at some distance before us, we may see in the air opposite to the sun a large bow, of bright and beautiful colours, which is called a rainbow. This striking appearance is caused by the sun's rays being refracted, or broken, in the falling drops. The uppermost colour of the rainbow is red, and the lowest violet. The moon also sometimes shows a rainbow, formed by the refraction of her rays in drops of rain during the night : but this appearance, called the lunar rainbow, is very rare* Questions, Where is evaporation most copious ? How is rain produced ? What is snow ? Why does snow fall so slowly T What is hail ? What produces the appearance called the rainbow T What name is given to the rainbow formed by the moca's rays! LESSON VIII. ELECTRICITY THUNDER AND LIGHTNING. GOD has also provided a matter, respecting which we know little more than^ that it commu- nicates to certain bodies the power sometimes of attracting, and sometimes repelling, other bo- dies. At the same time a spark of light appears, a snapping noise is heard, and a shock is commu- nicated. This matter is called electricity. 34 THUNDER LIGHTNING. When, for example, a glass tube is rubbed with a woollen cloth ; small pieces of paper, straw, feathers, or other light bodies held over it,, will be drawn towards the tube, and driven from it. If you put your finger to this tube in the dark, you see a spark, hear a snap, and feel a slight pricking in the finger. If you rub the tube hard for some time, and then hold it near your face, you feel a sensation, as if a cobweb was spread upon your check. Similar effects are produced by other substances when they are rubbed ; such as amber, sulphur, porcelain, and sealing-wax. The observation of these facts led to the con- struction of a machine, by which electricity can easily be produced, and which is called the elec- trical machine. By means of this machine, sparks have been produced of such power as, in an instant, to melt metals and to kill animals. This electric matter subsists in the clouds called thunder-clouds, from which it issues in the form of flashes of fire, which are called lightning. The noise which usually follows the flash, or the lightning, we call thunder. The electric flame, which we call lightning, when it strikes a tree or a house, either damages or destroys it entirely, or sets it on fire. If it strikes men or beasts, it either stuns, maims, or kills them. God, however, in his mercy, generally protects his creatures from harm ; and in the benefits that attend thunder-storms compensates IGNIS-FATITUS. 35 any mischief they do. Thunder-storms cool the atmosphere and purify it from noxious vapours. The rain which usually accompanies thunder and lightning promotes the fertility of the soil and the growth of plants. Men have a contrivance for securing build- ings from the effects of lightning. A long iron rod, called a lightning-conductor, is erected close to the house, in such a manner that the lower end reaches into moist earth, and the upper rises above the ridge of the roof. A rod of this kind attracts the electric matter, and conducts it down to the earth without injury to the building. A house surrounded by tall trees is rarely struck by lightning, because the lightning is attracted by the trees. Remember not to take shelter under trees during a thunder-storm. O Sound is transmitted at the rate of 1142 feet, or 380 yards, in a second ; the distance of light- ning may therefore be calculated,' by accurately observing the time which intervenes between the flash, and the thunder which follows it. IGNIS-FATUUS FALLING STARS AURORA BOREALIS. We have all heard of lights, commonly called Will-with-a-wisp, or Jack-with-a-lantern, but known to scientific men by the name of ignis^ fatuus. These lights are seen most frequently 36 FALLING STARS, in mines, in marshy places, and near stagnating waters. They consist of vapours, which, taking fire, appear bright so long as they burn. They move about with a dancing motion, and have sometimes caused serious accidents, by misleading persons who have followed them in the dark, under the idea that they were lanterns carried by passengers. Balls of" fire sometimes descend from the upper region of the atmosphere. When they fall, they look precisely like stars dropping from the sky ; they shoot along with great rapidity, and some- times leave behind them, in the air, a reddish line, which gradually disappears. Sometimes their motion is attended with a hissing sound, and they burst with a loud noise. Their light is of dazzling brightness. They have been often observed, but the nature and cause of them are not satisfactorily known. Sometimes at night there is to be seen, in the northern quarter of the heavens, a bright light, like the morning aurora, or day-break, from which rays issue, and which spreads itself by degrees over a great part of the firmament. The whole of the heavens at length appear quite red and fiery, and exhibit a most beautiful sight. This appearance is called the northern light, or aurora borealis ; and it is, like lightning, an effect of electricity. It has never done mis chief of any kind. DIFFERENT RACES OF MANKIND. 37 " Questions. In what form does the matter called 'electric show itself? How may it be produced ? What other substances exhibit similar effects 1 What is the nature of lightning 1 ? What do we call the noise that follows the flash ? W^hat is the effect of lightning when it strikes an object ? In what respect are thunder-storms beneficial 1 How may buildings be secured from injury by lightning? Why is a house surrounded by high trees rarely struck by lightning ? Is it then prudent or imprudent to take shelter under trees in a thunder-storm 1 How may the distance of lightning be calculated ? On what principle is that calculation made ? What is the ignis-fatuus, or Will-with-a-wisp ? W^here is it most frequently seen 1 What does it consist of ? What kind of motion has it ! What are the bodies commonly called falling stars ? What appearance have they ? Is their motion ever attended with any sound ? What kind of appearance is the aurora borealis or northern light? What is the cause of it 1 LESSON IX. DIFFERENT RACES OF MANKIND. THE whole world is supposed to contain about 700 millions of human inhabitants. Of those, such as dwell together in a country, and are of the same general structure, colour, language, and manners, form one people, or nation. Each of the principal divisions of the world is D 38 DIFFERENT RACES OF MEN. subdivided into smaller portions, called countries . there are various nations in each of the great divisions of Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Australia ; but all the different people in the world bear some resemblance to each other, either in shape, colour, look, or mode of life. We believe, on the authority of the sacred Scriptures, that all the races of mankind, scat- tered over the surface of the globe, notwithstand- ing the differences that the observer may at once discover between them, are descended from one pair. We believe, on the same authority, that the whole earth was overspread by the descend- ants of three sons of Noah. The influence of climate, food, and civilization, particular modes of life, and a variety of causes have, however, produced many and striking diversities in the outward appearance of the human form. Those persons whom we , term naturalists, be- cause they devote particular attention to the study of nature in all its branches, divide man- kind into several principal races ; as, the Polar, or Lapland race ; the Mongol, or Tartar ; the Negro, or Ethiopian ; the Red, or Copper- coloured ; and the White race. Questions. How many inhabitants are there supposed to be in the world? What constitutes a nation 1 Have we authority to believe that the different nations of the world tave sprung from more than one pair 1 THE POLAR RACE. 39 W hat causes have produced the striking differences observ- able in the various races of mankind ? Into what principal races are mankind generally divided ? The Tchuktchi. (Siberian*.) LESSON X. THE POLAR RACE. ALL the northern parts of the two hemispheres, into which the globe is divided, are peopled by nations belonging to the Polar race, who are very dark, having a flat visage, and black hair and eyes. They are thick in^form, and extremely short in stature. To this race belong the Lapland- ers, in Europe; the Samoyedes, the Ostiaks, the Tchuktchi, and the Kamtsehadales, in Asia ; the Greenlanders and the Esquimaux, in America. The inhabitants of Finland resemble those nations in almost every circumstance, excepting their height, which nearly equals that of other Europe- ans. Living under a severe climate, and subsisting on particular kinds of food, their stature seems to 40 THE POLAR RACE. have been affected by the hardness of their fare, as well as their complexion by the intense cold. The natural productions of the countries in- habited by these people being few, and the con- veniences of life difficult to be procured, all their efforts and study are directed to the supply of the most urgent wants, the incessant recurrence of which leaves them no leisure for the improvement of their minds. Their manners, therefore, are as uncultivated as their appearance is uncouth. The tallest among them seldom exceed the height of five feet, and many are not more than four. They are of disagreeable look, having broad faces, with short flat noses, eyes of a yellowish brown, high cheek-bones, thick lips, and, in general, a weak and effeminate voice. They have large heads, lank black hair, and dark-brown complexions. The resemblance of manners among these north- ern tribes, is not less remarkable than their simi- larity in stature, complexion, and features. They are extremely ignorant, and have few religious ideas. Being totally unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, they covet none of its conve- niences or luxuries ; they are immoderately fond of tobacco and spirituous liquors, which they procure from their southern neighbours, in exchange for the furs of various animals, the hunting of which is one of their chief employments. Though these people are strangers to every art and science, and appear to be incapable of any vigorous efforts either of body or mind, they THE POLAR RACE. 41 nevertheless display considerable ingenuity when stimulated by necessity; as well as great strength, activity, and courage, when difficulties or dangers call for the occasional exercise of those qualities. Providence, in withholding from the people of these northern countries the many blessings enjoy- ed by the inhabitants of more temperate regions, has given them a contented disposition : and so strongly are they attached to their native land, consisting in general of immense tracts of moun- tains and morasses, that they cannot reconcile themselves to any other situation, or to a residence in a different part of the world. Questions. What are the countries inhabited by the Polar race? Which are the principal nations of this race 1 Are they tall or short ? How do they look ? What is their complexion 1 '< How are they chiefly employed 1 42 THE MONGOL RACE. LESSON XL THE MONGOL RACE. THE second great variety in the human species is the Mongol race, to which belong most of the people we call Tartars; as the Mongols, the Mant- chous, the Calmucks. Tartary comprises the whole of Central Asia, and is peopled by numerous tribes, which, though somewhat different in fea- tures and complexion, retain those particular traits of resemblance by which the whole race is distin- guished from any other nation. All the Tartars have the face broad and wrinkled, even in youth ; the lower part narrow, and inclining to a point at the chin. They have a flat forehead, a short flat nose, high cheek-bones, thick eyebrows, small oblique eyes, thick lips, and a colour more or less yellow. They are of middle stature, strong, ro- bust, and healthy. All the tribes of Tartars lead a wandering life. THE MONGOL RACE. 43 They build no towns, neither do they cultivate the ground, except for the purpose of raising a grain called millet. They live in tents covered with the skins of animals. Their chief food is horses' or camels' flesh, which they often eat raw, and their usual drink is camels' milk. Their prin- cipal wealth consists in horses, in the management and care of which great part of their time is em- ployed. They practice robbery as a profession, and think it neither criminal nor dishonourable, provided that it be exercised on people of a dif- ferent tribe. Some of the Tartars are Mohamedans ; some are followers of a mock deity called the Grand Lama, who is worshipped as a divinity; while others of these wandering tribes appear to have scarcely any religious ideas beyond a ge- neral belief in a Supreme Being. In the Mongol race are included the natives of China and Japan. The features and the general cast of countenance of these people show that they are of Tartar origin ; whilst the difference in their manners, customs, and habits of life, is the effect of a certain degree of civilization and of the moral influence of political institutions. Travellers are of opinion, that not only the Tartars, the Chinese, and the Japanese, but all the inhabitants of India beyond the river Ganges, have one common origin, and belong to the same race. The natives of the South Sea Islands and of the great continent of New Holland are of Malay origin. Those who live in the hottest of those 44 THE MONGOL RACE. islands are almost as black as negroes ; such, among others, are the Papous of New Guinea. Questions. What nations belong to the Mongol race ? Where is Tartary situated ? What are the distinguishing features of the Tartars ? What kind of life do they lead ? What are their dwellings 1 What is their chief food 1 What does their chief property consist of? What profession do they follow 1 What other nations besides the Tartar belong to the Mon- gol race? THE NEGRO RACE. 45 Negroes. LESSON XII. THE NEGRO RACE. THE negroes, or blacks, form the third and most distinct race of mankind. They inhabit all the coasts of South Africa, from the river Senegal to the Red Sea. Indeed, it is believed, that the in- terior also of that extensive tract of country is occupied by the black-complexioned race, with the exception of Abyssinia, the inhabitants of which are olive-coloured. The negroes are not more remarkable for their jet-black colour, than for the delicate smoothness of their skin. They have deep hazel eyes, a short flat nose, thick lips, long muzzle, prominent cheek- bones, beautifully white teeth, and crisp, short, woolly hair. The natives of Guinea are accounted the ugliest of the black tribes, and those of Congo and Mosambique the handsomest' Further south- ward they become a little paler, and take the name 46 THE NEGRO RACE. of Caffres. Almost all the inhabitants of the east coast of Africa belong to this variety. The Hot- tentots, found in the most southern point, form another subdivision. They have cheek-bones so prominent, that the face appears almost triangular. Their colour is a brown olive. It was among these black nations that the people of Europe for several centuries purchased human beings, whom they carried away to be employed as slaves in the cultivation of the land in their American colonies. Our own nation was the first to give up this barbarous traffic, an example that has been followed in almost all the civilized countries. Questions. What are the countries inhabited by the negroes 1 What are they distinguished by 1 Which are accounted the ugliest of the black tribes 1 Which are the handsomest ? What nations in the southernmost part of Africa, though not quite black, belong to this variety? For what purpose were slaves purchased by the Europeans among these black nations? What country first jrave up this trade ? THE RED, OR COPPER-COLOURED RACE. An American Indian. LESSON XIII. THE RED, OR COPPER-COLOURED RACE. THE original natives of America form a fourth race, not less different in colour, than distinct in habitation, from the rest of mankind. All the savage tribes of this vast continent, with the ex- ception, as we have seen, of the Esquimaux, are of a red, or copper colour. In the old world (that is, in Europe, Asia, and Africa) diversity of cli- mate never fails to produce difference of complex- ion ; but among the original tribes of America, (called the new world, because it was not discover- ed by the Europeans till about 350 years ago,) that effect is not so perceptible : so that, among its various nations, there is scarcely any difference in colour, and less than might be expected in the shape of the body and the features of the face. They have all high cheek-bones, small noses and eyes, thickf black, coarse hair, and remarkably thin beards. Both men and women paint their 48 THE RED, OR COPPER-COLOURED RACE. bodies and their faces ; and, among some of the tribes, fashion and taste in this method of decoration seem to be as muctj studied as in the various modes of dress among civilized nations. Towards the southern point of America is found the tallest race of men in the world, called Patago- nians. Earlier travellers represented them as real giants, but according to later observations, their average height is between six and seven feet. The native Americans are said to be more back- ward in facing danger than the people of Europe ; but, no sooner does it appear unavoidable, than their * courage is excited to the highest pitch. They are then ready to suffer or to inflict the most cruel tortures; and, either through native fortitude, or the influence of custom and education, they dis- play the, utmost composure amidst the greatest agonies. To conquered enemies they are invari- ably cruel, though kind and just to persons of their own tribe. They are grave and serious in their deportment. Though many of the tribes of the Americans are equal in stature to the Europeans, they are not so muscular and strong, probably owing to the climate, together with the scantiness or the bad quality of their food. Most of these people lead a wandering life, Subsisting on the animals which they kill in hunting, on fish, and on wild fruits and roots. Patience and sincerity, indolence and rapacity, warm attachment to friends and implacable hatred THE RED, OR COPPER-COLOURED RACE. 49 to enemies, mark the character of the savage in every part of the world. Questions, Where is the red, or copper-coloured race, found 1 ? Is there much difference in colour, shape, and features, among the various savage nations of America 1 ? What are the general characters of the face 1 fWhat peculiar method have they of adorning their bodies 1 Where do we meet with the tallest race of men in the world ? What are they called ? What is their average height? W T hat are the principal features in the moral character of the native Americans 1 To what cause is their inferiority in strength to Europeans attributable 1 What kind of life do they lead 7 How do they subsist 1 E 50 THE WHITE RACE. The English. LESSON XIV. ; THE WHITE RACE. A FIFTH and last great division of mankind is the white race, with oval face, long hair, and pointed nose. It comprehends the people of Eu- rope, and some of the adjacent countries ; for in- stance, the Turks, the Circassians, and other tribes about Mount Caucasus, the Persians, the natives of Hindoostan, the Arabians, the Moors, who in- habit the north of Africa, and the Abyssinians, as well as the Jews. In countries of such extent, there is considerable variety of complexion and countenance : in the north, the people are larger and fairer, with light hair, and blue eyes; whereas, in the south they are dark, often very brown, and have black hair and eyes. There is an intermixture of these THE WHITE RACE. 51 colours in the more temperate regions. As this appears to us to be the most comely of all the varieties, so it also surpasses the others in courage and activity, and in the arts and sciences. It seems that climate has a great influence on the human complexion : yet the mode of life, and the general tendency in children to resemble their parents, contribute not a little to effects which are often attributed to the former cause alone. The Circassians, for instance, the handsomest people in the world, live under the same climate as the Tar- tars, who fall exceedingly short of the standard of European beauty ; and the Abyssinians are olive- coloured, while they are almost surrounded by nations of the blackest hue. Questions. What are the personal characteristics of the white race ? What nations does it comprehend 1 What differences are observable between the northern and southern nations of this race ? In what moral qualities does it surpass the other races ? What people are accounted the handsomest in the world? In what respect do the people of Abyssinia differ from the surrounding African nations 1 52 SAVAGE AND CIVILIZED NATIONS. LESSON XV. SAVAGE, PASTORAL, AND CIVILIZED NATIONS. IN regard to their mode of life, the different nations of the world have many points of resem- blance. Some of them, which are called savage nations, take no trouble to ensure a regular sub- sistence. They neither plant nor sow; they lay up no store of provisions ; they give themselves no concern about the future, but go in quest of food only when they are urged by hunger. Their sole employments, therefore, are hunting and fish- ing. They do not even dwell together in villages; have no fixed habitations, but only wretched huts, consisting of a few poles, thrust into the ground, and covered with skins of animals, coarse felt, or only the large leaves of trees. Some even live in holes under the surface of the ground; and among these savage nations only a few families in general associate together. These have no common head^ and no magistrates ; but, in time of war, or on oc- casion of a great hunt, they have a leader, whom they obey till the war or the hunt is over. Other nations, called Pastoral Nations, or No- mades, from their wandering way of life, have no fixed abodes, but only tents or huts, which they easily take down and set up again "; but they are much more intelligent and less rude than the sa- vage tribes, because they are engaged in rearing cattle a pursuit which requires much more atten- CIVILIZED NATIONS. 53 tion and skill than hunting. Their herds and flocks are their only wealth. They move about from place to place, and make a longer or shorter stay only in situations where they meet with good pasturage. Other nations, which are called civilized nations, (such are all those of Europe,) employ themselves not only in rearing cattle, but also in agriculture, and in all kinds of arts and handicraft business. They dwell together in communities, in permanent and commodious habitations, forming cities, towns, and villages. These communities consist of persons of various classes, namely, princes, nobility, gentry, citizens, farmers, artisans, and others who follow all sorts of trades, professions, arts, and sciences. Civilized nations live according to laws ; that is to say, they have agreed among themselves what it shall be lawful or unlawful for each person to do ; and all who wish to dwell among them must promise to submit to these laws and to obey them. To enforce this obedience, even on the part of the most ignorant and the worst disposed, they se- lect a certain number of intelligent and upright men, to cause obedience to be paid to the laws, and to punish offenders. The persons so charged are called magistrates. In many states a single individual possesses a right to make laws and to appoint the magistrates. This person is called the sovereign, or monarch and has the title of emperor, king, prince, or duke. The countries which are under his govern- ment constitute his dominions. A state in which 54 CIVILIZED NATIONS. there is no single person supreme, but all have a voice in making the laws by which they are go- verned, is called a republic. The form of government subsisting in the United States is called a republic ; the supreme head being the president. From the circumstance of its being composed of separate states, it is called a confede- rated or federal republic. Questions. Which are the only employments of savage nations ? What sort of habitations do they construct ? Are they under any kind of government 1 What sort of abodes have the pastoral, or wandering na- tions ? What pursuit are they engaged in ? How are the civilized nations employed 1 What sort of habitations have they ? How are they governed 1 What are those persons called whose duty it is to enforce obedience to the laws 1 When one person is invested with the supreme authority, by what title is he known ? What are the countries under his government called 1 What is a republic 1 What is the form of government established in the United States 1 What is the title of its head? Why is it called a federal government? THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE. PART THE FIRST. LESSON I. NATURAL OBJECTS IN GENERAL. THE earth, the air, and the waters, are filled with living and inanimate objects. The more we examine these, and the wider our knowledge of them extends, the more do we learn of the wisdom, the power, and the providential care of our Maker and Preserver. Nothing has been created in vain, for every thing we can see is filled with beauty and de- sign. The same care has been bestowed on the structure of the most minute beings, as on that of the largest animal, and every step in the study of nature is full of interest and instruction. We cannot look any where without finding something to admire, something to astonish and delight us, and something to make us sensible of the good- ness and bounty of God. Some of these objects, such as man, beasts, birds, fishes, and insects, live and move, and are said to have animal life r others, as trees, plants, grain, flowers, and moss, have also life, but it is life of a different kind, and called vegetable life ; whilst others, as stones, chalk, coal, and earth, 55 56 NATURAL OBJECTS IN GENERAL. have no life, and therefore called inanimate objects, that is, objects without life. Every thing which " lives and moves, and has a being," does so by the direct and mysterious laws of God, which we can neither understand nor imitate. These are called natural objects, or the "productions of nature;" terms by which we distinguish, them from the works of man, which are called "productions of art." The productions of nature are not alike in all countries, as their growth and existence depend in some measure on climate. Some countries are very hot all the year round, others are very cold, and others neither very hot nor very cold, but tem- perate. This difference of climate makes the soil vary in its degrees of productiveness. Many useful things, therefore, which plentifully grow in one country, are not found in another ; and this has led the people of different countries to buy and sell with each other, exchanging such articles as they do not want amongst themselves, for others which they stand in need of. By this means the productions of nature are spread over the whole world, for the comfort and convenience of man. Questions. With what are the earth, the air, the waters filled ? Which of these objects have animal life ? Is there any other kind of life ? Name it. What objects have no life, and what are they called ? Are all countries equally productive ? How is this difference accounted for ? ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 57 LESSON II. THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE. > ALL objects with which we are acquainted have been arranged by naturalists in three divisions, called the " kingdoms of nature." These are, first, the animal kingdom; second, the vegetable, kingdom; and, third, the mineral kingdom. The animal kingdom is so named because every thing which it includes possesses animal life, that is, it can move and feel. This king- dom is already known to contain upwards of twenty-three thousand different species, or kinds of animals. The forms and sizes of these animals are exceedingly varied ; and they are found in great abundance on the earth, in the air, and in the waters. Some are so small as to require the aid of a microscope to discover them ; others, as the elephant and the whale, excite our wonder by their magnitude and strength, whilst others delight us by the beauty of their colours, or the elegance of their shapes. The vegetable kingdom, which includes trees, plants, shrubs, grasses, and mosses, is so named from the objects embraced by it having what is termed vegetable life, that is, they do live, but can neither move nor feel. A plant lives and dies in the very same place it first took root, and shows no signs of being sensible to injury. This 58 ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOM. kingdom is known to contain as many as fifty thousand different species. The mineral kingdom includes all those na- tural objects which have no life, such as stones, earths, metals, and many others. This kingdom contains about two hundred and seventy species. We are thus already acquainted with upwards of seventy-three thousand different kinds of ob- jects, the whole of which come under the general term, " productions of nature," and fall into one of the great divisions, or kingdoms. - These kingdoms are essential one to another, for without the vegetable world animals could not live, nor the vegetable without the mineral. The meanest animal is designed for some certain use, so is the most insignificant vegetable or mineral ; and this should make us careful to examine every thing that comes before us, as we shall never fail to find much that will both please and instruct us. Questions. Mention the three kingdoms of nature. What is animal life 1 In what does vegetable life differ from animal life ? What does the mineral kingdom include ? Are the three kingdoms independent of each other ? What do we learn from every thing having some use 1 Which of the three kingdoms includes the following ob jects 1 A horse an oyster a whale ? {'Which comprises the following objects ? A diamond a flint a sword blade? Which the following 1 A rose a pine tree a strawberry! PRODUCTIONS OF HOT COUNTRIES. 59 LESSON III. PRODUCTIONS OF HOT COUNTRIES. THE animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms, are found to differ in different coun- tries. The wisdom of God has ordained that every climate should produce those objects which are necessary for the comfort and convenience of its inhabitants. Thus we find that hot countries, which have no winter, abound in juicy and re- freshing fruits. The cocoanut, the olive, the date, the melon, the orange, and the pineapple, grow luxuriantly, and afford grateful and refresh- ing food. A few dates and a crust of bread are the dinner of the Arab, and a slice or two of bread- fruit the simple and healthy repast of the South Sea islander. The animal kingdom, in hot countries, contains some of the largest species that live on land. The elephant has its native home there, and in its wild state is found from ten to twelve feet high, and from thirteen to fourteen feet long, and often 60 PRODUCTIONS OP HOT COUNTRIES. weighing six or seven thousand pounds. Even with this enormous bulk and weight it is an ani- mal of quick motions, and will travel seventy or eighty miles a day. The camel, so beautifully called the "ship of the desert," is capable of endur- ing intense heat, and, though burdened with a load" of six hundred pounds, can perform a journey of sixty miles in ten hours. Many dry and sterile regions of the earth would have been impassable by beasts of burden, but for this docile and patient animal. By a singular and wonderful provision, it is enabled to travel several days without drink- ing, over burning sands and under a scorching sun, where any other creature would perish. The ostrich, one of the largest birds, also dwells in hot countries. It cannot fly, as its wings have nothing but soft, downy feathers upon them. To compensate it for this want, however, it can run exceedingly fast, faster than the fleetest horse, and would soon outstrip its pursuers, who hunt it for the sake of its feathers, were it to go straight for- wards ; but it runs from side to side, and is soon caught. Some of the largest snakes, as the boa constrictor, have also their haunts in hot countries. The people inhabiting warm climates are seldom so strong or so active as the natives of temperate regions. The soil is, however, so fertile, that the finest fruit and grain are produced with little or no labour. The fields are always green, and the trees never stripped of their leaves ; but blossom and fruit, seed-time and harvest, are in constant sue- PRODUCTIONS OP HOT COUNTRIES. 61 cession. In these countries, where the inhabitants are least able to bear thick and heavy garments, the silk-worm provides them with a light material, admirably fitted for their clothing. Questions. "What kind of fruits are chiefly found in hot countries 1 How is this accounted for 1 Mention the diet of the Arab and the South Sea islander. What large animals live in hot countries'? To what size does the elephant grow 1 How far can it travel in a day 1 What renders the camel so valuable in hot and dry regions? What peculiarity has the ostrich 1 Why is it so readily caught by the hunter 1 What appearance has the country in hot climates 1 What creature furnishes the people with suitable clothing ? 62 PRODUCTIONS OP COLD COUNTRIES. LESSON IV. THE PRODUCTIONS OF COLD COUNTRIES. THE animal and vegetable kingdoms, in cold countries, have a very different appearance from that . which they have in very hot ones. The care of Almighty God is however seen alike in both ; and their productions are equally fitted to the comforts and wants of the inhabitants. The soil of very cold countries cannot yield much. The summer is so short, that fruit and grain do not ripen ; and the few vegetables which nourish there are chiefly lichens, moss, and stunt- ed shrubs. The natives, therefore, do not seek their support from the vegetable kingdom, but live almost entirely on the flesh of fish, water-fowl, and wild animals. These exist in great plenty, and many of them are covered with thick fur, which serves as a warm clothing against the extreme cold. The rein-deer is an animal peculiar to cold coun- tries. It supplies the inhabitants with almost PRODUCTIONS OF COLD COUNTRIES. 63 every thing which we obtain from the horse, the ox, and the sheep, and provides for the greatest part of their wants. A man's wealth in these countries is calculated by the number of rein-deer he possesses ; for they supply all the purposes of food, clothing, and draught. Their skins are made into shoes, bedding, tent covers, and dress ; their horns into various kinds of vessels : their bones into knives, spoons, and needles; and their sinews into cord and thread. Very little trouble is re- quired to keep the rein-deer, as it feeds chiefly, on leaves and mosses, which it seeks for itself, by scraping away the snow that generally covers the ground with its hoofs and horns. It is the familiar companion of its owner and his family ; and it can perform a journey of more than a hundred miles in twenty successive hours. The female gives a rich milk, and the flesh forms an excellent food. In other countries still colder, the dog is almost equally useful. In these situations, where he is the servant and companion of man, he gives striking proofs of sagacity and docility. He serves for drawing sledges over the frozen snow, and has been known to travel nearly a hundred miles a day. He braves the severest snow storms, and is rarely known to miss his way, even when his driver cannot keep his eyes open. The flesh is considered an excellent article of diet; but so great is his value that he is seldom killed, unless his owner is severely pressed by famine. 64 PRODUCTIONS OP COLD COUNTRIES. The "mighty whale" and the seal form a great part of the means of sustenance to some tribes of people in very cold countries. They are fondest of the fat, or blubber, and, according to the ac- count of travellers, are the greatest eaters in the world. The inhabitants of very cold countries are of small size, but are strong and active in their per- sons. Their dress, which is composed principally of skins covered with fur, is very warm, and often very valuable, the fur being an important article of commerce. Questions. Are many vegetable productions found in cold countries ? What is the principal diet of the people in northern regions ? Describe some of the uses of the rein-deer. What other animal is very valuable in some cold countries ? Does the dog show signs of sagacity in these situations ? Mention an example of this. What part of the whale is chiefly eaten 1 Is there any peculiarity as to the size of the people ? Esquimaux Dog. TEMPERATE COUNTRIES. 65 LESSON V. PRODUCTIONS OP TEMPERATE COUNTRIES. MANY of the most useful and valuable objects in the three "kingdoms of nature" are found in temperate countries, where the climate is neither very hot nor very cold. .' We live in a temperate country, and have summer, autumn, winter, and spring, in regular and equal succession. The weather in these countries is in general very changeable, but these changes are in the highest degree favourable to the fertility of the soil. The animal kingdom, in temperate countries, embraces those creatures which are the most ser- viceable to man. The horse, the ox, and the sheep, are found in their most perfect state, and are made use of for draught, for riding, for food, and for clothing; while the different sorts of grain and grass, which serve for our own support, as well as for that of animals, are more abundant than in any other part of the world. In very cold countries, none of these animals will live. The horse, when F2 G6 PRODUCTIONS OF found as far north as even the Zetland islands, is reduce'd to a very diminutive size,, heing scarcely so large as the smallest of our ponies, and soon becoming old and useless ; Whilst in very hot countries the cow loses some of her most valuable properties, and the wool of the sheep is deprived of its fleecy character, and is converted into hair. The productions of the vegetable kingdom, in temperate countries, are much more varied than in other situations. The wisdom of God has so or- dered, that many of the most useful plants, which grow in other climates, should also flourish here. A much greater number of valuable vegetables are therefore cultivated amongst us than any where else. Wheat, the potato, many of our richest fruits, and most of the ornamental shrubs which adorn our gardens and shrubberies, have been introduced from warm countries. And our forests, though wanting in the magnificence and grandeur of those of hot climates, abound with useful trees, such as the oak, the ash, the elm, and the beech. The mineral kingdom is peculiarly rich in tem- perate regions, where the climate is also favourable for the labour necessary to make its stores available. Coal, iron, tin, lead, copper, and other minerals essential to arts and manufactures, and to the com- forts of life, are found in great plenty. These form valuable articles of commerce, as they are useful to mankind in every part of the world. The inhabitants of temperate countries are of moderate size, and live almost equally on animal TEMPERATE COUNTRIES. 67 and vegetable matter. In this respect they differ from the natives of very hot and very cold regions. People in the latter climate, it has been already said, eat nothing but animal food ; and in warm climates, very little but vegetable food is consumed. Thus we find that the productions of nature are fitted, in every country and in every climate, to the peculiar wants and condition of their inhabit- ants ; and thus, wherever we look, we find cause to admire the wisdom, and to love the goodness, of the Creator of all things. Questions. What kind of climate has our country ? What good effects arise from the changeableness of the weather 1 What animals are found in the greatest perfection in tem- perate countries ? Are the cow and the sheep as valuable in hot as in tempe- rate countries ? Do many useful vegetables grow in temperate countries ? What mineral productions are found very plentifully ? Why are these valuable articles of commerce ? In what respect does the diet of the natives differ from that in hot and cold countries ? What do we discover from this circumstance ? Do we live in a temperate climate 1 ? (58 OP ANIMALS IN GENERAL. ^ LESSON VI. -VV--3 OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. ALL animals living upon the earth, in the sea, or in the air have been arranged into six classes ; namely, mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects, and worms, or molluscous animals. Every animal has a stomach, that is, a cavity in some part of its body, into which food is received, and which there undergoes a process^called diges- tion. This is one great mark of distinction be- tween animals and vegetables, as these last have nothing whatever in the shape of a stomach. No animal but man possesses reason. God has, however, given to other creatures instinct, by which they are enabled to provide for all their wants with unerring certainty. The instinctive actions of many animals are very surprising, They build habitations of the most curious con- struction, catch their prey with the most surprising OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. 69 address, and do many other things which might appear to arise from reflection and judgment. A particular kind of spider, which makes itself a house in holes in the ground, shuts up the entrance by means of a door, composed of particles of soil, fastened together by threads of silk. This door is held by a silken hinge to the opening at the upper side, and is so nicely balanced, that, when pushed up, it shuts itself again by its own weight. The most wonderful examples of instinct are shown, however, by those animals which live together in great numbers, as the bee and the ant. These build themselves habitations of the most beautiful regularity, land full of commodious apartments. The modes which some animals take to defend themselves afford singular proofs of the care taken for their preservation. Horses have been known, when attacked by a wolf, to range them- selves in a circle with their heads close together, and to defend themselves by kicking out with their hind-legs ; oxen use their horns for the same purpose, and the hedge-hog erects its prickles. Some creatures, which live in water, make it muddy when in danger, and the cuttle-fish throws out an inky fluid, and by this means hides itself, and escapes pursuit. Others, particularly amongst insects, feign to be dead. The dor-beetle, which is so commonly found humming about, will, when it is caught, stretch out its legs quite stiff, 70 OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL. and lie perfectly motionless, as long as there appears to be any danger. The force of instinct is also very strongly shown by the way in which many birds build their nests. Their eggs and young being much exposed to danger, the greatest ingenuity is displayed in guarding them against it. Some build in thick bushes, others in the clefts of rocks ; the bank- swallow burrows in sand ; the starling covers her nest with thorns ; the spotted woodpecker and the nuthatch build in hollow trees, taking the greatest pains to fill up part of the entrance with clay ; and many birds, as the grosbeak, and others, in countries abounding with snakes, whicfr are very fond of nestlings, suspend their nests from the extremities of the most delicate twigs, and enter them through a narrow funnel-shaped pas- sage from below. Questions. Into how many classes has the animal kingdom been divided ? Name them. What is it that forms a great distinction between animals and vegetables 1 What has been given to animals in place of reason ? Name some of the effects of instinct, as in the spider, the bee, and the ant. How do horses and oxen defend themselves ? By what means does the cuttle-fish escape pursuit 1 What creature feigns to be dead when it is in danger "? Mention the ways in which birds build their nests. ON THE SENSES OF ANIMALS. 71 LESSON VII. ON THE SENSES OP ANIMALS. GREAT differences are found to exist amopgst animals, as to the quickness and extent of range of their senses. The eye of the eagle is very acute ; and he can see his prey when soaring at immense heights in the air. Such animals as feed on carrion scent a carcass at great distances ; and will find it even when very carefully concealed. That "household depredator," the mouse, has also a keen smell; and may be allured from its most secret and distant haunts by a bit of toasted cheese. The senses of the dog seem to be very acute. Led by that of smell, he can find his way home from great distances, and trace his master through a crowded street. All his sensations indeed appear keen ; as he shows every mark of delight when in company with those to whom he is attached, and is dull and languid when absent from them. So strong, indeed, are his feelings of attachment, that 73 ON THE SENSES OF ANIMALS. instances have been known in which he has pined and died when separated from his master. The horse, too, obeys cheerfully the voice of his driver; the huge elephant pays willing obedience to his keeper ; and the patient camel bends to the earth to receive his load. There can be no doubt but that the possession of a very nice sense of taste and smell is the cause which enables animals to select their food. The larger horned cattle, such as cows, will eat only about two hundred and seventy kinds of plants out of the fifty thousand which the vegetable kingdom contains. They leave all the rest untouched, however beautiful and nutritious they may be. The horse feeds upon two hundred and sixty-two species; whilst the hog, still more choice in its selection in a wild state, eats only of seventy-two, and will not taste any other. Caterpillars show the same capacity of selection; for if thirty differ- ent kinds of leaves are put in their way, they will, perhaps, touch only one out of the whole number. The silk-worm subsists on the leaves of the mul- berry tree, and the persons engaged in the rearing of silk-worms are under the necessity of cultivat- ing this tree on purpose to support them. Thus, looking at a pasture-field, it will be seen that some places are cropped quite bare, and others left untouched ; but as the tastes of animals vary, those plants which are refused by one species are eaten by another. Some plants, too, which are poisonous to one creature, are eaten greedily, and ON THE SENSES OF ANIMALS. 73 without doing any harm, by others. The goat, the horse, and the sheep feed upon the water- hemlock, which is a certain poison to 'the cow. The sense of touch varies greatly in different animals. Man uses his hands, feet, tongue, and lips for feeling: monkeys do the same. In other instances, this sense is chiefly seated in the snout, the proboscis, or lips. Birds use their feet and bills for touching. In snipes and ducks, which have long bills, and which seek their food among mud, the extremities of these are soft, and have a very delicate sense of touch. The hearing of most animals is remarkably acute: thus, in watching birds and other creatures, it is quite obvious that they are sensible of many sounds that we do not hear. Questions* For what is the eagle remarkable ? What kind of animals smell their food at great distances I Are the senses of the dog very acute? Mention some proofs of this. What is it that guides animals in their selection of food ? How many kinds of plants are eaten by cows ? How many by the horse and the hog t What plant poisons the cow, and not the horse, the goat, and the sheep 1 What parts are chiefly used for feeling, by different animals ? Do animals hear quickly ? 74 CLOTHING OP ANIMALS. LESSON VIII. ! CLOTHING OF ANIMALS. THE care of a beneficent Creator is beautifully seen in the clothing with which he has provided his creatures. This varies greatly in different species, and in the same species, according as the climate is hot or cold in which it lives; thus the dogs of Guinea, and the sheep of Africa and India, which are very hot countries, have so little wool upon them that they may be said to be naked, whilst the Siberian dog, and Iceland sheep, where the climate is very cold, are covered with a thick long fur. The covering of swine, in hot regions, consists of nothing but bristles,; in colder districts, however, there is, in addition to these, a quantity of fine short wool next the skin. The same variations are seen amongst our own domestic animals. The hair upon horses grows CLOTHING OF ANIMALS. 75 longer and thicker as winter approaches, and thins and falls off in the spring: this is called their win- ter-coating, and preserves them from the cold. The same thing takes place with cows and sheep. Those animals which are sought after on account of their furs, as the beaver, the fox, the hare, the rabbit,' and others, are never hunted during the summer, because the fur is then thin and short, and of little value. As soon ? however, as winter sets in, the fur ripens, as it is called, and rapidly in- creases in quantity and length. Not only does the clothing of animals vary in quantity, according to climate and season, but, in many cases, it also changes colour. The arctic fox, during the mild weather, is of a bluish-gray tint, but becomes quite white during the severe cold of winter. The Alpine hare, which inhabits the mountains of the northern part of Great Britain, has a coat of tawny- gray for its summer-dress, but in winter it changes to a snowy whiteness. A similar circumstance takes place with the ermine, which, from a pale reddish-brown, changes to a beautiful whiteness. This alteration in colour, like the alteration in quantity, is a wise and benefi- cent provision to preserve animals from the effects of extreme cold. The colour of the plumage of birds, like that of the hair of animals, changes with the season in many instances. The ptarmigan, or white grouse, during the summer, has feathers of an ash colour, mottled with dark spots and bars; but as cold 76 CLOTHING OP ANIMALS, weather comes on, the dark spots disappear, and its plumage is left of a pure white : in spring, the ashy colour returns again. The guillemot, a water- bird which frequents our coasts, during summer is quite black, excepting a single white spot on its wings. In the winter, the bird becomes of a dus- ky-white colour; and when seen in situations still colder, it is perfectly white. V Questions. What difference is found amongst animals as to their clothing ? Name some examples. What change is observable in the horse in summer and winter 1 Why are animals which yield furs sought for only in winter 1 What other change takes place in the clothing of animals ? Mention the names of some animals which become white. Is the same thing observed amongst birds 1 Name some instances. WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS. 77 LESSON IX. SLEEP, AND THE WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS. OTHER animals have, like man, times of action and of repose ; and, when fatigued, seek a safe and convenient resting place. Some are exceed- ingly watchful during sleep, and appear scarcely to shut their eyes, as the hare and the chamois. Cats, owls, and several beasts of prey, pass the day partly in sleep, and seek their food during the night. The attention bestowed by Almighty God upon the works of his hand, is very forcibly shown by the torpid state in which many of these pass certain portions of the year. Animals which have this peculiarity are called hybernating ; and, during the winter months in temperate countries, and the dry seasons in hot ones, they fall into a deep sleep, and remain motionless for weeks and sometimes for months. They are, by this singular means, preserved from being de- stroyed by cold, and from perishing for want of food, in seasons when it would have been im- possible for them to have procured it. Some of these hybernating animals towards the end of autumn prepare for themselves, with great labour and skill, a winter-house, and store it with provisions. The hamster, a very common animal in Switzerland and Germany, G 2 78 WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS. makes itself an extensive habitation under ground; and in this it shuts itself up, first closing and fortifying all the openings. Here, as the cold weather advances, it feeds upon its stores, and finally becomes torpid ; in this state it remains till the warmth of spring revives it, and fresh food can be found. The marmot burrows a similar house for itself ; but it lays up no provisions, as it becomes torpid at once, and never awakes till late in the spring. y Bats retire to caves, the hollows of old trees, or to the chimneys of uninhabited houses ; and in these situations may be found hanging in clusters. The hedge-hog rolls itself up in leaves and dried grass, and conceals itself in hedges ; frogs con- gregate at the bottom of ponds ; lizards hide themselves in the clefts of rocks ; spiders wrap themselves up in their webs ; the common house- fly may always be found in some retired corner ; and snails fasten themselves to crevices in old walls and other similar places. Several hybernating animals occasionally awake if a few fine days occur during the cold season. Instinct has, in these cases, taught them to lay up provisions, such as nuts, acorns, and other things : these are either enclosed in their dwell- ing, as in Jie hamster, or placed somewhere con- veniently near. That beautiful little creature, the dormouse, may sometimes, on a mild day, be seen stealing from its nest, warmly lined, and secured against wet, to its granary under the WINTER SLEEP OF ANIMALS. 79 root of some old thorn, or hidden in some secret crevice not far off. Creatures that pass the winter in a torpid state are generally cold to the touch, and ap- pear to be almost dead. They also become much lighter during their torpidity, and when they awake, in the spring, are very thin. Questions. What animals are very watchful during sleep ? In what manner do some animals spend the winter-months 1 What name is given to them in consequence 1 How does the hamster prepare its winter-house ? Mention some other examples of hybernating animals. Do all these animals sleep during the whole winter ] How are they preserved from want of food when they awake "? Mention one example. What is remarkable about these torpid animals ? 80 BIRDS OF PASSAGE. LESSON X. MIGRATION OF ANIMALS BIRDS OF PASSAGE. THERE is another very curious proof of the instinct of animals, and of the care taken for their preservation ; and this is their migrations. This signifies that, at certain times, they remove from one situation to another often to very great distances ; crossing wide seas, and passing over entire countries : one kind of bat being known to live here during the summer, and to remove to the south during the winter. There are but few quadrupeds which migrate very far. These rather remove from one part of the same country to another, according to the seasons. Some kinds of deer, however, in north- ern regions, change their residence^in summer and winter, and travel considerable distances. Many birds migrate, and are hence called birds of passage. We are told in the Bible, that ''the stork in heaven knoweth her appointed times ; and the turtle, and the crane, and the BIRDS OF PASSAGE. SI swallow, observe their time of coming." The regularity with which these creatures depart from, and return to us, is very surprising. The same pair of swallows have been known to occupy, for several successive years, the same nest, and to twitter, as old friends, at the same window-sill ; yet these, during their absence, must have passed their time a thousand miles to the south. That most delicious warbler, the mocking bird, which spends the summer with us in Pennsylva- nia, removes, at the end of autumn, into the south. This bird is so constituted as to be unable to bear the coldness of our winter. During the sum- mer our groves and orchards are filled with "feathered choristers," busily engaged in rearing their young ; but no sooner is this effected, and the cold winds of autumn begin to blow, than they wing their way to more genial climates, again to delight us by their reappearance, in spring, as the harbingers of our finest seasons. These birds are called summer birds of passage ; it is God who teaches them their appointed times of coming and going, and who guides them in their long journeys. Most birds, when preparing to migrate, assem- ble together in great flocks. Thus we may see clouds of swallows wheeling about in the air, in Septen^jer, as if they were trying their strength of wing before their final departure. Woodcocks, turtle-doves, wild-geese, and shear-waters, do the same, and are always seen travelling in company. There are other migratory birds, which spend 82 BIRDS OP PASSAGE. the winter with us, and not the summer. These are called winter birds of passage; and are chiefly water-fowl, that are driven from more northern regions by the freezing of the creeks, lakes, and marshes. These leave us in the spring, when the waters are again open, and breed while they are absent; generally retiring to Canada and New Britain. Such birds as feed in the night, as the woodcock, perform their migration by night; and others, that seek their food during the day, fly during daylight, and rest at night. When it is asked how birds can make such dis- tant journeys? the answer is simple The rate at which they fly is quite astonishing, and has been calculated at from fifty to seventy miles an hour. A day's journey would carry them, therefore, four or five hundred miles; and, as they are capable of remaining for many hours without food, they easily pass from one country to another. Questions. What is the meaning of migration 1 Do many quadrupeds migrate ? Do many birds migrate, and what name is given to them ? What is remarkable about the return of the swallow 1 Where does it pass the winter ? Where does the mocking-bird winter 1 ? Do summer birds of passage rear their young with us 1 What kind of birds are chiefly the winter birds of passage ? Do these breed with us ? At what rate do these birds fly ? STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIA. 8? Ounng-oatang. LESSON XL FIRST CLASS OF ANIMALS MAMMALIA. ALL animals, however various their forms, and however different in their modes of living, have been arranged into six classes. The first of these classes is called mammalia, because the animals included in it suckle their young, till they are able to provide themselves with food. They have also been called viviparous animals, because their young are born alive. The mammalia, generally speaking, are qua- drupeds, that is four-legged animals: man has however, two feet, and is hence called a biped; and the monkey tribe, instead of four feet, have four hands, and are called quadrumanouSy or four handed animals. The greatest part of the mammalia live upon the ground. There are however some, as apes, squir- 84 STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIA. rels, and the sloth, which spend most of their time in trees. A few, as, the mole and the hamster, dwell chiefly underground ; others, as the beaver, the water-rat, the white bear, and the seal, are sometimes on land, and sometimes in the water, and a few live entirely in the sea. Such of these animals as live partly on land and partly in water have their fingers and toes con nected by a membrane or web, which is of great use to them in swimming. Bats have the long finger-like toes of their fore-feet united by a delicate web, which, when the toes are opened, expands and forms wings, and -are by this means enabled to fly. They are the only mammalia which have this power, though there is one species of squirrel, called the flying-squirrel, which can support itself for considerable distances through the air when springing from tree to tree. Many animals in this class have horny and un- divided hoofs, as the horse and the ass ; others have cloven feet, as the sheep and the cow. Most of them walk on their toes, only a very few species planting the sole of the foot on the ground. The bodies of most of the mammalia are covered with hair. Some have it scattered very thinly over the body, as the elephant and the rhinoceros; others are very thickly covered, as the sheep. This hair varies greatly, both in length and colour. In some species it is curled and woolly, as in many varieties of dogs ; in others it is stiff and straight, forming bristles ; and sometimes it is in the shape STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIA. 85 of strong and pointed spines, as in the hedgehog and the porcupine. There are some animals which have the hair on the neck long and flowing, as in the horse and lion, in these cases it is called a mane ; and in others it grows long under the chin, and is then called a beard, as in the goat. Besides claws and teeth, many of the mammalia are furnished with horns to defend themselves. Those of the stag are branched, and termed antlers. They are shed or cast off every year, and replaced by new ones, which are at first very soft and tender. Some animals of this class, as the ape, the seal, and the hamster, are furnished with cheek-pouch- es, or little bags placed on each side the lower jaw. These they use as pockets, and carry provisions in them ; others have a pouch or bag on the body, which is large enough for their young to creep in when feeding, or when threatened with danger. This peculiarity is seen in the kangaroo and the opossum. Questions. What shape have the mammalia in general 1 In. what respect does man differ from the rest? Are monkeys four-footed animals, and what name is applied to them ? Mention the different situations in which the mammalia live. What peculiarity have creatures which live partly on land and in water I Describe the wing of the bat. H 86 STRUCTURE OP THE MAMMALIA. Does any other animal of this class fly ? In what respect do the hoofs of horses and cows differ 1 With what are the bodies of the mammalia generally covered ? What names are given to the hair when it grows long in certain situations 1 What animals are furnished with cheek-pouches'? What is the use of those cheek-pouches 1 What is meant by the term antlers? How often are they shed by the stag 1 What is the meaning of biped? What is the meaning of quadrumanous ? What is said of the flying-squirrel 1 What animals have undivided hoofs 1 What animals have cloven feet ? Describe the different kinds of hair. What animals have a mane 1 What animals have a beard ? Cbimpanse. MAMMALIA OF THE SEA. 87 LESSON XII. MAMMALIA OP THE SEA. SEVERAL of the mammalia live entirely in the sea. Amongst these are various kinds of whale, the narwhal, and the dolphin. These animals, though living in water like fish, and having the same habits in general, nourish their young in the same manner as the other mammalia. The whale is the largest of all animals, and grows to a vast size, sometimes measuring eighty or ninety feet in length, nearly as many in circum- ference, and weighing from two to three hundred thousand pounds. The mouth of the whale is very large, and the tongue fourteen or fifteen feet long, and seven or eight feet wide. 88 MAMMALIA OP THE SEA. This immense creature, however, lives upon small sea-animals, and is provided with a very cu- rious apparatus for catching them. This is what is called whale-bone, and consists of numerous plates, fixed to the top of the mouth, with a fringe growing from their lower edges. It is by means of this fringe that the whale is enabled to catch its prey, as it serves as a sort of sieve to entangle the small animals that are taken into its enormous mouth. Its skin is very smooth, and looks almost like oiled silk, and beneath this is a coating of fat from ten to twelve inches thick. It is for the fat, or blubber, as it is termed, that this huge animal is principally sought after, as it supplies us with train-oil. The nostrils open on the top of the head, and are called blow-holes, through which it can spout water with great force. The whale dwells in the frozen seas of the north, and is very useful to the people in- habiting those desolate regions. The spermaceti-whale yields the fine oil called spermaceti. These huge creatures are very quiet and inoffensive, and are generally seen in shoals or pairs. Another of the mammalia, which lives in the sea, is the dolphin. This animal is much celebrated for the beauty of its colours, and for its sportive character. It is often seen playing about ships in great numbers, gamboling backwards and for- wards ; and when taken from the water, exhibits a series of very brilliant colours. The narwhal has no teeth, but has a large horn MAMMALIA OP THE SEA. 89 growing from its forehead : this tapers towards the end, and is curiously twisted, and from this peculiarity it is sometimes called the sea-uni- corn. Questions. What mammalia live in the sea 1 For what are whales chiefly taken I To what size does the whale grow ? What does the whale live on ? What is the character of the whale ? For what is the dolphin celebrated ? Why is the narwhal sometimes called the sea-unicorn ? Are these sea mammalia generally of harmless habits'? Seal., H2 UTILITY OF THE MAMMALIA TO MAN. Indiana selling peltry. LESSON XIII UTILITY OF THE MAMMALIA TO MAN. ALL the "productions of nature" are designed, by their Divine Author, to fulfil some wise and beneficial purpose. Among the rest, the mam- malia are especially useful to man ; and serve for riding, for draught, for carrying burdens, and for cultivating the land. For these purposes the horse, the ass, the ox, the buffalo, the rein-deer, the elephant, the camel, the dog, and the llama are willing servants. Man also finds his prin- cipal supply of food in this class of animals ; the flesh of the ox, the sheep, the goat, the hog, the stag, the hare, and the rabbit forming a nourish- ing and palatable diet. In some countries the flesh of the horse and the dog 'is much esteemed. The fat, the blood, and the milk of mammalia are also used as food. Besides these uses, many parts of animals are of the utmost importance to the comfort and con- OP THE MAMMALIA TO MAN. 91 venience of man. He derives the greatest part of his clothing from their skins, their hair, and their wool. Many skins are prepared with the hair left upon them, and in this state are called furs, or in commerce peltry. These are furnished chiefly by wild animals ; as the fox, the hare, the heaver, the ermine, and the sable. The fur of these, and the hair of the dog and the goat, are made into hats. That of cows and calves, and horses, is used for stuffing chairs, sofas, and mattrasses, and for making hair-cloth, the finer sorts of which are sometimes used for clothing, and the coarser for packing valuable goods. The shining stuff, used for covering chairs, is made of horse-hair, and the hair of violin-bows is procured from the tails of horses. Camel-hair is used for making hats, and a stuff called camlet ; and that of the Angora goat is manufactured into a yarn, from which various stuffs are woven. The wool of the sheep is, however, the most valuable, being converted, by means of the loom, into woollen cloth, shalloon, serge, baize, and flannel. The skins of wild boars and seals are used for covering trunks ; but the most important use of the skins of animals is to make leather, by a process termed tanning. This is the business of the tanner, who employs the skins of oxen, calves, sheep, and deer. The beautiful shining leather, called morocco, is made from goat-skin. Candles are made from the fat of cows and 92 UTILITY OF THE MAMMALIA TO MAN. sheep, and the whale and the seal furnish oil for burning in lamps. The bristles of the hog are made into brushes. The horns and teeth, (espe- cially elephants' teeth, or ivory,) and the bones of mammalia, are worked up by the turner into a variety of useful and ornamental articles 5 as knife-handles, boxes, and combs ; and glue is made by boiling down their bones, horns, and sinews. Questions. What class of animals is particularly useful to man? Mention some of the mammalia, and the uses they are of ? What animals supply us principally with food ? For what purpose are skins, hair, and wool used ? What are hats made of? What is made from the hair of cows, calves, and horses ? From the wool of what animal are made flannels, baize, and serge ? What is leather, and what name is given to the process of making it ? Are the horns, teeth, and bones of mammalia useful ? What is glue? BIRDS IN GENERAL. 93 LESSON XIV. BIRDS IN GENERAL. BIRDS form the second class in the animal kingdom. They differ very widely from the mammalia, both in their structure and appear- ance, and in the mode of producing their young. They all lay eggs, and are hence called ovi- parou 5 animals. These eggs, on being incubated or sat upon, are hatched by the warmth of the mother, and at the end of a certain time young birds are produced from them. TLe form of birds is very graceful, and though a numerous class, they have a strong general resemblance to each other. All of them have two legs, two wings, a horny bill, and a body covered with feathers. They are found in every part of the world ; and, like all other natural objects, afford striking proofs of the wisdom and care of their Creator. In very hot countries this class of creatures is seen sporting amidst lofty 94 BIRDS IN GENERAL. forests, or gliding over the richest plains in the most brilliant and gorgeous colours, and of the most beautiful and delicate shapes. The parrots, the crested pheasant, that " floating gem" the hum- ming bird, and the singular but superb bird of paradise, are very numerous. In very cold coun- tries birds are much less plentiful, and consist chiefly of water-fowl. These seek their support in lakes and creeks of the sea, as the ground is almost continually frozen or covered with snow, and consequently does not yield any food. In temperate countries there are a great variety of birds, as some from hotter climates spend the sum- mer there, and others the winter, from cold re- gions. Many of the birds of these countries are also song-birds, and fill the grove and forest with the most delightful music. The vision of birds is in general very quick, and of very wide range. The swallow, which, feeds on small insects, catches them when on the wing, and many of the rapid evolutions it makes are for the purpose of seizing a prey too minute to be seen by man. The hen, when surrounded with her brood, will detect a hawk at a distance far beyond our limit of sight ; and the redstart, though perched on the top of a lofty tree, will dart to the ground, and with unerring aim seize upon the smallest insect. To guard the eyes against mischief when flit- ting rapidly amidst thickets, and to screen them from the glare of the sun, a very singular provision BIRDS IN GENERAL. 95 has been made. This is called the nictitating or winking membrane, and is in the form of a half- transparent curtain, which the bird can at pleasure draw over the eye, just in the same way as we use our eyelids. The bill or beak of birds serves all the purposes of teeth. It is used for seizing and bruising their food, and as a sort of hand for carrying ; and is besides the instrument for cleaning and pruning their feathers, for building their nests, for defence, and in some instances, as in that of the parrot, for climbing. Questions. In what way do birds produce their young ? What are they called in consequence What parts are common to all birds ? W r hat birds are found plentifully in hot countries? What kind of birds are plentiful in cold countries? How is this accounted for ? Are birds numerous in temperate climates ? Mention some instances of the quickness of sight in birds. What guards their eyes ? For what purposes is the bill useful ? Fish-hawk and Eagle. 96 STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. LESSON XV. STRUCTURE OF BIRDS WINGS, LUNGS, CROP, FEATHERS, ETC. THE frame of birds is very beautifully adapted to their habits. Many of them pass a great portion of their time in the air, either in the pursuit of their prey, or in sportive gambols, and in these we find every part of the body framed as lightly as possible. In order to enable them to glide easily along, all their feathers lie one way, pointing backwards, and folding over each other in. regular order. No resistance is offered to their flight by this arrangement, whilst beneath these there is a layer of soft down, which preserves them from cold, to the effects of which, but for this provision, they would have been much exposed. The wings of birds are the means by which they support themselves, and contain the largest and STRUCTURE OP BIRDS. 97 strongest feathers; though made of very light materials, they are moved by powerful muscles. These propel them forwards with great rapidity, and enable them to sustain long flights during their migrations. Their bones are also exceedingly light and thin ; and to make them still more buoyant, air-cells, connected with their lungs, are extended almost over the whole body. In the mammalia, the lungs are confined to the chest, but in this class they pass along. the sides of the body into the bones, and even -into the pinions or wing-feathers. All these are filled when the bird breathes, and it is thus made almost as light as the air, and floats in it very easily and lightly. Next to the wings, the largest feathers are in the tail, and this is used as a kind of rudder, to guide and regu- late their motions when flying. Birds have no teeth for masticating their food, and therefore either swallow it whole, or crush and tear it with their bills. Some of them, which feed principally on grain, always swallow it with- out breaking; and in these the food does not pass at once into the proper stomach, or gizzard, as it is termed, but is received into a pouch called the crop, where it is softened and rendered fit for digestion. These birds are in the habit of swal- lowing pebbles and gravel, which appear to be useful in the crop, and to assist in bruising the hard skin of the grain. The greatest part of birds live in trees, some on the water, and but very few on the ground only. I . 98 STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. Those that live in trees, and spend their time on land, have the toes separate ; as the sparrow, the linnet, and the canary; whilst the goose, the duck, the swan, and other waterfowl have their toes connected by a membrane or web, and are hence called web-footed. This web enables them to swim readily and quickly, as it offers a wide sur- face to T he water, and serves as a broad oar. The feathers of birds are of very curious con- struction, and have a series of webs or beards, one lying over the other so as effectually to keep out moisture, and forming a complete dress. To assist in keeping the body dry, birds are also provided with a gland or little bag, seated near the tail, from which they procure a supply of oil to smear over their feathers, and thus allow the water to run off without penetrating. Questions. What is particular in the structure of birds 1 In what way are their feathers arranged*? In what part is a bird provided with powerful muscles 1 What are the uses of these ? What is peculiar about the lungs of birds 1 Do they differ in this respect from the mammalia'? Do some birds swallow their food whole 1 Does it then pass at once into the stomach or gizzard ? What is the name of the pouch into which it is received ? What difference is there in the toes of land and water birds T How are birds protected from wet 1 FOOD OP BIRDS. 99 LESSON XVI. FOOD OF BIRDS GRANIVOROUS AND CARNIVOROUS BIRDS THE CONDOR. THE food of birds is very various. Some live principally on worms, caterpillars, and insects ; others, as birds of prey, eat mice and other ani- mals ; others live on seeds and grain. Birds of prey are called carnivorous, or flesh-eating, and those which live on seeds granivorous, or seed- eating. Granivorous birds are the most prolific and most useful to man, as they are easily tamed and domes- ticated. They are in general social, or gregarious in their habits, and often live together in great numbers, forming extensive colonies, as rooks and doves. The fowl, the duck, the goose, and the turkey, are used very largely for food, the flesh being sweet and good, and highly nutritious. The goldfinch, the chaffinch, and the linnet, which de- 100 FOOD OF BIRDS. light us with their song, are granivorous, and may be seen busily pecking the thistle and groundsel when ripe ; whilst the yellow-hammer, the bunt- ing, and the reed-sparrow, run along the ground, collecting the seeds of the different kinds of grass. Carnivorous birds have very different habits from the granivorous. Their manners and dispo- sitions are, in general, fierce and unsocial towards each other, and they are rarely seen in flocks 01 companies. Each pair build themselves a separate habitation, either on the top of some lonely rock, or in the depths of thick woods, and suffer nothing else to dwell near them. Many, as the eagle and the hawk, have strong and active bodies, a power- ful sweep of wing, and are armed with curved bills and strong talons. Their heads are commonly large, with a short neck ; and they possess very acute senses of sight and smell. The hawk may be observed soaring at a height so great, that it appears only a speck, when, all at once, it will de- scend like an arrow, and pounce upon its prey ; perhaps a poor wren cowering amongst the grass, and hardly visible ; and the vulture, when a piece of carrion is exposed, scents it at an amazing dis- tance. The condor, which is the largest flying bird, is carnivorous. It is a very powerful creature, frequently standing a yard high, and its wings measuring six or eight feet from the tip of the one to that of the other. It is capable of carrying away an ox, just as an eagle would carry away a FOOD OF BIRDS. 101 rabbit, but has been seldom known to attack man. It lives in the most elevated situations, and where no other animal or vegetable can exist, making its home on the very highest ridges of the Andes in South America. From these vast heights it soars still higher, and then looks clown on the plains, three or four miles beneath it, for its prey. It lives upon carrion, and destroys deer, vicunas, and other animals, which it carries to its "aery." This immense bird builds no nest, but places its eggs on the bare rock. During the time it is rear- ing its young ones it commits terrible ravages among the cattle and herds of wild horses with which the extensive plains of its native country abound. Questions. On what do birds live ? What name is given to those which feed on flesh ? Why are granivorous birds the most useful ? Are their habits social or gregarious 1 Name some of these birds. In what respect do carnivorous birds differ from granivo- TOUS ? Have they quick senses ? Give an example. Which is the largest flying bird 1 In what situation does the condor dwell ? 102 PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. LESSON XVII. PLUMAGE OP BIRDS THE VOICE OP BIRDS SONG-BIRDS. THE dress of birds is, in many instances, of the most beautiful kind. Nothing indeed can exceed the splendour and brilliance of the different co- lours with which the Father of all things has clad the " winged denizens of the air." The skins of the birds of paradise, which are brought to this country, are of dazzling lustre. Some of them have tippets of feathers, spreading over the breast and back, of the richest hues ; and others have long lines of feathers springing from beneath their wings of the most delicate structure, or branching PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. 103 from the head in the most curious arid beautiful manner. So richly are these creatures clothed, that although their bodies are not larger than those of the blackbird, yet from their quantity of plu- mage they appear as large as the pigeon ; and it is impossible for them to fly, except against the wind. The dress of the humming-birds is equally splen- did, and when they are seen flittering about amidst the flowers they are quite dazzling to the eye. Some of our own birds are also very richly drest The feathers on the neck of the common cock, when he is in complete plumage, possess a metal- lic lustre hardly to be matched ; and the "eyes" in the tail feathers of the peacock are as splendidly bright as the golden breast of the green humming- bird. The great crowned pigeon of the East Indies is the most beautiful of the pigeon kind. Birds shed their feathers at certain periods of the year, and have thus annually a new dress, fit to preserve them from cold. This process is termed moulting, and birds generally are weak and lan- guid whilst it is going on. The largest feathers are in the wings, and from these quills are made. Some birds have no pinions or quill-feathers, and on this account cannot fly, as these are requisite to enable them to support themselves in the air. The ostrich, the cassowary, the penguin, and some others are in this condition. Every species of bird has its own peculiar voice. Some of them easily imitate the song of others ; and if a number of young birds are shut up with a 104 PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. full grown one, they all acquire the same general tone of singing. The mockin v g-bird, in a state of nature, imitates the cries and notes of its neigh- bours with the greatest clearness; and the bullfinch and canary may be taught to pipe a variety of tunes quite correctly. The parrot kind soon learn to articulate words, and will repeat a sentence, or sing a song accurately both as to words and tune. A parrot has been known to sing upwards of fifty dif- ferent songs, keeping time with its foot, and never missing a word. This famous bird, when moulting and unwilling to sing, turned its back to all who asked it, and repeatedly said, "Poll's sick." Song-birds are a delightful race of creatures. During the spring and early summer, and occa- sionally in autumn, the whole air is filled with the sound of their gladness ; not a bush, brake, shrub, hedge-row, or tree, but has its little chorister, each striving with the other in a rivalry of voices. The robins, the orioles, the bobolinks, the blue birds, the wrens, and many others, are either resi- dents with us, or periodical visiters; whilst the "household-bird," the robin redbreast, throughout the entire summer warbles its cheerful melody close to our habitations. Questions. What birds have the most beautiful plumage ? Which of our birds is very richly dressed 1 What is meant by the term moulting ? What is the state of birds when moulting ? PLUMAGE OF BIRDS. 105 What is said of the bird of paradise 1 What is said of the humming-bird I Which is the most beautiful of the pigeon kind ? What birds are without pinions, or wing-feathers ? Can these fly * What are quills made of ? What birds are mentioned which are unable to fly 1 Can birds imitate the voice or song of each other? W T hat bird does this particularly ? What birds are easily taught to pipe, and repeat words 1 Mention a wonderful example of this. What are our chief song-birds ? Great-crowned Pigeon. 106 BIRDS' NESTS, Tailor-bird's nest. LESSON XVIIL BIRDS* nests strikingly show the care taken by God of all his creatures. The instinct which leads to their construction affords some of the most curious proofs of animal sagacity. The beauty of their contrivance, the selection of mate- rials, their firmness of structure, all render these " leafy homes" objects of admiration; and this more especially, when we consider how few are the means possessed by the little architects, and the nature of the substances on which they have to work. A slender bill, a few twigs and blades of dried grass, and a little hair, or moss, are all, and yet what a beautiful and perfect structure is pro^ duced. Every species of bird selects the fittest materials for building its nest, and also builds it in situations 107 where its wants are most readily supplied, and where it can best defend itself. Some, as the finches, use light and simple materials, such as hay, roots, leaves, and reeds ; and others, as the thrush, in addition to these, prepare a sort of mortar from clay and wool, and plaster their nests. The Cape titmouse makes its snug dwelling of vegetable down, so that it looks like flannel, and constructs at its side another little nest for the male. In most cases the female is the builder, though often assist- ed by the male in the collection of materials. Excepting, however, amongst the swallows, where both work with equal industry, he performs a much lower part, though he gathers food for his mate, and cheers her labours by singing, and by every token of gladness. The shape of nests differs very widely, and is much more simple in some species than in others. The snipe, the bustard, and the plover content themselves with a plain bed of twigs and straw placed on the ground, and sheltered from wet. The jay, the sparrow, and the jackdaw build warm and comfortable nests in clefts of rocks, in hollow trees, and in old walls. A number of singing-birds, as the wren, build in the shape of a cup; others, as the hedge-sparrow, in the shape of an oven; and others, in that of a purse. The tailor-bird sews together the edges of a leaf to form its nest, as re- presented in the cut at the beginning of this lesson. Birds are very careful, in finishing their nests, to guard the opening from wet, and to make the 108 AGE OF BIRDS. outside as near the colour as possible of the branch which supports them. The nest of the long-tailed tit is shaped like an egg, and has only a very small opening at the top; over this the bird fixes a feather in a slanting direction, so as to carry off the rain ; and if the finger is passed into the mouth of the nest, several feathers are found placed crosswise as an additional protection. When the nests of birds are undisturbed, and they have laid the usual number of eggs, which varies in different species, the female begins to sit. The constancy with which this sitting, or incuba- tion, is continued, is a beautiful illustration of the instinct of animals. If the mother-bird were to absent herself for a few hours, and leave her eggs exposed to the cold, the young ones contained in them would be destroyed. This fact she has been taught by God ; and, contrary to all her usual habits, she remains day after day, very rarely stir- ring ; and in some instances she sits so closely, that she requires feeding by her mate. We have, indeed, known examples in which the white- throated wren, thougn a very shy and timid bird, has suffered herself to be taken by the hand, rather than abandon her eggs. The length of time re- quired for hatching differs in different species. The common fowl hatches in about twenty -one days. Some birds live to a great age. The eagle and the parrot will live, under favourable circumstances, a hundred years. The swan is said to live two or AGE OF BIRDS. 109 three centuries; and geese, finches, and doves have been known twenty years of age. Questions. In what situations do birds build their nests ? Mention the materials some birds use for building 1 . Which bird is the builder "? How does the male bird employ himself whilst his mate is building 1 What way is the nest of the tit preserved from wet ? What process affords a beautiful example of animal instinct 1 What would be the consequence if the mother left her eggs exposed 1 By whom has she been taught this 1 To what age do some birds live ? K 110 SERVICES RENDERED BY BIRDS. Secrefary. LESSON XIX. SERVICES RENDERED BY BIRDS TO MAN MISCHIEF DONE BY ERDS. BIRDS render many important services to man. The vulture, though disgusting in its habits and appearance, is exceedingly useful in hot countries. It is called the scavenger, and clears the streets and lanes from offal, and dead matter of all kinds, which decays rapidly, and which would make the air unwholesome and disagreeable. The crow, the kite, the hawk, and the raven, destroy field mice, and other small animals, which, if permitted to multiply without check, would do great injury to the corn. The secretary and griffon vulture de- stroy serpents. Insects and vermin are removed in vast num- bers by birds ; and although the sparrow and the rook are often considered as troublesome and ex- pensive visiters, yet if they were entirely to be got rid of, the land would be overrun, and our MISCHIEF DONE BY BIRDS. Ill crops injured or destroyed, by swarms of minute creatures, which these birds prevent from increas- ing too fast. The stork and the crane keep down frogs, snakes, and lizards ; ducks clear the gardens and fields of slugs ; and the martin and swallow devour myriads of caterpillars, insects, and grubs. Many birds destroy weeds, and others promote the extension of useful animals and vegetables in a wonderful manner. Trees that are often found growing upon high walls, or rocks, have in gene- ral been planted there by birds, which deposited the seed on places out of common reach. Wild geese, in their journeys, convey fish-spawn to dis- tant ponds and lakes ; send sea fowls, which gather in thousands, deposit their offal on bare rocks, and cjiffs on the sea coast, from which, in the course of time, a soil is formed, and thus they become covered with vegetation. The mischief done by birds is very trifling, when compared with the services w r hich they ren- der us. Birds of prey, as the condor, the great eagle, and the vulture of the Alps, now and then kill colts, calves, goats, and sheep. The hawk picks up occasionally a stray chicken, or pigeon ; and the falcon, the sparrow-hawk, and the butcher- bird sometimes do the like. The heron, the osprey, and other water fowl, are destructive to fish, and fish-spawn. Storks, which are supposed, by superstitious people, to bring prosperity along with them, and are carefully protected in some countries, though highly useful, are yet mischiev- 112 MISCHIEF DONE BY BIRDS, ous birds, and not only devour frogs, field mice, and moles, but also chickens, larks, bees, fishes, and fish-spawn. Sparrows, and many singing- birds, do injury to corn, grapes, and fruit trees ; less, in many instances, however by eating them, than by pulling the buds to pieces, to discover in- sects and grubs ; the good thus compensating for the eviL Questions. Why has the vulture been called the scavenger? What useful service is performed by crows, kites, and hawks 1 What would be the consequence if rooks and sparrows were destroyed ? What birds clear away frogs, lizards, and slugs ? W 7 hat birds devour so many caterpillars and insects ? In what manner are trees sometimes planted ? By what means are distant lakes and rivers stored with fish? What mischief is done by birds ? Mention one or two instances. In what way do sparrows and other birds injure corn and fruit? STRUCTURE OF REPTILES. US LESSON XX. REPTILES STRUCTURE OF REPTILES CLOTHING OF REPTILES POISONOUS ANIMALS. REPTILES form, the next class of living objects. The word reptile signifies in general any thing which creeps, but it is used in a more strict sense by naturalists. Frogs, lizards, crocodiles, alliga- tors, tortoises, turtles, and serpents, are amongst the reptiles. Reptiles differ very widely from both the mam- malia and from birds in structure, habits, and appearance. The latter have red, or warm blood, and are of the same heat as ourselves, and are hence called warm-blooded animals: but in rep- tiles, the blood is of a paler colour, and they generally feel cold to the touch, and have in con- sequence been called cold-blooded animals. They breathe, however, by means of lungs, which are transparent, and of very fine texture, and they are 114 . CLOTHING OF REPTILES. capable of living a long time without drawing breath. Toads have been discovered alive, though enclosed in the trunks of trees, or in blocks of stone, where they must have remained torpid pro- bably for centuries. Creatures of this class can also endure extreme degrees of cold without perishing. Instances have been known in which frogs imbed- ded in thick masses of ice, have been found living when the ice has thawed gradually and slowly. Most reptiles have voice ; the frog for example croaks, and the serpent makes a hissing noise. The organs of voice are, however, in general, much less developed than in the former classes, with which the reader has been made acquainted, and some of them, as the green lizard, are quite mute. The shape of reptiles is very various. Croco- diles, tortoises, frogs, lizards, and newts are four- footed^ Serpents, on the contrary, are without feet, or any external apparatus for motion. These have, nevertheless, the power of moving with great rapidity, by contracting alternate portions of their long and slender bodies. They can also spring considerable distances by the same means. God has clothed many of the reptiles in a won- derful manner. Some are cased in bony coverings so hard and so strong, that scarcely any weight is sufficient to crush, or any blow to injure them, and into these cases, on the approach of danger, the animals can withdraw their body. Others are defended by numerous horny rings, strong scales, POISONOUS ANIMALS. 115 or shields; and others, that have naked bodies, are covered with thick and glutinous slime. Many of them change their skins from time to time. Some are remarkable for the sudden alterations of colour they undergo. Several kinds of lizard have this peculiarity, more especially the chameleon. Many of the serpents have their bodies beautifully marked with the most lively and brilliant colours, and when slowly waving along the ground, pro- duce very striking effects on the eye. Several lizards are also equally beautiful in colour. It is in the class of reptiles that some poisonous animals are found. The viper, the rattle-snake, the hooded-snake, the asp, the whip-snake, and others, inflict deadly injuries by their bites, as they convey into the wounds made by their teeth a poison fatal to life. The poison-fang of snakes is one of the most singular contrivances in the whole animal world ; and it is fortunate that these crea- tures are in general inoffensive and timid, and sel- dom use their deadly weapon against man, unless made angry or injured. Questions. What creatures form the third <;lass in the animal king- dom? Enumerate some of the reptiles. "What difference is there in the feel of reptiles and mam- malia'? How does this arise ? and what name is given to reptiles in consequence ? 116 POISONOUS ANIMALS. Have they lungs? and what is remarkable about their breathing ? In what situations have toads and frogs been found alive ? Have all of them voice ? What reptiles are four-footed? By what means do serpents move 1 Mention some of the ways in which reptiles are clothed. Do any of them change their skins 1 What is remarkable about the colour of these animals? In what class are poisonous creatures found ? Enumerate some of the poisonous reptiles. How is this poison applied ? What is said of the poison fang ? Are the poisonous reptiles apt to attack other animals when not provoked 1 HABITS OP REPTILES. 117 LESSON XXI. HABITS OF REPTILES TORTOISES FOOD AND VITALITY OF REPTILES. THE young of reptiles are produced from eggs, they are therefore oviparous, like hirds ; but they differ widely from these in one respect, namely, that the eggs are not hatched by the mother, but by the warmth of the sun, after she has deposited them in proper places for this purpose. These places, however, she selects with the utmost care, and the most admirable foresight, so that the eggs may be safe, and that the young ones, when they come out, may find a supply of food. The greater part of them pass the winter months in a state of torpidity. Some of them, as frogs and lizards, are found occasionally in this state, 118 TORTOISES A&D TURTLES. assembled in considerable numbers at the bottom of ponds, or under heaps of rubbish, or the foun- dation of old walls. Tortoises and turtles, which both belong to the same family, live partly in rivers, partly in the sea, and partly on the land. At certain seasons, when they lay their eggs, they travel great dis- tances, to reach suitable situations. The wide current of the river Orinoco in South America, is covered for miles with these creatures at such times ; and in some West India, islands, where the smaller tortoises chiefly gather together, the ground is co- vered for great distances as they travel to the sea- shore, for the purpose of laying their eggs in the sand. They lay more than a hundred eggs at short intervals, digging shallow pits, and then co- vering them with a layer of sand. The mother takes no further care of them, and they are hatched by the heat of the sun. The moment the young ones escape from the shell, they hasten to the water, instinctively taught by their Great Pre- server that this is their 'proper home during the first weeks of their existence, and the only way of escaping the numerous enemies which are lying in wait for them. Some kinds of turtle, as the green and the log- gerhead, grow to a vast size, weighing as much as 800 or 1000 pounds. Their eggs and flesh are excellent food, and are largely used in hot countries, and brought to Europe and the United States in great quantities as a delicacy. All of them have FOOD OF REPTILES. 119 strong bony coverings, or shells, which afford a sure protection against their natural enemies. The upper part of these shells is composed of large horny laminae, or plates, which are in some species beautifully coloured. This, when sepa- rated from the rest, is known under the name of tortoise-shell, and is used for a variety of useful and ornamental purposes ; as the making of combs, boxes, watch-cases, and toys. The food of reptiles is very various. Serpents live on small animals ; tortoises on sea weed, called turtle-grass ; lizards and toads on insects and worms. Nearly all of them are capable of living for considerable periods without food. The salamander will fast for several months, and the tortoise for upwards of a year, and neither of them appear to lose much bulk by their want of food. The tenacity with which these cold-blooded animals cling to life is also very remarkable ; they often recover from the most dreadful injuries, and sometimes even when a part of their body has been destroyed, as a leg or a tail, it is reproduced in the course of a few months. It is in warm climates that reptiles multiply most, and arrive at an immense size, and that the poison of the venomous kinds becomes most active and pernicious. The obscure recesses inhabited by the majority of the reptile tribes are far from being thoroughly explored. How many of these still unknown beings may lie concealed in the depths of inland 120 POOD OF REPTILES. waters, of vast and desert marshes, and of imper- vious wilds of vegetation ! How many may creep yet unheeded amidst the gorges of the Alpine mountains, of the Alleghanies, and of the Andes! Questions. In what way do reptiles produce their young 1 ? How does the mother select places for depositing her eggs 1 In what situations do turtles live 1 What is remarkable in these animals when about to lay their eggs ? Where are they sometimes seen in vast numbers 1 How many eggs do turtles lay? and what kind of nest are they placed in 1 What is singular about the young of turtle 1 How are tortoises protected T What is tortoise-shell, and for what is it used 1 What is singular among reptiles with respect to eating ^ Are they very tenacious of life ? Where do reptiles multiply most 1 THE CROCODILE. 121 LESSON XXII. AGE OF REPTILES CROCODILE ^BOA TOAD SALAMANDER. MANY of the reptiles grow slowly, and are very long-lived; indeed, a general remark may be made here, which the reader must bear in mind: through- out the animal and vegetable kingdom, whenever an object grows to a great size, or grows very slowly, it invariably lives to a great age. Thus, the rnighty whale, which attains so vast a magni- tude, is supposed to live some hundreds of years ; and the oak, the king of our forests, which in- creases in bulk very slowly, will live for a thousand years, and witness many generations of quick- growing trees perish around it, whilst it is in its prime. Tortoises have been known upwards of one hundred and twenty years old, and it is- pro- bable that the crocodile and the larger snakes live to a very great age in their native haunts. The largest animal living in fresh water is the crocodile, one of the reptiles. It is a native of hot countries, and in some situations is found in great 122 THE CROCODILE THE BOA. abundance. It sometimes grows to the length of thirty or forty feet, and is possessed of great strength, and carries off with ease a man, a tiger, or an ox. The upper part of the body being co- vered with hard scales, it is a dangerous enemy, though its motions are not very quick. It resorts chiefly to swampy grounds covered with weeds, and inland lakes, but never approaches the salt water. When waiting for prey, it generally lies motionless on the water, looking like a log of de- cayed wood, near places where animals come to drink, upon which it seizes and drags to the bot- tom. The female lays about a hundred eggs, and is so prolific, that were it not that snakes of all kinds are fond of their eggs, and destroy vast numbers, the countries they inhabit would be overrun by them. In Egypt, a little animal called the ichneumon has a wonderful instinct for finding the nests of crocodiles, and destroys great num- bers. Though these creatures are of such immense bulk, their eggs are hardly so large as those of the goose, and are covered by a thick leather-like skin. Alligators, which abound in South America, are very similar in habits and appearance to crocodiles, and belong to the same family. The boa constrictor, another of the reptiles, attains a great length. It is one of the largest ser- pents, and kills its prey by folding itself round and round its victim with the utmost quickness, and then crushing it to pieces. Its muscles are ex- ceedingly powerful, and capable of pressing almost any animal to death. THE TOAD. 123 The common toad is popularly looked upon as being venomous. This is an error, as it is, in fact, a harmless and timid creature, and very useful in gardens. It feeds chiefly upon insects, which it catches with the most singular dexterity. Crouch- ed behind a cabbage-leaf, it watches attentively till a fly settles within its reach, when in an instant, it jerks out its long tongue, and very seldom fails to strike it. This is done so quickly, that the eye can hardly perceive the motion. To secure the insect, its tongue is covered with a thick glutinous saliva, very sticky, and which holds it, as if it were bird-lime. The eye of the toad is particularly bright and beautiful, so much so indeed, that it has been said to "wear a jewel " in its head. It is ca- pable of being tamed, and rendered quite familiar. The salamanders have a lengthened body, four feet, and a long tail, which gives them the general form of lizards, and they were formerly placed in that order ; but they have all the characters of the frogs. The name of the salamander, says Lacepede, has been celebrated from antiquity, and embellished with the tints of fable in all ages. It was on the fortunate soil of ancient Greece, in the bosom of a wise and warlike nation, whose imagination, fa- voured by a happy climate, exaggerated even the wonders of creative power, that the reputation of the salamander originated, and that an immortal and generally adopted name was employed to cha- racterize a small reptile, which has usurped the 124 THE SALAMANDER. most universal celebrity; and is even still one of the objects of the curiosity of man. On the sides of the common salamander of France and Germany are ranges of tubercles, from which, in time of danger, a bitter milky fluid oozes, of a powerful odour, and poisonous to weak ani- mals. This probably has given rise to the fable, that the salamander can resist the flames. Questions. What general remark is applicable to the growth and size of animals ? How long have tortoises been known to live ? Where are crocodiles chiefly found ? To what size do they grow 1 Are they ever found in salt water 1 How do they catch their prey 1 How many eggs, and of what size, does the female lay] What little animal in particular is very destructive to their eggs? In what way does the boa destroy animals? Describe the manner in which toads catch insects. By what means does it do this 1 What is said of the salamander ? FISHES IN GENERAL. 125 LESSON XXIII. PISHES IN GENERAL GILLS FORM AND COLOURS HABITS AND CHARACTER EYES EARS MIGRATIONS. THE next class of living beings embraces the fishes. These dwell only in the water, and differ from the three preceding classes in their mode of breathing. Fish have no lungs, but in their stead have on each side of the neck a very curious and delicately fringed organ called the gills. By means of these, fish breathe, that is, a constant stream of water is passed over them, the air contained in which operates much in the same way as when taken into our lungs. The form of fish is in general very pleasing, and their colours are in many instances strikingly beautiful, the skin being either glossy, or covered L2 126 FISHES IN GENERAL. with brilliant scales, sometimes golden, sometimes silvery, and in others, of the finest tints of blue and green. ' Fish are generally social in their habits, and may be seen glancing in the sun in large shoals ; they are also very sportive and playful, are full of activity and animation, and seem happy creatures. Their character in a general way is that of gentle- ness and harmlessness ; and they show no marks of cruelty towards one another, beyond satisfying the common instinct for taking food. There are, indeed, in the sea, as on the land, some fierce and voracious creatures, which are objects of terror ; but those which are most abundant, and which come more immediately under our notice, are gentle and beautiful creatures, in no way to be feared, but very much to be admired. The eyes of fish differ from our own in their shape and structure ; as they live in a different element, the care and wisdom of their Creator has been shown in the way their different organs are adapted to it. Had their eyes been con- structed like those of the mammalia, they would not have been able to see accurately, and would therefore have been unable to catch their prey. This has been cared for, and fish see as well in the water as other animals see in the air. Fish have no voice, and no external organs of hearing ; yet a few utter slight sounds, as the tunny, and the ling : and many of them obviously FISHES IN GENERAL. 127 hear, as carp may be trained to assemble at the sound of a bell. Fish are produced from eggs, and in amazing numbers ; a single fish often containing many thou- sand eggs, roe, or spawn, as they are termed. Many kinds migrate, as the period for spawning approaches, to great distances, often crossing wide seas, in order to reach fit places for this process. The eggs are laid in the sand or gravel, and hatched by the warmth of the sun. The young fish, or/ry, are capable of supporting themselves the moment they leave the egg ; and governed by a wonderful instinct, though they have never known a parent, they have immediately the same habits, seek the same haunts, and take the same means to defend themselves. Fish live to a great age, and many of them attain considerable sizes. Questions. What creatures form the fourth class in the animal king- dom 1 In what respect do they differ from the first three classes ? What organs have fish in the place of lungs ? Are the forms and coldurs pleasing ] Are they social in their habits 1 What is their general character ? Have fish eyes like our own 1 Have they voice 1 In what way are the young of fish produced 1 How are the eggs or spawn hatched ? What is singular about the fry, or young fish 1 128 FINS OP PISH. LESSON XXIV. PINS OP PISH AIR-BLADDER ELECTRIC PISH. THE provision made to enable fish to move in the water is very beautiful ; this consists of parts called fins ; and these serve the same pur- poses as the wings of birds, and the legs and arms of the mammalia. The situation of these fins upon the body, and their number, vary according to the habits and species ; the common trout having eight, two on the back, two on the breast, two on the under part of the body, and two single ones ; whilst the common eel Jias no fins on the breast. In the haddock, the fins, which in the trout are placed on the breast, are fixed on the throat ; and in the perch, the same fins are fixed close to the pectoral or breast-fins. The fins differ greatly in size, and are made up of bony spines, connected together by a membrane, and are moved by strong muscles, just in the same way as the wings of birds and our arms. By means of these fins, the fish, which may be said to be suspended in the water, can move in all direc- tions easily and with great velocity. Many fish, which feed partly on insects, can leap to a consi- derable height out of the water in pursuit of them. This is done by means of the tail, which is reckoned as a fin, and is also used as a rudder to direct their motions. In manjr instances this ELECTRIC FISH. 129 is a very powerful instrument ; and, in the larger kinds of fish, can inflict severe, and even fatal blows. Another very curious organ with which many fish are furnished, is the air-bladder : this is double, and being placed within their bodies, gives them the power of ascending or descending in the water without any apparent effort. It renders the body, too, exceedingly buoyant, and about the same weight as the water in which they dwell. Such fish as are unprovided with this organ are generally found at the bottom of ponds, lakes, and seas, as the different kinds of flat fish. It is sup- posed that the fish has the power of secreting or forming air to fill this bladder, and we know of no other animal which possesses any thing of the kind. Several fish are provided, as a means of defence, with a species of electric or galvanic battery, which acts just like a shock from an electrical ma- chine. This is a very extraordinary provision, and is possessed in great perfection by the torpedo and the gymnote, or electrical eel. This last crea- ture abounds in the rivers and ponds of some parts of South America, and grows to a large size. So powerful is the shock they are capable of giving, as to prove almost fatal both to man and animals : mules and oxen, when about to cross a stream in- fested by these creatures, take the greatest precau- tion to avoid being entangled in their folds, and exhibit every mark of terror when attacked by 130 ELECTRIC FISH. them. They fold themselves round their legs and bodies, and by a series of electric discharges, so benumb and torture the animals that they fall down in the water, and are drowned. Great numbers of mules are thus lost annually, in some situations Questions. By what means do fish move in the water 1 Are these fins alike in number and situation on all kinds offish? How many fins has the trout ? In what respect do the fins of the haddock and perch differ from those of the trout! How are fish enabled to leap out of the water T Of what service is the air-bladder ? How is it filled with air 1 Have any other animals any thing of this kind 1 What singular provision have some fish for their defence 1 In what way does this act upon the body ? What fish possess this singular means ? Where is the gymnote found, and what is observable in animals when in its neighbourhood ? In what way do they destroy mules 1 Gymnote. HERRINGS SALMON. 131 LESSON XXV. HERRINGS SALMON RE MORA. THE providence of God has stored the waters with proofs of his bountiful goodness. Some of these are of the greatest utility to man, and amongst the rest, one single species of fish annu- ally feeds many thousand people. This is the herring, which, although millions are destroyed every year for our use, appears as abundant as ever. Our Almighty Benefactor has so ordained, that that species of fish should increase and mul- tiply so rapidly as to defy all ravages, and season after season it issues from the Polar Seas in vast shoals, which are so broad and so deep that they alter the very appearance of the ocean. These shoals are divided into columns five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth, which drive the water before them in a continued ripple. In fine weather, these immense floating islands glisten in the sun, and reflect a variety ot splendid colours. Each column is led by a her- ring larger in size than the rest, which seems to govern their motions, and to act as leader. Herrings, in their annual migration, appear off the Shetland islands in April and May ; one great shoal then takes the eastern, and another the western, side of Great Britain. The station for fishing is near the Hebrides ; but they are 1 32 HERRINGS SALMON. caught in great abundance all along the English and Irish coasts. Herrings are important articles of commerce ; nearly 400,000 barrels being cured annually in Great Britain, of which a considerable portion are sent to other countries, in exchange for money or useful articles of a different kind. Herrings are both a wholesome and nutritious food, whether eaten fresh, pickled, or smoked. The salmon is another fish of the utmost value as an article of commerce, and of food, being by far the most delicate fish taken in our rivers. It grows to a considerable size, sometimes weigh- ing fifty or sixty pounds. At a certain season of the year this fish, led by a singular instinct, begins to ascend our streams from the sea, and makes its way as far up as there is water to cover it, often leap- ing over weirs and ledges of rocks several feet in height, and overcoming all obstacles in the most extraordinary manner. When it has reached a shallow part of the river, the male and female form a trench in the gravel, hollowing it out with their snouts and shoulders to the length of eight or nine feet, and in this the female deposits her eggs to the amount of 17 or 18,000. After this is done, which occupies several days, both the fish employ themselves diligently in covering these up carefully, in order to protect them from other fish, and from water-fowl, which greedily devour them. The eggs are then left by the parents, and after some time, the fry, or young SUCKING-FISH. 133 i fish, are formed, and appear in vast numbers, keeping near the shores, and gradually descending the rivers, till the floods carry them out into the sea. The remora, or sucking-fish, is another singular instance of the care taken by God of his creatures. This animal lives in the sea, and having very small fins, is incapable of quick motions. To compen- sate it, however, for this weakness, it has, on the crown of its head, a curious apparatus, by which it can fix itself firmly to any larger body, as a ship, or another fish, and thus be carried along with it Questions. From what seas do herrings issue every year ? In what manner do they make their appearance 1 What are the length and breadth of the columns of herrings, and how are they led ? In what month do they come to us 1 Near what islands is the principal fishing- station 1 What number of barrels of herrings are cured annually in Great Britain 1 At what period of the year do salmon ascend our rivers ? For what purpose do they do this ? Is any care taken by the fish in depositing their eggs or spawn 1 Mention how this is done, and whether they are left exposed. At what time do the young fish appear ? What is remarkable about the remora ? M 134 INSECTS IN GENERAL. LESSON XXVI. INSECTS IN GENERAL BREATHING EYES FEELERS. THE power and wisdom of the Supreme Being are made manifest in a wonderful manner by the insect world. We cannot ramble on a summer evening, but we find the air filled with sportive and happy creatures. Every leaf, every branch, every pool, every bank, abounds with animal life ; and every insect, however minute, is seen pursuing with unerring regularity its settled course for ac- tion, and fulfilling some important purpose for which it has been created. Some are busy sup- plying their wants, others in providing for their offspring, others again, exerting the most singular and wise precautions to screen themselves or their eggs from danger, and others in laying up stores of provisions. Their endless variety of form, their endless number, and the care which has been be- stowed upon them, fill us with astonishment and joy, for all seem happy, and all full of enjoyment. EYES OP INSECTS. 135 nsects, under which name are included flies, beetles, butterflies, and others, form the fifth class, into which all living creatures have been divided. They differ very much from the four classes the reader has already had described, both in their structure, their forms, their habits, and their ap- pearance. They have been called articulated animals, from being made up of many jointed parts, without having a regular system of bones. Mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes, breathe either by means of lungs or gills. Insects have nothing of this sort, but have, in their place, a number of little breathing-holes, called spiracula, placed along their bodies, through which the air passes, as all animals, however various their structure, have organs of respiration, these being essential to animal life. The formation of the eyes of insects is very curious. Those of other animals are single, and seldom exceed two, but in this class, what appears to be a single eye is, in fact, a collection of eyes, being made up of a number of distinct lenses, look- ing in all directions. These creatures have, there- fore, no need to turn their heads in any way, in order to see either upwards or downwards, to the right or to the left. The two large eyes of the dragon-fly, which is so common with us, have been supposed to contain above 20,000 of these little eyes or lenses. Spiders, which form a class of themselves, have eight separate eyes, two on the top of the head, two forward, two backwards, 136 PEELERS. and two in front, so that they can look nearly all round them at the same moment, and are thus enabled to see the fly on which they feed, on what- ever side it may happen to be. Insects are provided with very singular organs of feeling. These are called antennae, and are fixed on the head, like long delicate horns. They are hollow, jointed, and moveable, and in some instances -of great length and beauty. They are very sensible, and with them these creatures feel their way, as the bodies of many of them are covered with hard and insensible coats, either in the shape of hairs, scales, or horny membranes. In addition to the antennae, insects have other feel- ers ranged round the mouth, which serve to catch their prey, and also as hands to hold it, whilst they are engaged in eating. Questions. What is made strikingly manifest by the insect world ? Of what does the fifth class in the animal kingdom consist ? What name has been given to insects from their jointed structure 1 In what respect do they differ from the mammalia, as to their breathing "? How do they breathe % Are the eyes of insects different from those of other crea tures ? How are they constructed ? What advantages do insects derive from this ? How many eyes has the spider 1 What are antennae, and what are they like ? What is their use ? Have insects other feelers besides antenna ? WINGS OF INSECTS. 137 LESSON XXVII. TRUNK OR TONGUE OP INSECTS WINGS FEET. THE tongue of insects is a highly curious instru- ment, and should be rather termed a proboscis or trunk. A good idea may be had of its uses and form, by looking at that of the huge elephant Many insects live chiefly on honey and other liquids, and in these instances the proboscis serves as a syringe or sucking-pump. The proboscis of butterflies is very long, and curled up, like a spiral wire. This the creature can unfold at pleasure, and insert into flowers, at the bottom of which the honey lies. The bee may be observed, ranging from "flower to flower," busily thrusting its tongue into them, and loading itself with sweets. The common fly has a proboscis shaped like a club, through which it will speedily imbibe a drop of milk, or a few grains of sugar. It is curious to watch how cleverly it uses this organ, and how busy it generally is with it. Other insects, as the gad-fly and the gnat, feed chiefly upon the blood or juices of larger animals. In these the tongue serves as a borer to pierce the skin, which has first to be penetrated, before they can reach their food. When this is done, then it becomes a sucker, and draws the liquids into their stomachs. Many insects are provided with wings of the most beautiful texture and appearance. Those of 138 LEGS. the dragon-fly and the house-fly are of fine yet strong texture. Some of the beetles have wings of the most surprising delicacy, which are folded in a wonderful manner under strong cases, or ely- tra, when they are at rest. The finest gauze that can possibly be made is coarse in comparison with these fine and transparent membranes, and no hand but the hand of God could make such curious and beautiful structures. The wings of butterflies are covered with minute scales of the most brilliant colours, which resemble small feathers. Many of these are singularly elegant creatures, and have been well called "flying flowers." One of our poets, in speaking of the yellow spring butterfly, has very aptly and beautifully said : The butterfly That o'er the primrose restlessly, Itself a flying primrose, hovers. The wings of insects are moved by muscles, like those of birds. It is astonishing how fast they can fly. A swarm of common flies will accompany a horse at full gallop, gambolling round its head, and occasionally settling upon it, all apparently without effort. The number of legs possessed by insects, is another of their peculiarities. None of them have less than six, and others have twelve, twenty-four, thirty, forty, fifty, one hundred, and even more. The feet of the house-fly are very curious. This active creature walks with the greatest steadiness LEGS. 139 along the smoothest surfaces, and it makes no dif- ference whether the body is upwards or down- wards. To enable it to do this, its feet are so made, that when placed flat, a slight vacuum may be produced in the centre, which holds the edges fast, just in the same way that the hand sticks to a wetted slab, when the palm is a little raised, and as boys lift up stones by a piece of moistened lea- ther with a string through it. Questions. How may we obtain an idea of the trunk or proboscis of insects ? For what is this used by such insects as feed on honey, as the butterfly and bees ? What shape is the trunk in the common house-fly 1 What insects use their trunk both as a borer and a pump ? Are the wings of insects of very beautiful texture ? What insects have particularly delicate wings, and how are these defended ? With what are the wings of butterflies covered ? How are these wings moved 1 How many legs are insects provided with ? What enables the fly to walk on smooth surfaces ? Can you describe how this is done ? 140 HABITS OP INSECTS. LESSON XXVIII. HABITS OF INSECTS CARPENTER ANTS BEES. MANY insects make themselves habitations with great ingenuity and labour. The black carpen- ter ant hollows out cells arid passages in the trunks and roots of trees of very hard texture. It eats away the fibres with its nippers, and works with the utmost nicety. When a piece of wood is examined which has been colonized by these little creatures, it presents a most curious appearance, being completely honey-combed, and the partitions between the cells are far thinner than paper. What is very singular is, that these excellent carpenters never spoil their work nor open one cell into another, every one being found BEES. 141 quite perfect and smooth. In these wonderful houses we find numerous arcades and galleries, leading to the various divisions, all finished with the nicest skill ; and though the whole trunk of a tree seems bored in every direction, it is never- theless left quite strong, and generally lives, as if nothing had touched it. These colonies are ama- zingly populous, upwards of a million of inhabit- ants being congregated in very small space. The habits of bees are amongst the most interesting of any in the animal kingdom. The instinct they display in a variety of actions, whether in a wild or domesticated state, is a source of continual wonder and admiration. The structure of their cells, the treatment of their eggs, the government of their hives, and their storing of food, are equally remarkable. Every bee-hive contains three different sets of inhabitants. A queen bee, drones or male, bees, and neuters or workers. There is never more than one queen ; if another is formed, it is de- stroyed at once, and its body removed. The number of drones is about six or seven hundred in each hive, and these are regularly killed by the workers in August. This is done, in order that the winter stock of food may be preserved, and not eaten by a greater number than are ac- tually useful. The working-bees perform all the labour of building, collecting materials, preserving the ho- ney, and tending the young. When they are 142 BEES. constructing their houses, they first gather a kind of cement from the gumrny buds of flowers, which they knead into little balls with their proboscis and legs, and carry it away to stop up all the crevices, and make the hive safe from intruders. This done, they next fetch matter for wax. This is made from the fine dust or pollen found in flowers, which they first eat, and it is then changed into wax in the stomach. From this wax, one set of workers construct cells, having six sides, and of the most beautiful regularity. By giving them this shape, the greatest number possible are contained in any given space, a question which long puzzled the wisest men, but which these creatures, taught by their own Divine Author, had practised from the first hour of their creation. These cells are used partly to hold honey, closely covered by lids, and partly as nests, in which to place the eggs. When a number of cells are completed, the queen bee begins to lay her eggs. During this process she is attentively fed and followed by the workers, which remove every egg, and place it in a separate cell. During the summer, it has been calculated that 'a single queen will produce 40,000 eggs. She first lays the eggs which are to give birth to working bees, then the drones, and lastly, a few are stored away in cells set apart for this particular purpose, for a supply of queens, lest the present sovereign should be BEES. 143 destroyed, or the hive should become so popu- lous, that a part of its inhabitants may have to remove. The eggs which have been deposited in the cells, in the course of a few days, pass into a grub state, and are carefully fed by the untiring work- ers, with a peculiar food they prepare for them. This continues for about a week, when the grubs or maggots wrap themselves in a silken web, and are closed up in their cells with a covering of wax. In this state they remain for a fortnight, changing their skins several times, and finally becoming perfect bees, they eat their way through the lid of their nests. In a few hours they join their fellows, and fly away with them, capable at once of doing all that these can or have d