POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CARL C.HARRIS SAMUELO.RICE i For men may come and men may go, But I go on forever. The Brook, by Alfred Tennyson. POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS A Book for All Persons Seeking Greater Comfort and Higher Efficiency in Country Homes, Towns and Villages. By CARL C. HARRIS Member American Society Mechanical Engineers Boston Society Civil Engineers Vice-Pres. and Treas. Rodney Hunt Machine Co. and SAMUEL O. RICE Director of Publicity and Assistant Professor of Journalism, University of Kansas, Kansas City RODNEY HUNT MACHINE COMPANY ORANGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A. H3 Copyright, 1920 BY RODNEY HUNT MACHINE COMPANY Orange, Mass., U. S. A. 4 til Edit ion Planographed in U. S. A. By SPAULDING-MOSS COMPANY Boston Introduction The purpose of this book is to furnish the layman in an accurate and simple way, a practical and working knowledge of installing and operating small water power plants for furnishing country homes, towns, and villages with electric light, power, heat, water supply, and fire protection. Technical language has throughout been eliminated or made so plain there can be no con- fusion to any reader. Too long has the knowledge necessary for the developing of the thousands of country home, town and village water power opportunities been buried in the technicalities of engineering works or to be obtained only by the expensive process of employing an engineer who is an expert on water power development. This book removes that hindrance to the country home, the town or village obtaining greater comfort, efficiency and almost all the modern conveniences now denied them. The possibilities of power development on small streams are practically unlimited. There are no legal tangles or governmental restric- tions that face many large power projects. The small power plant is the cheapest source possible for the country home, town or village to obtain electricity, power, heat, and water supply. The small power plant is well within the reach of the average country dweller, or the town or village. Water power develop- ment has reached the stage where there is a water wheel for every stream from the tiniest rivulet to the great river. The authors are indebted to LA HACIENDA, Buffalo, N. Y., The Mayhew Company, Milwaukee, Wis., Alpha Cement Com- pany, Easton, Pa., the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, New York, N. Y. and the United States Reclamation Service, for their courtesy in loaning drawings and supplying valuable information which has helped make the book more complete and useful. M199210 Contents Page INTRODUCTION . .... . . . .< 5 CHAPTER I THE WILLINGNESS OF WATER TO WORK . . . 13 The small volume of water necessary to develop one horse power and light two average homes Pouring water with milk pails to develop one horse power The greatest undeveloped natural resource in America. CHAPTER II How A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT 15 The experience of a farmer in pioneering in home water power development Lighting church, school, and home with a small home plant One avoidable mis- take Choosing the water wheel A revelation in water power opportunities A homemade power plant Installing a 9-inch turbine wheel, an electric genera- tor, a pump, circle saw, feed mill, grindstone, and emery wheel. CHAPTER III A WHEEL FOR EVERY STREAM .... . . . 22 Water wheels 80 to 90 per cent efficient The best gasoline engines 45 per cent efficient Steam plants 10 to 35 per cent efficient Water wheels for the tiniest spring branches and for great rivers, brooks, and creeks Rim-Leverage wheels Approximate costs. CHAPTER IV Page INVOICING A SMALL STREAM . ^;.; . . . . ' ... 26 Plain and easy methods of measuring a stream's capacity for developing power The chip method of de- termining a stream's flow The dry-foot method of learning the head or fall of water of a stream What is a horse power How much water must fall one foot to develop one horse power Increasing the power in the same quantity of water by increasing the fall of the water Small water wheels for high falls Large wheels for sluggish streams and low falls. CHAPTER V THE WEIR METHOD OF MEASURING WATER . . . 33 Using the exact methods a water power expert would employ and getting exactly the same results The weir How to make it Placing the weir Using the weir Table of weirs How use of water power has grown Conservation True conservation in small stream power plants. CHAPTER VI THE TURBINE WHEEL . '. '". ' . . '. . . 37 Windmills the most familiar type of turbine Elec- tric fans and boat propellers are turbines Steam turbines The turbine a metal whirligig in a case Only one working part No valves, complex parts or gears to get out of order The most durable and efficient power producing machine yet invented The | runner The runner's buckets Reaction wheels Im- pulse wheels Compactness of turbine water wheels A turbine water wheel in the kitchen Different arrangements of turbine wheels The vertically- mounted turbine The horizontally-mounted turbine Turbines in pairs and series Direct connecting Belt and gear connecting Casings and gates. CHAPTER VII Page THE RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL 49 Overshot and undershot water wheels more cor- rectly termed rim-leverage wheels Man's first power machine Inefficient overshot and undershot wheels The modern efficient and scientific little rim-leverage wheel Sizes of rim-leverage wheels Rim-leverage wheels for driving pump for home water works and fire protection Rim-leverage wheels for generating elec- tricity and driving machinery Examples of rim- leverage wheels and pump combination Durability, efficiency, and picturesque qualities Pumping pure water with impure water The wheel for the tiniest spring branch. CHAPTER VIII ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 55 A plain and comprehensive explanation of generat- ing, handling, and using electric current What is electricity? Alternating and direct current generators Batteries develop only direct current Magnetic flux Magnetos The simplest electric generator Make-up of the home water power electric plant An ideal home electric plant Elasticity of water power electric plants The storage battery Reducing cost of fire insurance Explanation of electrical terms, watts, volts, amperes, ohms Sizes of home electric light and power plants Limits of storage batteries Home electric plants absolutely safe Charging batteries Charging panel Resistance of conductors Systems of electric wiring Sizes and insulating of wires Con- venience and labor-saving in electricity Durability Eliminating toil and chores. CHAPTER IX Page DAMS . . . . , 68 Temporary and permanent dams Ancient kings lacked technical knowledge to build permanent dams Dams depend on proportion and balance, not on masses of material Safe and lasting dam construction When dams need not be built Earth dams Impor- tance of spillways Footing for dams Dams on rock Dams on other foundations Cheapest and handiest material best for dam construction Crib dams the universal dam Priming plank Masonry dams Pressure of water on dams Arch and gravity dams Concrete dams Frame dams Money saving in buy- ing designs for dams Preventing washing out at the ends of dams. CHAPTER X CONDUITS . . 85 Carrying water from intake to water wheel Millraces Pipes Penstocks Flumes Steel, iron, and wood construction of pipes and penstocks More water through a pipe Flumes of wood and concrete Design of flume by United States Reclamation Ser- vice. See pp. 95-99 Best shapes for greatest volumes Mill races of proper shape Concrete lining. CHAPTER XI CONCRETE . . , . \ ., . . . , . .: ..-...-.. . 100 Standard mixture of concrete Adapting standard mixtures to cheaper and better home use by using native materials Importance of clean stone Proper grading of aggregate Clean water Proportions of lime in water-proofing Different strengths of concrete for dif- ferent work Depreciating concrete with too much water How to mix concrete by hand The best type of machine concrete mixers The mixingboard Dust in quarry screenings Forms for concrete Concrete cisterns Walls and floors Finishing Concrete mortar. CHAPTER XII Page IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ... ... 115 Pumping by water power and centrifugal pumps from streams or wells lessens harm from droughts on farms in the rain belt Draining low fields in wet sea- sons by using centrifugal pumps A successful example on a Missouri farm Friction of water in pipe. CHAPTER XIII PURE WATER . 119 The whole world water marked The world's greatest manifestation of energy in tides, streams, evaporation, and condensation of water Rain water Only pure water is distilled water Soft water and hard water Classification of natural waters How to soften permanent and temporary hard water Lime and soda ash Purifying water with chlorinated lime Pond water purer than stream water Pollution of streams and wells Germs Their natural enemies Filters Guarding the home water supply The better varieties of fish for stocking home waters Tempera- ture of water for trout. CHAPTER XIV INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT 127 Common sense the chief requisite Importance of adequate tail race Diagram of installation Ready- made power plants Air-inlet Trash racks Rakes Gates Gate hoists Rotary fire pumps for water works systems and fire protection Driving farm machinery in power plant by connecting with water wheel Driving machinery at a distance from water power plant by using electric motors Household con- veniences that make the country home with a water power electric plant more liveable than the average city home Why be a Hivite? APPENDIX Page READY INFORMATION FOR WATER POWER USERS . .139 The Scientific American states a problem that this book has solved, the standardizing of water power plants for home use The space occupied by a turbine wheel Ratings for turbine wheels of different sizes under different heads and the quantities of water re- quired Pressure of water at different elevations A more exact weir table Measuring large streams Capacities and diameters of pipe Pipe friction- Velocity of water Weights and figures American, or Brown and Sharpe (B. & S.), wire gage Lumber measure in board feet Rule for finding the length of belts Comparison of rubber and leather belting Horse power transmitted by single and by double leather belts Miscellaneous weights Areas and cir- cumferences of circles Fractions of lineal inch in decimals Lineal inches in decimal fractions of a lineal foot Friendly help for nothing to prospective developers of home, village, town, industrial, and commercial water power plants for generating elec- tricity, supplying other power and pumping water A list of questions for the investigator of Power Development of Small Streams. THE WILLINGNESS OF WATER TO WORK 13 Power Development of Small Streams CHAPTER I THE WILLINGNESS OF WATER TO WORK FOUR men with milk pails dipping water from a tank and pour- ing it into a garden furrow would form only a tiny rivulet. Yet if they poured the same quantity of water into a downspout eleven feet long they would generate one horse power of energy, providing there was a water wheel at the bottom end of the down- spout to catch and transform the force of the falling water into electricity or other mechanical energy. One horse power alone has enough energy to furnish electric current for eighteen 4O-watt or thirty-six 2o-watt lights and therewith to light two average country homes, barns, barnyards and outbuildings complete, besides providing heat for ironing and power for such small work as washing, churning, sewing, and electric fans. And one horse power can be produced by seven and one-half gallons of water falling eleven feet a second to a water wheel or turbine. This homely illustration, four men "sloshing" water out of a tank with milk pails to provide water power to operate eighteen large or thirty-six smaller electric lights, or to furnish heat and power, pictures sharply and accurately the wonderful willingness of water to work. Water power is the greatest undeveloped natural resource in America today. The United States Geo- logical Survey estimates that thirty million horse power is going to waste in the streams that have not been put to work. The "Journal of Electricity", No. i, Volume 41, says a maximum of fifty-four million horse power and a minimum of twenty-eight million horse power still await possible development in the streams of the Nation. Beyond doubt power development of small streams is the most democratic of all our natural resources. It is the one greatest natural resource available to the largest number of Americans, since thousands of farms, towns, and villages with 14 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS brooks, creeks, -rivers, and spring branches have this cheapest of power ever ready at hand. Few farm streams but are capable of being harnessed practically and cheaply, at least to pump water, or to do more than that, to furnish light, heat, and power for a single farm or a country home, or for a group of homes or an entire village or town. There is one horse power to be had from the milk-pail rivulet. There are three, four, five, ten, twenty, possibly greater horse power to be had from the farm brook that a man can step across. There is enough power running to waste in the shallow, rippling creek, spanned by a footlog, easily to take the drudgery out of a half dozen country homes that still use kerosene lamps and employ tired muscles to carry water and to other work that should be done by machinery. That same little stream is the most practical and cheapest chance for the village's best development by in- stalling a small water power plant to furnish electricity and fire protection for the community. Truly the willingness of water to work is a wonderful thing. Water in motion is exactly equal to water under pressure, and the brook, spring branch or creek will run down a flume or pipe and operate the machinery of a home power plant and machine shop just as readily as it will splatter down a riffle or tumble over a boulder. All it wants is a chance to work. HOW A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT 15 CHAPTER II How A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT BURNING of a country church in a fire caused by a kerosene lamp led to the installing of a farm water power plant that is typical in experience and in practical results. It is a guidepost to any man or woman who lives in a country place that has a brook, spring branch or creek, or who lives in a small town or village near a small stream. The congregation, in a meeting in the district school to apportion the assessments for building a larger and better church, was discussing lighting systems, when a farmer named Rowlands made the epochmaking talk, hardly a speech, of that neighborhood. Mr. Rowlands lives about a mile across fields from the church. "As a member of the building committee," said Mr. Row- lands, "I have been entrusted with the lighting question. As some of you know, I've been figuring on putting in at my home"- He mentioned a very excellent gas lighting system, one that is approved by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. "It would cost me," he continued, "about $300 to pipe my house, put in shades and fixtures and a complete gas lighting plant. It would cost the church about the same sum. Now you've got me down for $300 on the new church. You'll spend my $300 for a lighting plant. Well, I've been figuring further. I don't want to make a cent off the church, but if you will cancel my assessment I can put in a little water power plant on the creek on my farm and I'll guarantee to furnish enough electricity to light both the church and the school. It will cost you about #15 or $20 to run a church lighting plant. My way it won't cost the church a cent and it will cut down the fire hazard and the insurance rate on both the church and the school. If I fall down I'll agree to put in the gas lighting system for the church at my own expense. I'll put this in writing, if you like." l6 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS It would be nice to write how Brother Rowlands's plan ful- filled all expectations in lighting the church. But it did not do it. It was a half-way failure at first. The plant was in operation and furnishing electric light, power and heat at the Rowlands home with entire satisfaction several months before the church was finished. But when the church lights were turned on they were decid- edly dim and inadequate. For several weeks almost the whole congregation searched for the cause of the trouble. Then Mr. Rowlands com- plained to the manufacturer of his electric generator. A TYPE OF TURBINE WATER WHEEL, The manufacturer replied in SIMPLE AND ALMOST EVERLASTING a letter ask}ng a half-dozen questions. When those questions were answered, he smiled and wrote: "My dear Mr. Rowlands: Why did you not tell us you wanted to carry current across country two miles. The trouble is in the size of wire from your plant to the church. It is too small. In the back part of the booklet we sent you is a table of wire sizes for varying currents and distances." Then he gave specific directions for taking down and selling the old line and replacing it with larger wire. He suggested minor changes, the correcting of a faulty point or two in insula- tion. After that the lights burned brightly in the church and the school and there was no more trouble, except one night a future electrical engineer of fourteen years poked a pin through the cord of a drop light, short-circuited the system and blew out a fuse. The church supper was in darkness almost five minutes, until the first automobile owner who could find a match, replaced the fuse. The small boy was not hurt. Electric current from these small plants is in nowise dangerous. HOW A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT The foregoing incident took place in the first half of 1914. The war probably has changed somewhat even the approximate figures of costs given here from Mr. Rowlands's experiences. When Air. Rowlands first began work on his plant he figured he needed about five horse power to do the farm's work and furnish light and also heat for ironing. He could easily get a head of fifteen feet on his brook, "head" meaning the distance the water would fall from the intake of the mill race, pipe or flume to the wheel itself. Fifteen feet fall with a little turbine wheel only nine inches in diameter would give him 5.72 horse power with one type of turbine wheel called a New Pattern Hunt Francis Cylinder Gate Turbine, while an- other type, called Hunt McCormick, would de- velop eight horse power. While the Hunt McCor- mick type of turbine of the same size as theHunt Francis type developed approximately a third more power under the same head, or fall of water, the McCormick wheel required quite a bit more water than the Hunt turbine. So* Mr. Rowlands, having but a small brook, decided that he would use Hunt type. By referring to his cata- logue he saw that the next size turbine wheel of the type he had selected, a 1 2-inch wheel, would develop 8.52 horse power under a 1 5-foot head, while the next larger size, a 15-inch wheel, would give 17.17 horse power under that head and an 1 8-inch wheel would develop 26.81 horse power. Turbine wheels are three inches larger in each successive size up to sixty inches. From the 6o-inch wheel they are six inches larger in THE BROOK As, POWERFUL AS NIAGARA FOR THE HOME NEEDS 1 8 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS diameter for each successive size wheel, up to the 96-inch turbine wheel, which Mr. Rowlands saw would develop 995 horse power under a 1 5-foot head, but would require vastly more water than this brook held in its worst flood. The whole Rowlands family became interested in that little turbine wheel book. It was fun speculating on what they could do with a larger wheel or by lengthening the distance the water fell to the wheel. Under a 2O-foot head, they found, the 9-inch turbine wheel would develop 8.90 horse power, the 1 2-inch wheel would produce 13.24 horse power and the 15-inch wheel, 26.70 horse power. The 1 8-inch turbine wheel develops 41.16 horse power under a 2O-foot head and the 21-inch wheel, 57.82 horse power under the same head. Mr. Rowlands, however, said he was going to start small and if the thing worked all right some day he'd sell the little wheel and put in a larger one. The Rowlands place is a 2io-acre farm stretching across a small valley onto low, gently sloping hills on either side. The farm stream is, in New England, a brook, west of the Alleghenys, a creek. At its narrow points a high school boy can leap it in a running jump. It is not a very swift stream, just the ordinary, rapid-flowing brook or creek of ten thousand farms, with stretches of rapids or riffles between deeper, quieter pools here and there. Mr. Rowlands built a dam four feet high at the head of the riffle with the longest fall. The dam was placed at a point where the brook changes its course from along the bottom of the hill and turns out into the valley, only to turn back to the hill a little farther down. Mr. Rowlands dug a ditch five feet wide and three feet deep, much too large, he now admits, but you must remember that he was the pioneer in water power development in his com- munity. He was banking on the word of a distant turbine wheel manufacturer that after all he might not have to go to the extra expense of installing a $300 gas lighting system in the churchHo make his own word good. Besides, the ditch cost nothing but the labor at a time when there wasn't much else to do on the farm, and a big part of the work was done by plowing and "slipping" the earth and small stone out on the down-hill side with a hand scraper. HOW A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT IQ The ditch or small mill race led straight along the bottom of the hill about two hundred and fifty feet to a point where there was a steep decline, probably formed when the stream bent a new course at that point years and years ago. Here Mr. Rowlands had the 1 5-foot fall he wanted. The bottom of his little mill race sloped very gently to the edge of this decline or bank, at the bottom of which Mr. Rowlands put in a rough dry foundation of stones, open at one side, and on which he built an odd-looking structure. It was much like a little, square silo might be. It was 5 feet by 5 feet, inside dimensions, and was made of cheap, rough boards an inch thick, 6 inches wide and 5 and 6 feet long, laid flat on top of one another and spiked tightly together. The walls of this elongated box set at the base of the bank were thus solid and six inches thick. The box itself was a little more than fifteen feet tall. Mr. Rowlands connected the top of this box with the lower end of his mill race by building a rough wooden trough or flume 8 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 3 feet deep. The water was to run down the mill race, through the trough or flume, into the box. In the floor of the box Mr. Rowlands made a circular opening in which he set the little Q-inch turbine wheel. On the top of the box he built a shed, a little larger than a small garage and extend- ing from the box out onto the bank. The power or driving shaft of the turbine wheel ran straight up from the wheel, through the floor of the shed and transmitted its energy through a crown gear to a line shaft, which in turn was belted to an Soo-watt, direct current electric generator and to a feed mill, a circular saw, an emery wheel, a grindstone, and a pump. A gate control, for starting, stopping, and regulating the speed of the turbine wheel, and a switchboard and storage batteries completed the equipment of the power house. At the head of his mill race Mr. Rowlands put in a trash rack to keep leaves and floating debris out of the race, and a wooden gate to shut the water out if desired. Below the power house he plowed a deep, double furrow to the brook farther down, to give the discharge from the turbine wheel a direct and easy course to the stream. Much of the plant was overlarge and clumsy, but it has proved entirely efficient and dependable ever since the first 20 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS day it was put into use, excepting the one avoidable incident of using the wrong size wire for the transmission line to the church. The only additions that have been made to the plant have been a second trash rack, at the lower end of the, mill race, and a small electric motor at the house to operate a washing machine. The plant was constructed and put into successful operation entirely A HOME ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER PLANT OPERATED BY A TURBINE WATER WHEEL by men with no experience in water power development. Besides giving all the electricity for light needed at the Rowlands home, furnishing power for pumping, sawing wood, heat for ironing, and running practically all the stationary machinery of the farm, except an ensilage cutter, the Rowlands water power and electric plant has proved a neighborhood benefit in lighting church and schooj. Mr. Rowlands realizes now that he might have done much better by installing a larger wheel. Or it could have been a much easier and neater job by running a small wood pipe from the dam to a horizontally-mounted turbine wheel and set in a corner of the power house. Such an arrangement would have eliminated the big, clumsy wheel pit Mr. Rowlands built and the slightly less efficient vertically mounted turbine wheel that of necessity must HOW A COUNTRY HOME GOT A WATER POWER PLANT 21 lose a small fraction of its power through the crown gear. A more desirable home power plant for the Rowlands farm would have been more like the home plant pictured above, consisting of a somewhat larger wheel, a much shorter flow of water and lower head or fall through a steel plate pipe to a oo-dollar shed in which is placed a horizontally mounted turbine wheel, an electric genera- tor and switchboard. As shown in the picture, the electric current generated by this plant is carried on a line to the home and barn, in the background, where it is used in providing light, heat, and power. 22 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CHAPTER III A WHEEL FOR EVERY STREAM TTTATER turbine wheels are 80 to 90 per cent efficient, with * * some reliable tests showing even higher efficiency than 90 per cent. That assertion may not make a strong appeal to the average man or woman, but lay it alongside the cold, hard fact that it takes the very highest type of gasoline or internal combus- tion engine to reach as high as 40 per cent efficiency, that the average steam plant operates around 15 per cent efficiency, with many steam plants showing only 10 per cent efficiency and with only an occasional few reaching the maximum for steam of 25 to 35 per cent efficiency. Electric generators and motors run as high as 95 per cent efficient in operation, but since they must depend primarily upon steam, gas or water for power, their effi- ciency in any kind of plant is affected by the kind of driving power employed. This comparison of power-developing machinery indicates sharply the opportunities to profit by harnessing the country home's brook for light, power, heat, and water works, or, by in- stalling a turbine water wheel at the end of the long riffle where the town boys go swimming in summer, to give electricity and fire protection to the town. It will cost about $160 and up for each horse power harnessed by a water power plant. That is a minimum figure, not the average. Quite possibly the average on many farms would be about $320, possibly more, possibly less. No two plants cost the same. But whatever the figure, it will not cost as much to harness water horse power as to put and keep leather harness on each horse power in actual horse flesh on the farm. For this water power harness does its work tirelessly and continuously on horse power that never tires, never gets sick and requires neither oats, hay, bedding nor curry comb. Its repairs are less than horseshoe- ing bills. Its "feed," or "fuel," costs nothing, since the brook or A WHEEL FOR EVERY STREAM 23 creek furnishes a steady, unending supply of "white coal," as the thrifty Swiss with their extensively developed hydro-electric plants call water power. Even the somewhat primitive water power plant on the Rowlands Farm, described in the previous chapter, the little water wheel, buried in water, never freezes, never heats up. It doesn't even need oiling and it costs nothing to run it. Harnessing a brook not only is much cheaper than harnessing steam, gasoline, kerosene or living horses, it is cheaper than buying electricity from transmission lines that pass farms here and there, carrying electric current from town to town or from a large power plant to the city. The minute a country dweller taps such a transmission line his monthly bills for current begin. They never cease so long as he uses current. In addition he pays the cost of installing a transformer, a meter, and a private line, which will amount to $200 or more. It is infinitely cheaper for the dweller near a small stream to put in his own plant. That fact is so ap- parent with a little looking into this subject of water power, that big, successful business men with the best engineering advice money can buy, have spent the huge sums of $300 and $400 a horse power and more in developing great industrial and commer- cial water power plants. The first cost is practically the whole cost and after that the plant operates for years for almost nothing. The power that runs it is free. Only the harness costs. In estimating the cost of electrical generators, switchboards, storage batteries and wiring for a home power plant, about $225 a horse power, or 746 watts, is a fair figure. For a village or small town plant #160 a kilowatt is a generous figure for the plant's electrical equipment alone. A kilowatt is a unit of electrical power that is equivalent to 1.34 horse power. It is sufficient to furnish current for twenty-five 4<>watt lights or for fifty 2O-watt lights or to do the work that 1.34 horse power would do in a water wheel, steam or gas engine. But some man or woman with an investigating mind, like Mr. Rowlands, may say that turbine water wheels are all very well for country homes with brooks or creeks, but where only a tiny spring branch, a mere rivulet, is available, water power is out of the question. That is a mistaken notion. There is a practical 2 4 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS water wheel for every stream. If the rivulet flows as much as six gallons of water a minute, in the dry period of the year for that locality and a stream less than a foot wide and only an inch or two deep will do that, it will operate a water wheel pumping plant and pump 360 gallons of water a day practically any distance and to a height of 100 feet. If the rivulet flows 50 gallons a minute, the home water wheel pumping plant will pump 2,500 gallons of water a day, practically any distance and to a height of 100 feet, pumping not the perhaps impure water that operates the wheel, but pure water from another stream, spring or pond. The great beauty of water power development is that there is a wheel for every stream. These wheels are divided roughly into two classes, impulse and reaction wheels. The reaction wheel is the turbine, the water motor to be used, as in Mr. Rowlands's case, where five horse power and up are to be devel- oped. The impulse wheel, a draw- ing of which is shown on this page, is a highly modern descendant of the old overshot water wheels that have been used for hundreds of years. Today they are called rim- leverage wheels, not overshot wheels and with the losing of the old name they have lost, too, the clumsiness and wasteful inefficiency that char- acterized the old overshot mill wheels. They are intensely effi- cient machines, compact, durable A RIM-LEVERAGE WATER WHEEL, THE CHEAPEST PRACTICAL POWER DEVELOPING MACHINE YET DEVISED and beyond doubt the cheapest power-developing machine in the world today. The paddles, or buckets, are shaped and- set with mathematical accuracy so that the wheel absorbs almost the entire energy of the falling water and each drop of water is caught and held by the wheel just so long as it has power to impart and then is dropped into the tail race without having had a fraction of a second's free ride on the wheel. A WHEEL FOR EVERY STREAM 25 Rim-leverage wheels are made of wood or of steel, to suit different pocketbooks. They may be mounted on the side of a stream without being sheltered. The water is conveyed to them by a trough or pipe and imparts its force by falling directly onto the wheel. In smaller sizes rim-leverage wheels are used with pump combination only, to supply the home water works system. In the larger sizes, developing several horse power, rim-leverage wheels are used to drive electric generators and to do other small work besides pumping water and furnishing electric current for light, heat, and small power work. Chapter VII, page 49, takes up in further detail the rim-leverage wheel. For each possible power site on a spring branch, brook, creek or river there is a rim-leverage wheel or a turbine wheel that is cheapest and best for the fullest economic development of that plant, whether it is only a little home pumping plant, a home power and electric plant, or a larger installation to supply village, town, city or factory. But before we follow that interesting path explored by Mr. Rowlands, the chances for using water wheels in the home stream, before we look further into the nature of that very simple mechanism, the turbine water wheel, let us take a look at any small stream anywhere to see if we cannot determine accurately what practical usefulness may be got out of it. Tur- bine wheels are described in full and illustrated in Chapter VI, page 41. 26 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CHAPTER IV INVOICING A SMALL STREAM / TpHE strangeness of the problem doubtless is the one thing that -* has caused practically every man and woman owning a small stream power site to neglect investigating the practicability of using the stream for power, light, heat, and pumping water. Where can one begin to solve such a problem? It seems formid- able because it is strange. But let us walk down to any small stream on any farm or near any town, anywhere, and find out SHOWING A BROOK READY TO BE INVOICED BY USING A PLANK, SEVEN STAKES, FIVE CHIPS, AND THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE quickly and accurately just what that stream is worth. What unused good has that brook or river in it for me, my home or my town ? Here is a fairly even stretch of theL stream, as is pictured in the drawing on this page. Just above a little riffle, shown at the left of the picture, we drive a stake, H, and measure fifty feet directly upstream where we drive a stake, G. Now we drop a wo"bden block or chip about two inches square in the stream at G and time it as it floats that measured fifty feet to H. We drop a second block or chip and time it as it floats from G to H. One INVOICING A SMALL STREAM 2J after the other we drop three more chips and time them as they float the measured fifty feet from G to H. The first chip floats fifty feet from G to H in 10 seconds. The second chip floats the same distance in 8 seconds. The third chip requires II seconds to make the distance; the fourth chip, 9 seconds, and the fifth chip, 12 seconds. We are trying to learn how fast the brook flows in this 5<>foot stretch we have measured oflF. So to get the average time of the five chips we add together the time made by each of them which equals 50. We divide 50 by 5, the number of chips, which gives us 10, therefore 10 seconds is the average time of the chips in floating that fifty feet, or 5 feet a second, 10 into 50 is 5. But no stream flows evenly throughout its width. It is slower near the banks and bottom because there is friction between the water and the bottom and banks. The flow is swifter in the center just below the surface, where there is least friction. Con- sequently five feet a second, the average time of the five chips is too fast, so we deduct 20 per cent from this average speed or velocity by multiplying 5 by .80, which gives us 4 feet a second as the mean -velocity of the stream in this 5<>foot stretch. There we have the answer to one of the three simple questions we must answer to learn how much power is running to waste in the stream. We have found how fast the stream flows in a certain length or stretch and it does not make any difference where we measure off that stretch of the stream, the ultimate results will be the same. Next we want to learn how much water is flowing down that 5<>foot stretch, or in any other sector of the stream we have decided to use in invoicing the stream's possibilities. After that we will have to determine how much drop or fall we can get, since the farther the water falls from the dam to the wheel the greater the power developed. When we have answered these remaining two questions we will know all that is necessary to know about this stream in deciding how it can best be put to use. To find out how much water is flowing in the stream, we lay a plank across the stream midway between stakes G and H, as shown in the drawing on page 26. Standing on this plank we drive the stake A, which is just a foot from the bank on the left- hand side of the brook, as shown in the drawing on page 26, but 28 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS given in a larger cross-section view lower down on this page. A foot farther out from stake A we drive stake B, and a foot farther still we drive stake C, then stakes D and E, at i-foot intervals, indicated in the drawing on this page. The brook is only six feet wide. If it were wider, we would drive more stakes at l-foot intervals. The plank is included merely as a convenience and may be omitted. Now we measure the depth of water at each stake. CROSS SECTION OF STREAM We find that it is 9 inches deep at stake A; II inches deep at stake B; 13 inches deep at stake C; 15 inches deep at stake D and 12 inches deep at stake E. To get the average depth we add together the depth of all five stakes, which gives us 60 inches, and divide by 5, which gives 12 inches as the average depth of that particular width of stream. This may seem rather simple arith- metic, but its purpose will all be clear in the next few lines. Suppose the plank laid across the stream is a foot wide, then that part of the brook immediately beneath the plank would be a section of the stream the width? of the plank, I foot, the length of the plank, 6 feet, and with an average dep.n of I foot. In other words, the part of the stream immediately beneath the plank would be a slice of the brook, I foot wide from the upstream edge of the plank to the downstream edge of the plank, 6 feet from bank to bank, and with an average depth of I foot. Well, how much water, what quantity of water, is in such a slice of the stream? We want the answer in cubic feet, so we multiply to- gether those three dimensions of the slice of brook, I x 6 x I equals 6, or 6 cubic feet, the quantity of water in the slice of brook we so carefully measured. A cubic foot of water is yj/^ gallons, so we have 45 gallons of water in that slice of brook, to express it in the more usual unit of 'measure. We have already determined that the brook flows 4 feet a second. That slice of brook we have measured flows just as fast as any of the rest of the water passing that point, so to get the rate of. flow we multiply the speed, 4 feet INVOICING A SMALL STREAM 29 a second, by the quantity of water, 6 cubic feet, and find that the stream flows 24 cubic feet of water a second. At that rate it flows 1,440 cubic feet of water a minute, since there are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 multiplied by 24 equals 1,440. There we have the answer to the second question, how much water does the stream flow? A horse power is 33,000 pounds dropping one foot in one minute. Thus, 33,000 pounds of water falling one foot in one minute will develop one horse power. Now we have 1,440 cubic feet of water a minute in the stream we are invoicing. Each cubic foot of water weighs 62^/2 pounds, so the total weight of the water flowing down this stream each minute is equal to 1,440 cubic feet multiplied by 623/2, which is 90,000 pounds. If we drop 90,000 pounds of water one foot in one minute, how much horse power would the stream develop? Dividing 90,000 by 33,000, the result is 2.72 horse power. However, we must remember that developing power under such low heads as one foot, or even two or three feet, is not the cheapest or the most practical method in small streams. It is better for us to have a 1 5-foot head, or fall, as Mr. Rowlands did. With a 15-foot head we saw that Mr. Rowlands's little 9-inch turbine wheel developed 5.72 horse power, and required only 246 cubic feet or 17,365 pounds of water a minute to do it. In fact, 246 cubic fee^ of water was all the water that particular type and size of wheel could use under a 1 5-foot head. No matter if the whole Mississippi River were surging about it, only 246 cubic feet of water would go through that wheel under a 1 5-foot fall. To get more power out of that size and type wheel the head or fall of the water must be increased, thus increasing the quantity of water the wheel could use. It is impossible to strain or to damage a water wheel by overloading. It can and will do just so much work, right up to its big 80 to 90 per cent efficiency, and there it stops. It is the mule of the entire world of machinery. If we propose to use all the 1,440 cubic feet of water a minute that flows in the stream we are invoicing we will have to employ a larger type of wheel than the one Mr. Rowlands uses. Even under loo-foot head his turbine wheel would use only 634 cubic feet of water a minute, but it would develop 99.60 horse power. We 30 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS would still have half of the water going to waste in using that type of 9-inch wheel, even if we cared to or were situated to install the heavier pipe or penstock construction to handle a fall or head of water of 100 feet. Obviously if we want to use all the 1,440 cubic feet of water a minute in the brook, we must get a larger wheel. A 21-inch turbine wheel would use 1,435 cubic feet of water a minute under only a 1 2-foot head and would develop 26.74 horse power. That figure applies only to the New Pattern Hunt Francis Cylinder Gate Turbine Wheels. The same size Cylinder Gate Hunt McCormick Turbine Wheel would develop 32.9 horse power under a 12-foot head, but it would require 1,815 cubic feet of water a minute, which is more water than our "sample" stream averages. Or, a 24-inch Hunt Francis cylinder gate type would use 1,406 cubic feet of water a minute under only a 7-foot fall and would give 15-28 horse power in return, while the 24-inch Hunt McCormick cylinder gate type would use 1,831 cubic feet of water a minute under a 7-foot head and develop 19.4 horse power. The situation then, is that where there is a large quantity of water and a low fall available, there must be a larger wheel, or better, a pair or series of turbine wheels, to develop the water power plant fully. The stream to be utilized may be deep, or wide and flow slowly, through a flat country and it might be utterly impracticable to obtain even a 1 5-foot head of water within a reasonable distance. In such case a low head of water must be used and the t'ype and size of turbine wheel that fits best in that particular development. There is a size and type of turbine wheel to fit any combination of quantity of water and fall of water to the very best advantage and fullest development of the plant under those specific conditions. When a stream is very rapid or it is feasible to get a consider- able drop or fall of water in a short distance, the development points to the use of a smaller size wheel. Perhaps the stream is only a tiny brook and hasn't enough water to run a large turbine wheel. Then, the thing to do is to let the small volume of water fall a greater distance to a small turbine water wheel and in that way develop as much power as the larger wheel that operates under a lower head, but with a greater volume of water. It seems that Nature has provided every aid for harnessing water power. INVOICING A SMALL STREAM 3! In the mountains and hills the streams may be small and rapid, affording only small volumes of water, but high heads are easily available and thereby the little streams are capable of developing much power. Out on the plains and in the broader valleys the larger streams flow slowly but they afford a large volume of water to make up for the lack of head. On pages 140 to 152 of this book THE DOTTED LINE, C TO A, ILLUSTRATES THE COMMON TERM, "HEAD OF WATER," AVAILABLE TO OPERATE THE WATER WHEEL you will find different types and sizes of turbine water wheels rated, showing the power development of each type and size under different heads of water, the quantity of water required and the number of revolutions a minute of the wheel. We have now come to the last of the three questions we had to answer in taking stock of our sample stream: What head or fall can we have? The picture on this page indicates what is meant by head, fall, or drop. It is the distance on the dotted line from C to A. It does not matter much what the distance is that the water flows through the pipe from an inlet B near the dam to A, where the turbine wheel would be placed, so long as that distance is not so great as to make cost of laying pipe, building flume or mill race prohibitive. We are concerned chiefly with how much vertical drop we can get, as indicated by the line C to A. 32 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS Well, I can guess a grade or drop of a stream pretty well, one man boasts. Possibly he can, but the chances are 500 to I that he cannot. If ever you have seen young engineering students guessing at grades you will appreciate the truth of that. Let's not guess. We want everything in this procedure to be absolutely dependable. Nor need we call a surveyor out from town. That would cost money. Let us employ the simple tools and methods that Mr. Rowlands used, a lo-foot straight-edge, such as stone masons use, a carpenter's spirit level and a yard stick. We want to get the greatest fall in the shortest distance along the stream that is possible. Let us pick out a stretch of the brook that seems to have the greatest fall in the shortest distance. Near the lower end of the riffle, where we think we may locate the turbine wheel, we place the straight-edge at the water's edge and parallel with the bank. The upstream end of the straight-edge rests on a pebble whose top is flush with the surface of the water. We place the spirit level on the center of the straight-edge and then with stones or a stake level up the lower end of the straight- edge until the spirit level shows that the straight-edge is exactly level. \Ve then measure the distance of the lower end of the straight edge above the surface of the water and we find how far the water falls in this ten feet. If the downstream end of the straight-edge is one foot above the water, the fall in that lo-foot section of the stream is one foot. We move the straight-edge up- stream exactly ten feet and repeat the measuring process, and continue to repeat the process through any length of the stream desired. If the fall in 100 feet is to be determined the lo-foot straight-edge will have to be moved and leveled up ten times. Any length of straight-edge may be used, just so the board is straight and true. Some streams with abrupt banks may make the application of this simple method a bit difficult, but it can fre used in all cases by exercising a little common sense ingenuity. There are all three of the water questions answered accurately We have learned how fast the stream flows, how much water it delivers a minute and the head of water available. This method may be termed the "dry-foot" method, and it may be used in measuring either small or large streams. THE WEIR METHOD OF MEASURING WATER 33 CHAPTER V THE WEIR METHOD OF MEASURING WATER THE "dry foot" method of measuring a stream, as described in the previous chapter, is a quick and dependable way of measuring a large or small stream. For a brook or creek, there is another way that perhaps is easier, the weir method. Weir is only another name for dam. The weir method consists of putting A WEIR FOR MEASURING THE FLOW OF A SMALL STREAM a small board weir or dam across the stream, after having sawed a section out of the top and middle part of the weir so that all the water of the brook must flow through this sawed section. The depth of the water flowing through this sawed out section in the weir is measured and then by simply referring to the table of weirs on page 35 the capacity of the stream is shown instantly. The picture on this page shows such a weir for measuring a small stream. Should you employ an expert to measure your brook or creek, he probably would bring a current meter and a surveyor's transit or level and then would put in a weir, if the stream were not too 34 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS large. He would use up a lot of expensive time at your expense and the results he would obtain would be exactly the results you can obtain without cost. Let us glance at the picture of a weir and then go down to the brook, put in a similar weir and determine immediately how much horse power is running to waste in that stream. The weir may be made of one large plank or of several pieces of old scrap lumber cleated together. An opening is sawed in the middle of the weir, as shown in the picture, and the weir is set across the stream and is carefully "plugged" with clay or sods to prevent water leaking underneath or at the sides of the weir. The opening is sawed on a slant, beveled, with the sharp edge of the bevel up- stream. Say the opening is 30 inches wide and 10 inches deep, or any other width and depth, so long as all the water in the brook flows through the opening, there is no leakage at the bottom of sides, and at the same time the weir dams the brook sufficiently to form a little mill pond three or four feet above the weir. But to be definite, let's have the opening in our weir 30 inches wide and 10 inches deep. Now, two or three feet above the weir we drive a stake in the stream. The stake is marked I in the picture on the opposite page. We want the top of that stake just level with the surface of the water. Next we extend a yard stick, or a lath, from the top of the stake to the nearest edge of the opening in the weir. We get that yard stick or lath exactly level by using a spirit level and then we mark on the edge of the weir opening so that that mark is exactly level with the top of the stake. From that mark we measure straight down to the bottom edge of the opening in the weir and our work is done, except for the simple action of glancing across to the page opposite to the Table of Weirs printed there. Let us say, to be specific, that the distance from the mark we made on the edge of the opening in the weir, to the bottom edge of the opening is 7% inches. On the Table of Weirs on the oppo- site page we notice five columns of figures. At the top of the first column is the word "inches;" at the top of the second column, the cipher, "O"; at the top of the third column, the fraction, "}4"; at the top of the fourth column, the fraction" 1/2", and at the top of the fifth column, the fraction "%". We look down that first THE WEIR METHOD OF MEASURING WATER 35 column, under the word "inches," until we come to the figure 7, remembering that the distance we measured was 7%. We run a finger across the table to the column that is headed "%"and there we find the number 8.697, which is the key to determine the rate of flow in this stream. We recall now that the opening in the weir was 30 inches wide, so we multiply the key number, 8.697, by 30, which gives 260.91 and means that the stream flows at the rate of 260.91 cubic feet of water a minute. That is more than enough water under a 1 5-foot head to run Mr. Rowlands's little 9-inch turbine wheel and generate 5.72 horse power, since Mr. Rowlands's wheel requires only 246 cubic feet of water a minute. And yet this little stream flowing through an opening less than a yard wide; 30 inches wide, in fact; and less than a foot deep, only 7% inches deep, develops 5.72 horse power in the smallest turbine wheel. TABLE OF WEIRS Inches o X Y and at once y u have cut down HEART OF THE TURBINE WATER the efficiency of the wheel. You can WHEEL FOR HIGH HEADS check yp that assertion most emphati- cally by bending the blades of an electric fan. Flatten the electric fan's blades or twist them farther around and you can eliminate the ability of the fan to throw out a current of air. However, the thin, flexible blades of an electric fan, set with only a practical and fair degree of accuracy, should not be compared with the solid, heavy, thick, tough and unyielding buckets of the turbine run- ner> set and curved at every point with the highest mathematical skill and proved out by many years of actual working and by exhaustive tests. The buckets of the Hunt-Francis Runner have been developed, through years of work, to absorb every atom of power it is possible to take from high heads of water. In a like way the Hunt-McCormick Runner has been developed to take all the power that is to be had from lower falls of water and the more usual conditions of water power development. The water crowds into these runners through gates and in a solid, unending A HuNT-McCoRMICK RuNNER FOR USUAL CONDITIONS IN WATER POWER DEVELOPMENT THE TURBINE WHEEL 39 A 1 OME POWER PLANT AND MACHINE SHOP WITH VERTICALLY MOUNTED TUR- BINE WHEEL IN A CASE BENEATH THE POWER HOUSE mass presses and shoves against every tiny atom of surface of the runners. The runners re- act to this constant pressure and move, revolve, and as the pressure of the water upon them is smooth, con- stant, solid, unending, the revolving of the turbine run- ner is absolutely smooth and without the tiny jars and jerks that always must be present in the most per- fect of gasoline motors or in reciprocating steam engines. Hence turbine water wheels are termed reaction wheels, while rim-leverage wheels which operate by the combined kick or blow of the water striking upon them, and the gravity weight of the water carried down by them are called impact-gravity wheels. On this page are shown above, a picture of a little turbine wheel home water power plant, with a vertically set turbine wheel in an iron case immediately beneath the power house. At the left of the power plant is the dam, with pipe carrying the water from the dam to the wheel. A belt making a quarter turn transmits the power from the tur- bine wheel to a line shaft on the ceiling of the house and operates through belts and pulleys the machinery in the power house. Two timbers on a rough stone wall support the turbine wheel. The second picture is an enlarged diagram of the iron case used for this turbine. A is the water in- take, G the power shaft and B the shaft to open and close the gates and control the flow of water to the wheel. The water .discharges through the bottom of the Gate Shu* t AN INEXPENSIVE IRON CASE FOR VERTICALLY MOUNTED TURBINE WHEEL 40 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS turbine case. In this picture two I beams support the case and wheel, but the wooden timbers shown in the picture of the power plant, would serve as satisfactorily. This turbine case could be set in a corner of the power house just as well, but in this case it is placed lower down, beneath the power house, to get a higher head of water in the short fall from the dam to the wheel. WOOD TURBINE WHEEL CASE, THOROUGHLY SUBSTANTIAL BUT WITH A MINIMUM OF COST A sturdy and cheaper turbine wheel case for this little hcfrne power plant is shown in the illustration on this page. It may be set beneath or inside the power house. As shown here A is the place where the pipe carrying the water joins onto the case, G is the power shaft and the wheel in the center, labeled "Gate Shaft," is attached to a small hand wheel by a rope to enable the flow of water to the wheel to be quickly and easily controlled by a small hand wheel. THE TURBINE WHEEL 4! A turbine runner could be set in a rain barrel and be made to operate, we said in illustrating the simplicity of the mechanism, but a more mechanically perfect arrangement than only a rain barrel turbine wheel case must be provided, sothewheelisequipped with gates to control the flow of water into the runner. So, just as the turbine runner has been perfected to meet different con- ditions, so the gates and casings have been adapted to furnish the best service under particular or varying requirements. On page TURBINE WHEEL IN BALANCE GATE CASING TURBINE WHEEL IN CYLINDER GATE CASING 16 was shown a picture of a turbine wheel mounted in a pivot gate casing. On this page are drawings of a Balance Gate Casing, at the left, and of a Cylinder Gate Casing, at the right. The runners are inside the casings and, of course, cannot be seen. Whatever the form of gate used it should be remembered that the gate is only a throttle, to start, stop, and regulate the speed of the wheel. The gates are designed to let the water into the runners in a solid volume, with a minimum of loss in friction and without eddy currents. So far we have looked at the turbine wheel largely as being set vertically. This sometimes is the more convenient arrangement 42 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS in small plants, as with Mr. Rowlands, who simply stuck a small Pivot Gate Casing and its runner in the bottom of a box of water and without using a pipe or case as shown in the picture on page 16. A turbine will develop as much power mounted vertically as when mounted horizontally. But the vertically mounted turbine wheel usually has to have a quarter turn belt connection or a crown gear to transmit its power to line shaft or to a machine. Quarter-turn belting and crown gears, no matter how well ad- TURBINE WHEEL IN HORIZONTAL WOOD CASE justed, eat up some power because of friction. The horizontally mounted turbine wheel, on the other hand, if connected by belts, does not require the quarter-turn arrangement, and thus one small source of friction and power loss is eliminated. Neither does it require crown gears, and better still it may be keyed direct to 1jhe machine it is to drive. When connected by belt or cable the most direct connection is available with horizontally mounted turbine wheels and thus loss in friction is greatly reduced. On this page is shown a horizontally mounted turbine wheel in a substantial and inexpensive wooden case. It will be noticed that the power shaft extends through, from A to A, and that the shaft has pulleys at both ends for belt connections with electric generator, line shaft, THE TURBINE WHEEL 43 cream separators, saws, feed mills or any other form of stationary machinery that may be required. Such a horizontally mounted turbine wheel could be placed in the corner of the kitchen of the average country home and be operated entirely successfully with- out interfering with the regular work of the kitchen, if the ma- chinery driven by the turbine wheel were not in the way. The turbine itself, in the sizes for small plants, would not occupy as TURBINE WHEEL IN HORIZONTAL STEEL CASE A PAIR OF TURBINE WHEELS IN HORIZONTAL STEEL CASE much space as a piano and all the equipment it would require would be a wood or steel plate pipe through the wall or floor of the kitchen, to supply it with water, and a discharge pipe through the kitchen floor to take the water away. The same runner or turbine wheel may be mounted horizontally in a still more refined manner, in a steel or cast iron case, as shown in the first picture below, or a pair of wheels may be mounted together as shown in the second picture on this page. The opening shown in the top- 44 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS center of the upper picture is where the pipe joins the case. The view of the pair of wheels is from the opposite side. Not only is there a water wheel for every stream, but there is an arrangement that fits most practically every particular need or peculiarity of any water power development, anywhere, large or small. On this page is a turbine wheel with both discharge and supply pipes entering the wheel case directly underneath the floor. A TURBINE WHEEL OUTFIT TO BE CONNECTED TO CITY WATER MAINS FOR OPERATING AN ELECTRIC GENERATOR The picture on the opposite page shows our novel arracge- ment of mounting a turbine wheel on a horizontal shaft. It is wholly outside the building but is controlled by a gate shaft from inside. The water is carried to the wheel by a pipe or penstock running under the basement floor, entirely out of the way and per- mitting the floor above to be given over entirely to the turbine shaft and the machinery it supplies. By this method all the effective head of water available was conserved. This installation, THE TURBINE WHEEL 45 too, replaced an old, vertically mounted wheel and did away with its old mill race, clumsy wheel pit and its power-eating and space- occupying gears. No matter what the arrangement or type of turbine wheel that is installed, from the most inexpensive arrange- ment of a wheel and gate casing submerged in wooden box, the cheap little wooden case inclosing a turbine wheel, or the more TURBINE WHEEL MOUNTED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A POWER HOUSE refined mounting of a pair of wheels in a scroll case shown in the lower picture on page 43, or in any other of a variety of forms, the water motor itself, the runner, is the same; and the little, inexpen- sive turbine wheel is just as efficient, just as durable just as able to fill 100 per cent of its intended purpose, as are the larger and more refined mountings. In these pages we are trying to show plainly and fairly the opportunities in the development of the small stream. On page 176 are suggestions, the answers to which will enable the Rodney Hunt Machine Company, Orange, Massa- chusetts, to reply specifically and accurately as to the possibilities of developing home or small town power sites. The Rodney Hunt Machine Company will be glad to advise as to methods of harnessing the water power of any stream, large or small. 4 6 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS On this page is a picture of another arrangement of a pair of turbine wheels, with Hunt Balanced Gate on a horizontal shaft in a depressed top T Center draft chest. A few of these arrange- ments are shown here, not that they may directly benefit the investigator of home or small town water power development, but that he may glimpse the wonderful perfection turbine water wheels have attained. On pages 47 and 48 are pictures of larger water power plants. ANOTHER FORM OF TURBINE WHEEL MOUNTING No MATTER How PECULIAR AND COMPLEX THE NEEDS AND CONDITIONS OF A WATER POWER PROJECT MAY BE, THERE'S A WATER WHEEL TO FIT THEM. 4 8 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS TURBINE WATER WHEELS FOR A SOUTH AMERICAN POWER PLANT A turbine outfit to develop 3,500 horse power for the Cordoba Electric Light & Power Company, Cordoba, Argentine Republic, South America. An unusual feature in this plant is shown in the two vertical sliding gates in the background. These gates open and close the water supply pipe leading to either unit. The picture was made in one of our setting-up rooms before shipment. Later we supplied the same company with a similar plant to generate 2,000 horse power. THE RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL 49 CHAPTER VII THE RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL MAN'S first efforts in developing power and lifting water were with water wheels, overshot and undershot wheels, more correctly termed Rim-Leverage Wheels. In Syria and Egypt today there still are in use the same clumsy, inefficient type of water wheels used there thousands of years ago. The ancients seemed to realize fully the wonderful wil- lingness of water to work, but they were powerless to develop it, for they lacked the technical knowledge that is the heritage of the present scientific age. In comparatively recent years the industrial world, particularly the English, spurred by the great strides in manufacture that followed the invention of the spinning jenny, sought to develop water power by increasing the size of these old wheels hugely. On the Isle of Man, at Saxy, is such a wheel entirely of wood and 72}^ feet in diameter, the largest water wheel known. On page 50 is a picture of a Philippine water wheel, showing how the other side of the world has tried to do its part in making use of the billions of barren horse power that run to waste in the earth's streams. Yet despite the age-old knowledge and use of water wheels it remained for a present generation to see born an almost mech- anically-perfect Rim-Leverage Wheel, capable of standing along- side the best that electrical, steam, and internal combustion engineering has produced in efficiency, practicability, durability, and genuine worth. The picture of the little home water power electric plant on page 51, shows such a water wheel creation as A RIM-LEVERAGE WATER WHEEL, THE CHEAPEST PRAC- TICAL POWER DEVELOPING MACHINE YET DEVISED. 5O POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS typified in the Hunt Steel Rim-Leverage Wheel or in the Hunt Wood Rim-Leverage Wheel. Between the picture on this page of the awkward, straggling contrivance towering into the air, and the little water wheel pictured on page 39, lie thousands of years of human progress. The modern, scientific, little Rim-Leverage Wheel, as shown in operation in the small home power plant on page 51, and as pictured in detail on page 49, shows a close-knit, A PHILIPPINE WATER WHEEL REPRODUCED BY COURTESY OF LA HACIENDA, BUFFALO, N. Y. perfectly balanced machine, rearing a slender height of not more than six feet and smaller in diameter than the drive wheels of many railway locomotives. It is made in three diameters, 4, 5, and 6 feet, and with a "tire" width, or face, of only 6 inches where the wheel is to be used only to drive a pump for supplying a com- plete water works system of a large or a small country estabSsh- ment. Where the Rim-Leverage Wheel is to supply power for an electric generator and other machines, as well as to drive a pump, the diameters of the wheels are the same, 4, 5, or 6 feet or more, but the face may be as much as 6 feet. The wheel 6 feet in diameter and with a face of 6 feet, with a proportionate flow of water, of course will furnish much more power than the wheels that are 4 or 5 feet in diameter. THE RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL These modern Rim- Leverage Wheels were developed, not by the mistaken plan of seeking to overcome defects and crudities by mere size, but by making a very small wheel mechanically perfect. You perhaps have noticed how teeth of the cogs in the gears of an automobile, or in any other well made machine, are RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL OPERATING A HOME ELECTRIC AND POWER PLANT curved. The curve of those cog teeth is not by guesswork or accident, but entirely according to carefully determined mathe- matical formulas so that the interlocking teeth roll or revolve on one another with a minimum loss of power in friction. So it is with the blades or buckets of a Rim-Leverage Wheel, which are curved, spaced and set with the utmost skill of engineering practice backed up by years of practical experience and constant testing. The wheel is balanced and its buckets curved and set so that the wheel takes every possible bit of power from the falling water. It is because of this perfect mechanical development that the Rim-Leverage Wheel is practical for tiny rivulets having a flow of only a few gallons of water a minute. To make clear how very tiny a rivulet w r ill successfully operate a Rim-Leverage Wheel and pump attachment, take three random examples of the range of work of the three smallest wheels: A wheel only 4 feet in diameter and with only a 6-inch face will pump 800 gallons of water a day to a height of 50 feet and al- most any distance for farm needs, if but 10 gallons of water a minute are supplied to the wheel. 52 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS Or, let 50 gallons of water a minute, which is a very small flow for even a little spring branch, run down a tiny wood trough to a Rim-Leverage Wheel 5 feet in diameter and with a 6-inch face, and the wheel will pump 2,500 gallons of water a day to the top of a hill 100 feet higher than the pump and practically any distance. Or, let there be only the tiniest sort of trickle tumbling onto a 6-foot wheel with a 6-inch face, a trickle of only 6 gallons a minute, and the wheel will pump 360 gallons of water a day to the top of a hill 100 feet high and on the far side of the valley from the pump. A MODERN RUSTIC ELECTRIC POWER STATION These Rim-Leverage Wheels and pump combinations will lift water to a height of more than 300 feet and to practically any distance. As the wheel is small, the sizes used in pumping water are inexpensive, easy to install, almost indestructible and beyond doubt the best and most dependable p6wer pump yet devised. They have a big advantage over windmills, rams, or power pumps of any type. They will use impure water from one stream to operate a pump to deliver water from a distant spring, a pond or from a stream of pure water that may be a considerable distance from the wheel itself. Unlike the windmill they do not have to be placed over, or even near, the supply of water they are to pump. THE RIM-LEVERAGE WHEEL 53 Their range of capacities is far beyond that of windmills or hy- draulic rams. Other advantages of the Rim-Leverage Wheel and pump combination are: It is simple and needs no large, expensive piping. It has no expensive valves to wear out. It has low repair expense. It is adaptable to a variable flow of water with equally satis- factory results. It is noiseless. It is made durable and almost everlasting. It is a picturesque ornament to any rural landscape. IT PUMPS WATER TO A HEIGHT OF MORE THAN 300 FEET AND TO ANY DISTANCE Hunt Rim-Leverage Wheels are made with steel rims or with wood rims. Both give equivalent results in work. The chief difference is that the wood rim wheel is cheaper than the steel. These smaller wheels with only 6-inch face and the pump combina- tion afford fire protection and a constant and adequate water supply for any country establishment. They may be used to pump through service pipes to the household, barns, and grounds, or they may be connected to a pressure tank in the basement or in a cellar, or buried below frost line out of doors, or to an elevated tank, thus providing a reservoir of water under pressure for fire protection and all uses. Whatever the size of the Rim-Leverage Wheel or the purpose to which it is put, either pumping water, or furnishing power it is wholly dependable. The frame supporting the wheel is anchored to a pair of wood timbers or sills with lag screws. Anyone can install the wheel. As the sills are placed to be just barely covered with water, they cannot rot and thus the whole outfit is almost everlasting. The supports of the wheel are large and rugged. They carry liberal sized bearings arranged for self-oiling cups. The water may be led to the wheel through a wood trough, chute or pipe, or through an iron chute or pipe or a concrete flume. As the wheel has no gates or valves to be ob- structed, trash or rubbish that will flow through the pipe or trough will run over the Rim-Leverage Wheel. Where the spring branch or brook has sufficient flow, the larger Rim-Leverage Wheels are excellent to operate home power plants as well as to pump water. They can operate entirely 54 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS successfully under much smaller vohimes of water than can the turbine water wheel. They, of course, are limited as power pro- ducers, but are adequate for the average electric plant of the country home. For pumping water, they undoubtedly are as perfect an arrangement as can be found. The pump parts are of brass, durable and simple so that the necessary packing in all pumps does not need frequent repacking. The suction pipe from the spring or pond supplying the water to be pumped, not the water that operates the wheel, should be % to I inch in diameter. The delivery pipe, from pump to points to be supplied, should be I/*} to I inch in diameter. Galvanized iron pipe is recommended. Both pipe and pumps should be put below frost line to prevent them from freezing. The quantity of water for household use may be estimated at about 200 gallons a day for a family of six. With a pump operated by water power no limit within reason need be placed on the quantity of water used by the household for any purpose, since it costs nothing to run such a pump outfit and it does not wear out. For farm animals the approximate allowances of water daily are: Each cow 12 gallons Each horse 10 gallons Each hog 2% gallons Each sheep 2 gallons You can readily determine the suitable pump and wheel re- quirements for your needs by sending the answers to the following questions to the RodneyHunt Machine Company, Orange, Massa- chusetts: Number of gallons flow a minute of power stream? Number of gallons flow a minute of spring supplying the pump, if the same stream is not to be used to furnish power and for pump, too? Total flow of power stream in feet? 4 Distance in which flow is obtained? Height to which the water is to be delivered? Approximate flow of spring in feet? Approximate distance from spring to pump? Distance water is to be delivered? Estimated number of gallons required each day? What water supply system is now being used? ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 55 CHAPTER VIII ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME MEASLES, that childhood ailment, known in almost every home the world over, has one characteristic in common with electricity. The world does not know what either of them is. It only knows how to handle them, to derive innumerable benefits from one, to curb the other with drawn shades, warmth and a liquid diet. No, not a far-fetched comparison! Only an illuminating ex- ample to show how inert is the stock argument of the man or woman who hesitates in having the money-saving convenience of a home or town water power plant and electricity because he does not "understand electricity." No one knows what electricity is. No one knows what causes the measles. The point is that we do know how to handle them; electricity, at least, in such a practically perfect and safe way that it is the best thing man has done for him- self with his mechanical genius. Although the greatest authority on electricity does not know what electricity is, he and his kind have perfected and simplified electrical apparatus until the most in- expert man can install and operate a home electric light and power plant successfully and easily, with only a few plain, printed direc- tions to guide him. There are two general types of electric generators. The word "generator" has succeeded the word "dynamo" as the name of a machine that develops electric current. These two types of generators are called direct current generators or alternating cur- rent generators, according as they produce the two most used kinds of electric current, direct current and alternating current. All electric batteries produce only direct current. As the storage battery is a convenient part of the home or small town electric plant, the use of a direct current generator eliminates the necessity of changing the alternating current to a direct current, as would happen if an alternating current generator were used to charge the storage battery. Still another reason why direct current 56 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS generators are used almost exclusively in small town and home electric plants, instead of the alternating current generator, is that the direct current generator costs less than the alternating current generator and is about half as complicated. The alternating current generator must be equipped with a small but complete direct current generator to excite its magnets. The direct current generator is complete in itself. Alternating current generators are used where the current has to be carried a considerable distance While we indicated in the beginning paragraph of this chapter that electricity was as easy to have as the measles, so far as any expert knowledge might be required, there is certain very definite knowledge on the producing and handling of electricity that any user or producer of electricity in the home will find useful and interesting. A common horseshoe magnet, such as children play with, con- tains an element called magnetic flux or "current." This flux is not the same thing as the electric current we are familiar with in different forms that is used in furnishing light, driving machinery, electroplating the pages of this book, plating silverware and doing a thousand other useful things. No one knows what this flux is, or what electric current is. That is the hidden part of electricity. But whatever flux and Current may be, we do know how to handle them, to make them work at gigantic tasks or to shear their strength at will. Take a child's toy horseshoe magnet in one hand and a piece of copper wire in the other hand and wave the wire up and down between the ends or two poles, the positive and negative poles of the magnet, and you have an electric generator. That's all any electric generator is, an electric conductor, such as copper, passing through the flux that flows between the poles of a magnet. A few years ago "magneto" was a common term in the auto- mobile world. A magneto is a simple form of the electric genera- tor. It consists of one or more horseshoe magnets. At the opf n end of the magnet or magnets an electric conductor, commonly called an armature in generator construction, is placed so that it may revolve between the poles of the magnet. As it revolves the armature cuts the flux or lines of force, that "flow" constantly between the poles of the magnet, and thus electric current is pro- duced. The telephone that you have to "ring up" and "ring off," used in many rural telephone systems, has a similar magneto, ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 57 or electric generator, in each telephone box. When you turn the little crank at the side of the telephone you turn an armature inside the box. As you turn that crank your hand supplies to the magneto the necessary motive force exactly as does water power, a steam or gasoline engine that operate a larger electric generator. Automobile electric units have advanced from the magneto type of generator to the abler, more perfect type used in home electric plants wherein the horseshoe magnet is repjaced with another kind of magnet, usually several of them in each generator and referred to as electro-magnets. These electro-magnets consist of fine wire wound around steel or iron cores. The greater number of coils around the magnet, the stronger the magnet. To "excite" the electro-magnets; that is, to make them stronger, a part of the current developed by the generator is sent or shunted through the coils of the electro-magnets. Such generators are termed shunt- wound generators and are the most generally used form of genera- tors today. In series-wound generators all the current of the generator is sent through the field coils. The type of winding, however, is a technical problem for the experts. We'll leave it to them, since most of us have some other specialty to worry over. While waving a wire between the poles or ends of a toy magnet in reality forms an electric generator it is mechanically a very im- perfect generator. There must be a better way of doing it, so, an electro-magnet or several of them, are placed around a common center, the shaft of the generator. On this shaft an insulated drum or cylinder is fastened so that the drum revolves between the poles of the magnets with only a fraction of an inch of air space between the circumference of the drum and the poles of the mag- nets. The drum is wound with insulated wires, which are the conductors that cut the magnetic flux as the drum revolves, and thus produce electricity. The ends of these conductors are soldered into a much smaller "drum" that is fastened onto the same shaft and that is called a commutator. The commutator collects all the electric current developed and delivered by the conductors as they cut the magnetic flux. Carbon "brushes'' are placed to touch the commutator as the commutator whirls around with the drum and they pick up the electric current the commuta- tor collects. Wires take the current from the brushes to wherever it is to be used. 58 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS To revolve the armature between the magnets requires power applied to the shaft of the generator. There are two main ways of applying this power and thus generate electricity. Either the shaft of the generator is keyed to the shaft of a turbine water wheel, or pair of turbine wheels, which is direct connection. Or, the generator is connected to the turbine wheel or rim-leverage wheel by belt or cable drive or to a line shaft operated by the water wheel. Either style of connection may be made with large or small water wheels and with either type of generator, direct or alternating current. The picture on this page is of a small direct current generator, and switchboard, especially designed for the home plant. Shown here, it is ready to be belted to a rim-leverage or turbine water wheel producing two to five horse power. If the water wheel develops more power, as the plant may use considerably more power to operate other machines, too, the install- ing of the generator need not interfere with the working of the rest of the plant, as the generator may be belted to a line shaft run by the turbine wheel and thus be operated while the whole plant is in full running. The small generator fits into the larger power development, since it takes only a tiny bit of power, and since it increases the effic- iency of the plant, just as electricity will increase the efficiency and convenience of any home or work by providing adequate light. As it stands the outfit pic- tured here is a complete electric plant. At the bottom of the picture is the generator, compact, simple and so safe that a child can operate it without danger since it develops only 40 volts. In its simplicity, durability and efficiency of operation it answers fully that ugly and common, but expressive phrase, "fool pro^f. " Above the generator, is the switchboard, supported on iron pipe standards, a black, marine-finished panel of slate bearing all the necessary apparatus for complete control of the current. It is in all effect a simplified and perfect miniature of the big city electric plant. We called it a complete plant, and so it is, except that for home use and in small town and village electric plants it is more convenient to add a storage battery to the equip- ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 59 ment. With a reserve supply of current in the storage battery it is not necessary to visit the power plant and start the generator whenever current is wanted. Only at odd intervals, when the battery gets low, is it necessary to step over to the power plant, start the generator and recharge the battery. Where there is no storage battery the generator must be run at all times current is used, even if the current needed is for only a small incandescent light. It isn't always right handy to visit the power plant in the middle of the night, or in the day time, to start the generator, so solely for convenience the storage battery is added to the equipment of the home plant. So far as money cost in operating goes, the water wheel owner could run his electric generator practically all the time. Electricity made by water costs nothing. But for the sake of convenience the reserve supply in the storage battery is highly desirable at times. Of course, if the home plant is operated by gasoline engine or steam, the storage battery is absolutely the salvation of the home or small town elec- tric plant. It costs money to make electricity with gasoline, kerosene, and steam. The picture on page 60 is of a generator and switchboard, and a i6-cell storage battery in a battery rack. Connected with a rim-leverage or a turbine water wheel it is the ideal electric plant for the country home. There are two popular sizes meeting usual conditions, one a 55-light and one a 6o-light outfit, either of which is very elastic in application to the needs of a small home or a larger country establishment. In addition to supplying all the electricity for lighting needed in the buildings and grounds of the average country home, the plant furnishes power for washing, churning, sewing, vacuum cleaners, fans, and heat for ironing and cooking. These two outfits fit as nearly as possible the general run of needs of the country home the world over. They are standardized particularly for home use although larger size outfits are often used. Where more electric current is desired, either for a larger country establishment or to furnish light and power for a whole community, stores, shops, offices, the water power owner can easily enlarge his electric plant to meet those needs. The Rodney Hunt Machine Company would be pleased to suggest additions to the home plant shown here to increase 6o POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS its scope of usefulness, or to suggest other electrical equipment for the larger or special needs no matter what the size of the plant contemplated. The switchboard shown in the two previous pictures of home electrical units could be less substantial and cheaper and perhaps give satisfactory service, but it would not meet the requirements that engineers have specified for the fire insurance writers and so would prevent its owner from obtaining the cheaper fire insurance rates that his water power electric plant entitles him to. It is a piece of thorough workmanship. At the top is a double-throw, single-pole, knife switch for starting. Just below are two dials: one an 0-50 voltmeter; the other, a 3O-ampere ammeter. In the center is a back-of-board type field rheostat for regulating voltage and maintaining the correct charging rate for the battery. Plain and simple directions on a small panel, two glass inclosed fuses and an automatic cut-out to prevent current flowing from the battery back into the generator complete the board's equipment. The battery consists of 16 sealed glass jars, each cell or jar generat- ing two volts, 32 volts in all. The generator develops 800 watts of 20 amperes and 40 volts. The average man or woman isn't called on to use such terms as "watts," "amperes," "volts," and "ammeters" frequently enough to be very familiar with them. But since he cannot es- cape putting money into them directly or indirectly, if he lives or appears anywhere outside of a wilderness, let's straighten these ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 6l terms out once and for all. A "volt" is a unit of electro-motive force referred to by technical men as e. m. f., but we will call it pressure. It was named after a man, Volta. Amperes we will call quantity of electricity. That is not an exact parallel or analogy, but it is near enough for practical illustration. It is named after a man, Ampere. An ammeter is an instrument for recording amperes or quantity of electrical current. Voltmeters record the pressure of electrical current. Watts is the power of electrical current. It, too, gets its name from that of a leader in electrical research. To make the foregoing clearer, we will say that 20 cubic feet of water (quantity) produce a certain horse power when under 40 pounds pressure (volts). Then 20 amperes, quantity, under 40 volts, pressure, produce so many watts, power. How many watts? Eight hundred watts, since 20, the quantity, multiplied by 40, the pressure, give 800, the power of the home plant electric generator described here. A kilowatt is I, coo watts and is equal to 1.34 horse power. Or, 746 watts are equivalent to one horse power. On a calm day a child may wade waist deep at the sea shore without danger. All the water necessary to drown an army is close at hand, but the child suffers no harm. There's no pressure, no "voltage." But let a strong man wade knee deep in a little mountain stream ten feet wide and he is helpless, swept off his feet. The tiny, rushing flow of water has pressure, voltage. So with this home electric plant, it has all the quantity of electricity needed, yet at such low voltage or pressure, 40 volts at the genera- tor, that the current gives no shock and is scarcely perceptible. Many city lighting plants carry no volts on home lighting circuits and are considered to be without danger. That voltage gives only a slightly unpleasant shock. Still other city home lighting circuits carry a voltage of 220, which is not considered a menace to human life. However, 200 volts is a safe point to begin with in consider- ing electrical pressure dangerous. The home plant generator develops 40 volts while the battery delivers only 32 volts. This margin is made purposely liberal to care for the inevitable leaks in every piece of electrical apparatus that ever was made, and to insure a generous current to the battery. The i6-cell battery has one more cell or jar than usually 62 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS is supplied in similar outfits. This gives two extra volts that take care of the "drop in the line" caused by the fact that resistance in electrical conductors absorbs some electricity no matter if the wire carrying the current is no more than a foot long. The battery cells are sealed, too, which is a precaution not always taken. Dust settling in the jars will lower a battery's efficiency. Batteries are of two kinds, primary and storage. The primary battery de- velops current by the reaction of chemicals. When it has de- livered its charge it is dead forever. The storage battery is made by immersing two electrical conductors, called electrodes, in a conducting solution, usually pure water and chemically pure sulphuric acid. The solution is called the electrolyte. Before the storage battery can operate it must be charged with a direct electric current. This current sets up a chemical action in the electrolyte, produces a sort of tension that the battery triec to throw off and return to its original state before the charging current was introduced. The battery sends current into the electrical circuit in trying to "settle back" to its original state. When a storage battery has delivered a large part of its charge its activity is renewed by being recharged from the generator. Electric irons and ranges and electric motors that develop more than J4 horse power should not be operated from the battery alone. The generator should be running while they are in use, because they discharge the battery too rapidly. This holds true for any small home plant, whether operated by gasoline, kerosene or water motors, and it is here again that the rim leverage wheel and the turbine wheel have a distinct advantage in the home power plant. It costs nothing to run the generator and make electricity with water. If after the current is turned off from motors, irons or electric ranges, and no current is being used, some one forgets to stop the generator, no harm will follow. The battery will be "floating on the line." The condition would be somewhat jike operating a small, disconnected centrifugal pump in the bottom of the Mississippi River. The pump would churn up a lot of water within itself, but it wouldn't make a ripple on the surface. The care of batteries requires chiefly one thing, that the cells be kept filled with distilled water. Rain water that has been caught in a wooden container may be used if distilled water is not ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 63 available. But, spring, well or ground water of any kind should not be used. Full directions are furnished with each battery and a hydrometer, which is a simple gla.ss instrument resembling a thermometer, is provided with each outfit. By placing the hydro- meter in a cell the strength of that cell is immediately apparent. How simple is the care of batteries is shown by a recent incident, when a city man was showing a country cousin the sights and stopped at a garage to have his automobile battery tested. An "expert" came out and very expertly poked a hydrometer into each cell of the battery. He said the battery tested 1200. The country cousin admiring the man's deftness casually asked, "Twelve hundred what?" "Twelve hundred volts," replied the "expert," and neither he nor the city man understood why the country cousin laughed. The country cousin had a home electric plant of his own and knew that the 1200 indicated on the hydrometer referred to the specific gravity of the electrolyte of the battery and thus indicated the strength of the battery. The little 6-cell battery of that motor car developed a current of only 12 volts. Yet that "expert" was a good mechanic, a worth-while citizen and had been "experting" on motor cars several years very satisfactorily in a practical way. The automobile proves the absolute practicability of the home electric plant, for the automobile carries a complete electric plant and is practical and dependable under the clumsiest hands and the most inexpert intelligence. Still the automobile electric plant can hardly be compared in durability, simplicity, and efficiency with the home electric plant. The motor car's batteries last about two years on an average while the home lighting plant battery may last seven, eight or even ten years before having to be replaced. Sometimes a reducing regulator for charging automobile stor- age batteries, is arranged to be mounted on the wall and connected to the switchboard of the home plant described here. It may be used to charge automobile storage batteries of 3, 6, 9, 12, or 15 cells at any rate from 5 to 20 amperes. This resistance unit illus- trates one piece of switchboard apparatus we left for description at this point, the rheostat. The reducing regulator and rheostat are both for the purpose of lessening the voltage when desired. They do this by compelling the current to flow through conductors 64 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS of different resistance. For example, you may lower the voltage of a current by compelling it to flow through wrought iron instead of copper, since wrought iron has a resistance six times as great as copper. Because of this question of resistance, the home plant trans- mission lines leading from the power plant to the buildings to be supplied with current, should not be smaller than No. 8 copper wire, American, or Brown and Sharpe (B. & S.), wire gage. They should be covered with weather proof insulating. Indoors the wires should not be smaller than No. 14, copper wire, B. & S. gage, better No. 12 size, and still better No. 10 size, since the smaller numbered wires are the larger in diameter. The distance current is to be carried determines the size of wires. Wire for in- door use should be covered with rubber insulation. The larger the diameter of the wire, the less the resistance and the less the loss in current in transmission. In the back part of this book the B. & S. wire gage is reproduced in a table. The largest size is No. oooo, which is 0.46 of an inch in diameter. The smallest size is No. 36, which is 0.005 f an inch in diameter. The size of wire decreases by one-half with every three numbers, thus No. 7 wire is twice the diameter of No. 10 wire and No. 10 wire is twice the diameter of No. 13 wire. A piece of No. 10 copper wire 1,000 feet long is said to have an electrical resistance of one ohm. The ohm, so called after one of the greatest names in electrical research, is the unit of resistance. Using the i-ohm resistance of 1,000 feet of No. 10 copper wire as a base, the same size and length of wrought iron wire would have a resistance of 6 ohms. All substances vary in this property of resistance and glass and rubber have such tremendous resistance to current that they are used to insulate electrical carriers. Now a piece of copper wire twice the diameter of No. 10 wire will ha^ve just half the resistance. Thus the resistance of 1,000 feet of I^o. 10 copper wire is I ohm while the resistance of 1,000 feet of No. 7 wire is J^ ohm. Or, No. 13 wire, which is just half the diameter of No. 10 wire, has a resistance twice that of No. 10 wire. The smaller the wire the greater the resistance. This explanation mav be slightly tedious, but its importance warrants it. ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 65 The wires of the home electric plant should run in pairs, not singly. Each outlet that taps the current for light or power must be connected to the two wires. This is termed connecting in parallel or multiple. In cities we perhaps have noticed street lights that were connected to but one wire. This wire goes out from a plus or positive terminal and may run down one street and through a number of lights many blocks. Then it turns and comes back on another street, supplying more lights and finally ending at a minus or negative terminaf on the switchboard of the power plant. This is called connecting in series. It saves on wire but it requires a voltage much too heavy and dangerous for use in the home or for a home plant. The resistance in series con- necting is so great it requires a heavy voltage to overcome. For example, suppose we had ten incandescent lamps connected in series on a circuit and say the resistance of each lamp was 200 ohms. The total resistance would be 10 times 200 which would be 2,000 ohms, a load the home plant could not carry. But suppose we connected the ten lamps on two wires, one wire running from a positive terminal and the other running to a negative terminal on the switchboard of the plant. The total resistance in that case would be 200, the resistance of one lamp, divided by 10, the num- ber of lamps, which would be 20 ohms, a very light load. The reason for that lower resistance of connections in parallel can be demonstrated by referring back to the i,ooofoot length of No. 10 copper wire, which has a resistance of I ohm. Suppose we solder another i,ooo-foot length of No. 10 copper wire to the first wire. The total length of the wire over which the current would travel would then be 2,000 feet and the resistance would be 2 ohms. But suppose we laid those two wires alongside each other and fastened them together at both ends. The current would travel then only 1,000 feet, but as the wires would be connected in parallel the resistance would be only }/> ohm. By connecting the wires in parallel we have doubled the size of the conductor and halved the resistance. In wiring a building the wires may be carried in metal con- duits, which is very desirable, but expensive. That method is not usual in home wiring, in which the pairs of wires usually are supported by split porcelain knobs or by porcelain cleats. The 66 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS split knobs require only one nail or screw to hold them and thus have an advantage over the cleats that require two nails or screws. The nails or screws of knobs should penetrate the wood they are attached to a distance at least half the length of the knob. Where wires penetrate walls, floors or wood they should be protected by porcelain tubing, small lengths of "crockery" made in the shape of a tube. Flexible circular loom is used where it is desired to in- sulate curved parts of the circuit and consequently the straight porcelain tubes could not be used. It is preferable to have wall switches in each room, but where expense is to be kept down to the minimum these switches may be eliminated and the current turned on or off by a key or a pull chain at the lamp socket. Pull chain sockets cost about twenty cents more than key sockets but are worth the difference where no switches are used, since they do not jar fine filament lamps as much as does the turning on or off of a key socket. At least have a pull chain socket for the bathroom light. Incandescent lamps out of doors should be controlled by an indoor switch and should have solid sockets that cannot be turned on or off. A pull chain socket is next best for out-of-doors lamps. In barns, particularly in long dairy barns, and other large buildings it is very desirable to connect the lamps in small circuits; that is, one switch controlling each circuit. Say one of these circuits has five lamps, then those five lamps may be turned on from that one switch while work is being done in that part of the barn and the rest of the building be left in darkness because no light is needed there. Where the wires enter a building a small double-pole knife switch, fuses and lightning arresters should be installed in a closed box. Chores are the killing part, the great drawback to any country home. A home electric plant draws the teeth of this bugbear. There is no end to the good it works. Not only does it lighten household and farm work, but it makes life easier and more atjjrac- tive. The bright lights that lure boys and girls to the city are electric lights. It is an established fact that the home with an electric plant can keep its sons and daughters more easily and has less trouble retaining competent help. Any farmhand will hesi- tate tcr leave a place equipped with electricity 'that makes his work lighter. If he is married, the electric lighted tenant house, ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME 67 possibly supplied with water from a pump driven by the home water power plant, will so appeal to his wife that she won't let him quit except for a mighty good reason. It's easier and better to live where there is electricity. If you have ever fumbled for matches and the chimney of a smelly kerosene lamp when a child was sick at night you will realize that for that one reason alone, electric light when a member of the family is ill, the home electric plant is worth its price. Electricity has been over-written frequently and for that reason we have hesitated to make claims for electric heating. Heating by electricity has not yet reached an advanced stage. It can be done successfully, but the cost is so high that the richest men would not attempt to heat their homes entirely by electricity. Coal, wood, oil or gas would be so much cheaper as heat sources that few persons would pay the big difference to heat with elec- tricity, if they had to buy current at anything like the average price. However, the owner of a home water power electric plant can do it successfully and economically if he installs a large enough plant. With a small plant the current is required for light and other purposes and enough of it to furnish sufficient heat could not be spared, even if there was enough current alone for heating. However, a small electric heater in bathroom or bedroom to take the chill off is a practical convenience on slightly chilly days when the usual home fires are not burning. Direct current generators and direct current motors may be used interchangeably, to produce or to use current. Because of that fact most of us have met and had experience with electric generators more often than we realize, only the generators were in the form of electric motors in electric fans and other machines. If then, the small electric fan motor, knocked about from year to year and receiving no more expert attention than the women of a household or the office boys or janitors of a business house can give it, continues to give years of useful service, how much more dependable and durable and self-sufficient should be the sturdier- built electric generator of the home power plant? 68 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CHAPTER IX DAMS DAMS are obstructions placed in streams solely to save water and to direct water into pipes or flumes and through the pipes or flumes to apply water to useful purpose, either power development or irrigation, or both. Whether a dam is a tem- porary thing of brush weighted down with stones, or a row of sand bags or a few flimsy boards nailed together, the same common sense principles apply to its use as to the great concrete, arched dam that may rear a hundred feet or more of slender height between the rock walls of a mountain gorge and hold back millions of tons of water to form a lake covering thousands of acres. These principles of dam construction have been so well worked out in the last fifty to seventy-five years that any man who knows how to use a hammer and saw and the multiplication table can, with only this book as a guide, build a better dam and a cheaper dam than could any of the ancient kings who had the re- sources of kingdoms and workmen by the tens of thousands at their disposal. Solomon in all his glory could have built a prettier dam, undoubtedly, but he couldn't have built as safe a dam as can the man of today with an ax and with the pockets of his overalls filled with i6-penny spikes. Dams that are built right cannot possibly wash out. Occasionally in the development of small water power plants it is not even necessary to build a dam at all. If there is enough water at the head of the riffle or rapids, where the dam naturally would be placed, to cover the intake of the pipe or flume, that teads to the water wheel the water will follow the law of gravity down that pipe or flume and through the water wheel just as readily as it will obey the pull of gravity that sends it down the stream, dashing its force against the stones on its way down. This fact has been mentioned elsewhere in this book, but it cannot be too firmly im- bedded in mind that a pipe or flume is only an artificial part of the DAMS 69 stream bed and that the stream bed itself is nature's flume or pipe. Usually, however, it is necessary to build a dam to direct the water into the intake or to get a higher fall of water than the stream naturally affords. To raise the water only a few inches or perhaps a foot or so in some small power developments temporary dams are used, consisting of sand bags placed across the stream, or of bundles of brush weighted or staked down, or of stones and a few boards. These, dams, of course, leak copiously and are washed out with every freshet, yet where only a tiny quantity of water is needed to be diverted to the water wheel they are sometimes prac- tical because renewing them costs next to nothing. These temporary dams may be tossed across a stream with half a thought. The permanent dam must be gone at in a work- manlike manner. It may be of earth, wood, stone, concrete or steel, or of some combination of two or more of these materials. If the dam is of earth, always it must be remembered that the water never can be allowed to flow over an earth dam. If it does flow over an earth dam, just as surely as water runs down hill that dam will wash out. Earth dams always must be provided with a spillway or channel of sufficient size to carry off all excess water. The spillway is placed near the top or crest of the dam, in the center or at either side. The spillway should be lined tightly with boards or concrete so that at no point does the running water come in contact with the earth of the dam as the water flows from the upstream side of the dam, through the spillway and down to the extreme downstream side of the dam. Earth will hold still water satisfactorily, but moving water will wear it away. The picture on page 70 shows an earth dam and spillway. It will be noticed that this dam is very wide at the base and that both upstream and downstream the sides of the dam slope gradually to the crest. On the upstream side of this dam the slope or slant is determined by the fact that for each one foot in height of the dam on the upstream side the dam is three feet wide at the base. On the downstream side the dam is 2^/9 feet wide at the base to each one foot in height. Lest this description might be slightly con- fusing, please keep in mind that the width of a dam is the distance from the upstream side of the dam to the downstream side. The length of a dam is the distance from one bank of the stream to the opposite bank. 7O POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS The crest of the dam may be just wide enough for a footpath, or by widening the base of the dam, it may be made to serve as a roadway across the stream, a bridge being placed across the spill- way. In building any kind of permanent dam, all mud, vegetable matter and loose material must be removed from the bed of the stream where the dam is to be placed. As most small streams f Rock. Riprap Hand Laid EARTH FILL DAM WITH CUTOFF TRENCH AND PUDDLED COVE usually cut their beds down close to bed rock or to hard clay or other stable formation, this part of the work is often very easy. The really difficult part in earth dam construction is in places where the dam rests on solid rock. It is hard to keep the water from seeping between the dam and the earth and finally under- mining the dam. Perhaps as satisfactory a way as any is to blast and pick out a series of ditches in the rock, each ditch being about a foot deep and about two feet wide and being the same length as the base of the dam. Fill each of these small ditches with three or four inches of wet clay and puddle it by walking up and down the ditches or driving a horse up and down them. Add more layers of wet clay and repeat the puddling process until the dam is several inches higher than bedrock. The upstream half of the earth dam should be of clay or heavy clay soil, which puddles and is impervious to water. The downstream side of the dam should consist of lighter and more porous soil, which drains out quickly and thus makes the dam more stable than if it were entirely of clay. Sometimes satisfactory earth dams are only two feet at the base for each one foot in height, but the foregoing dimensions for earth dams have been made very generous purposely. The kind of material cheapest to use and Certain natural con- ditions of the dam site determine the type of dam to be employed. DAMS 71 Earth dams are cumbersome and perhaps the least to be desired, although they can be adapted to their purpose with entire satis- faction. The universal dam is perhaps the crib dam, which con- sists of poles, rough and green if desired, or sawed lumber, criss- crossed on one another at intervals of two or three feet and spiked together. The spaces between the timbers are then filled with stones and the upstream side or face of the dam is covered with planks to prevent the dam from leaking materially. The picture on this page shows a small crib dam, the view being from the down- stream side of the dam. In this picture it will be noticed that the work of planking both the upstream face and the downstream face of the dam has been but partly finished and that the stream has found a way through the center of the dam. As soon as all the planks are nailed in place on the upper side and the upper face of the dam partly covered with clay, as is shown in the picture, the water will cease to flow through the dam and will have to rise sufficiently to flow over it. The planks are nailed on the down- stream face of the dam. not so much to stop leaks as to direct the water falling over the crest of the dam and not permit a part of it to leak into the dam. Look, please, a little more closely at this small picture. At the heel of the dam; that is, at the base of the dam on the down- stream side, you will notice a row of planks driven into the stream bed. These are priming planks to prevent water seeping under the dam. See Fig. B. A similar row of priming planks is driven into the bed of the stream at the toe of the dam, Fig. A. The toe 72 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS of the dam is the base of the dam at its farthest upstream side. Of course, if the dam rests on rock, priming plank cannot and need not be driven, but where the dam does not rest on rock, priming CROSS SECTION OF SMALL CRIB DAM. A AND B INDICATE PRIMING PLANK plank make the dam much more serviceable, more stable. Now water wheels use such a comparatively small quantity of the water available, in most instances of the smaller power develop- ments, that priming plank may be objected to quite reasonably as an unnecessary detail, but priming plank, just the same, are a very workmanlike and sensible thing to have as a part of any dam not on bedrock. Priming plank should be driven to "refusal," that is, as far as they can be driven, and then spiked to the crib dam. The lower end of the plank should be sharpened thus, i i The plank should not be sharpened in the shape of a J"V,"thus Priming plank should be driven in this order: V Drive plank A first, then plank B and the other planks alphabetical order, keeping the points of the planks as shown in the drawing herewith. The^l^^^ rea- son for this is that each successive plank is thus forced, by the mere act of driving the plank, closer up against the preceding plank. Any rough, sound lumber may serve for priming plank, altho chestnut and oak are recognized as excellent for these plank. Much care must be taken that the plank are free from sap. Two-by-sixes make excellent priming plank. fc The picture on page 73 shows a cross section of a somewhat larger crib dam. You will notice that in this crib dam the up- stream side of the dam is very steep, almost straight, while in the picture of the smaller crib dam the upstream face was almost flat. Either design is good. In the picture of the larger crib dam it will be noticed, too, that the downstream side of the darn, call it the apron of the dam, is in a series of stairsteps, to break the force of DAMS 73 the falling water gradually. In building this crib dam a row of green poles about four inches in diameter was placed across the stream at the toe of the dam; in fact, this first row of poles is the toe tip of the dam. If the stream is small, one pole or timber will reach across it. The poles or timbers used should be of varying lengths so that there will be no joint or line of breakage any dis- tance in the dam. Two and a half or three feet lower down in the stream bed another pole or several poles are laid. Now we have a number of poles laid across the stream in parallel rows. That is the first course of poles. The second course of poles is laid to crisscross the first course. The second course of poles is imme- diately on top of and spiked to the first course. The poles of the second course are laid two and a half or three feet apart in parallel rows and parallel to the banks of the stream. They run up and down stream. Their length is determined by the height of the dam, for, for each one foot in height the crib dam should be three feet wide at the base. Now comes the third course of poles. It is laid on the second course to crisscross it and is spiked in place. The third course poles run from bank to bank, as do the poles of the first course, and the last row of third course poles on the downstream side is omitted. This is for the purpose of giving that stair-step effect to the apron of the dam. The fourth course is then laid, criss- crossing the third course of poles. It, of course, is shorter than the preceding second course, since one row of poles has been omitted from the third course. The process of laying successive crisscrossing poles is continued until the crib has reached the 74 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS desired height, the dam becoming narrower toward the top through the omitting of one row of poles in the successive across-stream courses and the shortening of the successive up-and-down-stream poles, to give the stair-step apron of the dam. When the crib is finished the priming plank is driven at toe and heel, if the dam does not rest on rock, the crib is filled with stones, the upper face and the apron of the dam are sheeted with planks. Clay is dumped onto the upper face of the dam, or is omitted, leaving the dam to "silt up" and become more water tight through the water depositing sediment. The dam is finished. Where a dam is on bedrock, do not smooth the stone evenly. If the rock presents a somewhat level surface it is better to make that surface rough and uneven. If the surface is rough with depressions, ridges, and points jutting up, so much the better. This uneven condition braces the dam and prevents possible sliding. This holds for crib, concrete, and masonry dams. Dams have gone out because they slid or overturned. And they slid or overturned because they were not built right to resist the pressure of the water and their own weight. Throughout the world there are here and there huge ruins, where kings or their underlings built failures that were to have been dams. They piled up huge mountains of great blocks of perfectly cut stone, laid with the precision of master workmen, and those master workmen were masters in every sense of the word, too. But their dams washed out. Those master workmen could build monu- ments of stone in temple and palace to shame the builders of even today, but they could not build dams. The two or three essential principles in successful dam building were not known to them. In fact scientific dam construction was very little developed until the French government took up the subject about seventy-five years ago. America and the whole world owes much to the French, for it was French engineers who took the first big impor- tant step in dam building and it was a Frenchman who first He- veloped the turbine water wheel. One reason those mountains of cut stones the kings set up as dams didn't succeed was because they were cut stone. Neither cut stone nor brick should be used in dam building. In masonry dams rubble should be used so that the stones of varying sizes make only irregular joints between the stones. Another reason DAMS 75 the kings didn't succeed was that their dams were too heavy. They crushed themselves. If they didn't crush themselves of their own weight, the added pressure of the water against them caused them to overturn or to collapse. It isn't a matter of piling great quantities of material in a stream to dam it. It's largely a question of proportioning the dam. The pressure of the water against the face of the dam always exerts its force in a line perpendicular to the face of the dam. WATER EXERTS PRESSURE PERPENDICULARLY AGAINST THE FACE OF THE DAM. THE DOTTED A SHOWS How THE PRESSURE COMES AGAINST A DAM WITH A VERTICAL FACE. THE DOTTED LINE B SHOWS How PRESSURE COMES AGAINST A DAM WITH A SLANTING FACE. Thus if the dam face is vertical the pressure will be exerted along a horizontal line, A, as shown in the small drawing on left side of this page. If the face of the dam is slanting, as in the drawing shown on right side of this page, the- water pressure is exerted perpen- dicularly to that face, or along the line B, as shown in the drawing. Obviously, if the dam with the vertical face is not built right the water is going to slide that dam down stream. Also, if the dam with the slanting face isn't built right the water is going to crush it or overturn it. For we must remember that in addition to the pressure of the water the dam must bear its own weight and the weight of the water flowing over it, and that somewhere along a line at the base of the dam these two great forces, pressure and weight, are going to converge in maximum lines of force. En- gineers know the limits in which the resultant of the pressure and the weight forces will converge and they design dams to counteract this combination. That is why one dam with twice the material in it that another dam has, will not hold, while the lighter, small dam will hold. Small masonry dams or concrete dams built without technical advice in small streams usually hold. The pressure is not sufficient 7O POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS to harm them. But where the dam is of fair size, if of masonry or concrete, it should be designed by a dam expert. As these dams most usually require considerably less material in their construc- tion than do the home-design dams, the buying of dam blue prints and specifications most often is a big saving. Not only is material and labor saved, but there is the comforting knowledge that the dam will last through generation after generation. The picture on this page is a typical masonry dam for a small stream. Its base is 1.25 feet for each one foot in height. It is of uncut stones, laid in Portland cement mortar. Where the banks of the stream are solid rock, as in some of the notable dams in the great reclamation projects in the West and Southwest, the dam may be an arched dam, either of masonry or concrete. The dams we have been considering, up to this point, have been gravity dams, which are the general type of dam, the arch dams being used only in the greatest engineering works of reclamation, and where there is a natural, solid wall of bedrock on each side of the stream to take the thrust of the arch. Since some of the readers of this book may have available a small stream flowing through a rocky gorge, arch dams are men- tioned briefly here, although they should never be attempted unless designed by a competent engineer and, if feasible, super- vised in construction by such authority. An arch dam starts at the natural, solid rock wall on one side of the stream, curves gradually upstream to the center of the gorge or canyon and then curves downstream to the opposite wall. It is built solidly into the walls on either side. Remembering how DAMS 77 the arch of a stone bridge resists the weight put upon it, it is easy to appreciate how the slender, curved dam can successfully with- stand the pressure of water upon it. At its base it usually has a heel extending out a short distance, but throughout its whole makeup it is such a comparatively slender thing that were it built straight across the channel, instead of being curved it would collapse very quickly. Arch dams are used where great height is POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS WIAJGWALL RODS 01? PIPE. FOR X WIAIC5 \VALL OR APRO/V WALL I I BACKI^C TOp JPILL WAY PiA/M SECTION DAMS 79 desired, as in irrigation projects that impound great lakes of water. Being curved, it reacts to the contraction and expansion as tem- peratures vary and does not crack. Sometimes the lower faces of these high dams, exposed to the full glare of the sun, are quite a few degrees warmer than the upper faces, covered by cool water. Arched and gravity dams sometimes are of masonry, but concrete is so much more easily handled and commonly is so much cheaper that the best permanent dams of today are largely of concrete. On pages 77 and 78 we give a complete design for a con- 'XlO'or heavier SHEET PILING is MERELY PRIMING PLANK IN MULTIPLE FORM. IN THIS USE 2 x 10 INCH BOARDS ARE CHEAPER THAN 2 x 6s, AS THERE SHOULD BE A CERTAIN NUMBER OF BOLTS TO EACH BOARD TO HOLD THE PILING TOGETHER crete dam eight feet high, ten feet wide at the base and fifteen inches wide at the crest. This dam is made of a mixture of I part best Portland cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel, or coarse aggre- gate. Large stone may be used in this work, but care must be taken that they are clean and are entirely surrounded by the finer materials of the concrete. This dam is not to be used where the length of the dam must be more than fifty feet. It was de- signed for the Alpha Portland Cement Company of Easton, Pennsylvania. You will notice in Figure I of this dam design on page 77 that the downstream side of the dam is curved, which is for the purpose of throwing the escaping water outward and up- ward from the dam and preventing it from digging too great a hole 8O POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS at the heel of the dam. This design is complete, except that priming plank are omitted. If the dam is not to be on rock, then this priming plank should be used and in place of a single thickness of priming plank, three thicknesses are preferable, being placed as Wakefield Sheet Piling with a waling strip on the outer side or on both sides. Two-by-sixes again are excellent for this use. The picture on page 79 shows such an arrangement of priming plank. Note that the planks overlap so that joints do not come at any one place full through the thickness of the priming. In using such an arrangement of priming plank, it may be necessary to rig up a homemade pile driver. A log a foot or so in diameter and five or six feet long, fastened to a rope at one end will serve well. The picture on this page shows such a homemade pile driver. A concrete or masonry dam more than 12 feet high should not be attempted without the advice of a competent engineer on the subject, first on the design and type of dam, and second on .the footing the dam site offers. Now the stream bed may be of solid rock and may appear to any layman as absolutely safe to hold a dam. But, if, as it occasionally happens, this bedrock is porous, that little fact may threaten the stability of the dam with an un- expected force, the force of the water coming up underneath the dam through the pores of the rock. That condition undoubtedly would occur very, very rarely, almost never in fact, but we must DAMS 8 1 take into account all possibilities. We want our great-great- grandchildren to admire our dam and not to remark how careless great-great-grandfather was not to recognize the little fact about building solid dams on porous stone. Further, if we put the solid dam on other than solid rock, there should be competent engineering authority as to whether that footing is sound enough. A soil-bearing test is a very wise precaution. It is a simple thing, sometimes made by digging a tiny hole into the area to be tested, setting a 12 x 12 timber in that hole and piling weights of iron or sand bags on a small platform on the upper end of the timber. In publishing this book we could easily have made the outlook of water power development so scarce of obstacles that it would seem a rose-garlanded pastime. The little chores and details such as priming plank, porous rock, soil-bearing tests, dumping in clay to "silt up" the dam could have been omitted and in 999 of a thousand dams their absence would not have been missed, but we feel that the interests of the thou- sandth developer of small stream water power should be con- sidered always just as fully and particularly as those of the 999 water power users. The Rodney Hunt Machine Company has been making water wheels and devices for handling water for about fifty years. It hopes to continue improving and developing water power plants another fifty years. It can do so only by being wholly fair, by not only making good water wheels, pumps and other water machinery, but by making this book just as good. While concrete dams often are the cheapest construction feasible, in some cases rock fill dams are the cheapest. The picture on page 82 shows a cross section of a rock fill dam. The rock fill dam is very similar to the earth dam, being a huge ridge of rock. It may be placed on porous rock or on practically any foot- ing. The dam shown in the picture on page 82 has one foot in height for each one foot of width on the upstream side and one foot in height to each one foot in width on the downstream side. The upstream side of the dam is faced with rough rubble, set in cement mortar and a foot to two feet thick. This face of the dam is then covered with four to six inches of very rich concrete, the aggregate of the concrete being fine. The downstream face of the dam should be a dry wall about two feet thick. All the rest of the dam is of loose rock, just dumped in. The dam should have a spillway, 82 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS /Slope of iqtf&f/f> Bed Hock IN THIS PICTURE THE FACE OF THE DAM is STRENGTHENED BY THE ADDITION OF THE DRY WALL BEHIND THE WALL LAID IN MORTAR. THIS DRY WALL MAY BE OMITTED, BUT AS ITS COST is ONLY A LITTLE EXTRA LABOR IT is GOOD PRACTICE TO INCLUDE IT as in the earth dam, adequately lined with concrete or boards. If there is to be a small flow of water over the dam, then the crest and the downstream face must be sheeted with concrete or boards. Priming plank should be driven at the toe of the dam, if it is not on bedrock. The view shown below shows similar construction with center corewall a little more expensive but much more desirable form. '^Concrete Core. Wall teel Reinforcing BeJ Rock Trench Filled w/M Concreie ROCK FILL DAM WITH CONCRETE CORE WALL DAMS We have come now to the last type of dam we are to consider, the frame dam. It may be of wood, concrete, or steel, or a combina- tion of materials. The drawing on this page is of a section of wooden frame dam. It shows a frame of heavy timbers supporting the face of the dam. The base timbers A in this dam are called sills. The shorter timbers marked B are struts. The timbers marked C are rafters and the long timbers marked D are purlins. This design of dam as shown here may be built any length. As to height of dam, we give here dimensions for timbers for wooden frame dams of three different heights, four feet high, six feet high, and eight feet high. For a dam four feet high the sills should be 6 x 8-inch timbers ten feet long, the rafters should be 6 x y-inch timbers eight feet long and the struts A should be 6 x 6-inch tim- bers five feet long. For a dam six feet high the sills should be 6 x 8-inch timbers fourteen feet long, the rafters should be 6 x 8- inch timbers twelve feet long and the struts A should be 6 x 6-inch timbers seven feet long. For a dam eight feet high the sills should be 6 x 8-inch timbers eighteen feet long, the rafters should be 6 x 8-inch timbers sixteen feet long and the struts A should be 6 x 6-inch timbers nine feet long. The sills should be no farther than six feet apart and the purlins no farther than four feet apart. The sills may be bolted fast to bedrock or to timbers running across the stream parallel to the purlins. The plank used for the facing should be at least two inches thick. In any dam the end of the dam may be the weakest point in construction, for the water will try sometimes to eat around the ends of the dam by washing out the banks of the stream. For this reason the dam must be built well into the banks to prevent the 84 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS banks washing out, which is easily guarded against by reinforcing the face of the bank with a few loose stones or by driving in plank. "But if I put in a dam it would back the water up fifty feet," some one remarks. "Would a dam, as described here, hold it?" Certainly it would hold the water. It doesn't make any difference if you build a dam and back the water up ten miles or twenty miles, the same dam will hold it. Whether the pond or lake made by the dam is twenty miles long or any number of miles long makes no more difference than if the dam backs up only ten or twenty feet of water. It is always well before building a dam to have the approval of local authorities, and before going ahead with larger dams it is best to consult an engineer. CONDUITS 85 CHAPTER X CONDUITS THE owner or owners of small water power plants for home, town or village betterment have a distinct advantage over the big, moneyed corporation that installs a great water power plant. The small plant can be arranged pretty much to suit the convenience of the owner, both in its method of construction and its location to natural surroundings. With the small plant the difference in cost between the ideal arrangement, recommended by a water power expert, and the possibly more convenient arrange- ment, decided on by the owner, is quite small both as to cost and the resulting efficiency. But huge plants must follow somewhat rigid rules, whether convenient or not. The great volume of water they use is a colossal giant whose tremendous strength requires heavy har- ness. Consequently the big plants find it most advantageous to employ large water wheels under low heads of water, installing the wheels close up to the dam and eliminating long lengths of flume or penstock. ("Penstock" is only another word for "pipe.") On .the other hand, the small plant can choose the more desirable arrangement of using a larger wheel under a low head close up to the dam. Or, it can use a smaller wheel situated some hundreds or thousands of feet from the dam, obtaining a higher head of water by carrying the water to the wheel in some form of conduit, flume, ditch or penstock. The smaller water giant employed by the small plant is so easily handled, the small water power plant owner can choose between the two arrangements without much difference in cost or efficiency. However, it is an almost universal rule that placing larger wheels close to the dam, thereby utilizing a lower head of water and eliminating penstock and flume lengths as much as possible is the better arrangement. This statement is made in the face of the fact that the Rodney Hunt Machine Company has a complete line 86 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS of wood and steel plate penstocks to sell, to meet any condition of water power development. The more of such materials it sells the better its business. Yet in sticking close to the purpose of this book, to give a truthful word picture of water power development, we advise against using long lengths of penstocks or flumes where it is at all practical to use a lower head of water and only a short length of penstock. But some investigator into home or town water possibilities may say: "The banks of our creek or brook are low. If we build a moderately high dam it is likely to cause overflows in flood times. Besides there is a week or two some years when the stream gets so low it might not have enough water to operate the larger wheel at full power. Besides, if we build a small dam it costs less than the larger dam and at the same time does not create a possible flood hazard. Now why can't we carry this water through a mill race or something to get a higher head of water? We can use a smaller wheel then, and as the smaller wheel takes less water the stream will always have enough water to run the wheel at full power. We'd get the same power from a small wheel and a little water under a high head that we would from a larger wheel under a lower head. What's wrong with using a mill race?" Obviously there's nothing wrong with carrying the water a considerable distance through a conduit to the wheel, under such conditions. It is the best thing to do. The question comes down entirely to a choice of conduits, "conduit" being a general term in this case for pipes, penstocks, flumes, ditches and millraces. On page 87 is a picture of a wood stave penstock or pipe. It is\>ne of the most satisfactory conduits yet devised. Its construction is just like that of a barrel, wooden staves held in place by iron bands, only the wood stave pipe has no bulge as has the barrel. Many advocates of wood stave pipe assert fhat it not only has greater durability and tightness, but that wood stave pipe or penstock will carry 10 per cent more water than either riveted or cast iron pipe. Wood stave pipe is practical for use under pressures up to 170 pounds to the square inch, or work- ing under heads of water about 390 feet high. Under high pres- sures the staves are made thicker and the banding irons are CONDUITS 87 heavier and are placed closer to- gether. Under mod- erate pressures the staves are thinner, the banding irons .lighter and placed farther apart. Thus, if you bought a wood stave pen- stock for use un- der a moderate head of water, it would be built to suit that head of water and would not cost as much as the same diameter of pipe built for higher heads. The pipe is made of different kinds of wood to meet varying conditions and can be fitted with elbow or angle sections to permit the pipe to be curved in any direc- tion that may be convenient or necessary. Added to its dura- bility, lightness and ease of installation are two other prime qualities, cheapness, and capability of being repaired easily after long service. In addition to straight wood pipe the Rodney Hunt Machine Company furnishes curved wood pipe, hoops, bands, lugs, connectors for joining with steel pipe, cradle sup- ports and all accessories and fittings. In some uses riveted steel plate penstocks are the best form of construction possible. The picture on page 88 shows a type of such construction. As with wood stave pipe,the steel plate pipe is made in different sizes and with plates of different thickness to work under different conditions and heads at the cheapest practical cost of installation. Connectors, reducers, and special shapes are also furnished when desired. In the earlier years of the Rodney Hunt business timber was universally used in the construction of water wheel flumes, pipes, and penstocks, and wheelwrights and carpenters were then an important part of our force. The lessen- ing cost of steel has made possible the use of metal in many places where it may be more desirable than wood, and in 1897 we added to our works a plate and structural steel department which has grown rapidly and which is equipped with the best design of tools for accurate and careful work and for economic production of first class materials. 88 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS A circular conduit, either a wood or steel pipe, is the best form of conduit possible, because there is less wall space compared to the volume of water carried than in any other form of conduit. This minimum of wall space means a reduction in friction, and that more water can pass through the conduit in a given time than if the pipe were some other shape. A square penstock of the same cross section of a round pipe would not carry as much water as would the round pipe. Friction is a more important consideration than would seem possible perhaps to the man or woman unac- quainted with the subject, and m the chapter in this book on centri- fugal pumps we have emphasized, with the experiences of a Missouri farmer, the importance of considering friction in instal- ling conduits. The Missouri farmer had to buy an extra size motor for his drainage plant solely because he neglected this item and put in- a 4-inch discharge pipe instead of a 5-inch pipe. On page 163 you will find a pipe friction table showing how water is retarded at different velocities in different sizes of pipe through the friction of water against the pipe. Friction in a flume or ditch demands just as much attention as in a penstock. As in a pipe we have seen that the round pen- stock has the least friction, so the flume or ditch in the shape of a half circle will have less friction and carry more water than in any other shape of equal area. In small conduits, sometimes used in fish hatcheries to carry water from one pond to another, half^tile pipes are used because they carry more water for the space they occupy than would the ordinary trough-like flume with straight sides. However, curved sides are not practical in flumes or ditches generally, so we turn to the next best shape of flume, a half hexagon thus \ / with the outside angle, A, between a side and \ /\ the bottom being 60 degrees. Again, in exca- N '-- -*-^ vations some soils will not hold a bank CONDUITS 89 as steep as this 60 degrees indicates. In that event the slant of the sides must be less. In any case the ditch with slanting, not straight, sides will pass more water than the straight-side.d ditch of similar cross-section area. Now comes the question: Should I make my ditch with a wide bottom and gradually slanting sides, thus Or, shall I have a narrow bottom and N. =^S steeply slanting sides, thus \ / ' The water will be shal- low and have a broad width in' the broad bot- tom N j flume. It will be deep and narrow in the narrower bottom flume or ditch. The answer is to make the bottom as narrow and the sides as steep as possible up to 60 degrees. Or, stating a rule, next to a half-hexagon shape the best shape is one that with the depth of the water as the radius a circle drawn within the flume will touch the bottom and both sides, thus \i \i The Rodney Hunt Machine Company will be pleased to advise you just what shape and size >"- a^y ditch to put in, if you propose to use a natural-bottom-and-sides ditch or a concrete-lined ditch as a conduit. This important principle of conduit construction was first discovered thousands of years ago by the world's first scientific builder, the honey bee, which divides its comb into hexagons because only in that form can it get the largest storage space for honey with a minimum quantity of wax for wall construction. This hexagonal or trapezoidal cross section principle in flume construction applies almost entirely to ditches. It would be im- practical and too expensive to build wood or concrete flumes on top of the ground with such shapes. The thing to do then is to build, on top of the ground, a flume with a straight, level bottom and straight sides, a rectangular flume. But even in this con- struction friction can be eliminated and more water carried by a proper relation of the height of the sides to the bottom. Thus, in the rectangular flume the normal depth of water should be half the width of the flume. Thus, the stream in a flume one foot deep should be two feet wide; or, if the water is three feet deep the flume should be six feet wide. 9 o POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS The picture on this page shows a concrete-lined ditch or flume. While it is desirable to line such ditches, it is not always necessary. This flume could be smaller if the slides were slanting, as explained CONCRETE LINED FLUME FROM LA HACIENDA, BUFFALO, N. Y. in foregoing chapters, but there probably is enough water available that the friction element was not given thought and the extra cost of using more concrete to build a rectangular flume was not con- sidered. The unlined ditch in a greater part of the farming areas of the Americas will hold water very satisfactorily after it has had a few weeks to "silt up." Where the ditch is in sandy soil and leaks considerably, put several inches of clay in the bottom of the ditch, wet it and then puddle it by driving horses or cattle up and down the ditch. The thickness of the concrete in lining such a flume depends entirely on the size of the flume. A drawback to unlined ditches is that in warm climates the ditches gradually fill up with vegetable growth that greatly obstructs the flow. CONDUITS 91 On this page is the picture of a wooden flume in course of con- struction. The picture on page 93 is a covered concrete flume. On pages 95-99 are designs for wood and metal flumes made A WOOD FLUME IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION FROM LA HACIENDA, BUFFALO, N. Y. by the United States Reclamation Service, with tables of dimen- sions and quantities of materials. The home owner, town or village official who has a water power prospect of any size can get from this chapter a fair idea of the conduit his particular water power development calls for. As a general thing flumes or penstocks are more satisfactory than mill races or ditches. The contour of the land, up-hill-and-down- hill, may make a ditch impossible. The ground may be too stony for economic excavation. Trees may interfere, being either in the direct path of the ditch or else breaking the bottom or sides of the ditch with their roots. Further, there may be objection to dis- POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS DIAGRAM OF CONSTRUCTION OF A COVERED WOOD FLUME FROM LA HACIENDA, BUFFALO, N. Y. figuring a good bottom land field and breaking it up with a ditch. In this case a flume or penstock may follow along the edge of the bank with a minimum loss of arable land. CONDUITS 93 COVERED CONCRETE FLUME FROM LA HACIENDA, BUFFALO, N. Y. If the investigator of home, town or village water power plants will write to the Rodney Hunt Machine Company, Orange, Massachusetts, giving conditions under which he expects to de- velop water power, we shall be glad to advise him fully on all points of construction, including type, design, approximate costs, and sizes of different conduits applicable to his use. We retain a large 94 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS staff of trained men whose business it is to work out such informa- tion. We shall be glad to advise fully and accurately information on all points touching the development of any water power project. In writing for such information, please give details as fully as possible, stating the power that is expected to be developed, the fall of water available, flow of stream, nature of stream bed and surroundings. Different sizes and arrangements of water power plants can be specified very accurately and to conform to any pocketbook. CONDUITS 95 i iiffllli in 96 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS NUMBER ct*b. HEIOHT or HUME \ X INSIDE WIDTH. rElT | FLUME. BENTS jj 1 \ is 9 t\ i nmm MATERIAL \\ (NUMBER AND SIZE or POSTS. INCHES i HEIGHT IO FT MAX. HEIGHT JjJ i DIMENSIONS IN IMS; LUS -, N r a* tj II if ii * tNCHOl BOLTS DIMENSIONS Or BRACINQ. INCHES jj * BOLTS "| $2 \* i |l 5 s !a I i H \ I 3 i 1 it 2 1*1 16 \ 1-4*2 4*2 2 3*8 2*8 2*8 170 /50 ISO 10 4*4 2-4*4 10 2x6 10 8 H 10 2*6 I/O a 8 Vs 10 1 IO 1 3 1*2 4 1*2 12 16 \" 6" x 6" {I > 6" x 7" Department of the Interior United States Reclamation Servic Design and Compilation by Technical Section F. W. Hanna, Engineer in Charge STANDARD WOODEN FLUMES Dimensions and Quantities Flume and Trestle Bents September 1907 Accession No. 9760 Drawing No. 2 of 3 CONDUITS 97 Ui Ml] flf ti^t I**;;** **.....* s*& I* !< ... s?s 9a nt 8S8SM {j m III ss nn ii!?S iliiii \Satofflumt ;^5 *?J ** ;:;; S5U ;;;; K;S;S 9 8 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS DRAWING Nft '* CONDUITS 99 IOO POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CHAPTER XI HOME USES OF CONCRETE THE concrete catechism reads, "One part best Portland cement, 2 parts clean, coarse sand, 4 parts crushed stone or gravel," with monotonous regularity. For different strengths and uses of concrete the catechism occasionally changes to include three other proportions, I part cement, i}/2 parts sand, and 3 parts stone, or I part cement, 2^/2 parts sand and 5 parts stone, or I part cement, 3 parts sand, and 6 parts stone. Those four mixtures are the standardized dependable proportions that comprise the law of general, every-day use of concrete. That law -should be changed to read: "Concrete for general home use should consist of I part best Portland cement and such proportions of sand and gravel as are cheapest and handiest and at the same time fit into the purpose for which the concrete is to be used." This is another way of saying that the man who makes con- crete should take advantage of the more abundant native material he has at hand and not follow blindly the catechism of concrete. If, as happens very frequently, there is a supply of native gravel to be had for the taking, it is practical to increase the proportion of stone somewhat and cut down the quantity of sand, if the sand has to be bought and hauled from a distant point and is, therefore, an expensive part of the job. This substituting of stone for a small part of sand may effect a great saving in dam, road, retaining wall and other heavy construction. In such heavy construction very large stones may be used successfully; in fact, in the great Ele- phant Butte Dam "plums" weighing several tons have been made a part of the concrete.* This chapter, in dealing with the more general uses of concrete on the farm, does not seek to give specific directions that will fit every case where saving could be effected by changing from the old, standard mixtures. That would be impossible. But a careful reading of this chapter should indicate HOME USES OF- CONCRETE IO1 pretty clearly how such general principle in saving may be applied in particular instances. Concrete is artificial stone, made by binding or cementing fast together sand and stone. The principle of its formation is that any box or measure filled with gravel or crushed stone will contain comparatively large air spaces. Sand then is added to fill up these air spaces, and though enough sand and stone are packed into the box to appear to fill it solid, there still is a multitude of small air spaces in the mixture of sand and stone. The purpose of the cement is to fill all these small air spaces and at the same time to bind sand and stone together in a solid mass. In speaking of these three materials used in concrete making, the sand usually is called the fine aggregate and the stone or gravel is called the coarse aggregate. Good sand for concrete should consist of hard, durable grains ranging from 1-3 2nd of an inch in diameter for the smallest and }/ of an inch in diameter for the largest. The sand should be evenly graded from the smallest to the largest grains, so that the smaller grains fill in the voids between the larger grains. The finer the sand the weaker the concrete and the more cement required. While as much as 5 per cent of the concrete may be finely divided clay, without injuring the concrete, the sand must be free of all dirt, loam, humus or other vegetable matter. Sand should look clean to be clean. If it has a dead appearance it is dirty and should not be used without washing. When dry, clean sand will not lump. If lumps appear when the sand is dry they are caused by the grains being "cemented" together with dirt. Pick up a hand- ful of moist (not dry) sand and work the fingers of that hand over it several times as it is squeezed in the palm. If the fingers or palm are stained or dirty the sand is unfit for use until washed. To wash the sand, use a screen of thirty meshes to the inch, fasten- ing the screen to the underside of a wooden frame and preventing the screen from sagging or breaking by nailing cleats across the bottom of the frame. Elevate one end of the screen until the screen is at an angle of about 30 degrees. The sand is shoveled onto the upper end of the screen and is gradually washed down to the lower end of the screen by water being sluiced over it with a hose or buckets. A screen six feet or longer should be used. IO2 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS The coarse aggregate consists of particles of hard, clean stone J4 of an inch diameter, as the smallest, up to the huge "plums" weighing tons and used in mass construction. As a general thing, however, the coarse aggregate does not run more than 2^ inches in diameter. Above that size care must be taken to tamp the concrete extra well so that there are no voids, which are more likely where large particles of coarse aggregate are used. In re- inforced concrete work coarse aggregate larger than I inch in dia- meter should not be used. The reason is that larger stones are likely to make voids along the reinforcing steel and thus prevent the finer materials from binding the reinforcing and the concrete in a solid mass. The coarse aggregate, too, should be evenly graded from the finest to the coarsest, so that the finer particles of stone fit in among the larger stones, just as the finer sand acts to fill spaces between the larger grains of sand. The coarse aggre- gate should be any hard stone, such as granite, flint, hard lime- stone. Sandstone is not so good. Usually it is too soft, although it sometimes is used in important work, as in locks recently built on the Ohio River. The coarse aggregate must be clean and free from dirt. If dirty it should be washed over a J^-inch screen, as the sand was washed. The water used in concrete making should be good, clean water, free of strong alkalis. Sea water should not be used. The standard mixture of concrete for general purposes is 1-2-4; that is, I part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts stone. This mixture is suitable for the best wall construction, for dams, columns, fence posts, tanks, silos, conduits, arches, cisterns, and practically all work requiring especially strong concrete. To waterproof cisterns, dams, walls, and tanks, 5 to 10 per cent of hydrated slaked lime may be added to the concrete; that is, the quantity of lime may be 5 to 10 per cent of the quantity of:the cement. To illustrate, a batch of concrete calls, we'll say, for two bags of cement. Cement weighs ninety-four pounds net to the bag. We'll take out about fifteen pounds of cement and substitute fifteen pounds of lime. This, however, must be remembered as the only instance in which we will measure by weight. All other measurements herein in making concrete are by volume. To use more than 10 per cent lime, as directed here, will weaken the con- HOME USES OF CONCRETE IO3 crete. In waterproofing, the presence of the lime in the concrete reacts to the carbonates that are in most waters and causes de- posits of them to fill up the minute pores of the concrete. Never use quick lime in connection with concrete. It must be thoroughly slaked. Where columns require a particularly strong structure the concrete may be 1-1/^-3 in proportions. Foundations, cellar walls, sidewalks, cellar and barn floors are often of 1-2^-5 mixture. Dams, too, sometimes are found to be entirely adequate when made of this mixture. Piers for supporting buildings such as corn cribs, barns, shops, water wheels, and the like may be of a lean mixture 1-3-6. For maximum strength of concrete only enough water should be used to wet up the cement chemically, which will give the fresh mass of concrete a plastic, slightly quaking consistency. The addition of more water reduces the strength of the concrete, just as surely as would taking away some of the cement. However, to facilitate handling of concrete it often is wet sufficiently to make it flow sluggishly, thus sacrificing a bit of the strength that 43- not essential usually to the success of the work. Sloppy mixtures, though, should never be used. Be as sparing as possible with water. Concrete failure very often is because of too much water. Fluidity of mixture should be obtained by thorough mixing, for good mixing is a very important part of the process. "In this description, and the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a 'half-barrel batch' of 1-2-4 concrete. "First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile? wheel it onto the 'board,' and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about 60 cm (approximately 2 feet) from one side of the board, as shown by the diagram in Fig. I. When the measuring box is filled, lift it off and spread the sand over the board in a layer 8 or 10 cm. (about 3 cr 4 inches) thick, as shown in Fig. 2. Take the two bags or half-barrel of cement ancf place the contents as evenly as possible over the sand (see Fig. 2). With the two men at the points marked "x" and "xx" on the sketch below Fig. 2, start mixing the sand and cement, each man turning over the half on his side of the line ZZ. Starting at his feet and shoveling away from him, each man takes a full shovelload, turning the shovel over io 4 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS at the points marked I and 2 respectively in Fig. 2. In turning the shovel, do not simply dump the sand and cement at the points marked I and 2 in the diagram under the cut, but shake the materials oft the end and sides of the shovel, so that the sand and A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for water. E Cement. FIG. i. LIFTING THE CASE TO MEASURE THE SANDTO Mix THE CEMENT cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great assistance in mixing these materials. In this way the material is shoveled from one side of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. Figure 3 shows the first turning, and Fig. 4 the second turning. "The sand and cement should now be well mixed and r4ady for the sand and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement out carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as shown in Fig. 5, and fill from the gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel the gravel on top of the sand and cement, spreading it as evenly as possible. With some experience equally good results can be obtained by placing the gravel measuring box on top of the carefully leveled sand and cement mixture, and filling HOME USES OF CONCRETE 105 it, thus placing the gravel on top without an extra shoveling. This method is shown in Fig. 6. Add about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a bucket and dashing the water over the gravel on top as evenly as possible. (See Fig. 7.) Be A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for water. E Cement. G Cement. H Sand. FIG. 2. SPREADING THE CEMEXT ON THE SAND careful not to let too much water get near the edge of the pile, as it will run off, taking some of the cement with it. This caution, however, does not apply to a properly constructed mixing board, as the cement and water cannot get away. Starting the same as with the sand and cement, turn the materials off the end of the shovel, the whole shovel load is dumped as at points I or 2 in the diagram under Fig. 2 and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point of the shovel. This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet gravel picking up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged back by the shovel. (See Fig. 8.) Add water to the dry spots as the mixing goes on until all the required io6 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS water has been used. Turn the mass back again, as was done with the sand and cement. With experienced laborers, the con- crete should be well mixed after three such turnings; but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be turned again. After the A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for water. E Cement. G Cement. H Sand. I Sand and Cement mixed. FIG. 3. FIRST TURN OVER SAND AND CEMENT final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The concrete is now ready for placing." The mixing of concrete should be more than mixing. It should be kneading and working the mass as well. For this reason mechanical mixers are more satisfactory on larger jobs. Select a mixer that kneads as well as stirs the concrete, one that has an ar- rangement of buckets inside the drum whereby the material is lifted well toward the top of the drum before it drops the material as the wheel revolves. This type mixer is more satisfactory than the mixer having only vanes in the drum or mixing chamber. There should be no recesses in the mixer where concrete may lodge, set up and require a chisel to be removed. HOME USES OF CONCRETE 107 When a mechanical mixer is used, the concrete should be mixed in the mixer at least one minute. The speed of the mixer should be between ten and sixteen revolutions per minute. A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for water. E Cement. J Sand and Cement. FIG. 4. SECOND TURN OVER SAND AND CEMENT The mixer should be strongly built to withstand hard usage by unskilled men. Mixers usually are equipped with a skip, which receives the materials. First the sand is put in, then the cement and then the wet stone or gravel. The skip then dumps into the mixer and a workman adds the water by means of a hose. In mixing concrete by hand only buckets should be used to add the water. The coarse aggregate should be wet before being mixed. Also, wher- ever cement mortar is used in masonry, the stone should be wet first. Never mix concrete on the ground if avoidable. Use a board or platform, preferably of tongued and grooved material, with a io8 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS small edge two or three inches higher than the board, nailed at the edges to prevent material from being washed off. The board may be any size big enough for men to work on. A board eight or ten A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for Water. E Cement. I Sand and Cement mixed. L Box for Measuring Stone. FIG. 5. FILLING THE Box TO MEASURE THE GRAVEL (first method) feet square is about an average size. The concrete materials may be measured in a wheelbarrow or other receptacle, but -a more accurate way is to use a measuring box, which is a frame without top or bottom and with handles for lifting it projecting at each Aid. The size of these boxes varies with the mixtures to be used. Tak- ing a 2-bag batch, that is a batch requiring two bags of cement, the 1-1^2-3 mixture requires a box 3 by 2 feet and 16 inches deep, inside dimensions. The 1-2-4 mixture requires a box of the same depth but 4 feet long and 2 feet, 4 inches wide. The 1-2^-5 mixture requires a box a foot deep, 4}^ feet long, and 2 feet, 2 inches wide while 1-3-6 mixture requires a box the same depth HOME USES OF CONCRETE 109 and length but two feet 7 inches wide. One box, however, can be adapted to all uses with a little figuring. A quick direction for mixing concrete by hand is to spread out the sand, add the cement, then turn three or four times, A Sand. B Stone. C Walks. D Barrel for water. E Cement. I Sand and Cement mixed. LB Stone. FIG. 6. FILLING THE Box *OR MEASURING THE GRAVEL WHICH is SURROUNDED BY THE SAND AND CEMENT MIXED (second method) shoveling from you and until the color of sand and cement mixture show they are well mixed. Then add wet stone and shovel, turning the mixture over, three times or more before adding the water. Concrete should be placed as soon as mixed. For this reason only small batches should be mixed at a time. Concrete may be mixed during freezing weather provided the ingredients are heated and the concrete after it is placed is prevented from freezing until it has set by covering it with at least fifteen inches of hay, straw, sawdust or some other available suitable material. Never use manure, it may discolor the concrete and it is very apt to cause the surface of the concrete to disintegrate. If a IIO POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS concrete job must be left over night unfinished, as frequently is the case, it is excellent practice the next morning to scrape off the un- finished surface and cover it with a thick cream mixture of cement FIG. 7. POURING THE WATER OVER GRAVEL WHICH is ON TOP OF SAND AND CEMENT MIXTURE about one-quarter of an inch thick before dumping on the fresh concrete. On floors, sidewalks and other exposed surfaces of concrete, wet down the surfaces daily while the concrete is setting, for, if one part dries rapidly and another slowly the concrete is weakened. Do not make the natural mistake of supposing that a gravel bank is fixed by Nature as a sort of natural concrete and that, therefore, the gravel bank has the coarse aggregate all ready for use. Instead, screen the material taken from the gravel bank so that an evenly graded lot of gravel, from one-quarter inch particles to gradually larger particles is obtained and the finer stuff and possibly too large a quantity of the larger gravels eliminated. Ex- cellent coarse aggregate is found in the tailings from mine mills. This aggregate usually runs about J4 to ^ inches in diameter. Quarry screenings are good for use in concrete if they are clean. but usually they are so dusty that they cannot be used with good results. Cinders and slag should not be used in concrete, except for the sub-base in such work as sidewalks and barn or cellar floors. The only really essential rules for forms for concrete are that the forms be tight and that they be braced and fastened just tight HOME USES OF CONCRETE III enough to hold the concrete without leaking until the mass hardens. Making forms over-strong necessitates more work and hammering in removing the forms and the less hammering and jarring about FIG. 8. MIXING THE GRAVEL WITH THE SAND AND CEMENT green concrete the better. Carpenters who regularly build and tear down concrete forms frequently do not drive nails home, so that the nails may be pulled more readily when the forms are taken down. Green lumber is excellent for concrete forms, for the same reason that lath often are allowed to remain in a damp place in lumber yards. Not being seasoned and dried out they are not likely to warp and pull away when put next to a wet mix- ture of concrete or mortar. The forms should be smooth for smooth-finish work, of course. To facilitate removal, or as in the case of an iron rod used to leave a hole in a concrete fence post, the form or parts of the form are greased. In making a cistern the 1-2-4 mixture of concrete three or four inches thick should be used with 5 to 10 per cent of slaked lime putty being used in place of a like quantity of the cement. The bottom of the cistern should be at least six inches thick and for the outside of the cistern the earth walls of \he excavation may be used for the outside of the form. To obtain the greatest water storing space, the cistern should be i^ times as deep as wide. The old jug-top cistern was wasteful of space and material. It is better to build the walls straight up, capping with an 8-inch thick 112 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS slab of concrete that is reinforced with heavy woven wire or with iron rods. In building basement walls for a dwelling it is poor economy to make the cellar excavation just large enough. Make it a foot larger all around and then you can insure against water seeping into the basement through the walls. Use 1-2^-5 mixture for basement walls and always in wall construction it is wise to have at least a little 6-inch toe and heel at the base of the wall, thus: I 1 The basement walls should be several inches thicker J I than the wall they are to carry. When the forms have ^ ^ been removed coat the outside of the wall with hot asphaltum before filling in the earth against the wall. Forms may be removed in a day or two days where there is no pressure on the work. In heavy work the forms should remain a week to three weeks. For durable barn and cellar floors, put in a sub-base 5 or 6 inches thick of cinders and tamp. Then spread the concrete mix- ture 1-23/2-5 about 3 inches thick and on this put an inch of a mixture of I part cement and ij/^ parts sand. For steps use the stronger 1-2-4 mixture with the finishing mixture of I part cement and ij^> parts sand, and for sidewalks follow the directions as for barn or cellar floors, except using a leaner mixture, 1-2-5, an< ^ the same finishing mixture. But never trowel the surface of floor, steps or sidewalk. Their primary purpose is to provide a secure, clean, and lasting footing, not to look and be slick and shiny. Finish such surfaces with a wire brush, if one is handy, otherwise use a straight-edge instead of a trowel. Sidewalks, of course, should have contraction joints at least six feet apart. They are made by laying the concrete in sections and separating the sections as laid with a thickness of heavy building paper. As concrete is dumped into the form, firm it by tamping wit^h a piece of scantling or a tamper until a little mortar appears at the surface. If voids appear, first be sure you have used the correct amount of sand and then cut down on the quantity of stone. If there seems to be an excess of mortar, add more stone. The im- portant thing is to get the finer materials surrounding the larger stones. If the large particles of the coarse aggregate are three HOME USES OF CONCRETE THE FORMS MAY BE PREVENTED FROM BULGING BY BARS AND BRACES 114 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS inches in diameter and larger, care should be taken to tamp the mass extra well to be sure the large stones are surrounded by the fine material and that no voids are left. To give a smooth ap- pearance to the surface of the concrete, place a flat, square end shovel, the back of the shovel against the form, and work up and down. This forces the larger particles toward the center and en- ables a larger quantity of the smaller material to flow up against the form. In making tanks, troughs or other heavy above ground con- tainers, woven wire of a size used in hog fences is excellent rein- forcing. In walls for buildings the reinforcing, which consists of steel rods, varies so widely in the^ many different uses for which such walls are built that it is impossible to give in this space com- plete directions for all steel reinforcing. A good mortar for laying stone is I part cement to 2 or 2j/ parts sand. Workmen often add lime to cement mortar because lime makes the mortar work much more easily. But usually they add too much lime and thereby decrease the strength of the mortar. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE CHAPTER XII IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE TOO much rain or too little rain causes crop failures and heavy losses. The best farming methods possible frequently are utterly unavailing before bad weather, droughts or too much rain. Weather is the greatest factor in farming, the most essential, changeable, and uncontrolled thing ever imposed on any industry. Control the weather, and the biggest handicap to farming is re- moved. But it's absurd to suggest controlling the weather, some one remarks. Yes, that's true in a measure, but in the last few years quite a few farmers throughout the Mississippi Valley have found they can take the teeth out of the periodic summer drought by using a centrifugal pump to lift water from rivers, creeks or shallow wells onto the somewhat-level bottom-land fields. These men do not aim to irrigate continuously. They live in the rain belt, and don't have to. Their purpose is to supply water only occasionally in dry weather and thus to keep crops going until the rains surely will come again. It is not the whole period of drought that ruins, buj; the last week or two weeks just before the drought is broken. A good example of how this new drought-breaking work is done is that of a Missouri farmer who protects twenty acres of his best corn land from drought and from too much rain by means of a little 4-inch centrifugal pump. This particular twenty acres that is made partly independent of the weather, lies in the old bed of a small river. It fills up with water if the spring rains or early sum- mer precipitation happen to be a little generous and the crop on it is drowned out. It is practically useless in wet years. In favor- able seasons it produces as well as any $150 an acre land in the valley. It would require a ditch almost two miles long, to the river, to drain this field. Efforts of the farm owner to form a drainage district met objection from neighbors. It seemed a hopeless problem until some one suggested that the farm owner try a pump. The power to run it would cost him Il6 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS nothing, since he had a 15-inch turbine wheel in his own water power plant, developing about twenty horse power under a 1 7-foot head of water. So he put in a 4-inch centrifugal pump in a shallow pit in the lowest point in the field, connected it with an electric motor, and laid about 100 feet of 4-inch pipe to discharge the IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE NEEDS CAN BE MET CHEAPLY WITH THIS TYPE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP OPERATED BY WATER POWER water through. He had to lift the water to a height of thirty feet to get it over a little hill or ridge and then a short distance beyonxi, where it would discharge into the natural drainage of a pasture. It was wholly an experiment on that farmer's part, but it was a success. In rainy seasons the pump worked day and night, dis- charging 500 gallons of water a minute and saving the crop. It cost nothing to run it. It. led to another successful experiment. One dry summer the owner dug a shallow well at the highest point in the field, put the pump and its motor in a wheel barrow and moved them up to the well. He found he could irrigate the field, since the power to run the pump as an irrigation plant costjthe same as to operate it as a drainage plant nothing. This actual experience is worth the widest publicity that state or national agricultural agencies could give it. It is a progressive, practical example of how one farm made at least twenty acres in- dependent of the weather. It is an introduction to another way of fighting bad weather successfully. It was installed entirely without technical advice and when the writer of this chapter first IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE 117 saw it, had been in operation several years. The farmer was justly proud of his work, as he explained to the writer how he had installed the dual purpose, drainage and irrigation, plant. "That little pump," he said fondly, "is 80 tg 85 per cent efficient. My turbine over there is better than that." WHERE THE WATER is TO BE PUMPED TO MORE THAN ORDINARY HEIGHTS THIS TYPE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP is DESIGNED TO BE MOST SERVICEABLE "Your turbine wheel may rate that high, all right," replied the writer, "but your pump is nearer 50 than 80 per cent efficient. " Pressed for an explanation, the writer added: "It isn't in the nature of these smaller centrifugals to have 85 per cent efficiency. An expensive plunger pump would be more efficient perhaps, but its cost would be so high you couldn't afford to install it. Your centrifugal is so much cheaper and yet so practical that it is the businesslike pump for you. You've got the right pump, all right, but you've crippled it badly by hooking it to a 4-inch discharge pipe. If you had only changed the size of the pipe, used a 5-inch pipe, you could have increased the efficiency of your pump 12 or 15 per cent." "But I've made good money running this pump," protected the farmer. "Of course you have. And you could have made better money by paying a little more for an inch-larger pipe. It's this way: You have to- raise that water to a height of thirty feet and carry it a distance of 100 feet through the pipe, don't you? There's Il8 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS bound to be friction between the water and the walls of the pipe, isn't there? Well, you're jamming 500 gallons of water through 100 feet of 4-inch pipe a minute and the friction in putting so large a quantity of water through so small a pipe in a minute is tre- mendous. It is equal to having to pump that water an additional twenty-five feet higher than the top of that little 3<>foot ridge you have to lift it over. If you had a 5-inch pipe here, the friction would be equivalent to having to lift the water only an additional six feet higher; and if you had a 6-inch pipe, the friction would be equivalent to raising the water only three feet high. " Now you can't change the fact that you have to lift the water thirty feet high to get it over that ridge, but^ you can change the size of the pipe and cut down the friction greatly. No, this mis- take in using the wrong size of pipe doesn't hurt here because your power costs you nothing, but if you were using a gasoline engine or buying, instead of making your own electric current, it would be pretty expensive. Here is where you lose. You have to use a io-horse power motor to pump through that 4-inch pipe. You could use a motor at least two horse power smaller and save $50 in the purchase price of the motor if you had a 5-inch pipe. That saving of $50, however, would not be net since your 100 feet of 4-inch pipe cost you $44 and 100 feet of 5-inch pipe would cost you $59, leaving a net saving of $35 which is worth saving. No, I do not believe that .the 6-inch pipe would be feasible. It would cost $78, but at that maybe the resultant saving of $15 might be all right. It's simply a question of using the expert advice of a reliable manufacturer when you are considering employing any device for handling water. As you have done, it is easy for any practical man to install a successful and economical water power plant and to adapt it to drainage, irrigation or other work." This incident is repeated here for its real worth in showing still another use of the home water power plant and as an illiiptra- tion of the advantages to be gained in consulting reliable and com- petent expert opinion. If after you have read the text of this book, you will turn to the pages in the last part, giving pipe friction -tables and other tabulated information, you will find it is time well spent in looking at them carefully for a bit. Any water problem that they do not seem to apply to will be quickly and ac- curately explained if you will write a letter to the Rodney Hunt Machine Company, Orange, Massachusetts. PURE WATER AND HOW TO GET IT 119 CHAPTER XIII PURE WATER AND How TO GET IT THE whole world is water marked to an extent most of us never take time to realize. The human body is 70 per cent water, practically all the soil from which comes the food we eat is made by erosion, the freezing, thawing, and dissolving action of water, and the greatest expenditure of energy in the world is in the moving of the tides, the flowing of brooks and rivers, the evapora- tion and condensation of water. It is the most widely and gener- ously distributed material on the face of the globe. It is the one great tangible substance perhaps most necessary to life, but, like the fish that was born to take water for granted, most of us never give water more than an instinctive thought. We have seen in the preceding chapters how energy in water may be put to broad and beneficent use, to generate electricity and run machinery. This chapter takes up the nature of water in household use, the safeguarding of the home water supply, the curing of polluted and hard waters. This subject has nothing to do with water power development, but it is included here because it is the intention of this book to be a comprehensive and reliable work on water for home, school, and community reference. Very, very few men since the day Adam quaffed his first cup of that celebrated brew, Adam's Ale, ever have drunk so much as one tumbler of pure water. Pure water does not exist in nature. Rain water is not pure. It takes up carbonic acid, certain harm- less bacteria and other substances from the air, and since it con- tains these things, it is not pure. It is wholesome, but it is not pure. The only pure water is artificial water, distilled water, which is flat, tasteless, and mildly unpleasant for drinking purposes until it is brought into contact with air by being aerated. Rain water is particularly desirable because it is soft. The quality of softness in water consists of the absence of certain I2O POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS mineral salts. Soft water requires less soap than hard water. Hard water costs more than 100 million dollars a year in soap loss or waste alone in the United States, it is authoritatively estimated. Try to make a lather in a basin of hard wate*. First, a considerable quantity of the soap must unite with the "hardness," the mineral salts, and that quantity of soap is wasted in forming with the "hardness" soap curds, grayish-white coagulations of soap and minute particles of lime and magnesia that float on the surface and that decidedly are not lather. After a quantity of soap has pro- duced these soap curds, then a second quantity of soap may form a lather, which demonstrates how hard water requires much more soap than soft water. In addition to this huge soap loss the loss in boiler and pipe damage through corrosion and incrustation by hard water also runs far into the millions of dollars annually. It probably is a conservative assumption that the billions of dollars the World War has cost could be paid by the saving in soap, pipes, and boilers in the next generation, possibly in the next decade, if the world could eliminate hard water in domestic and industrial uses. On the other hand, physicians have noted an apparent greater tendency to goiter among inhabitants of certain Alpine districts and in other regions where the natural waters are soft and where, consequently, soft water only is used. While hard water is an immense loss to steam plants, so much so that many railroads and industries have installed water-softening plants to supply their boilers and for other uses, it makes absolutely no difference to the turbine water wheel or the rim-leverage wheel whether hard or soft water is used. Hard water does not damage them, which adds just one more advantage to the long list of advantages water power production has over any other form of power production. Besides rain water, there are two general classifications of natural waters: surface waters and ground waters. Surface waters are the waters in streams and lakes. Ground waters are the waters below the surface of the ground. The natural waters of a large part of New England and the Rocky Mountains are soft, but in by far the greater part of the United States and the world, the natural waters are hard. Rain water trickling through soil and earth takes up lime and magnesia. To use chemical terms, PURE WATER AND HOW TO GET IT 121 the water then has in solution bicarbonates of calcium and mag- nesium, and is hard water. It is called temporary hard water be- cause it can be softened by boiling, as is shown by the scale that forms in tea kettles. Also, odd as it may seem, this water may be softened, made to precipitate its lime and magnesia, by the addi- tion of a small quantity of hydrated lime. Permanently hard water contains chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, and other substances. It is said to be permanently hard because it cannot be softened by boiling. Almost all ground waters contain iron. The iron can be removed by aerating, letting the water fall from one shallow tank to another so that the thin sheet of falling water is struck by the air, the oxygen of which starts a chemical reaction with the iron in solution and causes it to be precipitated in a thick, rust-colored slime. Sand, gravel, and charcoal niters remove most of the iron that remains in suspension. The other minerals in the permanently hard water, such as the chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium, are removed and the water softened by the addition of soda ash, the water then being allowed to settle in settling basins. These methods of softening water may be successfully and easily applied to home needs by using two or three barrels and a small quantity of lime or soda ash, both of which are cheap. The quantity of lime or soda ash to use varies with the degree of hard- ness of the water and no general recipe or formula will apply to all waters. Where hard water works a real inconvenience, a home water-softening plant will save much labor and dollars and cents, in soap and in preventing damage to automobile radiators, water heaters and boilers. The necessary procedure is to send a sample of the water to a reliable laboratory and obtain an analysis and directions for treating. This is the most expensive part. The rest is to fill a barrel with water and put in the tiny amount of lime or soda ash called for in the directions, let the water settle and then draw it off into a soft water barrel. A few restricted areas have waters so strongly impregnated with minerals it is almost impossible to treat them for example, the black alkali waters of certain districts in the West. The washing powders sold to soften laundry and dish water constitute simply another form of the soda ash method of softening water; only, the softening of the comparatively small quantity of dish and 122 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS laundry water by dumping in an indeterminate quantity of wash- ing powder is many times more costly than by softening much more water as suggested in the foregoing. A cistern embraces a cheap method of avoiding hard water in limited household use. The cheapest dimensions for a cistern are given in the chapter on concrete construction in this book. As cistern water is stored rain water, usually, it must be remembered that rain water attacks lead pipes or any form of lead it comes in contact with and that if it is carried through lead pipes, painfully acute, if not fatal, lead poisoning may result. Hard water softened by lime or soda ash, however, remains sufficiently alkaline so that it does not react with lead and hence will not cause lead poisoning. Lead pipe, luckily, has gone almost entirely out of use in modern plumbing. Galvanized iron pipe is cheaper and better. The old saying that, "Water purifies itself every hundred feet," is a harmful hoax. A pond or lake purifies itself more quickly by sunlight and sedimentation than does a running stream. Germs are not bugs, which is a common notion. They are tiny, delicate plants that usually live only a few days. There are ex- ceptions to this, for the spores of the tetanus germ, which causes lockjaw, will live for years under most unfavorable conditions of heat and dryness. Tetanus, however, is not a water-borne disease and need not be considered in relation to the water supply. Ty- phoid, the chief water-borne disease, may lie dormant for weeks in snow and ice and then become virulent with the first thaw that washes it into a water course. But usually it dies within a week. Sunlight, sedimentation and other micro-organisms kill it. Algae, the green scum that forms in tanks, ponds, and still waters, also acts to purify water. Muddy streams are frequently less infected than clear streams because the clay and silt in suspension in the muddy streams carry the bacteria to the bottom. It is what bacteriologists call the "resistant minority," the very few e^tra- vigorous and hardy germs that resist nature's sterilizing agencies, that causes the trouble. They must be guarded against wherever water is used. Cities have practically eliminated typhoid by sedimentation and by treating the water with chlorinated lime, commonly and incorrectly called chloride of lime, which can be bought for fifteen or twenty cents a pound in small quantities. The records show PU-RE WATER AND HOW TO GET IT 123 that cities that impound water a considerable time in reservoirs have better water than those that store water a shorter time. Storing water in ponds or reservoirs or tanks is practicable in any country home having water power, and further adapting the suc- cessful city and army use of chlorinated lime for purifying water for home use can be done by following the directions herewith: With a wooden stick stir a half pound of chlorinated lime in a granite, earthen or glass container several minutes. Add enough water to make a gallon of the solution. Then dissolve thirteen ounces of sal soda in a half gallon of lukewarm water to which is added five ounces of soda ash. Add more water to mak'e a gallon. Mix the two solutions in an earthenware, granite or glass con- tainer never in metal and after it has settled pour the clear solution into bottles, cork tight and set in a cool, dark place for future use. Keep the solution out of reach of children, for it is corrosive and poisonous. This stock solution will last a year, and one ounce of the solution will sterilize 100 gallons of water. Water in a cistern or wooden tank can be treated with the proper amount of the solution by determining the quantity of water and adding an ounce of the solution for each 100 gallons of water. The quantity of water in a cylindrical container may be determined by multi- plying .7855 by the diameter of the container, then multiplying that result by the diameter again and then by the depth of water. That will give the contents in cubic feet and the number of gallons may be determiaed by multiplying the cubic feet by 7^. It is understood that the diameter is computed in feet, not inches. Algae, tiny aquatic plants, that frequently form green- scum in stock tanks, are harmless. Their chief disadvantage is that they are in the way and that some varieties give off an offensive odor. They may be eliminated by adding five grains of copper sulphate to each 100 gallons of water to be cleared up. Most ground waters are free of germs, if not infected by seep- age from human habitation. For this reason cisterns should not leak and wells should have water-tight walls the first fifteen or twenty feet below the surface. Below that distance it may be generally assumed that any seepage getting into the well will have been adequately filtered by the earth it has passed through. Below fifteen or twenty feet the walls of the well may be of loose 124 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS stone. Wells and cisterns should be covered tightly to prevent water from leaking in. Cesspools and other sources of infection should be located on ground lower than the well and so that seepage may drain off and filter through the soil and upper strata a sufficient distance from the well before it reaches ground water in the sheet or table of water that lies below the surface in most localities. In closely inhabited areas well water is rarely safe, except from very deep wells. The soil and sub-strata become impreg- nated with pollution and no longer act as filters. Also the danger from fissures that form underground channels comparatively free from filtering materials is ever present, particularly so in limestone countries, threatening to lead seepage direct to the well or near it. A few years ago in a middle western town eight persons in one house had typhoid fever. All had drunk water from a well on the premises. Analysis showed the water infected with typhoid bacilli. Investigation revealed that there had been a case of typhoid fever in a house several blocks away. In the house where the typhoid case had been the investigator poured fluorescin into the drains. Some hours later water drawn from the infected well several blocks distant was colored by the dye, fluorescin. The sewer of the typhoid case house leaked and the seepage from it had found its way through a fissure and flowed down to the well or sufficiently near it to get into the water of the well. There is more typhoid fever in rural districts than in cities, because cities can afford to hire experts and employ expensive methods of supplying wholesome water. Some one has correctly said that typhoid fever was not a disease but a disgrace, and that is true because typhoid can be prevented so effectively. First, sources of pollution, such as cesspools, should be as far as possible from and lower than the water supply. Second, by covering wells and cisterns and constructing their walls against seepage. Tftird, by pumping water from a distant spring, instead of using a well, and employing the power in the spring branch to do the pumping. Fourth, by pumping water from a brook or spring to a tank and treating with chlorinated lime. It is not true that cows drinking from infected streams will transmit typhoid through the milk. Domestic animals do not con- PURE WATER AND HOW TO GET IT 125 tract typhoid fever. But it is decidedly unwise to use water from a questionable source to supply drinking water for livestock or for anv other use about the farm. TYPICAL WATER STORAGE TANKS The ordinary sand, gravel, and charcoal filters do not sterilize water. They remove some of the matter in suspension and are excellent for partly clarifying the water, but they soon fill up with sediment and rotting organic matter and not only cease filtering, but begin to pollute the water. Filters must be cleaned periodi- cally to continue to filter. Treating with chlorinated lime, boiling, and using reliable baked clay filters are the only practical methods for home use in sterilizing water. Alum is used success- fully in many large city plants as a part of the clarifying process, but there are some objections to its use and it should not be em- ployed except under competent supervision. Settling, and sand, gravel and charcoal filters, that are kept clean, will do the clarifying sufficiently well for home use. In large water plants the water flows in one direction through the filters. When the filters have filled up with dirt a flow of water is sent through them in the opposite direction and the accumulations washed out. When the neglected farm stream has at last been put to work furnishing electricity and power for the farm home, naturally the question arises, why not better fishing in the brook or creek? Why not, indeed, since the United States Government will gladly furnish free all the stock needed to restock the stream and will 126 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS deliver them without charge at the railroad station of the person applying for them. If the dam has formed a small pond in the stream the environment for better fishing may be made ideal. Black bass, rock bass, which are sometimes called goggle-eye or red-eye, crappie, yellow perch, black perch, and sunfish are excel- lent varieties to choose. Rainbow, brook and steelhead trout should hardly be placed in waters where the temperature of the water rises above 70 degrees. Application for fish should be made to the Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C. Many states also maintain fish hatcheries and supply fish free for stocking streams and ponds in the state. INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT 127 CHAPTER XIV INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT /^OMMON sense covers practically everything there is to know ^^ in putting in a home or small town power plant. Situations vary so widely that it is impossible to give detailed directions that are not covered by plain reasoning, because the mechanism of water power apparatus is so simple and because water in motion has but one chief attribute to be controlled, the well known char- acteristics of running down hill. There is perhaps only one general rule that is appropriate here, and that is to be sure that the tail race takes the water off quickly from the discharge from the turbine wheel. Water in the tail race, should not be allowed to back up around the end of the discharge pipe, for in so doing it will impede the discharge and the discharge in turn will impede the wheel and result in loss of head and consequent loss of power. Wherever re- quired we will gladly furnish plans and full directions. The smaller wheels are shipped whole and ready to set in place. The larger wheels are so plainly marked and their purpose and place so quickly apparent that no time need be lost by assembling them with inexperienced hands. Setting up a grain binder is much more intricate and complex task than installing a water wheel. On page 128 is a diagram of the small home power plant and machine shop previously pictured. The turbine wheel at the bottom is connected by a quarter-turn belt to the line shaft at the top. The line shaft in turn is belted to an electric generator at the left, the picture showing position of storage battery and switch- board. In the center the line shaft drives a pump and at the right, a wood saw. Other machines could be belted to the line shaft by using the same pulley wheels on the same shaft and sup- plying longer belts or by the addition of more pulleys. The small stand and wheel at its top marked "gate wheel" control the turbine wheel gates. 128 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS DIAGRAM OF INSTALLATION OF A HOME POWER PLANT The diagram on page 129 shows the wheel pit of the same home power plant. The wheel is supported by two wooden beams on a concrete base, which also supports the wheel pit. You will notice that the dead water in the wheel pit rises only a short distance about the end of the discharge* of the wheel at E. M shows the gates of the wheel, and inside the case at A is the mechanism that works the gates and which is attached to the coupling at 17 and 18 and extends out through the water-filled wheel pit through a packing gland at 15 to the beveled gear at 14 which connects at 13 with a cogwheel that transmits to the gate mechan- ism every turn of the hand wheel at 8, which is mounted on a stand in the power plant. The diagram is made for reference and di- rections in the taking of measurements. The turbine wheel is coupled to the driving shaft of the pulley by the coupling at 2 and passes out of the wheel pit through a packing gland that prevents leaking. A man may have a complete "ready made" power plant, in- cluding water wheel, flume, penstock, gate, gate hoist, trash rack, forebay, dam and all shipped complete and ready to be assembled INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT [HH 129 DIAGRAM OF TURBINE WHEEL PIT INSTALLATION in its designed place on his brook, creek or river power site, just as he may buy a suit of clothing all ready to wear. On page 130 is pictured the source of the water power plant's power. In the left background at A is the dam. In the foreground at B is the forebay. C is the trash rack and D the gate hoist to control the flow of water into the penstock E. When this gate is closed the penstock E is emptied by opening the gates of the wheel, in which case it is frequently an advantage to have the little air inlet valve F in the penstock to let air into the penstock automatically, thus relieving the penstock of outside air pressure, as the draining of the penstock naturally creates a vacuum within the penstock. Such a vacuum would be a heavy strain on any type of construction, but in this case the simple little air inlet valve relieves the pressure immediately. This picture shows an ideal arrangement for the home or small town power plant. It has every practical con- venience and refinement that the huge water power plants have. 130 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS THE INTAKE OF A TOWN OR HOME POWER PLANT The trash rack shown in the picture at C, and reproduced in a small sectional view on this page is a sturdy barrier between the whole plant and prevents damage to intake, flume, penstock or any part of the plant. Trash racks are necessary whether to keep out leaves and light trash or to protect from ice or the heavy debris of high water. Home- made trash racks frequently are very efficient and all that is necessary; but it must not be presumed that the trash rack made by even a skilled carpenter can be compared with the expert make that has grown through study and experience, just as the modern dam has developed from an over-large and unsafe pile of material to a compara- tively small and safe structure of technical design. The back bar trash rack shown in this picture is a stronger wall and yet lets more water through than is possible with a homemade trash rack. Trash racks are designed for different peculiarities in canals, flumes and penstocks. They are set at various angles to meet different conditions and we shall be glad to advise water power plant owners fully on this small particular also. A SECTION OF A TRASH RACK AND AN UNBREAKABLE STEEL TRASH RACK RAKE BEING USED INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT SINGLE GEAR GATE HOIST The single gear gate hoist is a simple and perhaps as com- plete a device as the small plant may need. The perpendicular stem attaches to the gate and the gate is raised or lowered by working the hand lever, as shown in the lower picture on this page. Wood gates are made of hard pine, oak or chestnut and in any size necessary. Like the dam and the trash rack, they have been devel- oped to have strength where strength is necessary and they have eliminated all un- necessary weight and ma- terial. The well designed gate, whether of wood or metal, has no unnecessary waste of material, for every ounce of clumsiness costs money and it further detracts from the ease and quickness that should belong in the op- eration of any gate. The picture herewith is of a very large gate for a canal, dam, or flume. The small opening in the center is a "filler gate" to make the gate quicker and easier of operation. Small gates do not need "fillers." A small pow- er plant may get along very satisfactorily with- out a gate at the intake, for the closing of the wheel gates stops the flow of water through A LARGE GATE FOR DAMS, CANALS the wheel. They may OR FLUMES 132 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS not be wholly necessary, perhaps, but are very convenient pieces of equipment to have. But the trash rack, either homemade or of expert design, is an essential. On the following pages are pictures of several types of metal gates and of gate hoists, made for large power installations. The small home or town water power plant is blessed by not having to install such heavy equipment, which is shown here as a small indication of how far water power development has reached toward perfection in all things. Big industries with all best technical advice necessary in choosing the form of power that is cheapest and best for their use have made this perfection possible by choosing water power. Only a few water power accessories are mentioned here but we design and manufacture everything for water power plants, for the most economic and durable construction and operation of those plants. Many accessories and refinements are not necessary in the small plant, where they might be quite essential in the larger plant. They are mentioned here because pride of ownership and the general satisfaction of "dressing up" a plant frequently adds to the convenience they afford. We have a special gear depart- ment for furnishing gears of the best proportion and durability, and carry a full stock of maple from which to make either machine cut or handdressed cogs and keys for mortise gears, in case gear transmission is used in the water power plant. INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT 133 AT THE RIGHT A GATE FOR SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR OPENINGS AT THE LEFT A QuiCK-AcTING GATE VALVE, SIZES 14 INCHES AND UNDER AT THE RIGHT A WORM WHEEL AND SPUR GEAR GATE HOIST 134 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS WORM WHEEL AND WORM GEAR GATE OPERATING DEVICE A METAL GATE FOR ROUND OR SQUARE OPENINGS INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT 135 Where a town or village, or private individuals in either, contemplate bettering the whole community by utilizing a nearby stream to furnish light and power, to supply a water works system and fire protection, a turbine wheel, or a pair oi wheels, an electric generator and a rotary pump are all the machinery necessary. THE ROTARY PUMP AFFORDS DEPENDABLE WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWN AND INDUSTRIA*L WATER WORKS SYSTEMS AS WELL AS AMPLE FIRE PROTECTION The turbine wheel will provide all the power needed to operate generator and pump with no expense for fuel and at practically no maintenance or repair cost. It may be connected directly to pump and generator or geared or belted to them. If the water to supply the water works system is a spring some distance from the stream supplying the power, the rotary pump may be installed at the spring and operated by an electric motor connected by two wires with the generator in the power plant. The picture on the 136 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS preceding page shows a pump for town, factory, or mill water sup- ply and fire protection. It is the most capable and lasting type of rotary pump design and combines, with large capacity, force to deliver the water under high pressure. It probably requires less attention than any other kind of pump made. Its history has been a constant development of improvement for more than thirty years in which we have been making rotary pumps. It was at first designed to meet the very rigid requirements of fire under- writers in a pump for fire protection in large mills and factories where huge volumes of water might be wanted at any moment and under heavy pressure. Some years ago a New York state mill conceived the idea of using the pump for a dual purpose, to supply the town with water as well as to protect the mills from fire. It was found to work so well in this double duty that other pumps have since been installed solely for town water works or for such dual purposes. Town or village officers considering a pump for a water works system should investigate the capabilities of the rotary. pump. The type of pump shown here has never failed to live up to entirety the constantly more exacting requirements of the fire underwriters, who never yet have failed to accept the pump as meeting all their high standards. There could hardly be a better recommendation for a pump than this record. Perhaps the cheapest arrangement for using water power in the home is to build a small structure above a turbine wheel pit and place in that building all the machinery to be operated. In this way the wheel's power would be utilized without the necessity of buying an electric motor to operate a machine that was some distance from the power plant. Frequently it is not convenient to have such a combination of power plant and machine shop, so the power plant houses only an electric plant and its power is transmitted to any point by means of wires. For example, a saw, shown in the picture on page 137 may be a mile or more fromithe power plant and be operated by the electric motor, shown in the background of the picture. The same motor in turn could be belted to any other machine within reasonable range of the motor's capacity. The pump at the well could be similarly operated and the operation of all the stationary machinery about the place, cream separators, ensilage cutters, feed mills, or even the separator INSTALLING A WATER POWER PLANT 137 of a threshing machine, provided the power plant and the necessary motor were large enough to handle them. In the household one or more small motors could do duty in relieving much of the drudgery that goes with churning, washing, sweeping and other WOOD SAW OPERATED WITHOUT COST FOR POWER THROUGH ELECTRIC MOTOR THAT DERIVES ITS CURRENT FROM A HOME WATER POWER PLANT unending tasks. But for sawing wood and pumping water alone the power plant is a paying investment, to say nothing of the extra convenience and pleasure of having electric light, heat, and power, as the sorely beset Hivites could assert if they were present to testify. It will be remembered that some thousands of years ago the Hivites, conquered, were the professional hewers of wood and drawers of water. They didn't choose their calling. It was thrust upon them. That was in a day when being mean to some- body was one of the highest and most practiced arts. The princes of the congregation in looking about for a particularly mean way of being mean to the conquered Hivites decided that punishment POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS by death was too easy. So they made the Hivites hewers of wood and drawers of water. The question naturally is, "Oh, why be a Hivite, when the brook across the pasture calls to you to put an end to that form of slavery or drudgery?" Six FORMS OF THE MOST MODERN HOUSEHOLD CON- VENIENCES THAT THE HOME WATER POWER PLANT MAKES POSSIBLE AND THAT WILL MAKE ANY COUNTRY HOME SUPERIOR IN CONVENIENCES TO THE AVERAGE, MODERN CITY HOME APPENDIX 139 APPENDIX READY INFORMATION COMPILED TO AID IN REALIZING THE NATION'S GREATEST CHANCE FOR UTILIZING ITS GREATEST WATER POWER, THE COMBINED OPPORTUNITIES OF THE HOME AND SMALL TOWN WATER AND ELECTRIC PLANT. FROM THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OF JULY 21, 1917 Our large water power possibilities are being developed perhaps as rapidly as is justifiable, all things considered. The small powers, where the rights involved all lie within the title of one or two property holders, are free from the legal troubles which so often hamper the larger projects; but their development seems almost prohibited by the necessarily high cost of determining all the engineering values involved. Nevertheless, with the rapid development of uses for the small motor in driving almost every contrivance about the farm, and the increasing production of labor saving contrivances to be driven, a source of small power for isolated places is becoming daily more imperative. There are, of course, small engines that are partly filling this growing de- mand, but where water power is available it has obvious advantages. But how to apply it effectively is a matter involving so many questions which, while engineering commonplaces, are as Greek to the farmer and rural resident, that the small water power lags far behind its bigger brother in making itself useful. The solution of the problem would seem to be along the line of standardization .... From the point of view of one who is familiar with the incredible cost reductions effected by standardization in construction, the stream must be adapted to a standard dam, even if the dam chosen be half or twice as large as good engineering would demand. Why should not our smaller streams be systematically surveyed and classified with respect to their power possibilities? Why should we not have half a dozen or a dozen standard turbines, both vertical and horizontal, of various horse- power from perhaps two to three to, say, ten or twelve, with standard gear change apparatus and other standard accessories, perhaps even with standard dams and spillways? With such standardization seriously put before the owners of our little water powers, surely it would not be long before these would become in truth our great water powers, dwarfing in extent and value of their application the combined forces of a dozen Niagaras. X I 4 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS tf 5 h co a a a a a sac a a a a a a a a a a a a Cr>OOO>05 c a a a a a' a' a' a" a a' a' a* a* a a' a' a a' a ~~~~ ----- ~ ----- a ail 4343 as J3 .-~ 1 ~ H W CO CO CO # O 1C O O b- t- OO 00 O OJ O T-* -^00 o 2 ij d d d 5 is d ti ti d 43 d 43 42 45 43 43 d 43 43 43* I .5 .S .2 .2 .2 ^' .2 .2 .2 .2 OOOOS CC?O O CO O 50 O ' 434343*3 43 e4J4S43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 . M *o as ,g .3 .3 .s .2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 a 2 2 2 2 2 H^Hf -K^-kN-KwH** r-<-'-i^^OO Tt<00 T^t>Or-^i>OOO 00^ ^ . a 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 "43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 Q -S .2* .2 .2 .2* .2* .2' .2 .2 .2' .S .2* .2 .2 .2' .2 .2 .2* .2' .2' .2 .3 .2 .2 HO.HWH* HW O 03 fl ^ b- t- O O O T-H TH TI< O O r-i ^ > O CO O 00 r-< D T-H O5 O r-i C^?03 | o 5 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 ^ o ^ <*5 - o . .oooaooo^ooooooooaoiyo "S .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 -2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .S .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES X 141 HEAD. || 9 INCH WHEEL. o < w X 9 INCH WHEEL. a < w 9 INCH WHEEL. 19 Square Inch Vent 19 Square Inch Vent. 19 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. ft. Min Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu.ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu.ft. Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 6 7 8 78 1.09 1 47 1 82 223 127 142 155 168 179 258 289 316 342 365 46 47 48 49 50 31.11 32.11 33.18 34.22 35.23 430 435 440 444 449 876 885 895 904 913 88 89 90 91 92 82.00 83.44 84.88 86.32 87.76 594 597 600 604 H08 1211 1218 1225 1231 1238 9 10 11 12 13 265 3.12 3.58 4.13 4.63 190 201 210 220 229 387 408 428 447 466 51 52 53 54 55 36.27 37.47 38.43 39.47 1 40.54 453 458 462 466 471 922 931 940 949 958 93 94 95 96 97 89.24 90.72 92.20 93.68 95.21 611 615 618 622 625 1245 1252 1258 1265 1272 14 15 16 17 18 5.19 5.72 6.33 6.95 7.59 237 246 254 266 269 483 500 516 532 548 56 57 58 59 60 41.78 42.88 44.02 45.18 46.08 475 479 483 487 491 966 975 983 992 1000 98 99 10O 101 102 96.74 98.17 99.60 101.12 102.64 628 631 634 638 641 1278 1284 1291 1298 1304 19 20 21 22 23 8.20 8.90 9.49 10.25 10.97 277 284 290 297 304 563 577 591 606 619 61 62 63 64 65 47.54 48.65 49.86 51.03 5223 496 500 503 508 512 1008 1016 1025 1033 1041 103 104 105 106 107 104.16 105.68 107.06 108.44 109.82 645 648 651 654 657 1310 1316 1322 1329 1336 24 25 26 27 28 11.71 1245 13.21 13.90 1469 311 317 324 330 336 633 646 658 671 683 66 67 68 69 70 53.01 5461 55.92 57.23 58.37 516 519 523 527 531 1049 1060 1066 1073 1080 108 1O9 110 111 112 111.20 112.78 114.36 115.99 117.52 660 663 666 669 672 1343 1349 1354 1360 1366 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 15.50 1640 17.60 17.90 18.26 341 347 353 359 365 695 707 719 730 742 71 72 73 74 75 59.61 60.91 62.14 6345 64.76 535 539 542 547 550 1083 1096 1103 1112 1118 113 114 115 116 117 1,19.14 120.76 122.38 124.00 125.80 675 678 680 682 685 1372 1378 1384 1391 1397 19.72 20.50 21.25 22.16 23.07 370 375 381 386 391 753 764 775 785 796 76 77 78 79 80 6603 67.36 68.69 69.96 71.00 553 557 560 564 568 1127 1133 1140 1148 1155 118 116 120 121 122 127.60 129.40 131.20 133.60 136.00 688 691 694 697 699 1404 1409 1414 1420 1426 39 40 41 42 43 23.98 24.92 25.89 26.84 27.82 396 401 406 411 416 806 817 827 83? 847 81 82 83 84 85! 72.67 74.03 75.40 76.84 78.14 571 575 578 582 585 1162 1169 1176 1183 1190 123 124 125 126 127 138.40 140.80 142.65 144.50 147.65 701 704 705 708 711 1432 1438 1443 1449 1454 44j| 28.78 45|l 29.75 421 427 857 l|86 866 |!87 79.44 80.91 588 592 1197 1204 128 129 148.20 148.70 716 721 1460 1466 142 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES A < w a 12 IN. WHEEL No. 2. 12 IN. WHEEL No. 1. 15 INCH WHEEL. 28 Square Inch Vent. 38 Square Inch Vent. 57 Square Inch. yent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Fjb. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 1.16 1.63 187 203 207 237 1.57 2.19 254 284 207 234 2.36 3.29 381 426 179 189 6 7 8 9 10 2.17 2.61 3.32 3.95 4.64 229 247 264 280 296 254 269 282 301 319 2.94 3.64 4.46 5.30 tf.24 311 336 359 381 402 254 269 282 301 319 4.34 5.47 ,6.69 7.96 936 466 504 539 571 603 207 224 238 253 266 11 12 13 14 15 5.34 6.09 6.89 7.72 8.52 310 324 337 350 362 334 347 362 376 389 7.17 8.20 9.26 10.38 11.45 421 440 458 475 492 334 1 347 362 376 389 10.79 12.30 13.90 15.58 17.17 632 659 687 712 738 280 292 304 315 326 16 17 18 19 20 9.41 10-34 11.28 12.20 13.24 374 386 398 408 418 402 414 426 439 450 12.66 13.90 15.19 16.40 17.80 508 523 539 554 568 402 414 426 439 450 18.99 20.90 22.79 24.60 26.70 762 785 808 830 852 337 347 357 367 376 ^86" 395 402 411 417 21 22 23 24 25 14.16 15.25 16.29 17.38 18.51 428 439 448 458 468 462 472 483 494 504 18.99 20.50 21.94 23.42 24.90 582 595 609 622 635 462 472 483 494 504 28.49 30.73 32.91 34.90 37.39 873 893 1913 933 952 36 27 28 29 30 19.49 20.69 21.85 23.17 24.35 477 486 495 503 512 514 523 534 544 553 26.42 27.81 29.38 31.10 32.80 648 660 672 683 695 514 523 534 544 553 39.60 41.71 44.09 46.74 49.20 971 990 1008 1026 1043 427 436 445 454 461 31 32 33 34 35 25.46 26.65 27.94 29.21 30.29 521 529 538 545 553 562 571 580 588 596 34.23 35.80 27.53 3944 41.00 707 718 730 740 751 562 571 580 "588 596 51.35 53.71 56.30 58.16 61.51 1060 1077 1094 1110 J126 467 476 484 490 497 36 37 38 39 40 31.42 32.78 34.14 35.48 37.00 562 569 577 585 592 604 612 620 628 636 42.50 44.32 46.14 47.97 49.85 762 772 783 793 803 604 612 620 628 636 63.77 66.51 69.20 71.97 74.78 1143 1159 1174 1190 1204 504 511 518 324 530 41 42 43 44 45 38.75 40.10 41.62 42.27 44.24 602 610 618 625 633 644 652 660 668 676 51.79 53.69 55.62 57.56 59.50 813 823 833 843 854 644 652 660 668 676 77.65 90.54 83.44 86.31 89.18 1219 1235 1249 1263 1278 536 543 549 556 563 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES '43 a < u X 12 IN. WHEEL No. 2. 12 IN. WHEEL No. 1. 15 INCH WHKEL. 28 Square Inch Vent. 38 Square Inch Vent. 57 Square Inch Vent Horse ,Cu. Ft. Power. 1 Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 46 47 48 49 50 4583 47.33 48.90 50.42 51 87 637 643 648 655 662 684 692 700 708 717 62.23 64.23 66.36 68.44 70.47 861 871 880 888 898 684 692 700 708 717 9335 96.34 99.56 102.66 105.71 1292 1306 1820 1333 1347 570 576 582 589 596 51 52 53 54 55 53.40 55.06 5C.65 58.24 59.79 668 675 681 687 694 726 732 740 748 756 72.55 74.94 76.86 78. 04 81.08 907 916 924 933 942 726 732 740 748 756 108.67 112.14 115.36 118.56 121.93 1360 1374 1386 1399 1412 603 610 616 622 628 56 57 58 59 60 61.56 6321 64.88 i 6656 68.27 700 706 713 719 725 764 772 780 787 794 83.57 85.77 88.04 90.37 92.16 950 959 967 975 983 764 772 780 787 794 125.25 128.67 132.05 135.56 138.97 1425 1433 1451 1463 1475 634 640 646 652 658 61 62 63 64 65 70.06 71.70 73.47 75.20 76.97 732 737 743 748 754 802 810 818 826 832 95.08 97.31 99.72 102.06 104.46 993 1000 1007 1016 1024 802 810 818 826 832 142.62 145.37 149.57 153.12 156.70 1489 1500 1512 1522 1535 664 670 675 681 686 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 78.72 80.51 82.33 83.84 85.98 760 766 772 777 783 840 848 857 865 873 10(508 109.21 111.84 114.47 116.75 1032 1039 1(47 1055 1063 840 848 857 865 873 160.25 163.97 167.77 171.32 175.15 1548 1559 1571 1582 1594 692 698 703 701) 714 87.74 89.76 91.60 93.51 95.43 788 794 799 805 810 880 888 895 904 910 119.23 121.82 124 29 126.90 129.52 1070 1078 1085 1093 1100 880 888 895 904 910 178.87 182.72 186.41 190.44 193.29 1605 1610 1627 1639 1650 720 72G 732 788 743 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 9735 99.26 101.17 103.15 105.10 816 821 826 832 837 917 925 933 940 947 13207 134.73 137.38 139.98 142.64 1107 1114 1121 1129 1136 917 925 933 940 947 198.07 202.08 206.05 209.98 213.36 1660 1671 1682 1693 1705 750 755 700 76(5 771 107.07 109.03 111.10 113.21 115.16 842 847 852 858 863 954 961 968 975 982 145.34 148.07 15080 153.69 156.28 1143 1150 1157 1164 1171 954 961 968 975 982 217.90 222.00 225.75 230.54 234.43 1715 1725 1735 1746 1756 1766 1777 776 782 787 793 798 803 80** 86 87 117.07 119.24 868 873 988 995 15H.87 161 82 1178 1185 988 995 238.33 24273 144 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES a < a 18 INCH WHEEL. 21 INCH WHEEL. 24 INCH WHEEL. 89 Square Inch Vent. 124 Square Inch Vent. 159 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse |Cu. Ft. Power. | Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 3.68 5.15 595 665 134 150 5.13 7.17 829 927 122 133 6.58 9.20 1062 1188 110 117 6 7 8 9 10 6.77 8.52 10.41 12.46 14.60 738 787 841 892 941 165 176 189 201 213 9.44 11.90 14.54 17.35 20.36 1020 1096 1172 1242 1311 144 153 165 176 186 12.12 15.28 18.67 22.24 26.12 1301 1406 1503 1593 1681 124 130 141 151 160 11 12 13 14 15 16.81 19.18 21.64 24.19 26.81 986 1030 1072 1112 1152 226 236 246 256 266 23.46 26.74 30.22 33.82 37.31 1374 1435 1494 1549 1604 198 207 216 225 234 30.11 34.30 38.80 43.46 47.92 1762 1840 1916 1986 2057 170 178 186 194 202 16 17 18 19 20 29.52 32.22 35.27 38.13 41.16 1189 1226 1262 1297 1330 276 286 294 302 310 41.25 45.21 49.43 53.25 57.82 1656 1708 1759 1807 1853 242 251 258 266 273 52.99 58.20 63.59 68.31 74.49 2124 2189 2255 2317 2375 209 216 223 230 236 21 22 23 24 25 44,28 47.47 50.75 54.12 57.56 1363 1394 1423 1454 1484 319 327 335 342 351 61.88 66.72 71.28 76.08 80.93 1898 1942 1985 2028 2071 279 287 292 299 305 79.49 85.97 91.81 98.05 104.30 2434 2490 2547 2601 2657 240 246 250 256 260 26 27 28 29 30 61.00 64.53 68.22 71.91 75.60 1513 1542 1570 1598 1625 357 364 372 379 385 86.09 90.46 95.61 100.14 106.41 2111 2151 2191 2233 2267 311 317 323 329 385 111.18 116.40 123.00 130.38 137.23 2709 2760 2811 2869 2910 265 270 274 279 284 31 32 33 34 35 79.45 82.82 86.92 91.02 95.12 1652 1679 1705 1730 1756 390 398 403 410 418 111.35 116.33 121.99 128.02 133.38 2304 2342 2379 2413 2449 340 345 350 356 362 143.26 149.85 157.07 165.03 171.65 2957 3005 3053 3097 3142 289 293 298 302 307 36 37 38 39 40 99.22 103.32 107.42 112.34 116.44 1784 1809 1833 1857 1881 423 429 434 439 444 138.55 144.33 150.24 156.55 162.53 2486 2521 2554 2588 2620 367 372 377 382 387 177.83 185.55 193.06 200.76 208.62 3188 3232 3275 3318 3360 312 316 320 41 42 43 44 45 120.54 125.46 129.56 132.15 137.54 1904 1928 1950 1973 1996 449 455 460 465 470 168.57 175.06 181.16 190.07 196.29 2653 2686 2717 2749 2780 391 396 401 408 416 216.61 22467 232.77 237,87 247.28 3401 3444 3484 3525 3565 333 337 342 347 352 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES '45 4 w 18 INCH WHEEL 21 INCH WHEEL. 24 INCH WHEEL. 89 Square Inch Vent 124 Square Inch Vent. 169 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min Rev Min Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu Ft Min. Rev. Min. 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 14400 148.63 153.56 158.37 163.08 2017 2039 2060 2081 2103 475 4SO 435 490 496 200.63 207.08 213.97 220.65 22721 2810 2841 2871 2899 2930 422 428 434 439 444 257.25 266.53 278.36 282.94 291.84 3603 3643 3681 3717 3757 356 360 365 369 878 167.87 172.97 17795 182.90 188.08 2123 2145 2164 2185 2205 502 507 513 518 524 233.90 240.99 247.93 254.81 262.06 2959 2988 3016 3044 3073 449 454 459 463 468 299.98 809.03 317.92 326.72 336.02 3794 3832 3869 3903 3938 378 882 886 890 394 56 57 58 59 60 193.32 19847 203.72 209.10 214.39 2225 2245 2265 2285 2303 530 536 541 547 552 269.34 276.50 283.85 291.34 298.70 3100 3128 3156 3183 3209 473 478 483 487 491 345.37 354.57 363.94 373.57 383.01 3975 4012 4046 4082 4115 898 402 407 411 415 61 62 63 64 65 220.02 225.19 230.72 235.62 241.73 2326 2342 2360 2378 2398 558 563 568 573 578 306.54 314.23 321.46 329.05 336.79 3240 3262 3288 3315 3340 495 499 503 507 511 391.05 402.27 412.19 421.94 481.86 4155 4183 4217 4249 4283 419 428 427 430 433 66 67 68 69 70 247.11 252.96 258.79 264.31 270.19 2416 2435 2453 2471 2488 583 588 593 598 602 34444 352.43 360.56 368.29 376.44 3367 3391 3417 3442 3467 515 519 521 525 529 441.66 451.91 462.27 471.23 482.50 4317 4349 4382 4414 4446 437 440 443 446 450 711 72 1 73 74 75 275.91 281.88 287.66 293.67 299.71 2506 2524 2541 2559 2576 607 1 612 617 621 626 | 384.42 392.73 400.77 409.17 417.57 3492 3516 3540 3565 3589 533 537 541 544 548 492.92 500.42 512.84 524.66 535.43 4477 4509 4539 4571 4601 453 456 460 463 467 76 77 78 79 80 305.60 31224 317.85 323.92 330.07 2593 2610 2826 2643 2660 631 685 640 645 649 42579 434.23 442.85 451.29 459.88 3612 3636 3659 3683 3707 552 555 558 561 565 545.97 556.94 567.85 578.67 589.68 4632 4662 4692 4722 4752 470 473 476 480 483 81 82 83 84 85i 336.81 342.46 348.85 355.65 861.64 2677 2693 2709 2726 2742 654 659 664 669 673 468.57 477.11 486.03 495.51 503.80 3730 8752 3775 3798 8820 569 672 575 578 582 600.83 611.82 623.23 685.37 646.07 4782 4811 4840 4870 4899 486 490 493 498 502 86 87 367.65 374.44 2758 2774 678 II 512.23 683 II 521.60 3843 3864 586 589 656.82 668.95 4927 4956 506 510 146 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES a < w * 27 INCH WHEEL. 30 INCH WHEEL. 33 INCH WHEEL. 200 Square Inch Vent. 238 Square Inch Vent. 292 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft.! Rev. Min. | Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 8.22 11.48 1336 1494 96 104 9.86 13.77 1590 1778 82 90 12.08 16.87 1951 2181 7o 82 6 7 8 9 10 15.13 19.07 23.31 27.77 32.61 1636 1768 1890 2040 2114 111 117 126 136 144 18.14 22.87 27.95 33.30 1 39.10 1947 2104 2249 2385 2516 98 104 112 121 128 22.19 27.99 34.23 40.79 47.98 2389 2581 2759 2926 3087 89 96 103 110 117 11 12 13 14 15 37.59 42.82 48.44 54.25 59.84 2216 2314 2410 2498 2588 152 160 167 173 181 1 45.06 51.35 58.08 65.05 71.75 2637 2754 2868 2973 3080 134 141 148 153 160 55.07 62.88 71.13 79.67 87.87 3235 3378 3518 3647 3778 123 129 135 141 147 16 17 18 19 20 66.15 72.66 79.39 85.51 93.01 2672 2754 2836 2914 2988 188 194 200 206 212 79.32 87.12 95.19 105.71 111.52 3180 3277 3375 3468 3556 166 172 176 182 187 97.15 106.70 116.59 125.75 136.58 3891 4021 4141 4254 4362 153 159 164 170 174 21 22 23 24 25 99.24 107.24 114.62 122.39 130.21 3062 3132 3204 3272 3342 216 221 225 230 235 118.99 128.38 137.43 146.73 156.12 3644 3727 3813 3894 3976 191 195 200 205 210 145.74 157.25 168.32 179.71 191.22 4471 4573 4678 4777 4879 178 183 186 189 193 26 27 28 29 30 138.28 144.32 153.55 162.77 171.32 3408 3472 3536 3596 3660 240 245 249 253 258 165.38 172.25 184.10 195.16 205.42 4046 4132 4208 4279 4355 214 218 222 227 231 202.56 212.41 225.47 239.03 251.63 262.66 274.74 287.98 302.54 314.50 4976 5069 5163 5250 5344 197 200 204 207 210 31 32 33 34 35 178.85 187.08 196.09 206.01 214.21 3720 3780 3840 3896 3952 262 266 270 275 279 214.45 224.31 235.12 247.00 256.78 4427 4498 4570 4626 4703 235 238 242 247 250 5431 5519 5606 5688 5770 213 217 220 224 228 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 222.08 231.64 241.02 250.00 260.46 4010 4066 4120 4174 4226 283 287 291 295 299 t 266.27 277.72 288.99 300.52 312.30 4772 4839 4903 4967 5029 253 256 260 263 266 326.13 340.15 353.96 368.07 382.50 5855 5936 6015 6094 6170 232 230 240 J 270.47 280.49 290.60 302.90 312.91 4276 4310 4375 4434 4484 303 307 311 315 319 324.33 336.32 348.43 356.08 367.83 5091 5155 5215 5276 5336 269 272 275 271) 284 397.17 411.91 426.75 442.12 456.82 6235 6314 6387 6474 6546 250 254 257 261 265 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES c 4 X 36 INCH WHEEL. 39 INCH WHEEL. 345 Square Inch Vent. 404 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min Horse Power Cu. Ft. Min. Rev Min I 14.30 19.97 2305 2577 67 74 16.72 23.36 2699 61 3018 68 6 7 8 9 10 26.24 33.12 40.52 48.27 56.86 2822 3050 3260 3457 3647 81 87 93 102 107 30.74 38.78 47.40 56.47 66.62 3305 3578 3818 4048 4270 75 81 87 93 99 11 12 13 14 15 65.32 74.41 84.'18 94.30 104.00 3823 3992 4157 4309 4464 112 118 124 129 133 76.42 87.13 98.50 110.32 121.72 4476 4674 4868 5046 5228 104 109 113 120 124 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 114.99 126.28 137.99 148.79 161.65 4609 4751 4892 5027 5154 139 143 147 151 156 134.64 147.75 161.45 174.14 188.63 5397 5563 5729 5886 6036 129 133 137 140 145 172.49 186.11 199.21 212.69 226.32 5282 5403 5527 5644 5765 160 164 168 172 176 201.63 217.14 232.47 247.78 264.35 6185 6327 6472 6609 6751 148 152 156 159 163 26 27 28 29 30 239.74 252.58 266.85 282.90 297.83 5879 5989 6100 6203 6314 179 182 186 189 193 281.28 294.93 311.18 329.37 348.22 6884 7013 7143 7264 7393 166 169 173 176 179 31 32 33 34 35 310.86 325.17 340.84 358.09 372.23 6417 6521 ' 6624 6721 6817 196 200 203 206 209 362.26 879.31 397.62 416,50 434.30 7514 7636 7757 78701 7983 182 186 189 192 195 36 37 38 39 40 385.99 402.58 418.92 435.62 452,70 6917 7014 7107 7200 7290 212 215 217 220 223 451.45 470.85 489.95 509.47 529.46 8100 8213 8322 8431 8540 197 199 201 204 206 41 42 43 44 45 470.00 487.50 505.08 516.16 533.14 7380 7473 7559 7649 7735 226 229 232 235 238 549.69 570.16 590.62 611.42 632.05 8640 8741 8841 8957 9058 208 211 214 217 220 148 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES o < w 42 INCH WHEEL. 45 INCH WHEEL. 462 Square Inch Vent. 506 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 19.14 26.76 3087 3452 56 63 20.70 28.92 3380 3780 51 58 6 7 8 9 10 35.25 44.43 54.27 64.67 76.27 3771 4086 4368 4632 4886 69 75 80 85 91 38.10 47.99 58.64 69.92 82.02 4139 4473 4782 5070 5348 65 70 75 80 86 11 12 13 14 15 87.53 99.84 112.81 126.35 139.44 5122 5348 5570 5773 5977 96 101 106 110 114 94.55 107.81 121.62 136.17 150.59 5606 5854 6097 6320 6548 90 95 99 103 107 16| 17 I 18 19 20| 154.08 169.21 184.91 199.49 215.62 6176 6365 6555 67a5 6902 118 123 126 129 133 166.84 182.44 199.00 215.62 233.28 6760 6968 7175 7372 7560 111 115 118 122 125 21 22 23 24 25 230.77 248.18 265.73 282.88 302.3^ 7073 7235 7401 7558 7720 136 140 143 147 150 249.66 268,50 287.49 306.04 327.07 7747 7924 8106 8278 8455 128 131 134 137 140 26 27 28 29 30 320.83 337.28 355.51 375.83 398.61 7872 8020 8168 8307 8455 153 157 160 163 165 347.10 364.88 384.69 406.60 431.24 8622 8784 8946 9098 9260 143 147 150 153 155 31 32 33 34 35 413.66 433.45 454.41 474.91 496.37 8593 8732 8870 9000 9129 168 171 174 176 178 447.54 468.94 491.60 513.82 537.02 9412 9563 9715 9857 9999 158 161 163 165 167 36 37 38 39 40 516.90 539.11 560.99 583.30 606.23 9263 9392 9517 9642 9762 180 182 185 187 189 559.22 583.26 606.92 630.34 655.87 10145 10287 10424 10560 10692 169 171 174 176 1*8 41 42 43 44 46 629.39 652.82 676.17 691.17 714.02 9882 10007 10122 10242 10358 191 193 195 197 199 680.93 707.04 731.76 757.02 781.86 10822 10962 11082 11217 11345 180 182 185 187 190 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES 149 c 4 H = | 48 INCH WHEEL. 51 INCH WHEEL. 550 Square Inch Vent. 645 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. I 21.00 31.05 3674 4109 46 52 26.32 36.90 4309 4818 43 50 6 7 8 9 10 40.90 51.52 62.97 75.07 88.06 4499 4862 5196 5511 5814 60 66 71 75 81 48.46 61.09 74.25 89.05 104.30 5376 5702 6095 6463 6818 57 63 66 71 76 ii 12 13 14 15 101.14 115.52 130.52 146.19 161.66 6094 6364 6628 6870 7117 85 89 93 97 100 120.37 137.10 154.81 172.69 191.88 7147 7463 7772 8054 8346 81 85 88 91 94 16 17 18 19 20 178.68 195.86 213.67 231.42 250.45 7348 7574 7799 8014 8217 103 107 111 114 117 210.74 231.24 251.74 273.06 295.20 8617 8882 9146 9398 9636 98 104 108 112 114 21 22 23 24 25 268.03 288.25 308.64 328.55 341.85 8421 8613 8811 8998 9191 120 122 125 128 131 317.36 340.30 364.08 387.86 412.46 9875 10101 10333 10552 10778 116 118 121 124 126 26 27 28 29 30 372.63 391.73 412.93 436.50 463.80 9372 9548 9724 9889 10065 134 137 140 142 145 437.06 462.48 488.72 514.96 541.20 10991 11197 11404 11597 11804 129 131 133 136 138 31 32 33 34| 35! 480.45 503.43 527.76 551.58 576.52 10230 10395 10560 10714 10868 147 150 152 154 156 569.08 594.96 624.84 653.54 683.06 11997 12191 12384 12464 12745 141 143 145 147 150 36 37 38 39 40 603.23 626.15 651.56 678.34 704.11 11028 11182 11330 11479 11622 158 160 162 164 166 712.58 742.10 772.44 802.78 833.94 12932 13113 13287 13461 13628 152 153 155 156 158 41 42 43 44 45 739.02 758.22 785.58 812.70 839.53 11770 11913 12051 12194 12331 168 170 172 174 176 874.09 906.48 938.10 967.50 995.48 13797 13971 14133 14300 14454 160 162 164 166 168 150 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES c < M 54 INCH WHEEL. 57 INCH WHEEL. 740 Square Inch Vent. 886 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse. Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 4 5 30.67 42.84 4943 5528 44 49 34.65 48.40 5584 6245 39 44 6 7 8 9 10 56.44 71.13 86.95 103.54 121.58 6053 6542 6993 7415 7822 54 60 64 68 72 63.76 80.36 98.21 116.97 137.36 6838 7390 7900 8377 8836 50 56 60 64 68 11 12 13 14 15 140.13 159.67 180.56 202.26 223.08 8199 8562 8917 9243 9576 76 80 83 86 89 158.31 180.39 204.00 228.50 252.02 9263 9672 10074 10447 10818 71 75 78 82 84 16 17 18 19 20 246.66 270.88 295.99 319.36 346.73 9886 10190 10493 10782 11056 92 95 98 101 103 278.66 306.02 334.39 360.79 391.71 11169 11512 11854 12180 12490 87 90 93 95 97 21 22 23 24 25 369.99 399.20 427.31 456.23 485.44 11329 11588 11854 12106 12365 106 108 111 116 117 417.99 450.99 482.75 515.40 548.43 12798 13091 13392 13676 13951 100 103 106 109 111 26 27 28 29 30 514.23 541.78 572.36 601.88 635.96 12609 12846 13083 13305 13542 119 121 124 126 128 580.90 612.06 646.09 678.40 715.28 14245 14512 14780 15031 15299 113 115 117 119 121 31 32 33 34 35 666.50 697.00 731.03 767.09 797.86 13674 13986 14208 14415 14622 130 132 134 137 139 747.97 782.25 820.24 861.32 895.46 15504 15800 16051 16285 16519 123 135 127 130 132 36 37 38 39 40 827.93 863.52 898.55 934.39 971.00 14837 15044 15244 15444 15636 141 143 145 147 148 ^ 41 42 43 44 45 1008.14 1045.66 1083.37 1107.11 1142.91 15829 16028 16213 16406 16591 150 151 152 153 155 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HUNT-FRANCIS TURBINES d I =. 60 INCH WHEEL. 66 INCH WHEEL. 932 Square Inch Vent. 1035 Square Inch Vent. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min Rev Min. 4 5 38.63 53.96 6226 6962 34 40 42.90 59.93 6914 7731 29 35 6 7 8 9 10 71.08 89.59 109.48 130.41 153.15 7624 8239 8807 9339 9851 46 52 56 60 4 78.94 99.49 121.58 144.82 170.14 8466 9149 9781 10371 10940 41 48 51 55 58 11 12 13 14 15 176.49 201.11 227.45 254.74 280.96 10327 10783 11231 11651 12060 66 70 74 77 80 196.00 223.33 252.58 282.90 312.01 11468 11975 12472 12927 13393 61 64 68 71 73 16 17 18 19 20 310.66 341.17 372.79 402.22 436.69 12452 12834 13216 13579 13924 83 86 88 90 92 344.99 378.84 413.99 446.67 484.96 13828 14252 14676 15080 15463 76 79 81 83 86 21 22 23 24 25 465.99 502.78 538.19 574.57 611.42 14268 14595 14930 15247 15537 95 98 100 103 105 51749 558.35 595.67 638.11 678.96 15846 16208 16580 16932 17294 88 90 92 94 97 26 27 28 29 30 647.58 682.35 719.82 754.92 794.61 15881 16179 16478 16757 17056 107 109 111 113 115 719.23 757.81 790.88 835.35 879.41 17636 17967 18299 18609 18941 99 101 103 105 107 31 32 33 34 35| 829.44 867.51 909.46 955.55 993.06 17335 17615 17894 18155 18416 117 119 121 123 125 920.97 963.09 1008.26 1054.10 1101.11 19251 19561 19872 20162 20452 109 111 113 115 117 If desired to ascertain the power developed, and the amount of water used under higher heads than indicated in the foregoing tables, the follow- iug may be used as data : The quantity of water increases as the square root of the head. If the head is increased four times, on the same wheel, proximately twice the quantity of water will be discharged, but the power will be increased eight times. 152 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS W ^ U Pi a o 2 H CO < fc 2 O g o7 w c^i S .._, ft M\ O eS **.i3 *0 Sfc.- Ill .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 2 2 2 i-l O* CO CO <* "t * iO CO CO CO t- l> 00 00 OS OS OS O .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 2 .2 .2 . 2 2 222 2 a 2 2 G 2 '" *^^ *^^ ** 1 '^ '^^ CO 055OCO OSCOCO OSCOCO CO 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 4J 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 COCOTfiacOC01>aoas05Oi-NC<*CO"* Hoo -teH>rl'<)'-+N- < h g H* I-H U3 00 i-i ^** OS CO t- JOOCOCO *O O i-H O .2 5* 5 3 5 ^' .2 .2* .2* .2* .2* .2 .2 .2* .2* .2* .2* oooocjooooooooaooa .2 .S .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 .2 5 .2 .2 .2 .2 5 .2 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES 153 < H = 9 INCH WHEEL. 12 INCH WHEEL. 16 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. II Horee Min. || Power. Cu.Ft.1 Rev. Min. 1 Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 1.5 204 297 2.7 355 223 4.8 566 178 6 7 8 9 10 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.4 223 241 258 273 288 325 351 376 398 420 3.5 4.4 5.4 6.5 7.6 389 420 449 476 502 244 263 282 299 315 5.6 7.1 8.7 10.3 121 620 670 716 760 801 195 211 225 239 252 11 12 13 14 15 5.0 5.7 6.5 7.2 8.0 302 316 329 341 353 440 460 479 497 514 8.8 10.0 11.2 12.6 13.9 527 550 573 594 615 330 345 359 373 386 14.0 15.9 17.9 20.0 22.2 840 877 913 947 981 264 276 287 298 308 16 17 18 19 20 8.8 9.7 10.5 11.4 12.3 365 376 387 397 408 531 547 563 579 594 15.4 16.8 18.8 19.9 21.5 635 655 674 692 710 398 411 422 434 446 24.5 26.8 29.2 81.7 34.2 1013 1044 1074 1104 1132 319 328 388 347 356 21 22 23 24 25 13.3 14.2 15.2 16.2 17.2 418 428 437 447 456 608 623 637 650 664 23.1 24.8 26.5 28.2 30.0 728 745 762 778 794 456 467 477 488 498 36.8 39.5 42.2 45.0 47.8 1160 1188 1214 1240 1266 365 374 382 390 398 26 27 28 29 30 18.3 19.3 20.4 21.5 22.6 465 474 482 491 499 677 690 702 715 727 31.8 33.7 35.6 37.5 39.4 810 825 840 855 870 508 517 527 536 545 50.7 53.7 56.7 59.8 62.9 1291 1816 1340 1364 1387 406 414 421 429 436 31 32 33 34 35 23.8 24.9 26.1 27.3 28.5 508 516 524 532 539 739 751 763 774 785 41.4 43.4 45.6 47.6 49.7 884 898 912 926 940 554 563 572 581 589 66.0 69.3 72.5 75.9 79.2 1410 1432 1455 1476 1498 443 451 458 464 471 36 37 38 39 40 29.8 31.0 32.3 33.5 34.8 547 554 562 569 577 796 807 818 829 840 51.8 54.0 56.2 58.4 60.7 953 966 979 992 1004 597 606 614 622 630 82.6 86.1 89.6 93.2 96.8 1519 1640 1561 1581 1601 478 484 491 497 504 154 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES a < u K 18 INCH WHEEL. 21 INCH WHEEL 24 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 6.3 828 144 8.9 1172 137 11.7 1547 113 6 7 8 9 10 8.2 10.4 12.7 15.1 17.7 908 980 1048 1111 1172 158 170 182 193 203 11.6 14.7 17.9 21.4 25.0 1283 1386 1482 1572 1657 150 162 173 184 194 15.4 19.4 23.7 28.2 33.1 1695 1831 1957 2076 2188 124 134 143 152 160 11 12 13 14 15 20.4 23.3 26.2 29.3 32.5 1229 1283 1336 1386 1435 213 223 232 241 249 28.9 32.9 37.1 41.5 460 1738 1815 1889 1960 2029 203 212 221 229 237 38.1 43.5 49.0 54.8 60.7 2295 2397 2495 2589 2680 168 175 182 189 196 16 17 18 19 20 35.8 39.2 42.8 46.4 50.1 1482 1528 1572 1615 1657 257 265 273 280 288 5.0.7 55.5 60.5 65.6 1 70.8 2096 2160 2223 2284 2343 245 253 260 267 274 66.9 73.3 79.8 86.6 93.5 2768 2853 2936 3016 3095 202 208 214 220 226 21 22 23 24 25 53.9 57.8 61.8 65.8 70.0 1698 1738 1777 1815 1852 295 302 309 315 322 76.2 81.7 87.3 93.1 99.0 2401 2457 2513 2567 2620 281 287 294 300 306 100.6 107.9 115.3 122.9 130.7 3171 3246 3318 3390 3460 232 237 242 248 253 26 27 28 29 30 74.2 78.5 82.9 87.4 92.0 1889 1925 1960 1995 2029 328 334 340 346 352 105.0 111.1 117.3 123.6 130.1 2672 2722 2772 2821 2870 312 318 324 330 336 138.6 146.7 154.9 163.3 171.8 3528 3595 3661 3726 3790 258 263 267 272 277 31 32 33 34 35 96.6 101.3 106.1 111.0 115.9 2063 2096 2128 2160 2192 358 364 370 375 381 136.6 143.3 150.1 157.0 163.9 2917 2964 3010 3055 3100 341 347 352 357 362 180.5 189.3 198.2 207.3 216.5 3853 3914 3975 4035 4094 281 286 290 295 299 36 37 38 39 40 120.9 126.0 131.1 136.4 141.6 2223 2254 2284 2314 2343 386 391 397 402 407 171.0 178.2 185.5 192.8 200.3 3144 3187 3230 3272 3314 368 373 378 383 387 225.8 235.3 244.9 254.7 264.5 4152 4209 4265 4321 4376 303 307 312 316 320 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES 155 a 2 E '27 INCH WHEEL. 30 INCH WHEEL. 33 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev Min. Hone Power. Cu Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 14.8 1960 106 17.8 2361 93 19.8 2626 81 6 7 8 9 10 19.5 24.5 30.0 35.8 41.9 2147 2319 2479 2629 2771 116 123 134 142 149 23.4 29.5 36.1 43.1 50.4 2636 2793 2986 3167 3338 102 110 118 125 132 26.1 32.9 40.2 47.9 56.1 2876 3107 3321 3523 3713 89 96 102 109 114 11 12 13 14 16 48.3 55.0 62.1 69.4 76.9 2906 3036 3160 3279 3394 157 164 170 177 183 58.2 66.3 74.8 83.6 92.7 3501 3657 3806 3950 4089 138 144 150 156 161 64.7 73.8 83.2 92.9 103.1 3895 4068 4234 4394 4548 120 125 131 135 140 16 17 18 19 20 84.7 92.8 101.1 109.7 118.4 3505 3613 3718 3820 3919 189 195 200 200 211 102.1 111.8 121.8 132,1 142.7 4223 4353 4479 4602 4721 167 172 177 182 186 113.6 124.4 135.5 147.0 158.7 4697 4842 4982 5119 5252 145 149 154 158 162 21 22 23 24 25 127.4 136.6 146.1 155.7 165.5 4016 4110 4203 4293 4382 217 222 227 231 236 153.5 164.6 176.0 187.6 199.4 4838 4952 5063 5172 5278 191 195 200 204 208 170.8 183.1 195.7 208.6 221.8 5381 5508 5632 5753 5871 166 170 174 177 181 26 27 28 29 30 17.1.6 185.8 196.2 206.8 217.6 4468 4554 4637 4719 4800 241 245 250 2)4 259 211.5 223.8 236.3 249.1 262.1 5383 5486 5586 5685 5782 212 216 220 224 228 235.2 248.9 262.9 277.1 291.6 5988 6102 6214 6324 6432 185 188 192 195 198 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 228.6 539.7 251.0 262.5 274.2 4879 4957 5034 5110 5184 263 267 271 275 280 275.3 288.8 302.4 316.3 330.3 5878 5972 6064 6156 6246 232 236 239 243 246 306.3 321.2 336.4 351.8 367.4 6538 6643 6746 6847 6947 202 205 208 211 214 286.0 298.0 310.2 322.5 335.0 5258 5331 5402 5473 5542 283 287 291 295 299 344.6 359.0 373.7 388.5 403.6 6334 6421 6508 6593 6677 250 253 257 260 263 383.3 399.4 415.7 432.2 448.9 7046 7143 7239 7333 7427 217 220 223 226 229 156 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMicx TURBINES a < m X 36 INCH WHEEL. 39 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 6\\ 25.1 3316 79 || 29.4 3898 69 6 7 8 9 10 32.9 41.5 50.7 60.5 70.9 3632 3923 4194 4449 4689 87 94 100 106 112 38.7 48.8 59.6 7t.l 83.3 4270 4612 4930 5229 5512 76 82 87 93 98 11 12 13 14 15 81.7 93.1 105.0 117.4 130.2 4918 5137 5347 5548 5743 118 123 128 133 137 96.1 109.5 123.5 138.0 153.0 5781 6038 6285 6522 6751 103 107 111 116 120 16 17 18 19 20 143.4 157.1 171.1 185.6 200.4 5931 6114 6291 6464 6632 142 146 150 154 158 168.6 184.6 201.1 218.1 235.6 6972 7187 7395 7598 7795 124 127 131 135 138 21 22 23 24 25 215.6 231.2 247.2 263.4 280.1 6795 6955 7112 7265 7414 162 166 170 174 177 253.5 271.8 290.5 309.7 329.2 7988 8176 8359 8539 715 142 145 148 151 155 26 27 28 29 30 297.1 314.4 332.0 349.9 368.2 7561 7705 7847 7985 8122 181 184 187 191 194 349.2 369.5 390.2 411.3 432.8 8888 9057 9223 9387 9547 ' 158 161 164 166 169 31 32 33 34 35 386.7 405.6 424.8 444.2 464.0 8256 8388 8518 8646 8773 197 200 204 207 210 454.6 476.8 499.3 522.2 545.4 9705 9860 10013 10164 10312 172 175 178 180 183 36 37 38 39 40 484.0 504.3 524.9 545.7 566.9 8897 9020 9141 9260 9378 213 216 218 221 224 568.9 592.8 617.0 641.5 666.3 10459 10603 10745 10885 11024 186 188 191 193 1^6 APPENDIX CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES 157 c 2 as 42 INCH WHEEL. 46 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Her. Min. | Horse Power. Cu. Ff. Min. Rev. Min. 4786 67 38.5 5096 61 6 7 8 9 10 47.5 59.9 73.2 87.3 102.3 5242 562 6053 6421 6768 74 80 85 90 95 50.6 63.8 77.9 93.0 108.9 5582 6030 6446 6837 7207 67 72 77 82 87 11 12 13 14 15 118.0 134.4 151.6 169.4 187.9 7098 7414 7717 8008 8289 100 104 108 112 116 1 125.6 143.1 161.4 180.4 200.1 7558 7894 8217 8527 8826 91 95 99 102 106 16 17 18 19 20 207.0 226.7 247.0 267.8 289.3 8561 8824 1)080 9329 9571 120 124 128 131 134 220.4 241.4 263.0 285.2 308.0 9116 9396 9669 9934 10192 109 113 116 119 122 21 22 23 24 25 311.2 333.7 356.7 380.2 404.2 9808 10038 10264 10485 10701 138 141 144 147 150 331.4 355.3 379.8 404.9 430.5 10443 10689 10929 11164 11395 125 128 131 134 137 26 27 28 29 30 428.7 453.7 479.1 505.0 531.4 10913 11121 11325 11525 11722 153 156 159 162 165 456.5 483.1 510.2 537.8 565.8 11620 11842 12059 12272 12482 139 142 145 147 150 31 32 33 34 35 558.2 585.4 613.1 641.1 669.6 11916 12107 12294 12479 12661 167 170 173 175 ;78 5944 623.4 652.8 682.7 713.0 12689 12892 13091 13288 13482 152 165 157 160 162 36 37 38 39 40 698.5 727.8 757.5 787.6 818.1 12841 13018 13193 13365 13536 180 183 185 188 190 743.8 775.2 806.7 838.7 871.2 13674 13862 14048 14232 14413 164 166 169 171 173 158 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES Q 3 48 INCH WHEEL. 51 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. 1 Cu. Ft. 1 Min. Rev. Min. 43.4 5749 55 49.5 6545 56 6 7 8 9 10 57.1 72.0 87.9 104.9 122.9 6298 6802 7272 7713 8130 60 65 70 74 78 65.0 81.9 100.1 119.4 139.9 7170 7745 8279 8782 9257 61 66 70 75 79 11 12 13 14 15 141.7 161.5 182.1 203.5 225.7 8527 8906 9270 9620 9958 82 85 89 92 95 161.4 183.9 207.3 231.7 257.0 9708 10140 10554 10952 11337 82 86 90 93 96 16 17 18 19 20 248.6 272.3 296.7 321.8 347.5 10284 10601 10908 11207 11498 98 102 104 107 110 283.1 310.0 337.8 366.3 395.6 11709 12069 12419 12759 13091 99 103 106 108 111 21 22 23 24 25 373.9 400.9 428.5 456.8 485.6 11782 12059 12330 12595 12855 113 115 118 121 123 1 425.7 456.4 487.9 520.0 552.9 13414 13730 14038 14340 14636 114 117 119 122 124 26 27 28 29 30 515.0 545.0 575.6 606.7 630.4 13110 13360 13605 13845 14082 126 128 130 133 135 1 586.4 620.5 655.3 690.8 726.8 14926 15210 15489 15763 16033 127 129 132 134 136 31 32 33 34 35 670.5 703.3 736.5 770.2 804.4 14315 14544 14769 14992 15210 137 139 141 144 146 763.4 800.7 838.5 876.9 915.9 16298 16559 16815 17068 17317 138 141 143 145 147 36 37 38 39 40 839.2 874.4 910.0 946.2 982.8 15426 15639 15849 16056 16261 148 150 152 154 156 955.4 995.5 1036.1 1077.3 1119.0 17363 17805 18044 18280 18513 149 151 153 155 157 APPENDIX 159 CAPACITIES HuNT-McCoRMiCK TURBINES HKAI). II 54 INCH WHEEL. 57 INCH WHEEL. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. Horse Power. Cu. Ft. Min. Rev. Min. 55.4 7338 51 65.3 8646 50 a 7 o 9 10 72.9 91.8 112.2 133.9 156.8 8038 8682 9282 9845 10378 56 60 64 68 72 85.9 108.2 132,2 157.8 184.8 9472 10231 10937 11601 12228 55 59 63 67 70 11 12 13 14 15 180.9 206.1 232.4 259.8 288.1 10884 11368 11832 12279 12710 76 79 82 85 88 213.2 242.9 273.9 300. 1 330.4 12825 13395 13942 14468 14976 74 77 80 83 86 16 17 18 19 20 317.4 347.6 378.7 410.7 443.5 13127 13531 13923 14304 14676 91 94 97 99 102 374.0 409.6 446.2 483.9 522.6 15467 15943 16406 16855 17293 89 92 94 97 100 21 22 23 24 25 477.2 511.7 547.0 583.0 619.8 15038 15392 15738 16077 16408 105 107 109 112 114 562.3 602.9 644.5 687.0 730.4 17720 18137 18545 18944 19334 102 104 107 109 111 26 27 28 29 30 657.4 695.7 734,7 774.4 814.8 16733 17052 17365 17672 17974 116 119 121 123 125 774.6 819.7 865.7 912.5 960.1 19717 20093 20461 20824 21179 113 116 118 120 122 31 32 33 34 35 855.9 897.6 940.0 983.1 1026.8 18272 18564 18852 19135 19415 127 129 131 133 135 1008.5 1057.7 1107.6 1158.4 1209.9 21530 21874 22213 22547 22876 124 126 128 130 132 36 37 38 39 40 1071.1 1116.0 1161.6 1207.7 1254.5 19690 19962 20230 20494 20755 137 139 141 142 144 1262.1 1315.0 1368.7 1423.1 1478.2 23201 23521 23837 24148 24456 134 135 137 139 141 l6o POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS PRESSURE OF WATER AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS FEET HEAD EQUALS PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH FEET HEAD EQUALS PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH I 0-34 130 56.31 5 2 . l6 135 58.48 10 4.33 140 60.64 15 6.49 us 62.81 20 8.66 150 64.97 25 10.82 155 67.14 30 12.99 1 60 69.31 35 15.16 165 71-47 40 17.32 170 73.64 45 19.49 175 75.80 50 21.65 1 80 77.97 55 23.82 185 80. 14 60 25.99 190 82.30 65 28.15 195 84.47 70 30.32 200 86.63 75 32.48 205 88.80 80 34.65 210 90.96 85 36.82 215 93-14 90 38-98 220 95.30 95 41.15 225 97-49 IOO 43- 3 1 230 99.63 105 45.48 235 101.79 no 47-64 240 103.96 115 49.81 245 106.13 120 51.98 250 108.29 125 54.15 255 110.46^ i ft. head corresponds to 0.434 Ibs. per sq. inch i Ib. per sq. inch corresponds to 2.304 ft. head. APPENDIX WEIR TABLE 161 INCHES 1-8 2-8 8-8 4-8 5-8 6-8 7-8 0. 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.14 0.20 0.26 0.33 1 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.83 0.93 1.03 2 1.14 1.24 1.35 1.47 1.58 1.71 1.82 1.96 3 2.08 2.21 2.35 2.48 2.63 2.76 2.90 3.06 4 3.20 3.36 3.51 3.67 3.82 3.98 4.15 4.31 5 4.48 4.65 4.81 4.99 5.16 5.35 5.52 5.71 6 5.89 6.06 6.26 6.44 6.64 6.83 7.01 7.22 7 7.41 7.62 7.82 8.03 8.23 8.42 8.64 8.85 8 9.07 9.27 9.48 9.71 9.92 10.15 10.36 10.60 9 10.81 11.03 11.27 11.49 11.74 11.96 12.18 12.43 10 12.66 12.91 13.14 13.39 13.63 13.86 14.12 14.36 11 14.62 14.86 15.10 15.37 15.61 15.88 16.13 16.40 12 16.65 16.90 17.18 17.43 17.71 17.97 18.22 18.51 13 18.77 19.05 19.31 19.60 19.87 20.13 20.43 20.69 14 20.99 21.26 21.53 21.83 22.11 22.41 22.68 22.99 15 23.27 23.55 23.86 24.14 24.45 24.74 25.02 25.34 16 25.62 25.94 26.23 26.55 26.85 27.14 27.46 27.76 17 28.08 28.38 28.68 29.01 29.31 29.64 29.95 30.28 18 30.59 30.89 31.23 31.54 31.88 32.19 32.50 32.85 19 33.16 33.51 33.82 34.17 34.49 34.81 35.16 35.48 20 35.84 36.16 36.48 36.84 37.17 37.53 37.85 38.22 21 38.55 38.88 39.24 39.57 39.94 40.28 40.61 40.98 22 41.32 41.69 42.03 42.41 42.75 43.09 43.47 43.81 23 44.19 44.54 44.89 45.27 45.62 46.00 46.35 46.74 24 47.09 47.45 47.84 48.19 48.58 48.94 49.30 49.69 For measuring large streams, find the average velocity of the whole stream in feet per minute and the cross section in square feet. By multiplying these two amounts, the cubic feet flow of water per minute in the stream will be found. The velocity can be approximated by throwing light floating bodies into the middle of the stream and noting the time these bodies are passing the distance measured between two points. This distance should be taken where the flow is most even and uniform. The mean velo- city of the stream will be about 83 per cent of the velocity of the surface near the centre of the stream. l62 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS CAPACITIES AND DIAMETERS OF PIPE Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. Circular apertures are most effective for discharging water since they have less frictional surface for the same area. The area of a circular aperture is found by multiplying the square of the diameter by .7854. To find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to discharge a given volume of water in a given time, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144, and divide the product by the area of the pipe in inches. The time occupied in discharging equal quantities of water under equal heads through pipes of equal lengths will be different in varying forms and proportionately as follows: Have a straight line 90: Have a true curve 100: and have a right angle 140. To find the horse power necessary to elevate the water to a given height, multiply the total weight of column of water in pounds by the velocity per minute in feet, and divide the product by 33-1000. An allowance of 25 per cent should be added for friction, etc. To find the area of a required pipe, the volume and velocity of water being given, multiply the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute. The area being found, the diameter of pipe is readily figured. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of their velocity. APPENDIX i6 3 Loss OF HEAD IN ONE HUNDRED FEET LENGTH OF PIPE AT DIFFERENT VELOCITIES 1 s If o 3 TJ 1 1 1 1 c 1 I o * iil 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 9 3*1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 _* Pd m m PCI PC. 5 32" " c* ec * <0 * 3 2.95 .186 .476 .700 1.507 2.600 3.937 5.598 7.472 6 11.75 .0855 .213 .324 .702 1.214 1.843 2.619 3.003 9 26.50 .0543 .1422 .2053 .4440 .7690 1.170 1.6650 2.4500 12 47.10 .040 .0983 .1480 .3206 .5500 .8437 1.1925 1.5925 15 73.50 .0295 .0754 .1170 .2430 .4240 .6500 .9190 1.2250 18 106 .0237 .0600 .0900* .1944 .3400 .5208 .7425 .9975 21 144 .0193 .0492 .0729 .1607 .2800 .4286 .6043 .8150 24 188 .0166 .0413 .0625 .1350 .2350 .3641 .5175 .6891 27 238 .0139 .0341 .0533 .1175 .2044 .3125 .4460 .5990 30 294 .0123 .0310 .0470 .1013 .1760 .2725 .3870 .5230 36 424 0096 .t)243 .0367 .0787 .1383 .2135 .3038 .4073 42 577 .0075 .0189 .0286 .0630 .1114 .1571 2443 .3280 48 752 .0062 .0158 .0240 .0529 .0925 .1438 .2042 .2756 54 954 .0052 .0133 .0202 .0449 .0778 .1198 .1700 .2300 60 1176 .0044 .0113 .0173 .0383 .0667 .1062 .1458 .1972 66 1425 .0039 .0100 .0153 .0338 .0591 .0909 .1309 .1755 72 1696 .0035 .0089 .0137 .0301 .0530 .0815 .1162 .1698 78 1991 .0031 .0079 .0122 .0263 .0476 .0731 .1038 .1382 84 2308 .0028 .0072 .0110 .0243 .0426 .0656 .0939 .1256 90 2650 .0025 .0063 .0098 .0218 .0382 .0590 .0840 .1139 96 3008 .0022 .0055 .0088 .0196 .0342 .0531 .0754 .1018 102 3406 .0021 .0046 .0083 .0183 .0334 .0511 .0731 .1000 108 3816 .0019 .0043 .0075 .0172 .0307 .0482 .0693 .0964 120 4704 .0018 .0040 .0070 .0160 .0285 .0446 .0643 .0876 132 5702 .0017 .0038 .0067 .0154 .0276 .0430 .0619 .0851 144 6784 .0015 .0032 .0060 .0131 .0241 .0374 .0523 .0735 i6 4 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS VELOCITY OF \YATER Table giving velocity of water in feet per second, and the cubic feet of water per minute, to develop one horse power at 80 per cent, duty under heads from 1 to 108 feet. 1 .| 1 i i 1 W :> i .2 M 3 I 1 1 . 1 o 3 3 1 8.02 661.765 37 48.78 17.886 73 68.53 9.065 2 11.34 330.883 38 49.44 17.415 74 69.00 8.943 3 13.89 220.589 39 50.09 16.S68 75 69.46 8.822 4 16.04 165.441 40 50.72 16.544 76 69.92 8.707 5 17.92 132.353 41 51.35 16.141 77 70.38 8.594 6 19.65 110.294 42 51.98 15.756 78 70.84 8.484 7 21.22 94.538 43 52.59 15.390 79 71.29 8.377 8 22.68 82.720 44 53.20 15.040 80 71.74 8.272 9 24.06 73.529 45 53.80 14.706 81 72.19 8.170 10 25.36 66.177 46 54.40 14.368 82 72.63 8.070 11 26.60 60.160 47 54.99 14.080 83 73.07 7.973 12 27.78 55.147 48 55.57 13.787 84 73.51 7.878 13 28.92 50.905 49 56.14 13.505 85 73.95 7.785 14 30.01 47.269 50 56.71 13.236 86 74.38 7.695 15 31.06 44.118 51 57.27 12.976 87 74.81 7.606 16 32.08 41.360 52 57.84 12.726 88 75.24 7.520 17 33.07 38.927 53 58.39 12.486 89 75.67 7.436 18 34.03 36.765 54 58.93 12.255 90 76.09 7.353 19 34.96 34.830 55 59.48 12.032 91 76.51 7.272 20 35.87 33.088 56 60.01 11.817 92 76.93 7.193 21 36.75 31.513 57 60.56 11.610 93 77.35 7.116 22 37.61 30.080 58 61.08 11.410 94 77.76 7.040 23 38.46 28.772 59 61.61 11.216 95 78.18 6.966 24 39.29 27.574 60 62.12 11.029 96 78.59 6.893 25 40.10 26.471 61 62.71 10.849 97 79.00 6.822 26 40.89 25.453 62 63.15 10.674 98 79.40 6.753 27 41.67 24.510 63 63.66 10.504 99 79.81 6.685 28 42.44 23.634 64 64.16 10.340 100 80.22 6.618 29 43.19 22.819 65 64.66 10.181 101 80.61 6.552 30 43.93 22.059 66 65.16 10.027 102 81.01 6.487 31 44.65 21.347 67 65.65 9.877 103 81.40 6.425 32 45.37 20.680 68 66.14 9.732 104 81.80 6.363 33 46.07 20.053 69 66.62 9.591 105 82.19 6.303 34 46.77 19.464 70 67.11 9.454 106 82.58 6.243 35 47.45 18.908 71 67.58 9.321 107 82.97 6.185 36 48.12 18.382 72 68.06 9.191 108 83.35 6.127 APPENDIX 165 QUICK REFERENCE FACTS A cubic foot of water weighs 62.33 pounds, and contains 7.48 gallons. A cubic foot of soft wood, green, weighs 53 pounds; air dried, 30 pounds; kiln dried, 28 pounds. A cubic foot of hard wood, green, weighs 62 pounds; air dried, 46 pounds; kiln dried, 40 pounds. A cubic foot of cast iron weighs 450 pounds; wrought iron, 480 pounds; sandstone, 140 pounds; granite, 180 pounds; brickwork, 95 pounds. A ton of shipping is 42 cubic feet; a perch of stone is 22 cubic feet measured in wall, and 24.75 cubic feet measured in pile. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so with a perfect vacuum it will sus- tain a column of mercury 29.9 inches, or a column of water 33.9 feet high. Diameter of Circle x 3. 1416 Circumference x .31831 Diameter x .8862 Diameter x .8862 Side of a Square x 1 . 128 Square of a Diameter x .7854 Square Root of Area x 1 . 12837 Square of the Diameter of a Sphere x 3 . 1416 Cube of the Diameter of a Sphere x .5236 Diameter of a Sphere x .806 Diameter of a Sphere x .6667 Square inches ' x .00695 Cubic inches x .00058 Cubic feet x .03704 Cylindrical inches x .0004546 Cylindrical feet x .02909 Cubic inches x .003607 Cubic feet x .6232 Cylindrical inches x .002832 Cylindrical feet x 4.895 183 . 346 Circular inches 2200 Cylindrical inches 7,4805 U. S. Gallons Square root the Head x 8.02 Diameter of Circle x .7071 Avoirdupois pounds x .009 Avoirdupois pounds x .00045 Lineal feet x .00019 Lineal yards x .000568 equals Circumference. Diameter. The side of an equal Square. The side of an equal Square. Diameter of an equal Circle The area of a Circle. Diameter of equal Circle. Convex surface. Solidity. Dimensions of equal Cube. Length of equal Cylinder. Square feet. Cubic feet. Cubic yards. Cubic feet. Cubic yards. Imperial gallons. i Square foot. i Cubic foot. I Cubic foot. Spouting velocity per sec. Side of an inscribed Square Cwts. Tons. Statute miles. Statute miles. i66 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS AMERICAN, OR BROWN AND SHARPE (B MEASURING THE DIAMETER OF Ei B. & S. Diameter of Area in Gauge Solid Wire Circular Number in Mils Mils 18. . 40-3 1,624 16 co. 8 . 2.c8-? . & S.), WIRE GAGE FOR .ECTRICAL WIRING. Table A Table B Rubber other Insulation Insulation Amperes Amperes 3 c ... 6. ... . . IO 14.. . 64.1 4,107. . . . 15 20 25 TC 20 25 30 CO 12 10. ...... 8 6 .. 80.8... . . 101.9. . . .128.5. . . 162 o 6,530.... 10,380. . . . 16,510 26 2CO CQ 70 c 181 q 11 IOO c c 80 4 3 2 ..204.3. ..229.4. . . 2C7.6 41,740 C2,6^O 70 oo 80 IOO 66,370 . . . 90 IOO 125 150 175 200 225 125 150 2OO . . . . . 225 275 300 12C o oo ..289.3.... ..325. - . .364.8 83,690 105,500 13 3, ioo. . ooo J*-"t . .409.6. 167,800. . . . oooo ..460. ... 200,000. . . . 211,600 300,000 400 ooo 275 -22C 400 coo 500,000. . . . 4OO J 600 600,000. . . . 700,000 450 COO 680 760 800,000 ceo . 84.0 900,000 600 Q2O 1,000,000. . . . ,100,000. . . . ,200,000. . . . ,300,000. . . . ,400,000. . . . ,500,000. . . . ,600,000. . . . ,700,000. . . . ,800,000. . . . ,900,000. . . . 2,000,000. . . . 6co. ,000 {* 690 730 770 810 850 890 930. : 970 ..... 1,010 1,050 ,080 ,150 ,220 ,290 ,360 ,430 ,49 '550 ,610 ,670 I Mil = 0.001 inch. APPENDIX 1 6 7 COOCOCOOCOCO O CO O CO CO O C?2? i-H CM CM CO ^ -^ lO CM CM -* *O CO OO O O >H OOt-COU3f * CO CM rHCO0 CM OO -^ O CO CM OO OO ** CO OO O CM ^ CO i-l i-H CM CO CO -^ -* -< CM CO "* CO t- t O5 C- CM "* 10 CO 00 05 O *>**( i- 1 CM CO ^ U3 CO t- O> COU3< l-H 1-1 l-ll-H CO rH CM CM CO f CM CM 00 Tt O CO CM 00 CM -^" IQ CO OO O5 O i-H CM CO f CO t- 00 CO * CO 00 O5 r-t CM <* CO OO O CM ^ t- OU3OU3010O iOOOOOOOO O iO O U5 i-l T-I CM CM CO CO <* rH CM CO ^ S CO t^ 00 CO f CO t~ l-H l-H l-H l-t 00 CM CO CM * U3 CM CO O ^1 00 CM * U3 t- 00 O5 i-H CM O O5 i~ICO >^< CO t- CO 'd' CO CM O 05 CD 05 CM U3 00 H TI ICO i-l rH CM CO ^ U3 CO CO CM CO O CO t- O5 O OO CM CO O * OO CM CM CD ^ CM O OO CD -* ^H T-I CM CM CM CO i-l i-t CM CO TJ f 10 C6 ,^^.opCMog5 ,-r OOCMiOOi 1-1 Tf CM 05 CO Tj< i-( 00 CM CO ^ O CO t- OO O -^ OO CO OO CM t- i-HCMCMCM i-H T-I CM CM CO ^ U3 >O CM CO ^ O CO t- OO M*V0fc*OOO*H ocoocoeoocooo i-H i-l CM CM CO Tf 1 O U3 00 O CO CD 00 rH 00 O CO i-H CO CM t- CM T-lTHrHi-lCM H TH CM CM CO CO ** ** t- O5 i-H TJ SO 00 ^ D 00 O CM T* O CM 00 TJI O CO CM 00 CO -^ CM O 00 CO f iH rH CM CO 00 ^ -^l *H CM CO -^ -^ O CO ll T* CO 00 O CM -^ CO CO Tl CD OO O CM T* CO * CO 00 O CM ^ CO ^ CO OO O CM * CD rH ^H TH ^H ^H ^H ^H rH *Hi vH. vH ^H TH rH rH rH X X X X X K X XXXXXKXX X X X X X X X X X X K X X X ^H^^^^H^.^ NCMCMCMCMNCMCM COCO CO CO 00 CO CO i68 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS -a OO coco co CO "3 C COOOCOC- COOJ^* rHrHCOCOCO CO CO CO CO COCOT* t- O o5(M COU3OO OOCOOOCOt- COOCOCO COT*CO COt-OT*t- rHCOOT* rHCOrH rHrHCOCOCO CO CO CO CO COCOT* (M * 00 (M t- O> oo IOOCO I CO CO io^ t- O CO )COCO -^OOCO liOOS COO^3 ICOCO COCOCO ss COT* oooooo COOOO rHrHCO COCO CO rHCO CO O 00 O OJ <* OCOT*CO COT*CO T*CO rH r-l rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH " XXXXX XXXX XXX XX X OOOOOOOOOO OOOO COCOCO T*T* ^ APPENDIX 169 RULE FOR FINDING THE LENGTH OF BELTS Add the diameter of the two pulleys together, multiply by 3 1-7, divide the product by 2, add to the quotient twice the dis- tance between the centers of the shafts, and the sum will be the required length. The power a belt is able to transmit depends upon the dia- meter of the pulley and the arc of contact. It increases with the diameter and arc of contact. If arc of contact is only one-third of circumference, the power of the belt if 30 per cent less; and if arc of contact is two-thirds of circumference the power is 25 per cent more than of that given in the table. A belt will not transmit more power spliced than laced, -unless used with a tightener; then splicing is preferable. With a tightener, however, and the belt being spliced, it trans- mits 10 per cent to 15 per cent more than that given in the table for any given width of belt. Always figure the power of the belt by the smaller of the two pulleys over which it runs. The table given on the succeeding pages covering double belting is computed with the assumption that the pulley is five feet in diameter and the arc of contact one-half the circumference. The table given on the succeeding pages covering single belt- ing is computed assuming that the pulley is three feet in diameter and the arc of contact one-half of circumference. Rubber belts should be used 20 per cent to 25 per cent wider than leather belts to transmit the same power. COMPARISON OF RUBBER AND LEATHER BELTING In the following, Rubber Belting made from 32-ounce Cotton Duck has been taken as a basis for comparison: 2 Ply Rubber Belt = Light Single Leather Belt. 3 Ply Rubber Belt = Medium Single Leather Belt. 4 Ply Rubber Belt = Heavy Single Leather Belt. 5 Ply Rubber Belt Light Double Leather Belt. 6 Ply Rubber Belt = Medium Double Leather Belt. 7 Ply Rubber Belt = Heavy Double Leather Belt. 8 Ply Rubber Belt= Triple Leather Belt. POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS HORSE POWER TRANSMITTED BY SINGLE LEATHER BELTS Belts supposed not to be overstrained, so they will last. 1 inch wide, 800 feet per minute = 1 Horse power. Speed in Feet per Minute WIDTH OF BELTS IN INCHES 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. 400 1 U 2 2| 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 600 H 2i 3 3! 4^ 6 n 9 10J 12 13i 15 800 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 1000 2 H 5 6} 1\ 10 12* 15 17| 20 22 25 1200 3 4 6 7 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 1500 3! t| 7| 9| 1U 15 18| 22^ 26| 30 33| 37 1800 4 6} 9 m 13| 18 22 27 3U 36 40| 45 2000 5 ?f 10 12* 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 2400 6 9 12 15 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 2800 7 10J 14 m 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 3000 7* 11J 15 18} 22^ 30 37 45 52| 60 67^ 75 3500 8| 13 17J 22 26 35 44 52i 61 70 79 88 4000 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 4500 Ui 17 22 2$ 34 45 57 69 78 90 102 114 5000 12* 19 25 31 37 50 62 75 87 100 112 125 APPENDIX 171 HORSE POWER TRANSMITTED BY DOUBLE LEATHER BELTS Belts supposed not to be overstrained, so they will last. 1 inch wide, 550 feet per minute = 1 Horse Power. Speed in Feet per Minute WIDTH OF BELTS IN INCHES 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 28 30 H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. P. H. p. 400 2! 41 5f 71 8* 10 H* 13 14| 16 17| 20 21* 600 41 6* 8! 11 13 15 17| 19| 22 24 26 30| 32* 800 5f 8* HI 14| 17| 20| 23 26 29 32 34| 40| 43* 1000 71 11 14| 181 21| 25| 29 32| 36 40 43* 51 54f 1200 8* 13 17| 22 26 30| 34| 39 44 48 52| 60| 65 1500 10| 161 21| 271 32| 38 43| 49 54| 60 65| 76| 81* 1800 13 m 26 32! 39 45| 52 59 65| 72 78| 91* 98 2000 14| 21| 29 36| 43* 50| 58 65| 72* 80 87 102 109 2400 17J 26 34| 44 52* 60| 69| 78| 88 96 105 122 131 2800 201 30| 40| 51 61 71 81 91| 102 112 122 142 153 3000 21* 32| 43| 54| 65* 76 87| 98 108 120 131 153 163 3500 25 38 50! 63| 76 89 101 114 127 140 153 178 191 4000 29 43| 581 72! 87 101 116 131 145 160 174 204 218 4500 32 49 65 82 98 114 131 147 163 180 196 229 245 5000 36 > 54* 72! 91 109 127 145 163 182 200 218 254 272 172 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS Cast Iron, - Wrought Iron, - Gun Metal, White Pine, Steel, - - " Cast Iron, - Brass, - Tin, Zinc, -' Names. Platina, Antimony, Bismuth, Tin, Lead, Zinc. Cast Iron, Average Weight Cubic Ft. - 450 pounds - 485 " - 528 " 25 " - 489 " Average Weight Cubic In. . 260 pounds .281 .306 " .015 " .283 SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS J/8 inch per lineal foot YQ inch per lineal foot i/ inch per lineal foot YS inch per lineal foot MELTING POINT OF METALS, ETC. Fahr. 4590 842 487 475 620 700 2100 Names. Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper, Glass, Beeswax, Sulphur, Tallow, Fahr. 2900 2500 2000 2377 IS' 239 92 APPENDIX AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES 173 Dia. in inch Circ'nr in ft. it i u Area in Square Inches Dia. in ft. in. Circ'n in ft. in i . Area in Square Feet Dia. in ft. in. Circ'n in ft. ir i . Area i Square Feet 1 3' .7854 2 3 7, i .0775 3 2 9 111 1 7.8681 1} 3i 1.227 2i 3 9J .1569 3 2i 10 0, 8.0846 4 1.767 3 3 11^ .2370 3 3 10 2> 8.2951 H 5 2.405 3i 4 .3208 3 3i 10 4 8.5091 2 6 3.141 4 2i .4074 3 4 10 5 8.7269 7 3.976 4i 4 3 ; .4967 3 4i 10 7 8.9462 2i 7i 1 4.908 5 4 5 J .5888 3 5 10 8; 9.1686 2f 8 5.939 5i 4 6, .6836 3 5i 10 10, 9.3936 3 9i 7.068 6 4 8J .7812 3 6 10 11, 9.6212 31 8.295 6i 4 10 .8816 3 6i H li 9.8518 11 9.621 7 4 11, .9847 3 7 11 3 10.084 3f Hi 1 11.044 7i 5 1 2.0904 3 7i 11 4 10.320 4 1 12.566 8 5 2, 2.1990 3 8 11 6 10.559 if li 14.186 8i 5 4, 2.3103 3 8i 11 7 10.800 41 2; 15.904 9 5 5, ; 2.4244 3 9 11 9 11.044 Ii 2j 17.720 9| 5 7, 2.5412 3 9i 11 10 11.291 5 3i 19.635 10 i 5 9j 2.6608 3 10 12 i 11.534 51 21.647 5 10, 2.7632 3 10i 12 2 11.793 5i 23.758 1 II 5 6 Oi 2.8903 3 11 12 3 1 12.048 5 6 25.967 1 Hi 6 1; 3.0129 3 Hi 12 5 12.305 6 6| 28.274 2 6 3 3.1418 4 12 6 12.566 7 30.679 2 6 4 3.2731 4 Oi 12 8 \ 12.829 6i 8i 33.183 2 1 6 6 3.4081 4 1 12 9 I 13.095 6! 35.784 2 li 6 8 3.5468 U 12 Hi \ 13.364 7 i lo 1 38.484 2 2 6 9 3.6870 2 13 1 13.635 i ioi 41.282 2 2i 6 11 J 3.8302 2| 13 2 J 13.909 7i i 11 44.178 2 3 7 3.9761 3 13 4 J4.186 7f 2 Oi 47.173 2 3i 7 2 4.1241 3i 13 5 14.465 8 2 1- 50.265 2 4 7 3 4.2760 4 4 13 7 14.748 81 2 1| 53.456 2 4i 7 5^ 4.4302 4 4i 13 8 5 15.033 8i 2 2 56.745 2 5 7 7 4.5861 4 5 13 10i 15.320 8f 2 3j 60.132 2 5i 7 8 f 4.7467 4 5i 14 15.611 9 2 4; 63.617 2 J6 7 10 4.9081 4 6 14 1' 15.904 g i 2 5 67.200 2 6i 7 11 I 5.0731 4 6i 14 3 J 16.200 9i 2 5 1 70.882 2 7 8 1 ; 5.2278 4 7 14 4' 16.498 9f 2 6 74.662 2 7i 8 2 ' 5.4112 4 7i 14 6 16.800 10 2 7, 1 78.540 2 8 8 4 5.5850 4 8 14 7 17.104 10J 2 8 82.516 2 8i 8 6 \ 5.7601 4 8i 14 9^ 17.411 10* 2 8] 86.590 2 9 8 7 I 5.9398 4 9 14 11 . 17.720 lOf 2 9 90.762 2 9| 8 9 6.1201 4 9i 15 I 18.033 11 2 10. 1 95.789 2 10 8 10 | 6.3051 4 10 15 2 18.347 Hi 2 11 100.195 2 10i 9 6.4911 4 10i 15 3 \ 18.665 ill 3 ; 104.688 2 11 9 1 i 6.6815 4 11 15 5; 18.985 HI 3 109.296 2 Hi 9 3 6.8738 4 Hi 15 6 19.309 12 3 1 !- 113.990 3 9 5 7.0688 5 15 8 19.635 3 3 . 123.696 3 Oi 9 6 1 7.2664 5 Oi 15 10 19.963 13 3 4 \ 133.790 3 1 9 8 7.4661 5 1 15 11 20.294 3 6 144.223 3 H 9 9 7.6691 5 li 16 1 20.629 NL 174 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES Dia. in ft. in. Circ'm in ft. in. Area in Square Feet Dia. in ft. in. Circ'm in ft. in. Area in Square Feet Dia. in ft. in. Circ'm in ft. in. Area in Square Feet 5 2 16 2f 20.965 7 4 23 01 42.2367 11 4 35 7} 100.8797 5 21 16 44 21.305 5 23 21 43.2028 5 35 10 102.3689 5 3 16 51 21.647 6 23 6f 44.1787 6 36 l\ 103.8691 5 3* 16 7| 21.992 7 23 11 45.1656 7 36 4j 105.3794 5 4 16 9 22.333 8 24 1| 46.1638 8 36 7{ 106.9013 5 4* 16 lOf 22.621 9 24 41 47.1730 9 36 101 108.4342 5 5 17 01 23.043 10 24 74 48.1926 10 37 2, 109.9772 5 51 17 If 23.330 11 24 lOf 49.2236 11 37 5 111.5319 5 6 17 3f 23.758 8 25 1| 50.2656 12 37 85 113.0976 5 61 17 41 24.119 1 25 4i 51.3178 1 37 11-. 114.6732 5 7 17 6* 24.483 2 25 71 52.3816 2 38 2 116.2607 5 71 17 8 24.850 3 25 11 53.4562 3 38 5; 117.8590 5 8 17 9| 25.220 4 26 21 54.5412 4 38 8j 119.4674 5 81 17 Hi 25.592 5 26 54 55.6377 5 39 121.0876 5 9 18 0| 25.964 6 26 8f 56.7451 6 39 33 122.7187 5 9* 18 24 26.344 7 26 111 57.8628 7 39 6j : 124.3598 5 10 18 31 26.725 8 27 2f 58.9920 8 39 9^ 126.0127 5 10| 18 51 27.108 9 27 5f 60.1321 9 40 Oi 127.6765 5 11 18 7 27.494 10 27 9 61.2826 10 40 3i 129.3504 5 11| 18 8 5 27.883 11 28 01 62.4445 11 40 61 131.0360 6 18 10- 28.274 9 28 34 63.6174 13 40 10 132.7326 6 01 18 11 28.663 1 28 6| 64.8006 1 41 1| 134.4391 6 1 19 1 5 29.065 2 28 9| 65.9951 2 41 4| 136.1574 6 1* 19 2 3 29.466 3 29 Of 67.2007 3 41 1\ 137.8867 6 2 19 44 29.867 4 29 3| 68.4166 4 41 10i 139.6260 6 2* 19 6 30.271 5 29 7 69.6440 5 42 11 141.3771 6 3 19 7| 30.679 6 29 101 70.8823 6 42 4i 143.1391 6 3* 19 9i 31.090 7 30 14 72.1309 7 42 8 144.9111 6 4 19 10; 31.503 8 30 4f 73.3910 8 42 111 146.6949 6 4* 20 31.919 9 30 71 74.6620 9 43 2J 148.4896 6 5 20 1 3 32.337 10 30 Hi 75.9433 10 43 51 150.2943 6 5* 20 3{ 32.759 11 31 If 77.2362 11 43 8| 152.1109 6 6 20 5 33.183 10 31 5 78.5400 14 43 113 153.9384 6 61 20 6> 33.619 1 31 81 79.8540 1 44 21 155.7758 6 7 20 8 34.039 2 31 114 81.1795 2 44 6 157.6250 6 7* 20 9; 34.471 3 32 2| 82.5160 3 44 94 159.4852 6 8 20 11 34.906 4 32 5| 83.8627 4 45 01 161.3553 6 8'i 21 T 35.344 5 32 8| 85.2000 5 45 31 163.2373 6 9 21 2[ 35.784 6 32 11| 86.5880 6 45 6| 165.1303 6 9* 21 4 36.227 7 33 2j 87.9697 7 45 9f 167.0331 6 10 21 5i 36.674 8 33 6 g 89.3608 8 46 01 168.^479 6 10| 21 7 37.122 9 33 9i 90.7627 9 46 4 170.8735 6 11 21 8; 37.573 10 34 Of 92.1749 10 46 71 172.8091 6 1U 21 10 38.027 11 34 3i 93.5986 11 46 Hi 174.7565 7 21 Hi 38.4846 11 34 6| 95.0334 15 47 If 176.7150 7 1 22 3 39.4060 1 34 9| 96.4783 1 47 4| 178.6832 7 2 22 61 40.3388 2 35 01 97.9347 2 47 7| 180.6634 7 3 22 94 41.2825 3 35 41 99.4021 3 47 101 182.6545 APPENDIX FRACTIONS OF LINEAL INCH IN DECIMALS 175 Lineal Inches Lineal Foot Lineal Inches Lineal Foot {jjjjj Lineal Foot * 0.001302083 U 0.15625 6} 0.5625 ^L. 0.00260416 2 0.1666 7 0.5833 iV 0.0052083 2 0.177083 7} 0.60416 i 0.010416 2 0.1875 74 0.625 A 0.015625 2 0.197916 7} 0.64583 i 0.02083 2 0.2083 8 0.66667 j 0.0260416 0.03125 0.0364583 0.0416 2j I 3 0.21875 0.22916 0.239583 0.25 II i j 0.6875 0.7083 0.72916 0.76 j 0.046875 3* 0.27083 H 0.77083 0.052083 3* 0.2916 M 0.7916 i 0.0572916 31 0.3125 0.8125 0.0625 4 0.33333 10 0.83333 i 0.0677083 41 0.35416 10* 0.85416 0.072916 il 0.375 0.875 i 0.078125 4f 0.39583 10f 0.89583 0.0833 5 0.4166 11 0.9166 0.09375 51 0.4375 111 0.9375 0.10416 5* 0.4583 0.9683 0.114583 5f 0.47916 ul 0.97916 0.125 6 0.5 12 1.000 0.135416 g i 0.52083 0.14583 6} 0.5416 LINEAL INCHES IN DECIMAL FRACTIONS OF A LINEAL FOOT Fractions Decimals of an inch Fractions Decimals of an inch Fractions Decimals of an inch Fractions Decimals of an inch A 0.015625 0.265625 l 0.515635 0.765625 0.03125 & 0.28125 If 0.53125 J . 0.78125 ^ 0.04687 if 0.296875 0.546875 0.796875 JL 0.0625 0.3125 0.5625 0.8125 JL 0.078125 I 0.328125 |7 0.578125 I . 0.828125 A 0.09375 1J 0.34375 1 | 0.59375 0.84375 * 0.109375 |: 0.359375 H .609375 | 0.859375 I 0.125 0.375 I 0.625 j 0.875 1 0.140625 0.15625 1 0.390625 0.40625 II 0.640625 0.65625 7 T 0.890625 0.90625 il 0.171875 ; 0.421875 4; 1 0.671875 0.921876 JL 0.1875 T"L 0.4375 i. 0.6875 0.9375 41 0.203125 II 0.453125 || 0.703125 j. 0.953125 X 0.21875 If 0.46875 2: 0.71876 i 0.96875 If 0.234375 n 0.484375 |i 0.734375 j 0.984376 0.25 I 0.5 0.75 1.000 176 POWER DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL STREAMS Fifty Years of Free Service in Water Power Development It is sound business sense for any country or town dweller near a small stream to take thought of the stream's possibilities, the opportunity it has in it for the bettering of his home or his town. Since it will cost him nothing to obtain such valuable information it is doubly sound business sense. Almost a half century (since 1872) the Rodney Hunt Machine Company, Orange, Massachusetts, U. S. A., has maintained that the good will it must have to succeed must be built on the thorough willing- ness of its staff to giVe accurate, complete, dependable, and friendly help to those who need advice on machinery for water power development and for various forms of water usages. This information is available to anyone at any time simply for the asking. No matter whether the person obtaining any service that we can give buys from us or elsewhere, this friendly and reliable service is always open to him. This policy has proved its worth in nearly a half century of painstaking practice and has developed a surprising business, that has been built on good will and sin- cerity. We will just as quickly tell you not to install a water power plant, if you have not the proper location for a plant, as we would tell you to buy a plant, if you are situated where a water power plant would make good. Any questions on water possibilities or problems will be answered promptly, fully, and gladly. The following are suggestions for questions to ask in investigating water power possibilities: 1. Are you situated in a level valley, in mountainous or hilly country and has the stream many falls, rapids or riffles where dams might be located? 2. What is the source of the stream's flow, springs, snow in the mountains? 3. What is the approximate flow of the stream in cubic feet, as determined by the weir or chip method? APPENDIX 177 4. How much fall or head has the stream, as determined by the dry-foot method ? 5. Does the stream freeze in winter; if so, how is the volume of water affected is it greatly decreased ? 6. Does the stream dry up in summer; if so how long does it flow? 7. About how many acres could be used conveniently for a pond to store water? 8. Have you now a pond or dam please give size and aver- age depth and head of water? 9. Is your stream subject to floods? 10. Does your stream pass a lumber camp? 11. What kind of machinery do you wish to operate? 12. Have you a water wheel; if so, please mention size, amount of power developed, volume of water the wheel is using and if it seems to be developing the right amount of power for the volume and head of water used? Have you a trash rack, flume, penstock or any other similar apparatus? 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. RENEWALS ONLY TEL. NO. 642-3405 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. the LD 21A-40m-2,'69 (J6057slO|476 A-32 vr. GENERAL LIBRARY -U.C. BERKELEY M199210 TC.I97 143 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY